YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

PREFACE
TO VOL. II. OF THE AMERICAN EDITION.

In the few prefatory remarks which accompany the first volume of this work, I have stated, that
my observations on Mr. Hinton's book were confined principally to events connected with Ameri
can history, and to that portion, in particular, which includes the occurrences of the American
Revolution. That they are of some extent, if not of some value, the student of American annals
will be able to determine.
In the second volume, I have carefully surveyed the mass of information which the London
editor has brought together on a great variety of important topics. His information will be admit
ted to possess much accuracy, and to be of a recent date. Nevertheless, it was deemed but justice
to that public who have so largely countenanced this undertaking, that many particulars which the
author did not possess, or had entirely overlooked, should be added to this reprint; and when it is
observed, that the additions to this part of the work now given by the American editor are nearly
equal in extent to the entire quantity in the original volume, I am persuaded that I shall receive at
least the approbation of the reader for good intentions, if not for the exercise of a wholesome dis
cretion, and a desire to make this book on American matters a repository of facts of peculiar impor
tance to every inquirer on the topics to which it relates.
In order the better to dispose of my materials, I have looked with a becoming regard to the
statistics, and other information, which the author has given of the several states, and under differ
ent heads. But few portions of his account of the country have been examined, without some
additions or amendments ; and if a disproportion present itself, concerning the manner in which
some parts have been augmented, I must plead, that sometimes my materials led me to the measure,
and that I felt that special subjects required the revision and enlargement that I have thus bestow
ed. Moreover, Mr. Hinton himself has not always been governed by the relative value of his sub
ject, and different observers are supposed to look even on the same object with different eyes. I
have also had several other difficulties to overcome. Almost every individual state of the confeder
acy now lays claim to its topographer and historian. Maine, for instance, has already called forth
several topographical works ; and no less than three authors, each of considerable merit, have pub
lished her historical occurrences. In such a case, the few pages of Hinton on this member of the
1

H PREFACE TO VOL. II. OF THE AMERICAN EDITION.
Union might have been swelled to as many hundred ; but a reference to authorities is nearly all that
the prescribed limits allowed.
The state of New York, in the original edition, occupies no inconsiderable space in the work.
I have, however, still farther largely added to it, because the empire state, demanded it. Her
mighty efforts in internal improvements, her commercial importance, her location, and other reasons,
had their weight in my determination. The reader, therefore, will not be dissatisfied by finding in
this edition the elaborate memoir of the late Cadwallader D. Colden on the canal history of this
great state ; it is too precious a document not to be preserved in a way that it can readily be had
access to.
I have, with a similar view to future benefit, enriched my pages with a minute and circumstan
tial account of the city of New York, furnished me by my friend, Dr. J. W. Francis, who has also
afforded me other communications of value, and occasionally directed my attention to objects of
special inquiry throughout the work. His ample library of American materials has also yielded to
me many facilities. To him, and to my other friends, who have felt solicitous that Hinton's United
States should be rendered the more valuable by the labours of the American editor, and to all
who have contributed to this object, I beg to return my thanks.
The paper from the pen of Dr. Metcalfe, which was not ready for its proper place in the vol
ume, the editor is obliged to bring in at the close of his labours. He does not feel himself suffi
ciently qualified in this department of philosophy to express a decided opinion in the matter ; but he
has no hesitation in saying, that the reader will find in this article many interesting facts, with
novel and ingenious observations, worthy the profound attention of the man of science, and the
curious observer of the laws of nature in every walk of life.
Whatever the fastidious critic may observe, I cannot but remark, that the volumes now sent
forth will be found to embrace a stock of information which eminently places the work among the
most available as a book of reference, as well as for popular reading. o. Li. K..

CONTENTS OF VOL. II.

BOOK I.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL OUTLINE  MOUNTAINS  RIVERS, &.C.
Various accessions of territory.— Boundaries.— General physical divisions.— Atlantic Slope.— Divisions of the Atlantic Slope.— South
western Bay.— Middle Bay.— North-east Bay.— Gulf of Mexico.— Appalachian Mountains.— Rivers flowing into the Atlantic— Re
gion bordering on the Pacific Ocean.— Valley of the Mississippi.— Basin of the St Lawrence.— Lake Superior ; Lake Michigan ;
Liake Huron ; Lake Erie ; Lake Ontario.— Quantity of water in the Lakes.— River St. Lawrence.— Lakes George and Champlain.
—Capacity of the St Lawrence basin.— Valley of the Mississippi. — Divisions, of the Mississippi valley.— Valley of the Ohio. —
Source of the Mississippi.— Aspect of the Mississippi valley.— Source of the Missouri.— River Platte.— Valley of the Missouri.—
Valley of the lower Mississippi.— Arkansas River, and Red River. — Mouth of the Mississippi.— Comparison of the Mississippi and
the St Lawrence.— Inundations of the Mississippi. — Navigation of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio. — Bed of the Mississippi.—
Mountains in the Mississippi valley — Ozark Mountains, and Black Mountains  p. 1 to 18.
Additions to the English Edition.
Physical geography. — Description of the valley of the Mississippi. — Reference to Flint's works. — Observations on the Phenomena of
the Great Lakes, by De Witt Clinton ; tides on these masses of waters, as shown from the works of La Hontan, Po%vnall, Wright
Storrow, Woodward, Mitchill, Stickney, and many others. — The overflow ofthe waters in Lake Erie ; periodical rises ; one beginning
1811, and continuing to 1815. — Mackenzie's remarks on the decrease of water in Lake Superior. — Volney's opinion that Lake Ontario
is the crater of a volcano. — The effects of earthquakes on springs and lakes. — The swells of Lake Erie have been followed by shocks
of earthquakes   p. 14 to 19.
CHAPTER II.
CLIMATE, SOIL, &.C.
General excellence of the climate. — Very cold region ; cold region ; temperate region ; warm region ; and hot region. — General view
of temperature. — Value of thermometrical observations. — Course ofthe winds, and state ofthe atmosphere. — Prevailing winds above
N. Lat. 35° ; and prevailing winds below N. Lat 35°. — Mildness of climate on the Pacific ; supposed mildness of the interior. — Cli
mate of the Mississippi valley ; winters ; summers ; coldness compared with Europe ; influence of the Gulf Stream, and of the trade
winds ; whether the climate has improved, or the winters become milder. — Method of finding the mean temperature of any place. —
Rains in the United States. — Soil of the United States : Atlantic Slope ; Mississippi valley ; timbered country ; barrens ; prairies. —
Soil in the different parts of the Mississippi valley. — Soil beyond the Chippewayan Mbuntains. — Diversity of soils. — Salubrity of the
United States. — Effect of clearing the forests.— Inferior salubrity of the bluffs  p. 18 to 39.
Jlddiiions to the English Edition.
The opinions of Dr. Chalmers, Ellicot, and Rush, touching the climate, soil, diseases, &c. ; and those of an earlier date by Lt. Gov
ernor Colden, on the diseases of New York ; changes which have taken place if his facts are correct ; the same author on the climate.
— Dr. Hosack's Essays upon the subject. — Dr. J. W. Francis on the cholera asphyxia, in which the same subject is discussed, and the
causes of pestilence in the city of New York  p. 34 to 39.

BOOK II.
NATURAL HISTORY.
CHAPTER I.
GEOLOGY.

Progress of geological research. — Geological structure connected with physical aspect. — Chippewayan Mountains : primitive and tran
sition rocks ; secondary rocks ; sandstone ; trap rocks ; greenstone ; amygdaloid.— rChippewayan desert. — Appalachian Mountains :
primitive rocks ; transition rocks. — Valley of the Ohio and Upper Mississippi : secondary rocks. — Central district of the Mississippi
valley : Ozark Mountains ; granite districts. — Upper Mississippi. — Black Mountains. — Upper Missouri.— Atlantic Slope : secondary
strata; ferruginous sarid formation; tertiary formations.^Oregon.^-Character of the Appalachian Mountains.^ Arrangement of

iv CONTENTS.
American strata. — Formation of the Mississippi valley. — Evidences of diluvial action. — State of Lake Huron. — Alluvial formations.
— Fossil remains. — Cave fossils. — Living fossils  p. 40 to 69..
Additions to the English Edition.
Remarks on Professor Eaton's geology. — Hayden's geological researches. — Dr. Van Rensselaer's list of fossils found in the United
States. — Dr. Dekay upon the same subject. — Dr. Bigsby's enumeration of fossils in his geological papers on the country around
Lakes Huron and Erie  p. 68 to 70.
CHAPTER IL
MINERALOGY.
Mineral contents of the primitive rocks ; ofthe transition rocks ; of the formations east of the Appalachian Mountains. — Specific mine
rals : gold ; silver ; mercury ; copper ; iron ; lead ; and other metals.— Coal. — Graphite and petroleum. — Salt. — Mineral waters. —
Gaseous substances. — Conclusion  p. 69 to 84.
Additions to ihe English Edition.
Professor Hosack's remarks on the qualities of the Ballston waters ; notes of several analyses of these waters ; fixed air to be found
in them in greater abundance than in any other waters ; Dr. Thacher's opinion of these waters ; Dr. Steel on the use of them. —
Spring in Cliff street, and the analysis of the waters. — The Bedford springs. — The Berkeley springs. — Mitchill's experiments on the
Saratoga waters. — Macneven's analysis of the waters around New York. — Drl Drake's opinion of the mineral springs in Kentucky.
—Dr. Francis's account of the sulphur springs of Avon ; the Indian history of these springs ; Red Jacket's opinion of them ; their
uses of these waters ; the analysis of these waters ; considered by Dr. Francis as second to no medicinal waters in the United
States  p. 76 to 82.
CHAPTER III.
BOTANY.
General character of the vegetation. — Forest trees : oak ; walnut ; maple ; birch ; ash ; elm ; chestnut ; beech ; pine ; white pine ;
spruce ; cypress ; acacia ; poplar. — Ornamental trees : magnolia ; catalpa ; bow -wood ; China tree ; dog-wood ; red-bud ; rhododen
dron ; kalmia ; snowberry ; coral tree ; palmetto. — Fruit-bearing trees and shrubs: papaw ; cherry; persimon ; plum; apple; mul
berry ; vine ; gooseberry. — Cane. — Flax. — Creeping plants. — Grasses. — Rush.. — Pea vine. — Wild rice. — Palmetto. — May apple. —
Weeds. — Various plants. — Aquatic plants. — Parasitic plants  p. 84 to 99.
Additions to the English Edition.
Letter of Governor Clinton to Sir James Edward Smith on the wild wheat supposed by Governor Clinton to be an indigenous
plant  p. 98, 99.
CHAPTER IV.
ZOOLOGY.
Mammiferous animals : bat ; cougar; lynx; black bear ; grizzly bear; wolf; fox; otter; skunk; raccoon; badger; glutton; ermine;
shrew ; mole ; opossum ; beaver ; musk-rat ; rat and mouse ; marmot ; squirrel ; porcupine ; hare ; sloth and elephant ; deer ; ante
lope ; buffalo. — Quadrupeds common to both continents. — -Cetaceous animals. — Ornithology : vulture ; eagle ; fish-hawk ; falcon ;
cwl j burrowing owl ; parrot; cuckoo; wood-pecker; red-headed wood-pecker; king-fisher ; oriole; starling ; cow-bunting ; raven;
magpie and blue jay ; night-hawk, &c. ; swallow ; flycatcher ; mocking-bird ; cat-bird ; robin ; blue-bird ; wren ; creepers ; hum
ming-bird ; pigeon ; partridge ; wading-birds ; crane ; purre ; goose ; wild duck ; canvass-back duck ; widgeon ; goosander ; snake-
bird ; swan. — Birds of the Atlantic and the Mississippi compared. — Reptiles : snakes ; harmless serpents ; lizard ; alligator ; tortoise,
and other reptiles. — Frogs. — Fish. — Oceanic vampire. — Insects  ."  p. 100 to 138.
Additions to the English Edition.
Notice of Dr. Mitchill's elaborate memoir of the fishes of New York waters. — The American Cuvier makes 147 species, 19 varieties
total 166. — Governor Clinton's paper on the fishes of the western waters, proving that our waters are teeming with fishes that are
nutritious and palatable ; the salmon, the trout, the bass, the pike, and all that the epicure seeks  p. 100 to 138.

BOOK III.
STATISTICS. CHAPTER I.
AGRICULTURE.

Division into northern and southern ; neglected as a science ; progressive improvement. — Disappointment of English agriculturists. 
First erections on new lots. — Clearing the land and first crops. — Manures. — Draining and fencing. — Maize, or Indian corn •
wheat; rye and barley ; turnips, &c. ; hemp; flax. — Animals. — Implements. — Southern states : tobacco; cotton; rice; sugar-cane-
indigo ; mulberry -tree and silk-worm ; vine and olive. — Horticulture  p. 139 to 158'

CONTENTS. v
Additions to the English. Edition.
The English editor's mistake in thinking that horticulture wm but little attended to in the United States. — The Berkshire Horticultural
Society. — Similar societies in Pennsylvania, New York, &c. — Dr. Francis's Address to the New York Horticultural Society, showing
the number of eminent men who have devoted themselves to this pursuit in the United States ; he adduces proofs that Flora has
not been neglected ; he gives the names of the first men in the country, as lovers of the lovely pursuit ; this distinguished philos
opher has taken a wider field than the English author was aware of, and furnishes much new matter on the subject— The apple-tree,
the vine, the culture of cotton and sugar, are considered in thia article, from the pen of Dr, Francia — Livingston, Mitchill, Hosack,
distinguished as horticulturists. . ,  p. 152 to 158.
CHAPTER II.
MANUFACTURES.
State of manufactures before the constitution of 1789.— Effect of the new revenue laws.— Account of manufactures in 1810. — Advan
tageous effects of the war. — Imposition of additional duties in 1816 ; further increase in 1824. — Unsuccessful attempt to raise the
duty on woollens in 1826.- -Proceedings of congress in 1828. — Circumstances which favour the protecting system of the United
States.— Manufactures of cotton and woollens. — Household manufactures. — Manufactures of iron. — Circumstances favourable to some
establishments. — Tariff of 1828 more favourable to the miners than the manufacturers. — Glass ; reduction in the value of the article,
but the price of labour maintained. — Earthenware. — Hats. — Shoes. — Furniture. — Ship-building. — Steam-boats. — Paper. — Type, and
books. — Distillation of spirits. — Minerals. — Manufactures exported. — Tariff Tables  p. 159 to 174.
Additions td ihe English Edition.
Ship-building. — Steam-boats of the western waters. — Locomotive engines manufactured in this country, particularly by the Stevenses
of New York. — The manufacture of paper, types, book3 ; names of the stereotype publishers ; the extent of the business. — The
distillation of ardent spirits. — The origin of stereotyping ; an American invention ; Lt Governor Colden's letter to Dr. Franklin,
and his answer ; a curious matter of history ; remarks upon this subject, going far to insure Colden the honor of the inven
tion  p. 166 to 172.
CHAPTER III.
COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.
State of commerce previous to the constitution of 1789. — Provision of the new constitution. — Rapid increase of commerce from 1790
to 1806. — State of commerce from 1807 to 1830. — Exports. — Products of the sea ; of the forest ; and of agriculture. — Exports of
manufactures. — Foreign goods exported. — Imports. — Articles admitted free of duty. — Articles subjected to duties : .cotton ; woollens ;
silks; manufactures of flax ; manufactures of hemp ; carpeting; wines; fruits; spirits; teas; coffee; iron; paper; books; glass;
cigars. — Raw materials imported : hemp ; flax ; wool ; salt ; and coal. — Total amount of imports. — Balance of trade. — Navigation ;
its importance to the United States ; fostered by legislative enactments ; rapidity of its increase ; promoted by the wars of Europe ;
depressed by the proceedings of England and France, and by the embargo and the war with England. — Cause of the present sta
tionary state of American navigation. — Amount of tonnage for the year 1829. — Tables of Commerce  p. 175 to 195.
CHAPTER IV.
FINANCES  REVENUE, EXPENDITURE, DEBT.
Revenue. — Customs. — Sale of public lands. — Title of the United States. — Survey and divisions of publio lands. — Reservations.— Al
lowance for survey. — Terms of sale.- — Squatters. — Proposed reduction of price. — Appropriation for roads and schools.— Quantity of
land surveyed. — Beneficial effect of the possession of surplus land. — Amount received for land. — Internal revenue. — Direct taxes.—
Post-office. — Rates of postage.— Mint establishment. — Coins. — Amount of coinage.— Sources from whence the gold coined is de
rived.  Value of gold rated too low. — Observations on the nature of the circulating medium. — Amount of the circulating medium. —
Number of banks. — United States bank.— First charterin 1791.— Expiration of the charter in 1811.— A new establishment chartered
in 1816 ; independent of the government ; amount of circulation and deposits. — Expenditure of the United States. — Civil list. —
Miscellaneous disbursements.— Military establishment ; pay, &c. ; ordnance, &c.— Military academy ; internal improvements ; revo
lutionary pensions.— Naval establishment ; number and rate of vessels; navy yards; dry docks ; improvements; accumulation of tim
ber and stores.— Public debt; highest amount and gradual reduction; entire liquidation proposed.— Difficulty of disposing of or redu
cing the surplus revenue. — Views of the administration. — An appropriation of the excess suggested.— Financial Tables.p. 196 to 218.
Additions to the English Edition.
The bills passed June, 1834, regulating the gold coins in the United States ; they are now the laws of the land upon that cur
rency  p"m'
CHAPTER V.
POPULATION.
The rapidity of its increase compared with European nations.— Relative increase of the free and slave population.— Effect of immigra
tion — Dr Seybert's calculation.— Calculations of Godwin and Booth.— Different estimates of the ratio of deaths.— Opinions ot Mr.
Sadier— Estimate of number of immigrants, from the North American Review.— Estimate formed from the census ot 1820.— Cen
sus of 1830.— Details of the census of 1820.— Number of persons 100 years old.— Population Tables.  p. 2iy to 2a4.

*i CONTENTS. BOOK IV.
STATE OF SOCIETY.
CHAPTER I.
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS AND JURISPRUDENCE.
General principles.— Guarantees of liberty in the United States.— Constitution of 1787-9, &c— Legislative powers.— Members of
house of representatives, how chosen ; qualifications of. — Apportionment of representatives. — Vacancies, how filled. — House of rep
resentatives choose officers. — Senate, how chosen.— Senators classed.— Senators' qualification. — Vice-president's vote. — Senate
choose officers ; try impeachments. — Judgment on impeachment — Elections, how held. — Congress assemble annually. — Elections,
how judged; quorum of senate and house of representatives. — Rules. — Journals by each house. — Adjournment. — Compensation;
privileges ; arrests. — Members not appointed to office. — Bills for raising revenue, to originate in the house of representatives. — Bills,
their formalities.— Resolutions and votes to be presented to the president of the United States. — Congress lay taxes ; borrow money;
regulate commerce, naturalization, bankruptcies, coinage, &c. ; punish counterfeiters; establish post-offices and post-roads ; promote
science and useful arts ; constitute courts ; declare war ; raise armies ; maintain navy and militia.-r-Congress exercise exclusive ju
risdiction and make laws. — Importation of persons after 1808. — Habeas corpus. — Attainder. — Tax. — No exportation duty. — Money,
how drawn. — Titles not conferred. — States not to make treaties. — States not to lay imposts, &c, or tonnage. — Executive power. —
Electors, how appointed ; day electors meet ; qualification of president of United States ; removal of president of United States ;
President's of United States compensation ; oath. — President's of United States powers : to make treaties ; appoint officers ; fill va
cancies. — President's of United States duties.— Officers removable by impeachment. — Judicial power, and tenure of judges. — Exten
sion of judicial power. — Supreme court ; jurisdiction ; trials by jury ; treason ; attainder. — Acts of states accredited. — Citizens' priv
ileges. — Persons charged with crimes, fleeing. — New states admitted. — Territory of United States. — Republican form. — Amend
ments, how attained.. — Debts prior to adoption of Constitution. — Treaties the law of the land. — Oath or affirmation to members. — -
Ratification.— Establishment of religion. — Right of the people to keep arms. — Soldiers, how to be quartered. — Persons, &c, secured.
— Persons to answer for infamous crimes, &c. — Criminal prosecutions. — Trial by jury. — Excessive bail, fines, and punishments. —
Enumeration of certain rights. — Powers not delegated. — Judicial power. — Electors for president and vice-president of the United
States, &c. — Source of the Constitution. — Conventions.— Massachusetts convention of 1820. — Convention at Boston in 1689. — Con
stituency of conventions. — Limited powers of the general government — Date of the commencement of American law. — General
assembly of 1787 adopts a new constitution. — Legislative power. — Concurrent powers of individual states. — Supremacy of law
over discretion. — Exceptions. — The executive authority. — -Appointment and removal of public functionaries. — State executives. —
Township meetings. — Local expenditure, &c. — The judiciary. — The supreme court — Circuit courts. — District courts. — Appeals. —
Distinct jurisdictions of the general and the state judiciaries. — State judiciaries. — Separation of the judicial from the legislative pow
er. — Independence of the judiciaries. — Justices of peace. — Constitutionality of laws. — American law. — Common law. — Equity. — Law
of debtor and creditor. — Mercantile law. — Admiralty law. — Criminal laws. — Imprisonment under game and vagrant laws. — Prison
discipline. — Proportion of criminals to the population. — Examining courts. — Punishments fixed by juries. — Laws against drunkards
and duellists. — Law officers and public prosecutors. — Police. — Military power.— Military obedience and responsibility. — Codes of
law. — American estimate of English lawyers. — Extensive studies of American lawyers. — Reports. — Cheapness of law. — Law schools.
— Publicity.— American law manuscripts  p. 225 to 252.
CHAPTER II.
RELIGION.
Interest of the subject. — Religious aspect not uniform. — View of the different sects : Roman Catholics ; Episcopalians ; Presbyterians ;
Congregationalists ; Baptists ; Christians ; Unitarians ; Methodists ; Friends ; Dutch Reformed Church ; German Reformed Church ;
Lutheran Church ; United Brethren ; Universalists ; Swedenborgians ; Shakers.^No religious establishment. — Gradual abandon
ment of establishments. — State of religion. — Evils ascribed to the want of an establishment. — Revivals of religion. — Theology of
New England. — Camp-meetings. — Theological seminaries. — Benevolent institutions. — General review  p. 252 to 271.
CHAPTER III.
LITERATURE  ARTS  MANNERS.
Language. — National education : public schools ; infant schools ; improvement of teachers ; private schools : colleges. — Literature :
newspapers ; reviews and magazines ; annuals ; original works ; dramatic compositions ; poets. — American intellectual power. — The
arts. — American painters.— Manners : filial obedience ; conjugal relation; servants; social intercourse; marriages; public assem
blies ; dress ; feeling of independence ; coldness of manners, &c. — Titles. — Duelling.— Sectional characteristics. — Personal liberty
in America  p. 272 to 310
Additions to the English Edition,
The origin and progress of the English language ; the ancient Saxon ; the beauty, sweetness, and copiousness of the English lan
guage. — The attention paid to preparing schoolmasters. — Terms of admission into Yale College ; the whole course of instruction
in that seminary occupying four years; the object of ths system of education ; the expenses of the course of instruction ; the
theological department; the medical institUtioh.^American literature: Winthrop; Elliot; Hooker; Shepherd; Nathaniel Ward ;.
Buckeley ; Rogers ; Cotton ; Anne Bradstreet ; James Otis ; Samuel Cooper ; Josiah Q,uincy ; John Dickinson ; William Henry Dray
ton; William Livingston ; David Dulany ; the Lees; Mr. Jefferson; Joseph Warren; John Adams; George Washington ; Alexan
der Hamilton ; Dr. Belknap, &c. &c, to the end of the chapter.-^State of society. — Mrs. Trollope's opinion of the occupation of
Females in the United States.— -The influence of republican manners  ,  ;  p. 272 to 310.

CONTENTS. vii

CHAPTER IV.

Characteristics of the Indians.— Customs of the Indians ; their religion ; their wars and pursuits ; the extent and limits of their claims
to the land ; causes producing a diminution of their number.— Numbers of Indians in the United States.— General failure of at
tempts to improve their condition.— Favourable state ofthe Cherokees; counter statement— Indian question in Georgia —Indian
board of emigration  pf311 to 332
Additions to the English Edition.
De Witt "Clinton's history of the In'dians ; their character and habits ; the Indians considered as philosophers and grammarians •
the account of the invention of the Cherokee alphabet ; George Guess, or See-quah-yah, the inventor.— The assistance given to
the Cherokees by the United States.— The weapons and clothing of the Indians.— The eloquence of the Indians ; instances given
" "  i of their history, &c. &c  p 311 ^ 333

BOOK V.
TOPOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I.
NEW ENGLAND.  NEW HAMPSHIRE  VERMONT  MASSACHUSETTS  RHODE ISLAND  CONNECTICUT.
General design.— Maine : boundaries ; surface ; climate ; soil ; commerce ; institutions ; religious bodies ; chief towns.— New Hamp
shire: boundaries; surface; climate; soil; trade; institutions; religious bodies; chief towns. — Vermont: boundaries; surface;
climate; soil; trade; institutions; religious bodies ; chief towns. — Massachusetts: boundaries; surface; climate; soil; trade; ca
nals and rail-roads ; institutions ; religious bodies ; slavery abolished ; Boston, and other towns. — Rhode Island : boundaries ; surface ;
climate ; soil ; trade ; institutions ; religious bodies ; chief towns. — Connecticut : boundaries ; surface ; climate ; soil ; trade ; in
stitutions ; religious bodies ; chief towns  p. 333 to 348.
Additions to the English Edition.
Sullivan's and Williamson's Histories of Maine, 335. — Belknap's History of New Hampshire, 337. — Letters on Vermont, by John A.
Graham. — Williams's History of Vermont  p. 339.
CHAPTER II.
NEW YORK  NEW JERSEY  PENNSYLVANIA.
New York : extent ; surface ; falls of Niagara ; soil ; climate ; roads and canals ; trade ; institutions ; religious bodies ; chief towns.
— New Jersey: extent; surface; climate ; canals ; rail-roads; trade; institutions; religious bodies; chief towns. — Pennsylvania:
extent ; surface ; soil ; canals ; trade ; institutions ; education ; religious bodies ; Philadelphia, and other towns  p. 348 to 408.
Additions to the English Edition.
CadWallader D. Colden's Memoir of the great canal. — The early history of the state.— The present appearance ofthe country
• — The early account of the lakes. — The first suggestions of connecting the waters of the lakes with those of the ocean ;
from whom they came. — Washington, at the close of the revolutionary war, engaged in the cause of uniting the lakes with the At
lantic. — Christopher Colles. — George Clinton's speech to the legislature. — Western Company. — Dr. Hugh Williamson. — De Witt
Clinton's bill. — The great share he had in effecting this great work. — Governor Tompkins's speech to the legislature of New York. —
The commissioners ; and their proceedings. — On the 4th of July, 1817, the canal was commenced at Rome ; finished in eight years
and four months ; the tolls ; the benefits of this great work. — Length of the Erie Canal  p. 350 to 384.
John Stevens, of Hoboken, commenced his experiments on steam in 1791 ; invented the first tubular boiler. — 1797, Chancellor Living
ston made a boat — Livingston and Stevens united their efforts in 1802. — Fulton joined them in 1806. — The next year a boat went
into operation. — Progress of the invention  p. 384, 385.
An account of the city of New York, from the pen of Dr. John W. Francis. — The settlement. — The early history. — Population at dif
ferent times. — The materials of the early buildings.- — Bay and harbour. — Commerce, exports and imports.— The domestic manufac
tures. — The dry dock and railway. — Public buildings: the City Hall ; Masonic Hall ; Clinton Hall ; the Record Office. — Churches
and places of public worship. — The New York city marble cemetery. — American Bible Society. — American Tract Society. — The Book
Concern of the Methodist Episcopal church- -Literary institutions: Columbia College; University of the City of New York; the
General Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church ofthe United States ; Mercantile Library Association. — Medical his
tory of New York: the College of Physicians and Surgeons of the University of the State of New York; Rutger's Medical Col-
Iesre ; New York Hospital ; Asylum for the Insane. — Literary and Scientific Societies : New York Historical Society ; Literary and
Philosophical Society; Lyceum of Natural History ; Horticultural Society ; Academy of Arts ; National Academy of the Arts of De
sign ; New York Society Library ; the Athenaeum ; Medical Society, of the City arid County of New York. — Charities. — School fund
and common schools.— Penitentiary system. — Municipal government. — Arrivals of emigrants. — The expenses of the state. — Courts.
— The police of New York. — Public amusements. — Periodical literature. — Mortality. — Character of the population of New
York.  -P- 389 to 401.
Smith's History of New Jersey, and Gordon's Gazetteer  P- 403.

viii CONTENTS. CHAPTER III.
OHIO  INDIANA  ILLINOIS  MISSOURI.
Ohio: extent; surface and climate ; produce; canali; trade; institutions; chief towns.— Indiana: extent ; surface ; climate and
produce; institutions; religious bodies ; chief towns.— Illinois : extent; surface; soil and produce; minerals; canals and roads;
education ; religious bodies ; chief towns.— Missouri ; extent ; surface ; soil ; produce j climate ; minerals ; trade ; institutions ; reli
gious bodies; chief towns  p. 408 to 418.
CHAPTER IV.
DELAWARE  MARYLAND  DISTRICT OP COLUMBIA  TIRGIWIA  KENTUCKY  NORTH CAROLINA  TENNESSEE.
Delaware.: extent; surface; soil, climate, and produce ; canal; religious bodies ; chief towns.— Maryland : extent ; surface ; soil and
produce; trade; canals and roads ; institutions: religious bodies; chief towns.— District of Columbia: Washington; Alexandria;
canals ; religious bodies.— Virginia : extent ; surface ; soil and produce ; scenery ; institutions ; religious bodies ; chief towns.—
Kentucky : extent ; surface ; soil ; caves ; produce ; canal ; institutions ; religious bodies ; chief towns. — North Carolina : extent ;
surface ; soil and produce ; minerals ; agriculture ; education ; religious bodies ; chief towns. — Tennessee : extent ; su™>-ce ; ch-r.
mate ; soil and produce ; institutions ; rehgious bodies  P- 418 to 45s.
Additions to the English Edition.
History of the District ; the government there. — The taking of Washington. — The schools in Washington ; the streets ; the market;
soil ; climate ; the capacities of the situation. — The Capitol of the United States ; the artists who ornamented the edifice, and
their productions. — The president's house ; appearance; rooms and finish. — Meridian Hill. — The library of congress. — Other libra
ries. — Columbian Institute. — Periodicals. — Colonization Society. — Clergy. — The bar of the District of Columbia. — The courts. —
The medical faculty. — The manners and customs of Washington city.— The nunnery. — The system of government in the schools 'of
these ecclesiastical seminaries  P- 422 to 440.
The plain ; the rivers ; the soil ; the hypothesis of the flat country ; the swamps ; the canals ; the rice ; digging the canal shows the
formation of the soil. — The extent of the swamps. — The analogy between this country and Poland, as described by Herodotus. 
Changes in the South Sea navigation. — Diseases of North Carolina. — Much learned matter on the subject of diseases. . .p. 441 to 460.
CHAPTER V.
SQUTH CAROLINA  GEORGIA  ALABAMA  MISSISSIPPI  LOUISIANA.
South Carolina : extent ; surface ; soil ; climate ; roads ; institutions ; religious bodies ; chief towns. — Georgia : extent ; surface ;
produce ; climate ; institutions ; religious bodies ; chief towns. — Alabama : extent ; surface ; produce and climate ; institutions ;
roads and canals ; religious bodies ; population ; chief towns. — Mississippi : extent ; surface ; climate ; roads and canals ; institutions ;
religious bodies; population; chief towns. — Louisiana: extent; surface; climate; produce; rail-road; religious bodies; chief
towns  p. 458 to 472.
Additions to the English Edition.
Ramsay, the historian. — Mills's statistics of the state. — The Medical Society. — The Freemasons numerous, respectable, and charitable.
— Literary and Philosophical Society. — Museum.— The institutions for educating youth. — Religious institutions. — Bookstores. —
Periodicals, &c   p. 461, 462.
Heat of the climate, from the pen of Governor Ellis. — The University of Alabama ; the funds, buildings, &c  p. 463 to 476.
CHAPTER VI.
THE TERRITORIES  ARKANSAS  FLORIDA  MICHIGAN  CHIPPEWAYAN DESERT  OREGON.
Arkansas: extent; surface; religious bodies; population; chief towns. — Florida: extent; surface; climate; produce; population;
chief towns. — Michigan: extent; surface; climate; produce; trade; population; chief towns. — Chippewayan Desert — Ore
gon  p. 472 to 476.

BOOK VI.
Added to ihe English Edition.
METEOROLOGY.

A new theory of terrestrial magnetism.— An attempt to prove that caloric is the most subtile exhibition of matter; and is the same as
electricity.— Caloric of fluids the cause of capillary attraction.— The circulation of sap in trees accounted for. — Caloric the cause of
chemical affinities. — Oxidation and combustion promoted by moderate heat, and arrested by cold. — The doctrine that those bodies
have the strongest attraction for caloric which contain the least of it. — The second part of the work is devoted to the theory of ter
restrial magnetism, which is connected with the subject of climatology.— His 14 positions as the basis of his theory.— Dr. Franklin's
observations. — Aerial condensation witnessed at New York, June 2, 1832.— Caloric the only cause of evaporation.  Errors in the
science of electricity corrected.— -The globe itself the grand laboratory of nature.— Theory of rain. — Trade winds'.  The cause of
hail storms — a descent of cold air from the upper regions. — A remarkable instance occurred at Cuba, May 24 1809.  Oxygen a
portion of all the varieties of rocks.— It is an error to suppose that there are two distinct electricities. — Sir Humphrey Daw's error on
this subject.— Projectile forces. — Facts illustrating the .positions assumed in regard to electricity.— The whole earth surrounded bv
an ocean of unseen and living fires  ,  D 477 to 500

mill,:

AS SEES FROM BELOW

JBJDSirdDM"

IrillltilandRjKlb-tC-tili}- S. Walker

THE

HISTORY AND TOPOGRAPHY

OP

THE UNITED STATES

OF
NORTH AMERICA,
FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME.
COMPRISING
POLITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY; GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, ZOOLOGY, AND BOTANY; AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES,
AND COMMERCE ; LAWS, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, AND RELIGION ; WITH A TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE
CITTES, TOWNS, SEA-PORTS, PUBLIC EDD7ICES, CANALS, <fcc. &c
EDITED BY
JOHN HOWARD ^INTON, A.M.
ASSISTED BY SEVERAL LITERARY GENTLEMEN IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA.

A NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS,
BY SAMUEL L. KNAPP.

"Much I avail my friends by all the zeal
I show the dead" 

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

VOL. II.

BOSTON:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY SAMUEL WALKER.
PUBLISHED ALSO IN PHILADELPHIA, BY W. MOORHEAD, 188 SOUTH NINTH STREET, AND A. W. RUSHTON, 97 WOOD STREET-
IN NEW YORK, BY J. MOORHEAD, 357 BROOME STREET, AND WM. BURNETT, 17 ANN STREET  IN BALTIMORE,
BY D. SULLIVAN AND R. REID  AND BY THEIR AGENTS AND THE PERIODICAL BOOKSELLERS
IN THE PRINCIPAL CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE UNION.
STEREOTYPED BY CONNER Jt COOKE, NEW YORK.
1834.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1834, by
Samuel Walker,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

BOOK I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I.
GENERAL OUTLINE.  MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, &C.
The territory of the United States has undergone
many changes subsequently to the formation of the
republic ; all of them, however, tending to its en
largement. At the close of the war which estab
lished their independence, it was the wish of many,
both among the French and the English, to limit
them to the possession ofthe Atlantic coast, and "to
coop them up," as some of their own writers have
termed it, within the mountain chains which run
nearly ill a parallel direction with it, at a distance,
for the most part, of several hundred miles. The
endeavours of the American negotiators prevented
such a result, and obtained the river Mississippi as
the western boundary. The state, as thus constitu
ted, was of great extent ; but it was far from satis
fying the wishes of this young nation. They first
cast their eyes over the immense tract to the west
ward of the Mississippi, as far as the Pacific Ocean
in one direction, and the Gulf of Mexico in another,
a tract which' was still claimed by France, and
which was purchased by the United States, in the
year 1803, for fifteen millions of dollars, or about
three millions sterling. Not many years passed be
fore the Floridas, which had been originally colo
nized by Spain, and were still under her feeble do
minion, became an object of desire, and the cession
of them was obtained with some difficulty, in the

' • The appellation which we shall uniformly give to what have
commonly been called the Rocky or Slmy Mountains.
* The Russian claim to this territory, which brought that empire

year 1821. The details connected with the boun
dary line were settled by treaty at various periods,
and with various powers ; and a question relating to
the British province of New Brunswick, has recently
been referred to the decision of the king of the Ne
therlands, whose award is understood to be unac
ceptable to both parties, and may therefore be deem
ed inconclusive. The line of separation between
the territories of Great Britain and the United States
on the north, from the Chippewayan Mountains* to
the Pacific Ocean, never has been determined.! The
last reference to this region in diplomatic documents
is the following : — " It is agreed that any country
that may be claimed by either party on the north
west coast of America, westward of the Stony
Mountains, shall, together with its harbours, bays,
and creeks, and the navigation of all rivers within
the same, be free and open,, for the term of ten years
from the date of the signature of the present conven
tion, to the vessels, citizens, and subjects of the two
powers ; it being well understood that this agreement
is not to be construed to the prejudice of any claim
which either of the two high contracting parties may
have to any part of the said country, nor shall it be
taken to affect the claims of any other power or
state to any part of the said country ; the only object
of the high contracting parties, in that respect, being
to prevent disputes and differences among them
selves/' In the meantime, the best maps have out
run the slow progress of negotiation, and exhibit a

at one period into contact with the Americans, has been subsequent
ly abandoned, and the respective limits settled by treaty wilh the
British governments

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

line of demarcation, which is certainly not unnatural,
and which may be proceeded upon for the purposes
of the present description.
In its utmost reach, the territory of the United
States extends from N. Lat. 25°, or 24° 27', tlie
southern extremity- of Florida, to N. Lat. 54° 40',
the extreme north of the ;¦ district 6f Oregon; and
from the 67th to the 125th degree of west longitude
from Greenwich.* It is bounded on the north by
British America ; on the west by the Pacific Ocean
to the 42d degree of latitude ; on the south by the
republic of Mexico and the Mexican Gulf, and on
the east by the Atlantic Ocean. This may well be
called an immense region. Its mean length from
east to west is 2,500 miles, and its mean breadth
from north to south 830. Its line of boundary ex
tends, according to Darby, to 9,425 miles, of which
2,525 are sea coast ; and its area comprehends
2,257,374 square miles, exceeding by a small frac
tion one twentieth part of the land surface of the
earth. The great features of this ample territory are few
and simple. Contemplating its extent from east to
west, we perceive on either side the Atlantic or Pa
cific Ocean respectively ; on either side, also, are
chains of mountains, on the east the Appalachian, on
the west the Chippewayan Mountains, traversing the
whole extent of the country, at a considerable dis
tance from the coast, but in a direction nearly pa
rallel with it. The effect of these mountain chains is
to cut off a strip of land next the sea on either side,
and to throw the whole of the intermediate country
into the form of an immense inland valley. The
territory of the United States is thus naturally divi
ded into three great sections ; that of the Atlantic
Slope ; that within the great central valley of North
America ; and, thirdly, a portion extending from
the Chippewayan Mountains towards the Pacific
Ocean. The first of these sections we have called the At
lantic Slope, since for the most part it consists of
lands gradually sloping from the Appalachian Moun
tains to the Atlantic Ocean. There are, however,
two exceptions to this description; the one in the
peninsula of Florida, which is flat and entirely sepa
rate from the mountain chains, and the other in the
New England states, in which the mountains consti
tute the sea coast, without any intermediate lands.
Neither in strictness can it be said that the mountain
ridges constitute the western boundary of the Atlantic
Slope itself; since the rivers, which of course indi-
* Reckoned from the meridian of Washington, the United States
extend from 10° east to 48° west longitude.

cate the descent of the country most correctly, do not
uniformly rise in the mountains, but in many cases,
especially in the north, rise in the table land beyond
them, and burst through the mountains, in order to
find their way to the Atlantic Ocean. The high
ground, therefore, which really defines the western
edge of this slope, must be traced by the river sources,
and will be found to form an inflected line, ranging
obliquely over the Appalachian system.
The ocean border of the Atlantic Slope is formed
into three extensive bays. Having Capes Halteras
and Florida as the extremes of its chord, and the fine
estuaries of St. John's, St. Mary's, Alatamaha, with
many other rivers, pouring into it, stretches a bay
styept by that great ocean river, the Gulf Stream.
The coast of this bay is uniformly low and sandy,
with small islands, extending generally parallel to the
opposing shore of the continent. The rivers are
comparatively shallow at or near tlieir cfllux into
the ocean. If we consider the South-western Bay as
commencing with the northern outlet ofthe Bahama
Channel, the length of its chord will be about six
hundred miles, with a depth from that chord to the
mouth of the Alatamaha of about two hundred miles.
The Gulf Stream in its passage north-east flows
almost exactly along the chord of this bay, and forms
in its inner curvature an immense whirlpool.
Cape Hatteras forms a most distinguishing land
mark on the oceanic border of the United Stales.
Without an elevation much above the waves, which
beat with untameable rage against its rocky front,
this stormy promontory projects into the Atlantic
Ocean, almost exactly mid-distance between Florida
Point and Passamaquoddy. Sweeping inwards from
this cape of tempests, and forming a section of a very
elongated ellipse, the Middle Bay of the United Slates
extends about five hundred and fifty miles to the
eastern salient angle of Massachusetts, with a depth
from its chord to New York harbour of one hundred
and fifty miles. The coast of the Middle Bay, like
that of the South-west, is generally low and sandy ;
but its rivers and minor bays assume a very diflcrcnt
character. All the rivers of the South-western Bay
enter the Atlantic Ocean by narrow and very shallow
outlets, neither of them, except the St. Mary's, admit
ting the entrance of large vessels ; but with the Neuse
and the Pamplico, entering into Pamplico Sound di
rectly west from Cape Hatteras, commences a new
order of rivers. Pamplico Sound is followed by that
of Albemarle, receiving Roanoke and Chowan Rivers
which is again succeeded by that immense recipient
the Chesapeake Bay, and that again by the wide
estuary of the Delaware, and next, the lono- and

mm

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P\-A "---1

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

singular tide river or bay of the Hudson. At the
efflux of the Hudson the Atlantic waves almost reach
the. base' of the Appalachian mountains, but are again
repelled by the sandy border of Long Island, which,
through a distance of one hundred and sixteen miles,
shelters an inland gulf, differing in character from
the other sounds or bays on the Atlantic Slope only
in having two outlets into the ocean. The outer
coast of Long Island may therefore be regarded as
the continuation of that of the Atlantic, and what is
called Long Island Sound as the recipient of the
Houssatonick and Connecticut rivers. The beautiful
and richly variegated bays of Narraganset and Buz
zard close the fine indentings of the Middle Bay of
the United States, which terminates with the sandy
point of Malabar. Similarly to that of the South
west, the chord of the Middle Bay is very nearly the
course of the Gulf Stream, though, in its advance to
the north-east, that great current increases in width,
but diminishes in rapidity.
Cape Cod, the eastern extremity of Massachusetts,
is a promontory which constitutes another of those
geographical limits on each side of which strong
contrasts in natural phenomena present themselves.
Here the coast curves rapidly- inwards by an abrupt
sweep to the south, thence west, gradually winding
to the north-east, and finally to the south-east ; en
closing on three sides a sheet of water in the form of
a parallelogram, extending; two hundred by one
hundred and eighty miles. Into this north-eastern
recipient are poured the rivers Charles, Merrimack,
Piscataqua, Saco, Kennebeck, Penobscott, St. Croix
or Passamaquoddy, St. John's, and it might be added,
the Bay of Fundy. The shores of Cape Cod are
low and sandy, but with it terminates the low and
alluvial coast of the United States. The high land
now approaches the ocean, and the bays and rivers
of north-east Massachusetts, and those of New Hamp
shire and Maine, open to'the ocean between bold and
swelling hills. The harbours of this section of the
United States are numerous, deep, and spacious, and
the two extremes of the Atlantic Slope present a com
plete contrast in scenery and in commercial facility.
Along the Gulf of Mexico, in a line of 1100 miles,
scarcely a hill of Any perceptible elevation rises, to
break the dull monotony of the coast. The rivers
enter their recipient by narrow and shallow channels,
and even the mighty Mississippi on no one bar has
thirteen feet water. The best harbours are bays into
which no great rivers are discharged.
Looking inland from the- Atlantic Ocean and* the
Gulf of Mexico, one vast and very gently rising plain
seems emerging from the waters. At first almost an
A

undeyiating level, it is imperceptibly broken into hill
and dale ; the hills being first humble, but swelling into
majesty as they approach the mountains. The long
chains ofthe Appalachian system stretch from south
west to north-east. They are irregular, and plainly
different from the hills, yet arranged,- as a whole, with
remarkable symmetry. They cross the line of the
river sources, which singularly follows the deflections
of the coast, at an angle of about 30 degrees.
Touching the ocean in the New England states, they
penetrate more and more deeply into the continent in
their course to the south-westward. Taken under a
comprehensive survey of its physiognomy, the Appa
lachian system comprises an undetermined number
of chains, extending in collateral ranges ; each chain
is formed of ridges which interlock with each other,
and are frequently cut by the -rivers ; the ridges ex
tend in most instances in the same direction with the
chain which they contribute to form; the chains
differ very materially in relative elevation and con
tinuity, and the whole system is, with'a few excep
tions, in a remarkable manner devoid of peaks. No
unequivocal appearance of volcanic eruption has "been
anywhere detected. The elevation of the Appala
chian mountains is by no means considerable, and
that of the table land giving origin to the Atlantic
rivers may be said to be very trifling : the former
never exceeds 6000 feet, and rarely approaches that
elevation ; while the latter, at its highest point, which
is' near the Gulf of Mexico, does not exceed 1800 feet,
and in the northern states is less than 500. The
chasms by which the rivers penetrate this mountain
system are not the least - remarkable of its features.
The most extraordinary is that occupied by the River
Hudson, by means of which the tide flows for 160
miles through the very heart of the mountains, and
pierces the entire mass. This glen is continued to
the St. Lawrence, the northern part-of it being occu
pied by Lakes George and Champlain, and an eleva
tion of only 14[0.feet dividing them from the tidelevel
in the Hudson.
A reeky obstruction giving occasion to a fall, is a
general', and almost a uniform occurrence in all con
siderable rivers which flow into the Atlantic between
New York and the Mississippi. It is found that a
line passing through these falls in succession would
-very nearly observe the deflections of the coast, and
it is believed that they are all occasioned by a ledge
of rock passing continuously through the whole coun
try connected with the mountains. In most instances
the tide advances up to this rocky ledge, and within
a short space above and below it the face of the
country is strongly contrasted. Below the river falls

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

the aspect becomes more and more monotonous, until
the whole sinks to a level scarcely more broken, in
many places, than that of an ocean in a calm. The
rivers, except from the tides, are without current,
or flow gently ; and marshes, overflowed by the tides
and land floods, are extensive near the coast. Above
the falls all is different, and not only to the mountain
bases, but in their expansive valleys, the hills meet
the traveller's eye in considerable elevation, round,
bold, and swelling. The rivers wind through vales,
rich, variegated, and gently undulating, and now,
under the influence of cultivation, smiling in all the
gayety of field, garden, orchard, and meadow. This
fine hill tract spreads, if the expression may be used,
round the Appalachian masses, and extends from the
mouth of the St. Lawrence nearly to that of the Mis
sissippi. It comprises the best peopled and best cul
tivated part of the north-eastern, middle, and southern
states ; and the largest and most wealthy cities of the
republic have risen on its margin.
Let us now turn to the west, and examine the
tract between the Chippewayan Mountains and the
Pacific .Ocean. The extent of coast here possessed
by the United States is small in comparison with the
Atlantic, being only about 600 miles ; but the moun
tains are at a mean distance of 500 miles from the
sea, giving to this region a much greater breadth than
that of the Atlantic Slope. The Chippewayan
Mountains appear to be altogether of a different cha
racter from the Appalachian. They are of a much
greater altitude, some of them rising to the height of
nearly 12,000 feet, and much more distinguished by
conical peaks, and marks of volcanic agency. They
are not broken through by the numerous rivers which
rise in them, but constitute the dividing ridge of the
respective waters. The rivers which flow towards
the ocean do not, as on the eastern side, enter it in
considerable numbers, indenting the coast with fre
quent estuaries ; this being obstructed by a second,
and as yet nameless, chain of hills running along the
coast, and supposed to be a continuation of the range
which constitutes the peninsula of California. The
district of Oregon, therefore, (for such is its name,)
is not properly a slope from the mountains to the
sea, but a valley enclosed by two mountain ranges,
the western being occasionally opened for the escape
of the enclosed waters. Four principal rivers tra
verse this territory : the Multnomah, coming about
900 miles from the south ; Lewis River, perhaps 1100
from the south-east ; Clark's River, 1000 from the
eastward ; and the Columbia, an equal distance from
the north. These rivers, among which it is difficult
to determine the principal,, unite at various distances

from the ocean, and flow into it under the general
name of the Columbia, N. Lat. 46°. In relative
height, the surface of the Oregon basin falls from the
plateau of the Chippewayan, at least 3,370 feet, to the
level of the Pacific Ocean, and down this rapid de
scent the rivers are precipitated over numerous falls
and cataracts. The tide penetrates inland through
the western system of mountains, following the wind
ings of the stream upwards of one hundred miles, the
bay at the mouth opening between Capes Adam on
the south-east, and Disappointment on the north-west.
The entrance, with about twenty-six feet water, runs
easterly about twenty miles, and thence south-easterly
to the mouth of Multnomah, sustaining thus far a
depth of at least twenty feet. The face of the Ore
gon basin, as far as explored, is far from promising.
Much of the country is broken by mountains, or
stretches in naked plains, though some fine valleys,
of confined extent, spread between the chains.
Between the Chippewayan and the Appalachian
Mountains stretches an extensive tract, which, as a
whole, may be called a valley, and, not improperly,
the valley or basin of the Mississippi, as. drained
principally by that river and its confluent streams.
In looking at the upper or northern part of this
region, we are immediately struck with the unpa
ralleled series of lakes or rather inland seas, which
empty themselves into the Atlantic by the river St.
Lawrence. It will be proper, in the first place, to,
glance at this interesting tract, which may be de
scribed as the St. Lawrence Basin. This great basin
is naturally subdivided into three unequal parts,
which may be with propriety designated upper,
lower, and middle. The higher basin, the bottom
of which is occupied by Lake Superior, lies in form
of a rhomb ; its length from north-east and south
west is 300 miles, and its breadth from south-east to
north-west is nearly equal. Its area is about 90,000
square miles, one third of which is contained in the
lake. Into this reservoir are poured upwards of
fifty rivers, none of which are of much importance.
Though individually small, the ^quantity of water
supplied collectively by the numerous confluents of
Lake Superior must be very great, and it differs ma
terially in different seasons of the year. The whole
mass, composing a large river, is precipitated through
the straits and down the falls of St. Mary. The
surface of the lake is, by measurement, 641 feet
above the Atlantic level. With a slight depression
of twenty-three feet, the second or middle sub-basin
of the St. Lawrence is spread below that of. Lake
Superior. The middle basin extends over a quads-
rangular area of. at least 160,000 square rnilesj hav

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

mg the three great central lakes of Michigan, Huron,
and Erie, as its lower valleys. Lake Michigan is an
immense chasm, at least 900 feet deep, and 270 miles
long, by about fifty mean width. The confluents of
both this and Huron, like those of Superior, are in
considerable individually, but very numerous ; and
when swelled by spring rains and melted snows, they
exert a sensible- influence on the relative height of
their recipients. The sides of the lakes, and, indeed,
the whole peninsula of Michigan, present little ele
vation, s Lake Huron is an expanded triangular body
of water, second in mass and extent only to Lake
Superior. Receiving the vast discharge of both Su
perior and Michigan into its north-western angle,
Huron protrudes the accumulated waters from it's
southern extremity. A few detached islands lie
scattered over the surface of Lake Superior, and a
few of still more diminutive size checker the north
ern part of Michigan ; but Huron is almost subdi
vided by a regular chain. A peninsula is projected
into this lake from its south-east side, from which, in
a direction south-west by west, and nearly parallel
to the northern side of the lake, the Manatoulin
islands follow entirely across the lake to about mid
way between the mouths of Michilimackinack and St.
Mary's Straits. Between the Manatoulin group, and
the northern shore of the lake, extends a strait of
about 200 miles in length, with a mean width of
about thirty miles, also much checkered with islands.
The residue of Huron towards the Michigan coast
sinks to an almost unfathomable depth ; nine hun
dred or a thousand feet would be a moderate esti
mate. The prodigious depth of the three upper Cana
dian lakes is a very interesting phenomenon in phy
sical geography. Though the surface of the two
lowest of the three, Michigan and Huron, is 618 feet
above the Atlantic level, their bottoms are nearly
300 feet below it. It is therefore probable that some
parts of Lakes Michigan or Huron are the deepest
chasms on the continental surface of the earth. Lake
Erie constitutes the most southern section of the
middle sub-basin of the St. Lawrence. It is elevated
565 2 feet above the Atlantic surface, and consequently
lies 522 feet below the level of Michigan and Huron.
It is 230 miles long, from south-west to north-east.
The form is elliptical, but much elongated, the
breadth but little exceeding fifty miles at the widest,
and not averaging more than thirty-five. The bot
tom of Lake Erie appears to be composed of an al
luvial deposit of sand and mud, resting on a se
condary sandstone, the depth seldom exceeding 200
feet, and in few places being so much. In the
course of the river from Lake Erie occur the cele

brated and truly magnificent falls of Niagara, by
which it descends into the lower sub-basin of the St.
Lawrence, and expands into Lake Ontario. This
lake is 334 feet lower than Erie, and a very marked
change is perceptible in the natural physiognomy of
the country. This portion of the St. Lawrence ba
sin is composed of two very unequal inclined planes.
That of the right, or south-east, about 750 miles in
length, does not exceed a mean width of sixty miles ,•
but that of the north-west extends over 900 miles in
length, with a mean width of nearly 270, with an
area of 287,000 square miles. Lake Ontario is the
lower stage of an enormous chasm on the earth's
surface. The rivers on every side pour into its bo
som by rocky and precipitous channels; and not
one is navigable to any considerable distance with
out interruption from rapids, or, in most instances,
from direct falls. The north-east part of Ontario is
a congeries of islands, which are continued down the
St. Lawrence about fifty miles. This part of the
river is from ten to two miles wide, without much
current, and known by the local name of The Thou
sand Islands. The number actually amounts, if
every naked little rock is taken into the list, to up
wards of 1500. The peninsula of Prince Edward,
and the small islets outside of Sackett's Harbour,
are the higher eminences of this group, which, as
extended into Lake Ontario, exceeds one hundred
miles in length.
These magnificent lakes, which have justly been
called the Canadian . Sea, are deemed the most ex
tensive repository of fresh-water upon the globe.
They are so in consequence of their immense depth,
however, and not of their surface, which is only
72,900 square miles, little more than half the super
ficial area of the Caspian Sea. The attempts that
have been made to estimate the quantity of water con
tained in them are necessarily embarrassed with
many difficulties. It appears, from the united testi
mony of every person who has made the necessary
experiments, that Lakes Superior, Huron, and Michi
gan, are vast, and in some places unfathomable
gulfs ; that of all the great lakes, Erie is the most
shallow, not exceeding a mean depth of 120 feet ;
and that Ontario varies from 450 to 534 feet. Accord
ing to Darby, who takes a mean depth of 900 feet
for the three upper lakes, the contents of the St. Law
rence basin maybe computed at 1,547,011,792,360,000
cubic feet of water.* The amount is certainly
stupendous. It would form a - cubic column of
nearly twenty-two miles each side ; or, if spread
* Darby, p. 231.

8

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

round the earth equally on each side of the equator,
at a depth of one foot, it would nearly cover the
torrid zone, and would actually envelope the whole
earth to upwards of three inches in depth.. In posi
tive mass, it may be assumed on very solid grounds,
that the St. Lawrence basin contains more than one
half of all the fresh water on this planet. The
writer above quoted calculates the water discharged
by the St. Lawrence at 1,672,704,000 cubic feet per
hour.* In making its way to the ocean, the St..
Lawrence, like the Hudson, penetrates an extensive
mountain mass, frequent rapids alternating with lake-:
like expansions, and finally enters the sea, after a
course very nearly parallel to the Atlantic coast. In
its progress it receives from the United States the
waters of Lake George and Lake Champlain, two
fine sheets of water/ occupying the northern part
of the great glen, by means of which the Hudson
pierces the mountain chains. The length of Lake
Champlain is 109 miles; and its breadth varies from
half a mile to twelve miles. Its depth, like that of
the higher lakes of the St. Lawrence, is in many
places prodigious. It is in reality the lower plateau
of a deep vale.
As a basin of inland commerce, it may be truly
asserted that the St. Lawrence stands alone on the
globe. In its main channel the ocean tides pene
trate 432 miles, or about midway between Quebec
and Montreal. Above tide water to Ogdensburg,
the channel is much impeded by shoals and rapids,
but in no place actually impassable with vessels,
either ascending or descending. Ships of the line
of the first class are navigated to Quebec, and ves
sels of 600 tons to Montreal, upwards of 500 miles
from the Gulf of St.. Lawrence. Again passing
from the river we merge into an inland sea. At the
lower extremity of the first expanse of that central
sea, Lake Ontario, two ports present their deep re^
cesses to the rn°st unwieldy vessels of war j 'these
are Kingston and Sackett's Harbour. Beyond those
spacious havens the harbours of the Canadian Sea
are generally shallow, but no region of the earth
. presents such varied, contrasted, and peculiar scenery.
Even the majestic Niagara is but the principal Object
of interest on this expanded canvass. Above the
falls of Niagara it is generally only in .the rivers that
safe anchorage can be found, and in many parts,, for
great distances, no1" kind of shelter is offered by the
lake shores. Round all the lakes, ridges of sand and
shingle are traced, which indicate "various subside^
ees of their level, to the 'depth, in Lake- Ontario, in

» Darby,; p. 233,

which the occurrence is most strongly marked, of
160 feet.
In the remainder of the central valley of the
United States, of which the St. Lawrence basin con
stitutes, to a great extent, the northern boundary, it
is a prominent and obvious feature that the whole of
it is. drained, hy one.set or system of rivers. Many
of them come' from- very remote distances, and are
themselves of great magnitude ; but instead of find
ing their Own way to the sea, they mingle their
waters in a common receptacle, and enter the Gulf of
Mexico 'by the months of the Mississippi, We have
already seen that no considerable rivers run into the
lakes of the St. Lawrence ; and this may prepare us
for the fact, which is obvious upon the maps, that
many of the stream's; which pour, themselves into the
Mississippi arise very hear. to the lakes themselves.
The Ohio, for example, rises within five miles of
Lake Erie,, aadlthere are .' iriany similar cases. But
we should scarcely have expected that rivers wliich
have a course of" 3000 miles to run, would: rise from
grounds elevated only a few hundred feet- above the
level" of the ocean. Yet. such is the. remarkable fact.
No mountains, nor grounds of considerable^ elevation,
divide the tributaries of the lakes from those of the
Mississippi valley.. On the contrary,, the waters of
Lake Michigan are/so hearly^on a level with those
ofthe River Illinois, which flows "into the Mississip- '
pi, that, in flood seasons, their waters not only min
gle, but boats of seventy or eighty ton's are navigated
from the one into, the other. The preceding re
mark may be further extended, and may be applied?
to the immense inflected line, of upwards of 2000 miles,
from the sources Of the Susquehaiiftah,. Genessee, and
Allegany, to those Of Saskasawin Of Hudson's Bay,
Maria's River of Missouri, and Clark's River of Co
lumbia. The latter line may be considered as that
by which the slope of the Mississippi basin declines-
from that of the St. Lawrence and Hudson basins.
It is entirely destitute of mountains. We may,
therefore, consider the basin of the Mississippi as the-
southern declination of the great central valley o{
North America ; and as limited -on the east by the
table land, and not by the actual" chains of the Ap
palachian system, and on' the west, by the chains of
the Chippewayan. ' "-
This central -valley may be divided into four parts.
First,, the portion between the lakes and the Appala
chian Mbu'ritairiS ; - this is traversed by the Ohio, and
its numerous eon-fluents. Second, the portion be
tween the lakes : and the. Missouri ; this is traversed
by the Mississippi proper. Third,' the. portion occu
pied by the -Missouri itself including the course of

Isa('- 1

0

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

the river Platte. Fourth, the valley of the Lower
Mississippi, with the Arkansas and Red rivers.
The Ohio valley is subdivided by the river into
two unequal sections, leaving on the right or N. W.
side, 80,000, and on the left or S. E. side, 116,000
square miles. The Ohio River flows in a deep ra
vine, and forms a common recipient for the water
poured down from both slopes. The length of the
ravine, in a direct line from the city of Pittsburgh to
the Mississippi River, is 548 miles, but by the mean
ders of the stream 948 miles. " The hills," says Mr.
A. Bourne,* " are generally found near rivers or large
creeks, and parallel to them on each side, having
between them the alluvial valley, through which the
stream meanders, usually near the middle, but some
times washing the foot of either hill. Perhaps the
best idea of the topography of this region may be
obtained by conceiving it to be one vast elevated
plain, near the centre of which the streams rise, and
in their course wearing down a bed or valley, whose
depth is in proportion to their size, or the solidity of
the earth over which they flow. So that our hills,
with some few exceptions, are nothing more or less
than cliffs or banks, made by the action of the
streams : and although these cliffs or banks on the
rivers or larger creeks, approach the size of mountains,
yet their tops are generally level, like the remains of
the ancient plain." The confluents of the Ohio which
flow from the Appalachian Mountains are, from their
sources, precipitous torrents, and pursue their courses
in deep channels ; whilst those streams which derive
their fountains from the north-western slope, although
sluggish towards their sources, gain velocity as they
approach the Ohio. In its natural state, the valley
of Ohio was for the most part covered with a dense
forest, but the central plain presents an exception.
As far east as the sources of the Muskingum com
menced open savannahs, covered with grass and de
void of timber. Like the plain itself, those savan
nahs expand to the westward, and on the Illinois
open into immense natural meadows, generally known
under the denomination of prairies. The Ohio, from
Pittsburgh to the Mississippi, a course of nearly a
thousand miles, falls only about 400 feet, or about
five inches in a mile. This river, and its principal
branch, the Allegany, are in a striking manner gentle
as respects current ; and from Hamilton, in the state
of New York, to the Mississippi, over a distance of
1158 miles, following the streams, at a moderately
high flood it meets, excepting the rapids at Louisville,
with not a single serious natural impediment. The
* Darbr p. 298.

Monongahela, more impetuous than the Allegany,
is yet navigable, without falls or rapids, by both
branches, far into Virginia. On the north-west side
of the valley the rivers are extremely rapid. Rising
on a table land from 300 to 1000 feet above their
mouths, and in no instance having a direct course of
300 miles, the streams, though falling gradually, are
almost torrents. The Big Beaver, Muskingum, and
Hockhocking, have direct falls ; but the Sciota,
Miami, and Wabash, though rapid, have neither falls
nor cataracts to impede navigation.
The Ohio valley may be regarded as a great plain
inclining from the Appalachian system lo the N. W.,
obliquely and deeply cut by the Ohio and its nume
rous confluents, into chasms from an elevation of 460
feet to nearly the level of the streams. In the higher
part of the valley, when on the rivers, the banks, with
the exception of comparatively narrow flats near the
margins, rise by bold acclivities which have a moun
tainous aspect. This boldness of outline impercep
tibly softens in descending the Ohio, and on approach
ing the Mississippi an extent of level woodland
bounds the horizon. Ascending the rivers of the
south-east slope, the scenery becomes more and more
rugged, until it terminates in the ridges of the Appa
lachian chains : on the contrary, if the rivers of the
north-west slope are followed, we find the landscape
broken and varied near the Ohio, but around their
sources flat and monotonous. In our survey of the
Ohio valley, we have reached the verge of those wide
spread prairies, savannahs, or steppes, which, more
westward, dilate until forests dwindle to mere clumps
or narrow lines of trees along the streams, while in
the intermediate spaces extend grassy wastes, which
seem to lengthen as the traveller speeds over their
tedious surface. In its natural state, an almost un
broken forest spreads over and around the Appala
chian system of mountains, reaching to the Atlantic
Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and stretching over the St.
Lawrence towards Hudson's Bay, and westward be
yond the Mississippi and Ohio. This is, perhaps, the
most extensive continuous forest which exists on
earth. The human hand has, indeed, marked its
surface by opening a few spots, but the far greater
part remains the empire of trees. Beyond this wood
ed region, to the west, follows another, far more ex
tensive,- but of very different character. The second
or grassy tract is not separated from the wooded by
any definite limit ; in passing from one to the other,
the features are so blended as to render the transition
imperceptible. In general, the prairie region is less
hilly, mountainous, or rocky, than that of the forest ;
but exceptions in both cases are frequent. Plains of

1(0

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

great extent do exist in the latter, while mountains of
great elevation, mass, and extent, checker the former.
The Mississippi rises in Turtle Lake and Lake
Lebeish, about N. Lat. 47° 47', and pursues a course
of about 1200 miles, previously to its junction with
the Missouri. The Ohio, in its north-eastern extreme
sources, we have found issuing from an elevated,
mountainous, and highly variegated country ; whilst
those of the Mississippi, on the contrary, ooze from an
immense marshy plain, in great part devoid of timber.
The space intervening between Lake Superior and
the great inflection of the Missouri and the Mandan
villages, rises by a rapid acclivity to nearly 700 feet
above the lake, and thence spreads towards the Mis
souri in a level, with a very gentle descent. In this
plain the Mississippi rises. It is a circumstance pe
culiar to this river, that the physiognomy of nature
around its head bears so strong resemblance to that
of its estuary. A difference of nineteen degrees of
latitude precludes much similarity in vegetable or
stationary animal production ; but according to Mr.
Schoolcraft, who visited the sources in the month of
July, the migratory water fowl found there at that
time of the year are very nearly the same which flock
in countless millions over the delta, in December,
January, February, and March. " It is also deserving
of remark," says Mr. Schoolcraft, " that its sources lie
in a region of almost continual winter, while it enters
the ocean under the latitude of perpetual verdure."
On a view of the particular valley of the Mis
sissippi, its general monotony first strikes the eye.
No chains or groups of mountains, or elevated ran
ges of hills, rise to vary the perspective. Over so
wide a space as 180,000 square miles, some solitary
elevations indeed exist, which, for want of contrast,
are dignified by the name of mountains ; but few
continuous tracts of equal extent afford so little di
versity of surface. The upper part of the Mississip
pi itself is traversed by numerous falls of inconsider
able perpendicular descent ; many places along the
banks are high, broken, and precipitous ; but taken
as a whole, there is a sameness strikingly in contrast
With the ever varying landscapes along the higher
part of the Ohio, and upon the Appalachian streams.
The Missouri rises in a part of the great Chippe
wayan mountain system. As viewed from the
course of this river, the mountains rise abruptly out
of the plains, which lie extended at their base, and
tower into peaks of great height, which renders them
yisible at the distance of more than one hundred
miles eastward from their base. They consist of
ridges, knobs, and peaks, variously disposed, among
which are interspersed many broad and fertile val

leys. The more elevated parts of the mountains are
covered with perpetual snows, which contribute to
give them a luminous, and, at a great distance, even
a brilliant appearance, whence they have derived the
name of Shining Mountains. They are clad in a
scattering growth of scrubby pines, oak, cedar, and
furze, and exhibit a very rugged and broken aspect.
The Missouri rises far within the bosom of the
mountains, and is divided by a single ridge from the
waters of the Columbia, which terminate in the Pa
cific Ocean. In its early course it flows through
small but beautiful and fertile valleys, deeply embo
somed amidst the surrounding heights, and forms a
variety of islands in its progress, till ,at length it is
sues from these verdant recesses by a rocky pass,
which has not unaptly been called by Lewis and
Clarke, the Gates of the Rocky Mountains. " The
rocks,"* say these enterprising travellers, " approach
the river on both sides, forming a most sublime and
extraordinary spectacle. For five and three quarter
miles these rocks rise perpendicularly from the
water's edge to the height of nearly 1200 feet. No
thing can be imagined more tremendous than the
frowning darkness of these rocks, which project
over the river, and menace us with destruction. The
river, of three hundred and fifty yards in width,
seems to have forced its channel down this solid
mass ; but so reluctantly has it given away, that,
during the whole distance, the water is very deep,.
even at the edges, and for the first three miles there
is not a spot, except one of a few yards, in which
a man could stand between the water and the tow
ering perpendicular of the mountain ; the convul
sion of the passage must have been terrible, since at
its outlet there are vast columns of rock torn from
the mountain, which are strewed on both sides of
the river, the trophies as it were of the victory.
Several fine springs burst out from the chasms of the
rock, and contribute to increase the river, which hai
now a strong current, but very fortunately we were
able to overcome it with our oars, since it would be
impossible to use either the cord or the pole. We
were obliged to go on some time after dark, not be
ing able to find a spot large enouhg to encamp on ;
but at length, about two miles above a small island
in the middle of the river, we met with a spot on
the left side, where we procured plenty of lightwood
and pitchpine. This extraordinary range of rocks
we called the Gates of the Rocky Mountains." The
stream called by pre-eminence Missouri, is not the
main branch, if the documents hitherto published

* Lewis and Clarke's Travels up the Missouri, chap. xii.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

11

are correct ; the Yellow Stone River appears to be.
longer than its rival above their junction, and to re
ceive larger and longer confluents. It rises in the
Chippewayan mountains, more to the southward. At
the junction of the Yellow Stone and the Missouri,
the river, estimated by either branch, has flowed up
wards of a thousand miles, and it is little if any
less, either in width or depth, than it is at its junc
tion with the Mississippi. A few miles below the
influx of the Yellow Stone, the Missouri has reached
its utmost northern bend, in N. Lat. 48° 20' ; and
curves by a regular sweep of two hundred miles to
the Mandan villages. The Platte and Kansas are
two great confluents of the Missouri rising in the
same mountains, and flowing generally to the east
ward, the former 700, and the latter 600 miles. The
Platte derives its name from the circumstance of its
being broad and shoal ; its average width being
about twelve hundred yards, exclusive of the islands
it embosoms ; and its depth, in a moderate stage of
.water, so inconsiderable, that it is fordable almost
every where. The river in several places expands
to the width of many miles, embosoming numerous
islands, some of which are broad and considerably
extensive, and all of them covered with a growth of
cotton wood and willows. These are the only
Woodlands that make their appearance along the
river, and in travelling westward these become less
numerous and extensive, till at length they entirely
disappear. The Platte" is seldom navigable, except
for skin canoes, requiring but a small depth of water,
and for these only when a freshet prevails in the
river. No attempts have ever been made to ascend the
river in canoes for any great distance, the prevalence
of shoals, and the rapidity of the current, discoura
ging ssuch an undertaking. The bed of the Platte
is seldom depressed more than six or eight feet below
the surface of the bottoms, and in many places even
less, and spreads to such a width that the highest
floods pass off without inundating the bottoms, ex
cept in their lowest parts, the rise of the water on
such occasions being no more than five or six feet.
The Kansas is navigable only in high freshets for
boats of burden, and on such occasions for not more
than one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles,
the navigation being obstructed by shoals. The
character of this river and its several branches is
similar to that of the Platte and its tributaries. After
a direct course of 1870 miles, and a meandering one
of 3000, the Missouri falls into the Mississippi. The
greatest length of the valley of the Missouri, from
the mouth of that stream to the head of Maria's
River, is 1200 miles ; its greatest breadth, from the

sources of the Platte to a short distance south-east
from the Mandan villages, is 700 miles ; with an
area of 523,000 square miles, equal to 334,000,000
of statute acres. Three remarkable features exist in
it ; first, the turbid character of the water ; second,
the very unequal volumes of the right and left conflu
ents ; and third, the immense excess of the open
prairies over the river lines of forest. In the direc
tion of the western rivers, the inclined plane of the
Missouri extends 800 miles from the Chippewayan
mountains, and rather more than that distance from
south to north, from the southern branches of the
Kansas to the extreme heads of the northern conflu
ents of the valley. Ascending from the lower verge
of this widely extended plain, wood becomes more
and more scarce, until one naked surface spreads on
all sides. Even the ridges and chains of the moun
tains partake of these traits of desolation. The
traveller in those parts who has read the descriptions
of central Asia by Tooke or Pallas will feel, on the
higher branches of the Missouri, a resemblance at
once striking and appalling. He will regret how
much of the earth's surface is doomed to irremedia
ble silence ; and, if near the Chippewayan heights' in
winter, he will acknowledge that the utmost inten
sity of frost in Siberia and Mongolia has its full
counterpart in North America, on similar if not on
lower latitudes. But of all the characteristics which
distinguish the Missouri and its confluents, the few
direct falls, or even rapids, is certainly the most re
markable. Between Dearborn's and Maria's rivers
the stream leaves the Chippewayan range by rolling
-over ledges of rock for a distance of eighteen miles,
after which this overwhelming mass of water,
though every where flowing with great rapidity,
nowhere swells into a lake, or rolls over a single
"cataract, in a distance of at least 3500 miles to the
Gulf of Mexico. If therefore the Amazon is except
ed, the Missouri and its continuation, the Mississip
pi, afford the most extended uninterrupted line of
river navigation which has ever been discovered.
After being joined by the Missouri, the Mississippi
makes a direct course of 820, or an indirct course of
1265 miles to the Gulf of Mexico. In no circum
stance is the physical geography of the United States
more remarkable, than in the extreme inequality of
the two opposing planes down which are poured the
confluents of the Mississippi below the influx of the
Ohio. The western inclined plane, falling from the
Chippewayan mountains, 'sweeps over upwards of
eight hundred miles, whilst the eastern, sloping from
the Appalachian, has not a mean width of one hun
dred miles. The rivers which drain the two slopes

12

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

are, in respective length, proportionate to the extent
of their planes of descend. Whilst Red River exceeds
a comparative course of 800 miles, the Arkansas of
1000, and White River of 400,. the longest stream
from the opposite slope falls short of 200 miles. The
alluvion brought down by such volumes of water as
those of White, Arkansas, and Red rivers, explains
satisfactorily the reason why the Mississippi infringes
so often on the eastern, and nowhere below the Ohio
touches the western bluffs. The lower valley of the
Mississippi is the most variegated section of the
United States. Every form of landscape, every trait
of natural physiognomy, and an exhaustless quantity,
with an illimitable specific diversity, of vegetable and
metallic productions, are found upon this extensive
region. It is flanked on the east by a dense forest,
and on the west by the naked ridges and spines of
the Chippewayan mountains ; while the deep entan
gled woods of the Mississippi stand in striking relief
against the expansive prairies of the Arkansas and
Red rivers.
The principal confluent, of the lower Mississippi is
the Arkansas, which is longer, and drains more sur
face, than either the Mississippi proper, the Platte, or
the Ohio. It rises in the Chippewayan Mountains,
and has a direct sourse of 1400, and an indirect
course of 2000 miles. This great river is navigable
about 600 miles ; but issuing from an elevated and
mountainous region, its main volume and numerous
branches are much impeded by shoals and cataracts ;
below the mouth of Canadian Fork, however, though
passing through a minor chain of mountains, the Ar
kansas rolls its stream of about 600 yards wide, with
great depth, to the Mississippi. Next in volume and
length of course to the Arkansas is Red River, which,
like its rival, flows from hidden fountains in the
mountains of Santa Fe. By a direct course this
stream flows over about 1000, but by its meanders it
exceeds in length 1500 miles. Both the Arkansas
and Red rivers have their periodical annual swell,
and enter their recipient in seasons of flood with im
mense volumes, which contribute largely to that
enormous mass of water which every spring flows
over Louisiana into the Gulf of Mexico. Impregna
ted by saline particles, and coloured by ochreous
earth, the waters of these two rivers are at once
brackish and nauseous to the taste, particularly near
their mouths ; that of Red River is so much so, that
at Nachitoches, at low water, it cannot be used for
culinary purposes.
The Mississippi makes its way to the sea through
a tract of low country, consisting of forest, of prairie,
and of marsh land. By its immense deposits" of

earthy matter, it has formed in the course of ages an
extensive delta, distinguished from those of all other
rivers by the protrusion of a cape, or head-land, into
the sea. This peculiarity arises from its having but
one principal course through the delta itself, so that
the debris continually brought down is always driven
forward in one direction. The cape projects at pre
sent thirty miles into the Mexican Gulf, and has ex
tended itself twelve or thirteen miles since the colo
nization of the country. The river has three main
outlets, all of them shallow ; the two deepest of them
have only twelve feet water on the bar at ordinary
tides. The shallow water, however, is only on the
bar. At New Orleans the depth of the Mississippi is
one hundred and sixty-eight feet.
Having taken this general view of the Mississippi,
we may for a moment compare it with the other great
river with which it is so nearly connected. Rising
from the same vast table land, and having such an
extended line of interlocking sources, it is worthy of
remark, that no two rivers on earth so essentially
differ in their general features, as do the Mississippi
and the St. Lawrence. The former is turbid in many
places, even to muddiness ; the waters of the latter,
and of its lakes, are highly limpid. The channel of
one river is checkered with innumerable lakes, some
of which are of immense extent, whilst in'the other
no lakes of any note occur. Annually the Mississippi
swells and overleaps its bed, inundating the adjacent
shores ; a casual rise of three feet once or twice in
any given fifty years is considered a great elevation
of the waters of the St. Lawrence. The Mississippi,
flowing from north to south, -passes through a great
variety of climes, whilst its rival, winding from its
source in a south-east direction to nearly N. Lat. 41
turns gradually to the north-east, and again flows
into its original climate of ice and snow. ' The Mis
sissippi, before its final discharge into the Gulf of
Mexico, divides itself into a number of channels
having their separate egress ; the St. Lawrence im
perceptibly expands to a wide bay, which ultimately
opens into the gulf of the same name. The banks
of the Mississippi, particularly near the mouth, present
a level scarcely rising above the highest spring floods
of that stream ; those of the St. Lawrence generally
slope from the river margin by an elegant acclivity,
and when cleared from timber, have the aspect of a
most delightful basin. Much of the surface within
the Mississippi valley is occupied by open grassy
plains, where few shrubs or trees break the monotony
ofthe landscape ; nearly the whole of the St. Lawrence
basin, in a state of nature, is covered with a contin
uous and almost impervious forest. Such are the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

13

leading and contrasted features of these two great
North American rivers.
The spring floods to which the Mississippi is
subject are remarkable for their long and steady con
tinuance

navigation

, a circumstance highly favourable to inland
Considering the immense extent and

the incalculable number of the rivers implicated, this
fact has been considered anomalous ; but without
just cause. It is obvious, on a glance at the different
regions from whence the waters are drawn, that the
rivers must be high at different periods of the year.
It is evident also, that, in the breaking up of winter,
the water of the same valley is drawn from its recesses
gradually ; more particularly when, as in the case of
the Mississippi, the river flows from the poles towards
the equator. It is a general fact that such rivers are
never so destructive in their inundations as those
Whose courses are in" a different direction. Red
River, the most southern, is also the first of the
great branches of the Mississippi which discharges
its waters on the delta, and it is followed by the Ar
kansas. It is remarkable that the Ohio and the
Arkansas, remote as they are from each other, are the
two streams of the whole basin which most uniformly
emit their flood at the same time; and they are the
streams, which, with some addition from Mississippi
proper, give the highest and most durable flood to the
delta. The Mississippi proper flowing so nearly
north and south, spring thaws in it commence near
the mouth, and retrograde slowly towards the source,
and consequently the discharge is gradual ; similar
remarks apply to the Ohio and the'Arkansas ; so that
the duration of the flood season is thus lengthened,
while the quantity of water in a given time is mo
derated. In common years, Red River flows out in
February or early in March, but occasionally it con
tinues high from December until late in the ensuing
spring ; the great flood from the Arkansas, the Ohio,
and the Mississippi proper, commences generally early
in March, and attains its full height about the middle
of June ; abating from the latter period, it has greatly
subsided by the end of July or the beginning of August,
when the retarded overflow of the Missouri arrives
to complete the annual inundation.
The importance of this inundation may be esti
mated from the following view of the navigable
character of the principal rivers in their ordinary
state. The navigation of the Mississippi has fewer
obstructions between Natchez and its mouth than
above this part of the river, having so great a depth
of water that snags, bars, <fcc. are sunk below the
reach of any kind of water-craft employed upon it.
From Natchez upward to its confluence with the
Vol .IL— Nos. 37 & 38. B

Missouri, the river presents impediments that become
more and more numerous and difficult to pass;
although still the main channel, though intricate in
many places, affords a sufficient depth of water in
all stages for boats of five or six feet draft to ascend
to the mouth of the Ohio. From this point to the
Missouri, a distance of more than two hundred and
twenty miles, the navigation is partially obstructed,
during a very low state of the. water, by shoals, so
that it is navigable only for boats of moderate bur
den, requiring but about three feet of water. At
the distance of about thirty miles above the mouth
of the Ohio there are two rocky bars extending
across the Mississippi, called the Big and Little
Chains, which, in the deepest channel across them,
afford no more than five or six feet of water when
the river is low, and occasion a great rapidity of cur
rent. The obstructions to the navigation of the
Missouri, although they are of the same character
with those of the Mississippi, are far more numerous
and formidable than those of the latter ; the channel
is rendered exceedingly intricate by means of sand
bars and islands, and the navigation in many places
is very hazardous, on account of the multiplicity of
rafts, snags, sand-bars, &c. with which the channel
is beset. No part of the river is exempt from these
obstructions for any considerable distance, particu
larly, when the water is low. During the flood
there is a sufficient depth to admit boats of almost
any burthen ; but during the residue of the year it
can hardly be called navigable, except for boats
drawing no more than twenty-five or thirty inches.
The obstructions to the navigation of the Ohio are
sand-bars, some few rafts and snags, and rapids, to
which the intricacy of its channel in several places
may be added. During a middle and high state of
water the obstructions entirely disappear, and an ac
celerated current is the only difficulty to be encoun
tered ; but during the rest of the year, when there
is no freshet, boats of inconsiderable burthen meet
with numerous obstructions in their progress from
the lowness of the water, and in many places no
channel can be found of sufficient depth to admit
their passage. At the distance of about seventeen
miles from its mouth is -the first serious obstruction
to its navigation, consisting of a lime-stone bar ex
tending across the river, denominated the Big Chain,
and three miles above is another of a similar de
scription. The range of rocks, of which these ap
pear to be a portion, seems to extend across the
point of land situated between the Ohio and the
Mississippi, presenting itself again on the latter, at
the Big and Little Chains before mentioned. The

14

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

falls of the Ohio at Louisville are impassable for
boats of burden, except in the higher states of the
water. Le Turt's Falls, and numerous other rapids,
denominated ripples, are also impassable for boats
of heavy burden, when the river is -at its lowest
stages. In this - state the river is fordable in num
berless places.*
Connected with the general inundation is the very
unfounded, but general opinion, that the Mississippi
river can, and does occasionally, change its bed, and
that it flows on a comparative ridge. On the con-
^ trary, the bed of the Mississippi, like that of all other
rivers, is the lowest depression of the country
through which it flows. As high as the efflux of
La Fourche the stream is one hundred and thirty
feet deep at low water, and, in a similar state, it is
seventy-five or eighty at Natchez. At New Orleans
the depth exceeds 160 feet. From the immediate
margin of this great mass of water, indeed, the coun
try falls by a Very slow depression ; but the bottom
of the deepest lakes, Pontchartrain, Maurepas, Qua-
cha, Chetimaches, and others, varies only from four
or five to eighteen or twenty feet below the general
level of the delta, leaving the ' bottom of the Missis
sippi upwards of 100 feet below that of any lake of
Louisiana, except those formed by the river itself, in
the following manner : The sweeping bends of the
Mississippi cause the volume of its water to recurve
upon itself, till by the double abrasion on its opposite
side, a neck or isthmus is cut through, and thus far
a new channel is formed, the ancient bend assuming
the aspect of a lake, though still attesting its origin
by its great depth, as well as its proximity and per
fect resemblance to the bends of the parent stream.
Of the latter species Of lakes, Fausse Riviere, Homo
chitta,. and Yazoo, were produced within the range
of history ; those of Concordia, St. John's, St. Jo
seph's, Providence, and Grand Lake, were found in
their existing state when Louisiana was colonized by
the French. With the exceptions stated, the Mis
sissippi can no more recede from its channel than
could the Hudson, the Delaware, or the Susquehan-
nah ; the barriers which confine the latter to their
channels are more prominent, but not less irremova
ble or impenetrable, than is the extended alluvion
which spreads from, the former.
Though we have described the whole of the Mis
sissippi basin as a valley, with reference to the two
mountain chains by which it is enclosed, there are
comprehended in it not only undulations of hilly coun
try, but two distinct, though subordinate, mountain
* Report of Major Long, in James's Account of the Expedition
to the Rocky Mountains, vol. iii

ranges. The most considerable of these is called
the Maserne, or Ozark mountains. These mountains
extend from the sources of the Rio Colorado of Tex
as on the south-west, to the confluence of the Mis
sissippi and the Missouri on the north-east, and are
continued in a low range from this point towards
Lake Superior. They are widest in the south-west,
and in that quarter they mingle with some low
tracts, extending from near the Gulf of Mexico to
the . base of the eastern extremity of the Rocky
Mountains. This range consists- of low ridges, ir
regular in direction, rarely rising to an elevation of
more than 1500 or 2000. feet. The mountainous
country commences immediately west of the Missis
sippi bottoms, and extends westwardly about 400
miles. This section, with the exception of the river
bottoms, and tracts of valley land scattered in vari
ous directions throughout the whole, is extremely
hilly, broken, and mountainous, the hills and moun
tains, rising from five to 1500 feet above the water-
level of the country in which they are situated.
They are exceedingly numerous, and are divided
into a multiplicity of knobs and peaks, having
rounded summits, and presenting perpendicular cliffs
and abrupt precipices of sandstone. Their surfaces
generally are covered with rocks of this description,
or flinty fragments strewed in profusion upon them.
The growth upon them is, almost exclusively, pitch
pine, cedar, scrubby oaks, hickory, haw, and bram
ble ; the poverty of the soil in some instances, and
the scarcity of it in others, excluding the more
luxuriant vegetable productions common to the more
level country in their vicinity. These mountains
are penetrated by White and Red Rivers and the
Arkansas. The other range is called the Black
Mountains, or rather hills, and is so placed as^to oc
cupy the northern bend of the Missouri, between
that river and the Yellow Stone. These are of still
lower elevation than the Ozarks, and of a different
structure, though likewise perfectly distinct from the
general character of the valley. They appear to
extend from the bend of the Missouri to the river
Platte, upwards of 400 miles, by about seventy or
eighty in breadth. This hilly region is traversed
by the Little Missouri river, running north-east into
the Missouri at its northern bend, while it furnishes
all the western confluents to that vast recipient, af
ter its turn to the southward, so low as the River
Platte.. The brief notice which our author has given of
the physical aspect of this important country, demands
an augmentation. Much might be added from the
.observations of several distinguished travellers of, el

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

recent date, particularly Mr. Flint, who has given us a
number of facts touching the valley of the Mississip
pi, in his works, to which the reader is referred. In
a paper, little known, entitled, Observations on certain
Phenomena of the Great Lakes of America, drawn
up by the late governor of New York, Dewitt Clinton,
and published in the Transactions of the New York
Literary and Philosophical Society, vol. ii. part 1,
some curious speculations may be found, and as they
Come recommended both by their novelty, and by the
distinguished character of the author, they are deem
ed worthy of insertion, as a suitable termination of
this chapter. Phenomena similar to those mentioned
by Governor Clinton have been noticed as occurring
in the waters of other inland seas.
" It has been until within a few years generally
understood that there are no tides in the great lakes of
- America ; and that the Mediterranean, Black, Caspian,
and Baltic seas, and other great waters of the old
world, are also' exempt from their influence. More
accurate observation has however indicated that
this opinion is in some respects erroneous, and it is
now considered doubtful whether it is not altogether
so. It is confidently said that there are tides in the
Mediterranean. At Toulon, three hours and fifteen
minutes after the moon has passed its meridian, the
tide rises one foot ; and in the highest spring tides,
augmented by the concurrence of other causes, it
swells as high as two feet.* The Lake of Geneva and
the Lake of Constance are subject to an. occasional
rising and falling of their waters three or four feet, se
veral times in succession, by a sort of oscillating mo
tion, which phenomenon is denominated seiches.t
There are certain appearances connected with our
lakes that . resemble the operation of tides, and there
are others of a character entirely dissimilar. As the
western lakes contain the greatest collections of fresh
water in the world, all the phenomena connected with
them are deeply interesting in relation to geography,
agriculture,' trade, and natural science : I shall there
fore devote this memoir to this subject.
" 1. In our lakes there is, apparent to every obser
ver, a sort of flux and reflux, which we would natu
rally attribute to the wind, and might therefore pass it
over without particular attention. But a more dis
criminating view has resulted in a conviction with
many accurate and distinguishing observers, that the
peculiar motion of the waters is entirely independent
of the winds ; that it occurs within stated periods ;
that it is not subject to the irregularities of occasional
* Porster's History of the Voyages in the North.
t De Saussure's Voyages dans les Alpes. Kinlock's Letters
from Geneva and France. Coxe's Switzerland. Simond's Swit
zerland.

15
or accidental causes, but that it depends for its exist
ence upon a power operating with unceasing vigour,
and with unintermitted regularity, at the same place,
although varying as to the quantum of its influence at
other places. On the other hand, it is -supposed by
some that these appearances are occasional and irregu
lar, and do not result from uniform causes. I shall now
refer to some prominent authorities on this subject.
" La Hontan is the first writer who touches on this
phenomenon.:]: 'On the 29th of May, 1689, we
came,' said he, ' to a little deep sort of a river, which
disembogues at a place where the water of the lake
(Michigan) swells three feet high in twelve hours,
and decreases as much in the same compass of time.
Our tarrying there three or four days, gave me an
opportunity of making the remark.' An appearance
of this nature could not escape the observing eye of
Charlevoix, the most sagacious, able, and learned of
the French writers on America. Speaking of Lake
Ontario, § ' I observed,' said he, ' that in this lake, and
I am told that the same thing happens in all the rest,
there is a sort of flux and reflux almost instantaneous,
the rocks near the banks being covered with water
and uncovered again several times in the space of a
quarter of an hour, even if the surface of the lake
was very calm, with scarce a breath of wind. After
reflecting for some time on this appearance, I ima
gined it was owing to the springs at the bottom of
the lakes, and to the shock of their currents, with
those of the rivers which fall into them from all sides,
and thus produce those intermitting motions.'
" Pownallll says, ' Lake Ontario, like the Mediterra
nean, the Caspian, and other large invasated waters,
has a small rising and falling of the water, like tides,
some twelve or eighteen inches perpendicular.'
" These are the only authorities of an old date to
which I have had access. Those which I now re
fer to are of recent observation, and some are de
rived from oral communication. Mr. Benjamin
Wright, a very judicious and intelligent gentleman,
.and one of the principal engineers on the Western
Canal, informs me, that at a place called Mexico,
about twenty miles from Oswego, Lake Ontario ebbs
and flows every hour and a half about six inches, and
that the flood is highest when the wind is from the
shore. " A gentleman of veracity and intelligence, who re
sides at the .mouth of Genesee River, says that, this
lake rises and falls four times each in every hour,
whether there be a wind or not ; that the smallest
t La Hontan's North America, vol. ii.
§ Journal Historique, d'un voyage, de L'amerique, Letter xiii.
II Topographical description of part of North America.

16

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES,

tide is four, and the highest twenty-eight inches^ and
that this occurs during a perfect calm.
" A similar appearance occurs on. Lake Champlain.
Captain Winans, one of the proprietors of the steam
boats, who resides at Burlington, in Vermont, assures
me, that in summer, when there has been a perfect
calm for several days, he has observed at that place
a flux and reflux of the lake four times every hour,
with great regularity, and at every access rising four
inches,1 as was obvious from a mark made on a log.
"Captain Storrow, a gentleman of talents, says, in
a printed letter to General Brown, ' while at Green
Bay, I made observations on the ebb and flow of a
lake tide. At eleven o'clock A. M. I placed a stick
perpendicularly in the water — at half past nine P. M.
the water had risen five inches — at eight next morn
ing it had fallen seven inches — at eight same evening
it had risen eight inches. During this period the
wind was in the same direction, blowing generally
against the flow of the tide.'
"Judge Woodward, of Michigan, in a letter to
Doctor Mitchill, states, that Mr. Benjamin F. Stick-
ney, who resides on the Miami River of Lake Erie,
some miles below the rapids, and a few miles from
the mouth of the river, made observations on this
subject for more than a fortnight, in June, 1820, the
result of which is a conviction in his mind that there
is a regular tide in Lake Erie — that it flows and ebbs
twice in twenty-five hours, at intervals of about six
hours and eleven minutes, and that it is greatest at
the new and full moons, and least at the quarters.
The minimum of rise within the period during which
the observations were made, was as much as eight
inches. The maximum of rise within the same pe
riod,, was as much as forty inches. Mr, Lecuyer, a
gentleman equally intelligent, expressed the same
opinion as to a tide at Green Bay.
" If these exhibitions of a flux and reflux of the
lakes were only occasional and incidental, not uni
form,, and periodical, there would be perhaps no great
difficulty in assigning satisfactory causes. The
seiches of the Lake of Geneva have been ascribed by
Mr. Bertrand to the influence of electrical clouds
which attract and raise the waters of the lake, and
he supposes that this water afterwards falling pro
duces those undulations of which the effect, like that
of the tides, is most sensibly felt where the shores
are most approximated.
" A more probable cause may be the unequal pres
sure of the atmosphere on the waters, which will of
course rise higher as the weight of the incumbent
air is less, and fall as it becomes greater ; and these
changes being almost always in operation, may ac

count for the almost continual ebb and flow of the
lakes. " The cause assigned ,by Charlevoix is entirely
unsatisfactory.; and it is premature to form a theory
on the subject, Facts and experiments ought to
precede speculations ; and we must leave it to future
inquirers to ascertain the facts in extenso— to inves
tigate the causes, and to determine whether this phe
nomenon be owing to the pressure of the atmosphere
—the influence of the moon— the attraction of the
clouds — the convexity or motion of the globe, or any
other assignable agency.
" 2. There is an annual rise and fall of Lake Erie:
The rise generally commences in March, and termi
nates about the middle of July ; and this is the case
sooner or later with the other lakes.. It is owing to
the great accession of water produced by the melting
of snow and ice, and by the vernal rain's ; and the fall
is occasioned by the failure of most of these sources,
of supply in summer.
"3. There is, besides the annual rise of the lakes,
a more extended periodical one, at least every three
years, and then a correspondent declension. Some
extend the time to five, and others to seven years.
Some say that the highest rise is seven feet, and
others differ as to the exact altitude ; but there can
be no doubt ofthe general certainty ofthe fact. Lake
Erie began to rise in 1811, and continued to increase
until 1815, when it was two feet higher than was
ever known. The overflowing of the waters destroy
ed trees on the low lands more than two hundred
years old, and the inhabitants of Detroit, which is an
ancient settlement, had never seen or heard of such
a rise before. It fell a little in 1816, rose again in
1817, and decreased until 1822. It was in June last
on the rise, and one and a half feet higher than usual..
In 1810 I walked on Bird Island ; an island situate
at the outlet of Lake Erie. In 1816 it was almost
covered with water, and was scarcely visible. I am
informed by an intelligent ship-master on the lakes,
'that when he visited Detroit in 1797, the waters
were at their height. He went to the south the fol
lowing year, and did not return to that place until
1802, when he found the waters considerably lower.
Having understood that there was a rise and fall
every seven years, he determined to ascertain how
great it was ; for which purpose he caused marks to
be made on a solid wharf that had' been built more
than twenty years before, and was perfectly firm and
immoveable ; and he found that the water declined
on an average about an inch a year for nine years.
What the fall was for five years during his absence
he did not know, but it may be fairly stated at three

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

17

times as much yearly ; that is, fifteen inches, if com
pared with subsequent occurrences of a similar cha
racter. The lake began to rise again in 1811, in the
spring of which' it rose six inches, but during the
summer it fell two inches. In 1812 it rose fourteen
inches, and subsided three inches, leaving a nett gain
of fifteen inches in two years. The surrender of
Detroit to the British, in October, 1812, compelled
him to leave the country ; but in October, 1813, he
returhed with the fleet, and the water was then at
its greatest altitude, having in that year gained twelve
inches— in all twenty-seven inches. In 1814 and
1815 it was stationary. In 1816 and 1817 it fell at
least eighteen inches. And he further supposes, from
appearances at Michilimackinack, that the whole
town of that island was formerly under water, and
that one of the ancient outlets of the lakes was by
Chicago, which he states at only thirteen feet above
the present level of the lake ; and he says that every
spring you may pass up the Chicago River and car
ry in the shoalest place five feet water into the Illi
nois, and from thence into the Mississippi.'
"Mackenzie, in his' account of his voyages through
the' continent, to'the Frozen and Pacific oceans, in
1789 and 1793, says, that ' along the surrounding
branches of Lake Superior, there are evident marks
ofthe decrease of its waters by the lines observable
along them. The space, however, between the high
est and the lowest is not so great as in the smaller
lakes ; as it does not amount to more than six feet ;
the former, or highest lines, are very faint.'
" 4. The lakes are subject to extraordinary swells
and risings. On the 18th of October, 1764, Colonel
Bradstreet, who had been on an expedition against
the Western Indians, broke up his camp at Sandusky
to proceed' on his return to Albany by Lake Erie. In
the evening, as he' was going to land the troops, a
sudden swell of the lake, without any visible cause,
destroyed several of his boats, but no lives were lost.
This extraordinary event was, however, looked upon
as the precursor of a storm, and accordingly one soon
occurred which lasted several days. Mackenzie, be
fore quoted, states that ' a very curious phenomenon
was observed some years ago at the Grand Portage
in Lake Superior, for which no obvious cause could
be assigned. 'The water withdrew with great pre
cipitation, leaving the ground dry that had never be
fore been visible ; the fall being equal to four per
pendicular feet, and rushing back with great velocity
above the common mark. It continued thus falling,
and rising for several hours, gradually decreasing
until it stopped at its usual height.'
"The following occurrence, equally extraordinary,

took place on the British side of Lake Erie, on or
about the 30th May, 1823, which is thus, described.
' A little after sunset Lake Erie was observed to take
a sudden, and extraordinary rise, the weather being
fine and clear, and the lake calm and smooth. It
was principally noticed at the mouths of Otter and
Kettle Creeks, which are twenty miles apart. At
Otter Creek, it came in, without the least preyious
intimation, in a swell of nine feet perpendicular
height, as was afterwards ascertained, rushed vio
lently up the channel, drove a schooner of 35 tons
burden from her moorings, threw her upon high
ground, and rolled over the ordinary beach into the
woods, completely inundating all the adjacent^ flats.
This was followed by two others of equal height,
which caused the creek to retrograde a mile and a
half, and to overflow its banks, where water was
never before seen, by seven or eight feet. The noise
occasioned by its rushing with such rapidity along
the winding channel, was truly astonishing. It was
witnessed by a number of persons.
."'At Kettle Creek several men were drawing a
fish net in the lake, when suddenly they saw the
water coming upon them in the manner above men
tioned ; and, letting go their net, they ran for their
lives. The swell overtook them before they could
reach the high bank, and swept them forward with
great force ; but, being expert swimmers, they es
caped unhurt. The man who was in the skiff pull
ing in the sea line, was drove with it a considerable
distance over the flat, and grounded upon a small
eminence until the water subsided. There were
three successive swells, as at Otter Creek, and the
effects up the creek were the same, with this differ
ence, the water only rose seven feet. In both cases,
the lake, after the three swells had spent their force,
gradually subsided, and in about twenty minutes was
at its usual height and tranquillity. It was observed
at other places along the shore, but the high steep
banks did not admit of the same observation. In all,
however, there was a general correspondence as to
the height of the rise.
" ' Conjecture will doubtless be awake as to the
cause of this most remarkable phenomenon ; but it
must only be conjectured, for it was unattended with
any circumstance that could remotely hint at a pro
bable cause. But such was the fact, and it must
furnish its own comment.'
"Some have supposed that the occasional rise of
Lake Erie is owing to the strong south winds in Lake
Michigan ; but this hypothesis cannot account satis
factorily for this appearance. Volney supposes that
Lake Ontarip is the crater of a volcano. Mackenzie

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Says, that many of the islands of Lake Superior, dis
play a conformation of lava, intermixed with round
stones of the size of a pigeon's egg. The western
country abounds with what are called burning springs,
consisting of volumes of hydrogen gas, issuing from
spiracula in the earth, and it is underlaid with sul
phur, coal, bitumen, and other inflammable substances.
In boring for salt at Rocky Hill, in Ohio, about a
mile and a half from Lake Erie, after proceeding to
the depth of one hundred ninety-seven feet, the auger
fell, and salt water spouted out for several hours.
After the exhaustion of this water, great volumes of
inflammable air issued through the aperture for a
long time, and formed a cloud; and by ignition by
the fire in the shops of the workmen, consumed and
destroyed every thing in the vicinity.
" Whether the country round the Great Lakes is
volcanic or not, is not material to the present inquiry.
We know that the bowels of the earth are stored with
inflammable materials, and that there exist strong
indications of subterranean communications at enor
mous distances. Indeed, every thing in earthquakes
seems to indicate the action of elastic fluids seeking
an outlet to spread themselves in the atmosphere. At
the period of the last, and the preceding destruction
of Lisbon, according to Humboldt,* the sea was vio
lently agitated as far as America. For instance, at
the Island of Barbadoes, more than twelve hundred
leagues from Portugal, and on Lake Ontario, strong
agitations of the water were observed in October,
1755. The first destruction of Lisbon took place on
the first day of November, 1755, and the last on the
thirty-first day of March, 1764, the very year in which
the sudden swelling of Lake Erie overwhelmed some
of Colonel Bradstreet's vessels.
" Bakewell, in his "Geology, states, that ' during the
earthquake at Lisbon, in 1775, almost all the springs
and lakes in Great Britain, and in every part of Eu
rope, were violently agitated, many of them throwing
up mud and sand, and- emitting a fetid odour. The
morning of the earthquake, the hot springs at Top-
litz, in Bohemia, suddenly ceased to flow for a mi
nute, and then burst forth with prodigious violence,
throwing up turbid water, the temperature of which
was higher than before. The hot wells at Bristol
were coloured red. and rendered unfit for use for some
months afterwards. Even the distant waters of Lake
Ontario, in North America, were violently agitated at
the time. The connexion which earthquakes conti-
mies Bakewell) have with distant volcanoes, and their

frequency at particular periods, are truly remarkable.
The tremendous earthquakes in 1812, in the Carrac-
cas, were followed by an eruption in the Island of
St. Vincents, from a volcano that had not been burn
ing since 1718, and violent oscillations of the ground
were felt, both in the islands and on the coast of
America.' " The late swell of Lake Erie has been followed
by shocks of earthquakes, as well at a distance, as in
the vicinity. Have we not therefore reason to be
lieve, that the extraordinary agitations which some
times occur in the lakes, are connected with earth
quakes, and produced by the same causes ?"

* Humboldt's Personal Narrative.

CHAPTER II.
CLIMATE, SOIL, «sC
The United States are most desirably situated.
They are placed in the northern temperate zone, and
occupy just that portion of it which is most likely to
yield a salubrious climate with a fertile soil. Hap
pily removed alike from the consuming heats of the
torrid zone, and the perpetual frosts of the polar re
gions, the republic is nevertheless of such an extent
as almost to touch upon them both. The climate of
a country stretching through nearly five and twenty
degrees of latitude cannot but be of great diversity.
In this respect, it has been divided into five regions,
which may be denominated the very cold, the cold,
the temperate, the warm, , and the hot.t
1. The very cold, in the north-east, may be defined
by running a line from St. Regis, on the St. Lawrence,
along the high lands in the state of New York to
Tioga Point, in Pennsylvania ; thence to Stony Point,
on Hudson River, and thence to Cape Cod, in Mas
sachusetts. In this region, the winters commence in
November and end in April, and the summers com
mence in June and end in~ August. Both heat and
cold go to ..great extremes, but the country is general
ly healthy- To the westward, north of a line drawn
from the southern extremity of Lake Huron to the
Roelsy Mountains, the climate is also very cold,
and the northern extremity is in winter excessively
so. In this region the heat and cold go to still
greater extremes than to the eastward. The highest,
lowest, and mean heat for each month, at different
situations, will be shown by the following table :

t Melish's Description of the United States.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.

1820.
January .
February . . ,
March . .'.'-.
April . . . .
May . . . . .
June . . . . ",
July ......
August . . . .
September . . ¦ .
October . . . .
November . . .
December . . .
Mean of the year

Portsmouth, N.H:43 5N.
Lat. 6 16 E. Lon.*

High. 35486264
.72 ,
94
89 »
928865
4938

Low.
'¦' 9-
- 3
12
2445
526355
40'32 1812

Mean. 2130.34
42 55
6767 7360
4937 25

45° 8'

Boston, Mass. 42 22 N. Lat.
5 48 E. Lon.

High. 3550 74
. 7578
988773755854
42

Low. 5 1
4
2751505753
43 33 15 8

Mean. 2329
34
48 5667
676258
.48, 3927

47° 3'

Mackinaw. 45 55 N. Lat.
17 30 W. Lon.

High. Low. Mean,

70
50 34

28 10 4

453221

incomplete

19

St. Peter's. 45 0 N. Lat.
15 30 W. Lon.

High. 29 4668
8582 8293
92

5632

Low. -30t
-14 10 10
3652545330
-7
-20

Mean. 0
21
463961716968623i 11

43° 9'

The range of the thermometer, in this region is
not less than 128°, viz. from 30° below zero to 98°
above it, including great extremes both of heat and
cold. The most intense cold and the lowest ave
rage temperature are at JSt. Peter's, the point most
remote from the ocean and from the principal
lakes. 2. The cold region comprehends a great and very
unequal range of country. In the eastern division it
extends from the foregoing line to Lakes Ontario and
Erie westward ; and south on the Atlantic coast, to
about Cape Henlopen on the Delaware. ' Thence a
line may be protracted to Washington, along by the
foot of the first mountains in Virginia to about Mor
gan town, North Carolina ; thence through the moun
tains to Kenaway River, and north-east on the west
side of the mountains to the upper part of Chestnut
Ridge, in Pennsylvania. In the westward, the
southern boundary of the very cold region before

mentioned may be assumed as the northern boundary
ofthe cold ; and the southern boundary of the cold
may be protracted westward from the head of Chest
nut Ridge to the high lands dividing the waters
falling into the Ohio from those falling into the St.
Lawrence, and along in a northern and western di
rection, crossing the Mississippi about thirty miles
below Prairie des Chiens, thence south and west
crossing the Missouri about thirty miles below the
Platte River ; thence southward to the west of the
Great Osage village, and then eastward to the Arkansas
River, above the Hot Springs. In this division the
winters commence in December and end in March,
and the heat of summer commences in May and ends
in September. The heat and cold here also go to
great extremes ; but the weather is very changeable,
particularly in winter, so that neither severe heat nor
severe cold lasts long at a time. The country in this
division is also generally healthy.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.

January .
FebruaryMarch .
April. . \:
May". .
June

July . .
August .
September
October .
November December

New York.
40 43 N. Lat.
3 10 E. Lon.

High. 48
4268

Low. 90
16

Mfian 28' 3438

Mean of the year

incomplete

Philadelphia.
39 57 N. Lat.
1 52 E. Lon.

High.

Low.

48

6

64

6

70.

22

89

20

82

45

95

56.

98

70

96

64

94

44

76

36

60

22

45

27

Mean 26 37 41 536076787871
5240 33

53° 7/

"Washington.
58 52 N. Lat.

High. 42 6668
88 8492

878572 64
58

Low. 1416
26
29 5156 7071
51 483432

Menn 324844 5763 74
81 78715650
43

58M'

Sackett's Har.
43 55 N. Lat.
1 0 E. Lon.

High. 30 57 64 7470
84878587 76
60
58

Low. 12 09
2222 50

Mean 23 32
3348 52
65 7371
66524126

48° 6/

Detroit.
42 30 N. Lat.
5 48 W. Lon.
1818.

High. 4442616281869294
92, 7460
48

Low. 420
18
34 51
1820 65
624730
24 6

Mean 24 17
324153 70
6975 71
514027

47° 4'

Prairie des

Chiens. 4236N

Lat. 1438 W.L.

High.

Low.

Mean

88

12

57

90

39

61

99

50

75

90

54

74

94

54

72

90

32

64

70

20

44

60

S

33

33

-14

16

in(

omp)

ete

Council Bluffs.
41 31 N. Lat.
19 45 W. Lon

High. 40 7170
9490
99
97
105 92 805950

Low.
-22 -8 0
24
5055

Mean 9
3034
586974 75
7568
4734 18

49° 2'

* The longitude in these tables is reckoned from the meridian of Washington.
t - signifies below zero.

so

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

In this region it may be observed that the most in
tense cold occurs at the most inland stations, Prairie
des Chiens and Council Bluffs ; but that the lowest-
average temperature is on the borders of the lakes.
3. The temperate region is situated between the
cold and a line drawn from Morgantown, North
Carolina, south-westward, along the foot of the moun
tains to their termination in Georgia, thence in a
north-west direction by Florence, in Alabama, and
crossing the Mississippi River about the upper part of
the Chickasaw Bluffs, thence north-west to the Dela
ware towns, on White River, and thence south-west

to the Arkansas, above the Hot Springs. The region
described within these limits lies in the very heart of
the country, the whole being on a considerable eleva
tion. It comprehends Kentucky and Missouri, with
nearly the whole of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Ten
nessee, the south part of Pennsylvania, the western
part of Virginia, and small portions of North Carolina,
Georgia, and Alabama. This climate is distinguish
ed from the foregoing principally by having an earlier
spring, and the weather is generally more settled. and
serene, although both heat and cold occasionally, go
to as great extremes.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.

Pittsburg.

Zanesville.

Marietta.

Chillicothe.

Cincinnati. r

Jeffersonville:

Gallatin.

Huntsville.

1820.

1819.

1819.

1819.

1819.

1819.

1819. ,

1819.

Mo.

40 32 N Lat.

39 59 N. Lat.

39 30 N. Lat.

39 20 N. Lat.

39 6 N. Lat.

38 12 N. Lat.

36 23 N, Lat.

34 36 N. Lat.

2 46 W. Lon.

4 58 W. Lon,

4 28 W. Lon.

5 45 W. Lon..

7 31 W. Lon.

8 34 W. Lon.

9 38 W. Lon.

9 55 W. Lon.

High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
High;
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
Jan.
42
10
29
68
10
40
67
Ifi
42
64
18
40
70
20
37
66
20
47
74
20
47
70
27
51
Feb.
62
10
42
64
18
39
62
13
39
66
15
40
64
16
42
64
18
44
72
20
48
70
28
53
Mar.
54
.21
42
62
10
39
67
15
40
68
14
41
63
10
' 40
68
19
44
80
12
46
76
26
50
Apr.May
81
30
60
83
24
56
89
28
54
78
30
57
79
30
57
78
28
58'
82
28
60
81
32
63
82
40
58
88
42
65
80
34
64
86
44
69
86
42
66
88
50
69
90
38
67
87
42
69
June
90
54
71
90
50
74
86
56
73
98
60
77
94
51
74
97
60
80
92
54
75,
92
62
81
July
92
64
76
93
51
75
88
62
72
74
62
77
91
58
74
94
60 •
79
90
53
76
90
66
81
Aug.
89
'60
72
96
50
78
93
56
78
72
60
80
92
52
77
99
56
82
90
58
75
87
69
79
Sep.
89
41
64
92
41
69
88
48
69
89
52
70
90
45
69
94
50
70
94
42
71
86
60
76
Oct.
76
40
54
76
25
55
81 '
30
52
86
32
56
83
29
55
72
34
60
83
38
62
Nov.
62
32
46
71
20
49
72
22
48
72
32
59
76
28
51
68
30
53
80
22
54
79
36
58
Dec.
48
28
37
59
6
30
57
12
35
60
16
39
63
12
38
58
4
37
-•
.. -.-.-
64
18
42
Mean
54° 2/
55° T
55° 6'
58° 8'
56° 8'-
. 60° 3'
incomplete
63° 7'
4. The region possessing a warm climate lies
between the temperate and a line drawn from Cape
Henry in a circular direction below Annapolis, and
passing above Tarboro, and through Fayetteville,
Columbia, Augusta, Mihedgeville, and Fort Jackson,
in Alabama, and thence a little south of west across
the Mississippi, and on to the Sabine River, in the
latitude of Nacogdoches, in Texas. In this region
the winters commence about the 1st of January, and
end about the 1st of March ; and the summers com
mence about the 1st of May, and end about the mid
dle of October. The weather is pretty settled and
steady, and except in swampy or marshy situations,
the country is generally healthy.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.
,
Norfolk.
Augusta.
¦
Milledgeville.
Monroe.
 .
1820.
1818.
1819.
1819.
36 53 N. Lat
33 15 N. Lat
32 55 N. Lat.
32 23 N. Lat
00 47 E. Lon.
5 00 W. Lon.
6 10 W. Lon.
9 38 W. Lon.
High.
Low.
Mean.
High.
Low.
Mean.
High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean.
January
. ,
71
19
51
70
17
48
72
38
«3
February .
. .
74
20
48
68
31
45
78
29
57
March ;
, ,
. ,
79
34
54
70
32
57
85
30
63
April
May . .
..
83
22
61
84
42
65
87
48
• 72
...
.
92
51
73
June . .
92
61
82
94
57
76
July . .
89
70
80
100
72
85
95
78
87
92
63
79
August .
89
74
79
. .
. .
92
78
86
94
65
80
September
83
71
78
,
-. ' , ...
¦ ..
92
62
79
October .
80
50
67
90
35
62
November
79
41
56
December
65
40
50
76
21
39
Mean of the year
i
 • 
n complete.
incomplete
incomplete.
incomplete
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

21

5. The hot region extends from the southern ex
tremity of the warm to the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of
Mexico. In this climate the summers commence in
April and end in November, and the heat is often
very oppressive ; the winters are often very variable,
but generally pleasant and healthy. The whok of
this district being on the alluvial formation, there

are many swamps and marshes interspersed through
it, and near these the summers are very unhealthy,
but in high and dry situations the climate is favoura
ble. The diseases particularly incident to this dis
trict are bilious fever, and fever and ague ; but, on the
other hand, pulmonary complaints, and many others
which prevail in cold countries, are hardly known.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.

Fort Johnson.

Savannah.

Fernandina,Fl.

Fort Scott.

New Orleans.

Baton Rouge.

Camp Ripley.

1820.

1819.

1820.

1820.

1820.

1820.

1820

33 51 N. Lat.

32 8 N. Lat.

30 37N. Lat.

30 43 N. Lat.

30 00 N. Lat.

30 36 W. Lon.

31 18 N. Lat.

1 10 W. Lon.
4 15 W. Lon.
4 45 W. Lon.
7 23 W. Lon.
13 10 W. Lon.
15 14 N. Lat.
16 50 W. Lon.
High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
High.
Low.
Mean
63
32
47
75
28
53
79
35
55
74
32
55
February ....
79
40
55
79
32
57
78
50
65
¦ 72
31
61
78
51
64
62
34
60
87
30
60
70
50
64
78
38
66
78
32
61
82
32
67
89
.34
64
85
45
72
89
44
68
78
58
73
86
42
70
87
55
76
82
60
69
93
56
74
86
61
74
88
56
74
87
72
79
90
58
75
88
54
76
84
64
75
97
64
78
87
67
-78
91
50
78
91
72
86
94
60
81
92
57
78
Wy 
89
75
.81
94
68
78
87
71
80
91
60
79
90
80
82
90
70
79
93
72
81
90
72
83
91
68
78
88
70
79
92
68
80
92
78
85
92
74
83
94
65
82
September ....
86
67
78
92
60
76
87
73
80
80
65
75
88
71
81
88
64
77
92
56
77
84
50
67
87
41
66
85
50
69
89
60
70
84
45
er
88
40
67
85
48
66
November ....
79
40
61
76
43
64
78
40
60
75
39
57
84
36
61
84
32
60
December ....
70
51
57
75
50
61
84
32
59
77 39
60
76
40
60
79
28
53
66° 7'
incomplete.
70° V
68° 7'
incomplete.
incomplete.
incomplete. "
It is worthy of remark, that the heat, though it is
of longer duration in the warm and hot regions, is not
of greater intensity than in the cold and very cold. In
the latter the thermometer reaches 98°, or even 99°;
while in the former the summer heat is generally be
low that line, and only once appears in the tables above
it, namely, at 100°. We add a table, giving a more
general view of the subject under consideration.
General Abstract from all the Observations made al the Military Posts of the United States for 1820; Thirty-seven posts, extending from
30° to 45° 55' North Lat. and 6° 46' East to 19° 45' West Longitude.
Mrmths.
Average at
General
Highest, and place of
observation.
Lowest, and place of
observation.
Range.
7 -4. M.
2 P.M.
9 P.M.
25
33
29
29
79 Fernandina
t-30 St. Peters
109
February-
38
46
32
42
79 Fort Johnson
-17 Plattsburgh
96
41
49
44
45
78 Belle Fontaine
-10 St. Peters
88
April .
May
56
66,
60
61
94 Council Bluffs
10 Ditto
84
61
71
65
66
90 Montpellier
22 Ditto
68
70
84
74
76
99 Prairie des Chiens
50 Ditto
«,
July . .
74
82
75
77
98 Fort Mifflin, Phila.
54 Ditto
44
73
81
75
76
*105 Council Bluffs
53 Boston
52
September October
67
76
70
71
99 Ditto
30 St. Peters
69
52
60
56
56
88 Baton Rouge
20 Prairie des Chiens
68-
November
-
42
50
46
46
84 Camp Ripley
-7 St. Peters
91
December
3452
41
37
37
84 Fort Scott
-30 Ditto
114
General Mean
62
56
57
*105 Sunday, 13th Aug.
t-30 Sunday, 30th Jan.
135
Mr. Melish informs us, that the observations from
which his tables were compiled were taken, as we
believe similar observations have generally been, at
the hours of seven A. M. and two and nine P. M. ;
but we agree in the opinion that this method gives
a mean temperature much too high. It is obvious
that the coldest portion of the twenty-four hours,
that between nine in the evening and seven in the
morning, is wholly excluded from the calculation.
Vol. II.— Nos. 37 & 38. C
It appears also, as might have been expected, that,
by taking the morning observations very early,
Messrs. Brantz and Haines have produced tables with
a mean temperature lower, and doubtless more cor
rect, than others. As a specimen of the deductions
to be made on this ground from Mr. Melish's tables,
which we have given above, our readers may refer to
the city of Washington, in the second region, the mean
temperature of which is stated to be 58°, while Mr
22

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Brantz reduces it to 52° and * Mr. Haines to 49°,
and Mr. Darby finally adjudges it to 53° and i. Cli
mate, however, is not to be determined by the mere
use of the thermometer. Great as the importance of
this instrument is, when accurately constructed and
properly employed, it is liable to so much error- and
unskilful use, and has yielded, in point of fact, so
many irreconcilable and obviously mistaken results,

that little dependance can be placed on it alone.
Hence arises the necessity of taking into -the account
prevailing winds, the freezing of rivers, vegetable in
dications, and whatever else may be auxiliary to a
correct judgment. The following table, exhibiting
the course of the winds and the state of the atmos
phere at various places in the United States, is given
by Mr. Melish, as compiled from official information :

Places.

Winds.

Atmosphere.

N.

N. W.

N. E.

E.

S. E..

S.

S.W.

W.

Clear

Cloudv

Rain

Snow

16

147

40

32

22

35

28

41

208

116

23

181
2223

In the

Mackinaw, Oct. Nov. Dec.

30 7

64 16

43 13

32 7

1617

37 6

88 9

49 17

224 12

-84 24

3533

• very cold

St. Peters, eleven months . .

19

74 '

21

12

71

34

70

53

223

32

57

31 J

New York, Jan. Feb. March .

7

37

8

0

3

0

28

6'

54

15

14

11

19
76
65
39
31
28
65
43
-216
85 '
55
9
56
87
35
16 -
24
40
5E
56
222
58
72
13
48
58
47
14
42
25
88
38
186
93
54
37
J. Cold
Prairie, des Chiens, nine months
11
80
9
2
26
8
81
27
138
51
46
y
41
;62
34
23
113
46
27
16
236 '
73
48
11
Detroit, six months . . '. .
21
10
9
13
18
76
17
20 -
84
86
12
2
Pittsburgh . . , 
26
54
36
25
58
- 28
71
42
210
55
45
20 Temperate
Norfolk, six months ....
6
33
55
11
21
2
51
5
123
39
21
3 Warm
44
37
45
30
35
108
40
25 v
216
78
64
SI
15
32
82
25
145
6
41
20
257
68
40
Fort Scott 
39
7
11
59
18
71-
15
146
209
88
68
0 J- Hot
Baton Rouge, eleven months .
15
69
35
23
65
17
103
8
162
76
97
°l
Camp Ripley, nine months . .
17
27
31
13
46
20
74
28
129
66
71
oj
In this table the state of the atmosphere deserves no
tice, for the very large proportion of dry and clear wea
ther. This is a highly characteristic and important
feature of the North American continent, as contrasted,
at least, with our own country, arid contributes much
to diminish the rigour and increase the salubrity of
the climate. For the further illustration ofthe prevail
ing winds, we insert two tables given by Mr. Darby :
Abstract of the prevailing Winds, at various points of the United States, above North Latitude 35°.
proportions of 1000.
The whole numbers reduced to
Places of Observation.
N. E.
N.
N. "W.
W.
S.W.
S.
S. E.
E. -
122
100
394
79!
132
, 32
112
28
32
58'
159
274
79
86
241
73
130
20
118
44
401
33
200
53
117
58
294
73
244
21
141
48
71
196
151
53
101
246
134
61
384
23
23
26
535
13
3
6
Fort Crawford . . 
33
186.
250
53
101
190
137
10
101
131
124
165
221
155
65
3a
164
22
211
77
343
22
135
26
165
. 65
257
72
238
96
90
14
194
303
208
295
196
49
227
120
255
58
69
32
97
'48
194.3
301
167
49
64 -
78.5
116
24
301
69
210
130
134
29
112
101
218
61
335
66
89
33
68
109
229.7
3454
159
123
234
26
69
2102
1190
1638
3693
1231
1929
593.5
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

23

Abstract of the prevailing Winds at various points of the United Slates, below North Latitude 35°. The whole reduced to
proportions of 1000.

Places of Observation.

N. E.

N.

N. W.

W.

S.W.

,S.

S. E.

E.

236
417 146
416228 42

5
3679
36
59
293

133
' 9799
9738
109

83
47 65
47
. 57
141

208 83
151 83
127 52

9425
109 25
169
299

153
250 235250 186 21

100 58
127 58
126 53

1485

508

573

440

704

721

1095

522

The general result deducible from these tables,
which are in harmony with many other observations,
is, that westerly winds prevail above N. Lat. 35°, and
easterly winds below it. In the former table, out of
15,830 decimal numbers, 8785 are from the N. W., W.
and S. W. ; in the latter, out of 5048 decimal num-
Ders, 3102 are from the N. E., E. and S. E. This
course ofthe winds is conceived by Mr. Darby to be
owing to no circumstances peculiarly affecting the
North American continent, but rather to some more
general, though little understood, causes which give
a-similar determination to the air in similar latitudes
over the whole earth. He connects the ascertained
facts with the ingenious theory, that the winds unin
fluenced by local interruptions, follow a parabolic
curve from the polar to the tropical regions of the
earth, with the sweep of the eurve eastward.
Comparing with each other the several parts of
the United States in the same latitudes, two diversi
ties of climate may be noticed. The maritime dis
trict on the Pacific Ocean is much warmer than
corresponding latitudes on the Atlantic. At the
mouth of the river Columbia, in N. Lat. 46°, tbe
thermometer is seldom below the freezing point;
while on the eastern part of the continent the winters
in this parallel are excessively cold. This seems to
arise from the prevalence of westerly winds in the
latitudes in question, a cause which makes all western
coasts in similar parallels of milder climate than the
eastern. In addition to this, it has been supposed,
also, that the country in the valley of the Mississippi
has milder winters than the Atlantic shores. Many
persons seem to have been influenced to go into the
interior by this idea, which was strongly maintained
by the French traveller, Volney ; but which, after
exciting much diversity of opinion, is now shown to
be as contrary to fact as it was in the first instance
to probability. Mr. Darby thus sets the question at
rest. Referring to the growth of vegetables, he says,*

* View of the United Stales, p. 421,

" I surveyed southern Louisiana from the Sabine east
ward, and found the live oak, quercus sempervirens,
flourishing along the rivers in the delta and its vi
cinity ; but when the great body of woods which
bounds the delta above the marshes and prairies is
passed, and the north-west winds from Texas have
full sweep along the Calcasiu and the Sabine, the
live oak ceases. In the delta this production is
found as high as N.- Lat. 30° 22, rising to the majesty
of a forest tree ; yet in their utmost range in the basin
of Mississippi this and the .ehaemerops, or dwarf
palm, cease far south of their limit on the Atlantic
coast. The large palm (cabbage tree) is not found
in Louisiana. The live oak rises to considerable
height and column as high as the mouth of Cape
Fear River, N. Lat. 34°, full 31° beyond its greatest
northern residence in the central basin. In Louisi
ana the orange tree cannot be cultivated to much ad
vantage above N. Lat. 30°, and it ceases altogether
about a degree farther north ; the sugar cane, with a
sjightly higher locality, does not flourish beneficially
much above the orange ; but both these vegetables
are profitably cultivated along the Atlantic coast as
high as N. Lat; 33° 30'. We thus find tender vege
tables either indigfenous, or cultivated as objects of
emolument, on latitudes along, the Atlantic coast
where no art could produce a similar effect directly
west on the Mississippi. Natchez stands on a hill, or
series of hills, about one hundred feet above the or
dinary level of the Mississippi at N. Lat. 30° 33!,
almost directly west from Sapelo island ; but at
Natchez, and even on the low banks of the Mississip
pi opposite that city, neither the orange, nor cane
could be cultivated. The thermometer, whilst 1
myself resided in the vicinity, fell to 12° above zero
near that city, in December, 1799. No winter passes
at Natchez without severe frost, and snows are there
annual and not seldom deep, arid resting on the ground
from five to ten or twelve days. I once, in January,
1812, witnessed at Opelousas snow eleven inches
deep, which did not entirely disappear in less than

24

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES

seven or eight days. The Ohio and all its branches,
as well as other rivers more westward, are more
deeply, more frequently, and longer frozen, than those
on the Atlantic Slope by a difference of three or four
degrees of latitude." It is obvious, therefore, that
the supposed mildness of the Ohio Valley, so much
insisted on by Volney and others, has really no exist
ence ; but that, on the very contrary, the cold of
winter is several degrees more severe in the interior
than on the Atlantic border of the United States upon
any given latitude.
! In addition to the general division of the climate of
the United States which we have already given, we may.
add the following view of that of the Mississippi Valley,
for which we are indebted to the industrious observa
tion of Mr. Flint.* We may conceive four distinct
climates between the sources and the outlet of the Mis
sissippi. The first, commencing at its sources and
terminating at Prairie du Chien, corresponds pretty
accurately to the climate between Montreal and Boston,
with this difference, that the amount of snow falling in
the former is much less than in the latter region. The
growing of gourd seed corn, which demands a higher
temperature to bring it to. maturity, is not pursued in
this region. The Irish potato is raised in this cli
mate in the utmost perfection. Wheat and cultivated
grasses succeed well. The apple and pear tree re
quire fostering and southern exposure to bring fruit
to perfection. The peach tree has still more the
habits and the delicacy of a southern stranger, and
requires a Sheltered declivity with a southern expo
sure to succeed at all. Five months in the year may
be said to be under the dominion of winter. For
that length of time the cattle require shelter in the
severe weather, and the still waters remain frozen. —
The second climate prevails over the opposite states
of Missouri and Illinois in their whole extent, or the
country between 41° and 37°. Cattle, though much
benefited by sheltering, and. often needing it, here
seldom receive it. It is not so favourable " for culti
vated grasses as the preceding region.. Gourd seed
corn is the only kind extensively planted. The
winter commences with January, and ends with the
second week in February ; the ice in the still waters
after that time thaws. Wheat, the inhabitant of a
variety of climates, is at home, as a native} in this.
The persimon and the pawpaw are found in its
Whole extent. It is the favoured region of the apple,
the pear, and the peach. Snows neither fall deep,
nor lie long. The Irish potato succeeds to a certain
extent, but not as well as in the former climate ;. but

* Geography and History of the Western States.

this disadvantage is supplied by the sweet potato,
which, though not at home in this climate, with a
little care in the cultivation, flourishes. The grandeur
of the vegetation, and the temperature of March and
April, indicate an approach towards the southern
regions.— -The third climate extends from 37° to 31°.
Below 35°, in the rich alluvial soils, the apple tree
begins to fail in bringing its fruit to perfection ; apples-
worth eating are seldom raised much below New
Madrid. Cotton, between this point and 33°, is
raised, in favourable positions, for home consumption,
but is seldom to be depended upon for a crop.
Below 33° commences the proper climate for cotton,
and here it is the staple article of cultivation.
Festoons of long moss hang from the trees, and
darken the forest, and the palmetto gives to the low
alluvial grounds a grand and striking verdure. The
muscadine, grape, strongly designating climate, is first
found here. Laurel trees become common in the
forest, retaining their foliage and their verdure
through the winter; wheat is no longer seen as an
article of cultivation, but the fig tree brings its fruit
to full maturity. — Below this limit to the gulf, is the
fourth climate, the region of the sugar cane and the
sweet orange tree. It would be, if it were cultivated,.
the region of the olive. Snow is no longer seen to
fall, except a few flakes in the coldest storms ; the
streams are never frozen ; winter is only marked by
nights of white frosts, and days Of north-west winds,
which seldom last longer"- than three days in succes
sion, and are followed by south winds and warm
days. The trees are generally in leaf by the middle
of February, and always by the first of March. Bats
are hovering in the air during the night, and fire-flies
are seen by the middle of February. Early in
March the forests are in blossom ; the delightful
white flowers of the cornus florida, and the brilliant
red tufts of the redbud, or cereis canadensis, are un
folded ; the margins of the creeks and streams are
perfumed with the meadow pink, or honeysuckle,.
yellow jessamine, and other fragrant flowers. During
almost every night a thunder storm occurs. Cotton
and corn are planted from March to July. In these
regions the summers are uniformly hot,, although
there are days when the mercury rises as high in-
New England as in Louisiana ; the heat,, however,,
is more uniform and sustained,, commences -much-
earlier, and continues much later. From February
to September thunder storms are common,, often ac
companied with severe thunder, and sometimes with
gales, or tornadoes, in which the trees of the forest:
are prostrated in every direction, and the tract ol
, country which, is covered with the fallen trees is

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

25

called a ' hurricane.' The depressing influence of
the summer heat results from its long continuance,
and its equable and unremitting tenor, rather than
from the intensity of its ardour at any given time ; it
must, however, be admitted, that at all times the un
clouded radiance of the vertical sun of this climate
is extremely oppressive.
The winters, through the whole extent of the
country, are variable, passing rapidly from warm to
cold, and the reverse. Near the Mississippi, and
where there is little to vary the general direction of
the winds, they ordinarily blow three or four days
from the north. In the northern and middle regions,
the consequence is cold weather, frost more or less
severe, and perhaps storm, with snow and sleet ;
during these days the rivers are covered with ice.
When the opposite breeze alternates, there is imme
diately a bland and relaxing feehng in the atmosphere ;
it becomes warm, and the red-birds sing on these days
in January and February, as far north as Prairie du
Chien. These abrupt and frequent transitions can
hardly fail to have an unfavourable influence upon
health. From 40° to 36° N. Lat. the rivers almost
invariably freeze, for a longer or shorter period,
through the winter. At St. Louis on the Mississippi,
and at Cincinnati on the Ohio, in nearly the same
parallels, between 38° and 39°, the two rivers are
sometimes capable of being crossed on the ice for
eight weeks together.
Although the summers over all this valley must be
admitted to be hot, yet the exemption of the country
from mountains and other impediments to the free
course of the winds, and the circumstance that the
greater proportion of the country has a surface bare
of forests, together probably with other unexplained
atmospheric agents, concur to create, during the sul
try months, almost a constant breeze ; it thence
happens that the air on these wide prairies is rendered
fresh, and the heats are tempered in the same manner
as is felt on the ocean. The same degree of heat in
the spring does not advance vegetation as rapidly in
the south as in the north. " We have seen a brilliant
sun, and felt the lassitude of warm spring days con
tinued in succession," says Mr. Flint, " and yet have
remarked the buds to remain almost stationary, and
the development of vegetation to be almost impercep
tible ; while the same amount of heat at Quebec
would have completely unfolded the foliage, and
clothed the earth with verdure."
It is a' very prominent feature of the climate of
North America, that it is much colder than similar
latitudes in Europe ; as appears strikingly from the
fact that the New England states, which fall within I

the very cold or coldest section of the republic, are
in the same latitude as Italy. The principal cause
of this difference is to be found, doubtless, in the vast
extent of land which, with little intermission, stretches
into the north-polar regions, and forms an immense
deposit of ice and snow for the refrigeration of the
southern lands. The changes of the seasons are for
the most part abrupt ; and on the Atlantic coast it
appears that very sudden and extensive changes of
the weather are of frequent occurrence.
One of the causes operating on the climate of
the United States, in a direction contrary to that
which we have just noticed, is the oceanic current,
commonly known as the Gulf Stream. It is now
well ascertained that a current exists in the ocean, by
which the whole body of water, for as much as 28°
on each side of the equator, flows towards the west.
This current setting in from the coast of Senegal, in
Africa, is borne against that of central America, where
a very large division of it forces its way into the Gulf
of Mexico, whence it issues through the Bahama
Channel, along the shore of the United States to Cape
Hatteras, and towards Cape Cod. Mr. Darby shows,
by tables constructed with great care, that the surface
of this current is considerably warmer than that of
any other part of the ocean. In 3° N. Lat. it was
found by Humboldt at a temperature of 83°, gradually,
and almost uniformly, cooling at greater distances
from the" equator, and at 40° N. or S. standing at 55°
and 57°, a difference of 28°. From a variety of ob
servations, it appears also that the temperature of the
water of the Gulf Stream exceeds that of the air
above it, generally by several degrees, and sometimes
by nearly 20°. It is obvious, therefore, that this im
mense current, running always with considerable
rapidity, and in the Bahama Channel with the force
of a torrent, reaching sometimes the rate of five miles
an hour, must have a great effect in diffusing caloric
through the atmosphere, and especially upon the
eastern and sodth-eastern shores of the United States.
Allied to this oceanic current is the aerial one, the
trade wind, which is known to flow in the same di
rection, and probably originates in the same cause,
namely, the diurnal revolution of the earth. This
current moves through the West Indies and the adja
cent seas until it meets the American continent, which,
in consequence of being slanted off from S. E. to N.
W., impels trfe current of air in a similar course, and
the current which passes towards the North American
continent diverges over it in different directions. One
branch takes a N. W. direction, and passing over
New Mexico, and thence between the Stony Moun
tains and the Pacific Ocean, spends its force probably

26

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

about N. Lat. 50°. Another branch takes a N. E. di
rection, and blows partly over the mountains, but
principally between the mountains- and the Atlantic
Ocean ; it seems to spend its force about the Poto
mac, although it sometimes reaches as far as Phila
delphia and New York. A third branch passes up
the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio, having often
all the characteristics of the original trade wind, and
is so strong that it frequently passes over the large
lakes, and sometimes reaches Montreal, and even
Quebec. With respect to the climate of the United States,
two ideas have been entertained, which still demand
briefly to be noticed. It has been conceived by some
persons to have undergone a considerable change for
the better since its colonization by Europeans. This
idea may -ve originated perhaps in the same causes
as a simila^ one respecting- the climate of Europe ;
and it appears to be equally without foundation. On
the contrary, there seems sufficient reason to conclude
that, with whatever local and temporary variations,
the climate is substantially unchanged. The winter,
cold over the United States, as every where else on
earth, is in direct intensity with height, latitude, and
exposure ; the interior states being more exposed to
the influence of a central, elevated, and frozen table
land, have winters much more severe than are expe
rienced on similar latitudes on the Atlantic Slope ;
and the interior summers are equally in excess.
But if the general climate has not altered, it has been
confidently believed, that as the country was cleared
and the timber removed, the winters have become
milder. That the clearing and improvement of a
region may contribute to its salubrity, we entertain
no question, the ways being obvious by which such
a result must be produced ; but we agree with Mr.
Darby in thinking that it leads to no elevation of
temperature. " Employed," says this gentleman, '• ten
or twelve years in exploring the prairies of Louisiana,
I had ample means to test the seasons of a country
naturally devoid of forest trees ; and in the frequent,
and sometimes not slight, snows of Opelousas, N. Lat.
30|°, I, as early as 1805, became convinced that re
moving timber must produce the very reverse of
melioration, and then suspected, what is now proved,
that in very open countries the range of the thermo
meter must be augmented." To this testimony may
be added that of Mr. Dunbar, of Natchez, a close and
very competent observer, respecting land which had
been partially cleared. " It is with us a general re
mark, that of late years the summers have become
hotter, and the winters colder, than formerly. Orange
trees, and other tender exotics, have suffered more

in the neighbourhood of New Orleans within these
four or five years than before that period ; the sugar
cane also has been so much injured by the severity
of the first of the two last winters as greatly to dis
courage the planters, whose crops, in many instances,
have fallen, to one third, or less, of their expectations.
In former years I have observed the mercury of the
thermometer not to fall lower than 26° or 27°; but
for a few years past it has generally, once or twice
in the winter, fallen as low as from 17° to 20°, and
on the 12th December, IS00, it was found sunk to 12°,
which has hitherto had no parallel in this climate,
and indicates a degree of cold which in any country
would be reckoned considerable, and which probably
may never again be produced by natural means in
Lat. 31° 30*. As this apparent alteration of climate
has been remarked only for a few years, and cannot
be traced up to any visible, natural, or artificial
change of sufficient magnitude, it would be in vain
to search for its physical cause. Dr. Williamson and
others have endeavoured to show that clearing,
draining, and cultivation, extended over the face of
a continent, must produce the double effect of. the
relaxation of the rigours of winter, and an abatement
of the heats of summer. The former is probably
more evident than, the latter ; but, admitting the de
monstration to be conclusive, I would inquire whether
a partial clearing, extending thirty or forty miles
square, or to 300,000, or 3,000,000, may not be ex
pected to produce a contrary effect, by admitting with
full liberty the sunbeams on the uncovered surface
of the earth in summer, and promoting during winter
a free circulation of cold northern air."* To us it
appears that Mr. Dunbar might have spoken with
much greater confidence, and that the partial clearing
of the country is a sufficient physical cause for the
diminution of the temperature.
Many distinguished philosophers have maintained,
that a great amelioration of the climates, both of Eu
rope and Asia, has taken place within the period
since correct observations have been made on the
subject. This opinion has been supported by Buffon,
Hume, Gibbon, the Abbe Du Bos, and others ; and
as it regards America, a similar opinion has been sup
ported by Jefferson, Williams, and Holyoke. Within
the last century, the temperature of our winters, says
these American authorities, has been greatly miti
gated, and Dr. Williamson himself, as cited already,
has given us proofs of the beneficial results of clearing
and cultivation in relaxing the rigours of winter, and
diminishing the ardent heats of summer. A closer

* Transactions- of the American Philosophical Society, vol. vi.
p. 40.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

27

investigation of facts; however, we are inclined to
believe, will demonstrate, that the improvements in
our climate have not corresponded with the progress
of cultivation and settlement ; and the elaborate in
vestigations of Noah Webster, render it more than
questionable that such a view is unphilosophical.
See his remarks on the supposed change in the tem
perature of winter, in vol. i. of the Transactions of
the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.
From this interesting paper, the following extracts
are made.
"John Megapolensis, a Dutch clergyman, who re
sided at Albany, and wrote an account of the -Mo
hawks, in 1644, a translation of which is in Hazard's
Collection, vol. i. p. 517, says, ofthe climate, ' the sum
mers are pretty hot, and the winters very cold. The
summer continues till All Saints' Day, (Nov. 1,) but
then the winter sets in, in the same manner as it
commonly does in December, and freezes so much in
one night that the ice will bear a man. The freezing
commonly continues three months — sometimes there
comes a warm and pleasant day, yet the thaw does
not Continue ; but it freezes again till March, and
then commonly the river begins to open, seldom in
February." According to this account, the winters
have not moderated ; for the Hudson, at Albany,
usually freezes early in December, and continues
closed till March. A common winter is of three
months duration.
Professor Kaim, who came to America in 1748,
was very particular in his inquiries on this subject ;
and to the best information he could obtain, he added
his own observations. He relates, vol. i. p. 2-1. Lond.
1772, that at Newcastle, the Delaware seldom froze
in winter so as to obstruct navigation ; but at Phila
delphia, that river was, almost every winter, covered
with ice, so as to interrupt navigation for some weeks
together. In page 36, he says, the climate of Phila
delphia was then temperate ; the winter was not over
severe, and its duration short — September ,and Octo
ber were like August in Sweden, and the first days
in February frequently as pleasant as the end of
April and beginning of May in the middle of Swe
den. " In page 38 he says, the only disadvantage which
the trade of Philadelphia suffers, is, the freezing of
the river almost every winter for a month or more,
In page 83 he states, that the winters he spent in
the country were none of the coldest, but common
ones, and that during his stay, the Delaware was not
covered with ice strong enough to bear a carriage.
In the next page, he adds, that the winters, though
severe, did not continue above two months, and at

Philadelphia, sometimes less. Cherries were ripe
about the 25th of May— (probably old style.)
" In page 197, the author, speaking of New York,
states that the harbour is good, and never froze ex
cept in extraordinary cold weather ; but he says,
page 208,. the winters at New York are much more
severe than in Pennsylvania. He says afterwards,
that the ice stands on the Hudson several months,
by which he must mean the ice on that river in the
interior country. January 21, 1749, people walked
over the Delaware at Philadelphia on the ice ; but
no one ventured to ride over on horseback. But in
page 362, the author informs us, that the river was
covered with ice soon after new year, and the ice
became so strong that people rode over on horseback
— the ice continued to the 8th of February, when the
river was cleared.
" The old men, of whom Kaim made inquiries re
specting a change in the seasons, all agreed in the
fact, that when the country was first settled, the
weather was more uniform thail it was in their time.
Most of them were of- opinion, that more snow fell
when they were young ; that the winters began
earlier ; and that the springs were also earlier. It
was a saying among the old Swedes, that they had
always grass at Easter, whether early or late.
" Mr. Norris, one of the first settlers of Philadel
phia, and a merchant, related, that in his younger
years, the Delaware was usually covered with ice by
the middle of November, old style. One old Swede,
who remembered the very severe winter of 1697-8,
was of opinion, there had been little change in the
winters — that there werd as great storms and as cold
winters in his old age as in his childhood.
"Kaim, however, in his second volume, page 43,
institutes a comparison between Old and New Swe
den, as he terms the two countries, in which he
mentions, among the disadvantages of New Sweden,
or Delaware and Pennsylvania, that the nights are
darker than in Old Sweden, where they are- in part
illuminated by snow and the lumen boreale. In this
paragraph he says expressly, that the winters bring
no permanent snow in Pennsylvania, to make the
nights clear and travelling safe. The cold, he says,
is often intense as in Old Sweden ; but the snow
which falls lies only a few days, and always goes off
with a great deal of wet.
" From a careful comparison of these facts, it ap
pears that the weather, in modern winters, is -more
inconstant, than when the earth was. covered with
wood, at the first settlement of Europeans in the
country ; that the warm weather of autumn extends
further into the winter months, and the cold weather

28

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

of winter and spring encroaches upon the summer ;
that the wind being more variable, snow is less per
manent, and perhaps the same remark may be appli
cable to the ice of the rivers. These effects seem to
result necessarily from the greater quantity of heat
accumulated in the earth in summer, since the ground
has been cleared of wood, and exposed to the rays of
the sun ; and to the greater depth of frost in the earth
in winter, by the exposure of its uncovered surface
to the cold atmosphere."
"But we can hardly infer, from the facts that have
yet been collected, that there is, in modern times, an
actual diminution of the aggregate amount of cold in
winter, on either continent.
In addition to these remarks, the observations of
Dr. Williamson on the Climate of. North Carolina
might be inserted. Dr. Williamson observes, *' There
are not many countries, in which the state of health
differs so much as it does at present in the different
parts of North Carolina. At the distance of sixty or
seventy miles from the coast, the land begins to rise
into small hills, stones appear on the surface, and the
streams ripple in their course. As we advance a
little further to the westward, we find all the variety
of hills and dales that may consist with a fertile
country, fit for cultivation. In that happy climate,
where the soil is good, and the water pure ; where
the inhabitants enjoy the desirable effects of winter,
without suffering by the rigorous severity of cold ;
there are few of the diseases which are most painful
and destructive in cold climates ; neither are the
inhabitants wasted by the more fatal diseases of warm
climates. There are not many parts in the United
States, perhaps there is not any part of the world, in
which families increase faster than in the western
part of Carolina. When we consider, that the in
habitants are seldom affected by coughs, consump
tions, or inflammatory complaints, for the winters are
temperate ; that intermitting, bilious., Or putrid fevers,
are seldom found among them ; we naturally infer,
that the climate must be healthy. It is not denied,
that people, in many other climates or countries, are
equally healthy with those in the western part of
Carolina ; but the winters in other regions, that are
deemed healthy, are more severe, or the land is less
fertile, or it is not so cheap, or the means of support
ing a family, from one cause and another, are more
difficult than in Carolina ; whence it follows, that
early marriages are not so frequent, and the increase
of families is not so great. We have not the means
of comparing the increase of people in Carolina with
that in foreign countries, but it has been compared
with the increase in other states. It appears by the

census taken in the year 1791, that the number oi
inhabitants above sixteen years old, exceeded the
number under sixteen in all the northern and middle
states, including Maryland. In the southern states
there was a difference in favour of those under six
teen, and this difference was greater in North Caro
lina than in any other state, except Kentucky. This
difference might be explained by supposing that the
duration of human life is shorter in the southern
states, and that sixteen years is nearer the middle of
the general extent ; but this solution cannot be ad
mitted, because in the most healthy parts of the south
ern states, the difference was greatest in favour of the
class under sixteen. The greater proportion of peo
ple below sixteen must be the combined effect of early
marriage and a good climate. Families are easily
supported where the lands are good, and the winters
mild. In this case people marry young, and have
many children ; but early marriage alone, will not
produce a great proportion of children when compared
to that of grown persons, because sickly climates are
not less fatal to infants than to those who are more
advanced in years. This distinction is fully support
ed by the census in North Carolina. The num
ber of males in the whole state, below sixteen, was to
that above sixteen,, nearly as eleven "to ten ; but this
difference cannot be the effect of early marriage alone,
or the facility of- maintaining a family ; it depends
very much on the salubrity of the climate. People
live in the district of Edenton with more ease than
in the district of Salisbury ; for their cattle require
less feeding in winter, and they have a plentiful sup
ply of fish ; but the proportion of persons under six
teen, was to that above sixteen, in Salisbury district,
compared to that in Edenton district, nearly as three
to one. In Salisbury district there were fifteen thou
sand eight hundred and twenty-six males under six
teen, and thirteen thousand nine hundred and eight
above sixteen. The difference is nearly equal to a
seventh part ofthe whole number ofthe older class.
In Edenton district, the number of males under six
teen, was eight thousand six hundred and ninety-
six, and the number above sixteen, was eight thou
sand three hundred and ninety-four. The difference
being less than a twenty -seventh part of the number
of the older class. This remarkable excess, in favour
of Salisbury district, can only be explained by the
greater salubrity of the climate. * There are some
very old people in the western parts of Carolina, but
they were not born in that country ; they are older
than the settlement. After the country shall have
been planted two or three centuries, and the natives
shall have attained the length of years that corres-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

29

ponds with the climate, a greater proportion of the
inhabitants above sixteen years will doubtless be
found." To -find the probable mean temperature of any place
by comparing it with another of which the tempera
ture is known, Mr. Darby suggests that one degree
of Fahrenheit may be allowed for One degree of lati
tude, and the converse ; and that 400 feet of elevation
may be assumed to lower the thermometer one degree :
he adds, however, very justly, that so many circum
stances contribute, slightly, to influence the thermome
ter, that only general results can be expected from such
comparisons, and that when the difference of latitude

becomes considerable, they would be altogether der
lusive. The rains of the United States are represented as
occurring very irregularly, not only in the couise of
a single year, but through a succession of years,
No sufficient data have yet been provided for the
formation of philosophical views on this subject ; but
Mr. Darby has furnished us with tables of the month
ly quantity of rain in several successive years at
Baltimore, Germantown, and New Harmony, of which
we avail ourselves. The Baltimore table we shall
insert entire, adding to it the monthly mean quanti
ties of the other two places.

Table ofthe monthly depth in inclies of rain at Baltimore, from Mr. Brantz's Tables.

Mean at
Mean at
Months.
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
Mean.
German- town.
New Har
mony.
2.25
.9
.7
2.8
3.3
1.8
5,6
2.3
2.85
2.18
4.31
2.8
2.0
1.9
2.2
5.4
4.8
.7
5.9
3.225
3.58
4.04
4.5
3.0
4.55
3.3
1.7
1.3
7.1
4.3
3.71
3.07
3.38
April 
1.5
2.1
2.7
. 1.1
2.1
2.1
1.8
4.7
2.20
2.62
4.52
2.6
6.45
4.1
4.4
. 5.1
1.5
2.1
2.95
3.65
2.87
2.61
June ........
9.1
1.15
1.3
4.6
1.8
1.5
1.6
5.03
3.66
3.22
4.41
July ........
3.5
4:i
2.2
2.2
7.5'
4.35
3.6
3.37
3.85
4.25
3.54
10.4
2.0
4.3
8.0
0.3
.8
4.1
4.5
4.3
3.48
4.84
' 3.3
3.2
3.0
1*5
10.7
2.25
5.8
2.94
4.45
3.27
2.80
1.8
3.1
.7
7.8
3.4
2.5
2.8
1.77
2.975
3.50
2.84
3.7
2.0
1.1
2.7
5.6
5.1
3.1
2.27
3.2
3.01
1.62
December 
Amount . . . .
3.6
2.6
2.2
1.9
3.3
1.2
6.25
44.55
2.25
42.28
2.9
3.05
38.10
3.94
48.55
32.6
28.75
40.5
50.2
29.2
39.97
42.85
 .1
The Soil of the United States is naturally enough
represented as comprehending every kind, from the
very best to the very worst. Of course it is not to
be supposed that it divides itself into such spaces as
to render possible an accurate general estimate of it ;
we may nevertheless throw out a few hints of some
what general application, leaving the minuter details
for the account which we shall subsequently give of
individual states. We may first notice that portion
of the republic v/ith which our readers are by this
time familiar, under the name of the Atlantic Slope ;
we mean the country east of the Apalachian Moun
tains, from Cape Cod to Louisiana. Next to the ocean
are. salt meadows, or marshes, nearly level, sloping a
very little towards' the water, above which their surfa
ces have but little elevation wherever they are found.
They are covered with a peculiar kind of grass,
which is from six to twelve inches high, of a reddish
colour, and grows very thick, the roots of which form
a very compact turf or sward, and which requires a
sharp instrument and considerable force to cut it.
They are overflowed by the salt' water a few inches
deep several times in a year by the spring tides, and
this appears to be necessary to'the retention of their
peculiar character ; for if the water is kept from them
Vol. IL— Nos. 39 & 40. D
by dykes, the upland grasses take root, the turf
moulders away or loses its tenacity, and in a few
years their appearance is completely changed. As
the surface of these meadows lies a little above common
high-water mark, there is generally a slope of about
six feet in two or three rods, to low-water mark ; and
this slope is covered with a coarse tall -grass called
sedge, which requires a partial inundation every tide,
or twice in twenty-four hours, to bring it to maturity.
Adjoining the salt meadows, on the same level, and
at the farthest extent to which the salt water flows at
spring tides, fresh meadows commence by an almost.
imperceptible line of distinction, and they generally
extend to the upland ; but sometimes there is wet
ground covered with bushes or a swamp between
them and the upland. They are wet and soft, and
few will bear a. wagon. Similar meadows are
sometimes found several miles from any salt meadows
or salt water, and generally at the heads of rivers,
where the face of the country is level. The general
appearance of all these meadows is the same ; being ;
covered with wild grass of different kinds from twelve
to thirty-six inches high, according to the quantity
of water in the soil, and the more water there is, the
coarser and taller the grass will be, until flags and
30

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

rushes take its place. The meadows are much lower
than the upland, and were evidently formed by the
agency of water, which has deposited an alluvial soil,
composed of ¦ the finer particles from the higher
grounds, and of decayed vegetable substances. If
they are drained by a large ditch round them at the
foot of the upland, and one through the lowest part
of them, so that the Water from it may soon run off,
they become hard, will produce cultivated grass and
even trees, and will in a few years lose all their
former features, except their low situation and level
aspect. The soil of this section is to a great extent sandy ;
very light, therefore, and sometimes barren, more es
pecially near the coast, where also is much marsh
land, with extensive swamps. These swamps are in
many places to an immense extent covered with an
, impenetrable growth of timber, especially of the cy
press and some species of pine, the maturity of which
is favoured by the deep clayey soil, augmented by a
fresh deposit every year ; Louisiana, towards the sea,
exhibits a great breadth of this character through its
whole reach. Along the rivers there is found a con
siderable quantity of rich clay ; many fertile spots
likewise are interspersed among the sands, and the
land generally improves as it approaches the moun
tains. The central portion of the slope between the
mountains and the sea possesses the best soil, the
change -of which is particularly discernible along the
course of the rocky ridge which has already been
described in our account of this region. In the al
luvial district of Louisiana, the soil is for the most
part deep and rich ; it is also strong and vigorous on
the Red River. Along the range of the Apalachian
Mountains a thin and poor soil prevails, mingled,
however, with many rich and productive valleys. In
the northern portion of it are a large number of
boulders, which give to the country a very stony
and barren appearance, even where the soil is fertile.
When we cross the mountains, and come to the
great plain descending from them to the Mississippi,
we survey an immense extent of almost universally
fertile' country. The general surface of the Missis
sippi Valley may be classed under three distinct
aspects, — the thickly timbered, the barrens, and the
prairie country. In the first division, every traveller
has remarked, as soon as he descends to this valley,
a grandeur in the form and size of the trees, a depth
of verdure in the foliage, a magnificent prodigality of
growth of every sort, that distinguishes this country
from other regions. The trees are large, tall, and
rise aloft, like columns, free from branches. In the
rich lands they are generally wreathed with a drapery

of ivy, bignonia, grape vines, or other creepers. In
termingled with the foliage of the trees are the broad
leaves of the grape vines, with trunks occasionally
as large as the human body. Sometimes the forests
are as free from undergrowth as an orchard ; at others,
the only shrub that is seen amOng the trees is the
pawpaw, with its splendid foliage and graceful steins ;
but often, especially in the richer alluvions of the
south, beneath the trees there are impenetrable cane
brakes, and a tangle of brambles, brier vines, and
every sort of weed ; which constitute the safe retreats
of bears and panthers. This undergrowth univer
sally indicates a rich soil.
The country denominated barrens has a very
distinct and peculiar configuration. It is generally
a country with a surface undulating with gentle hills,
characterized by long and uniform ridges. The soil
is for. the most part of a clayey texture, of a reddish
or grayish colour, and is covered with a tall and
coarse grass- In addition to a peculiarity of aspect
more easily felt than described, the trees are generally
thinly scattered, seldom large or very small. They
are chiefly of the different kinds of oaks, and the trees
of the barrens have an appearance and configuration
appropriate to the soil they inhabit. The land never
exceeds second rate in quality, and is more generally
third rate. It is favourable, in the proper latitudes,
to the growth of wheat and orchards. The barrens
are found in a level country, with here and there a
gentle rise, only a few feet higher than the land
around it. On these little elevations, for they are
not hills, trees grow, and grass also ; but grass and
weeds are the only occupants of the soil where there
is no rise of ground. The soil is alluvial to a greater
or less depth in the barrens, though on some of the
highest points there is little or none ; the lower the
ground the deeper the alluvion. On these elevations,
where there is no alluvion, is stiff blue clay, without
pebbles. Under the alluvial soil in the lower grounds
are pebbles. On the little ridges, wherever the land
is not too moist, the .oak or the hickory (walnut) has
taken possession, and there grows to a moderate
height in clusters1. It Would seem, that whenever
the land had become sufficiently dry for an acorn or
a hickory nut to sprout, take root, and grow, it did
so ; and from one or more of these trees, in time,
others have grown around them in such clusters as
we now behold ; where the land is lower, and the
soil deeper, more moist and more fertile, the grass
was too thick, and the soil too wet, for such kind of
trees to grow as were found in the immediate vicinity.
Imagine, then, natural meadows of various dimen
sions, and of every figure which the imagination can

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

31

conceive, with here and there a gentle rise of ground,
decked with a few scattered trees or a thick cluster
of them, and bearing a tall coarse grass, which is
thin on the elevated parts, but on the lower grounds
thick and luxuriant ; imagine, also, a rill of a reddish
colour, scarcely meandering through ground a little
lower than the surrounding plain — and you will have
a very correct idea of the appearance of these barrens.
On the whole, the barrens have an aspect so peculiar
and appropriate, that no person at all used to this
country is in doubt for a moment when he enters on
the region occupied by them. There are large dis
tricts of this kind in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ala
bama ; it is common in Illinois and Missouri, and is
seen with more or less frequency over all the valley
of the Mississippi. In this region, and in the hazel
or bushy prairies, are most frequently seen those
singular cavities called sink-holes. They are gener
ally in the shape of funnels, or inverted cones, from
ten to seventy feet in depth, and on the surface from
sixty to three hundred feet in circumference. There
are generally willows and other aquatic vegetables at
their sides and bottoms ; there is little doubt that
they are caused by running waters, which find their
way through the limestone cavities beneath the upper
stratum of soil.
The remaining, and by far the most extensive
surface, is that of the prairies. Although they have
no inconsiderable diversity of aspect, these may be
- classed under three general divisions ; the healthy,
or bushy ; the alluvial, or wet ; and the dry, or
rolling prairies. The healthy prairies seem to be of
an intermediate character between the alluvial prairies
and the barrens. They have springs. They are
covered with hazel and furze bushes, small sassafras
shrubs, with frequent grape vines, and in the summer
with an infinite profusion of flowers ; the bushes are
often overtopped with the common hop vine- Prairies
of this description are very common in Indiana, Illi
nois, and Missouri, and they occur among the other
prairies for a considerable distance towards the Chip
pewayan Mountains. The dry or undulating prairies
are for the most part destitute of springs, and of all
vegetation, but weeds, flowering plants, and grass.
To the sight they are so nearly level, and the round-
ings of their undulations so gentle, that the eye,
taking in a great surface at a single view, deems them
a dead level ; but the ravines made by the water
courses through them, sufficiently indicate that their
swells and declinations communicate a quick motion
to the waters that fall on them. This is by far the
most extensive class of prairies. These are the plains
over which the buffaloes range ; and it is these plains,

without wood or water, in which the traveller may
wander for days, and see the horizon on every side
sinking to contact with the grass. The alluvial or
wet prairies form the last and smallest division.
They generally occur on the margins of the great
water-courses, although they are sometimes found,
with all their distinctive features, far from the poit.s
where waters now run. They are commonly basins,
as regards the adjacent regions, and their outlines
are marked by regular benches. They are for. the
most part of a black, deep, and very friable soil, and
of exhaustless fertility. In the proper latitudes they
are the best soils for wheat and maize, but are ordi
narily too tender and loamy for the cultivated grasses,
though they rear their own native grasses of aston
ishing height and luxuriance- An exact account of
the size and rankness of the weeds, flowering plants,
and grass, on the richer alluvial prairies of Illinois
and Missouri, would seem to those who have not seen
them an idle exaggeration. Still more than the roll
ing prairies, they impress the eye as a dead level ;
but they still have their slight inclinations and de
pressions, where their waters are arrested and carried
off: yet, from their immense amount of vegetation,
and from the equality of their surface wherever they
are considerably extensive, they have small ponds, and
bayous, which fill from the rivers and from rains, and
are only exhausted during the intense heats of summer,
by evaporation. These ponds, in the alluvial prairies
that are connected with the rivers, when they over
flow by bayous, are filled in the season of high waters
with fish of the various kinds ; a,s the waters subside,
and their connecting courses wilh the river become
dry, the fish are taken by cart-loads among the tall
grass, where the water is three or four feet deep.
When the waters evaporate, during the heats of sum
mer, the fish die, and although thousands of buzzards
prey upon them, they become a source of pollution
to the atmosphere ; hence these prairies, beautiful as
they, seem to the eye, and extraordinary as is their
fertility, are very unfavourable positions, in point of
salubrity. Flocks of deer are seen scouring across
these. rich plains, or feeding peaceably with the do
mestic cattle. In the spring and autumn innumera
ble flocks of Water-fowls are seen wheeling their
flight about the lakes and ponds of these prairies, and
they find copious pasture in the oily seeds of the
plants and grasses that have seeded during the sum
mer. During the months of vegetation no adequate
idea could be conveyed by description of the number,
forms, varieties, scents, and hues of the flowering
plants, or of the various flowers of the richer prai
ries. In the barrens are four or five varieties of la

32

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

dies' slippers, of different and the most splendid colours,
but the violets, and the humbler and more modest
kinds of garden flowers, are not capable of competing
with the/ rank growth 'of grass and weeds that choke
them ; some of the taller and hardier kinds of the
liliaceous plants struggle for display, and rear them
selves high enough to be seen. Most of the prairie
flowers have tall and arrowy stems, and spiked or
tassellated heads, and the flowers have great size,
gaudiness, and splendour, without milch fragrance
or delicacy. The most striking of these flowers we
may notice further in another place ; only remark
ing here, that during the summer the prairies present
distinct successions of dominant hues as the season
advances. The prevalent colour of the prairie flow
ers in spring is bluish purple ; in midsummer, red,
with a considerable proportion of yellow ; in autumn
the flowers are very large, many of them of the he-
lianthus form, and the prairie receives from them
such a splendid colouring of' yellow, as almost to pre
sent to the imagination an immense surface of gild
ing. The northern shores of Lakes Ontario and Erie,
the western shore of Lake Huron, (the eastern shore
of Lake Michigan is sandy and barren,) and the gene
ral surface ofthe valleys of the Ohio, the Illinois, and
the Mississippi, afford a. highly productive soil. The
extended valley of the Tennessee, also, more to the
southward, is one of the most fertile portions of the
republic. The same character of fertility extends it
self beyond the Mississippi, below the Missouri, until
it is checked by the Ozark Mountains, the productive
portion of which is confined to the valleys. On the
banks of the Missouri, likewise, and for some dis
tance up its tributary streams, rich soil is found.
The same may be said of, the Mississippi above its
junction with the Missouri ; but towards the sour
ces of these rivers the ground is extremely barren.
The southern coast of Lake Superior is either sandy
or rocky, and generally steril. To the west of the
Ozark Mountains and of the Missouri the soil be
comes less and less fertile, till at length we reach
an immense tract of sand and barrenness, extending
the whole way to the Chippewayan Mountains. This
portion of the United States is rendered more deso
late by the large quantity of salt and magnesia con
tained both in the soil and the rivers ; it has been,
not unjustly, called the Great Desert of North Ame
rica, and bears no inconsiderable resemblance to the
tract of the same denomination in Africa. It never
can be permanently inhabited. Eastward of the
Mississippi there is a copious natural growth of tim
ber ; but the region westward of that river is marked

by the gradual diminution and final disappearance
of this important production, a circumstance by
which the country is rendered unfit for settlers,
independently of the quality of the soil. Lumber
is almost totally absent from the banks of the Missou
ri above the River Platte, although the soil still con
tinues rich.
With the Chippewayan mountains commences a
change. The summits of these mountains, of
course, are steril, being rugged rocks, and covered
with snow the greater part of the year ; but among
them are sheltered and fertile valleys. The timber
in the mountains is pine, spruce, fir, and the other
terebinthines. The terrace plains below generally
have a fine soil, but are very deficient in timber.
The prairies, like those in the -Mississippi valley, are
covered with grass, and a profusion of most beautiful
flowers, Among the prairie plants are two or three
kinds of edible roots, which furnish vegetable food
to the savages, as an accompaniment to the great
proportion of salmon which they devour. Wild sage
is also an abundant herb ; -it grows of a size and
height like a small tree, and on these extensive plains
is one of the principal articles of fuel. The sea
shore, for a considerable distance to the interior, is
skirted with deep and thick forests of evergreens,
such as pine and hemlock. On the whole, it is be
lieved that few countries on the earth have a more
fertile soil and agreeable climate than the valleys of
the region west ofthe Rocky Mountains.
When a farmer clears the land of the United
States, under the trees he finds a stratum of black
vegetable mould, more or less thick in proportion to
the original properties of the soil, the time that the
trees have been dropping their manure upon it, and
the declivity which obstructs or facilitates its wash
ing away; for this mould is lighter than water, and
runs off rapidly from the sides of the hills, and sel
dom or never lays long on the steep descents of
mountains. While this bed of vegetable mould
remains, the labour of the farmer is rewarded by rich
and abundant crops, for when he sows and reaps
from such a soil, four or five years before he ex
hausts it, he not only expends as many years' natu
ral production, but he consumes many hundred or
perhaps thousand years' accumulation of natural ma
nure, which it would require a very long time for the
common operations of production and decomposition
to replace. While this vegetable mould is in suffi
cient quantities on the surface, the land is more or
less fertile, independently of the nature of the earth
on which it lies ; it is when this coat of manure is
gone, and the land worn out by constant cropping, that

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

33

the soil shows its fertility, as depending on the nature
of the rock of the country, and the species of earth or
loam resulting from their decomposition. It is at
that time that the difference between a granite and
limestone soil appears, and any one can see the
effects; though few ever think of inquiring into the
cause ; yet it is evident that the washing and decom
position of a granite soil, can only afford sand mixed
with a small proportion of clay, from the mode in
which the rocks divide in their process of decomposi
tion ; and even this small quantity is liable- to filter
through the interstices left in the aggregates of gra
vel, by the form of their crystalline particles. The
limestone, on the contrary, by its easy solution and
facility of decomposition, furnishes to the exhausted
soil, with every rain, a quantity of food, fitted by
solution for vegetable absorption, as well as a great
quantity of mould divided and triturated into impal
pable powder, which forms an excellent pabulum,
through which the vegetable can receive the other
fluids necessary for its growth. Meantime this
mould forms a retentive base or soil, which prevents
the filtration of the smaller particles, and even re
tains the water in its pores, so as to give it out by
regular evaporation to the surface, when necessary
for the increase and support of the plants that may
be sown on the land.
In such a variety of climate and exposure, in a
country alternately covered in one point with the
thickest forests, and in another spreading out info
grassy plains, in one section having a very dry, and
in another a Very humid atmosphere, and having
every shade of temperature, from that of the Arctic
regions to that ofthe West Indies, there^must neces
sarily be generated all the forms and varieties of dis
ease that spring simply from climate. Emigrants
will always find it unsafe to select their residence
near stagnant waters and creeping bayous, on the
rich and heavy timbered alluvions ; yet these, from
their fertility, and the ease with which they are
brought into cultivation, are the points most fre
quently selected. The rich plains of the Scioto
were the graves of the first settlers ; but they have
long since been brought into cultivation, and have
lost their character for insalubrity. A thousand
places in the west, which were selected as residen
ces by the first emigrants on account of their fertility,
and which were at first regarded as haunts of dis
ease and mortality, have now a character for salu
brity. On the lower courses of the Ohio, the Wa
bash, the Tennessee, the Mississippi and its southern
tributaries,-— in short, wherever the bottoms are wide,
the forests deep, the surface level and sloping back

from the river, and the vegetation rank ; wherever.
the rivers overflow, and leave stagnant waters that
are only carried off by evaporation ; wherever there
are in the bottoms ponds and lagoons, to catch and
retain the rains and the overflow, it may be assumed
as a general maxim, that such positions will be un
healthy, and more or less so as more or fewer of these
circumstances concur. Wherever these causes of
disease exist, there is no part of the country which
has not a summer of sufficient heat and duration
to quicken them into fatal action. The very rich
and extensive alluvial prairies of the upper Missis
sippi and of the Illinois, which are covered with a
prodigious growth of grass and weeds, generally con
tain iriarshy basins, small lakes, and ponds, where
the water from the bluffs and the high lands is
caught and retained. They will ordinarily prove
unhealthy, some think more so than the timbered
country, until these reservoirs of stagnant waters
are all drained, and the surplus vegetation is burned
off, or otherwise removed by the progress of cultiva
tion. These places strike the eye with delight.
Their openness and exposure to be swept by the
winds seem to preclude them from the chance of
sickliness ; their extraordinary fertility, and their
being at once ready for the plough, held out allure
ments to emigrants ; but there seems to be in the
great plan of providence a scale in which the advan
tages and disadvantages of human condition are
balanced. Where the lands are extremely fertile it
seems to be appended to them, as a drawback to that
advantage, that they are generally sickly. Emi
grants have scarcely ever- paused long enough, or
taken sufficient elements into the calculation, in se
lecting their residence, with a View to its salubrity.
When the choice is to be made, they are often en
cumbered with families, generally feel stinted both
for time and money, and are in a hurry to com
mence operations for the supply of their wants ; they
are thus apt to give too little weight to the most im
portant motive of all which ought to determine their
election. A deep- bottom, a fertile soil, a position
on the margin of a navigable stream ; these are apt
to be the determining elements of their choice. The
heavy forest is levelled ; a thousand trees moulder
and putrify about the cabin ; the stagnant waters
which, while shielded from the action of the sun by
the forest, had remained comparatively innoxious,
exposed now to the burning rays of the sun, and
rendered more deleterious by being filled with
trunks and branches of decaying trees and all kinds
of putrid vegetation, become laboratories of miasma,
and generate on every side the seeds of disease.

34

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

When it is known that sucn have been precisely the
circumstances in which a great portion -of the emi
grants to the western country have fixed themselves,
in open cabins that drink in the humid atmosphere
of the night through a hundred crevices, in a new
and untried climate, under a higher temperature, un
der the operation of a new diet and regimen, and,
perhaps, under the depressing influence of severe
labour and exposure, need we wonder that the
country has acquired a general character of un-
healthiness ? With every allowance, however,, there
can be no doubt, that in the southern and middle re
gions of this valley, the wide,, level, and heavy tim
bered alluvions are intrinsically more or less unheal
thy ; neither can it be disguised, that in these situa
tions the new resident is subject to bilious com
plaints, to remitting fevers, and, more than all, to
intermitting fever, or fever and ague. This com
plaint is the general scourge of the valley.
It is an undoubted fact, explained in different
ways and by different theories by the people, that
even in the most unfavourable positions, on the low
er waters of the Ohio, or even the bayous of the Ar
kansas or Red River, the emigrant is not so much
exposed to disease while his cabin is still under the
shade of the unbroken forest. The most dangerous
period is, after the trees have been levelled a year or
two, and while they are still decaying about the
dwelling. This well-known fact would seem to, give
plausibility to the doctrine, that these deep and grand
forests feed their foliage with . an atmosphere that is
adverse to the life of man ; and that when the tim
ber is cleared away, the miasma, the noxious air, that
used to be absorbed and devoured by the redundant
vegetation and foliage of the forest, and incorpora
ted with its growth, thus detached and disengaged,
and inhaled by the new residents, becomes a source
of disease. Another fact, in relation to the choice
of a residence, with a view to its salubrity, has been
abundantly and unanswerably proved by experience.
It is, that bluffs on the margins of wide bottoms and
alluvial prairies are more unhealthy than situations in
the bottom, or prairie, which they overlook. This
fact has been amply demonstrated on the Ohio
bottoms and bluffs, on the margins of the alluvial
prairies of the upper Mississippi, and, in short,
wherever a high bluff overlooks a wide bottom.
The inhabitants on the airy arid beautiful bluffs
that bound the noble prairies of the upper Mis
sissippi, in an atmosphere apparently so pure as to
preclude all causes of disease, are far more subject to
lever and ague than the people that live below them
on the level of the prairies ; the same has been re

marked of the Chickasaw bluffs, Fort Pickering, or
Memphis, Fort Adams, Natchez, Baton Rouge, and
the bluffs generally along the great water-courses.
Yet, though such is the uniform lesson of experience,
so deceptive is the salubrious aspect of these airy
hills, which swell above the dun and 'murky air that
seems to lie like a mist over the wide bottoms below
them, that most people, in choosing' their, residence,
will be guided by their senses in opposition to expe
rience. We know not whether the theory by which
this fact is explained is a sound one or not. It is
said that the miasma or noxious air from putrid ve
getation and stagnant water in the swamps and bot
toms, is specifically lighter than atmospheric air;
that, of course, it rises from the plains, and hovers
over the summits of the bluffs, here finding its level
of specific gravity ; and that," were it coloured, it
would be seen overlaying the purer strata of air be
neath it. — The slopes of the Alleghanies, the inte
rior of Ohio and Kentucky, of Tennessee and Indi
ana, where the forest is cleared away, and the land
has been for a sufficient time under cultivation, and
where it is sufficiently remote from stagnant waters — •
the high prairies of Illinois and Missouri, the dry
pine woods of the lower and southern country, parts
of the plains of Opelousas and Attakapas, considera
ble portions of Alabama and Mississippi, and general
ly the open country towards the Chippewayan
Mountains, may be considered as healthy as any
other country. It is a very trite, but a true and im
portant remark, that in proportion as the country
becomes opened, cultivated, and peopled, in propor
tion as the redundance and rankness of natural Vege
tation is replaced by that of cultivation, the country
becomes more healthy.*
This section of the work of Mr. Hinton deserves to
be enriched with further observations on the climate
and diseases of the United States. Several American
writers have favoured the public with their observa
tions on this subject. Among the earliest of those
who have largely contributed to the store of informa
tion on this important matter, might be cited Dr.
Lionel Chalmers, whose work appeared in 1776. In
the Journal of Andrew Ellicot, the reader will find
jnuch information on the same head. Dr. Rush's
Medical Inquiries and Observations, also contain a
large amount of valuable facts, touching the diseases
of the American states, for a very considerable period.
The remarks of Volriey, on the same subject, though
evincing much of the philosophical spirit of that
eminent author, are wanting in accuracy, and seem
* Flint's Western States.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

35

to have been dictated by preconceived theory. A
document of very considerable value, by the late
Lieutenant Governor Colden, printed in.Hosack and
Francis' American Medical and Philosophical Regis
ter,, vol. i. deserves also a careful perusal, both for
the interesting character of the facts which it con
tains, and the distinguished reputation of the writer.
This article furnishes an account of the climate and
diseases of the city of New York, as they prevailed
there nearly a century ago : and as very few obser
vations, relative to this country, of a similar kind,
and written at so early a period, are known to exist,
they are inserted here. It will be noticed, that Dr.
Colden affirms, that the air of the country being al
ways clear, and its' spring strong, we have few con
sumptions or disorders of the lungs. If so, how
shall we account for the extraordinary mortality oc
casioned by this disease at the present day t If our
climate, as the editors of the Register remark, was at
that early period so conducive" to health, and particu
larly well calculated for the relief of pulmonic affec
tions ; and if, as many suppose, the changes, which
have been effected in it be for the better, we must
attribute it principally to the increase of luxury, dis
sipation, and the great imprudence in dress ; and not
to what many have asserted, the very nature and vi
cissitudes of our seasons. But not to dwell upon a
vexed question, we here insert the excellent paper of
Dr. Colden :
" The city of New York (says Dr. Colden) lies near
ly in 40 deg. and 40 min. of north latitude, and about
five hours west from London. -The climate partakes
of the extreme climates ; sometimes the summer is as
hot as in the torrid zone, and the winter often is not
less cold than in the northern parts of Europe. The
heat and cold depend very much upon the winds,
and, for that reason, in the same season of the year,
are very various. In the summer, when the wind
blows from the north-west, (which frequently happens,)
the air is agreeably cool, but in the winter it is pier
cing cold. A southerly and south-westerly wind, if
it continue any time, in summer, becomes very hot,
and if we want winds, which sometimes happens in
July and August, the air becomes sultry. Southerly
winds in winter make the cold very moderate. We
have much less rain or snow than in England, and
the heaven is seldom overcast with clouds. The
north-west wind being so extremely cold, even so far
south as North-Carolina, I believe is owing to the
high ridge of mountains which lies to the westward
of Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and this pro
vince, though it be generally attributed to the great
lakes which lie to the north-westward of this province :

for it is observed in all other countries, that the
winds which come from any great quantity of water,
are not so cold as those that come from mountains,
and are always accompanied with rain or moisture,
whereas the north-west winds here are very dry;
besides, the winds from the lakes must be stopped in
their course by these high mountains which lie be
twixt us and the lakes; This is confirmed by what
I am told by those who have continued some time in
the Sennekas country near Iagara, on the west side of
these mountains, that the north-west winds there are
always accompanied with rain as the easterly winds
are here.
" Though there be jso great a variety of weather
in this country, the height of the mercury in the
barometer does not suffer so great changes as in
England. I have had a barometer by me about six
years, and. never observed the mercury lower than 29
inches and 7 or 8 tenths of an inch, and it is gene
rally betwixt 30 and 30 and an half inches high,
though I have sometimes observed it 31 inches high,
which is as high as it is ever observed in England or
I think any where else ; but it is so high only in the
time of very hard frost.
" The spring is much later than in England : we
perceive but very little of it before the latter end of
April : March is generally cold and windy, though
for the most part the latter end of . February be mild
and warm. The winds in March are generally
northerly, and they as well as the cold are owing to
the melting of the snow to the northward of us, for
these winds are always preceded by some warm
weather either in the latter end of February or be
ginning of March. The lateness of the spring is owing
to the whole country being covered with wood, so
that the . sun cannot easily dissolve the snow which
lies under the trees, or warms the earth. The late
ness of the spring makes it short, the hot weather
succeeding the cold very quickly. In the spring the
people are subject to pleurisies and inflammatory
fevers, as. in -all other countries, upon the breaking up
of hard winters ; but not so much as" in Pennsylvania
and in the countries to the southward. The coun
try people, and such as are most exposed to the cold,
are most liable to- these distempers. Perhaps the
reason of the southern countries being more subject
to pleurisies is, that in those countries the poorer sort
are not so well clothed and have not such warm
houses as in this.
"The summer begins in the end of May, and
continues hot to the beginning of September. July
and August are the most sultry months, and very
often rainy. The air in these two months is always

36

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

full of moisture, so much that the doors and windows
are observed then to be more swelled than at any
other time of the year, and iron rusts so much that it
is difficult to keep any instrument clean which is
made of that metal, though the weather be extremely
hot at the same time. A far greater quantity of dew
likewise falls in these months than at any other time,
and begins to fall a considerable while before, sun-set.
The mornings are frequently foggy, especially near
the river and marshes, after sun-rising. This pro
ceeds from the quantity of vapour which falls in the
night, and is easily raised, but it is generally dissipa
ted before ten in the morning. The heat in these
months is a great deal more uneasy than in June,
though a greater quantity of the sun's rays falls upon
the earth in that month than in these. This is owing
to the quantity of vapour in the air, which retains the
heat and becomes in a manner scalding. For it is
always observed, that the heat is a great deal more
uneasy before rain (though the sun does not shine
clear) than it is after a shower, when it shines with
its greatest brightness ; and a burning-glass before
rain does not burn so vehemently as it does after rain.
If the air continues sultry after rain, we expect more
rain speedily, or a great quantity of dew that night.
The air is frequently fanned in the hot months With
sudden gusts of north-west winds. They commonly
arise in the afternoon, and blow violently for half an
hour or a little more, with heavy showers of rain and
thunder-claps, and leave the air agreeably cool and
serene. When . the country was first settled, these
gusts were very frequent, hardly a day in the hot
seasons passing without them : but now, since the
country begins to be cleared, the summer is not so
sultry, and these gusts are not near so frequent.
They are likewise much more frequent in the pro
vinces to the southward of us than in this.
" The thermometer (mine is of Mr. Patrick's make)
in the summer, within doors, where the sun cannot
reach, is generally about 20, though at sometimes it
is above 15, and at other times below 30. In June,
I tried the difference betwixt what 'it was in the
house and the open air, where it was exposed to the
sun's rays betwixt 2 and 3 in the afternoon, which is
generally the hottest time of the day, and found the
spirit rise 36 degrees, or parts, marked on the ther
mometer, above what it was in the house. The
thermometer in the house stood at 26, and exposed
to the sun rose 5 degrees above the place marked 0.
" The months of July, August, and beginning of
September, are the most sickly months in the year ;
more people being sick and more children dying than
in &U the rest of the year. The epidemical diseases

are intermitting fever, cholera morbus, and fluxes
The intermitting fevers are not near so frequent in
this province as in those more to the southward, but
I think fluxes are more frequent in this town than in
Philadelphia. Two reasons may>be assigned for
this : first, the poor people at this time eat abundance
of water-melons and other such kinds of fruit more
than they do in Philadelphia : the other is, that the
water in the town is not near so good as there, being
brackish and so hard (as it is commonly termed) that
it will not dissolve soap.
" The fall in this country (and all over the main
of America) is most agreeable from the beginning of
September to the middle of November ; the weather
being mild and dry, the sky always serene, and the
people' healthy.
" We reckon the winter from the middle of Novem
ber to March, though the violent frosts do not usually
begin till about Christmas", and then to the middle of
February it is extremely cold ; the great river, during
that time, being frozen so hard, that horses and sleds
pass daily upon it. However it does not every year
freeze within several miles of the city, but in that
time there is often so much ice floating that it is not
safe for vessels to go to sea or to come in. The
winter is above six weeks longer at Albany than at
New-York, that place being 160 miles further up
Hudson's river. It is likewise longer at Philadelphia
than here, though that town be above a degree and
a half more to the southward. This is owing to
that place being situated upon a fresh-water river,
which more easily freezes, and to its distance from
the sea.
"The thermometer in the month of January is
generally about 80. I observed it twice at 100, and
once at 103 ; then the frost and cold were excessive :¦
all liquors, except spirits, froze. I found Madeira
wine (which is a very strong wine) -frozen in the
morning in a room where there had been a good fire
all day till eleven at night. Hudson's river was then
frozen over at the town, where it is about two miles
broad, and the water very salt, so that people passed
over upon the ice in crowds ; but the ice did not
continue fast at this place above three days. In the
beginning of winter people are in danger of rheumatic
pains, and in February of bastard pleurisies.
" The air of the country being almost aways clear,
and its spring strong, we have few consumptions, or
diseases of the lungs. I never heard of a broken-
winded horse in this country. People inclined to be
consumptive in England, are often perfectly cured
by our fine air, but if there be ulcers formed they die
in a little time.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES

37

" The climate grows every day better as the coun
try is cleared of the woods, and more healthy, as all
the people that have lived long here testify. This
has even been sensible to me, though I have been but
about twelve years in the country ; I therefore doubt
hot but it will in time become one of the most agreea
ble and healthy climates on the face of the earth. As
it is at present, I prefer it to the climate of England,
and I believe most people that have lived any consi
derable time here, and are returned to England, will
confirm this."
" We would further refer the reader, solicitous of
information on this interesting topic, to several pa
pers printed in the Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society, to the New York Medical
Repository, the medical works of Dr. Edward Mil
ler, Currie on the Diseases of the United States,
and to Hosack's Essays, chiefly on Medical and Phi
losophical subjects; This last named writer has
furnished us with an important series of clinical ob
servations on the diseases of New York for a series
of years, and by his long and ample experience sa
tisfactorily demonstrated the specific character of
many of the epidemics with which the United States,
at different periods, have been visited, and proved, to
the conviction of the unprejudiced, that the American
climate is not the latitude of pestilence. In another
portion of this work we have embodied the observa
tions of an American writer on the causes and con
sequences of the cholera. Whether the United States
will again be visited by this dreadful scourge remains
yet to be seen. The affirmative inference might be
drawn from the notices which have been taken of it
by several medical observers. See the Cholera Ga
zette, published by Carey <fc Lee, Philadelphia ; Dr.
Paine's Letters on the Cholera of New York ; and
Professor J. W. Francis' Letter on the Cholera As
phyxia. From this last named author we make the
following extract :
" I purpose saying a few words, says Dr. Francis,
on the peculiar character of this pestilence. It is
conceded by all, that the origin of epidemic diseases
is still enveloped in great obscurity ; and the theories
on this subject, whether referring to a distempered
state of the atmosphere, to exhalations from putrid
animal or vegetable matter, or to specific contagion,
have been alike conjectural and unsatisfactory. The'
cholera, like all preceding epidemics, has exercised,
but without any very useful results, the ingenuity of
the speculative and philosophical observer. Whether
the materies morbi of cholera claims a siderial or a
telluric origin, the atmosphere is the medium through
which it operates. It prevails in all climates and at
Yol. -II— Nos. 39 & 40. E

all seasons ; it exists in every variety of soils ; on
mountains and in valleys, in marshes and on rocks,
in dryness and in humidity. Unlike influenza and
some other specific diseases, its ravages are independ
ent of winds and currents ; neither the analysis of
the gases of the atmosphere, nor barometrical or ther-
mometrical investigations, solve the difficulty of its
birth, and we are baffled in reviewing its progress to
ascertain the peculiar influence of localities in pro
ducing it. The inhabitants of the dense city and
the barren plain are subjected to its devastating pow
er. Such, it must ber admitted, is the fact, as relates
to cholera asphyxia : yet so many anomalies appear
in the career of this disease, that future observation
and research are demanded, the better to discover its
concealed cause, and the principles of its inter-com
munication. We must admit a distempered atmos
phere, from whatever modifying agencies, and where
men most do congregate, and local impurities most
abound, there we infer an atmospheric condition from
which cholera derives aid, to give strength to its ve
nom, and wings to its extension. Deviations or ex
traordinary vicissitudes in the state of the seasons,
and unfavourable localities, are perhaps conspicuously
to be classed among the pestilential and co-operative
causes. It follows in the track of human intercourse.
Predisposition to the disease is acquired, and the ex
citing causes which call it forth embrace the innu
merable circumstances connected with the economy
of man in every state and condition : errors in diet
and regimen ; poverty, and its concomitants ; wealth,
with its indulgences ; ill ventilated situations or
apartments ; the influence of fear, and whatever un
dermines the physical energies. The cholera courts
the inebriate and the imprudent ; the sober and the
temperate are not exempt from its grasp ; it attacks
infantile existence, manhood, and old age ; the vo
luptuary and the ascetic ; both sexes, and all colours ;
the unacclimated stranger, and the native citizen.
To record its numerous occasional and exciting
causes would require pages. Our prophylactics,
therefore, must be summarily stated : the earliest
attention is to be given to the premonitory diarrhoea ;
and among the essential requisites are pure air, per
sonal cleanliness, food for the hungry, raiment for
the naked, the avoidance of extremes of temperature,
rigid dietetics, great moderation in the use of ardent
drinks, or rather their' total prohibition ; the mind
sustained by conscientious resolution, and a fixed
confidence in a protecting Providence.
" That localities influence the character and extent
ofthe pestilence, and aggravate its type in particular
places in New York, we have multiplied proofs \ but

38

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

there is something in the march of this disease which
eludes our powers of detection. As if, to add to its
mysterious career, it has recently made its appearance
in the village of Harlem, situate about seven miles
from this city, where its malignancy and fatality
have, within the period of a few days, far surpassed
the worst results we have encountered among the
most wretched and depraved of our population. I
am credibly informed, that of sixty cases there was
not a recovery. Three of the doctors, all I believe
the place could boast of, fell beneath its stroke. Our
latest account of its progress shows that it has propa
gated itself through our beautiful western country,
from Albany on the Hudson to Buffalo on Lake Erie.
Its extensive ravages give but a too well-grounded
apprehension that it is destined to pervade our
land. " I have expressed the opinion, that the physiogno
my of cholera asphyxia renders it, when once practi
cally known, indelible on the memory ; and I would,
with all due deference, guard you against adopting
the belief that the epidemic disease now prevailing.
is only a modification of the usual cholera morbus of
the United States. In whatever attire it approaches,
you will find it a stranger. Equally earnest would
I be to caution you in too hastily supposing that the
malignant cholera is the same, or a disease similar to
the spotted fever, or malignant pleurisy, or sinking
typhus, as certain disorders have been termed. No
sology cannot classify a more distinctive disease than
the prevailing cholera ; and the confounding the
spotted fever, the malignant pleurisy, and the sinking
typhus of some of our northern and eastern states,
with this strikingly characteristic disease, is discard
ing the leading principles which govern in the clas
sification of morbid phenomena. You may deem
these remarks superfluous ; but, inasmuch as some
have pronounced an identity in these diseases, and
extolled, as the best method for the treatment of
cholera, the almost unmeasured internal use of the
diffusible stimuli, such as brandy, ether, and the like,
and the excessive employment of opium, and other
narcotics, I have no hesitation to add, that a like
fatality would follow such practice in cholera as was
witnessed from this empirical method many years
ago, when spotted fever prevailed extensively among
us. See the report of the Massachusetts Medical
Society on the treatment of the spotted' fever by this
unwarrantable practice.
" Medical records abound in the declaration, that
upon the invasion of pestilential diseases, the first
cases are generally of most malignancy and fatality ;
and facts of this sort are sometimes explained on the

principle that those unfortunate individuals were most
susceptible of the action of the noxious cause. In
the progress thus far of the epidemic cholera among
us, we still meet with examples marked by as formi
dable symptoms, and of as rapid termination, as at
the commencement of the disease ; and, hence it is
to be regretted, that some of our authorities have pro
mulgated the opinion that the complaint is already of
a mitigated type. Whatever our hopes, we have as
yet no such grounds of congratulation. Look, too,
at the history of the Montreal pestilence.
" There is another error, fraught with much ha
zard, which has lately received the sanction of autho
rity. The medical council of our board of health
have invited our absent citizens to an early return,
and assert that those who have fairly passed through
one attack of the disease, in the form of diarrhoea or
of malignant cholera, may expect exemption from
another. Be assured-, this declaration is wholly un
tenable. There is no such immunity from a second
attack of cholera, and our proofs establish a contrary
doctrine. Cases are within the experience of several
of our practitioners, of persons who had fairly gone
through a first attack, and have fallen victims to a
second. VerY lately an individual had a protracted
recovery from a third attack.
" On no former occasion has New York, frequent
ly visited by the direful ravages of the yellow fever,
exhibited a more melancholy spectacle. Of a resi
dent population of two hundred and twenty thousand,
and of transitory inhabitants more than twenty-five
thousand at the time of the first occurrence of this
pestilence, at least one third are now dispersed in
every direction, lt is impossible to give you at pre
sent any just view of the number of cases and deaths ;
the former are but too imperfectly reported to our
board, and hence the number of interments seems
extraordinary when compared with the reported
cholera cases. About the middle of July the disease
was most rife, and on one day of that month we had
three hundred and eleven cases in public and private
practice — inter ments one hundred and fifty-six. When
we advert to -the situation of the larger portion of
those dependent on their daily labour for their daily
food, it requires no effort ofthe imagination to picture
the consequent distress. To the medical faculty, let
me observe by the way, the inhabitants of this city
are most deeply indebted at this moment. A small
part, indeed, have fled, recreant to their honour and
their duty ; but the great body of them have, thus
far, evinced to my own personal knowledge, a degree
of courage and industry, which no hazard or difficulty
has overcome. To no class of our citizens are pesti-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

39

lential diseases more injurious in their prudential
consequences : exposure to disease and death, with
no other remuneration than the consciousness of
duty, is the necessary attendant on every epidemic
pestilence. When this formidable disease shall have

disappeared from among us, and its history be re
corded by the faithful historian, the skill and humane
exertions of the medical profession, the munificence
of the affluent, and the disinterested benevolence of
all classes, will not be forgotten."

BOOK II.

NATURAL HISTORY.

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.
The discovery of the continent of America was,
emphatically, the discovery of a new world. Al
though possessing, of course, many things in com
mon with the other parts of this globe, and exhibit
ing proofs not only of a community, but of an identity
of origin, and similarity of general character, it present
ed striking and interesting novelties in every depart
ment of nature's works. Many of its productions in
the animal and vegetable worlds are not only pecu
liar, but both beautiful and useful in no ordinary de
gree, and have done much to enlarge the menagerie,
to adorn the shrubbery, and to augment the resour
ces of trade ; while, though in some instances latest
in attracting regard, the bosom of the earth contains
not only ample treasures of metallic wealth, but
splendid, if not unique specimens for the cabinet of
the mineralogist, and new facts, of no little curiosity
for the geological inquirer. This extended and en
gaging field of scientific research has attracted, in
part, the observation of which it is worthy ; but up
te the present period the examination of it is far from
being complete in any direction. That portion of
this immense continent to which our attention is di
rected, namely, the territory of the United States, pos
sesses in its full proportion the interest which at
taches to the whole ; and we shall endeavqur to col
lect, from all the authentic sources to which we have
access, the matters of principal importance, so that
our pages shall contain a summary view of the exist
ing state of natural science as' it respects this portion
of the globe. We shall treat of the mineral, the ve
getable, and the animal kingdoms, under the titles
Geology, Mineralogy, Botany, and Zoology.

CHAPTER I.
GEOLOGY.

Considering the comparatively recent date of
geology as a European science, it is not surprising

that earlier attention was not paid to in America
The first considerable attempt towards a scientific
view of the character and relations of the strata in
the United States was made by Mr. Maclure, a short
time previous to the year 1S12. His work, though
small, and necessarily general in its statements, was
a very valuable commencement, and has served both
as a guide for subsequent inquirers, and a kind of
carte blanche, on which their corrections or their
discoveries may be inscribed. The field of geologi
cal research having been so well opened, the number
of these subsequent labourers has been by no means
small, and their investigations have been conducted
with much skill and success. It has been our en
deavour, in the necessarily, condensed account we
have prepared of the geology of the United States, to
avail ourselves of the most recent information, and
to illustrate this interesting subject by a map as ac
curate and complete as the fragments of knowledge
in this department would enable us to compile. We
have added such other drawings as appeared most
material. In order to obtain a view of the general geoloei-
cal formation of the territory of the United States, it
will be advantageous to recall the features of its phy
sical geography — the Appalachian Mountains on the
east, with the slope from them to the Atlantic Ocean ;
the Chippewayan. mountains to the west, with the
valleys intervening between them and the Pacific
Ocean ;* and the extended valley between these ele
vated ranges, with the Ozark Mountains dividing it in
the centre, and the Black Mountains occupying its
north-western angle. The geological structure of
the country is intimately connected with these natu
ral features.
To begin Avith the Chippewayan, as by far the
most elevated range.t The summits of this chain
of mountains are formed entirely of primitive rocks,
and almost exclusively, not merely of the granitic

dure

Observations on the Geology of the United States, by W. Ma-

t Sea James's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, vol. iii.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

41

fkmily, but of granite itself. The primitive clay-slate
and limestone appear to be entirely wanting, together
with mica-slate, while gneiss occurs in small quantity,
and the granite passes into it by imperceptible gra
dations. As many members of the primitive class
are here absent, the transition rocks of the Wernerians
are altogether so. Immediately upon the granite
rests a red and saline sandstone ; and this through
the whole length of the mountain chain, so far as it
has been examined, without the intervention in any
case of any other rock. We discover here, therefore,
comparatively few traces of thatmagnifioent profusion
of animal and vegetable life, which in other parts of
the globe has reared mountains of limestone, clay-slate,
and those other aggregates, which if not entirely, are
often in a great measure made up of the exuvise of
living beings.
The western boundary of this formation of sand
stone corresponds to the side of the easternmost grani
tic ranges. From the Platte towards the south, the
sandstone increases in width, and on the Canadian it
extends more than half the distance from the sour
ces of that river to its confluence with the Arkansas.
It consists of two members. 1. Red sandstone. —
This rock, which is the lowest of the horizontal or
flostz rocks met with in this part of the country, is
very abundant in all the region immediately subja
cent to the mountains. It occurs at intervals along
their base, reposing against the primitive rocks in an
erect or highly-inclined position. It varies in colour
from bright brick-red to dark brown, and is some
times found exhibiting various shades of yellow and
gray ; it is, however, almost invariably ferruginous ;
and the predominance of- red in the colouring cer
tainly entitles it to thedistinctive appellation of red
sandstone. The lowest part of the stratum has fre
quently least colour, and is also the most compact
and hard.. This is not, however, invariably the
case ; for in the neighbourhood of the Platte, that
part of it which lies immediately upon the granite is
white, and contains beds of coarse conglomerate or
puddingstone. At the lowest points which could be
examined, are found embodied large oval or irregu
lar masses of hornstone, usually of a yellowish white
or bluish colour ; and near the surface of these mass-
,es, are found the few well-marked organic relics the
stratum can be said to contain. Higher up the rock
becomes much softer, and usually of a browner co
lour. It is disposed in immense horizontal laminae
or strata, which, when broken transversely, exhibit
some tendency to separate into fragments of a rhom
bic form. The character which most particularly
distinguishes this rock from the old red sandstone of

Werner, pointed out by Maclure in New York and
New Jersey, appears to be the constant accompani
ment of gypsum and muriate of soda. 2. Argillace
ous or gray scertetotme.— Immediately above the red
sandstone where any rock rests upon it, a gray or
yellowish-white sandstone, is found, which is the se
cond variety. It most frequently contains a large
proportion of argillaceous earth in the cement, and
has a more or less slaty structure. The line of se
paration betwixt the- two is often manifest and well
defined, and in other instances they pass by imper
ceptible gradations into each other. The upper or
gray sandstone is usually more compact and homo
geneous than the red ; it breaks, like the former,
though more rarely, into large cubic Or rhombic
masses, which, on account of the more compact tex
ture of the stone, retain their form longer than those
of the other variety. The precipices formed by both
are often lofty and perpendicular ; but the projections
and angles of the red are more worn and rounded
than those of the gray. The narrow defiles
and ravines which the streams of water have exca
vated, are less tortuous when they are made entirely
in the gray sandstone than in other instances ; and
the springs of water flowing from it are more free of
mineral impregnations than such as are found in the
other variety.
The sandstone formation just described, though it
must be supposed to have been at one time horizon
tal and uniform, is now found in a state of entire
disruption and disorder. This may be best described,
perhaps, by supposing oneself to be approaching the
mountains from the valley of the Mississippi. The
surface of the sandy plain rises perceptibly towards
the base of the mountains ; and becoming constantly
more and more undulating,, is at length broken, dis
closing some cliffs and ledges of micaceous sandstone.
This sandstone occurs in horizontal strata, some
times divided by the beds of the streams, and forming
low ridges parallel to the mountains. They are
separated from the first range of primitive by more
elevated cliffs of a similar sandstone, having its strata
in a highly inclined position. Behind these, occur
lofty but uninterrupted ranges of naked rocks, desti
tute of any covering of earthy or vegetable matter,
and standing nearly perpendicular. At a distant
view, they present to the eye the forms of walls,
towers, pyramids, and columns, seeming rather the
effect of the most laborious efforts of art, than the
productions of nature. When surveyed from the
more elevated summits of the first granitic range,
these, immense strata of sandstone standing on edge,
and sometimes inclining at various angles towards

42

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

the primitive, resemble the plates of ice often seen
thrown into a vertical position in the eddies and
along the banks of rivers. The position of the
Strata of sandstone varies in the distance of a few
miles from nearly horizontal to an inclination of more
than sixty degrees, and that without any very mani
fest change of character, or the interposition of any
other stratum. The laminae most distant from the
primitive, occupying the eastern sides of the first
ridges, though lowest in actual elevation, may with
propriety be considered the uppermost, as resting on
those beyond. At the level of the surface of the great
plain, they sink beneath the soil, and in the neigh
bourhood of the river Platte they are no more seen.
This tract of sandstone, which skirts the eastern
boundary of the Chippewayan Mountains, and appears
to belong to that immense secondary formation which
occupies the valley of the- Mississippi, abounds in
scenery of a grand and interesting character. The
angle of inclination of the strata often approaches 90°,
and is very rarely less than 45". That side of the
ridges next the primitive appears to have been broken
off from a part of the stratum beyond, and is usually an
abrupt and perpendicular precipice, sometimes even
overhanging and sheltering a considerable extent of
surface; the face of the stratum is usually smooth
and hard, and both sides are alike destitute of soil
and verdure. Elevations of this description are met
with, varying from twenty to several thousand feet in
thickness. Neither are they by any means uniform
in height ; some of them rise, probably, three or four
hundred feet ; and considering their singular charac
ter, would appear high, were they not subjected to an
immediate and disadvantageous comparison with the
stupendous Andes at whose feet they are placed. Their
summits in some instances are regular and horizontal,
and are crowned with a scanty growth. of cedar and
pine. Where the cement and most of the materials
of the sandstone are silicious, the rock evinces a
tendency to break into fragments of a rhombic form ;
and in this case the elevated edge presents, an irre
gularly notched or serrated surface. Sandstones
consisting of silex with the least intermixture of fo
reign ingredients, are the most durable ; but in the
region of which we speak, the variations in the com
position, cement, and characters of the sandstone, are
innumerable; clay and oxide of iron enter into its
composition in considerable proportions, and render
it unfit to withstand the attacks of the various agents
whose effect is to hasten dissolution ancl decay.
Highly elevated rocks of this description may well be
supposed in a state of rapid and perceptible change.
The sharp angles and asperities of surface which

they may have originally presented, are soon worn
away ; the matter constantly removed by the agency
of water from their sides and summits is deposited at
their feet ; their elevation gradually diminishes, and
even the inclination of their strata becomes at length
obscure or wholly un discoverable. This appears to
have been a part of the process by which numerous
conical hills and mounds have been interspersed
among the highly inclined naked rocks above men
tioned ; they are often clothed with considerable
verdure to their summits, and add greatly to the
beauty of the surrounding scenery. The contrast of
colours in this rude but majestic region often pro
duces the most brilliant and grateful > effects. The
deep green of the small and almost, procumbent cedars
and junipers, with the less intense colours of various
species of deciduous foliage, acquires new beauty
from being placed as a margin to the glowing red
and yellow seen on the surfaces of many of the rocks-
The sandstone along the base of the mountains,.
though apparently not very recent, contains the re
mains of marine -animals and pktnts, and embraces
some extensive beds of puddingstone.
Overlying the' red sandstone, southward of the
Arkansas, are rocks of basaltic origin. They present
a Striking contrast, by their dark colour, by the vast-
n.ess and irregularity of their masses, to the smooth,.
light, and fissile sandstone on which they rest.
Sometimes they are compact and apparently homoge
neous in their composition, and in many particulars
of structure, form, hardness, &c. more analogous to
the primitive rocks than to those reeent secondary
aggregates with which they are associated. In other
instances, black and shapeless masses of porous and
amygdaloidal 'Substances are seen scattered about the
plains or heaped in conical masses, but having no
immediate connexion with the strata on which they
rest. Most of the rocks belonging to this class were
observed in the neighbourhood of the sources of the
Canadian ; and may be distinguished into two kinds,.
referable to the two divisions called greenstone and
amygdaloid. 1. Greenstone. It appears in this district under
almost every variety of form and character noticed
by mineralogists. Sometimes it is nearly or quite free
from any intermixture of hornblende, is of a fine dark
green colour, and closely resembles some varieties of
serpentine ; sometimes its colour is a dull gray, gra
duating into brown and black of various shades and
intensities. It forms numerous conical hills, of con
siderable elevation, scattered without order, or group
ed in various directions. These hills are usually of
a, regular and beautiful form. The great plain on

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

43

which they repose is elevated, and destitute of tim
ber or water, but ornamented with a carpet of thick
and verdant grasses ; and the hills, though steep and
high, are sometimes smooth and green to the sum
mit, the surface on all sides being unbroken by trees
or rocks, and covered with thick turf. The Whole
forms ^ scene of singular beauty. " During our
journey across the district now under consideration,"
says Dr. James, " we had constantly occasion to ad
mire the freshness and abundance ofthe grasses and
other herbaceous plants. The plains of the Platte
and Arkansas we had seen brown and desolate, as if
recently ravaged by fire ; but here we passed elevated
tracts, where for many miles, we could find no water
for our own necessities, yet the vegetation possessed
the freshness of spring in the most fertile regions."
But the conic hills just mentioned are not the only
form under" which the greenstone appears. It some
times rises in low irregular ridges, extending a con
siderable distance,, and sloping on both sides into
the level of the plain. In the narrow channels
which the streams of water have sunk in it, may be
seen perpendicular precipices of great elevation, but
the valley between them is usually almost filled with
large broken masses of the rock, which frequently
exhibit a prismatic form. It falls readily into large
masses, but seems strongly to resist that progress of
disintegration which it must undergo before it can be
removed by the water. The face ofthe perpendicu
lar precipices is almost invariably marked by distinct
and large seams running nearly parallel to each other,
and at right angles with the horizon. Following the
water-courses, which are sunk a considerable dis
tance below the surface, the line of separation from
the sandstone, on which the greenstone rests at length
becomes visible.
2. .Amygdaloid, a porous or vesicular rock, of a
very dark gray, greenish, or black colour, usually
found near the greenstone, but sometimes in connex
ion with the sandstone. In its ultimate composition
it resembles greenstone, but there were never seen in
it such large fragments of feldspar and scales of mica
as were observed in that rock. The amygdaloidal
cavities which every where penetrate this rock are of
various sizes, some of them appearing like bubbles
which have been formed in a semifluid mass, and
afterwards lengthened and variously distorted by the
motion of the contiguous matter. Near the surface
they contain a soft white or yellowish-white substance,
very different from the rock itself, usually a soft
chalk-like carbonate of lime. This gives the recent
surface a mottled appearance ; but on surfaces which
have been for some time exposed to the air, this soft

substance has been removed, and the pores and vesi
cles are found empty. Amygdaloid does not appear
to occupy any very great extent of the country near
the mountains. It was not met with imbedded in, or
surmounted by, any other rock. Like the greenstone,
it forms conical hills, which sometimes occur in deep
water-worn valleys, bounded on both sides by perpen
dicular walls of sandstone ; it is likewise seen in the
high plains, sometimes in the form of narrow and
crooked ridges, apparently following what were an
ciently the beds of small brooks. When either of
the two rocks last mentioned occur, it is not uncom
mon to find detached masses of a stone somewhat
resembling the pumice-stone of commerce. It is
usually of a faint red or yellowish-white colour, but
sometimes it is brown, or nearly black. It feels less
harsh than the pumice-stone which is used in the arts,
and seems to consist in a great degree of clay. It
appears to be entirely similar to the substance brought
down the Missouri by the annual floods, and ^by
many considered as a product of pseudo-volcanic
fires, said to exist on that river. With regard to the
soils resting upon the rocks of this trap formation, it
may be worthy of remark, that gravel and water-worn
pebbles rarely occur, except in situations where it is
easy to see that they may have been derived from
the substratum of sandstone. Pieces of charred wood
were found in the sandstone underlying the trap rocks ;
but the travellers of Major Long's party did not
observe any thing analogous to the- whin-dykes of
Europe, nor do they notice an altered character in
the trap and sandstone at their junction.
Before we advert to any other object in the field
we are now viewing, the valley immediately to the
eastward of the Chippewayan range claims our atten
tion, on account of its close geological connexion
with those mountains. We have seen already that
the sandstones of this region, diminishing in their
elevation as they recede from the granite, dip at a
moderate angle under the bed of the valley. After
they are lost sight of, the valley itself consists of an
immense accumulation of sand, the apparent debris
of the mountains. The soil to an unknown depth
is constituted of gravel made up of rounded granitic
fragments, varying in dimensions from the size of a
six-pound shot to finish sand. This great mass of
granitic fragments, evidently brought down by the
agency of water from the sides and summits of the
mountains, slopes gradually from their base, and ap
pears, as far as examinations have extended, to cor
respond, in some measure, to the elevation and ex
tent of that part of the mountains opposite which it
is placed. The minute particles derived from the

44

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

quartzose portions of the primitive aggregates, being
least liable to decomposition, have been carried to the
greatest distance, and now form the almost unmixed
soil of the eastern margin of the great sandy desert ;
the central portions are of a coarser sand, with
which some particles of feldspar and mica are inter
mixed ; nearer the mountains, pebbles and boulders
become frequent, and at length almost cover the sur
face of the country. It is probable that many parts
of this extensive desert may differ from that traversed
by the Platte, in having the surface more or less
covered with horizontal strata of sandstone and con
glomerate, instead of loose sand and pebbles ; indeed,
there are many appearances indicating that a forma
tion of this kind formerly extended down the Platte
much farther than at present. Towards the north
the sands continue to the margin of the Black Moun
tains ; and below these still further to the east, until
met by some, more recent deposits intervening be
tween them and the Ozark range. From the strong
saline impregnation and the brick-red colour of the
streams, especially below the Arkansas, there is rea
son to suppose that the red or saline sandstone is
continued at no great depth under the sand to near
the mouth of the Canadian river.
Let us now look at the next most considerable
mountain range, the Apalachian ; in geological struc
ture, as well as in other respects, differing widely
from that we have just been contemplating. A large
portion of these mountains, the whole of their eastern
front, is composed of primitive rocks, comprehend
ing both the granitic family and its associated strata
of clay-slate and limestone. In New England the
rocks of this class constitute the sea-coast, and, with
some exceptions, extend inwards to the St. Law
rence, so as to form the general aspect, as well as the
most elevated parts of the country. Southward of
the Hudson the edge of the primitive follows the
general contour of the mountains, at a considerable
but variable distance from the sea, to their termi
nation, and until it meets more recent deposits at the
extremity of the mountain range. The breadth of
this primitive belt is very unequal. It occupies but
a small part of the country, where it passes through
the states of Pennsylvania and Maryland, in which
the highest part of the range of mountains to the
west consists of transition, with some intervening val
leys of secondary strata. In Virginia, the primitive
increases in breadth, and proportionally in height,
constituting the greatest mass, as well as the most
elevated points of the mountains in the states of
North Carolina and Georgia. Besides this range,
there is a great mass of primitive on the west side

of Lake Champlain, having that lake and Lake
George for a boundary on the east, joining the primi
tive in Canada to the north and north-west, and follow
ing a line from the Thousand Islands in the St. Law
rence, running nearly parallel to the Mohawk river,
until it meets Lake George as a south-west limit.
This mass of primitive rocks runs across the Mo
hawk at the Little Falls, and near to Johnstown,
where it is covered by limestone ; it occupies all the
mountanous country between Lake Champlain, the
St. Lawrence, and Lake Ontario.
In general, the primitive rocks run from a north
and south to a north-east and south-west direction,
and dip generally to the south-east .at an angle of
more than forty-five degrees with the horizon ; their
highest elevation is towards their north-western limit,
whence they gradually* descend to the south-east, there
being covered by more recent strata ; and the great
est mass, as well as the highest mountains, consist
ing of primitive rock, is found towards the northern
and southern extremities of the range. The moun
tains of this formation generally consist of detached
masses, with rounded flat tops and a circular waving
outline, as the White Hills to the north ; or coni-
cally waving with small pyramidical tops, as the
peaks of Otter, and the ranges of hills to the south.
Granite in large masses forms but a small part of
this formation, and is found indifferently on the tops
of mountains and in the plains ; it is both large and
small grained, is mixed occasionally with hornblende
and talc, and contains, as in Europe, rounded masses
of a rock consisting of hornblende and feldspar, in
small grains, disseminated through it ; it generally
divides vertically into rhomboids, and, except in some
very small grained varieties, there is no appearance
of stratification. When found in low situations, as
in the interior of South Carolina and Georgia, it is
frequently so far decomposed as to have lost the
adhesion of its particles, to the depth of thirty or
forty feet below the surface ; each crystal is in its
place, and the whole looks like solid granite, while you
may take it up in handfuls like sand and gravel.
Gneiss extends perhaps over a half of this formation,
(though some writers have taken a lower estimate,)
and includes in a great many places beds from three
to 300 feet thick of a very large grained granite,
which run in the same direction, and dip as the
gneiss does ; it is in those beds generally that the
emerald, phosphat of lime, tourmaline, garnet, cymo-
phane, octahedral iron ore, graphic granite, &c. (fee.
are found. These beds are mixed, and alternate
occasionally in the same gneiss, with the primitive
¦ limestone, the beds of hornblende and hornblende

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

45

slate, serpentine, magnetic iron ore, and feldspar
rocks. In some places the gneiss contains so much
mica as to run into mica slate ; in others, large no
dules of quartz or feldspar ; in others, hornblende
takes the place of the mica ; in short, I scarcely know
any of the primitive rocks, says Mr. Maclure, that
may not occasionally be found included in the
gneiss formation. Primitive clay-slate is not abun
dant, but the granular limestone is so, and wherever
found is observed to be the uppermost in the series
of primitive rocks.. In this region hornblende rocks,
porphyry, and serpentine are not wanting, and primi
tive trap or greenstone occurs abundantly. Several
dykes are mentioned by Mr. Hitchcock* as deserving
of more minute investigation. It has been observed
that the granite by no means generally constitues the
most elevated parts of this region. From the highly
crystalline gneiss rock at Philadelphia, there is a
gradual ascent, across strata more and more rer
cent, to the roeks of the coal formation, about
the summit of the Alleghanies ; and some of the
granitic mountains of New England are far surpass
ed in elevation by the neighbouring hills and ridges
of mica slate, talcose rocks, or even more recent ag
gregates. Below the Hudson, where the primitive
rock is no longer bounded by the sea, it is in imme
diate contact, through its whole length, with second
ary and tertiary beds, of which we shall have occa
sion to speak when we refer to the Atlantic Slope.
On the other side, an immense body of transition
strata, according to Werner, reposes on the primitive.
These are. to be traced on the eastern -side of Lake
Champlain, to within a -short distance of New York,
Whence they stretch in a line corresponding with
the general direction ofthe mountains to their south
ern extremity, the whole way'constituting the north
western boundary of the primitive rocks.
The breadth of the transition district, like that of
the primitive, is variable. Narrow towards the Gulf
of Mexico, it widens gradually towards the north-
east,"till it reaches the river Hudson. From its-upper
portion it sends off a considerable arm, penetrating
for several hundred miles into the granitic region, or
overlying it, but running parallel with the principal
body. After the primitive it forms some of the
highest mountains in the range, and appears to be
both higher and wider to the west in the states of
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and part of Virginia, where
the primitive is least extended and lowest in height.
It contains all the varieties of rocks found in the
same formation in Europe. It is generally broadest
* Silliman's' Journal, vol. vii.
Vol. IL— Nos. 39 & 40. F

where the primitive is narrowest, and vice versa ; its
breadth varying from twenty to one hundred miles ;
the stratification runs from a north and south to a
north-east and south-west direction, dipping general
ly to the north-west at an angle in most places under
forty-five degrees with the horizon ; on the edge of
the primitive it deviates in some places from this
general rule, and dips for a short distance to the south
east. The most elevated giound is on the confines
of North Carolina and Georgia, along the south-east
limits to Magotty Gap, thence descending towards
the north-west until it meets the secondary ; from
Magotty Gap north-easterly, the highest ground is on
the north-west side, sloping gradually towards the
primitive, which ranges along its south-eastern bound
ary. The outline of the mountains of this formation
is almost a straight line, with few interruptions,
bounding long parallel ridges of nearly the same
height, declining gently towards the side where the
stratification dips from the horizon, and more preci
pitous on the opposite side, where the edge of the
stratum breaks out to the day.
This formation is composed of the following rocks :
viz. a small-grained transition limestone, of all shades
of colour, from white to dark blue, and in some places
intimately mixed with strata of graywacke slate, with
limespar in veins and disseminated, and in many places
with small grained particles, so as to put on the ap
pearance of a sandstone with excess of lime cement.
This occurs in beds from fifty to five thousand feet
in width, alternating with graywacke and graywacke
slate. Near the bdrders of the primitive is found a
siliceous aggregate, having particles of a light blue
colour, from the size of a pin's head to an egg, dissem
inated in some places in a cement of a slaty texture,
and in others in a qua-rtzose cement ; a fine sandstone
cemented with quartz, in large masses, often of a slaty
structure, with small detached scales of mica inter
vening; a rock not far from the borders of the prhni- -
tive partaking both of the porphyry and the gray
wacke, having both feldspar crystals and round peb
bles in it, with a cement of a kind of dull chlorite
slate in excess ; another, though rarer, with pebbles
and feldspar crystals in a compact petrosiliceous ce
ment ; and a great variety of other rocks, which,
from their composition and situation, cannot be classed
but with the transition. The limestone, graywacke,
and graywacke slate, generally occupy the valleys,
and the quartzose aggregates the ridges, amongst
which is what is called the country burr stone, or
mill-stone grit, which must not be confounded with
another rock, likewise denominated mill-stone grit,
which is a small grained granite, with much quartz

46

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

found in the primitive formation. There are many
and extensive caves in the limestone of this forma
tion, some of which extend underground for several
miles, and in which the bones of various animals are
found. It is the lowest, and is considered as the
most ancient of the rocks containing organized re
mains, which are those of cryptogamous plants, and
animals without sight. . The graywacke has been
observed to contain impressions of organized remains,
but these are usually those of zoophytic animals, and
are exceedingly unlike those found so abundantly in
the shale of coal formations. Its colours are variable ;
it is, however, most commonly bluish, black, or dark
brown. Between Albany and Pittsfield it is. met of
a gray colour, and a few miles to the south-east of
White-hall, New York, it is bright red. The gray
wacke appears to form the connecting link between
the clay slate and a rock which has been called the
old red sandstone, and is usually found- intimately
blended either with the one or the other. The sand
stone to which the name just used is applied, occurs
throughout the whole extent of the transition forma
tion, and evidently belongs to the oldest depositions
of that rock. It is for the most part distinctly strati
fied, and in all cases its stratification is inclined. It
consists of grains of quartz united by a scanty ce
ment, and usually more or less rounded, as if by at
trition and the operation of currents of water ; their
fragments vary in magnitude from the finest sand to
boulders of several pounds weight. Among the Al
leghany mountains are many extensive beds of pud
ding-stone, or coarse conglomerate, usually coloured
by oxide of iron. It is also to be observed, that this
formation of transition sandstone sometimes embraces
extensive beds, integrant particles of which have by
no means the appearance of having been rounded by
attrition. As in the case of almost all the rocks of
secondary formation, there appear to have been periods
during the time of its deposition when the waters of
the superincumbent ocean ceased to throw down the
mechanical debris of former rocks, and deposited
earthy matter from a state of chemical solution.
The old red sandstone contains no beds of bituminous
coal, though many of anthracite, and few organized
remains. Of the rocks thus described, the limestone occurs
extensively all along the north-western side of the
primitive strata ; sometimes, it is stated, alternating
with granular or primitive limestone, which often
graduates, by minute and almost imperceptible dif
ferences, into that which is decidedly secondary. If
we suppose the whole of the Alleghany mountains
of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the western parts of

Virginia, removed to a level with the surface at the
base of their eastern declivities, it is probable that
their foundations, which would be thus exposed,
would be found through their whole extent to be of
transition limestone. About twenty miles west of
Philadelphia and Hctrrisburgh, Cove Hill, the north
and south mountains, and the other eastern ranges of
the Alleghany, all repose upon the same rock. It is
seen emerging from beneath the sandstone which
forms the body of these' mountains at O'Connel's
town^ and in most of the valleys between the AHe-
ghanies ; and we learn from Maclure that it extends
to the south and west, nearly to the termination of
this range of mountains at the confluence ofthe
Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, in Mississippi. The
clay-slate occurs in the central portions of that ex
tensive field of transition which skirts the -western
margin of the primitive of New York and New Eng
land, and forms the great body of the Cattskill Moun
tains. It is wider and more extensive in the north,
occupying much of the surface in Vermont, and the
northern parts of the state of New York. In the
mountains of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia,
its beds are of great thickness, and form in some
instances the prevailing rocks, being, however, almost
invariably overlaid by sandstone. The old red sand
stone is of very frequent occurrence in the transition
district along the whole range of mountains, and is
perhaps more frequent and more abundant than any
other aggregate. This region also has a considerable
mixture of trap, comprehending greenstone, basalt,
amygdaloid, and toadstone ; but the newer trap rocks
are entirely wanting in the whole of the mountain
range. It is by no means to be supposed that the
primitive and transition rocks observe exactly the
limits which have beefi drawn. They frequently so
interlock the one with the other as to make the draw
ing of any line of demarcation exceedingly, difficult.
There are also various large bodies of transition rock
thrown to, a considerable distance into the primitive
region, as is the case particularly with one in the
neighbourhood of Boston ; while in many instances
secondary rocks are found running along the valleys
far into the bosom of the mountains. Between the
primitive and transition rocks a series of .primitive
rocks sometimes intervenes, something different from
the common primitive,, having the structure of gneiss,
with little mica, the scales detached and not conti
guous, or much feldspar, rather granular than crys
tallized, mica slate, with small quantities of scaly
mica, clay-slate, rather soft, and without lustre, the
whole having a dull earthy fracture and gritty tex
ture, partaking of transition and primitive, but not

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

47

properly belonging to either. There is great variety
in the appearance of this rock, as it were an imita
tion of almost every species of the common primi
tive rocks, but differing from them by having a dull
earthy fracture, gritty texture, and little or no crystal
lization. With the edge of the transition strata we approach
the western summits of the Apalachian Mountains, or
the line from whence they begin to fall towards the
Mississippi Valley. Along this line commences a series
of secondary rocks, stretching westward to an immense
extent towards the Mississippi and the lakes, and con
stituting one of the most interesting and important
geological formations in the United States. Near the
summit of the ridge called particularly the Alleghany,
the , change to secondary begins to appear ; with
out the interposition Of any other rock, and without
any sudden change of features, the' strata of sand
stone become nearly horizontal, assuming gradually
all the characters of secondary rocks ; descending
into the valleys, the transition strata again emerge to
the light. The same thing happens in the case of
the Catskill and other mountains west of the Hudson,
their bases being of transition, and "their summits
crossed with secondary. This secondary region ex
tends unbroken across the whole country to the shores
of the lakes, being bounded on the west probably by
the river Wabash, and, as you descend the Mississippi,
by the more recent formations through which that
river flows. It consists of various strata of sand
stone, limestone, and clay, generally, but by no means
exactly, corresponding with similar strata in this
country. Although England has been considered a
more advantageous station for examining the second
ary strata than any other in Europe, it will by no
means serve as a model for America. The strata are
thus given by Professor Eaton : — 1. Mill-stone grit ;
% . Saliferous rock, probably identical with the saline
sandstone of the Chippewayan Mountains ; 3. Fer
riferous rock ; 4. Lias ; 5. Geodiferous lime-rock ;
6. Cornitiferous lime-rock ; 7. Third graywacke.
The fifth and sixth of these strata occupy the space
of the English oolite, but are stated to be of a some
what different character. 'Qur green sand, iron sand,
and associated marls, may be assigned to the third
graywacke ; but the chalk, it seems, in Europe no
unimportant stratum, is entirely wanting ; nor has a
single particle of this substance been found in the
whole of the United States ; that which has been
mistaken for it, and indeed used for it in some res
pects with success, is ascertained to be native argil,
or pure clay. The limestone generally found in this
district is of a bluish colour, running through all the !

shades to a dingy black, having- an even rather
earthy fracture, and sometimes a schistose structure.
The flints found in the secondary limestone in Ame
rica are generally black, resembling Lydian stone,
and in all kind of irregular forms and branches in
timately mixed with the limestone. Its greatest ele
vation is on the south-east boundary, from which it
falls almost imperceptibly to the north-west, and
mingles with the alluvial of the Mississippi, having
a mountain outline, straight and regular. A bound
ary of long and parallel ranges, of a gradually di
minishing height as they approach to the north-west,
a stratification almost perfectly horizontal, waving
with the inequalities of the surface, distinguishes
this from the two preceding formations. Immense
beds of secondary limestone, of all shades, from light
blue to black, intercepted in some places by extensive
tracts of sandstone and other secondary aggregates,
appears to constitute the foundation of this formation,
on which reposes the great and valuable coal forma
tion, which extends from the head waters of the Ohio,
in Pennsylvania, with some interruption all the way
to the waters of the Tombigbee, accompanied by the
usual attendants, slaty clay and freestone with vege
table impressions, &c. ; but in no instance yet ascer
tained covered by, or alternating with any rock, re
sembling basalt, or indeed any of those called the
newest floetz trap formation. One grand peculiarity
of this secondary region is the horizontal direction
of the strata, which is almost perfect and uniform,
no disturbing causes whatever appearing to have
acted upon them since their deposition, excepting
such as have worn them down from above ; and in
conjunction with this fact, it is striking to observe
that trap rocks are entirely wanting^ through the
whole extent. It results from these circumstances,
that individual strata can be traced uninterrupted
through many hundreds of miles, and that oppor
tunities of imvestigation unparalleled elsewhere are
afforded. ¦ Having thus examined the two sides of the Mis
sissippi Valley, we may now direct our attention to the
region which occupies its centre. In a geological
point of view this must be taken to comprehend not
merely the Ozark Mountains, but the whole tract of
country extending northwards from them to the
shores of Lake Superior, bounded on the east by the
rivers Wabash and Ohio and the recent deposits c
the Mississippi, and on the west by a line drawn from
nearly the western extremity of Lake Superior to the
western declivity of the mountains.
The Ozark Mountains consist chiefly of secondary
and transition rocks, but there are two points at which

48

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

the primitive makes its appearance.* About fifteen
miles south east from the hot springs, near the Wa
shita, granite is found in situ. " It forms the
b.asis," says Dr. James, " and, as far as we could dis
cover, the whole mass of a small hill, but little eleva
ted above- the level of the river ; we found it
emerging from beneath the soil at several parts of an
area two or three hundred acres, but had not an op
portunity to trace it to any great distance, nor to
observe its connexion with any other rock. The
extent of surface which it covers, we believe, cannot
be very great." This granite is very soft, and disin
tegrates rapidly when exposed to the air. It is com
pounded of grayish-white quartz, yellowish- white.
feldspar, and an unsually large proportion of mica in
variously and brilliantly coloured masses. These
large laminee of mica are white, pearl-colour, yellow,
brown, green, and often black, and in some instances
are so large and numerous as to exceed in proportion
the other ingredients of the aggregate. Talc also
enters in large proportion into the composition of this
granite. It is indeed sometimes so abundant as to
occasion a doubt whether the whole should not be
considered a bed of talc, rather than granite. This
talc is in tabular masses, two or three inches in diam
eter, and about half an inch in thickness. Zeolite is
also so abundant -as sometimes to seem to take the
place of the other materials of the granite. The bed
of one of the streams which traverse this formation
is paved with small crystals of schorl, that of .another
with negative magnet. Sulphuret of iron is dis
seminated in the rock. Several of the appearances
presented by this interesting mass of granite would
seem to countenance the opinion that it is of a se
condary origin, like that mentioned by Saussure as
existing near the valley of Valorsine, at Semur en
Auxois, and at the city of Lyons. In speaking of
the rock at these -places,, he says, " lt could not be
doubted, on seeing these heaps of large crystals, that
they are the produce ofthe rain-waters, which, pass
ing through the granite, have dissolved and carried
down these different elements, and have deposited
them in these wide crevices, where they have form
ed new rocks of the same kind. The crystals of
these new granites are larger than those of the an
cient, on account of the repose which the waters
enjoyed in the inside of these reservoirs." The
granite ofthe Washita, if it is to be considered as of
secondary formation, appears to be much more ex
tensive than any of the kind hitherto known ; but
any more particulars must be ascertained before this

* Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, vol. iii. p. 310.

question can be settled. " We are ignorant," says
Dr. James, " of the manner of its connexion with
any other rock, nor do v/e know of any formation of
primitive granite from which it could, by the action
of water, have been derived : one can have no hesi
tation, however, in considering the Ozark Mountains
as a separate system within themselves, and having
no immediate connexion with either the Apalachian
or the Chippewayan Mountains. May "not an exten
sive range of granite and other primitive- rocks have
existed at some distant period Where the Ozark
Mountains now are, containing the vast quantities of
the ores of lead, iron, &c. now found in rocks of
secondary origin, and even in the alluvial soil ? And
may not the operations of water, during many ages,
when an ocean rolled over the summits of these
mountains, have worn down those primitive rocks,,
their detritus having been deposited horizontally
upon their submarine sides and summits ; so that the
greater part of their surfaces are now covered by
secondary aggregates 1 Our acquaintance with this
range is, however, much too limited to admit of indul
gence in such speculations."
Beside the cove of the Washita, another granitic
region, according to Mr. Schoolcraft, occurs in the
north-eastern extremity of the Ozark Mountains, in
the mining district of Potosi. The granite appears
about a mile west of St. Michael's, an antique French
village, and suddenly emerges, from the alluvial soil.
" It constitutes." says Mr. Schoolcraft, "the summits
of .the greatest elevations, and also the depths of the
lowest valleys in the district. It is almost exclusive
ly confined, so far as we have observed, to the north
western portion of Madison, and the contiguous parts
of Washington county. We suppose the whole area
covered by this formation does not exceed 120 or 130
square miles ; but we have not observed its southern
limits. It may extend in that direction further than
we have reason to believe it does, and may possibly
even have a subterraneous connexion with that tal-
cose variety of granite discovered by Dr. James, on
the Washita. The marked dissimilarity in the two
varieties is not, perhaps, a valid objection to this
supposition, when we consider the different aspects
which some of the ranges of our American granites as
sume, examined at distant points."t This granite is
without any marks of stratification. Its structure is
fine grained. Its colour, which is imparted by the pre
dominance of feldspar, is a flesh red. r jgoth the quartz
and mica form but a ebmparatively small portion of
the mass, and the mica exists in the least abundance.
+ Sr.hoolcraft's Travels.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

49

Very frequently the latter mineral is entirely wanting
through considerable portions of the mass, and the
rock is made up wholly of quartz and feldspar. This
rock is traversed by veins of greenstone, which are
chiefly porphyritic, and in some places beautifully so.
In connexion with the granite of the Washita is
found a stratum of clay-slate, another of transition
sandstone, but neither of them of any great extent.
Near St. Michael's, Mr. Schoolcraft affirms the ex
istence of the metalliferous or transition limestone.
The hot-springs of the Washita issue from the clay-
slate, and, if we" may judge from the inclination of
the strata, and the distance at the surface from the
granite of the cove, we may conclude that a very
large mass of clay-slate is interposed between the
surface of the granite and the point at which the
springs rise. This, however, it is .not possible to
ascertain. The hottest springs on the globe rise
from beneath or within the granite, and it is not imr
probable that this rock may approach near the sur
face at many points in the Ozark Mountains where it
has not yet. been uncovered. The slate rock about
the hot springs is highly inclined, often flinty in its
composition, and, as far as has been hitherto. observed,
it contains no organie remains. It is traversed by
large upright veins, filled usually- with white quartz,
contrasting strongly in colour with the dark blue of
the slate. The mountains contain vast beds of lime
stone, which, though decidedly secondary, has m
many parts so peculiar a crystalline appearance as to
be easily mistaken for primitive. The recent fracture
is uneven, distinctly crystalline, and much like that of
many moderately fine-grained granites. Careful ex
amination shows, that in many instances the most
.minute particles visible under a lens have assumed
the rhombic form so common to the carbonate of
lime ; these crystalline particles vary greatly in size,
and are -sometimes half an inch across. In the in
terior of the casts of animal remains, they are some
times less distinct than in parts of the rock where no
such remains are discovered. These vast beds of
sparry limestone, made up almost exclusively of de-
-posites from chemical solution, would seem to have
been formed during periods when great tranquillity
prevailed hi the waters from which they were depo
sited. They alternate with limestones of the common
earthy and compact varieties. The sandstones of
this small group of mountains appear under almost
every variety of character, but in most of them, as
far as hitherto examined, are discovered traces of
eoal, or of those minerals and organic remains which
usually accompany it. A conspicuous feature in the
sandstones about the central and western portions of

the region under consideration, is the great propor
tion of mica, in large scales, which enters into their
composition. Fragments of the sand-rock about the
mouth of the Poteau might be mistaken for mica
slate. This mica is rarely, if ever, of that dark
coloured variety which prevails in the Chippewayan
Mountains ; and in the other materials of these ag
gregates there is a manifest want of resemblance to
those mountains. Another peculiar variety of sand
stone occurs in connexion with the sulphuret of lead,
at the old mines of St. Michael, and at many places
in that vicinity. This bears apparently the same
relation to the common sandstones, as the crystalline
limestone above mentioned does to the earthy vari
eties, and it alternates with and passes into the com
mon rock in a similar manner. Its particles are crys
talline, and appear to remain undisturbed in the po
sition in which they were originally deposited from
solution- in water. Nevertheless, the aggregate is
manifestly secondary, and. embraces the relics of
many organized beings, as is common in the othei
secondary rocks.
There appears reason to think that these moun
tains are entirely secondary. Compact limestone
contains the lead ore, and is here associated with an
extensive deposite of filiate pf lime. None of this
mineral, however, has yet been discovered in this
place ; the whole of it is in the form of detritus,
showing evident marks of abrasion and attrition.
Besides several varieties of sandstone, shell limestone
and oolite were observed at this point. , Though the
country stretching northward to Lake Superior be
comes more level, and is not distinguished- by any
considerable physical peculiarities, its geological and
mineralogical character identify it with that which
we have jnst noticed. Numerous specimens of mine
rals brought from the Upper Mississippi and the Illi
nois rivers have a peculiar resemblance to similar
minerals met with in the territory south of the Mis
souri. From .these resemblances, and the corrobora
ting testimony of all the accounts received concerning
that country, rich in mines, which lies along the
eastern side of the Upper Mississippi, there is reason
to believe that a continuation of the Ozark Mountains,
or at least of a region similar in mineralogical fea
tures, extends from the confluence of the Missouri
northward, to the sources of the Wisconsan and the
Ontonagon river of Lake Superior. North of the
Missouri the country is very little elevated, but aside
from this it appears to possess all the peculiar features
of the region we have been considering. The sand
stones, the limestones, and other rocks, have a striking
resemblance.

50

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Of the Black Mountains, in the north-western part
of the Mississippi Valley, only enough is known to
mark them out as of a distinct geological structure
from the rest of the valley. They appear to consist
entirely of sandstone lying horizontally, and to be
destitute of any mineral productions of value. The
remaining portions of the great valley may now be
easily disposed of. In the north, between the Black
Mountains and the central district, is a wide tract
containing the course of the Missouri, marked by
Dr. James as alluvial. The same appellation he
gives to a space on the west of the Ozark Mountains,
between them and the Chippewayan sands, and to
the country on both sides of the Lower Mississippi.
We think that the application of this term may
admit of considerable modification and improvement,
as it seems to us to be sometimes confounded with
diluvial, if not with tertiary formations. Such for
mations appear to exist on the line of the Mississippi,
and will engage our attention hereafter.
We must now turn our attention to the region
which lies to the eastward of the Apalachian Moun
tains. The eastern front of this range we have al
ready stated to consist of primitive rocks, and we
have mentioned that so far south as the Hudson these
rocks reach the sea ; from this point they take an in
land course, and leave a considerable tract of land
between them and the ocean all the way to the Mis
sissippi. On this side there is no appearance of any
rocks of the transition class ; the primitive terminates
abruptly, and through its whole length is skirted by
an extensive series of beds of shell-limestone, marl,
clay, sand, and gravel, constituting what has been
described in our geographical department as the At
lantic Slope. This class of strata begins at Long
Island, becomes gradually wider as it extends through
the middle and southern states, forms the whole of
Florida, and crosses the Mississippi, where it meets
the secondary formation of that valley, and sends up
a tongue for a considerable distance along the sides
of that river. We may here notice the extended
granitic ridge which forms the boundary between the
primitive and secondary regions, and which has been
considered as one of its most remarkable features.
It commences as far south as Georgia, and extends
to New York ; whence it seems to pass into Long
Island, and under the Sound into Connecticut. It is
in some places concealed by the soil ; but it appears
distinctly at the riverfalls, and is particularly rugged
where it crosses the Susquehahnah. It has been con
jectured that this ridge was the ancient line of the
seacoast. The entire region to the eastward of the primitive

was long spoken of -as alluvial ; but a more careful
examination has shown that it comprehends, not only
a large extent of tertiary "formations, but some which
are decidedly secondary. From an elaborate inves
tigation of this district by Dr. Morton, of Philadel
phia, more particularly directed to the characteristic
features of its organic remains, there appears decisive
evidence of this fact. These secondary strata are
not, however, calcareous, like those on the west of
the Apalachian Mountains ; but they consist of beds
of sand and clay analogous to the iron sand, green
sand, and chalk marl, or gait, of our own country.
Dr. Morton calls it the ferruginous sand formation.
The tract occupied by it encloses nearly the whole
of the marl region of New Jersey, so far, at least, as
it has hitherto been explored ; though there is reason
to believe that this formation occupies a great pro
portion of the triangular peninsula south ofthe Ra-
ritan river. Much of the ferruginous sand, however,
is overlaid by deposits of clay containing lignite,
which have been referred, with apparent correctness,
to the plastic clay- formation. Above these clay beds
is an almost uniform covering of gray sand; though
in many places the marl, with its peculiar fossils, is
found immediately beneath the soil. In Maryland
commences a vast deposit of sand and clay, extending
along the coast to the Mississippi; this -tract abounds
with tertiary fossils, which appear chiefly to belong
to the upper marine formation of the European geo
logists. The secondary strata are occasionally met
with beneath it, and sometimes approach so near the
surface as to be readily identified by their fossils. It
is therefore reasonable to suppose that the beds of
ferruginous sand extend nearly the whole length of
the Atlantic frontier of the United States south of
Long Island, though for the most part concealed by
the different members of the tertiary class.
In all its localities this formation has been identi
fied1 by similar genera and species of organic remains,
though all the genera do not exist in every locality.
The predominant constituents of the varieties of
marl are silex and iron. They often contain beds
of a dark bluish, tenacious clay ; sometimes this clay
is mixed with the marl, forming marly clay. Again
the marl is seen of a yellowish brown colour, friable,
or compact, and filled with green specks of the sili
cate iron. Some of the greenish varieties are also
very compact, rendering it extremely difficult, to sepa
rate the fossils from their matrix. The friable blue
marls often contain a large proportion of mica in
minute scales. Other localities present beds of sili-
clous gravel, (turtia ?' of the French,) the pebbles
varying from the size of coarse sand to one or two

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

51

inches in diameter. These are cemented together
by oxide and phosphate of iron, and contain the
same fossils as the earths already described. The
most striking instance of this kind is at Mullica Hill,
in New Jersey. Similar mineralogical appearances,
but without fossils, occur in the lower beds of the
Chesapeake and Delaware canal. At the latter place
is also found a friable silicious sand, of a bright
green colour, answering to the glauconie sableuse of
Brongniart : also a fine, pure white sand, with abun
dance of lignite; and extensive beds of brown and
yellow ferruginous sand, more or less argillaceous.
Some of the blue marls which effervesce strongly
with acids, contain but five per cent, of lime. There
are also large beds of calcareous marl, containing at
least thirty-seven per cent. Of lime, the remainder
being silex, iron, &c. : a hard, well-characterized,
sub-crystalline limestone, filled with zoophytes. All
these pass by insensible degrees into each other, ex
hibiting an almost endless variety of" mineralogical
character. The mineral substances found in these
beds are, iron pyrites in profusion; chert, (in the cal
careous beds,) amber, retinasphalt, lignite, and small
spherical masses of a dark green colour and compact
texture, apparently analogous to those found in the
green sand of France. Mr. Hayden suggests that
these may be the discolites of the Abbe Fortis ; their
structure, however, does not appear to be organic, al
though they often have a shark's tooth, or a small shell,
for a nucleus. Larger spherical bodies "also occur,
resembling the nodules of clay iron-stone so common
in some parts of England. One of the most abun
dant mineral products of these beds is lignite. It is
found at the deep cut of the Chesapeake and Dela
ware canal in almost every variety, from charred
wood to well-characterized jet.' Sometimes it is in
small fragments, and again it occurs in large masses,
presenting the trunks and limbs of trees thirty feet
in - length, and perforated in every direction by the
teredo. That these lignites belong not to the tertiary
deposits, but to the ferruginous sand, appears to be
the more probable, inasmuch as the lignite beds of
Delaware are found to be subordinate to strata replete
with extinct multilocular univalves, and other se
condary remains. The extensive occurrence of this
formation, so closely connected with chalk in Europe,
renders the absence of the chalk itself still more re
markable. The tertiary formations, as we have just seen, oc
cur largely on the Atlantic Slope, but theyare by no
means confined to it : they overlie the secbndary
strata to a great extent on both sides of the mountain
chains. Marly clay (London clayl is one of the most

universal of all visible strata. It is the common clay
of all North America. Lieut. A. B. Eaton traced it
from the mouth of the Ohio to New Orleans, mostly
covered with Bagshot sand. It always effervesces
with acids when dry, and always contains muriate of
lime ; consequently all wells dug in it yield hard
waters. Sulphate of magnesia is not uncommon in
it, and in some localities it contains small quantities
of muriate of soda. Bagshot sand and crag are next
in extent to the marly clay, and generally overlie it.
The sand and crag often pass into each other, and
often alternate ; but if they are to be treated as dis
tinct, probably the crag should be considered as up
permost. The plastic clay formation is stated to
appear very distinctly on the west side of Lake
Champlain, and at various points, from Martha's
Vineyard to the eastward of Long Island, to Florida
and the Mississippi. The silicious limestone of
Georgia is asserted to be decidedly contemporaneous
with the calcaire silicieuse of the Paris basin. In
Virginia the marly or London clay is found, and
the sands of the Upper Marine formation are con
ceived to occur in the same state, and in Staten
Island. Of the geology of the region west of the Chippe
wayan Mountains nothing certain is known. The
chains which stretch nearer to the Pacific are lofty,
and are presumed to be primitive. Mr. Scrope repre
sents the mountains Avhich border the Pacific Ocean
as volcanic. Having taken this general survey, before we proceed
to further details it may be desirable to make a few
observations respecting the influence of American
geological facts upon existing geological theory.
It was soon found that geological researtib.es were
made with much greater facility in America than in
Europe, especially in the region of the secondary
strata. The immense extent over which they could
be traced, the undisturbed condition in which they
are found, and their generally horizontal position,
afforded valuable facilities for efforts of generalization
and system. The absence of the newest floetz-trap
rocks, (which partially and irregularly cover all other
formations, thereby breaking the continuity of the
strata,) and of the effects of the violent convulsions
so frequent in the vicinity of this disputed formation,
unquestionably facilitate geological researches. A
second cause, producing much more extensive effects,
may perhaps be found in the greater number and
magnitude of the changes that have been effected in
the different classes of rocks on the European conti
nent, since their original formation ; either by the
effect of water during a long course of time, partially

52

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

washing away the superincumbent strata most liable
to decomposition, and leaving the more hard and
durable parts of the same rocks in their original po
sitions ; or by the long and continual action of rivers
wearing deep beds, and exposing - to view the subor
dinate strata, giving to the whole the appearance of
a confused and interrupted stratification, though it
might have been uniform and regular in its original
state. Rivers, likewise, by undermining, throw im
mense masses out of their place, and create a disorder
and confusion not easily unravelled. The rivers in
North America have not generally cut so deep into
the different strata, either in the mountains, or during
ftieir course through the level country, as materially
to derange the stratification ; nor do we find those
immense and inaccessible precipices, which render
the prosecution of geological researches almost im
possible. Broken detached masses of one formation
covering the tops of mountains, with their sides or
foundation composed of different classes of rocks,
seldom occur ; and where any irregularity or appa
rent confusion takes place, the vicinity generally ad
mits of a sufficient examination of the surrounding
strata, to account for the accident without affecting
the general arrangement. A third cause of the fa
cility of geological observations on this continent,
may be traced in the. fact, that the whole continent
east of the Mississippi follows the arrangement of one
great chain of mountains. Europe, on the contrary,
is formed of five or six chains of mountains, all fol
lowing different laws of stratification, and frequently
interrupting each other ; which increases the diffi
culty of arrangement, and augments the apparent
confusion. The effect of the opening of this field of observa
tion has been striking and important. It has been
to confound and set at naught every previous attempt
at the determination and arrangement of general
strata. American geologists may be said to be con
tinually laughing at the mundane systems which men
of science on this side of the Atlantic have been con
structing from their survey of such a mere corner of
it as the continent of Europe ; and European geolo
gists themselves have acknowledged, that general
strata must be determined in America. The absence
of the chalk forcibly illustrates this ; the chalk being
not only a very prominent feature in our geological
structure, but the grand point of division between the
secondary and tertiary formations, 'The English
oolite has not its fellow in America. It has come to
be affirmed by Professor Eaton, that the old red sand-.
stone is not a general stratum, and to be questioned
whether primitive clay slate has any existence at

all ;* while Mr. Maclure informs us, that, though the pri •
mitive formation contains all the variety of rocks found ;
in the mountains of Europe, yet neither their relative
situation in the order of succession, nor their relative
heights in the range of mountains, correspond with
what has been observed here. The order of succes
sion from the clay slate to the granite; as well as the
gradually diminishing height of the strata, from the
granite through the gneiss, mica slate, and hornblende
rock, down to the clay slate, is so often inverted and
mixed, as to render the arrangement of any regular
series impracticable. It would have made" amends
for this subversion of existing systems, if men of
science in America had been able to form any satis
factory generalization themselves. This is as yet,
however, far from. being the case. With much of
positive assertion, every thing is controversy and con
fusion ; every thing, at least, but the observation and
accumulation of facts, which is going on with some
rapidity and diligence, and which, it would seem,
must be carried to a much greater extent before any
hope of successful generalization can be entertained.
Notwithstanding all the uncertainty we have de
scribed, however, some important general facts are
either confirmed or established, and of these we shall
endeavour to give a condensed account.
The primitive, and, perhaps it may be added, the
transition rocks of the United States, bear an almost
perfect resemblance, in structure and general charac
ter, to those of Europe. They constitute the whole
mass of the mountains, with the same declination,
irregularity, and apparent disruption and dislocation
of the strata. The granite is in beds and veins, with
only such equivocal appearances of stratification as
have been detected elsewhere. The Apalachian re
sembles several ofthe European chains of mountains,
in having the secondary formation principally on the
north-western side. Among the - peculiarities of this
primitive range is its comparatively low elevation ;
only one portion of it, the White Hills, reaching six
thousand feet above the level of thesea, a far lower
point than is reached by any other considerable mass
of primitive rocks at present known. Connected
with this is also the very low level at which the same
rocks are found in the northern states, especially on
the banks of the, river Hudson, where the tide rims
between precipitous banks of granite, greenstone, &c,
entirely through the mass of primitive and transition
rocks into the secondary, to a distance of a hundred
and fifty miles. It arises from the same geological

* The existence of primitive clay slate is distinctly affirmed by
Mr. Hitchcock, on the Connecticut, and by Professor Dewev. Sil
liman 's Journal, vol, ii, p. 248, vol. vi. p. 36,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

83

character of this range, that the ridges of the moun
tains do not form the, dividing high lands ofthe wa
ters ; but that in many cases, as with the rivers which
discharge themselves into the Chesapeake, the streams
rise beyond the mountains, and find avenues which
permit them a clear passage, often at right angles to
the chain which they penetrate. The immense depth
of some of the lakes, ascertained to be in some places
as much as twelve hundred feet, and in others being
hitherto unfathomable, belongs to the same class of
indications. We feel constrained to associate with
these circumstances the comparatively small quantity
of unstratified rocks found in this region. We have
ulready seen that one half the primitive is gneiss ;
and when allowance is made for mica slate, talc slate,
and other stratified primitive rocks, it will follow that
granite is but in small proportion. Porphyry and
serpentine do not appear to be abundant. Greenstone
occurs, as also basalt ; but, as we haVe seen, the
newer trap rocks are almost if not entirely wanting.
It remains to be added, that no traces whatever exist
of volcanic action, that is to say, of recent volcanic
action, or of any other than must have occurred if
greenstone and granite are of igneous origin. All
these circumstances may be considered as confirming
the supposition, that the mountain masses generally
have been upheaved by convulsive action ; and as
indicating that the impulses which raised the Apala
chian chains were, if not in -the first instance less
powerful, yet less frequently repeated, than in most
other cases. Hence the small elevation of their high
est summits ; hence the deep notches which allow
the transverse passage of great rivers ; and hence also
that remarkable tide-valley occupied by Hudson Ri
ver. The Chippewayan Mountains, contrasted as
they are with the Apalachians in their elevation and
other physical features, are equally so in their geo
logical structure. The unstratified rocks almost ex-"
clusively prevail ; the newest floetz-trap rocks also
are found ; and every indication of violent action of
greater power or more frequent repetition.
Another general fac£ respecting the newer trap form
ations is strongly indicated by their entire absence
from the immense secondary formation of the United
States, taken in connexion with the horizontal posi
tion and undisturbed character of the stratification.
Here is no dislocation, and no trap. Wherever there
is trap, as in Europe, there is dislocation and disor
der. It seems to follow, therefore, that trap rocks
have had their origin, not in the causes which formed
the secondary strata, but in those which have dis
turbed them.
Vol. II. —Nos. 41 & 42. G

Whether the vastness of the field which is open to
geological inquiry in the United States will materi
ally facilitate the determination of general strata, or
whether, beyond the primitive, there are really any
such, may be a matter of doubt. We now turn to
the more certain and yet disputed ground of the ac
tual arrangement of the American strata themselves.
The cutting of the canal from Albany to Lake Erie
afforded a valuable opportunity for investigation, of
which Professor Eaton has diligently availed himself,
in order to form a scheme of general strata such as
the structure of the North American continent would
indicate ; and we can not do better for the information
of our readers, than present to them his views on the
subject.* In doing so, it will be necessary to allow
him to employ his own nomenclature, which, how
ever, will be easily understood, whether adopted
or not.
Geological Nomenclature, exhibited in a Synopsis '
of North American Mocks and Detritus, by Pro
fessor Amos Eaton. CLASSES OP ROCKS.
Class I. Primitive, Rocks; being those which
contain no organic relics or coal. See Fig. 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, and 6.
Class II. Transition Rocks ; being those which
contain marine organic relics only, and, in some lo
calities, anthracite coal. See Fig. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
and 12.
Class III. Secondary Rocks ; being those which
contain, in some localities, dry-land or fresh-water
organic relics, as well as marine or bituminous coal.
See Fig. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19.
Class IV. Superincumbent Rocks ; being those
hornblende rocks which overlay others without any
regular order of superposition, supposed to be of vol
canic origin.. See Fig. 20.
CLASSES OP DETRITUS.
Class V. Alluvial Detritus ; being those masses
of detritus which have been washed into their pre
sent situation. See Fig. 21, 22, 23, and 24.
Class VI. Analluvial Detritus ; being those
masses of detritus which have not been washed from
places where they were first formed by the disinte
gration of rocks. See Fig. 25 and 26.

* See two papers by Professor Eaton, in Silliman's Journal,
vol. xiv.

54

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

GENERAL STRATA
AND
SUBDIVISIONS.

VARIETIES.

IMBEDDED AND
DISSEMINATED.

Second Graywacke.
B. Rubble.
A. Compact.

Red sandy, (old red
sandstone?)
Honeslate.
Grindstone.

Manganese.
Anthracite.

Metalliferous Limerock.
B. Shelly.
A. Compact.

Birdseye marble.

Calciferous Sandrock.
B. Geodiferous.
A. Compact.

Qjiartzose.
Sparry.
Oolitic.

Semiopal. Anthracite.
Barytes.
Concentric concretions.

Sparry Limerock.
B. Slaty.
A. Compact.

Checkered rock.

Chlorite. Calc spar.

First Graywacke.
B. Rubble.
A. Compact.

Chloritic.

Milky quartz.
Calc spar.
Anthracite.

Argillite.
B. Wacke slate.
A. Clay slate.

Chloritic. Glazed.
Roof-slate. Red.
Purple.

Flinty Slate. Anthracite.
Striated quartz. Milky

quartz. Chlorite

Granular Limerock.
B. Sandy.
A. Compact.

Verd-antique. Dolomite.
Statuary marble.

Tremolite.Serpentine.
Chromate of iron.

Granular Quartz
B. Sandy.
A. Compact.

Ferruginous. Yellowish.Translucent.

Manganese. Hematite.

Talcose Slate.
B. Fissile.
A. Compact.

Chloritic.

Octahedral iron ore.
Chlorite.

crystals of

Hornblende Rock.
B. Slaty.
A. Granitic.

Greenstone. Gneis-
soid. Porphyritic.
Sienitic.

Granite. -
Actynolite.Aug-ite.

Mica Slate.
B. Fissile.
A. Compact.

Staurotide. Sappare.Garnet.

Granite.
B. Slaty, (gneiss.)
A. Crystalline.

Sandy. Porphyritic. Graphic.

Schorl. Plumbago.
tite. Diallage.

Stea-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

55

general strata
and
subdivisions.

Basalt.
B. Greenstone trap,
(columnar.)
A. Amygdaloid, (cellular.)

VARIETIES.

Granular. Compact.
Toadstone.

IMBEDDED AND
DISSEMINATED.

Amethyst. Chalcedony.Prehnite.
Zeolite.
Opal 

Third Graywacke.
B. Pyritiferous grit.
A. Pyritiferous slate.

Cornitiferous Limerock.
B. Shelly.
A. Compact.

Conglomerate, (breccia.)
Calcareous grit.
Red sandstone, (old
red sandstone?)
Red wacke.
Argillaceous.

Grindstone. Hornstone ?
Honeslate.
Bituminous shale and
coal.
Fibrous barytes.

Hornstone.

Geodiferous Limerock.
B. Sandy.
A. Swinestone.

Foetid.

Snow-gypsum.Strontian. Zinc.
Fluor Spar.

Lias.
B. Calciferous grit.
A. Calciferous slate.

Shell grit.
Argillaceous. Conchoidal.

Shell limestone.
Vermicular.
Water cement.
Gypsum.

Ferriferous Rock.
B. Sandy.
A. Slaty.

Conglomerate.
Green. Blue.

Argillaceous iron ore,
(reddle.)

Saliferous Rock.
B. Sandy.
A. Marl slate.

Conglomerate.Gray-band.
Red sandy.
Gray slate.
Red slate.

Salt, or Salt-springs.

Millstone Grit.
B. Conglomerate.
A. Sandy.

Coal?

5©

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

general deposits
AND
SUBDIVISIONS.

Superficial Analluvion.
B. Granulated,
(from graywacke.)
A. Clay loam,
(from argillite.)

Stratified Analluvion.
C. Lias.
B. Ferriferous.
A. Saliferous.

Postdiluvion.
B. Sediment.
A. Pebbles, (in the rocky bed
of a river.)

VARIETIES.

IMBEDDED AND
DISSEMINATED.

Various boulders.
Pebbles.

Gypsum.Shell limestone.
Reddle.

Various boulders.
Trees and herbs.
Fish bones and shells.
"Works of art.

Ultimate Diluvion,
(on crag in old forests.)

Yellowish gray.
Grayish yellow.

Diluvion,
(in an antediluvial trough.)

Quicksand. Gravel.
Veg-etable mould.

Boulders. Trees and leaves.
Bones and shells.
No works of art.

Antediluvion.
C. Bagshot sand and crag.

B. Marly clay.

A. Plastic clay.

Quicksand.
Yellow sand.
Hardpan.Brick earth.

Puddingstone.
Burrstone. Bog ore.
Shell marl.
Indurated marl.
Septaria 1

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

57

The following Tabular Arrangement of the Rock Formations along the Connecticut, after the
method of Conybeare and Phillips, is given by Mr. Hitchcock*

I. Inferior Order.

a

8

{Common '. . . ,
Sniff : :
Pseudo-morphous

3. Gneiss

< Common .
rGlandulous

4. Hornblende Slate

5. Mica Slate

6. Talcose Slate
7.

y.

2. Sienite,or Sienitic Granite . <

Rocks observed in contact with
those in tlie leading column.
'Sienitic Granite.
Gneiss. Hornblende Slate.
Mica Slate.
1 Serpentine. Limestone, (No. 7.)
Diluvium. Alluvium.
Granite. Hornblende Slate.
Primitive Greenstone.
j Diluvium.
(Alluvium. Granite. Hornblende Slate.
White Granular Lime
stone.
Mica Slate.
Steatite. Diluvium.
Granite. Sienitic Granite.
Gneiss.
Mica Slate.
i Diluvium.
'Granite. Gneiss. Hornblende Slate.
Limestone, (No. 7.)
Argillite.
Chlorite Slate.
¦^ Greenstone Slate.
Serpentine. Steatite.Old Red Sandstone.
Coal formation.
Diluvium.
^Alluvium. Mica Slate.
Chlorite Slate.

Rocks observed in contact with
those in the leading column.

11

17-..J /\ „.;„„„ S Primitive Greenstone.
Verd Antique  ', nhlnrit* Si

12.

Prim.
Green stone

trnstratified Green
stone Slate.

Chlorite Slate.
Mica Slate.
Chlorite Slate.
Sienite. Verd Antique.
Old Red Sandstone.
Coal Formation.
Tlie Older of succession ofthe 7 preceding rocks is very variable and uncertain.
II. Submedial Order. 'Mica Slate.
Limestone, (No. 7.)
Primitive Greenstone.
Chlorite Slate.
Old Red Sandstone.
Diluvium.
Alluvium.

13. Argilhte

III. Medial Order.

14. Old Red
Sandstone

Common Conglome
rated ....

'Granite. Mica Slate.
Argillite.Primitive Greenstone.
Secondary Greenstone.
Coal Formation.
Diluvium. Alluvium.

Limestone, or a Gran. Aggre- i Granite, (in veins.)
gate of Silex, Carb. Lime and < Mica Slate.
Mica  ( Argillite.
'Talcose Slate.
Mica Slate.
Argillite.
8. Chlorite Slate , . ' , , . . . -j Verd Antique.
Primitive Greenstone.
Diluvium.
((Alluvium. ( Gneiss.
9. Steatite  < Mica Slate.
f Serpentine.
Granite. Mica Slate.
Granular Limestone.
Steatite.

15. Coal
Forma tion .

16. Sec.
Green
stone

fWacke 
Trap Tuff ....
Dark bastard Lime
stone ....
Bituminous do. . .
Fcetid ditto . . .
Seams of Coal . .
Fine red argillaceous
Sandstone . .
Coarse gray Silicious
ditto ....
Very Micaceous ditto
Black tortusac ditto
Bituminous Shale .
Finer Pudding-stone
Coarse do.
Compact . ,
Columnar . .
Amygdaloidal
_ Porphyritic IV. Superior Order

Granite.Gneiss.
Mica Slate.
'Old Red Sandstone.
Primitive Greenstone.
Secondary Greenstone.
Diluvium.Alluvium.

Granite. Old Red Sandstone.
Coal Formation

17. Diluvium

18. Allu vium

Oceanic deposites
Beds of Gravel .
Ditto . Clay . ,
Ditto . Sand . ,
Loam ......
Decomposed Rocks and
Vegetables .

Above most or all of the
preceding formations.

Above most of the pre
ceding formations.

• Silliman's Journal, vol. vii. to which we must refer for more detailed information.

58

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

f The valley of the Mississippi, presenting an
area of 1500 miles from east to west, and 1200 from
north to south, occupied by extended strata of the
secondary class, is an object too interesting not to
have set speculation in activity ; more especially as
connected with the immense lakes in the interior of
the North American continent. When treating of
the physical geography of this interesting country,
we gave an account of the fact that the lakes are not
divided from the Mississippi valley by mountains, or
by any considerable highlands. It has been accord
ingly suggested by Mr. Maclure, and Professor
Cleaveland and others seem disposed to concur with
him, that all this extent of secondary rocks, together
with the area of the present lakes, and a large space
to the northward of them, was once the bottom of
a much larger lake or sea, and that the waters of it
have been gradually discharged by the Mississippi,
the Hudson, and the Saint Lawrence, the only rivers
which have broken through the mountains once sur
rounding this immense basin of water.* Without
being prepared to propose any more plausible conjec
ture, we cannot express any satisfaction in this, which
seems to us to be incumbered by the obvious fact
that one side of this supposed basin appears ne
ver to have been inclosed by mountains at all. Be
tween the southern extremity of the Apalachian
chains and the corresponding portion of the Chippe
wayan range intervenes a space of many hundreds of
miles, affording no barrier which could inclose the
imagined waters ; or if the Ozark Mountains be con
sidered sufficient for this purpose, the same can not,
at all events, be imagined of the level and sandy
tract between them and the Chippewayan. Allow
ing the valley of the Mississippi to have been once
the bottom of the sea, the conjecture of its elevation
by subterraneous forces appears to us less difficult
than that of its drainage by its present rivers.
The evidences of diluvial action on the North
American continent are very ample, and on the same
magnificent scale with the other geological pheno
mena. The following description of them in one lo
cality is given by Professor Eaton : — " I find a dilu
vial trough, extending from Little Falls, along the
Erie Canal, one hundred and sixty miles. After
numerous examinations, I feel confidence in the fol
lowing description. It is as it would have been, the
whole having been filled to its present level with
marly clay, covered with Bagshot sand and crag,
generally overspread with a layer of shell marl, had
it then been cut up, by a strong current running
_ * Mr. Maclure's paper may be seen in Silliman's Journal, vol.
vi. p. 98. It is to us altogether unsatisfactory.

from Little Falls westerly, into islands, ridges, em
bankments, &c. ; and after these channels were thus
made, had they been filled with a confused mass of
gravel, sandj clay, trees, leaves, fresh-water shells,
&c. Whether the appearances originated in this
manner, or in any other way, such is the present as
pect. I caused diggings to be made, to the depth of
forty or fifty feet ; and in one case a well was dug
one hundred and eighteen feet deep. The Ameri
can hemlock (pinus canadensis) appeared every
where to the greatest depth of this deposit; also,
immense quantities of fresh water-shells. They
were chiefly of the genus Mya, ( Unio of Bruguires,)
and Helix, (Lymnce of some authors.) The insu
lated remains of the stratified antediluvial deposits
present the marly clay, Bagshot sand and crag, beau
tifully crowned with almost snow-white shell marble,
a fine yellowish soil, and vegetable mould, or peat.
I' may add, that nothing is more manifest, than that
these deposits could not have been made by any
existing cause/' In addition to deposits of gravel,
boulders are likewise extensively found. Along the
Connecticut in the primitive region, large boulders
in great numbers are commonly found, removed not
many miles from the spot whence they were derived.
Stragglers of this description may indeed be found
almost everywhere, and among all the rocks none
seems to be more scattered than granite, though
perhaps the numerous beds and veins of this rock
found almost everywhere may account for this : but
in general along this river, the character of the roll
ed masses corresponds to the rock in the place un
derneath them ; that is, the greatest number of the
loose stones are of the same description as the rock
that underlies them. But to this there are many
exceptions — a most remarkable One occurs a few
miles west of New Haven in Woodbridge and MH-
ford, where the surface is covered with rolled mass
es, sometimes quite large, of primitive and seconda
ry greenstone, mica slate, gneiss, granite, and al
most every other rock, except that which is in place,
viz. chlorite slate, or argillite. In many places
which are highly mountainous, the geest (diluvium)
is so abundant as to occupy most of the surface ; the
subjacent rock rarely appearing, as in the east part
of Plainfield and in Shutesbury. The diameter of
the loose fragments varies from an inch to twenty
or even thirty feet, and they are usually rounded, in
dicating attrition. Some of the highest of these
boulders are found insulated on the pinnacles of the
mountains. Bordering on the Ohio River, in the
state of Ohio, is a hilly region, which covers per
haps one third part of the surface of the state

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

59

Above these hills towards Lake Erie, boulders of
primitive rocks are found. That they are out of
place in a region decidedly secondary and alluvial
no one can doubt. They are water-worn, rounded,
and smoothed, exactly like the pebbles in alluvial
soils, and Hke them have been abraded by the stones
with which they have come in contact, aided by the
waters in which they have been immersed. That
they have been brought thither from the north,
north-west, and north-east, appears from the follow
ing considerations : — 1. They exactly resemble the
primitive rocks found, in several instances, on the
shores of Lake Superior, and on the north side of
Lake Ontario. 2. In proceeding northwardly from
the hilly region above mentioned, they increase both
in number and size. They have been seen on the
northern side of the hilly region about Hillsborough,
in Highland county, but never on the southern side
of this region, except in the form of pebbles, in the
beds of rivers passing through the country where
the larger masses exist. These rocks abound most
in valleys, which now are or appear to have been
the beds of streams. Thus, in the bed of the Whet
stone, below the town of Delaware, large rocks of
this class are seen reposing on limestone. The lat
ter rock is in situ, and abounds in shells. The
stream (the Whetstone) has worn itself a channel, in
some places very deep, through clay slate, until it
has been checked in its progress downwards by a
very hard, compact limestone. In the barriers (im
properly so called) in Madison county, none but
primitive boulders are found, and they are used for
chimneys, and for the underpinnings of buildings.
They are sometimes used for mill-stones, and one
fragment was so large as to make three mill-stones.
Primitive rocks are found in Indiana and Illinois,
north of their hilly region, as in Ohio, south of
Lake Ontario. They are also found in the state of
New York, in a country geologically similar in all
important respects to Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
In reference to the stratum which, in his tabular
arrangement given above, Professor Eaton calls ulti
mate diluvion, he makes the following statement :
" All elevated plains from which the original forests
have not been removed, and whose surfaces have not
been disturbed, are now covered, immediately be
neath the vegetable mould, with a mantle of fine
earth, finest at the surface, and this is everywhere
nearly similar, and unlike the stratum upon which it
rests. It is most perfect, as far as I have examined,
upon that variety of crag which American agricul
turists call hardpan. Almost the whole of the vast
tract of land called Hardenburg patent, west and

south-west of Catskill mountains, containing several
million acres, and most of the high ranges in New
England, and the lands west of Lake Champlain,
present a most perfect example of the hardpan crag
covered with this ultimate diluvion." Professor
Eaton is the only geologist who has thought this stra
tum worthy of 'a distinct enumeration, and seems
doubtful whether any analogous fact has been traced
by others ; but we apprehend it entirely harmonizes
with European observation, though on this side of
the Atlantic such matter may be less extensively
found. It appears to be identical, for example, with
the fine earth lying above the pebbles in the diluvial
hollows of the rock of Gibraltar.*
Striking indications of a similar kind are found
in the great interior lakes. Of the north-west por
tion of Lake Huron, which exhibits many evidences
of change and convulsion, Dr. Bigsby gives the fol
lowing account : — The original form of the bed of the
lake may be described as a triangular valley of great
extent, divided in an easterly direction by the Mani-
toulin Ridge into two unequal parts, the northern
being rocky and of variable elevation, and the southern
more uniform in its level, and generally lower. In
its present form, the bed of Huron Lake is covered
with the debris of distant countries ; its rocks are
furrowed and abraded ; its loftiest heights overthrown,
(of greenstone, one of the most tenacious of minerals,
as in the narrows of St. Joseph,) separating large
tracts from the Main ; and finally, passages, from ten
to twelve miles wide and ten long, are forced in the
Great Manitoulin barrier itself. These violences, and
particularly the first and last, indicate a more general
and powerful agency than that of a gradual accumu
lation of waters of Lakes Huron and Superior, whose
united surplus requires only an outlet of three hun
dred yards in breadth, (River St. Clair,) in place of
the four Manitoulin detours. The effect of a gradual
accumulation of water would have been to hare
filled the north division of Lake Huron, and, in the
end, to have inundated the lower grounds on the
south and east by an embouchure at the point of
least elevation in the Great Ridge. Dr. Bigsby is
inclined to the opinion that an enormous body of
water (a " debacle") has rushed over these countries,
swept from distant lands the colossal fragments of
rock so frequent in the Lake, and formed the breaches
called the detours ; perhaps at the same time when
the passages of the Hudson and Shenan'doah were
opened, and the heights of Quebec and the marshes
of Montreal were covered with the ruins of annihila-

* Buckland's Reliquiae Diluvians

60

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

ted mountains. These fragments are incredibly
numerous in Lake Huron, and may be divided into
two geological classes, the foreign and the native.
The former are the more plentiful, and are round and
smooth. They are seen everywhere, but are collect
ed principally in the interior ofthe coasts and islands,
either in confused heaps, or in parallel ridges, and
crowning the highest acclivities in great numbers.
The fragments are of various dimensions. They
belong almost exclusively to the older orders of rocks,
and are therefore of a northerly origin. Granites,
gneiss, mica slate, and porphyries, prevail, of kinds
which, says Dr. Bigsby, " I never saw in situ, al
though I have skirted the north shore for two hun
dred miles, and have traversed the wildernesses to
the east-north-east for six hundred miles. Mica slate
I never met with in a fixed state, excepting a few
Strata of the black variety at the Falls des Chats, on
the Ottawa." The other class is small, angular, and
ragged. They are most frequent on the beaches,
whither they are driven by the waves.
The formations in the United States of a character
Strictly alluvial are numerous and extensive, as may
readily be imagined from the extent of its sea-coast,
and the multitude and magnitude of its rivers.
Thousands and millions of acres must have been thus
formed in the course of ages, and are undoubtedly in
a continued progress of formation.
From the importance which fossil remains have
recently assumed in geological investigations, much
interest necessarily attaches to those contained in the
Strata of the western world. It will be long before
so vast a field of inquiry is fully explored ; and, with
Mr. Maclure in 1812, we may still say that it has
not yet been examined with that accuracy of discrim
ination necessary to form just conclusions. From
the various sources open to us we glean the following
notices. The fossils of the transition strata consist
of the ancient coralline and encrinital families, trilo-
bites, &c., and generally resemble those of similar
rocks in other parts of the globe. Entering upon
the carboniferous strata of Conybeare and Phillips,
we find the following account ofthe old red sandstone
by Mr. Hitchcock: — "I found, in Deerfield - Moun
tain, one or two specimens that belong to the petri-
facta of Martin, there being a perfect substitution of
a finer grained sandstone for the original substance.
I found only fragments, about four or five inches
long, and they appear to belong to the genus phyto-
lite of Gmelin's LinnEean System, and to the species
Lignite. They are a third of an inch in diameter,
and a little flattened ; and seem to ag-ree with Pro-
fessor Eaton's description of certain petrifactions

found in red sandstone on the Catskill Mountain
(Index, p. 211 ;) which he; is inclined to refer to the
' tribe of naked Vermes.' Fossil bones occur in East
Windsor, east parish. They belong to the conservata
of Martin, and, without much doubt, to the genus
zoolithus of Gmelin. The animal must have been
about five feet in length, and lay horizontally in the
rock, eighteen feet below its top, and , twenty -three
below the surface of the ground. The tail bone, as
Dr. Porter, who lives near the spot, informed me,
projected beyond the general mass containing the
body of the skeleton, about eighteen inches in a cur
vilinear direction. This, of which that gentleman
gave me a specimen, was easily distinguished by its
numerous articulations. On exposure to the air, the
bones begin to crumble, and lose the appearance
they presented when first dug up. The rock in
which these bones were found is decidedly the old
red sandstone. It agrees exactly with that rock as
it exists at New Haven, and to the distance of one
hundred miles north from that town. The rock en
closing the bones is a little coarser than the finest
varieties of this rock, and in the rock above the
bones was found some moderately coarse conglome
rate. Whatever doubt I had with regard to some
other varieties of rock in that vicinity being the real
old red sandstone, I could have no doubt in regard to
this, after examining it."
From the same paper we derive an account of the
organic remains in the coal formation itself. These
occur, at Westfield, Connecticut ; at Sunderland,
Massachusetts ; and it is said also at some other
places. At Westfield they were found, in exploring
for coal, lying upon bituminous shale. Two species
at least were recognised, one of which Mr. Brongniart
calls the Palcethrissum freislebenense of Blainville. At
Sunderland impressions occur in bituminous shale,
which often contains a little mica, and generally a
quantity of iron pyrites, disseminated through the
rock. They occur at Witmore's ferry, in the north
part of Sunderland, in the bank of the river. They
are found most abundant at the lowest water-mark,
at which time two men, in less than half a day, dug
out for me nearly fifty specimens. Sometimes a layer
of semi-crystalline dark coloured carbonate of lime,
less than one twentieth of an inch thick, lies between
the layers of slate. The substance of the fish is
usually converted into coal, the thickness of which
is rarely more than one tenth of an inch in any part,
and the colour is black ; in some instances, however,
the carbonate of lime above mentioned covers the
fish, and has taken the place of the matter of the fins
and scales, and their original light gray colour is

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

61

preserved so perfectly as to resemble a fish just taken
out of the water. Some of these specimens appear
contorted; in others, the form of the fish' is wholly
lost, the fins, scales, and bones, Deing scattered about
promiscuously^ as if the fish had perished in violent
struggles, or the rock had been disturbed after its im
prisonment. Yet, in the" same specimen that eon-
tains one thus mutilated, another will appear not
more than a foot distant which is whole, Specimens
have been found in which the fishes (both of them
distinct) lie across each other ; sometimes a very thin
layer of shale, and sometimes none, separating them.
Another specimen, three feet long and fifteen inches
wide, contains seven distinct impressions. The
shale in which these ichthyolites occur, when rubbed
or held in a flame, exhales a strong bituminous odour.
Among the impressions hitherto obtained, are easily
discoverable three distinct species that have scales.
Another petrifaction occurs with fishes which resem
ble the common silver eel, (Muroena anguilla,) or
some other species of the eel tribe ; the width varies
from half an inch to an inch, and the length from
one to two feet. The substance ofthe eel (if indeed
it be one) is not converted into coal, but there is a
substitution of shale of a finer grain, except in the
head, which is coal. No fins appear,, except, perhaps,
in one instance, a pectoral one. Sometimes along
the centre of the impression there is a small relief,
answering to the place of vertebras. The course of
the impressions is usually serpentine.
The vegetable remains appear to be either the
branches or roots of trees, or the relics of culmiferous
plants, and therefore may be called lignites and rhizo-
lites. They are usually converted into a' thin vein
of coal, similar to the fish, and they are commonly
broken into pieces from an inch to two feet long.
Their width varies from a mere line to two inches,
and they are not jointed. They are found in abun
dance at the falls in Gill, and with the icthyolites at
Sunderland ; the rock in which they occur at both
places is hardly bituminous shale, but a grayish mi
caceous sandstone. A specimen of rhizolite occurs
on the road side, half a mile south of Newgate pri
son, not less than seven or eight feet in length.
The following information respecting a different
part of the country is furnished by another writer,
Mr. Caleb Atwater, in the same Journal. "In the
vicinity of the Ohio River, and on the waters of
the Muskingum, I have carefully examined not a
few of the fossil trees there existing. Among them
I noticed the following, (viz.) — black oak, black wal
nut, sycamore' or button wood, white birch, sugar
maple, the date or bread-fruit tree, cocoanut-bearing
Vol. II.— Nos. 41 & 42. H

palm, the bamboo, and the dog wood ; and I have in
my possession the perfect impression of the cassia and
the tea leaf. Of ferns I have beautiful impressions
of the leaves, and of the bread-fruit tree flowers fully
expanded, fresh and entire. I have specimens so
perfect, and so faithful to nature, as to dispel all
doubts as to what they once were. The larger trees
are found mostly in sandstone, although the bark of
the date tree, much flattened, I ought to say perfectly
so, is found in shale, covering coal. The date is a
large tree, not very tall, and having numerous wide-
spreading branches. Nine miles west of Zanesville,
the body of a bread-fruit tree, now turned to sand
stone, may be seen ; it is exactly such sandstone as
that in which M, Brongniart found tropical plants
imbedded in France. It contains a considerable
quantity of mica in its composition. The cassia was
found in such sandstone in the Zanesville canal.
The bamboo is mostly impressed upon ironstone, es
pecially the roots, and the trunks and leaves are found
in the micaceous sandstone. The iropstone is some
times apparently made of bamboo leaves, the leaves
of fern, and bamboo roots. It happens frequently
that the trunks of small trees and plants are flattened
by pressure, and the bark of them partially turned
into coal. Thus the shale often contains a bark, now
become coal, and a stratum of shale in succession,
alternately, for several inches in thickness."
No part of the secondary strata has undergone so
full and accurate an investigation as the ferruginous
sand formation to the east of the Apalachian Moun
tains, by Dr. Morton of Philadelphia, to whose in
dustry and care the science- in this department is
much indebted. As it is impossible for us to enter
largely into detail', we give the following enumera
tion of the ascertained fossils in this formation; refer
ring our readers for more particular information to
the works mentioned below.* Chambered Uni
valves. Ammonites: 1. A. placenta; 2. A. hippocre-
pis ; 3. A. delawarensis ; 4. A. vanuxemi. Baculites-:
B. ovatus. Scaphites : S. cuvieri. Belemnites : 1. B.
americanus ; 2. B.ambiguus. — Simple and Spiral
Univalves. Dentalium, Patella, Turritella, Scal-
laria, Rostellaria, Natica, Bulla? Trochus, Spirorbis?
Serpula, Cypraea. — Bivalves. Terebratula : 1. T.
harlani; 2. T./ragilis ; 3. T. Sayi. Gryphsea : 1.
G. convexa ; 2. G. mutabilis ; 3. G. vomer. Ex-
ogyra : E. costata. Ostrea : 1. O. falcata ; 2. O.
cristagalli? 3. O . . . . ; 4. O . . . . . Anomia.
A. ephippium 7 Pecten : 1. P. quinquecostatus. 2.
P. .... . Cardium. Cucullasa : 1. C. vulgaris.

* Silliman's Journal, vol. xvii. p. 279 ; vol. xviii. p. 244. Jour
nal ofthe Academy of Natural Sciences, vol. vi. p. 113.

62

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

2. C . . . < . Mya, Trigonia ? Tellina, Avicnla^
Pectunculus, Pinna, Teredo, Venus, Plagiostoma —
Echinioe^e, Spatangus, Ananchytes, Echinus,
Clypeaster. — Crustacea. Astacus, Cancer— Zoo^
phytes, Anthophyllum {atlanticum,) Eschara (mil-
lepora, Ein,) Flustra, Retepora, Caryophillia, Alcy-
onium.— Fossil Bones. Mosasaurus, , Plesiosaurus,
Saurodon, Geosaurus, Crocodile, Whale 1 Shark,
Tortoise. To these may be added an abundance of
lignite, in various stages, from charred wood to per
fect jet.. We have already referred to these organic
remains as sufficiently establishing the secondary
character of the strata in which they are found.
With respect to the fossils of the tertiary forma
tion, we collect the following notices. In the plastic
clay and sand are found large quantities of lignite,
with dispersed shells of the genera venus, ostrea, and
murex, besides beds of the oyster. The silicious
limestone contains - splendid impressions of two 'or
three varieties of mactra. uIn the banks of James
River, Virginia," says Mr. Finch, "there is a large
quantity of organic remains imbedded in a bank of
clay. At Richmond are found fossil triangular teeth
apparently belonging to sharks, and other pieces of
bone, at a distance of sixty feet from the surface. All
these fossil remains are similar to those found in the
London clay, and from the same spot I have seen fossil
shells, similar to those which are deposited in the col
lection ofthe Geological Society in London, and which
were obtained in the deep excavations at Higbgate Hill."
At Washington, under the mass of diluvian gravel
of which the higher part of the capitol hill is com
posed, there is a stratum of clay, which contains many
organic remains. Trunks and branches of trees are
found at a distance of fifty -four feet from the surface ;
and further down the river, in digging wells, sharks'
teeth are often met with. Near Williamsburgh, fifty
miles from the Atlantic ocean, the skeleton of a
large fish was discovered ; amongst other parts, frag
ments of the ribs, and all the vertebrae, were found
regularly arranged.* Here also is placed by Mr.
Finch a bed of oyster shells, which extends six hun
dred miles in length, from ten to one hundred miles
in width, and if the known measurement in one part of
the line may be supposed a fair criterion, three hun
dred feet in thickness. The prii^ipal part of the
formation is composed of shells, and it may probably
be considered as the largest collection of fossils in the
world. In this stratum the shells are in some situa
tions united by a scanty calcareous cement, from
which they may be readily detached ; in this state.

* Silliman's Journal,, vol.. vii..

it is called by the inhabitants a soft limestone', which
in the quarry is easily cut by any edge tools, and
becomes harder on exposure to the air ;, in other parts
it presents immense banks of loose shells, ten or fif
teen miles -in length, without the admixture of any
foreign substance. This extensive formation is chiefly
composed of a large species of ostrea, which is be
lieved nut yet to have been described. A specimen
of it may be seen in the Philadelphia museum, twelve.
inches long and two and three quarters wide, and
each valve from half to two and a quarter inches
thick : it is said they occur larger ; and on account
of their great size it is proposed to call them ostrea
gigantissima. The shells appear but slightly changed
by their, continu ance in the earth, andare in many parts
used for burning into lime. Respecting the shells
found "in the alluvial of New Jersey," according to
Mr. Maclure, or those generally, we may presume, of
the secondary and tertiary strata in the Atlantic Slope,
that distinguished geologist makes the following some
what surprising observation. "Most of these shells
are similar to those found in the limestone and gray
wacke of the transition, and equally resemble those
found in such abundance in the secondary horizontal
limestone and sandstone ; from which it would fol
low, that the different classes of rocks on this conti
nent can not be distinguished by their shells, though
the different strata of the same class may be discovered
and known by the arrangement of the shells found
in them." This observation requires either the con
firmation or the correction of subsequent inquiries.
To give our readers an idea of the fossils of more
recent origin in which the United States abound, we
cannot, perhaps, do better than present to them an
account of one of their most remarkable localities, a
morass, known by the characteristic name of Big-bone
Lick, in Kentucky. 'This wonderful spot is a small
valley situated twenty miles south-west of Cincinnati,
and two from the Ohio River. In a number of places
the ground is so soft for several rods, that a pole may
with ease be thrust down many feet. In these soft
places saline and sulphurous mineral waters rise ; the
earth round them is dry and solid. Here are found
the bones of the mastodon, elephant, buffalo, elk, and
other now unknown animals. They are in immense
quantities — it is a complete charnel-house. The
bones are generally under ground, and so numerous
that a hole cannot be dug to the depth at which they
are usually found, without striking them. They are
generally bones of the buffalo. On the east side of
a rivulet that runs near the principal spring they lie
in a horizontal stratum, three feet below the surface,
where the ground - is lowest^ and eleven, where the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

63

ground is -eight feet higher. As the ground is dry
and solid over this stratum, it cannot be supposed
that the bones have sunk through it to their present
level ; their position also excludes such a supposition,
each bone lying horizontally, and the stratum also
being horizontal. If the bones had penetrated the
ground when it was soft, it cannbt be supposed that
they would have arranged themselves in a horizontal
stratum, irrespectively ofthe unevenness of the ground,
and of the various depths, three and eleven feet, ne
cessary to attain this horizontal range ; it is therefore
evident, that this part of the valley was level when
these bones were deposited, and that they lay on the
surface, and were subsequently covered with earth.
As they have been covered without being displaced,
and without the horizontal position of each bone or
of the stratum being disturbed, the only admissible
supposition is, that they have been covered by an
inundation. They must previously have been long
accumulating ; for there has been no accumulation
since that supposed event, which bears any compari
son for quantity with those thus imbedded, The infer
ence also seems warranted, that quadrupeds have never
been equal, either in number or variety, since such
an inundation, to what they were previously to it.
The ground on the opposite side of the rivulet is
higher, and presents a different "class of phenomena.
There the bones lie promiscuously, at unequal depths,
without any stratification ; we must, therefore, suppose
that some other agent than an inundation has contri
buted to this state of things. These bones are re
presented as in a state of " entire preservation ;" a cir
cumstance ascribed in part by the -narrator to the salt
with which the earth at Big-bone Lick is strongly
impregnated. He adds a more remarkable fact, when
he informs us that the process of petrifaction has
commenced among them, and that manyof them are
completely petrified.
Some further interesting particulars respecting
similar remains will be found in the following de
scription of them by Mr. Atwater, as occurring in the
state of Ohio. "I am credibly informed, that in
digging a well at Cincinnati, in this state, an arrow
head was found more than ninety feet below the sur
face. At Pickaway plains, while several persons were
digging a well several years since, a human skeleton
was found seventeen feet six inches below the surface.
This skeleton was seen by several persons, and among
others, by Dr. Daniel Turney, an eminent surgeon ;
they all concurred in the belief, that it belonged to a
human being. Pickaway plains are, or rather were, a
large prairie, before the land was improved by its pre
sent inhabitants. This tract is alluvial to a great

depth ; greater, probably, than the earth has ever been
perforated, certainly than it has been here by the hand
of man. The surface of the plain is at least one hun
dred feet above the highest freshet of the Scioto River,
near which it lies. On the surface is a black vegetable
mould, from three, to six, and nine feet in depth ; then
we find pebbles, and shells imbedded among them : the
pebbles are evidently rounded and smoothed by attri
tion in water, exactly such as we now see at the bottom
of rivers, ponds, and lakes. I have examined the spot
where the skeleton was found, and am persuaded
that it was not deposited there by the hand of man,
for there are no marks of any grave, or of any of
the works of man, but the earth and pebbles appear
to lie in the very position in which they were de
posited by the water. On the north side of a small
stream, called Hargus creek, which at this place emp
ties itself into the Scioto, in digging through a hill
composed of such pebbles as I have described in
Pickaway plains, at least nine feet below the surface,
several human skeletons were discovered, perfect in
every limb. These skeletons were promiscuously
scattered about, and parts of skeletons, were some
times found at different depths below the surface.
This hill is at least fifty feet above the highest
freshets in the Scioto, and is a very ancient alluvion,
where every stratum of sand, clay, and pebbles, has
been deposited by the waters of some stream. Other
skulls have been taken out of the same hill, by per
sons who in order to make a road through it, were
engaged in taking it away. These bones are very
similar to those found in our mounds, and probably
belonged to the same race of men; a. people short
and thick, not exceeding generally five feet in height,
and very possibly they were not more than four feet
six inches. The skeletons, when first exposed to
the atmosphere, are quite perfect, but afterwards
moulder and fall into pieces. Whether they were
overwhelmed by the deluge of Noah, or by some
other, I know not ; but one thing appears certain,
namely, — that water has deposited them here, toge
ther with the hill in which, for so many ages, they
have reposed. Indeed, this whole country appears
to have been once, and for a considerable period,
covered with water, which has made it one vast ce
metery of the beings of former ages." Fragments
of antique pottery, and even entire pots of coarse
earthenware, have been found likewise in the exca
vations of the Illinois salt-works, at the depth of
eighty feet and more from the surface. One of these
was ascertained to hold from eight to ten gallons,
and some were alleged to be of much greater capa
city. This fossiL pottery is stated not to differ ma-

64

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

terially from that which frequently occurs in the
mounds supposed to have been formed by the abori
ginal Indians.
The most extraordinary of the North American
fossils in point of bulk, and we may add the most,
interesting to science, are the remains of the masto
don, an enormous creature of an extinct race, bear
ing a close affinity to the elephant, and long consi
dered to be identical with it, but now allotted to a
distinct genus, under the name of Mastodon. Of
the discovery of these remains we would gladly give
a detailed account if our limits would allow ; but we
must content ourselves with referring our readers to
Godman's Natural History, vol. ii. where much in
formation on the subject is collected. The size of
the- living animal may be conjectured when it is sta
ted, that the head, at the posterior part, is -32 inches
across, the lower jaw 2 feet 10 inches long, and the
tusks 10 feet 7 inches long, and; 7. 3-4 inches in dia
meter at the base. The first vertebra, the atlas, is 11
inches broad, and 18 inches from tip to tip of the
transverse processes. The scapula, or blade-bone,
is 37 inches long, the shoulder-bone 2 feet 10 inches
by 3 feet 2 1-2 inches at the largest part, and the
fore-arm (ulna) 2 feet 5 1-2 inches in length by 3 feet
8 inches where largest. The pelvis is five feet 10
inches across ; the thigh-bone 3 feet 7 ¦ inches in
length, with a diameter of 8 inches in the middle ;
and th*e leg (tibia) 2 feet,- with a diameter of 8 in
ches at the upper part. We have, given an engra
ving of the skeleton in the nearly perfect condition
to which it has at length been brought by the indus
try and labour of American naturalists, and may add
the following not unnatural expression of feeling
on beholding it : — " The emotions experienced Avhen,
for the first time, we behold the giant relics of this
great animal, are those of unmingled awe. We can
not avoid reflecting on the time when this huge
frame was clothed with its peculiar integuments, and
moved by appropriate muscles ; when the mighty
heart dashed forth its torrents of blood through ves
sels of enormous caliber, and the mastodon strode
along in supreme dominion over every other tenant
of the wilderness. However we examine what is
left to us, we cannot help feeling that this animal
must have been endowed with a strength exceeding
that of other quadrupeds, as much as it exceeded
them in size ; .and, looking at its ponderous jaws,
armed with teeth peculiarly formed for the most effec
tual crushing of the firmest substances, we are assur
ed that its life could only be supported by the des
truction of vast quantities of food. Enormous as
were these creatures during life, and endowed with |

faculties proportioned to the bulk of their frames,
the whole race has been extinct for ages. No tra
dition nor human record of their existence has been
saved, and but for the accidental preservation of a
comparatively few hopes, we should never have
dreamed that a creature of such vast size and-
strength once existed,- — nor could we have believed
that such a race had been extinguished for ever.
Such, however, is the fact— ages after ages have
rolled away — empires and nations have arisen, flou
rished, and sunk into irretrievable oblivion, while
the bohes of the mastodon, which perished long be
fore the periods of their origin, have been discovered
scarcely changed; in "colour, and exhibiting all. the
marks of perfection and durability. That a race of
animals, so large, and consisting of so many species,
should become entirely and universally extinct, is a
circumstance of high interest ; for it is not with the
mastodon as with the elephant, which still continues
to he a living genus, although many of its species
have become extinct: the entire race. of the masto
don has been utterly destroyed, leaving nothing but
the 'mighty wreck' of their skeletons, to testify -that
they once were among the living occupants of this
land." We cannot quit this subject without adverting to
a striking instance of the facility with which the
marvellous may be converted into the miraculous.
In reference to one of the mastodon skeletons dis
covered in the United States, we have the following
passage in Cuvier, Oss. Foss. vol. ii. ed. 1. ¦ "But
what- renders this discovery unique among others, is
that in the midst ofthe bones was found a half tritu
rated mass of small branches, of gramina, and of
leaves, among which it was belieVed that a species of
reed still common in Virginia, could be recognised,
and that the whole seemed to be enveloped in a sort
of sac, which was considered as the stomach of the
animal ; so that there was no doubt but .that these
were the very substances upon which the animal had'
fed." This information, it seems, was communica
ted to Mons. Cuvier by Dr. Barton in a letter, in
which he says most truly, " If the facts are as I
state them, you will not hesitate to consider the dis
covery one of the most interesting that has been
made for a long time. I may add," he continues
with great naivete, " that such a discovery was hard
ly to be expected by the most sanguine or enthusi
astic zoologist." Truly we think not ; and quite as
little was it^t-o be expected that men of science should
be so bereft of common sense as to credit such an
alleged discovery without a rigorous investigation.
No); an approach to satisfactory evidence of such a

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

miracle exists. The reader may consult Godman's
American Natural History, vol. ii. p. 240.
We ought not to omit a reference to some frag
ments of the skull of a fossil ox, which were thrown
out at an eruption caused by an earthquake, at New
Madrid, on the Mississippi, in. 1812. It is stated that
none of the oxen now in North America have crania
"in the slightest degree" resembling this specimen.
There has also been found upon the shores of Long
Island a fossil skull of the genus trichecus, or wal
rus. It is agatized, and in fine preservation.* It is
stated by Dr. Harman,t that in North America, there
have been found fossil remains of eleven species of
animals, which no longer exist in a living state, in
that or in any other country.
With respect to the question whether the whole of
these remains occur exclusively in alluvial forma
tions, or whether some of them are not imbedded in
deposits strictly diluvial, some difficulty seems to us
to exist. That in part they are alluvial, admits
of no doubt; and if it is to be set down as a
criterion that human bones and works of art occur
in none but alluvial deposits, then, of course, the in
quiry is at an end. We cannot help asking, how
ever, how, upon this supposition, the stratum of
bones laid horizontally under an uneven surface at
Big-bone Lick is to be accounted for ; or the pro
miscuous deposite of bones in the higher ground.
We feel a similar difficulty respecting the plains in
Ohio, where human bones have been found, in some
cases fifty,- and ,iri some at least an hundred feet
^ above the highest freshet" of the river in their
neighbourhood. We can do no more, however, than
suggest our doubts, and commend the inquiry to
- those who may be able to pursue it to a conclusive
issue. Should there appear reason to think that
these remains are in any case found in diluvial de
posits, it will open a new and interesting- field of
observation. We subjoin . some - remarks of Mr.
Schoolcraft, as a specimen of the - method in which
the stricfly alluvial character of these deposits is
maintained. "One striking fact, which appears to
have escaped " general observation, is, that at some
former period, there has been an obstruction in the
channel of the Mississippi at or near Grand Tower,
producing a stagnation of the current at an eleva
tion of about 130 feet above the present ordinary
water mark. This- appears evident from the gene
ral elevation and direction of the hills, which, for
several hundred miles above; are separated by a val-
* Godman, vol. iii.
t Fauna Americana.
t We have quoted accurately ; but this statement appears to us,

65
ley from twenty to twenty-five miles wide, which
now deeply embosoms the current of the Mississippi.
Wherever these hills disclose rocky and precipitous
fronts, a series of distinctly marked antique water-
lines is to be observed. These water-lines preserve
a parallelism which is very remarkable, and as we
should expect to find, constantly present their great
est depression towards the sources of the river.f
At Grand Tower they are elevated about 130 feet
above the summer level, at which elevation we ob
serve petrifactions of madrepores and various other
fossil organic remains which belong to this peculiar
era. Here the rocks of dark-coloured limestone,
which pervade the country to so great an extent,
project towards each other as if they had once united;
but by some, convulsion of nature, or what is still
more probable, by the continued action of the water
upon a secondary rock, the Mississippi- has effected
a passage through this barrier, thus producing an
exhaustion of the stagnant waters from- the level
prairie lands above. The whole Missouri shore,
from the vicinity of Grand Tower extending up
wards, is sufficiently elevated to have served, at a
former period, as the western shore of an expanse
of waters standing upon the present surface of the
state of Illinois. This hypothesis derives additional
weight from an attentive consideration of the mine
ral character of the alluvial deposits forming the
surface of the, prairies, in which we often observe
fine, hard,, and compacted layers of earth, similar to
those which are found at the bottom of mill-ponds,
where the water has been long- stagnant."
Before closing our notices of fossils, we must briefly
advert to those which have been found in the caverns,
with which the limestone districts of the United States
abound, in a mariner analogous to those of Europe.
In too many instances caverns, have been penetrated,
and their contents disturbed, without any accurate
observation or report : Professor Eaton, however,
writes on the subject as follows : " The new cavern
in Root's Nose, on the Erie Canal, I carefully inves
tigated, aided by three accurate assistants. This is
400 feet in extent. I caused two important caverns
to be minutely examined in the Helderberg by three
good assistants, of whom Mr. Finch, the geologist,
was one. In addition to these, I have caused the
important points suggested by Buckl and to be search
ed out in several of the Kentucky and Illinois caverns.
Nothing resembling the bones so abundant in Euro
pean caverns has hitherto been discovered. Who-

if correct, irreconcilable with Mr. Schoolcraft's theory. Water
marks produced by the course of a stream, would present their
greatest elevation towards its source.

66

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

ever will take the trouble to make personal inquiry,
or to look over the journals of the last half century,
will learn that all the bones disinterred in this coun
try which may be called antediluvian, belong to the
pachydermata, or thick skin order. I can not learn
that a fragment of hyaena bone has ever been found
in this hemisphere. I have taken measures to secure
every important- discovery made by the workmen on
the canal for the last four years ; I distributed 1000
copies of a pamphlet giving plain instructions for
making collections, along the canal line, while the
labour of excavating 360 miles was going on ; but
not a fragment of a dry-land animal was discovered.
I may add, that we found stalagmites in all the
caverns, as described by Buckland ; and on shelves,
and in other situations protected from the touch, and
in almost every part of the new cavern in Root's
Nose, we found a deposit resembling what I have
elsewhere denominated ultimate diluvion." From
these facts he derives the conclusion, not perhaps im^
probable, yet open to correction by future researches,
that antediluvial animals were few on the North
American continent, and that they consisted chiefly
of large species of pachydermata.
We may now find a proper place for adverting to
another topic. The geological aspect of the United
States has, in many instances, been apparently modi
fied by the comparatively recent operation of natural
causes ; such as the fall of a portion of a mountain,
an impetuous torrent of water, or the draining of a
lake. These are scenes which strongly tempt the
spectator to suspect, and almost to be confident, that
such events.have occurred within a thousand, or per
haps within a few hundred years, and have given
origin to valleys, and cliffs, and strata, and river
courses, which now mingle in entire harmony with
the general landscape. The want of written records
among the native tribes precludes the possibility of
discovering any other memorials of these catastro
phes than such as are impressed on the face of na
ture ; but while the idea is encouraged by the im
mense force of the causes which are here in opera
tion, and the vastness of the scope which is open to
their action, it is converted almost into certainty by
occurrences of a similar kind which have taken place
within the period of accurate observation and record.
We may mention one in illustration of the manner
in which local deposits of gravel may have been
formed, and at a height considerably exceeding that
of the water which produced them. The severity of
the winter of 1821-2 having formed the ice of the
Hudson of unusual thickness, it broke up suddenly,
and moved down, not with great velocity, but with

a degree of force which seemed to threaten even the
shores of solid rock. Pressing against a little rock
promontory across which a canal is cut, cakes of ice
shot over, and soon filled the canal. Other cakes
pressing against the bottom of these, lifted them up
to a considerable height above the water. At length
an enormous ice cake appeared, bearing on its back
a great quantity of gravel, and began to press against
the heaps of ice already formed, which bore much
gravel also. Innumerable other cakes from behind,
urged on by the unconquerable waters of the, Hud
son, soon forced the largest cake across the canal,
and up the eastern bank, so that its eastern edge ex
tended thirty-four feet higher than the surface of the
water, carrying up hundreds of smaller cakes to the
same height. " This mountain of ice," says Profes
sor Eaton, " having taken, its stand here, is now melt
ing away, and leaving on the bank the gravel which
it transported from the northern counties. I do not
record this," he adds, " as an uncommon occurrence ;
but since it seems to be a rule among geologists to
trace the derivation of alluvial deposits to localities
more elevated than those where they are found, it
may be well to remind them of contingencies of the
above nature."
The following brief account relates to the cutting
of deep channels by mountain torrents, and the form
ation and impulse of boulders. Deerfield river, in
the greater part of its course, is a mountain torrent,
very rapid and powerful, and has worn itself a pas
sage often 400 feet deep, the banks being almost per
pendicular. The ice freezes three or four feet thick,
and when a sudden rain melts the snows on its banks,
the stream rises rapidly, and lifts up and urges for
ward with tumultuous fury this immense body of ice.
As the banks among the mountains are steep and
rocky, they prevent the accumulation of water and
ice from spreading to the right or left, and thus an
immense force is exerted upon obstacles in the bed
of the stream, which, in winter floods, is filled with
huge masses of ice to the very bottom. In the west
part of Shelburne this river descends a cataract thirty
or forty feet high. The rock in the bottom of the
river is an aggregate of quartz and mica, with horn
blende intermixed, and below the falls it is unstratifi
ed, almost without seams, and very hard. Here we
might expect the force of the torrent would be very
powerful ; and accordingly are found masses of this
rock, from one to ten feet in diameter, raised from
their bed and removed down the stream, some only
a few rods, but some one or two miles. Some very
large blocks are seen just beginning to be raised from
their bed. " Previously to viewing this spot," says

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

67

Mr. Hitchcock, '' I had no just ideas of the enormous
force exerted by a mountain torrent."
The most interesting account of this kind, however,
is that given by the Rev. 8. E. Dwight, of his visit
to a lake which had burst its banks through an in
discreet attempt to draw off part of its waters to a
needy mill. By virtue of the sandy nature of its
margin, the whole contents of the basin were set at
liberty, and made, of course, in their progress, a
frightful desolation. " I was most agreeably surpri
sed," says our traveller, " as I descended the hills
which overlook the valley of the river, to find the
ravages made by the flood so distinctly visible, after
the lapse of thirteen years. Our first view of the
desolation presented a gully, or excavation in the
earth, extending up and down the river as far as its
course was visible, and varying in breadth from twenty
to forty rods, and in depth from twenty to forty foet.
This immense channel, except what had been previous
ly worn away by the gradual attrition of the streamlet,
had all been hollowed out at once by the violence of
the torrent. Its sides were precipices of earth or
sand, every where indicating the avulsion of the
mass which had been adjacent, and exhibiting, in
frequent succession, large rocks laid bare and often
jutting out into the gulley, and near the top the un
covered roots of trees, which, naving been partially
undermined by the water, still nodded over the pre
cipice. The bottom of this channel, as far as we
could see, was covered with larger and smaller rocks
and stones, and in some places with extensive depo
sits of sand. The sight of this vast excavation only
heightened our conceptions ofthe effects of the flood."
'We know not where, better than in connexion
with these facts, to introduce one still more remark
able, if not altogether inexplicable. There have
been found, it appears beyond all question, in naked
limestone of the elder secondary formation, close on
the western margin of the Mississippi at St. Louis, the
prints of human feet. . The prints are those of a man
standing erect, with his heels drawn in, and his toes
turned outward, which is the most natural position.
They are not the impressions of feet accustomed to
a clos"e shoe, the toes being very much spread, and the
foot flattened in the manner that happens to those who
have been habituated to go a great length of time
without shoes. The prints are strikingly natural,
exhibiting every muscular impression and swell of
the heel and toes, with great precision and faithful
ness to nature. The length of each foot, as indica
ted by the prints, is ten inches and a half, and the
* Silliman's Journal, vol. v. p. 223.

width across the spread of the toes, four inches,
which diminishes to two inches and a half at the
swell of the heels, indicating, as it is thought, a sta
ture of the common size. Every appearance seems
to warrant the conclusion that these impressions
were made at a time when the rock was soft enough
to receive them by pressure, and that the marks of
feet are natural and genuine. " Such was the opi
nion of Governor Cass and myself," says Mr. School
craft, " formed on the spot, and there is nothing that
I have subsequently seen to alter this view ; on the
contrary, there are some corroborating facts calcula
ted to strengthen and confirm it." At Herculaneum,
in the same neighbourhood, similar marks have been
found, as well as on some of the spurs of the Cum
berland mountains, always in similar limestone. In
the latter case it is stated that the impressions are
elongated, as of persons slipping in ascending a slimy
steep. Opinions are much divided as to the origin
and import of these impressions.* Should similar
observations multiply, important inferences may per
haps be drawn from them ; at present it seems impos
sible to speak respecting them decisively or satisfacto
rily. They may perhaps be connected with the tracks
of animals which have been noticed in Scotland.f
The following extraordinary facts, respecting what
may be termed living fossils, appear to be well au
thenticated. During the construction of the Erie
canal, while the workmen were cutting through a
ridge of gravel, they found several hundred of live
molluscous animals. They were chiefly of the Mya
cariosa and Mya purpurea. ¦" I have before me,"
says Professor Eaton, "several of the shells from
which the workmen took the animals, fried and ate
them. I have received satisfactory assurances that
the animals were taken alive from the depth of forty-
two feet." In addition to this discovery in diluvial
deposits, mention is made of a similar one in a much
older formation. In laying the foundation of a house
at Whitesborough, the workmen had occasion to split
a large stone from the millstone grit. " It was per
fectly close-grained and compact. On opening it
they discovered a black, or dark brown spherical
mass, about three inches in diameter, in a cavity
which it filled. On examining it particularly, they
found it to be a toad, much larger than the common
species, and of a darker colour. It was perfectly
torpid. It was laid upon a stone, and soon began to
give signs of life. In a few hours it would hop
moderately, on being disturbed. They saw it in the
yard, moving about slowly for several days; but it
t See Dr. Brewster's Journal, April, 1828.

68

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

-was not watched by them any longer, and no one
observed its farther movements. They laid one
half of the stone in the wall, so that the cavity may
still be seen. " The millstone grit," says Professor
Eaton, who gives this account, "in which this toad
was found, is the oldest of the secondary rocks. It
must have been formed many centuries before the
deluge. Was this toad more than 4000 years old 1
or was it from an egg introduced, through a minute
and undiscovered cleavage, into this cavity or geode,
made precisely to fit the size and form of a toad? I
was particular in my inquiry, and learned that the
whole stone was perfectly compact, without any open
cleavage which would admit an egg. Besides, it is
well known that the millstone grit is neither porous
nor geodiferous. If this rock stratum was deposited
upon the toad, it must have been in aqueous, not in
igneous solution, and the toad must have been full
grown at the time. Toads are often found in com
pact, hard, gravelly diluvial deposits, in situations
which demonstrate that they must have lived from
the time of the deluge. I think I am warranted in
saying this without citing authorities, as it is a corh-
mon occurrence. Then why may they not have
lived a few centuries longer, if we admit them a life
qf at least 3000 years ?"
In the present unsettled state of geological inves
tigation with regard to the United States, every ob
server of the phenomena which marked the physical
formation of the country, deserves to be listened to
with more or less regard. It is to be regretted that more
confidence can not be placed in the accuracy of the
speculations which Professor Eaton has with such
boldness ventured to publish ; and it would have
been well had the English editor availed himself of
the researches of Mr. Hayden, whose Geological Es
say contains a large amount of facts on some of the
most important phenomena to be found in various
parts of America.* In his Lectures on Geology, de-,
livered in the New York Athenaeum, Dr. Van Rens
selaer gives us the following list of fossils found in
the United States :

Megatherium
Megalonyx MastodonElephasBos Cervus

Balena Manatus
IcthyosaurusPlesiosaurusSaurocephalus

* See Geological Essays, 8vo. Baltimore, 1820.
t Tn a paper recently read before the Lyceum of Natural Histo
ry, Dr. Dekay has attempted to show that nearly all the fossil fish
from the great depository at Westfield, (Mass.) and which have

Testudo

Venericardia

Cuculkea

Squalus

Anomia

Raia

Nerita

Acipenser, and many

Pectunculus

undetermined genera

Trigonia

and species.t

Mytilms

Medusa

Amphidesma

Cancer

Corbula

Trilobite

Panopcea

Asteria

Crassatella

Echinus

Isocardia

Caryophillia

Calyptrea

Pentremite

Lucina

Encrinite

Astarte

Fusus

Ammonite

Fulgur

Nautilite

Dispotcea

Belemnite

Pecten

Orthoceratite

Helix

Natica

Phcatula

Oliva

Serpula

Cardita

Cellapora

Bilobite

Millepora

Terebratulite

Alveolite

Area

Favosite

Mactra

Tubipora

Donax

Turbinolia

Ostrea

Astrea

Gryphea

Madrepora

Perna

Ocnlina

Patella

Corallium

Conus

Pennatula

Conularia

Sertularia

Terebellum

Alcyonite

Murez

Orbulite

S trombus

Bacculite

Turbo

Fasciolite

Planorbis

Dentalium

Turritella

Ammonite

Serpula

Nummulite

Balanus

Spirula

Glycemeris

Cytherea

Felices

Productus

Palma

Pentamerus

Onerous

Venus

Juglans nigra

Cardium

Fagus.

Cardita

been referred to the genus Paleothrissum of Blainville, are not ge-
nerically distinct from the Esox Osseus, or bony scaled pike ofthe
Mississippi
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

G9

The following fossils have been enumerated by
Dr. Bigsby, in his geological papers on the country
around Lakes Huron 'and Erie.

TrilobiteAmmonite OrthoceratiteConulariaTerebratulasProductae Encrinis CaryophilliaTurbinolia
AstreaCellular and chain Mad
repores, Strues, and
Ramosa, Retepores

and Flustra, in great
abundance. Nine
new varieties of
MadreporesLingulaCalyptraea? Ceritheum
UnioMytilus GrypheaAreaLilly and Pear Encri-
nite.

CHAPTER II.

MINERALOGY.

From the Geology of the United States, we now
turn to their Mineralogy, which is equally ample
and extraordinary. We may first give a general
view of the mineral contents of the several classes
of strata.
A great variety of mineral substances are found
in the primitive formation, such as garnets in the
granite and mica slate, from the size of a pin's head
to that of the head of a child, staurotide, andalusite,
epidote in vast variety and abundance, tremolite, all
the varieties of magnesian rocks, emerald touching
graphic granite, and disseminated in the granite of
a large extent of country, adularia, tourmaline, horn
blende, sulphate of barytes, arragonites, &c. From
the number already found in proportion to the little
research that has yet been employed, there is every
reason to suppose, that in so great an extent of crys
talline formation, almost every mineral discovered in
similar situations on the ancient continent will be
found on the new. Metallic substances in the primi
tive are generally extensive, like the formation itself.
Iron pyrites runs through vast fields, principally of
gneiss and mica slate ; magnetic iron ore, in power-
ful'beds, from ten to twelve feet thick, generally in a
hornblende rock, occupies the highest elevation, as
in the Highlands of New York, the Jerseys, the Yel
low and Iron Mountains in the west of North Caro
lina ; a black brown bed of hematitic iron ore occurs
in Connecticut and New York states ; crystals of
octahedral iron ore (some of which have polarity)
Vol. II.— Nos. 41 & 42 I

are disseminated in granites, as at Brunswick, dis
trict of Maine, and in many varieties of the magne
sian genus ; black lead is met with in beds from six
to twelve feet wide, traversing the states of New York,
Jersey, Virginia, Carolina, <fcc. ; native and gray
copper ore, near Stanardsville, and Nicholson's Gap,
Virginia, is disseminated in a hornblende and epidote
rock, bordering on the transition ; molybdena at
Brunswick, (Maine,) Chester, (Pennsylvania,) Vir
ginia, North Carolina, &c. ; arsenical pyrites in large
quantities in the district of Maine ; red oxyd of zinc
and magnetic iron ore in a powerful bed on the edge
of the primitive, near Sparta, in New Jersey, having
a large grained marble, with nigrin or silico-calcare-
ous titanium imbedded in it on one side, and horn
blende rock on the other. This bed contains like
wise large quantities of blende. Detached pieces of
gold, of which we shall presently speak more par
ticularly, have been found in the beds of some small
streams in North Carolina, and other places. Man
ganese has been found in New York, North Carolina,
&c. Near the confines of the old red sandstone and
primitive formation, a white ore of cobalt has been
wrought above Middletown, on the Connecticut river,
and found also, as it is said, near Morristown, in
New Jersey. The general nature of metallic reposi
tories in this formation appears to be in beds, dissem
inated, or lying in masses ; when in beds (as the
magnetic iron ore and black lead) or disseminated
(as the iron pyrites, octahedral iron ore, molybdena,
&c.) they occur at intervals through the whole range
of the formation. Veins to any great extent have
not yet been discovered in this formation.
Beds of coalblende, or anthracite, accompanied by
alum slate and black chalk, have been discovered in
the transition strata, on Rhode Island, the Lehigh
and Susquehannah rivers, and a large body of alum
slate in Virginia ; many powerful veins of the sul
phate of barytes cross it in different places ; granu
lar, as that near Fincastle, or slaty, as that in Bun-
comb county, North Carolina. Iron and lead have
as yet been the principal metals found in this forma
tion ; the lead in the form of galena, in clusters, or
what the Germans call Stockwerk, as at the lead
mines on New River, Wyeth county, Virginia ; the
iron disseminated in pyrites, hematitic and magnetic
iron, or in beds ; and considerable quantities of the
sparry iron ore in beds, and disseminated in the
limestone. Prehnite and Zeolite are found in the
trap of the old red sandstone formation ; and consi
derable deposits of magnetic iron ore at Grub's
mines are enveloped, and have their circular layers
intersected, by greenstone trap, on a ridge of which

70

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

this extensive cluster of iron ore seems to be placed.
Gray copper ore has been found in the red sand
stone formation, near Hartford and Washington, in
Connecticut ; there are likewise mines in New Jer
sey, where copper pyrites and native copper have
been found. The metallic veins at Perkiomen
creek, containing copper, pyrites, blende, and galena,
are in the same formation, running nearly north and
south across the east and west direction of the red
sandstone, and a small bed, from a half to three inch
es thick, of brown or red copper ore is interspersed,
and follows the circular form of the iron beds at
Grub's mines.
In the secondary and tertiary formations east
ward of the Apalachian mountains, considerable
deposits of bog iron ore occupy the lower situations,
and many of the more elevated and dividing ridges
between the rivers are crowned with a sandstone
and puddingstone, the cement of which is bog iron ore.
Large quantities of ochre, from bright yellow to
dark brown, are found in this formation, in flat ho
rizontal beds, alternating with other earths in somei
places, in others in kidney-form masses, from the:
size of an egg to that of a man's head ; in form re
sembling much the flint found frequently in chalk
formations. In the ordinary mineral productions, such as sand
of all qualities, brick-earth, stone adapted for build
ings of all descriptions, as well as for any kind of
workmanship, the resources of the United States are.
inexhaustible. The same may likewise be said of
many minerals of less universal occurrence, of which
it may be expected that we should speak somewhat
more particularly. To speak first of the precious
metals. Gold is found in considerable quantities in
North and South Carolina, on the eastern side of the
Apalachian Mountains. One mass is stated to have
weighed 281bs. The value of the gold received at
the mint of the United States up to 1820, was 44,000
dollars, or about 11,000Z. sterling. It is remarkable
that the gold of this region is found not only in al
luvium, as in South America, but in its matrix,
though the opinions of the scientific men who have
written upon it are so various, as to render it diffi
cult to say what the matrix is. By Professor Olm-
stead it is referred to clay slate (argillite ;) by Mr.
Rothe to granite, and beds of greenstone occurring
in granite ; and by Professor Eaton to talcose slate,
a kind of rock, in which he states that a small por
tion of gold has been found in Maryland.* Its oc
currence i" the alluvium is thus explained, with

* Silliman's Journal, vol. vii.

great probability, by Professor Mitchell :— " It former
ly existed in the rocks of the region in which it is
found, whether in veins of quartz exclusively, or
also disseminated through the rock, is in a degree
uncertain ; but I am inclined to think, disseminated
also. As the rocks have undergone decomposition,
it has fallen out, and now lies mingled in the soil,
near the same spot, and bearing the same proportion
to the earthy matter as when enclosed in its original
stony matrix. In a few cases only, where it hap
pened to occupy the side of a steep declivity, it has
been carried down during the violent rains into the
adjacent low grounds, and the beds of the neigh
bouring streams." He gives also the following gene
ral result of his inquiries : — The gold of North Caro
lina is found, — 1. In veins of quartz traversing the
ancient primitive rocks, in very small quantity. 2.
In veins of quartz traversing more recent primitive
rock, in considerable quantity. 3. In veins of
quartz traversing transition rocks, and also dessemi-
nated, in considerable quantity. 4. In soil produced
by the decomposition of these three kinds of rock.
5. In the sand of a stream running over old red
sandstone, in very minute quantity.
Silver and its ores are not of frequent or exten
sive occurrence. Dr. Dana states the curious fact'
that, near Portsmouth, New Hampshire, a mass, three
or four inches in diameter, was found on the top of
a wall, composed principally of native silver in fila
ments : the surrounding hills are chiefly greenstone.
Mercury, which has been found native in Kentucky,
occurs more plentifully as a sulphuret, (Bituminous
Cinnabar, Cleaveland,) in Ohio and the Michigan ter
ritory, more particularly on the shores of lakes Michi
gan, Huron, St. Clair, Detroit River, and Lake Erie
to the mouth of Vermilion River. It occurs in the
soil in the form of a black and red sand, but is usual
ly more abundant in banks of fine ferruginous clay.
Near the mouth of Vermilion River, it is in the form
of a very fine red powder, or in grains and small
masses, disseminated in clay. It yields by distilla
tion about 60 per cent, of mercury.
Copper, in various forms, occurs in the United
States, but the ores do not appear to be brought into
use. This metal is not found so abundantly on the
shores of Lake Superior as it was anticipated it
would be ; but many specimens of copper ore have
been found at different points in the Mississippi val
ley. Specimens of pure and malleable copper have
been obtained : one of which, said to have been found
in Illinois, thirty miles east of St. Louis, weighed
three pounds. In the United States ores of iron are
abundant. Those hitherto worked are chiefly the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

71

magnetic oxide, brbwn hematite, and the argillaceous
oxide, partic u larly bog ore. The more important ores
are the following, viz. in New Hampshire, the magnetic
oxide ; in Vermont, brown hematite, and bog ore ; in
Massachusetts, bog ore ; in Rhode Island, brown hema
tite ; in Connecticut, brown hematite, and bog ore ; in
New York, the magnetic, specular, and argillaceous ox
ides ; in New Jersey, the magnetic and argillaceous ox
ides; in Pennsylvania and the states south and west,
the magnetic oxide, brown hematite, and the argillace
ous oxide. To these may now be added the car
bonate of iron, which has recently been successfully
smelted, and which produces iron having the carbona
ceous impregnation of steel, whence it has been call
ed steel ore. In New York, New Jersey, and Penn
sylvania, the ore is found in an abundance, and of a
quality not exceeded in Sweden. The Connecticut
and Virginia iron is highly esteemed. More than
600 furnaces, forges, and bloomeries, now exist in
the United States ; at which it is estimated that about
30,000 tons of bar iron, and about 60,000 tons of cast
iron, are annually made. In 1819, 20.000 tons of
iron, in bars and bolts, were imported into the United
States. In Ohio, are furnaces or forges, or both, in
nine or ten counties. The ore sometimes occurs in
nodules in clay, and sometimes it is a very ferrugin
ous sandstone, occurring in beds.
The ores of lead are extensively found in the ter
ritories of the republic ; and in Ohio, it is stated to
have been met with native, forming slips, or slender
prismatic masses, in crystallized galena. This mine
ral is found in various places, from the Arkansas
River to the northwest territory, the precise line of
the Ozark and Shawnee mountains, a tract which
seems to constitute one of the most important and
extensive deposits of lead hitherto known. On the
Arkansas, the ore is smelted by the Osage Indians
for bullets. To the northward, some valuable mines
at Prairie du Chien are imperfectly worked by the
proprietors of the soil. But the most important mines
are those in Cape Girardeau district, commonly known
as the lead mines of Missouri. The mining district
is situated between two prominent ridges of sandstone,
which bound the valley of Grand River, or the basin
of Potosi. These ridges diverge in their course north
ward, and are intercepted by the Merameg, which re
ceives the waters of Grand River, and forms a bound
ary to the mining district in that direction. The area,
thus isolated by prominent topographical boundaries,
forms the metalliferous district, where mining opera
tions were first commenced by the French about a
century since, and have been continued, with more
or less activity, to the present period. The consoli

dated portions of this area consist of two distinct de
posits of limestone, a formation of sandstone, and
another of red marl, the latter of which has, thus far,
yielded the greatest quantities of lead ore. This
metalliferous marl fills large veins and fissures in the
inferior stratum of limestone, and there is reason to
conclude that it is found, in some cases, in the posi
tion of subordinate beds. The galena and spars
found in this marl are never abraded, but present all
their crystalline characters unimpaired by the action
of any accidental forces. The superior limestone is
compact, shelly, and blackish, and seems to be above
the metalliferous marl. Over the whole, and form
ing the surface of the country, is a heavy deposit of
diluvial materials, pebbles of various formations, fer
ruginous loam, fragments of quartz, &c. This is the
repository of those comparatively limited beds of
abraded galena which are denominated gravel ore,
and which has all the marks of diluvial action. Mix
ed with the more finely comminuted portions of
rock, are found fragments of quartz, and lumps of
lead ore, together with rounded masses of pre-exist
ing strata representing the two great classes of forma
tions, which most geologists have felt a necessity for
recognising under the names of primitive and second
ary. Most of these masses are small, not exceeding
a few ounces in weight, and few are found to exceed
the size of a cannon shot. Some writers have been
disposed to ascribe the ore found so abundantly, and
so contrary to all analogy hitherto observed, in the
veins of red marl or clay in the galeniferous lime
stone, to diluvial action likewise ; but Mr. Schoolcraft
positively assures us that there are none of those
marks of abrasion which such a theory would re
quire. The galena raised from the marl, he tells us,
is as free from any marks of diluvial action,- as if it
had been fresh blasted from the most solid parts of
the limestone. That the red marl never has been
so disturbed, appears also from the large vein-like
beds of sulphate of barytes which traverse it. To
assert, that these very white, highly crystalline bodies
of spar, often enveloping cubical masses of galena,
and large beds of galena with the cubical pyrites and
octahedral and crested iron ores of the basin of Po
tosi, could have been removed by any known forces
amid the earthy mass in which they are found, with
out effecting a visible obliteration of their angles,
would certainly be not very reasonable. The same '
series of formations extends in a particular direction,
not only from the Merameg to the St. Francis, through
out the broadest part of the valley of Grand River,
but even beyond it, to the southern limits ofthe state
of Missouri, to the upper tributaries of White River

72

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

and to the Strawberry branch of Black River. To
wards the north also, this metalliferous red clay and
its accompanying strata have been traced ; whether
uninterrupted or not, they certainly reappear, with
some differences, on the Upper Mississippi, at the
mines of Peosta and Dubuque. In the Shawnee
mountains, in the southern part of the state of Illi
nois, mining was formerly attempted, but it is now
abandoned. Tin has not been found in the United
States. And although the ores of zinc, antimony,
and many other metals, occur in various localities,
they do not, possess sufficient importance to require
further notice here.
Coal is known to exist in the United States in
great quantity, and has been sought after to a con
siderable extent, although the abundance of wood has
hitherto impeded the working of the mines to their
full capability. The kinds of coal found in this ex
tensive territory are very various, and the localities
in which they are met with are of corresponding
diversity. They are classed by Professor Eaton un
der the following heads : — First, The genuine an
thracite, or glance coal, found in the transition
argillite, as at Worcester, (Massachusetts,) Newport,
(Rhode Island;) also in small quantities in the north
and south range of argillite along the bed and banks
of the river Hudson. Second, Coal destitute of bitu
men, usually- called anthracite, but differing greatly
in its character from the anthracite found in argillite.
It may be call anasphaltic coal. This is embraced
in a slate rock, being the lowest of the lower series
of secondary rocks. This coal formation is equiva
lent to the great coal measures of Europe. There is
always bitumen in a greater or less proportion, though
the proportion is often exceedingly small.* The
principal American localities of this coal hitherto
discovered are in the state of Pennsylvania ; as at
Carbondale, Lehigh, Lackawaxen, Wilkesbarre, &c.
Third, The proper bituminous coal, as at Tioga,
Lycoming, &c. This coal is embraced in a slate
rock, which is the lowest of the series of upper se
condary rocks. The fourth formation is the lig-
nate coal, which is found in a very extensive stra
tum in the state of New Jersey along the south
shore of the bay of Amboy. The second species
of coal is becoming of considerable importance in
the United States; and rising into high estimation,
as peculiarly adapted to various useful purposes.
When once ignited, it burns with a strong and
durable heat ; and indeed much of the difficulty of
* This is called in question by Dr. Silliman, who asserts that he
has repeatedly distilled different varieties of this coal without ob
taining any bitumen.

kindling it may be avoided by the addition of a cer
tain quantity of charcoal, and by a strong current
of air judiciously managed. As it is composed
almost entirely of carbon, without bitumen, or even
sulphur, except from the accidental presence of py
rites, it burns without caking, and is very useful in
those operations where a durable and uniform degree
of heat is required. Hence its use in smelting iron
ore, and in the preparation of steel ; in burning
limestone ; in salt-works, and other processes of eva
poration ; in distillation, preparing malt, &c. «fec.
But as it burns without flame, it cannot be employed
in reverberatory furnaces ; and, as it does not cake,
it cannot be used by the smith for those purposes of
the forge where a hollow fire is required. It has
been common to consider this anasphaltic coal as a
true anthracite, and the strata in which it is found
as properly belonging to the transition class ; but it
would be difficult to admit this in conjunction with
such a profusion of vegetable remains as occur in
connexion with it. In visiting several of the mines
of the Susquehanna, and Lackawanna, the naturalist
is gratified by seeing the vast deposits of vegetable
impressions and remains which accompany the coal,
usually in the slate that forms the roof, and occa
sionally in that of the floor ; they exist also, although"
in a smaller degree, in the sandstone, and sometimes,
but much more rarely, even in the coal itself. There
are instances where they fill the slate for a space of
ten feet in thickness, and, making due allowance for
the compression which they have undergone, the
original deposits must have occupied a vastly greater
thickness than their relics do now. The impres
sions are very perfect, indicating repose arid calm at
the time of their deposition, and excluding the possi
bility of transport from distant countries. There are
many species of ferns, none of them, as it is said,
modern, and most or all of them tropical ; there are
impressions, sometimes several feet long and broad,
of the bark of, gigantic vegetables, some botanists say
they are palms ; occasionally there are entire limbs,'
carbonized ; frequently, broad leaves are found of six
or seven inches or more in diameter ; culmiferous
plants are numerous, and so are the aquatic alg32,
and rushes. The leaves of the plants are usually in
full expansion, the most delicate parts of their struc
ture being exactly preserved or copied ; and accord
ing to Mr. Cist, flowers of a stellated form are oc
casionally found. Professor Hitchcock believed
that he had found a flower with unfolded petals. If
all these remains are found in transition rocks, it is
certainly a new feature in geological science ; if, on
the contrary, according to Professor Eaton, the strata

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

73

in which the anasphaltic coal lies are of the elder
secondary, then this class of rocks must be of more
extensive occurrence on the eastern side of the Apa
lachian. Mountains than has been hitherto supposed.
We cannot withhold from our readers the follow
ing speculations of a scientific observer on the proba
ble formation of these interesting beds : — " Is the an-
hracite coal," says Dr. Silliman, "of vegetable origin?
Does the fibrous charcoal, frequently found between
its layers, owe its origin to the vegetable skeleton?
There seems no more reason to doubt the latter fact,
than that the vegetable impressions found in and
upon the coal and its rocks have the same origin.
But did the mass of coal arise from vegetables ?
This has been admitted by many persons with re
spect to bituminous coal, but, I have heretofore been
inclined to attribute anthracite coal to a diiect min
eral creation ; the opinion of its vegetable origin
appears however to me less improbable, since I have
seen with my own eyes the incontrovertible and
abundant proofs of vegetable life in these mines.
We are obliged, from the facts here seen, to go a great
extent in admitting vegetation in connexion with
this coal. But if we seek to trace the entire masses
to vegetable matter, how shall we admit the existence
and accumulation of the enormous quantities that
must have grown or been collected on the spot, to
form such stupendous beds, ten, twenty, and thirty
feet in thickness, and repeated, again and again, with
all their attendant rocks and impressions ? Hut, the
plants, from ferns and liliputiari vegetables to those of
great size, did grow, and were deposited, in connexion
with these coal strata, for there we find their unques
tionable and exuberant remains ; and they were pro
duced again and again, for we find them in the dif
ferent deposits, as the coal strata succeed each other at
different depths. As the vegetables, whose organized
forms or impressions we actually find, did exist in
these places, could there, by any possibility, have
been enough accumulated to form the coal beds? If
it is difficult to answer in the affirmative, perhaps it
is not quite certain that we must reply in the negative ;
at least it is not, I must confess, quite so certain as I
once thought it to be.
" But, supposing the vegetable matter to have ex
isted in sufficient quantity to have formed the coal ;
why, if so formed, is there in general no appearance
of ligneous structure, of vegetable organization in
the coal itself? On this point it may be suggested,
that the vegetable matter may have been so decom
posed, as to lose in a great degree its organization ;
it may have been suspended or deposited in water
along with the same earthy matter which formed

the accompanying rocks, and particularly the coal
slate, and this earthy matter may have been deposit
ed along witli and among the particles as well as the
masses of coal, now in minute proportion, as we ac
tually find it in burning even the purest anthracite,
the form and structure of whose layers is delicately
exhibited by the earthy skeleton, commonly called
ashes,, which remains: now the earthy matter may
have prevailed to a greater degree, and then the coal
is more impure, less combustible, and affords a more
abundant residuum ; again, the earthy matter may
have prevailed still more, and then the deposit is a
carbonaceous slate ; and lastly, the carbon may have
been supplanted by the earthy matter, and then
seams of slate would be formed, as we actually find
them in the coal beds. Without some such process,
it seems difficult to account for the varying propor
tions of earth and carbon which we find blended in
the anthracites ; the extremes being the purest coal
on the one hand, and slate on the other, and be
tween these there appear to be innumerable mixtures
or combinations of earth and coal in different pro
portions. " Perhaps the reason why the vegetables found in
the slate retain their organized form, is found in the
fact, that the fine sedimentary earths, the silicious
and argillaceous, of which the slate is composed,
may have enveloped the plants too suddenly to per
mit them to undergo decomposition, and thus to ex
hibit an impalpable carbon ; while their forms would,
of course, be distinctly impressed upon the yielding
plastic matter of the slate, rendered soft perhaps by
diffusion in water. Pressure is also to be taken into
account in reasoning upon the probable obliteration
of the organic structure; this force would operate
in proportion to the progress of the accumulation,
whether of coal strata, or of those of superincum
bent rock."*
The appearance of the Tioga, or bituminous coal,
differs so little from the well known character of the
best Liverpool or Newcastle coal, that it scarcely re
quires a description. Its colour is velvet black, with
a slight resinous lustre, its structure is slaty or foli
ated, and its layers, as in the best English coal, divi
ded into prismatic solids, with bases slightly rhom-
boidal ; it is easily frangible and slightly soils the
fingers. The specific gravity is 1.287. It burns
with a bright flame and considerable smoke, with a
slight bituminous smell, a sort of ebullition taking
place, and, as the heat increases, an appearance ot
semifusion, leaving a slight residue or scoria.

* Silliman's Journal, vol. xviii.

74

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

In 100 parts of coal are, Carbon  66 7
 Bitumen  30 43
  Earth  3 50

100 00

It thus appears that the Tioga coal is of an excel
lent quality, fully equal to the best Liverpool coal,
and fit for all the purposes of manufactures, but requir-
'ing to be converted into coke before it can be made
use of in the smelting of iron ore, or in many other
processes in metallurgy and the arts. This should be
always kept in view, and is the principal distinction
between it and the anthracite or non-bituminous coal
of Rhode Island and Pennsylvania. Each of them has
its distinctive and valuable qualities. While the anthra
cites consist nearly of from ninety to ninety-seven
per cent, of pure carbon, the Tioga coal contains on
ly 66,7, the residue being chiefly bitumen, a substance
which renders it extremely valuable in domestic use,
and in the reverberatory furnaces, but, inapplicable
to many other purposes which the experienced artist
can easily comprehend. The bituminous coal oc
curs in a series of beds of sandstone, accompanied by
shale or argillaceous slate, abounding with vegetable
impressions and resting on secondary limestone con
taining fossil remains. In the neighbourhood of the
coal mine is found abundance of iron ore, of that
species which is called ironstone or argillaceous iron
ore, precisely of the same character as that which
accompanies the beds of coal in England.
Graphite, or plumbago, commonly but improperly
called black lead, occurs extensively in primitive
and transition rocks ; from that which is obtained
in New York, excellent pencils have been made.
There are also numerous localities of petroleum, or
mineral oil. It usually floats on the surface of
springs, which in many cases are known to be in
the vicinity of coal. It is sometimes called Seneca
or Genesee oil. In Kentucky, it occurs on a spring
of water in a state, sufficiently liquid to burn in a
lamp ; it is collected in considerable quantities, and
sold at twenty-five cents, or about one shilling, ster
ling a gallon.
Salt appears to be very abundant in the United
States. We have already noticed the indications of
a gypsum and rock salt formation along the east and
south-east boundaries of the Mississippi Valley bor
dering on the transition rocks of the mountain chains,
and in strata identical with the saliferous sandstone
of Europe ; and through the whole extent of this
line, from the state of New York across the Missis
sippi, into the Arkansas country, salt-works have
been more or less successfully undertaken. The
salt, however, has never been found in the mass ; it

is obtained from springs, or more frequently from
wells or borings made for the purpose. The brine
varies considerably in its strength. Professor Eaton
has suggested doubts whether masses of salt really
exist. He conceives that au apparatus for the spon
taneous manufacture of salt may be found within the
bosom of the earth, in those rocks which contain the
necessary elements ; and his opinion has the support
of an experiment which we shall give in his own
words. " I took a specimen of the rock called water
limestone from a hill adjoining Nine-mile Creek, a
few miles west of the Onondaga salt-springs. If
this specimen be pulverized and examined ever so
minutely, it presents nothing to the senses resem
bling common salt, (muriate of soda.) I do not mean
that the elementary constituents can not be found
in it, but I do not propose here to have any reference
to a chemical analysis of the rock. On exposing a
fresh fracture of a specimen from this rock for two
or three weeks in a damp cellar, it shoots out crys
tals of common salt, sufficient to cover its whole sur
face. This proves conclusively, that one rock at
least, reposing over the floor of the salt springs, con
tains in itself the materials for the spontaneous
manufacture of salt. And there may be many kinds
of rock besides the water limestone, which contain '
the elementary constituents of common salt." Sub
sequently, however, Mr. Eaton has found reason to
think that salt has existed in a solid state in cubical
crystals, the hollow forms of which he discovered
abundantly in the lias and saline rock of the west,
and it seems still to be highly probable that masses
of salt exist in the neighbourhood of the salt-springs.
The brine contains, besides the muriate of soda, a
considerable proportion of muriate of lime and mag
nesia. Recently also bromine has been detected in
the brine of Salina by Dr. Silliman.
In addition to those which are strictly saline, mi
neral waters of various properties are of frequent
occurrence in the United States. Our notices of
them in this department of our work must be chiefly
confined to their mineralogical character. The mi
neral waters of Saratoga, which have become so cele
brated for their medicinal qualities, are situated in alow
marshy valley, along the termination of a ridge of se
condary limestone ; they discover themselves in a bed of
blue marl, which covers the valley throughout its whole
extent, and to an unknown depth. On digging into
this marl, to any considerable distance, in almost any
direction, a mineral water is sure to be found ; in
some places, at the depth of six or eight feet, it is
discovered issuing from a fissure or seam in the un
derlying limestone, while at other places, it seems to

'&*

< &

a £

rt

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

75

proceed, from a thin stratum of quicksand,. which is
found to alternate with the marl at distances of from ten
to forty feet ; at this depth the marl is interrupted by a.
layer of boulders of a considerable size, beyond which
no researches have yet been made. All the mineral
fountains that have yet been examined in this valley,
and there are more than twenty, are found to possess
uniformly the same qualities, differing only in what
is usually, termed their strength, or, in other words,
in the quantities of the articles which the water of
each is found to hold in solution. They belong to
a class which may with propriety be styled tho aci
dulous saline chalybeate. The best analyses agree
in demonstrating th^it they contain, the. folio wing in
gredients,, viz.— carbonic :acid, "muriate of soda, car
bonate of; soda, carbonate of lime, .carbonate of: mag
nesia, and- : carbon ate of iron, together with a very
minute quantity of silica .and, alumina. To these
ingredients. recent investigations have added iodine,
hydrobr.anikvacid, and potash. '.Thosurfa'ce of Hamil
ton spring,, at Saratoga, is constantly agitated by the
escape of large quantities of gas ;, and as the water
passes off, it leaves on the surface of . the, earth ..an
abundant deposit ,q{ a brownish -"colour,' evidently.
ferruginous and calcareous. The water, when .first
dipped from the fountain, is remarkably dear arid
sparkling, but on standing exposed to the atmosphere,
soon becomes turbid. It. is saline, and acidulous. to
the taste, and when taken to the 'quantity of. five or
six half pints, is usually pbweitfully cathartic and
diuretic. The temperature at the bottom of the well
is uniformly at fifty degrees.
One gallon, or 231 cubic inches,, of this water, when first taken
from the well, contains
Muriate' of soda . . .... . . grains 297.3
Hydriodate of soda . . .... . . 3.
Carbonate of soda . . .'.;.... 19.21
' Carbonate of lime .' . . .... . '. '¦'.. 92.4 - '
Carbonate of magnesia' . . . . .'. . - 23.1
Oxide of iron ; . . . .... .... 5.39

¦ 'I.T'j : '•' grains 440.4 together
with a'piinute quantity of silica and. alumina, probably 0.6 of a
grain, making the solid contents of a gallon amount to 441 grains.
Garbonic-acid gas . . .:-'.'¦-. -316cubicincb.es.
Atmospheric air .'¦". ..-...' 4

Gaseous contents in a gallon

320 cubic inches

At Albany, in the summer 'of- 1826, in boring for;
pure water for a brewery, a mineral spring was aceir
dentally opened.- -The sensible qualities of this wa
ter have a great resemblance to those of the Congress
spring- at Saratoga. Its temperature is- uniformly
from 51° to 52° of* Fahrenheit,- at all seasons of the
year; its "specific gravity, when taken with' great
care, and after repeated trials, was found to be as

1010 to 1000. The taste of the water is purely sa
line, somewhat pungent, and not at all disagreeable;
but those who are best acquainted with it think it by
no means so stimulating and pungent as the waters
of the Congress spring; it has no sensible chalybeate
taste, and no perceptible smell which could lead to
the suspicion of its holding sulphuretted hydrogen
gas in solution. As to the gas which ascends through
the tube, and has been described as inflammable, it
appears to be. either hydrogen or carburetted hydro
gen, similar to the gas which is so frequently obser
ved to accompany the saline springs in the state of
New York, but which passes through the water with
out giving it any sensible properties. When this
water, which is at first so clear and pellucid, is al
lowed to remain for a few hours in a, glass, the gas
which is extricated. from it adheres, in the form of
innumerable air bubbles, to the inside surface of the
glass ; in a short .time after, the, waiter loses its trans
parency, a thin, pellicle appears on its surface, which
has a slightly irridescent appearance; by degrees the
water becornes perfectly, opaque, the pellicle falls to
the bottom, which, as, well; as -the sides of the glass,
is covered with a light brown. powder, which adheres
firmly to it. The water, after this, recovers its former
transparency, but loses its agreeable, pungent, and
acidulous taste, becoming perfectly vapid, and having
no other taste but that of a. solution of marine salt in
water. ' Dr. Mead gives the following comparative
analysis of the mineral contents in one pint of water
of Congress spring at Saratoga, the public well at
Ballston and the new spring, at Albany :'

Congress Spring.

Muriate' of soda
Carbonate of lime . ,
Carbonate of magnesia
Muriate of lime '.-. .".
Muriate of magnesia
Oxide of iron . .''.'.

Total

Cubic indhes

Carbonic Acid Gas.

¦Public' Well, BaHston.

Grs.
51 1-2
13 3-4
8 1-2
1 3-4
2 1-2
1-4

78 1-4

.... Muriate' of soda . .
*s>:i'.Carbonate of.lime ' .
--. .Garbonate..pf -magnesia
Muriate bf.lime'
-' Muriate of magnesia -
' "Oxide of iron . . . ',

Total

Carbonic Acid Gas.

33

Grs.
21 4 5-8
5 5-8
1 3-4 3-4 1-2
34 1-2

Cubic inches  .30 1-3

76

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Albany Water.

Grs.

Muriate of soda  59
Carbonate of soda  5
Carbonate of lime  4
Carbonate of magnesia  11-2
Carbonate of iron  1
Muriate of lime  1-2

Total  71

Carbonic Acid Gas.

Cubic inches

26

Professor Hosack, of New York, thus writes on the
medicinal qualities of the Ballston waters :
" No mineral waters in the United States enjoy an
equal celebrity with those of Ballston aud Saratoga,
and as. none are more generally resorted to by in
valids, perhaps none are more indiscriminately used.
Correctly to ascertain their properties becomes, there
fore, an object of importance to every physician.
"Several analyses of the Ballston waters have been
communicated to the public ; according to the analy
sis made by Mons. Caizalet, a teacher of chemistry
at Bordeaux, a bottle of the Ballston water contain
ing 25 ounces afforded,
1. Carbonic acid, three times its volume.
2. Muriate of Soda,  31 grains.
3. Super saturated carbonate of lime, . 22 grains.
4, Muriate of magnesia  12 1-2 grains.
5. Muriate of lime  5 grains.
6. Carbonate of iron,  4 grains.
" This subject has also recently received the atten
tion of Dr. William Meade, of Philadelphia, a gentle
man well skilled in practical chemistry, and who has
made frequent visits to the springs both of Ballston
and Saratoga, for the express purpose of making an
accurate analysis of those celebrated waters.
" The reader, desirous of further information on
this subject, is referred to the work published by Dr.
Meade, entitled, • An Experimental Inquiry into the
chemical properties and medicinal qualities of the
principal mineral waters of Ballston and Saratoga.'
" The Ballston waters have been long known to
yield a great quantity of fixed air, and to hold in
solution a large portion of iron. By the analysis
now given, it appears that they yield a much larger
proportion of fixed air, and that they contain a greater
quantity of iron than any other mineral water that
has hitherto been discovered, not excepting that of
Vichy, in France, one of the strongest chalybeate
waters in. Europe. But it appears, that they also con
tain another substance, viz. the muriate of lime, which,
with the other ingredients with which it is associa
ted, promises to be of great and extensive utility.

" We are accordingly, from the above analysis, in
duced to ascribe more virtues to the Ballston waters
than physicians have generally believed them to pos
sess. Although much is due to exercise, change of
air, and an agreeable occupation ofthe mind, which
the amusements of watering places usually afford, I
have no doubt, from the sensible effects produced
upon the system by the waters themselves, that they
are also productive of great good in a variety of
diseases, some of which I shall now briefly enu
merate. " 1st. From the effects of the Ballston waters, as
a strong chalybeate, they may. be employed with ad
vantage in most diseases of debility, whether directly
or indirectly such. But in those complaints which
are attended with an increased excitement of the
whole system, or with local inflammation, they are
manifestly prejudicial. These principles are dedu-
cible from the qualities of the waters alone ; but they
are also confirmed by the experience and observation
of physicians who have attended to their operation.
" Accordingly, in intermittent fever, dropsy, dys
pepsia, hypochondriasis, and hysteria, connected with,
or proceeding from, debility of the digestive organs ;
in paralysis, chronic rheumatism, gout, in its chronic
state, chlorosis, fluor . albus ; in suppression ofthe
menses when arising from weakness, in worms, and
in other diseases of debility, whether of the intestinal
canal, or of the whole system, the Ballston waters
have been long and justly celebrated. On the other
hand, in a plethoric state of the system, as in preg
nancy, in consumption of the lungs, inflammation of
the liver, acute rheumatism, dysentery, and other
diseases of an inflammatory nature, in which they
are oftentimes resorted to, they invariably do injury.
We may, perhaps, except from this remark a species
of consumption which arises in females about the
time of puberty, in which, from want of energy in
the system, menstruation does not take place at the
period in which it usually appears ; dyspepsia en
sues, followed with general irritation of the nervous
system, pain in the breast, cough, sometimes he
morrhage from the lungs, and ultimately terminating
in confirmed consumption. These consequences
have frequently been prevented by a conrse of iron,
and vegetable tonics, aided by generous diet, and ex
ercise, especially riding on horseback. Under simi
lar circumstances, I have no doubt that the Ballston
waters may be serviceable in this species of phthisis
in its incipient state ; but they should never be em
ployed in diseases of this nature without the advice
of a physician.
" 2. From the saline impregnation of these waters,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

77

and their operation upon the urinary organs, as well
as by perspiration, they are indicated in diseases of
the kidneys and bladder, in gout, chronic rheumatism,
and eruptions upon the skin, all which diseases are
most frequently produced by, or connected with, a
morbid condition of the fluids, and an impaired state
of the secretions. In these complaints, 1/ have re
peatedly prescribed these waters with the best effects.
" Dr. Thacher,\ the author of ' The American
Modern Practice,' a work containing much original
and valuable information, concurs in the opinion of
the general efficacy of the Ballston waters in diseases
of debility, and that they are peculiarly beneficial in
calculus and gravel, some cases of which have come
within his own particular knowledge — and upon the
information of Dr. Powell, whose residence at the
springs gave him a free opportunity of ascertaining
the fact, he adds, that rarely a case of gravel occur
red in which relief was not obtained.
" But according to the foregoing analysis, the Ball
ston waters contain an ingredient of great value, be
sides those already enumerated ; I mean the muriate
of lime. It appears upon the authority of Dr. Bed-
does, Dr. R. Pearson, Dr. Wood, and Dr. Schraud, of
Vienna, that this substance has lately been discover
ed to be a remedy for scrofula, which hitherto has
been the opprobrium of our profession. It is true,
cases have been recorded by Russel and others of the
cure of this disorder by the use of sea water. But
as it has been ascertained by chemists, that the mu
riate of lime enters into the composition of sea water,
it is very possible that the efficacy of the latter, in
that disease, may in part be derived from the muriate
of lime which it has been found to contain.
" But as scrofula is usually attended with a gene
ral debility of the system, as well as a morbid condi
tion of the fluids, the Ballston waters will probably
be found peculiarly serviceable, inasmuch as they pos
sess the means of invigorating the system, at the same
time that they contain the antidote to the peculiar
virus of that disease.
" But to obtain the benefits of the Ballston waters
In any of the diseases which have been noticed, it is
necessary that in the use of them, as it regards the
time of taking them, the quantity taken, the stage of
the disease, and other circumstances which must go
vern their exhibition, the directions of the physician
he particularly attended to. As well might the pa
tient make use of any other article of the materia
medica without medical advice, as drink these waters
in the manner in which they are usually taken. It
is but a short time since that a very valuable life was
destroyed by the imprudent use of them during a
Vol. IL— Nos. 43 & 44. K

state of pregnancy. I was lately consulted by two
gentlemen who had left the springs much worse than
they had gone to them. The one laboured under
dyspepsia, attended with habitual costiveness. Neg
lecting to relieve his bowels, he commenced the use
of the waters ; the consequences were, an aggrava
tion of his disease, followed with fever, acute pain in
the head, and other symptoms of general excitement.
The other person referred to, had come from Vir
ginia, on account of an obstinate chronic diarrhoea,
attended with great debility, and general emaciation.
Without advice, he immediately began to drink the
waters, to the quantity of several quarts daily. The
consequences may readily be imagined ; an increase
of his disease, and a degree of debility from which
he with difficulty recovered.
" ¦ This water,' says Dr. Steel, • if drank in large
quantities, or when taken by persons whose stomachs
are extremely irritable, operates as a cathartic : it is
likewise, in most instances, a powerful diuretic ; and
like the other strong chalybeates in the vicinity, is of
eminent service to an impaired or capricious appetite,
and weakness of the assimilating organs in irregular
digestion, flatulent distention of the abdomen, anxie
ty about the prsecordia, difficult respiration from sym
pathy with the stomach, occasional vomiting of viscid
mucus,' &c.
" The administration of these remedies, therefore,
requires some attention. Upon this subject, the fol
lowing judicious remarks by Dr. Dyckman, contain
ed in his excellent American edition of Dr. Duncan's
New Dispensatory, merit the observance of those who
visit Ballston and Saratoga, to obtain the benefits of
those Waters.
" ' The doses must be regulated by the constitution
of the patient, the state of the stomach, the nature
and stage of the disease, and the effects produced.
In large quantities, as from a pint to a quart, they
usually operate gently as a cathartic ; but in small
doses their action is determined more particularly to
the kidneys and skin. In 'general, they should be
drank till they produce a slight evacuation from the
bowels. Care, however, should be taken hever to
distend the stomach so as ^o occasion inconvenience.
If from one to two or three pints daily produce no
sensible effect, the quantity of fluid will be apt to
prove more injurious as a load, than useful as a me
dicine. In most instances, perhaps, it will be advisa
ble to begin with small quantities, and repeat them
often. When taken to an improper extent, particu
larly if they do not produce some effect as a purga
tive or diuretic, they not unfrequently occasion much
distress and disturbance of the whole system, being

78

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

followed by anxiety, headache, or vertigo, perturba
tion, pains in the stomach and bowels, or spasms.
They should not be employed when the stomach and
bowels are overloaded, or just before or after meals.
When intended to act as an aperient, the proper time
for administering them is in the morning, before
breakfast. Their operation will be facilitated by the
exercise of walking or riding. Taken after a meal,
they are; less apt to affect the bowels than they are
the kidneys and skin-' "
A mineral spring exists in Cliff-street, in the city
of New York, of which we find the following analy-

Carbonate of ammonia  5-00
Carbonate of lime  29.50
Carbonate of magnesia, (F,) 33.7 + 1 gr. (E,) .... 34.70
Carbonate of potassa  3.00
Chloride of magnesium  - . . 1-92
Chloride of sodium, (C b,) 4.98 grs. + 52.6 grs. (G, *,) . . 57.58
Sulphate of magnesia .  6.00
Sulphate of soda  . 5.46
Sulphate of lime  0.25
Silica  0.20
Oxide of iron, (D,) (F,)  1.55
Extractive matter  5.

150.16

GASEOUS MATTER. Cub. In.
Carbonic acid  68,57
Atmospheric air  4.57

73.14

The American editor may remark, that this Cliff-
street mineral spring no longer exists : the whole
account seems to have been engendered in error.
At Bedford, in Pennsylvania, there is a very copi
ous supply of mineral water, issuing from the foot of
a cliff by no less than seven highly medicinal springs,
all within the radius of a stone's throw, and some of
them containing iron and sulphur. The Berkely
springs, at Bath, in Virginia, are chiefly magnesian.
In order to render the notice by the English editor
of the mineral waters of the United States the more
satisfactory, the American editor has availed himself
of an article recently published by Professor J. W.
Francis, of New York, which, while it cursorily no
tices several of the more conspicuous mineral waters
of the United States, includes a particular account of
those valuable springs, of a sulphureous character,
lately discovered at Avon, in Livingston county, New
York. If report be true, few springs of equal im
portance are known to exist any where. Their cu
rative properties will unquestionably give them a
preference over many of those waters which have
too long absorbed public attention, but which, from

accidental circumstances, have obtained a popularity,
which never otherwise could have been claimed for
them. Professor Francis assures the editor that he
has spoken in ternis of moderation of their sanative
qualities. " The experiments and observations which have
been made at different periods by various writers on
the mineral waters of the United States, if properly
grouped together, would constitute a work of great
practical utility. This service has indeed been per
formed, to a considerable extent, by Dr. Bell, of
Philadelphia, and a large amount of information on
this interesting subject, which was scattered through
numerous volumes, may be found in his work on
Baths and Mineral Waters.
" Among the earliest papers which have appeared,
of this nature, may be mentioned, an analysis of the
chalybeate water of Bristol, Pennsylvania, by the
late Dr. John De Normandie, of that place, and
printed in the first volume of the Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society. The investiga
tions of this learned physician, though wanting in
the philosophy of modern chemistry, were such as
to awaken much public attention to the Bristol water;
and some sixty years ago they were deemed to pos
sess properties analogous to those of Bath and Spa :
they were at that time largely employed for their
curative powers, but have latterly fallen into disuse.
So early as about 1789, Dr. Mitchill instituted his
first series of experiments on the waters of Saratoga
Springs, and subsequently added many pertinent ob
servations on their medicinal qualities. These waters,
with those adjacent, at Ballston, are now so univer
sally known to both hemispheres, and so extensively
had recourse to, that little more need be said in this
place, than to recommend the reader, for the fullest
details of chemical analysis and of a practical nature,
to the recent work of Dr. Steele. These waters are
designated acidulous saline chalybeates.
" The Schugl's Hills, or Schoolers Mountain water,
deserves also to be here noticed. The water of this
mineral spring is said to have been known to the
aborigines, and to have been employed by them as a
remarkable remedy, which they concealed from the
whites. Be this as it may : the Schooley's Mountain
water is situated in Washington township, nineteen
miles north-west of Morristown, and fifty miles from
the city of New York. The chemical analysis of
it made by Professor Macneven, my late colleague
in Rutgers Medical College, furnishes an admirable
specimen of this species of philosophical investigation;
and were the products of other salubrious medicinal
springSj within the United States, examined with a

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

79

like minuteness and accuracy, we should have little
cause to lament our present imperfect knowledge of
this class of products with which our country is so
largely enriched. I may be pardoned for dwelling a
moment longer on this water. Schooley's Mountain,
by geometrical measurement, has been ascertained to
be more than fifty-four hundred feet in height, above
its immediate base. Dr. Mitchill calculates, by ap
proximation on the falls of water at different mill-
dams along the hurrying channel of the Musconet-
chunck to its junction with the Delaware, and on the
descent thence to Trenton, that the base itself is five
hundred feet more above tide water.*
" This mineral spring issues from the perpendicu
lar side of a steep rock, ' about forty or fifty feet
above the level of a brook that gurgles over a rocky
bottom, within a few paces of it. The spring dis
charges a gallon in about two minutes and a half,
and the quantity is not observed to vary under any
change of season or weather. Its temperature, at its
issue from the rock, was found to be fifty-two degrees
of Fahrenheit. The bare taste and appearance show
that it is a chalybeate ; and it is strongly characteri
zed by the peculiar astringency and savour of ferru
ginous impregnations. The iron is easily separated
from the mineral water : its carbonic acid is altogether
in a state of combination, and hence it never occa
sions flatulence, while it proves a corroborant to feeble
digestive powers. Hence it is recommended in many
chronic diseases and general debility, and especially
in calculus and affections of the kidney and bladder.
In an instructive case which Dr. Macneven has re
corded, the patient took from fifteen to twenty half
pint tumblers a day, with most decided benefit ; and
he informs me, that other examples of its salutary
action in other disorders have come within his know
ledge and observation.
, " The following are the results of Dr. Macneven's
analysis. " Vegetable extract, 92 ; muriate of soda, 43 ; muri
ate of lime, 2.40 ; muriate of magnesia, 50; carbo
nate of lime, 7.99 ; sulphate of lime, 65 ; carbonate
of magnesia, 40 ; silex, 80 ; carbonated oxyde of
iron, 2; loss, 41,= 16.50.
" The white sulphur springs of Virginia have 16ng
enjoyed a distinguished reputation, and are resorted
to at the present day, as formerly, by numerous in
valids, suffering from disorders of the digestive or
gans, chronic affections of the liver, the sequelae of
protracted intermittent and remittent fevers, the'de-
rangements induced by the preposterous use of mer-

* Bruce's Mineralogical Journal.
t See Notes on Virginia.

curials, cutaneous diseases, certain female complaints,
&c. &c. Where the various disorders are uncon
nected with inflammatory symptoms, they are pro
nounced to be of the greatest efficacy. So far as my
acquaintance with these waters extends, it coincides
with that ofthe most favourable opinion given in their
behalf. Their action on the-skin is of singular effica
cy and importance. They are somewhat more ex
citing than ordinary saline sulphureous water. The
reproach long ago made, still holds just, that they
have not received the attention they merit, as objects
of rigid chemical investigation. Dr. Bell's work,
already referred to, contains the best exposition I
have seen of their composition and remedial qualities.
A Virginian is to be excused in lauding, in no com
mon accents, the white sulphur springs : the facts in
the case warrant it ; and moreover in so doing he
only follows his political apostle, Mr. Jefferson. t
" Kentucky boasts of numerous mineral springs of
a sulphureous class. Dr. Drake, of Cincinnati, consi
ders those of the Big Bone Spring, or Salines, and
the Olympian Springs, as the most noted. The wa
ter of the Big Bone Spring, he affirms, contains sul
phuretted hydrogen, in large quantities, and hold in
solution the muriates of soda and lime, and the sul
phates of soda or of magnesia. The disorders to
which Dr. Drake thinks it more peculiarly adapted,
are the torpor, obstruction, or chronic inflammation,
produced by acute diseases of the lungs, liver, spleen,.
kidneys, in short any ofthe viscera, and which have
continued so long that the constitution is exhausted.
In these cases, experience has shown them to possess
all the efficacy that could be expected in any mineral
waters. . From a pint to a gallon may be taken, ac
cording to the strength of the patient, and its sensi
ble effects on the system. The quantity drank at
first should be small, especially by those of reduced
habits. These waters do not increase the pulse, but
their sensible effects on the alimentary system, kid
neys, and skin, are great. The action of the former
is very much , increased, and the latter is frequently
affected in a few days with a violent itching, and an
eruption of pimples or pustules, which are now and
then connected with large biles.t
" With these cursory remarks on some of the mine
ral waters of the United States, we may be the better
enabled to estimate the composition and peculiar
properties of the sulphur springs of Avon. Had
the work of Dr. Bell included any account of these
waters, I would have forborne to offer the present
imperfect observations on the subject ; the more so,
_ — :  ¦  ¦ '^
t See Bell on Baths and Mineral Waters, p. 436-7.

80

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

as I am still engaged in a series of chemical inqui
ries to determine their respective ingredients, assisted
by my friend, Dr. Ellet, the late professor of chemis
try in -Columbia College.
" The Avon springs are situated in Livingston
county, state of New York, within a mile of the vil
lage of Avon. The village is on the bank of the
Genesee river, and is passed through by the great
western road from Albany to Buffalo. The soil in
its vicinity is of the richest and most productive
quality, yielding the cultivator a full reward for his
labour : that of the flats, as they are popularly called,
consists entirely of alluvial deposit, while the table
land presents all the varieties of calcareous and ar
gillaceous mould. The sensibilities of the valetudi-
narian may here cherish to satiety the beauties of
Avon scenery, and the botanist find the richest mate
rials for enlarging his herbarium.
" The Avon springs seem to have been partially
known to the Seneca tribe of Indians, who, until
within a few years, inhabited a village on the oppo
site bank of the river, which they called Canawagus.
The far famed chief, Red Jacket, enumerated them
among his remedial measures for the cure of disor
ders of the skin ; and wasting disorders, as they
were termed, were supposed capable of being re
moved by their use, even applied externally.* They
may now justly be deemed conspicuous among the
mineral waters of the state of New York. They at
present comprise two springs within about forty-two
rods of each other ; and are somewhat less than one
third of a mile from the Genesee river : they issue
from the foot or base of the highlands that border its
low grounds. They are denominated the lower and
the upper springs ; while the former has been for
several ' years known, the latter is but recently, and
is preferred by some. I first became personally ac
quainted with, them in the summer of 1827, when
they were frequented by a number of infirm visiters.
Professor Hadley has lately published an analysis of
the upper spring, which seems to have been made
With a good deal of accuracy. According to his
analysis, one gallon of the water contains, carbonic
acid, 5.6 cubic inches ; sulphuretted hydrogen gas,

* Doubtless this term, wasting disorders, included many physical
infirmities, whose pathognomonic features greatly differed, and
many other different sorts of pulmonary disorganization. Dr.
Rush declares that pulmonary consumption is wholly unknown to
the North American Indians. It is generally admitted, that in
countries where fever and agues prevail, consumption is Of rare
occurrence. Dr. Dwight also makes this observation in particular
reference to the great western country ; and it is sufficiently proved
that intermittent fever constitutes a great outlet to the lives of our
aborigines. But the declaration of Dr. Rush is not tenable.
Hunter, who may be deemed good authority on the subject,, re-

12 cubic inches ; carbonate of lime, 8 grains ; sul
phate of lime, 84 grains ; sulphate of magnesia, 10
grains ; muriate of soda, 18.4 grains ; sulphate of
soda, 16 grains ; and a small, quantity of other mat
ter. According to Dr. Salisbury, a resident at Avon,
the weight of the constituents of the water of the
lower spring, are as follows : arranged so as to form
compounds existing in the water, and calculated for
10,000 parts by weight ; are
Carbonate of lime  5.02
United to carbonic acid  1-70
 6.72
Chloride of calcium  1-44
Sulphate of lime  9.83
Sulphate of magnesia  8.49
Sulphate of soda  2.35
28.83
By volume of 10,000 are,
Hydro-sulphuric acid  4.34
Nitrogen . .  2.35
Oxygen  25
6.94
" Dr. Salisbury adds, the chlorine assigned to cal
cium as the chloride of calcium is often found in
those waters which contain but little saline matter.
There remains 00.6 of sulphuric acid, apparently in
excess, which is accounted for by the difficulty of
separating, accurately, magnesia from the other salts.
The quantity of carbonate of lime exceeds the equi
valent quantity of carbonic acid necessary to render
it soluble in pure water, and this fact affords a pro
bable explanation of the character this water exhibits
when tested by coloured paper.
" The volume of water discharged from this spring,
Dr. Salisbury further remarks, is the same at all sea
sons of the year, and does not appear to depend in
the least upon atmospheric influence ; as nearly as
can be ascertained, under existing circumstances, it
is fifty-four gallons in a minute. The temperature
of the water is invariably forty-five degrees Fahren
heit. The specific gravity 10.018. As it issues
from the spring it is very limpid and somewhat spark
ling. " The analysis of these waters, which I caused to
be made about two years ago, did not afford satisfac-

marks, that pulmonary consumption among the North American
Indians is established by too- many familiar facts. The celebrated
ehief, Red Jacket, in an interview I had with him at his reserj
vation, near Buffalo, in September, 1823, gave me the particulars
of the cases of no less than seventeen of his relatives, (including,
I think, ten or eleven of his own children,) who had died of pul
monary consumption. He was quite descriptive in his. statement,
and seemed sufficiently qualified to make a number of very fair
distinctions in relation to the matter. This digression from our
more immediate subject will, probably be excused, on account of
the curious character of the facts which it records.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

81

(ory evidence of either containing iodine. Never
theless, a strong probability is, that both iodine and
bromine enter into their constitution. Dr. Usher, of
New York, and Dr. Steele, of Saratoga, have lately
found iodine in the congress water at Saratoga ; Dr.
Steele has discovered a trace of bromine, the hydro-
bromite of potash, in the water of Hamilton spring.
It is well known that iodine exists but in the smallest
quantity in the waters in which it has, as yet, been
discovered ; and that in waters which have been re
peatedly and carefully analyzed, it has escaped de
tection. This occurrence took place with the saline
springs of Sales, in Piedmont, from which, so recently
as in 1820, M. Angelina procured iodine. There are
good reasons to suppose that waters so amply im
pregnated with sulphurous matter, as those of Avon
springs, may contain both iodine and bromine.*
" The value of these waters has," says Dr. F.,
" within the past three or four years, been justly and
highly appreciated, and induced numerous valetudina
rians to partake of them. They may be ranked among
the most powerful and remedial waters yet made
known ; but, like other active medicinal agents of a si
milar character, they are liable to great abuse, and in
certain states of the system, may prove seriously detri
mental. Possessing active emetic and cathartic proper
ties, particularly the waters ofthe spring last discovered,
it is requisite that caution be exercised not to indulge
in them too freely at first ; and as they are more or
less exciting, they also demand that previous to com
mencing their use, the system should, in many cases
at least, be first relieved by the employment of some
efficient cathartic. This precaution is of saving im
portance, and I have known a disregard to it, to lead to
almost entire disappointment in anticipated benefit,
for many weeks ; while, on the contrary, the general
powers of the system being relieved by antiphlogistic
and aperient means, the waters have often accom
plished all that could be desired, in a comparatively
6hort period. As in the administration of all sulphu
reous waters, so also those of Avon should be closely
watched, and their use for a while suspended, when
febrile irritation or undue local determinations occur.
This is most apt to take place in habits preternatu-
rally full, or when local inflammation exists : where
a conjested condition of. the viscera happens, their
best adjuvants are mild mercurials or saline ca
thartics. " In disorders of the digestive organs, arising from
torpor of the primse viae, hepatic obstructions, and

* See Gairdner on Mineral and Thermal Springs. "Very gene
rally associated with iodine, says Dr. Gairdner, is the congenwate
substance, bromine. Balard first discovered it in sea water, and

affections of the glandular system; in rheumatism
and gout, and in many -of the most formidable of
cutaneous affections, these waters have secured the
confidence of those who had previously suffered to
the severest degree from these maladies. In many
forms of ill-conditioned ulcers, their utility as a
wash is abundantly manifest : while the invalid uses
them internally, he may at the same time have re
course to them for some twenty or thirty minutes,
on alternate days, in the form of a warm bath, the
temperature of which may vary from 96° to 98° Fah
renheit. " In pulmonary disorders their salutary agency is
not yet confirmed, and further, experience must de
termine their merits : if employed, their use is to be
regulated by the nicest precepts of the healing art,
in as much as these waters are eminently calculated
to produce powerful changes on the system by their
active operation. In the incipient and active stage
of pulmonary irritation, it becomes our duty to pre
cede their employment by venesection, and the other
customary means of depletion, analogous to the prac
tice we have recourse to with the Ballston or Con
gress waters. The same observation applies to
hemoptysis, to acute disorders of the digestive organs,
liver, and other viscera. The direful consequences
which inevitably occur in such cases, from the Sara
toga waters, when these cautions are not heeded,
are too painfully known to be dwelt upon in this
place. "In several forms of female disease, the Avon wa
ters can be safely and efficaciously recommended.
In many cases of difficult and painful menstruation,
in chlorosis, and in certain complaints mainly depend
ing on weakness, after a judicious course of prepa
ratives, such as a careful clinical observer would en
force, these waters present themselves vested with
sanative powers. Aware of the Protean character
of constitutional disease depending upon uterine irri
tation, and chronic affections of that organ, I have
no doubt, that future investigation will demonstrate
that the Avon water, possess many advantages over
other chalybeates in cases of this nature. I would
extend the same remark to the complex affections
connected with ovarian disease.
" I have for several years past recommended the
Avon waters ; to those of the lower spring I give
the preference : they have proved available in the
severest cases of rheumatism and gout, and in some
affections of the urinary organs. After the prelimi-

subsequently it has been detected in several saline springs ; it ex
ists almost always as a hydro-bromate of magnesia.

82

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

nary management of the case by depletory means,
and appropriate alvine aperients, the use of the wa
ter for a few days, or perhaps weeks, has wrought
an alteration the most gratifying, evinced by improv
ed appetite, increase of flesh, and invigorated health ;
and while the body receives the impress and partakes
of all the advantages of increased physical energy,
a corresponding improvement marks the capacity of
the intellectual powers. When taken internally, the
Avon waters prove cathartic, diuretic, diaphoretic,
and tonic. They thus constitute an effective altera
tive ; and in as much as their tonic properties are
the results of their general influence on all the
emunctories of the body, partichlarly those of the
cutaneous and urinary functions, they claim to them
selves qualities which are denied to the entire class
of tonics and stimulants strictly so called, and the
mischief invariably induced by these last named arti
cles, wherever local congestion exists, are entirely
guarded against by the waters of Avon. Their
manifestations on the surface are conspicuous.
" I am not able to say from experience that in this
respect they surpass, or even equal, the white sulphur
waters of Virginia ; but am scarcely ready to believe
that these last fairly boast of a superiority in their ac
tion on the skin. Their extraordinary alterative ef
fects must unquestionably be greatly owing to the
changes they induce on the cutaneous surface.
"In speaking ofthe constitutional influence ofthe
Avon water, Dr. Salisbury, who has had much expe
rience with them during a residence at the springs
for four summers, has the following remarks : ' The
operation of Avon water upon the human constitu
tion is modified by the quantity drank in a given
time, and by the constitution, habit, and disease of
the individual. Generally speaking, four or six half
pint tumblers of the water, drank during the day,
produce a mild cathartic effect, and under its long
continued exhibition to this extent, no debility en
sues, but, on the contrary, the appetite and strength
are very much increased. In very large doses, as
from ten to fifteen tumblers a day, it operates power
fully upon the bowels, kidneys, and skin. A moder
ate use of this water, persevered in for a considerable
length of time, will insure to it a powerfully altera
tive effect in cases where there is no acute inflamma
tion.' " A judicious mode of commencing the use of the
Avon water, is to take six or seven half pint tumblers
during the twenty-four hours: a couple of tumblers
may be advantageously drunk before breakfast, and
some two or three hours after that meal, the- same
quantity may again be taken, and an additional

tumbler full or two in the afternoon. To the sense
of smell, they present the usual properties of sulphu
retted hydrogen gas, but in a very small degree ;
they are nowise oppressive to the digestive organs.
Some, however, take them in larger quantity, and
oftener repeat the draught. Others, again, never use
them until after the first meal. Like the Ballston
and Saratoga waters, they are sometimes drunk to
a most pernicious extent. It is expedient, therefore,
in all cases, to regulate their administration by their
immediate effects, and every regard must be paid to
age, sex, disease, constitution, and individual pecu
liarity. To guard against undue local determina
tion, either cerebral, thoracic, or visceral, will always
become a matter of professional duty.
" All observations of a dietetical character are here
designedly forborne : and I need scarcely add," con
cludes Dr. Francis, " that as these waters are armed
with such potent qualities, their influence on the sys
tem must be either prejudicial or beneficial, and that
they demand, in all cases, the advice ofthe physician."
To this account of the principal mineral waters,
must be added a notice of the various gaseous matters
which are likewise met with in the United States.
In the state of New York, nitrogen gas is found issu
ing from the earth. The gas appears to issue from
every part of a low hill comprising four or five acres
of ground ; for wherever there is water, it becomes
manifest by bubbling through it. It issues abund
antly through three springs, from the clean gravelly
bottom of each ; but it does not combine with the
water in either of them. The gas probably accom
panies the water from a considerable depth, since the
water of the springs is not increased by the greatest
spring and fall freshets. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas
escapes in large quantity from varieties of argillite
and graywacke, containing soft and fine-grained iron
pyrites, by the decomposition of which it is produced.
It burns along the surface of the water from which
it issues with a bright red flame by day-light. The
most interesting water of this kind is Lake Sodom,
in a place nicknamed Satan's Kingdom. The bot
tom is grass-green ferriferous slate ; the sides are
white shell marl, and the brim is black vegetable
mould. The water is perfectly limpid. The whole
appears to the eye like a rich porcelain bowl filled
with limpid nectar ; but to the taste it is the true
Harrowgate water, and readily convinces the visiter
of the fitness of the name. Carburetted hydrogen
gas issues from a stream in the neighbourhood of the
Erie canal, at the rate of a gallon per minute, through
the gravelly soil at the bottom. The carbonic acid
gas, which is so abundant in the Saratoga springs, ia

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

83

produced from an argillite, which contains large
quantities of fine granulated pyrites and finely dis
seminated calcareous spar. It is a well-known fact, ,
that this variety of pyrites produces sulphuric acid
by the aid of water. The acid beirtg in immediate
contact with the spar, gypsum- is produced, and car
bonic acid is disengaged at considerable depths in
the earth, and under great mechanical condensation,
which causes its combination with water in such
large proportions. When the water issues from the
earth, the pressure which forces it up to the surface
being taken off, it parts with that portion of the car
bonic acid which is combined with it by the effect of
pressure ; while the solution of the carbonate of lime,
which is caused by the carbonic acid, can no longer
be continued; so that it is deposited in the form of
tufa. Such is the origin of what is called the High
Rock at Saratoga. Sulphuric acid, in large quanti
ties, is produced in a diluted and in a concentrated
state in the town of Byron, Genessee county, thirty
miles west of Genesee river, and ten miles south of
the Erie canal. Here is a hillock 230 feet long and
100 feet broad, elevated about five feet above the sur
rounding plain. It consists of a kind of ash-colour
ed soil, containing immense quantities of exceedingly
minute grains of iron pyrites. It is mostly covered
with a coat of charred vegetable matter, four or five
inches thick, and as black as common charcoal. The
same charred matter extends some distance from the
base of the hillock on all sides. . It appears as if it
had been recently burned over, though it is in a
meadow where no other traces of fire exist. Its
charred state is caused wholly by the action of the
sulphuric acid. Several holes have been dug in the
hill, which now contain turbid diluted sulphuric acid,
as do the depressions in the meadow ground sur
rounding it. Should curiosity or interest induce the
proprietor to dig a trench about it, or to make an ar
tificial pond on one side, which might be occasion
ally drained and cleaned, a bath of diluted sulphuric
acid might be constructed. The strength of the acid
increases in a drought. It appears to be perfectly
concentrated, and nearly dry, in its combination with
the charred vegetable coat. In this state it is dif
fused throughout the whole piece of ground, which
presents a charred appearance to the depth of twelve
or fifteen inches, and in some places three or four
feet. It is everywhere the strongest at the surface.
The strength of the acid combined with the vegeta
ble matter, and several other circumstances enumera
ted, make this locality very interesting. But there is
. another, about 100 rods west of Byron hotel, being
two miles east of this, which, in one point of view,

is still more remarkable ; it is a spring, which issues
from the earth in quantities sufficient for turning a
light grist mill. Such an immense sulphuric acid
laboratory is here conducted by nature, that all the
water which supplies this perennial stream is suffi
ciently acid to give the common test with violets, and
to coagulate milk. The continual formation of the
sulphates of lime, iron, and magnesia, is also traced
to a considerable extent.
It is impossible for us, consistently with the cha
racter of the present work, to enter more minutely
into the peculiarities of American mineralogy. We
can only say, that it affords much both to adorn the
cabinet of the curious, and to enrich the collection of
the scientific, as well as to furnish materials for com
merce, manufactures, and the arts. There are found
crystals of great beauty, we might almost say mag
nificence ; for their dimensions, in many cases, are
certainly extraordinary, and seem to correspond with
the gigantic scale on which so many of the works
of nature there have been produced. We have been
struck with the testimony of Mr. Schoolcraft to the
recent formation of quartz crystals.* They have
been found, it appears, upon the handle of a spade,
and the edge of some old shoes, which had been left
for some years in an abandoned lead mine of the
Shawnee Mountains. Many minerals which are rare
in Europe, are found abundantly, and often in finer
forms,, in the United States ; some, which have sub
sequently been detected elsewhere, were first disco
vered there, and not a few may still be claimed by
that country as its peculiar treasure. We shall now
close this chapter with the observation of Dr. Mead,
that in general a great resemblance can be traced
between the minerals of North America and those
which have been found in the north of Europe, par
ticularly in Norway and Sweden. This resemblance
is stated to exist, not merely in the properties of the
minerals themselves, but in their geological character
and geognostic situation throughout the whole series.
It is observed more particularly in those specimens
which are found to accompany the primitive forma
tion at Arendal, in Norway ; it is not confined, how
ever, to the primitive range of mountains alone, as
the same resemblance can be frequently traced, on
comparing American minerals with those of Pied
mont, and even of the Hartz Mountains. Among
the principal minerals of the north of Europe, there
are none which are of more importance than the ores
of iron, for which Norway and Sweden are so re
markable ; and every variety of this mineral which

* Travels in Missouri.

84

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

has been met with there, has been found in the same
class of rocks in America, in the greatest abundance,
and of equally good quality. Titanium is one of
those metals which have been found more particularly
in the north of Europe. It is said to occur frequently
in those primitive aggregates which contain beds of
magnetic iron ore, associated with augite, seapolite,
epidote, and hornblende, precisely the same rocks in
which we find it in this country. There is scarcely
any part of Europe where a greater variety of augites
are found, than in Norway and Sweden ; nor can
there be any class of minerals in which the similitude
between the specimens from those countries and
America is more striking.

CHAPTER III.

BOTANY.

The vegetation of the United States is as various
as the climate and the soil. In the Floridas grows
a majestic species of palm, {chammrops palmetto ;)
and the orange, the cotton, the indigo, and even the
sugar cane, may be cultivated there to great perfec
tion and advantage. In the Carolinas and the Flo
ridas the eye of the traveller is charmed with the
beauty and grandeur of the forest trees, the various
species of evergreen oak, the numerous kinds of pine,
walnut, and plane, the majestic tulip tree, (lirioden-
dron tulipifera,) the curious deciduous cypress, and
the superb magnolias. A different vegetation occurs
in the more northerly of the states ; and what renders
the botany of this district peculiarly interesting to
the British naturalist is, that a very large proportion
of its vegetable productions may be assimilated to our
own climate. The oaks and firs of this region now
decorate many of our plantations and pleasure
grounds ; and as the quality of their timber comes to
be better known and appreciated, may well occupy a
conspicuous place in our woods and forests. Our
shrubberies owe their greatest beauty to the various
species of kalmia, azalea, rhododendron, robinia, cor-
nus, sambucus, ceanothus, and lonicera, to the syrin-
ga, the flowering raspberry, and a hundred others,
which flourish as if they were the aboriginal natives
of our soil ; whilst the gardens of the curious are
indebted for many of their choicest productions to the
herbaceous plants of North America, the greater num
ber being remarkable for the brilliancy of their blos
soms, and not a few, such as the dionsea and sarra-
certia, being ranked as amongst the most singular of
all vegetable productions in their structure.

In the rapid survey we shall have to take of this
wide and interesting field, our attention is naturally
turned, in the first instance, to the forest or timber
trees. We have already seen how large a portion of
territory is covered with native forests, among which,
varieties of the oak, the walnut, the maple, the birch,
the ash, the elm, the chestnut, the beech, the pine,
and the cypress, are the most prominent. It is a
general observation, that the trees of the United States
are larger, taller, and more of them useful for timber,
than those of Europe. As to height, it is observed
by Michaux, that, while in France only thirty-seven
species of trees arrive at thirty feet, in the transatlantic
republic, one hundred and thirty exceed that eleva
tion. A general idea of the American forest has
already been given; we shall now select the princi
pal trees for more particular notice.
In the greater part of North America, as well as
in- Europe, there is no tree so generally useful as the
oak. It seems also to have been multiplied in pro
portion to its utility, since it is indigenous to many
climates, and diversified info many species. In
America are found forty-four species, which are all
comprised between the 20th and 48th degrees of
north latitude ; in the old continent are enumerated
only thirty, which are scattered on both sides of the
equator, beginning at the 60th degree north. Some
of the species in the United States are small, scarcely
larger than shrubs ; but others are of great size and
beauty, reaching an elevation of from sixty io eighty
feet. The white oak is pre-eminent among these. It
is a larger and handsomer tree in the Mississippi val
ley, than in the Atlantic country ; but is less firm,
hard, and durable. The same may be said of the
swamp white oak, (quercus aquatica,) which grows
of a prodigious height, size, and beauty. The black
oak, with large and small leaves ; the yellow oak,
and the post oak, grow on cold, level, wet, and clayey
lands. The last receives its name from the durability
of posts made of it in the ground. It is said to be
the most durable timber of the oak kind in the upper
country for boat and ship building. South of thirty-
one degrees, in the lower country along the coast of
Florida, extending into the interior from sixty to a
hundred miles, and along the shore of Louisiana for
half that depth, is the region of the live oak, {quercus
sempervirens.) It is not found west of the Sabine.
It is not a tall, but a spreading tree, with long lateral
branches, looking at a distance like an immense spread
umbrella. It is extremely hard, compact, and diffi
cult to cut ; and when green, is so heavy as to sink
in the water. It is almost incorruptible. The isl
ands on the shore of the gulf furnish this tree in

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

85

abundance. It is so difficult to cut down, to burn,
or otherwise to clear from the soil, that in these isl
ands, which have recently begun to be in request as
sugar lands, this tree, elsewhere considered so valua
ble for ship timber, is regarded as an incumbrance,
though still valuable for its acorns, affording the finest
irange for swine. The value of this timber in ship
building is well known. Its trunk is sometimes un
divided for eighteen or twenty feet, but often ramifies
at half that height ; and at a distance, it has the ap
pearance of an old apple-tree or pear-tree. The live
oak does not afford large timber ; but its wide and
spreading branching summit makes amends for this
disadvantage, by furnishing a great number of knees,
of which there is never a sufficient quantity in the
dock-yards. The consumption has become threefold
within twenty years, in consequence of the growing
development of American commerce : hence the price
has doubled, and the species is rapidly diminishing.
The clearing of the islands for the culture of cotton,
which they yield of a superior quality, has contribu
ted greatly to its destruction. It is already difficult
to procure sticks of considerable size in the southern
states. As the live oak, from the peculiarities of its
constitution, is multiplied with difficulty, Michaux
considers its disappearance throughout the United
States, within fifty years, as nearly certain. It will
then be found only in the form of a shrub, like the
quercus ilex, which formerly skirted the southern
coast of France and Italy.
In the variety of trees which compose the forests
of North America east of the Mississippi, the Walnut
ranks after the oak among the genera whose species
are most multiplied. In this particular, the soil of
the United States is more favoured than that of Eu
rope, to no part of which is any species of this tree
indigenous. There are distinguished in the United
States ten species of walnut, and others are expected
to be discovered in Louisiana. There is room to
hope, also, that species may be discovered susceptible,
like the pacanenut, of speedy melioration, by the aid
of grafting and of attentive cultivation ; to which
consideration some weight is given by the fact, that
the fruit of the common European walnut, in its
natural state, is harder than that of the American
species just mentioned, and inferior to it in size and
quality. Throughout the United States, the common
name of hickory is given to some species of walnut.
This common appellation is due to certain properties
of their wood, which, however modified, are possessed
by them all, in a greater degree than by any other tree
of Europe or America. The grain of the wood is
Coarse and open. Its chief properties are great weight,
Vol. IL— Nos. 43 <fc 44 L

strength, and tenacity, a speedy decay when exposed
to heat and moisture, and peculiar liability to injury
from worms. According to these prominent excel
lencies or defects, the uses of their wood are deter
mined. Hickory timber is employed in no part of
the United States in the building of houses, because
it is too heavy, and soon becomes worm-eaten. But
if its defects forbid its employment in architecture,
its good qualities, on the other hand, render it proper
for many secondary uses, which could not as well be
subserved by any other wood. Of the numerous
trees of North America east of the Apalachian Moun
tains, none except the hickory is perfectly adapted to
the making of hoops for casks and boxes. For this
purpose, vast quantities of it are consumed at home,
and exported to the West India islands ; and when
it is considered how large a portion of the produce
of the United States is packed in barrels, an estimate
may be formed of the necessary consumption of
hoops. All the hickories are very heavy, and in a
given volume, contain a great quantity of combustible
matter ; they produce an ardent heat, and leave a
heavy, compact, and livid coal. In this respect, no
wood of the same latitude in Europe or America can
be compared to them. The use of the young hicko
ries for hoops, and of the old for fuel, threatens the
speedy extermination of them, without much care :
the more so, as they are of slow growth, and never
sprout twice from the same root. Pignut hickory is
loaded with a nut whose shell is softer than an acorn,
and the meat to the pressure of the fingers yields a
copious oil, of use in the finer kinds of painting.
It is acrid and bitter to the taste. The large walnut
is a fruit of the size of an apple, and is common in
the middle regions of the central valley. The pec-
can, or pacanenut, is found far up the Mississippi and
Illinois, and thence to the gulf , of Mexico. It is a
tree of beautiful form and appearance, and the most
useful of the whole class, except the black walnut,
for building and for rails. Its nut is long, cylindrical,
and olive-shaped, with a shell comparatively soft.
The meat lies in two oblong lobes, is easily taken
out entire, and excels all other nuts in delicacy of
flavour. Unfortunately it soon becomes rancid, and
is seldom found in the Atlantic country in its original
perfection. The black walnut is a splendid tree, and
often grows to a great size. Its nuts much resemble
those of the white walnut, or what is called butter
nut in the northern states. It is much used in the
middle regions of the country for ornamental finishing
of houses, and cabinet furniture ; and when rubbed
with a weak solution of nitric acid, can be distin
guished from mahogany only by an experienced eye.

86

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

The maples in general are lofty and beautiful
trees, capable of enduring an intense degree of
cold. They form in the north of the old and of
the new continent extensive forests, which, with
those of the beech, appear to succeed the spruce,
the larch, and the pine, and to precede the chestnut
and the oak. The North American species are more
numerous than those of Europe. The wood speedily
ferments and decays when exposed to the weather ;
it is liable to be injured by worms, and hence it is
unfit for building : it possesses properties, however,
which compensate in. part for these defects, and which
render it useful in the arts and .in domestic economy.
Perhaps the most interesting tree of this genus is the
sugar maple, which covers a greater extent of the
American soil than any other species of this genus.
It flourishes most in mountainous places, where the
soil, though fertile, is cold and humid. Besides the
parts where the face of the country is generally of
this nature, it is found along the whole chain of the
Alleganies to their termination in Georgia, and on
the steep and shady banks of the rivers which rise
in these mountains. The sugar maple reaches the
height of seventy or eighty feet, with a proportionate
diameter ; but it does not commonly exceed fifty or
sixty feet, with a diameter of twelve or eighteen
inches. Well-grown thriving trees are beautiful in
their appearance, and easily distinguishable by the
whiteness of their bark. When cut at the proper
season, it forms excellent fuel, and its ashes are very
rich in the alkaline principle. The work of making
sugar from the juice of the maple is commonly com
menced in the month of February or the beginning
of March, while the cold continues intense, and the
ground is still covered with snow. The sap begins
to be in motion at this season, two months before the
general revival of vegetation. In a central situation,
lying convenient to the trees from which the sap is
drawn, a shed is constructed, called a sugar camp,
which is destined to shelter the boiler, and the per
sons who tend them, from the weather. An auger
three quarters of an inch in diameter ; small troughs
to receive the sap ; tubes of elder or sumee eight or
ten inches long, corresponding in size to the auger,
and laid open for a part of their length ; buckets for
emptying the troughs and conveying the sap to the
camp ; boilers of fifteen or eighteen gallons capacity ;
moulds to receive the syrup when reduced to a pro
per consistency for being formed into cakes ; and,
lastly, hatchets to cut and split the fuel, are the prin
cipal utensils employed in the operation. The trees
are perforated in an obliquely ascending direction,
eighteen or twenty inches from the ground, with two

holes four or five inches apart. Care is taken that
the augers do not enter more than half an inch with
in the wood, as experience has shown the most abun
dant flow of sap to take place at this depth. It is
also usual to insert the tubes on the south side of the
tree. A trough is placed on the ground at the foot
of each tree, and the sap is every day collected, and
temporarily poured into casks, from which it is drawn
out to fill the boilers. The evaporation is kept up
by a brisk fire, and the scum is carefully taken off
during this part of the process. Fresh sap is added
from time to time, and the heat is retained till the
liquid is reduced to a syrup ; after which it is left to
cool, and then strained through a blanket, or other
woollen stuff, to separate the remaining impurities,.
Three persons are found sufficient to tend 250 trees,
which give a thousand pounds of sugar, or four
pounds from each tree. The sugar thus manufac
tured is superior to the brown sugar of the colonies,
at least to such as is generally used in the United
States ; its taste is as pleasant, and it is as good for
culinary purposes, and when refined, it equals in
beauty the finest sugar consumed in Europe ; it is
made tise of, however, only in the districts where it
is made, and there only in the country. The cheap
ness of cane sugar, the abundance and excellence of
its growth in the lower country, and the diminished
expense of transporting it to the upper states in con
sequence of the multiplication of steam, boats, have
diminished the demand for what is called country
sugar, and the manufacture of il has considerably
decreased. The sycamore, a species of maple, is described as
the king of the western forests. It is the largest tree
in the woods, and rises in the most graceful forms,
with vast spreading lateral branches, covered with
bark of a brilliant white. These hundred white arms
of the sycamore, interlacing with the branches of the
other forest trees in the rich alluvions, where it de
lights to grow, add one of the distinguishing traits of
grandeur and beauty to the forest. A tree of this
kind near Marietta measured fifteen feet and a half
in diameter. Judge Tucker, of Missouri, cut off a
section of the hollow trunk of a sycamore, and ap
plied a roof to it, and furnished it for a study. It
was perfectly circular ; and when fitted up with a
stove and other arrangements, made an ample and
convenient apartment. This gigantic section of a
tree was conveyed on sleds prepared on purpose,
and drawn by a sufficient number of oxen to its rest
ing-place. It is very common to see this beautiful
tree, on the margin of rivers, from ten to fifteen feet
in circumference.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

87

Seven species of the birch have been discovered in
North America, five of which may be ranked among
tall trees. The northern extremity of the new con
tinent, like that of the old, appears to be the native
climate of this tree, which is less frequent towards
the south ; and it thus becomes of great interest and
importance to man, in regions destitute of many of
the larger vegetables. One of the most useful species
is the canoe birch, which is abundant in the forests
of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, a tract very
much resembling Sweden and the eastern part of
Prussia. The largest size of the canoe birch is se
venty feet in height and three feet in diameter ; and
the wood is quite equal, if not superior, to the white
birch of Sweden and Norway. On trees not exceed
ing eight inches in diameter, the bark is of a brilliant
white, like that of the white birch of Sweden, and,
like that too, it is almost indestructible. Trees long:
since prostrated by time, are often met with in the
forests, whose trunk appears sound, while the. bark
contains only a friable substance, like vegetable mould.
This bark, like that of the European species, is ap
plied to many uses : in Canada and the district of
Maine, the country people place large pieces of it
immediately below the shingles of the roof, to form a
more impenetrable covering for their houses ; baskets,
boxes, and port folios, are made of it, which are some
times embroidered with silk of different colours ; di
vided into very thin sheets, it forms a substitute for
paper ; and, placed between the soles of the shoes
and in the crown of the hat, it is a defence against
humidity. But the most important purpose to which
it is put, and one for which it is equalled by the bark
of no other tree, is the construction of canoes. To
procure proper pieces, the largest and smoothest
trunks are selected : in the spring two circular inci
sions are made, several feet apart,- and two longitu
dinal ones on opposite sides of the tree ; after which,
by introducing a wooden wedge, the bark is easily
detached. These plates are usually ten or twelve
feet long, and two feet nine inches broad. To form
the canoe, they are stitched together with fibrous
roots of the white spruce, about the size of a quill,
which are deprived ofthe bark, split and suppled in
water. , The seams are coated with resin of the balm
of Gilead. Great use is made of these canoes by the
savages and by the Canadians, in their long journeys
into the interior of the country : they are very light,
and are easily transported on the shoulders from one
lake or river to another, which is called the portage.
A canoe calculated for four persons with their bag
gage, weighs from forty to fifty pounds ; some of them
are made to carry fifteen passengers. The black

birch, called also sweet birch, cherry birch, and
mountain mahogany, abounds in the middle states,
particularly in New York,' Pennsylvania, and Mary
land ; farther south it is confined to the summit of
the Alleganies, on which it is found to their termi
nation in Georgia, and to the steep and shady banks
of the rivers which issue from these mountains.
Except the oak, no tree of Europe, or of North
America, is so generally useful as the ash. The
distinguishing properties of its wood are strength and
elasticity ; and it unites them in so high a degree,
that, for many valuable purposes, it could not be re
placed by any other tree. This remark is particu
larly applicable to the white ash of the United States,
which is the largest species, the most multiplied, and
the most useful in the arts. It is also the most re
markable for the rapidity of its growth, and the beauty
of its foliage. It is most abundant north of the Hud
son, and a cold climate seems most congenial to it.
It sometimes attains a height ofN thirty feet, with a di
ameter of three feet, and is one of the largest trees of
the United States.
The elms of the United States, though some of
them are of magnificent growth, are not of equal value
with the common elm of Europe. The principal
species is the white elm, which has rbeen observed
from Nova Scotia to the extremity of Georgia, and
abounds in all the western states ; but it grows most
freely in the north-eastern section of the republic. In
clearing the primitive forests, a few stocks are some
times left standing. Insulated in this manner, it ap
pears in all its majesty, towering to the height of
eighty or -one hundred feet, with a trunk four or five
feet in diameter, regularly shaped, naked, and insen
sibly diminishing to the height of sixty or seventy
feet, where it divides itself into two or three primary
limbs. The limbs, not widely divergent near the
base, approach and cross each other eight or ten feet
higher, and diffuse on all sides long, flexible, pendu
lous branches, bending into regular arches, and float
ing lightly in the air. A singularity is. observed in
this tree, which has been witnessed in no other : two
small limbs,' four or five feet long, grow in a reversed
position near the first ramification, and descend along
the trunk. The uses of the elm are few and unim
portant, and it deserves attention only as the most
magnificent vegetable ofthe temperate zone.
The chestnut does not. venture beyond the forty-
fourth degree of latitude. It is found in New Hamp
shire, between the forty-third and forty-fourth de
grees, but such is the severity of the winter, that it is
less common than, in Connecticut, New Jersey, and
Pennsylvania. It is most multiplied in the moun-

88

TOPOGRAPHY OF THB UNITED STATES.

tainous districts of the Carolinas and of Georgia, and
abounds on the Cumberland Mountains, and in East
Tennessee. The coolness of the summer, and the
mildness of the winter, in these regions, are favoura
ble to the chestnut; the face of the country. also is
perfectly adapted to a tree which prefers the sides of
mountains, or their immediate vicinity, where the soil
in general is gravelly, though deep enough to pro
duce its development. The chestnut is little esteem
ed for fuel, and is not used in the cities ofthe United
States : like the kindred species in Europe, it is filled
with air, and snaps as it burns. The coal- is excel
lent ; and on some of the mountains of Pennsylva
nia, where the chestnut abounds, the woods in the
neighbourhood of the forges have been transformed
into copses, which are cut every sixteen years for the
furnaces. This period is sufficient to renew them,
as the summer is warmer in America than in Europe,
the atmosphere more moist, and consequently vege
tation more rapid.
In North America, as in Europe, the beech is
among the tallest and most majestic trees of the
forest. Two species, the white and the red, so call
ed from the colour of their wood, are found in the
United States. A deep, moist soil, and a cool at
mosphere; are necessary to the utmost expansion of
the white beech; and it Js accordingly most multi
plied in the middle and western states. Though it
is common in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland,
and throughout the country east of the mountains, it
is insulated in the forests, instead of composing large
masses, as in Genesee, Kentucky, and Tennessee.
" I have found the finest beeches," says Michaux,
" on the banks of the Ohio, between Gallipolis and
Marietta, and have measured several stocks, growing
near each other, which were eight, nine, and eleven
feet in circumference, and more than one hundred
feet high." In these forests, where the beeches vege
tate in a deep and fertile soil, their roots sometimes
extend to a great distance, even with , the surface ;
and being entangled so as to cover the ground, they
embarrass the steps of the traveller, and render the
land peculiarly difficult to clear. The red beech is
almost exclusively confined to the north-eastern parts
of the United States. In the district of Maine, and
in the states of New Hampshire and Vermont, it is so
abundant as often to constitute extensive forests, the
finest of which grow on fertile, level, or sloping lands,
which are proper for the culture of, corn. It bears a
very close resemblance to the beech of Europe.
The pines and the spruces constitute a large and
interesting class of American forest trees. The most
valuable species is that which is known in England

and the West Indies as the Georgia pitch pine ; and
which, in the. United States, is variously called yel
low pine^ pitch pine, broom pine, southern pine, red
pine, and long-leaved pine, a name which, after Mi
chaux, Ave adopt. Towards the north, the long-
leaved pine makes its appearance near Norfolk, in
Virginia, where the pine-barrens begin. It seems to
be especially assigned to dry sandy soils ; and it is
found, almost without interruption, in the lower part
of the Carolinas, Georgia, and the Floridas, over a
tract more than six hundred miles long, from north
east to southwest, and more than a hundred miles
broad from the sea towards the mountains of the
Carolinas and Georgia. Immediately beyond Ra-,.
leigh, it holds almost exclusive possession of the soil,
and is seen in company with other pines only on the
edges of the swamps, enclosed in the barrens ; even
there not more than one stock in a hundred is of
another species, and with this exception, the long-
leaved pine forms the unbroken mass of woods which
covers this extensive country. The mean stature of
the long-leaved pine is sixty or seventy feet, with a
uniform diameter of fifteen or sixteen inches for two
thirds of this height. Some stocks, favoured by lo
cal circumstances, attain much larger dimensions,
particularly in East Florida. The timber is very
valuable, being stronger, more compact, and more
durable, than that of all the other species of pine ; it
is besides fine grained, and susceptible of a high
polish. Its uses are diversified, and its consumption
great. But the value of the long-leaved pine does
not reside exclusively in its wood : it supplies nearly
all the resinous matter used in the United States in
shipbuilding, with a large residue /or exportation to
the West Indies and Great Britain ; and in this view
its place can be supplied by no other species, those
which afford the same product being dispersed,
through the woods, or collected in inaccessible places^
In the northern states, the lands, which, at the com
mencement of their settlement, were covered with the
pitch pine, were exhausted in twenty-five or thirty
years, and for more than half a century have ceased,
to furnish tar. The pine-barrens are of vast extents
and are covered with trees of the finest growth, but
they can not all be rendered profitable, from the dif
ficulty of communicating with the sea. Formerly
tar was made in all the lower- parts of the Carolinas
and Georgia ; and throughout the Floridas vestiges
are everywhere seen of kilns that have served in the
combustion of resinous wood ; but, at present, this
branch of industry is confined to the. lower districts
of North Carolina, which furnish almost a}l the tar
and turpentine exported from Wilmington and other

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

89

ports. All the tar of the southern states is made
from dead wood of the long-leaved pine, consisting
of trees prostrated by time or by the fire kindled an
nually in the forests, of the summits of those which
are felled for timber, and of limbs broken off by the
ice which sometimes overloads the leaves. It is
worthy of remark, that the branches of resinous trees
consist almost wholly of wood of which the organi
zation is even more perfect than in the body of the
tree ; the reverse is observed in trees with deciduous
leaves. As soon as vegetation ceases in any part of
the tree, its consistence speedily changes, the sap de
cays, and the heart, already impregnated with resin
ous juice, becomes surcharged to such a degree as to
double its weight in a year ; the accumulation is
said to be much greater in four or five years. To
procure the tar, a kiln is formed in a part of the
forest abounding in dead wood ; this is first collect
ed, stripped of the sap, and cut into billets two or
three feet long, and about three inches thick. The
next step is to prepare a place for piling it : for this
purpose a circular mound is raised, slightly declining
from the circumference to the centre, and surround
ed with a shallow ditch. The diameter of the pile is
proportioned to the quantity of wood which it is to
receive : to obtain 200 barrels of tar, it should be
eighteen or twehty feet wide. In the middle is a
hole with a conduit leading to the ditch, in which is
formed a receptacle for the resin as it flows out.
Upon the surface of the mound, beaten hard and
coated with clay, the wood is laid in radiations from
the centre ; and the pile, when finished, may be com
pared to a cone truncated at two thirds of its height,
and reversed, being twenty feet in diameter below,
twenty-five or thirty feet- above, and ten or twelve
feet high. It is then strewed over with pine leaves,
covered with earth, and sustained at the sides with
a slight cincture of wood. This covering is neces
sary in order that the fire kindled at the top may
penetrate to the bottom with a slow and gradual com
bustion, because, if the whole mass was rapidly in
flamed, the operation would fail, and the labour in
part be lost : in a word, nearly the same precautions
are required in this process as are observed in Europe
in making charcoal. A kiln which is to, afford 100
or 130 barrels of tar, is eight or nine days in burning.
The tar flows off into the ditch.
The white pine is another valuable species. This
tree is diffused, though not uniformly, over a vast
extent of country. It is incapable of supporting in
tense cold, and still less extreme heat. It appears to
be most abundant between the forty-third1, and forty-
seventh degrees of latitude ; further south it is

found in the valleys and on the declivities of the
Alleganies to their termination, but at a distance
from the mountains on either side its growth is for
bidden by the warmth of the climate. It is said
with great probability to be numerous near the
source of the Mississippi, which is in the same lati
tude with the district of Maine, the upper part of
New Hampshire, the state of Vermont, and the com
mencement of the St. Lawrence, where it attains its
greatest dimensions. . "I measured two trunks,"
say Michaux, " felled for canoes, of which one was
154 feet long and 54 inches in diameter, and the
other 142 feet long and 44 inches in diameter, at
three feet from the ground. Mention is made in
Belknap's History of New Hampshire, of a white.
pine felled near the river Merrimack, seven feet
eight inches in diameter, and near Hollowell I saw
a stump exceeding six feet : these enormous stocks
had probably reached the greatest height attained by
the species, which is about 180 feet, and I have
been assured by persons worthy of belief, that in a
few instances they had felled individual trees of
nearly this stature." It is probable that the authors
who have stated its height at 260 feet, have been,
misled by incorrect reports ; but this ancient and
majestic inhabitant of the North American forests is
still the loftiest and most valuable of their produc
tions, and its summit is seen at an immense distance
aspiring towards heaven, far above the heads of the
surrounding trees. The trunk is simple for two
thirds or three fourths of its height, and the limbs
are short and verticillate, or disposed in stages one
above another to the top of the tree, which is formed
by three or four upright branches, seemingly detach
ed and unsupported. In forests composed of the
sugar maple, the beeches, or the oaks, where the soil
is strong and proper for the culture of corn, as for
example on the shores of Lake Champlain, the white
pine is arrested at a lower height and diffused into a
spacious summit ; but it is still taller and more vi
gorous than the neighbouring trees. The wood of
this species is employed in greater quantities and for
far more diversified uses than that of any other
American pine; yet it is not without essential
defects : it has little strength, gives a feeble hold to
nails, and sometimes swells by the humidity of the
atmosphere. These properties are compensated, how
ever, by others which give it a decided superiority :
it is soft, light, free from knots, and easily wrought ;
it > is more durable, and less liable to split when ex
posed to the sun ; it furnishes boards of a great width,
and -timber of large dimensions; in fine, it is still
abundant and cheap. A very large proportion of the

90

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

houses in the United States are built of it. The
vast consumption of this tree for domestic use, and
for exportation to the West Indies and to Europe,
renders it necessary every year to penetrate further
into the country ; and inroads are already made, in
quest of this species .only, upon forests which pro
bably will not be cleared for cultivation in twenty-
five or thirty years.
Of the several species of spruce, the two most
considerable are the black spruce and the hemlock.
, They both appertain to the coldest regions of the
new world. The regions in which the black spruce
is the most abundant are often diversified with hills,
and the finest forests are found in valleys where the
soil is black, humid, deep, and covered with a thick
bed of moss. Though crowded so as to leave an
interval of only three, four, or five feet, these stocks
attain their fullest development, which is seventy or
eighty feet in height and from fifteen to twenty inches
in diameter. The summit is a regular pyramid, and
has a beautiful appearance on insulated trees ; this
agreeable form is owing to the spreading of the
branches in a horizontal instead of a declining direc
tion, like those of the true Norway pine, which is a
more gloomy tree. The timber of the black spruce
is distinguished by strength, lightness, and elasticity.
Josselyn, in his History of New England, published
in London, in 1672, informs us, that it was considered
at that period as furnishing the best yards and top
masts in the world. From the young branches of the
tree, by boiling, is made the salutary liquor called
spruce beer. The hemlock spruce abounds in the
district of Maine, the state of Vermont, and the up
per part of New Hampshire, where it forms three
quarters of the evergreen woods, of which the re
mainder consists of the black spruce. Further south
it is less common, and in the middle and southern
states is seen only on the Alleganies, where it is often
confined to the sides of torrents, and to the most
humid and gloomy situations. In the country east
and north of Massachusetts, which, without embra
cing Canada, is more than 750 miles long and 250
miles broad, the resinous trees are constantly found
at the foot of the hills, and constitute nearly half of
the unbroken forests which cover these regions.
The hemlock spruce is always larger and taller than
the black spruce. It attains the height of seventy
or eighty feet, with a circumference of from six to
nine feet, which is uniform for two thirds of its
length ; but if the number and distance of the con
centric circles afford a certain criterion of the longe
vity of trees and the rapidity of their vegetation, it
must be nearly two centuries in acquiring these di

mensions. In a favourable soil this tree has an
elegant appearance while less than thirty feet high,
owing to the symmetrical arrangement of its branches,
and to its tufted foliage ; and at this age it is em
ployed in landscape gardening. When arrived at its
full growth, the large limbs are usually broken off
four or five feet from the trunk, and the dried ex
tremities are seen staring out through the little twigs
which spring around them ; in this mutilated state,
by which it is easily recognised, it has a disagreeable
aspect, and presents, while in full vigour, an image
of decrepitude. This accident, which is attributed
to the snow lodging upon the close, horizontal, tufted
-branches, never happens to the young trees, whose
fibres are more flexible. The woods are also filled
with dead stocks ; but it is uncertain whether their
destruction is occasioned by an insect which attaches
itself of preference to the pines, or to some other
cause. The dead moss-grown trees, which stand
mouldering for twenty or thirty years, deform the
forests of this part of the United States, and give
them a gloomy and desolate appearance. Unhappily
the properties of its wood are such as to give this
species only a secondary importance, notwithstanding
its abundant diffusion : it is the least valuable in
this respect of all the large resinous trees of North
America ; but the regret which we should experience
to see it occupying so extensively the place of more
useful species, is forbidden by a property of its bark,
inestimable to the country where it grows, that of
being applicable in tanning.
Two species of cypress are indigenous to the
United States. The banks of Indian river, a small
stream that waters a part of Delaware, in latitude
38° 50', may be assumed as its northern boundary.
Hence, in proceeding southward, it becomes constant
ly more abundant in the swamps ; but in Maryland
and Virginia it is confined to the vicinity of the sea,
where the winter is milder and the summer more
intense. Beyond Norfolk its limits coincide exactly
with those of the pine-barrens, and in the Carolinas
and Georgia it occupies a great part of the swamps
which border the rivers, after they have found their
way out from among the mountains, and have en
tered the low lands. In the Mississippi valley it be
gins to be seen on the swampy and overflowed lands,
near the mouth of the Ohio. It is, along with the
swamp gum, the most common tree in the deep
swamps from that point to the gulf of Mexico. It is
in every respect a striking and singular tree. Under
its deep shade arise a hundred curiously shaped knobs,
called " cypress knees," They are regular, cone-
shaped protuberances, of different heights and cir-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

91

cumferences, not unlike tall and taper circular bee
hives. " We have often remarked," says Mr. Flint,
" a very small cypress sprig, that had started from the
apex of one of these cypress knees ; and we believe,
that it will ultimately be found that each one of these
knees is the natural matrix of the tree." These
noble trees rear their straight columns from a large,
cone-shaped buttress, whose circumference at the
ground is, perhaps, three times that of the regular
shaft of the tree. This cone rises from six to ten
feet, with a regular and sharp taper, and from the
apex of the cone towers the perpendicular column,
with little taper after it has left the cone, from 60
to 80 feet clear shaft. The largest stocks are 120
feet in height, and from 25 to 40 feet in circumfer
ence above the conical base. Very near its top it
Degins to throw out multitudes of horizontal branches,
which interlace with those of the adjoining trees, and,
when bare of leaves, have an air of desolation and
death more easily felt than described. In the season
of vegetation, the leaves are short, fine, and of a ver
dure so deep as almost to seem brown, giving an in
describable air of funereal solemnity to this singular
tree. A cypress forest, when viewed from the adja
cent hills, with its numberless interlaced arms covered
with this dark brown foliage, has the aspect of a scaf
folding of verdnre in the air. It grows in deep and
sickly swamps, the haunts of fever, musquitoes, moc
casin snakes, alligators, and all loathsome and fero
cious animals, that congregate far from the abodes. of
manrand seem to make common cause with nature
against him. The cypress loves the deepest, most
gloomy, inaccessible, and inundated swamps ; and,
south of 33 degrees, is generally found covered with
the sable festoons of the long moss, hanging, like a
shroud of mourning wreaths, almost to the ground.
It seems to flourish best' where water covers its roots
for half the year. When it rises from eight or ten
feet water of the overflow of rivers, the apex of its
buttress is just on a level with the surface of the
water, and it is then, in many places, that they cut
it.. The negroes surround the tree in boats, and thus
get at the trunk above the huge and hard buttress,
and fell it with comparative ease. They cut off the
straight shaft, as it suits their purpose, and float it to
a raft, or the nearest high grounds. Unpromising as
are the places and the circumstances of its growth,
no tree of the country where it is found is so exten
sively useful. It is free from knots, is easily wrought,
and makes excellent planks, shingles, and timber of
all sorts. It is very durable, and incomparably the
most valuable tree in the southern Country. It is a
fortunate circumstance, that it inhabits the most

gloomy and inaccessible regions, which will not come
into cultivation for ages, so that it will, of course,
have a better chance of escaping the fate of the most
useful timber on the valuable uplands. . The impro
vident axe soon renders timber difficult to be pro
cured, even in a country in the centre of forests. All
the cypress forests that are easily accessible, on the
lower Mississippi and its tributaries, have already
been stripped of their timber by the lumberers, who
have floated to New Orleans millions of feet of this
timber from the lands of the United States, and who
have already created a scarcity of this species on the
margin of the river ; there are, however, in the vast
swamps of the Mississippi, Arkansas, Red river, and
Florida, inexhaustible supplies of cypress still re
maining. In addition to these we may notice the acacia and
the poplar. Several varieties of the acacia, or locust
tree, are found in the United States, from whence this
valuable tree was early imported into Europe. It is
most multiplied in the south-west, and abounds in
all the valleys between the chains of the Allegany
mountains, particularly in Limestone valley. It is
also common in all the western states, and in the
territory comprised between "the Ohio, the Illinois,
the lakes, and the Mississippi. It is not found in the
states east of the river Delaware, nor does it grow
spontaneously in the maritime parts of the middle
and southern states, to the distance of from fifty to
one hundred miles from the sea ; all the stocks that
are seen in these parts having been planted at differ
ent periods. Though the locust is multiplied east of
the mountains in the upper part of Virginia and of
the two Carolinas, it forms a much smaller proportion
of the forests than the oaks and walnuts ; and it is
nowhere found occupying exclusively tracts even of
a few acres. For this reason it is the only tree, be
sides the black walnut, that is left standing in the
clearing of new lands ; hence these two species, which
are not sufficiently multiplied to supply the demand
for their wood, are frequently seen growing in the
midst of cultivated fields.- The greatest consumption
of locust wood is for posts, which are employed by
preference for the enclosing of court-yards, gardens,
and farms, in the districts where the tree abounds,
and in the circumjacent country. In naval archi
tecture, the shipwrights use as much of it as they can
procure. It combines great durability with strength
and lightness. The sweet locust belongs peculiarly
to the country west of the Allegany mountains, and
it is found scarcely in any part of the Atlantic states,
except in Limestone valley, and its branches, which lie
between the first and second ranges of the Alleganies,

92

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Of the poplar, several species exist in the United
States. Of this family is the tulip tree, or yellow
poplar, a splendid, lofty, and useful tree. The cotton
wood belongs to the same genus. It is probably
more abundant, on the lower courses of the Ohio, on
the whole course of the Mississippi, Missouri, St.
Francis, White river, Arkansas, and Red river, than
any other, tree. It is a noble and lofty forest tree,
and sometimes vies with the sycamore itself for pre
dominance in size and grandeur. It is of singular
beauty when its foliage is but partly unfolded in the
spring. These trees, especially in the valley of Red
river, have been seen twelve feet in diameter ; and
there are single trees, that will make a thousand rails.
When they are cut in the winter, the moment the axe
penetrates the centre of the tree, there gushes out a
stream of water or sap, and a single tree will dis
charge gallons. On the sand bars and islands of
the rivers, wherever the alluvial earth begins to be
deposited, there springs up a growth of cotton wood,
the young trees standing so thick as to render it dif
ficult for a bird to fly among them, and having, to a
person passing at a little distance on the river, a sin
gular appearance of regularity, as though they had
been put out to ornament a pleasure-ground. The
popular name " cotton wood" is derived from the
circumstance, that soon after its foliage is unfolded,
it flowers, and when the flowers fall, it scatters on
the ground a downy matter, in feeling and appearance
exactly resembling short ginned cotton.
Among the ornamental trees of the American forest
we have been led to assign the megnolias a conspi
cuous place. It is undoubtedly a beautiful tree ; but
seems to have been so extravagantly described by
American writers, as to occasion disappointment
when first beheld by a stranger in its native, locali
ties. There are six or seven varieties among the
laurels of the magnolia tribe, some of which have
smaller flowers than those of the grandiflora, but
much more delicate, and more agreeably fragrant.
A beautiful evergreen of this class is covered in au
tumn with berries of an intense blackness, and has
been remarked in great numbers about St. Francis-
ville. The holly is a well-known and beautiful tree
of this class ; but the handsomest of the family is
the laurel almond. It is not a large tree. Its leaves
strongly resemble those of the peach ; it preserves a
most pleasing green through the winter, and its
flowers yield a delicious perfume. It grows in fami
lies of ten or fifteen trees in a cluster ; and planters
of taste in the valley of Red river, where it is com
mon, often select the place of their dwelling in the
midst of them.

The catalpa, or catawba, is an ornamental tree,
abounding in West Florida and the southern part of
the Mississippi valley. It is beautiful from the great
size, peculiar shape, and deep green of its foliage.
When in blossom, its rounded top is a tuft of flowers,
of great beauty and unequalled fragrance. One tree
in full flower fills the atmosphere, for a considerable
circumference round it, with its delicious odours.
For the gracefulness of its form, for the grandeur of
its foliage, and the rich and ambrosial fragrance of
its flowers, as well as for the length and various
forms of its knife-shaped, pendent seed capsules, two
feet in length, it is considered by some writers une
qualled among ornamental trees.
The bow-wood is a striking and beautiful tree,
found on the upper courses of the Washita, the mid
dle regions of Arkansas, and occasionally on the
northern limits of Louisiana. It inhabits a very
limited region, and is supposed not to be native else
where. Taken altogether, it is a tree of extraordi
nary beauty. It bears a large fruit of most inviting
appearance, and resembling a*very large orange ; but
tempting as it is in aspect, it is the apple of Sodom
to the taste. Many people consider it the most
splendid of all forest trees. It receives its name
from the circumstance, that all the south-western
savages use it for bows. The china tree is much
cultivated in the southern regions of the Mississippi
valley for ornamental shade. The verdure is the
most brilliant and deep in nature. In the flowering
season, the top is one tuft of blossoms, in colour and
fragrance resembling the lilac, except that the tufts
are larger, and it holds in flower for a long time.
These trees, planted out in a village, in a few years
completely embower it ; and, from the intenseness of
their verdure, they impart a delightful freshness to
the landscape in that sultry climate. After the
leaves have fallen in autumn, the tree is still cover
ed with a profusion of reddish berries, of the size of
haws, that give it the appearance at a little distance
of remaining in flower. Robins migrate to this re
gion in the latter part of winter, settle on these trees
in great numbers, and feed on the berries, which
possess an intoxicating or narcotic quality, so that
the robins, sitting on the trees in a state of stupefac
tion, may be killed with a stick. The dog-wood
and the red-bud are of an intermediate size, between
shrubs and trees. The former has a beautiful heart-
shaped and crimped leaf, and an umbrella-shaped
top. It covers itself .in spring with a profusion of
brilliant white flowers, and in autumn with berries
of a fine scarlet. The red-bud is the first shrub
that is seen in blossom on the Ohio. The shrub is

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

J 3

then -a complete surface of blossoms resembling those
of the peach tree, and a stranger would take it, at
that time; to be that tree. The shrubs are dispersed
everywhere in the woods ; and in descending the
Ohio early in the spring; these masses of brilliant
flowers contrast delightfully with the general brown
of the forest : the first time that the voyager descends
this river, the red-bud imparts a charm to the land
scape that he will never forget. These two are at
once the most common and the most beautiful shrubs
in the Mississippi valley. The dog-wood, especially,
is found everywhere from Pittsburgh to the gulf of
Mexico; and, seen through the forests, in blossom,
is far more conspicuous for its flowers than the mag
nolia. The rhododendron, or dwarf rose bay, and
the kalmia, or mountain laurel, are plants with which
our own shrubberies have now rendered us familiar.
The west end of Long Island, and the river Hudson
below the Highlands, may be considered as the' limit
far beyond Which the rhododendron ceases to be
found in the forests ofthe United States. It is
abundant in the middle states, and in the upper parts,
particularly in the mountainous tracts of the south
ern section. In the low lahds it is almost exclusive
ly seen on the borders of creeks and rivers, and is
observed to be more multiplied in approaching the
Alleganies ;' till, in the midst of these ranges, espe
cially in Virginia, it becomes so abundant on the
side of the torrents as to form impenetrable thickets,
in which the ¦ bear finds a secure retreat from the
pursuit of the dogs and of the hunters.
The kalmia abounds in New Jersey, and covers
Wheelock Hill, nearly opposite to the city of New-
York. It- grows also near the -Schuylkill, in the im
mediate neighbourhood of Philadelphia. It is found
along the steep banks of all the rivers which rise in
the Allegany mountains ; but it is observed to be
come less common in following these streams from
their source, towards the Ohio and Mississippi on
one side, and towards the ocean on the other. In
the southern states it disappears entirely when the
rivers enter the low country, where the pine-barrens
commence. In North Carolina, on the loftiest part
ofthe Alleganies, it occupies tracts of more than 100
acres, and forms upon the summit, and for a third
of the distance down the sides, thickets eighteen or
twenty feet in height, which are rendered nearly
impenetrable by the crooked and unyielding trunks,
crossed and locked with each other. As the shrubs
which compose these copses are of a uniform
height, and richly laden with evergreen foliage, they
present, at a distance, the appearance of verdant
meadows surrounded by tall trees. The snbwberry
Vol. II —Nos. 43 & 44. M

is an ornamental shrub, inhabiting the banks of the
upper Missouri. It bears at the same time flowers
and fruit, which continue successively expanding
and ripening during the whole summer ; and when
in the autumn the large bunches of ivory or wax
like berries are matured, the appearance is stated to
be extremely beautiful. Of the gaudy genus ery-
thrina, or coral tree, the United States lay claim to
one species. It is an herbaceous shrub from two to
three feet high. It is a native of the open bushy
forests of Carolina, Georgia, and Florida; and its
brilliant red blossom makes a superb appearance at
the time of florescence.
The southern regions of the United States, as far
north as Cape Hatteras, present to us one species of
palm. It is the palmetto, or cabbage tree. A trunk
from forty to fifty feet in height, of a uniform diame
ter, and crowned -with a regular and tufted summit,
gives the cabbage tree a beautiful and majestic ap
pearance. The base of the undisclosed bundle of
leaves is white, compact, and tender ; it is eaten with
oil and vinegar, and resembles the artichoke and the
cabbage in taste, whence is derived the name of cab
bage tree : but to destroy a vegetable which has been
a century in growing, to obtain three or four ounces
of a substance neither richly nutritious nor peculiarly
agreeable to the palate, seems to be nothing short of
prodigality. The cabbage tree bears long clusters of
small greenish flowerSj which are succeeded by a
black inesculent fruit, about the size of a pea. In
the southern states the wood of this tree, though ex
tremely porous, is preferred to every other for wharves :
its superiority consists in being secure from injury by
sea-worms, which, during the summer, commit great
ravages in structures accessible to their attacks; but
when exposed to be alternately wet and dry by the
flowing and ebbing of the tide, it decays as speedily
as other wood. The use of the cabbage tree is ra
pidly diminishing its numbers, and probably the period
is not distant when it will cease to exist within the
boundaries of the United States. In the war of in
dependence, the cabbage tree was found eminently
proper for constructing forts, as, on the passage of
the ball, it closes without splitting.
Among wild fruit-bearing shrubs, the pre-eminence
seems to be due to the papaw, or Indian fig. It is
not uncommon in the bottoms which stretch along
the rivers of the middle states ; but it is most abun
dant in the rich valleys intersected by the western
waters, where, at intervals, it forms thickets exclu
sively occupying several acres. In Kentucky, and
in the western part- of Tennessee, il is sometimes
seen also in forests where the soil is luxuriantly fer-

94

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

tile, of which its presence is an infallible proof; in
these forests it attains the height of thirty feet, and
the diameter of six or eight inches, though it generally
stops short of half this elevation. The fruit close
ly resembles a cucumber, having, however, a more
smooth and regular appearance ; when ripe, it is of
a rich yellow, and there are generally from two to
five in a cluster. The pulp resembles egg custard
in consistence and appearance ; it has the same
creamy feeling in the mouth, and unites the taste of
eggs, cream, sugar, and spice : in short, it is a natural
custard, and is too luscious for the relish of most
people. The fruit is nutritious, and a great resource
to the savages. So many tastes are unexpectedly
and whimsically compounded in it, that, it is said, a
person of the most hypochondriac temperament re
laxes to a. smile when he tastes papaw for the first
time. Three species of cherry are found in the United
States, one of which occurs both in the Atlantic and
the western states, as a tall timber tree. None of
them produce eatable fruit ; but the red cherry bears
the greatest analogy to the cultivated cherry of Eu
rope, and is the most likely to allow of grafting.
The persimon varies surprisingly in size in differ
ent soils and climates. In the vicinity of New York
it is not more than half as large as in the more south
ern states, where, in favourable situations, it is' some
times sixty feet in height, and eighteen or twenty
inches in diameter. The. ripe fruit is about as- large
as the thumb, of a reddish complexion, round, fleshy,
and furnished with six or eight semi-oval stones ; but
it is not. eatable till it has felt the first frost, by which
the skin is shrivelled, and the pulp, which before was
hard and extremely harsh to the taste, is softened
and rendered palatable. The fruit is so abundant,
that in the southern states a tree often yields several
bushels ; and even in New Jersey are seen the
branches of stocks, not more than seven or eight feet
in height, bent to the ground by their burden. In
the south the fruit adheres to the branches long after
the shedding of the leaf; and when it falls, it is
eagerly devoured by wild and domestic animals. In
Virginia, the Carolinas, and the western states, it is
sometimes gathered up, pounded with bran, and
formed into cakes, which are dried in the. oven, and
kept in order to make beer ; for which purpose they
are dissolved in warm water, with the addition of
hops and leaven. It was long since found that
brandy might be made from this fruit, by distilling
the water, previously fermented, in which they had
been bruised. This liquor is said to become good
as it acquires age : but it will be impossible to de

rive profit from the persimon in these modes, and in
the country where it is most abundant a few farmers
only employ, its fruit occasionally for their households;
The apple and the peach tree are far more advanta
geous, as their growth is more rapid and their produce
more considerable.
The Chickasaw plum is common from 34° north
latitude to the gulf of Mexico. It is found in the
greatest abundance, and ripens early in June. Prai
rie plums are most abundant in Illinois and Missouri
on the hazel prairies. They are of various sizes and
flavours; their general colour is reddish and their
flavour tart, but some of them are large and delicious.
In some places they are found in inconceivable quan
tities, the surface of acres being red with them ; and
two bushels have been gathered from one tree. The
yellow Osage plum of this class, when the better
kinds are cultivated, is delicious. In the middle re
gions of the central valley, on prairies of a particular
description, there are great tracts covered with an
impenetrable mat of crab apple shrubs. ., The form,
colour, and fragrance of the blossoms, are precisely
those of the cultivated apple tree, and when the
southern breeze comes over a large tract of these
shrubs in full blossom, it is charged with a concen
trated fragrance almost too strong to be grateful.
They are useful as stocks in which the cultivated
apple and pear tree may be engrafted. Their fruit,
when properly prepared, makes fine cider, and the
apple is much used as a preserve. The mulberry is
of rare occurrence in the Atlantic states, but is found
in every part of the valley of the Mississippi, and in
some places constitutes no inconsiderable portion of
the timber. Its wood is very valuable, and scarcely
less durable than that of the locust. The American
species is not the -black mulberry of Europe, but the
red mulberry. The white mulberry, on which the
silkworm feeds, has been asserted to be indigenous. to
the United States ; but the stocks of this kind which
may now be seen there, are stated by Michaux to
have been planted " a century ago, when attempts
were made to introduce the raising of silkworms ;"
as the soil and climate of the United States, however,
are well adapted to the white mulberry, there is no
reason why that branch of industry should not be
cultivated successfully, though the experiments hither
to made have had no very promising result.
The common grape vine is diffused through all
the climates. Nothing is. more common than, in the
richer lands, to see vines, often of a prodigious size,
perpendicularly attached at the top to branches sixty
or eighty feet from the ground, and at. a great lateral
distance from the trunk of the tree. It is common

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

95

to puzzle a man first brought into these woods, by
putting him to account for the manner in which a
vine, perhaps nearly of the size of the human body,
has been able to rear itself to such a height : there
can be, however, no doubt that the vine in this case
is coeval with the tree ; that the tree, as it grew,
reared the vine ; and that the vine receded from the
trunk with the projectionof the- lateral branch, until,
in the lapse of time, this singular appearance is pre
sented. In many places, half the trees in a bottom
are Covered with these vines. In the deep forests,
on the hills, in the barrens, in the hazel prairies, and
in the pine woods, every form and size of the grape
vine presents itself. Of the plants of the winter grape,
which so generally clings to the trees in the alluvial
forests, probably not one in fifty bears any fruit at all.
The fruit, when produced, is a small circular berry,
not unlike the Wild black cherry. It is austere, sour,
and unpleasant, until it has been mellowed by the
frosts of winter ; but it is said, when fermented by
those who have experience in the practice, to make a
tolerable wine. The summer grape is found on the
rolling barrens and. the hazel prairies. It is more
than twice the size of the winter grape, is ripe in
the first month in autumn, and, when matured un
der the full influence of the sun, is a pleasant fruit.
It grows in the greatest abundance, but is too dry
a grape to be pressed for wine. The muscadine
grape is seldom, seen north of 34 degrees.- More
southerly it becomes abundant, and is found in the
deep alluvial forests, clinging to the tall trees. The
fruit grows in. more scanty clusters than that of other
grapes. Like other fruits, they fall as they ripen,
and furnish a rich treat to bears and other animals
that feed on them ; they are of thesize of a plum, of
u fine purple black, with a thick tough skin, tasting
not unlike the rind of an orange ; the pulp is deli
riously sweet, but is reputed unwholesome. The
pine woods grape has a slender, bluish purple vine,
that "runs on the ground among the grass. It ripens
in the month of June ; is large, cone-shaped, trans
parent, with four seeds, reddish purple, and is a tine
fruit for eating. On the sandy plains at the sources
of Arkansas and Red river, the gentlemen of Long's
expedition concur with hunters and travellers in re
lating, that there are found large tracts of sandy
plain; from which grows a grape, probably of this
Species. They have stated that the clusters are large
and delicious, and that the sand, drifting about them,
covers up the redundant vegetation, performing the
operation of pruning on the vine : the sun, too, strong
ly reflected from a surface of sand, must have a pow
erful influence to mature the fruit. It is possible,

that some part of the admiration which has been felt,
in seeing such steril tracts covered with these abun
dant and rich clusters, and the high zest with which
they were devoured, may have been owing to the
surprise of finding such a phenomenon in contrast
with a white and moving sand, and eating the fruit
under associations created by hunger and thirst. The
universal diffusion of such numbers and varieties of
the vine, would seem to indicate this valley to pos
sess a natural aptitude for the cultivation of the vine.
The gooseberry, in all its natural varieties, is in
digenous to the United States. In the middle re
gions of ihe Mississippi valley it grows to a great
height and size, and covers itself with fruit. It
makes a high, compact, and impervious hedge. Im
mense tracts of the prairies are covered with the ha
zel, and the nuts are fine and abundant ; the busbies
are often surmounted with wreaths of the common
hop. The whortleberry abounds in the Atlantic
states, but is less common in the interior; The red
raspberry is also indigenous, and grows of a fine size
and flavour from the middle to the northern regions
of the great valley : one species of it, the rose-flower
ing raspberry, has a large and ornamental blossom.
Blackberries, high and creeping, are found in prodi
gious abundance, and the prairies in many places, in
the season, are red with fine strawberries. The
cranberry is a native fruit of the North American
continent. , It grows in morasses and- swamps of rieh
boggy bottoms, from Labrador to Carolina. When
found it is in great abundance, and gives to such lo
calities the name of cranberry swamps. Extensive
cranberry swamps are met with in New Jersey.
The cane grows on the lower -courses of the Mis
sissippi, Arkansas, and Red river, from fifteen to
thirty feet in height ; some, in these rich soils, would
almost vie in size with the bamboo. The leaves are
of a beautiful- green, long, narrow, and dagger-sha
ped, not unlike those of the Egyptian millet. It
grows in "equidistant joints, perfectly straight, and in
almost a compact mass, so that the smallest sparrow
would find it difficult to fly among it. Looking at
its ten thousand stems almost contiguous to each
other, and at the impervious roof of verdure which
it forms at its top, it has the aspect of a solid layer
of vegetation. A man could not advance at the rate
of three miles in a day through a thick cane-brake.
It is the choseh resort of bears and panthers, (cou
gars,) which break it down, and make their way into
it as a retreat from man. It indicates a dry soil,
above the inundation, and of the richest character;
and the ground is never in better preparation for
maize, than after this" prodigious mass of vegetation

%

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

is first cut down and burned. , When the cane has
been cut, and is so dried that it will burn, it is an
amusement of high holyday to the negroes to set fire
to it. The rarefied air in the hollow compartments
ofthe canes bursts them, with a report not much in
ferior to a discharge of musketry ; and the burning
of the whole brake makes the noise of a conflicting
army, in which thousands of muskets are continual
ly discharging. This beautiful vegetable is general
ly asserted to have a life of five years, at the end of
which period, if it has grown undisturbed, it produ
ces an abundant crop of seed, with . heads very like
those of the broom corn ; the seeds are farinaceous,
and are said to be not much inferior to wheat, for
which the Indians, and occasionally the first settlers,
have substituted it. No prospect so strikingly shows
the exuberant prodigality of nature, as a thick cane-
brake ; nothing affords such a rich and perennial
range for cattle, sheep, and horses ; and1 the butter,
that is made from the cane pastures of this region is
of the finest kind. The seed easily vegetates in any
rich soil. It rises from the ground like the richest
asparagus, with a laree succulent stem, and it grows
six feet high before it loses its succulency and tender
ness. No vegetable furnishes a fodder so rich" or
abundant ; and it has been recommended to make
trial of the annual cultivation of the cane in regions
where it can not" survive the winter. A species of
flax was found by Lewis and Clark growing in the
valleys of the Chippewayan Mountains, and on the
banks of the Missouri. The bark possesses the same
kind of tough fibres as the common flax, and the In
dians are in the habit of making lint and wadding
for their guns from -it.
Many parts of the United States are tangled with
annual and perennial creepers of various kinds, fo
liage, and forms. The trumpet flower (bignonia) is
a creeper, beautiful for its foliage and flowers. It
has a vine of a grayish white colour, and long and
delicate spike-shaped leaves in alternate sets. It
climbs the largest trees in preference to others,
mounts to their summits, and displays a profusion of
large, trumpet-shaped flowers,' of a flame colour.
Planted near a house, in two or three seasons a sin
gle vine will cover a roof, throwing its fibrous and
parasitic roots so strongly under the shingles, as to
detach them from the rafters. Various species of
ivy abound, especially in the rich alluvions, Where
thousands of the forest trees, and often huge dead
trunks, are wreathed with it. The supplejack is re
markable for attaching itself so strongly to the shrub
it entwines, as to cause those curious spiral curves
and inner flattenings which give valueto its cane.

The gramineous vegetation of the United States is
extremely luxuriant, and species of grass are found
adapted to every locality, except the sands of the
Chippewayan desert. The aspect of the eastern,
however, differs in this respect from that of the west
ern states. The northern Atlantic country covers it
self naturally with a fine sward, but the friable soil
of the western lands is the region of coarse grass, and
tall flowering plants with gaudy blossoms. The
numbers, forms, and gigantic height of these weeds
and plants, are not among the least surprising objects
to an observer of nature. We have already noticed
the kind of sedge which occupies the salt marshes- of
the Atlantic coast, and the various changes in it as
the uplands are approached. In the boggy meadows
of New England, and elsewhere in low, wet, and
miry swamps, on parts elevated above the water,
grows the swamp grass ; it is of the brightest ver
dure, remaining green through the frosts of winter,
and its sharp edges, when drawn rapidly through
the fingers, cut them. In the middle regions of the
Mississippi valley, cattle are driven to these swamps,
to subsist through the winter. The universal indi^
genous grass of this country, in all its climates and
extent, covering the millions of acres ofthe prairies,
is what is commonly called the. prairie grass, (poa
pratensis.) It grows equally in the forests and bar
rens, wherever there is an interval sufficiently un
shaded to admit- its growth. It is tall, coarse, and
full of seeds at the top ; and when ripe, is rather too
wiry for fodder. It is cut for that purpose in Sep
tember. If it were cut earlier, and before it had lost
its ' succulence and tenderness, it would probably be "
excellent feed. The prairies yield inexhaustible
quantities, and the towns and villages in the prairie
regions are copiously supplied with it. When young,
and before it has thrown up its stem, it resembles
wheat in appearance. The speargrass of New Eng
land yields a fine, soft sward. In the western coun
try it is observed growing about deserted houses and
Indian villages, and it is said in many places to be
displacing the prairie grass, on the upper prairies of
Illinois ; like the robinrredbreasl, it seems to be at
tached to the abodes of civilized man. The fowl
meadow grass of- New England is also valuable; but
it does not abound, if it exists, in the western states*
to the wet prairies of which it would be an important
acquisition. A useful herbaceous plant is the rush, {equisetwm
hyemale,) which grows in bottoms, on grounds of
an intermediate elevation between those of the cane-
brake and the deeply-flooded lands. This grass is
sometimes a perfect mat, as high as the shoulders*

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

97

Nothing can exceed the brilliance of its verdure, es
pecially when seen in winter in contrast with the
universal brown. v Where it grows high and thick,
it is difficult to make way through it ; and it has a
disagreeable kind of rustling, which produces the
sensation that is called setting the teeth on edge.
In the northern regions its tubular stem is apt to fill
with compact icicles. It is the favourite range of
horses and Cattle, and is devoured by them with
more greediness, than even cane ; but if swallowed
when filled with ice, it produces a chill in the sto
mach of the cattle that is apt to prove fatal . To the
boa1;s that descend the Mississippi, the rush is an in
valuable resource; the cattle and horses, after being
pent up in these floating barns for many days in suc
cession, being turned loose, and finding holyday
pasture in this rich range. The pea vine is a small
fibrous Vine, that covers the soil in the richer forest
lands ; it receives its name from the resemblance of
its leaves and flowers to those of the cultivated pea.
It is a rich and almost universal forest range for cat
tle, but when once eaten down, it is not apt to renew
itself; of course, it disappears in the vicinity of com
pact population.
A plant of great importance is the wild vice,- (zi-
zania aquatica.) It is found in the greatest abun
dance on the marshy margins of the northern lakes,
and in the shallow waters oh the upper courses of
the Mississippi. It grows in these regions on a vast
extent of country. It is here that the millions of the
migrating water-fowls fatten, before they take their
autumnal migration to the south ; it is here, too, that
the northern savages, and the Canadian traders and
hunters, find their annual supplies of grain, a re
source, without which they could hardly subsist. It
is a tall, tubular, reedy water-plan t, and very much
resembles the cane grass of the sWamps and marshes
on the gulf of Mexico. It springs up from waters of
six or seven feet in depth, where the bottom is soft
ahd muddy, and rises nearly as high above the wa
ter. Its leaves and spikes, though much larger, re
semble those of oats, froni which the French give it
its name. When it is intended to be preserved for
grain, the spikes are bound together, to secure them
from the ravages of birds and water-fowls, which
prey upon them in immense numbers, and it thus has
a chance to ripen ; at the season for gathering it,
canoes are rowed among the grain, a blanket is spread
upon them, and the grain is beaten on to the blankets.
It is perhaps of all the cerealia, except maize, the
most prolific. It seems also not peculiar to any cli
mate, since it arrives at perfection equally at. the
sources and at the mouths of the Mississippi.

A perennial plant of the palm kind, and called also
palmetto, appears about latitude 33°. It throws up
from a large root, so tough as to be cut with diffi
culty by an axe, and very hard to be eradicated from
the soil, large fan-shaped lea ves,-of the most striking
and vivid verdure, and ribbed with wonderful exact
ness. It indicates a deep swampy soil, and grows
to six feet in height. The infallible index of swamp
and of southern climate, and having no resemblance
to any plant seen at the north, its foreign aspect, and
its deep green, unchanged by winter, when first seen
by the traveller from the north, is apt to produce
considerable surprise, and strongly reminds him that
he is a stranger, and in a new climate. It is used
by the savages and the poorer Creoles as thatch for
their cabins'; and from the tender shoots of the sea
son, properly prepared, a very useful kind of summer
hats, called palmetto hats, is manufactured. The
May apple is a beautiful plant that completely covers
the ground, where it grows, with the freshest and
most cheering verdure of spring. It has a handsome
white blossom, and bears a fruit of the appearance
and taste of a lemon, and its root is a powerful ca
thartic. Strammony is a poisonous weed, pernicious
ly common through the western country. On the
richest bottoms it grows fifteen feet in height, and of
such a size and compactness, as to prevent cattle
from running among it. It has splendid flowers, and
a great quantity of oily seeds ; its smell is nauseous,
and it is a common and annoying tenant of the vil
lages on, the alluvial margin of rivers : in some places,
no inconsiderable part of the labour on the highways
is to cut up this weed from the roads and outlets ofthe
villages. Its popular name is jimson, probably a cor
ruption of Jamestown, the place whence it was said
to have. been brought. It is used as medicine in
spasmodic asthma., The next .most common and
annoying weed along the roads, especially in Louisi
ana, is a very tall plant resembling cassia marilan-
dica ;, it renders the paths, and the banks of the
streams, in that region, almost impassable in autumn,
until the cattle have trodden it down. Cockle burrs
in the same situations are excessively annoying
weeds, filling the outlets and uncultivated places to
such a degree, that the burrs adhere to the clothes
of passengers, and mat the wool of sheep running
among, it with an inextricable tangle. The common
nettle is everywhere annoying to the summer travel'
ler 'in the woods. One of the most singular of the
forest productions is the wax plant, every part ot
which, except the root and the anthers, is snow white,
and has the appearance of the most delicate wax pre
paration. It grows in rich shady woods, and is

98

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

greatly prized because of its delicate appearance.
The beautiful blue flower with golden anthers, the
Virginian spiderwort, now common in our gardens,
is a native ofthe sandy margins of rivers and creeks
in the United States. It is disputed whether tobacco,
long naturalized and now extensively cultivated in
North' America, is indigenous to the- country or not.
The common kinds of aquatic plants are found in
the still and shallow waters of the swamps ; particu
larly a beautiful kind of water lily, highly fragrant,
but not identical with the New England pond lily.
This is the nymphea odorata, closely resembling the
European water lily. Another of this genus, nym
phea nelumbo, is much larger, and, for size and
beauty, is said to be unrivalled. Dr. Barton,* who
calls it cyamus luteus, considers it to be the same as
the sacred bean of India, and mentions it as abun
dant near Philadelphia, but rare otherwise, and re
fusing propagation. Mr. Flint found it in the south
ern states, and speaks of it as attaining great splen
dour on the laiies and stagnant waters of the Arkan
sas. It rises from a root resembling the large stump
of a cabbage, and from depths in the water of from
two or three to ten feet ; it has an elliptical, smooth,
and verdant leaf, some of the largest of them being
of the size of a parasol. The muddy creeks and
stagnant waters are Often so covered with these leaves,
that the sandpiper walks on, the surface of them
without dipping her feet in the water. They have
their home in still lakes, in the centre of cypress
swamps ; musquitoes swarm above ; obscene fowls
wheel their flight over them ; alligators swim among
their roots, and moccasin snakes bask on their leaves :
in such lonely and repulsive situations, under such
circumstances, and for such spectators, is arrayed,
what is represented as the most brilliant display of
flowers in the creation. In the capsule are imbedded
from four to six acorn -shaped seeds, which the In
dians roast and eat when green ; or they are dried
and eaten as nuts, or reduced to meal, and made into
a kind of bread. A singular kind of aquatic vege
tation, which has given rise to the fiction of floating
islands of vegetation on the waters, is seen to cover
a great extent of shallow lakes and muddy streams.
It appears, indeed, to float on the water, and great
masses of it, no doubt, often are detached and float
ing, as though there were no roots affixed to the soil
at the bottom ; but its twiny stem, of many yards in
length, is ordinarily bound to the bottom by a thou
sand fibrous, roots. It has a small beautiful elliptical
leaf, and a diminutive but delicate white flower.
* Barton's Flora of North America.

Under them fishes dart, alligators gambol, and in the
proper season, multitudes of water rfowl are seen pat-.
tering their bills among these leaves. This plant
has been designated by the name pistia stratiotes.
One species of the, orontium, or golden club,, is indi
genous to the United States. It grows on the. marshy
borders of rivers and creeks, or on the margins of
ditches and ponds, so far as the tide penetrates, but
no further. The only other known species of this
plant is a native of Japan.
Besides .the mistletoe, which is abundant, a singu
lar parasitic plant of the southern states, is the long
moss. It hangs dpwn in festoons, like the stem*, of
the weeping willow. It attaches itself of choice to.
the cypress, and gives its next preference to the aca
cia. Its pendent wreaths often conceal the body of
the tree to such an extent, that, when bare of foliage,
little is seen but amass of moss. These wreaths,
waving in the wind, attach themselves to the branches
of other trees, and thus sometimes form curtains of
moss which darken the leafless forest of winter. It
is in colour of a darkish gray, and the wreaths are
many yards in length. It has a small trumpet-shaped
flower, of peach-blossom colour, and seeds still finer
than those of tobacco. Associated as it naturally is
with marshy and low alluvions, where it grows in
the greatest profusion, and with the idea of sickness,
this dark drapery of the forest has an aspect of inex
pressible gloom. When fresh, it is a tolerable fodder
for horses and cattle, and the deer feed upon it in
winter. It soon dies on dead trees. Prepared some
thing after the manner of water-rotted hemp, the bark
is decomposed and the fibre remains, fine, black,
strong, elastic, and apparently incorruptible ; in this
state, in appearance and elasticity it resembles horse
hair, and like that, is used for mattresses. Most of
the, people in the lower country sleep on these mat
tresses, and they are becoming an article of commerce
in the upper country. The Creoles make various
articles of harness, as horse-collars, and saddle-stuf
fing, of this material ; for which purposes also, con- .
siderable quantities are exported to the upholsterers
and carriage-makers in the Atlantic country.
Of course it will be understood that iu this chapter
we have noticed only the more conspicuous and con
siderable of the vegetable productions of the United
States. A mere catalogue ofthe whole would occupy
all the space we can allot to the subject, and would
afford our, readers neither gratification*] or instruction.
Scientific works may be referred to for more extended
information.. The notice which this chapter contains of the ve
getable products of the American states, is lamenta-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

99

bly brief; but the editor does not feel himself justi
fied in attempting to* enlarge it, inasmuch as various
works on the subject are abundantly scattered
throughout the union. In the correspondence of
Sir James Edward Smith, the president of the Lin-
nsean Society of London, there is a letter of some
considerable importance, on a species of indigenous
wild wheat; which it would appear abounds in the
western country. This letter is from the late go
vernor of New York, De Witt Clinton, and is ad
dressed to Sir James : it bears date, Utica, July 18,
1817. The scarcity Of the work in which it is to be
found, and the valuable facts which, in an agricul
tural point of view, it records, will justify its insertion
in this place.
" A few days ago," says -Governor Clinton, " a
farmer stopped with his. wagon at a house in the vil
lage of Rome, about fifteen miles from this place.
A respectable gentleman, who was conversing with
him on business, observing among some hay, lying in
the wagon, a few stalks of a. strange plant, inquired
what they were ; and on being told that they were
wild wheat, and were cut with common grass in a
beaVer meadow and - on a wet soil in the town of
Western in this county, he took out a few grains,
and gave them to an honest and industrious farmer in
his vicinity, who planted them in his garden. The
second crop produced about a peck of grain, which
yielded upwards of twenty bushels the third, year.
Wheat of the same species has also been found in a
wild state in a swamp covered with trees near Rome.
It is said to differ from the common wheat in a variety
of respects, — in the compactness of the stalk, in the
largeness of its leaves, in the peculiar position of beards
at the apex of the head, which is in all other respects
bald, and in its superior height, being considerably
taller. Since the comparative scarcity of snow, which
formerly served as a protection against the attacks of
frost, our Wheat has suffered severely by what the far
mers denominate winter-killing. Our ground freezes
during the winter about a foot and a half in depth.
When the sun resumes its vernal power, a partial
thaw of two inches takes place in the course of the
day ; and owing to the porosity and hollowness of
the common wheat, the, water is absorbed in it. On
the return of night, the ground is again frozen, and
then the expansive power of frost produces the de
struction of the plant, by eradicating it, or breaking
the roots to pieces, and bursting the stalk where the
water has penetrated. Rye. is not affected in this
way, because it is not so permeable by water, and
because its roots are stronger,- more elastic, and strike
deeper into the earth. In like manner the wild wheat

of Oneida county is said to resist the power of frost ;
and this is imputed to the same causes which protect
the rye.
" As I am persuaded that the history which I have
given of this wheat is substantially correct, it pre
sents a very interesting subject for investigation. Is
it indigenous, or was it originally imported wheat,
and accidentally conveyed to the~places where it was
found 1 If the former, it is the very grain which na
ture created for our soil and climate. If the. latter,
it has been evidently improved by its wild state and
spontaneous growth ; — a circumstance of an anoma
lous character, and contrary to the usual course of
nature. " Although I am not prepared to give a decided
opinion on this subject, yet I may be permitted to
observe, that there are cogent arguments against the
latter hypothesis.
"The plant was found in a swamp and in a mea
dow, and appears to delight in a wet soil, which is
not congenial with the common wheat. It presents
not only a different aspect, but seems to have peculiar
and characteristic qualities.
" Linnseus, if I remember rightly, made six species
of Triticum. Sixteen species are now enumerated,
besides varieties ; and these are found in the most
diversified climates: the Murwaary Wheat of Bar
bary ; the Spring Wheat of Siberia ; the Spelter of
Germany ; the Wheat of Egypt, of Switzerland, of
Poland, and of Sicily, cannot be derived from the
same country. Ceres, who, according to the heathen
mythology, discovered corn, was said to have had
her principal seat in Sicily ; but this granary of the
ancient world has no exclusive claims to the most
important of the Cerealia. The Froment tremais,
which arrives at maturity in these marshes, is as
different from the other kinds of Triticum, as it is
possible for different species to be ; and it unques
tionably could not have had, an identity of local ori
gin with them.
"I have been a long time of opinion, that many
of our native plants have been improperly consider
ed as naturalized ; and as I am anxious to claim the
most important culmiferous plant as an indigenous
production, I have no hesitation in denominating
this wheat,. discovered near Rome, Triticum Ameri-
canum.
' " I also transmit- by this opportunity specimens of
a plant called the Wild Rye, which grows sponta
neously and in considerable quantities in the coun
try bordering on the upper parts of the Mohawk
River ; and I believe it might be cultivated to ad
vantage." '

100

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

CHAPTER IV.

ZOOLOGY.

The living tribes occurring in the transatlantic
republic open a wide and interesting field of observa
tion. The ornithological department is particularly
rich and striking ; and the reptiles are numerous
and powerful ; and on the whole, the zoology of the
United States may be said to be still more peculiar
than either their mineralogy or their botany. We
shall notice, in as copious a manner as our limits will
allow, the principal objects of interest in the respec
tive animal tribes. >
The following general view of the mammiferous
animals inhabiting the North American continent, is
given by Dr. Harlan.* The number of species now
ascertained is 147, in which, however, this author,
like some other American and European writers, in
cludes man ; but, as it does not correspond with the
purpose of this chapter to do so, we shall reckon the
species at 146. Of these 28 are cetacea, and 118
are quadrupeds. Among the quadrupeds it is also to
be noticed that Dr. Harlan reckons eleven species of
which no living trace whatever is found, either in
North America or in any other part of the world, and
which he introduces only by virtue Of their fossil re
mains ; but if we allow a sufficient reason to exist for
placing such animals in a scientific arrangement,
they cannot, at all events, be regarded as forming a
part of the present zoology of the North American
continent. The number of living species of quadru
peds is, therefore, 107. The comparative numbers
of the several orders are stated to be as follows: —
Primates, (not including man)  0
Carnivora, (in which Dr. Harlan includes the bat) . 60
Glires  37
i Edentata  , 6
\ Pachydermata  2
i Ruminantia ..."  13
I ' Cetacea  28
It thas appears that the monkey tribe is wholly
excluded from the territory Under review, together
with the kindred animals constituting the order pri
mates. In this order, however, the bat has been com
monly reckoned, and we think with more propriety
than where Dr. Harlan has placed it. Several spe
cies of this animal are found in the United States, but
exhibiting no remarkable features. The following
account of their manner of hybernation in a cave is
given by Professor Green. "They did not appear
to be much disturbed bythe light of the torches

* Fauna Americans!

carried by our party, but, upon being touched with
sticks, they instantly recovered animation and acti
vity, and flew into the dark passages of the cavern.
As the cave was for the most part not more than six
or seven feet in height, they could ve*y easily be
removed from the places to which they Were suspend
ed ; and some of the party who were behind me dis
turbed some hundreds of them at once, when they
swept by me in swarms to more remote, darker, and
safer places of retreat. -, In flying through the caves
they made little or no noise ; sometimes, upon being
disturbed in One place, they flew but a few yards,
and then instantly settled in another, in a state of
torpor apparently as profound as before. These bats,
in hybernating, suspended themselves by the hinder
claws, from the roof or upper part of the cave : in no
instance did- 1 observe one along the sides. They
were not promiscuously Scattered, but were collected
into grpups or clusters of some hundreds, all in close
contact. On holding a candle within a few inches of
one of these groups, they were not in the least trou
bled by it ; their eyes continued closed, and 1
could perceive no signs of respiration. On opening
the stomach of one of these bats, it was found entire
ly empty." The strictly carnivorous animals,- or beasts of
prey, form, as might be expected in so extensive and
diversified a tract of uncultivated country, a- large
class of tenants of the American wilds. Here," how
ever, we find neither the lion, nor the tiger, the
hyaena, nor the leopard, nor any of those creatures,
with which, as beasts of prey, we are most familiar,
and which make so conspicuous a figure in African
and Asiatic regions. The largest animal of this kind
in the United States is the cougar. This is com
monly, but improperly, called the panther, and has
occasionally received the name of the American lion,
&om the similarity of its proportions and colour to
the hon of the old world. He is little inferior in
size, and not at all in the fancied qualities of mag
nanimity, clemency, and generosity, which have
been so lavishly attributed to the " king of beasts."
He may be stated to be about one third less than the
lion ; he has no mane; nor any tuft at the extremity
of the tail, which is about half the length of the bo
dy and head. The cougar was at an early period
distributed in considerable number over the whole of
the warm and temperate regions of this continent,
and it is still found, though by no means abundantly,
in the southern, middle, and north-western parts of
the union, becoming, however; gradually more rare
as the population increases, and cultivation is ex
tended. It is a savage and destructive animal, yet

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101

timid and cautious., In ferocity it is quite equal to
most of its kindred species ; it kills numbers of small
animals for the sake of drinking their blood, and,
when pressed by hunger, attacks large quadrupeds,
though not always with success. When the cougar
seizes a sheep or a calf, it is by the throat ; and then,
flinging the victim over its back, it dashes off with
great ease and celerity, to devour it at leisure. Deer,
hogs, sheep, and calves, are destroyed by the cougar
whenever they are within reach ; and occasionally
these animals have committed extensive ravages
among the stock of the frontier settlers. They climb,
or rather spring up large trees with surprising facility,
and vigour, and in that way are enabled, by dropping
suddenly upon deer and other quadrupeds, to secure
prey which it would be impossible for them to over
take. In the day-time the cougar is seldom seen :
but its peculiar cry frequently thrills the experienced
traveller with horror, while encamping in the forest
at night ; or he is startled to hear the cautious ap
proaches of the animal, stealing step by step towards
him over the crackling brushwood and leaves, in ex
pectation of springing on an unguarded or sleeping
victim, whom nothing but a rapid flight can save.
The northern lynx is a fierce and subtle creature,
exhibiting most of the traits of character which dis
tinguish animals of the cat kind. To the smaller
quadrupeds, such as rabbits, hares, lemmings, &c,
it is exceedingly destructive, never leaving the vi
cinities they frequent until their numbers are alto
gether destroyed, or exceedingly thinned. But the
ravages of the northern lynx are not confined to such
small game : it drops from the branches of trees on
the necks of deer, and clinging firmly with its sharp-
hooked claws, ceases not to tear at the throat and
drink the blood ofthe animal, until it sinks exhausted,
and expires. It attacks sheep and calves in the same
manner, and preys upon wild turkeys and other birds,
which it is capable of surprising even on the tops of
the highest trees.
The United States, to which Dr. Godman thinks
the brown bear is not native, presents us with two
principal species of this animal, of remarkably differ
ent characteristics. The black bears feed principally
on grapes, plums, whortleberries, persimmons,'brambIe
and other berries ; they are also particularly fond of
the acorns of the live oak, on which they grow ex
cessively fat in Florida. In attempting to procure
these acorns, they subject themselves to great perils ;
for, after climbing these enormous oak trees, they
push themselves along the limbs towards the extreme
branches, and with their fore-paws bend the twigs
within reach, thus exposing themselves to severe and
Vol. IL— Nos. 45 & 46 N

even fatal accidents, in case of a fall. They are also
very fond of the different kinds of nuts and esculent
roots ; and often ramble to great distances from their
dens in search of whortleberries, mulberries, and in
deed all sweet-flavoured and spicy fruits. Birds,
small quadrupeds, insects, and eggs, are also devour-
ed by them whenever they can be obtained. They
are occasionally very injurious to the frontier set
tlers, by their incursions in search of potatoes and
young corn, both of which are favourite articles of
food. Their claws enable them to do great mischief
in potato grounds, as they can dig up a large num
ber in a short time ; and where the bears are nume
rous, their ravages are occasionally very extensive.
In the vicinity of Hudson's Bay, the black bear has
been observed to feed entirely on water-insects, during
the month of June, when the berries are not ripe.
These insects, of different species, are found in as
tonishing quantities in some of the lakes ; the bear,
swimming with his mouth open, gathers those on the
surface of the water. They are even believed to feed
on those which die, and are washed on shore. The
flesh of the animal is spoiled by this diet ; though
individuals killed at a distance from the water are
agreeably flavoured at the same time of the year.
The black bear is in fact very indiscriminate in his
feeding, and though suited by nature for the almost
exclusive consumption of vegetable food, he refuses
scarcely any thing when pressed by hunger ; he is,
moreover, voracious as well as indiscriminate in sa
tisfying his appetite, and frequently gorges until his
stomach loathes and rejects its contents. He seeks
with great assiduity for the larvae or grubs of various
insects, and exerts a surprising degree of strength in
turning over large trunks of fallen trees, which,
whenever sufficiently decayed to admit of it, he tears
to pieces in search of worms. When the bear seizes
a living animal, he does not, as most other beasts do,
first put it to death, but tears it to pieces and devours
it, without being delayed by its screams or struggles,
and may be actually said to swallow it alive.
The black bear, under ordinary circumstances, is
not remarkably ferocious, nor is he in the habit of
attacking man without provocation ; but, when
wounded, he turns on the aggressor with great fury,
and defends himself desperately. They are occa
sionally found throughout the territories of the United
States, in the wooded and mountainous regions, and
in unsettled districts, where their skins are of great
value to the inhabitants, as a substitute for blankets
and other, manufactured woollens. They are still
numerous in the wooded and thinly settled parts of
Pennsylvania, as well as in most of the other states

102

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

of the Union; and, where their favourite food is
nlentiful, they grow to a great size, and afford a large
quantity of oil. Bartram relates that he was present
at the cutting up of one which weighed five or six
hundred pounds, and says that his hide was appa
rently as large as that of an ox of six or seven hun
dred weight. The Indians consider this bear as one
of the noblest objects of the chase, and they always
manifest the highest degree of exultation when they
are successful in killing one. Every part of the ani
mal is valuable to them, even to its intestines and
claws; the latter are bored at the base, and strung
on deer sinews, to be worn as ornaments ; the flesh
is considered most delicious food, and the fore-paws
as an exquisite dainty. The black bear, in common
with other species of the genus, endeavours to suffo
cate an adversary by violently hugging and compress
ing its chest. A man might end such a struggle in
a few instants, if one hand were sufficiently at liberty
to grasp the throat of the animal with the thumb
and fingers, externally, just at the root of the tongue ;
as a slight degree of compression there will generally
suffice to produce almost immediate suffocation.
The grizzly bear is of a totally opposite character.
This animal is justly considered as the most dreadful
and dangerous of North American quadrupeds, and
is the despotic and sanguinary monarch ofthe wilds
over which he ranges. Gigantic in size, and terrific
in aspect, he unites to a ferociously blood-thirsty dis
position a surpassing strength of limb, which gives
him undisputed supremacy over every other tenant
of the wilderness, and causes man himself to tremble
at his approach. To the Indians, the very name of
the grizzly bear is dreadful, and the killing of one
is esteemed equal to a great victory. The white
hunters are almost always willing to avoid an en
counter with so powerful an adversary, and seldom
wantonly provoke him. This formidable animal un
hesitatingly pursues and attacks men or animals,
when excited by hunger or by passion, and slaugh
ters indiscriminately every creature whose speed or
artifice is not sufficient to place them beyond his
reach. He is capable, however, like the rest of his
tribe, of living on vegetable food. This bear at pre
sent inhabits the country adjacent to the eastern side
of the Chippewayan Mountains, where it frequents
the plains, or resides in the copses of wood which
skirt the margin of water-courses ; and there is some
traditional reason to believe, that it once inhabited
the Atlantic regions of the United States. As a spe
cimen of his manners, we extract the following nar
rative : — " One evening, the men in the hindmost of
one of Lewis and Clark's canoes perceived one of

these bears lying in the open ground, about three
hundred paces from the river ; and six of them, who
were all good hunters, went to attack him. Con
cealing themselves by a small eminence, they were
able to approach within forty paces, unperceived :
four of the hunters now fired, and each lodged a ball
in his body, two of which passed directly through
the lungs. The bear sprang up, and ran furiously
with open mouth upon them : two of the hunters,
who had reserved their fire, now gave him two ad
ditional wounds, and one, breaking his shoulder-
blade, somewhat retarded his motions. Before they
could again load their guns, he came so close on
them that they were obliged to run towards the river ;
and before they had gained it, the bear had almost
overtaken them. Two men jumped into the canoe ;
the other four separated, and concealing themselves
among the willows, fired as fast as they could load
their pieces. Several times the bear was struck, but
each shot seemed only to direct his fury towards the
hunter : at last, he pursued them so closely, that they
threw aside their guns and pouches, and jumped from
a perpendicular bank, twenty feet high, into the river.
The bear sprang after them, and was very near the
hindmost man, when one of the hunters on the shore
shot him through the head, and finally killed him.
When they dragged him on shore, they found that
eight balls had passed through his body in different
directions." The common wolf of America is considered to be
the same species as the wolf of Europe. When the
aboriginal Americans first gave place to European
adventurers, and the forests, which had flourished
for ages undisturbed, began to fall before the un
sparing axe, the vicinity of the settler's lonely cabin
resounded with the nightly howling of wolves, at
tracted by the refuse provision usually to be found
there, or by a disposition to prey upon the domestic
animals. During winter, when food was most diffi
cult to be procured, packs of these famished and fe
rocious creatures were ever at hand, to run down
and destroy any domestic animal found wandering
beyond the enclosures, which their individual or
combined efforts could overcome; and the boldest
house-dog could not venture far from the door of his
master, without incurring the risk of being killed and
devoured. The common wolf was then to be found
in considerable numbers, throughout a great extent,
if not throughout the whole, of North America ; at
present, it is only known as a resident of the remote
wooded and mountainous districts, where man has
not fixed his abode. The prairie, or barking wolf,
frequents the prairies of the west, where troops or

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103

packs, containing a considerable number of individu
als, are frequently seen following in the train of a
herd of the buffalo or deer, for the purpose of prey
ing on such as may die from disease, or in conse
quence of wounds inflicted by the hunters ; at night
they also approach the encampments of travellers,
whom they sometimes follow for the sake of the car
casses of animals which are relinquished, and, by
their discordant howlings close to the tents, effectu
ally banish sleep from those who are unaccustomed
to their noise. They are more numerous than any
of the other wolves which are found in North Ame
rica. In appearance, the barking wolf closely re
sembles the domestic dog of the Indians, and is re
markably active and intelligent. Like the common
wolf, the individuals of this species frequently unite
to run down a deer, or a buffalo calf, which has been
separated from the herd ; though it requires the full
est exercise of their speed, sagacity, and strength, to
succeed in this chase. They are very often exposed
to great distress from want of food ; and, in this state
of famine, are under the necessity of filling their sto
machs with wild plums, or other fruits no less indi
gestible, in order to allay the sensations of hunger.
Red foxes, resembling, but not identical with the
common fox of Europe, are very numerous in the
middle and southern states of the union, and are
everywhere notorious depredators on the poultry-
yards. Their haunts are most commonly in exceed
ingly dense thickets of young pine, where they can
scarcely be followed even by dogs. The gray fox is
very common throughout this country, and is found
more immediately in the vicinity of human habita
tions than either of the other species. It is pursued
by the sportsmen with more pleasure than the red
fox, because it does not immediately forsake its
haunts, and run for miles in one direction, but, after
various doublings, is generally killed near the place
whence it first started. A small species, called the
swift fox, inhabits the plains east of the Chippewayan
Mountains. The most remarkable circumstance pe
culiar to this fox is its extraordinary swiftness, which
all who have seen it agree in declaring to surpass
that of any other animal with which 'we are at pre
sent acquainted. The fleetest antelope or deer, when
running at full speed, is passed by this little fox with
the greatest ease ; and such is the celerity of its
motion, that it is compared to the flight of a bird
along the ground, rather than the course of a quad
ruped. Other observers have stated, that, when in
full speed over the plain, the effect produced on the
eye makes the animal resemble a line drawn rapidly
along the surface ; so impossible is it to distinguish

any of the parts of its body, on account of its surpri
sing velocity.
A species of otter, analogous to the European, is
found in the United States. In the southern, middle,
and eastern states ofthe union, they are comparatively
scarce ; but in the western states they are in many
places still found in considerable numbers, and on
the tributaries of the Missouri they are very com
mon. A singular sportive habit has been observed
in them, viz. that of sliding ; and for this purpose,
in winter, the highest ridge of snow is selected, to
the top of which the otters scramble, where, lying,
on the belly, with the fore feet bent backwards, they
give themselves an impulse with their hind legs, and
swiftly glide head foremost down the declivity, some
times for the distance of twenty yards. This sport
they continue, apparently with the keenest enjoyment,
until fatigue or hunger induces them to desist. In
the summer this amusement is obtained by selecting
a spot where the river bank is sloping, has a clayey
soil, and the water at its base is of a considerable
depth. The otters then remove from the surface,
for the breadth of several feet, the sticks, roots, stones,
and other obstructions, and. render it as level as pos
sible. They climb up the bank at a less precipitous
spot, and starting from the top, slip with velocity
over the inclining ground, and plunge into the water
to a depth proportioned to their weight and rapidity
of motion. After a few slides and plunges, the sur
face of the clay becomes very smooth and slippery,
and the rapid succession of the sliders shows how
much these animals are delighted by the game, as
well as how capable they are of performing actions
which have no other object than that of pleasure or
diversion. This amusement is so congenial to the
frolic spirit of boyhood, that in vicinities where otter-
slides are found, youngsters, while bathing, some
times take possession of one, and, sitting at the, top,
glide thence with great glee into the water.
Pedestrians, led by business or by pleasure to ram
ble through the country during the morning or
evening twilight, occasionally see a small and pretty
animal a short distance before them in the path,
scampering forward without appearing much alarmed,
and advancing in a zig-zag or somewhat serpentine
direction. Experienced persons generally delay long
enough to allow this unwelcome fellow-traveller to
withdraw from the path ; but it often happens that a
view of the animal arouses the ardour of the observer,
who, in his fondness for sport, thinks not of any result
but that of securing a prize. It would be more pru
dent to rest content with pelting this quadruped from a
safe distance, or to drive it away by shouting loudly j

104

TOPOGRAPHY OP THE UNITED STATES.

but almost all inexperienced persons, the first time
such an opportunity occurs, rush forward with intent
to run the animal down. This appears to be an easy
task. In a few moments it is almost overtaken ; a
few more strides, and the victim may be grasped by
its long and waving tail — but that tail is now sud
denly curled over the back, its pace is slackened, and
in one instant the condition of things is entirely re
versed ; the lately triumphant pursuer is eagerly
flying from his intended prize, involved in an atmo
sphere of stench, gasping for breath, or blinded and
smarting with pain, if his approach were sufficiently
close to allow of his being struck in the eyes by the
pestilent fluid of the skunk. Should the attack on
this creature be led by a dog, and he be close when
the disgusting discharge is made, he runs with tail
between his legs howling away, and, by thrusting
his nose into the soil as he retreats, tries to escape
from the horrible effluvium, which renders the air
in the immediate vicinity too stifling to be endured.
This animal is the skunk, which inhabits the whole
of North America, in the forests or their immediate
vicinity. Raccoons also are found throughout the whole of
North America ; and they still continue to be nume
rous -in many of the well-peopled parts of the United
States. Occasionally their numbers are so great as to
render them very troublesome to the farmers in the
low and wooded parts of Maryland, bordering on the
Chesapeake Bay. To the capricious mischievous-
ness of the monkey the raccoon adds a blood-thirsty
and vindictive spirit peculiarly his own. In the wild
state, his sanguinary appetite frequently leads to his
own destruction, which his nocturnal habits might
otherwise avert ; but, as he slaughters the tenants of
the poultry -yard with indiscriminate ferocity, the ven-
"geance of the plundered farmer speedily retaliates on
him the death so liberally dealt among the feathered
victims. The fur of the raccoon forms an article of
considerable value in commerce, as it is largely em
ployed in the fabrication of hats. The American bad
ger is a pretty little animal, and its aspect is not unlike
that of some small pug-faced dogs. It is found most
frequently on the plains adjacent to the Missouri and
its tributaries, as well as on those near the Columbia
river, both in the open country and in the woods.
The wolverene, or American glutton, is one of the
most, destructive animals found in the northern parts
of the continent. He is slow in his motions, but
strong, and full of stratagem. He causes much
trouble to hunters and travellers who attempt to se
cure provisions by burying them in the snoAV, or to
protect them by coverings of boughs and trunks of

trees ; since it is almost impossible to prevent this
creature from gaining access to such places of de
posit, either by strength or by stratagem, and destroy
ing the stock on which the voyager may have counted
for his future subsistence and safety. To the hun
ters the wolverene is also very injurious, by robbing
their traps of the animals which are taken in them,
before the arrival of the owners. Among the small
quadrupeds inhabiting this continent, few are to be
found equalling the ermine in beauty ; perhaps none
that excel it in the qualities of courage, graceful
celerity of movement, and untiring activity. Its
whole aspect inspires the beholder with an idea of
its character, which is well supported by its actions.
It is found in the northern and middle states, and its
habits are similar to those of the common weasel of
Europe. The shrews belonging to this country are remark
able for their diminutive size and apparent helpless
ness. They are generally found in the country,
where their residence is either in burrows, or among
heaps of stones, or in holes made by other animals ;
near dung-heaps, or hay-ricks, or privies, they are
more numerous than elsewhere. Insects are their
principal subsistence, out they seem no less fond of
grain, putrid flesh, and filth of various sorts ; as they
have been occasionally seen rioting in ordure, in a
manner similar to the hog. The shrew-mole is
found abundantly in North America, from Canada to
Virginia, often living at no great distance from wa
ter-courses, or in dykes thrown up to protect mea
dows from inundation. This creature, when at rest,
bears more resemblance to a small stuffed sack than
to a living animal, its head being entirely destitute
of external ears, and elongated nearly to a point, and
its eyes so extremely small, and completely hidden
by the fur, that it would not be surprising should a
casual observer conclude this creature to be blind.
It is endowed, however, with considerable powers of
action, and doubtless of enjoyment ; though we can
not enter here into the details of its extensive and
curious subterraneous operations.
The usual haunts of the opossum are thick forests,
and their dens are generally in the hollows of decayed
trees, where they pass the day asleep, and sally forth
mostly after nightfall to seek for food. The hunting
of the opossum is a favourite sport with the country
people, who frequently go out with their dogs at
night, after the autumnal frosts have begun, and the
persimmon fruit is in its most delicious state. The
opossum, as soon as he discovers the approach of his
enemies, lies perfectly close to the branch, or places
himself snugly in the angle where two limbs sepa-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

105

rate from each other ; the dogs, however, soon an
nounce the fact of his presence, by their baying, and
the hunter, ascending the tree, discovers the branch
upon which the animal is seated, and begins to shake
it with great violence, to alarm and cause him to re
lax his hold. This is soon effected ; and the opos
sum, attempting to escape to. another limb, is pursu
ed immediately, and the shaking is renewed with
greater violence, until at length the terrified quadru
ped allows himself to drop to the ground, Avhere hun
ters or dogs are prepared to dispatchTiim. Should the
hunter, as frequently happens, be unaccompanied by
dogs, when the opossum falls to the ground, it does
not immediately make its escape, but steals slowly
and quietly to a little distance, and then, gathering
itself into as small a compass as possible, remains as
still as if dead. After remaining in this apparently
lifeless condition for a considerable time, or so long
as any noise indicative of danger can be heard, the
creature slowly unfolds himself, and, creeping as
closely as possible upon the ground, would fain sneak
off unperceived ; but upon a shout or outcry in any
tone from his persecutor, he immediately renews his
deathlike attitude and stillness. If then approached,
moved, or handled, he is still seemingly dead, and
might deceive any one not accustomed to his actions.
This artifice is repeated as frequently as opportunity
is allowed him of attempting to escape, and is known
so well to the country people as to have long since
passed into a proverb. " He is playing the opossum,"
is a phrase applied with great readiness by them to
any one who is thought to act deceitfully, or wish
to appear what he is not.
The beaver has, at a former period, inhabited the
territory of the United States much more extensively
than at present. In various parts of the western
country, where they are at present entirely unknown,
except by tradition, the dams constructed by their la
bours are still standing securely, and in many in
stances serve instead of bridges to the streams they
obstruct. There are few states in the union in
which some remembrance of this animal is not pre
served by such names as Beaver-Dam, Beaver-Lake,
Beaver-Falls, &c. In situations where it is frequent
ly disturbed, all its singular habits are relinquished,
and its mode of living changed to suit the nature of
circumstances ; instead of building dams and houses,
its only residence is then in the banks of the stream,
where it is forced to make an extensive excavation,
and to be content to adopt the manners of a musk-
rat. More sagacity is displayed by the beaver in
thus accommodating itself to circumstances, than in
any other action it performs. Such is the caution

which it exercises to guard against detection, that
were it not for the removal of small trees, the stumps
of which indicate the sort of animal by which they
have been cut down, the presence ofthe beaver would
not be suspected in the vicinity. All excursions for the
sake of procuring food are made late at night ; and if
it pass from one hole to another during the daytime,
it swims so far under water as not to excite the least
suspicion of the presence of such a voyager. On
many parts ofthe Mississippi and the Missouri, where
the beaver formerly built houses according to the
usual mode, no such works are at present to be found,
although beavers are still to be trapped in those lo
calities. These circumstances throw light on the
character of the European beaver, which has been
thought to belong to another species, because it does
not build. The value of the fur of these animals is
well known. The capture, or trapping of them, is a
large part of the business both of the Indians and the
whites. It is a subject of regret that an animal so
valuable and so prolific should be hunted in a man
ner tending to the extermination of the species, when
a little care and management on the part of those in
terested might prevent unnecessary destruction, and
preserve the sources of their revenue. , In the Hud
son's Bay possessions they are becoming annually
more scarce, and the race will eventually be extin
guished throughout the whole continent ; though .a
few individuals may, for a time, elude the immediate
violence of persecution.
The musk-rat, which is closely allied in form and
habits to the beaver, does not, like that timid animal,
retire from the vicinities inhabited by man ; but, re
lying on its peculiar instinct for concealment, remains
secure, notwithstanding the changes induced by cul
tivation, and multiplies its species in the very midst
of its enemies. Thus, while the beaver has long
since entirely disappeared, and become forgotten, in
the Atlantic states, the musk-rat is found within a
very short distance of the largest and oldest cities,
and bids fair to maintain its place in such situations
during an indefinite future period. The animal owes
this security to its nocturnal and aquatic mode of life,
as well as to the peculiar method in which its domi
cile is constructed. Along small streams, mill-races,
and ponds, where the banks are of some elevation
and strength, the musk-rats form large and extensive
burrows. These have their entrance always in the
deep water, so as to be entered, or left without be
traying the presence of the animal. The mouth of
the burrow ascends from its commencement near the
bottom, and slopes upwards until it is above the level
of the highest water ; it then extends to great dis-

106

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Stances, according to the numbers or necessities of the
occupants. Like most other animals residing in such
burrows, the musk-rats frequently excavate them be
neath the roots of large trees, where they are secure
from being disturbed by having their home broken
into from above. The injuries done by the musk-rat
to the banks thrown up to exclude the tide from
meadows and other grounds, are frequently very ex
tensive. The tide encroaches more and more on the
burrow, as the soil softens and is washed away ; the
animals extend their excavations in various direc
tions, in order to free themselves from the intrusion
of the water ; and, at length, from the combination
of both causes, the bank falls in, and the water is
allowed free access, often laying waste the most valu
able parts of the farm. To understand the extent to
- which such mischief may be carried, it is sufficient to
take a walk along the banks thrown up to protect the
meadows on the Delaware, on both sides of the river.
Similar, though not as extensive injury, is produced
along the borders of ponds, embankments, and small
streams, by the falling in of the burrows formerly
tenanted by the musk-rat.
The meadow-mouse is found in various degrees
of abundance throughout this country, and, as implied
in its name, prefers the meadow and grass fields to
other situations. The banks of drains, and those
thrown up to keep off the tide or the overflow of
streams, are the favourite places for their burrows,
which are both numerous and extensive, being con
tinued in various directions and to considerable
depths. These burrows are frequently causes of in
jury similar to that resulting from those of the musk-
rat. " The wood-rat," says Bartram, " is a very
curious animal : they are not half the size of the
domestic rat, and of a dark brown or black colour ;
their tail slender and shorter in proportion, and co
vered thinly with short hair. They are singular
with respect to their ingenuity and great labour in
the construction of their habitations, which are coni
cal pyramids, about three or four feet high, construct
ed with dry branches, which they collect with great
labour and perseverance, and pile up without any
apparent order ; yet they are so interwoven with one
another, that it would take a bear or wild cat some
time to pull one of these castles to pieces, and allow
the animals sufficient time to secure a retreat with
their young." The wood-rat has, beyond doubt, been
as common throughout this country at a former pe
riod, as it is at present in Florida and on the Mis
souri. R has very universally given place to the
black-rat, and both have disappeared before the Nor
way rat. The wood-rat soon learns to infest the

houses of the settlers, and to do nearly, if not quite,
as much mischief, as the common rat. In Florida,
Georgia, and the plains adjacent to the Missouri, the
pouched-rat is to be found in great numbers ; their
burrows are exceedingly numerous-in various places,
and give an appearance to the plains similar to that
produced by ploughing. Over their burrows hillocks
of loose earth are raised, resembling in some respects
those thrown up by the shrew-mole. The jumping-
mouse is a little animal very remarkable for the great
length of its hind legs, and for its mode of progres
sion, in both of which it bears some resemblance to
the kangaroo of Australia, and the jerboa of the old
continent. When the jumping-mouse is pursued by
one or two persons, and permitted to advance in one
direction, its movements resemble those of a bird
rather than a quadruped, so high does it leap into
the air, so great is the distance it measures at every
bound, and so light and quick is its ascent and de
scent. The jumping-mouse, however, does not ex
clusively move in this manner, but is capable of
running on all its feet with considerable speed ; hence
it frequently excites the wonder of the country people,
or gives them much labour in vain, when they attempt
to run it down.
The marmot is a common animal in all the tem
perate parts of the country, and is the cause of great
injury, especially to the farmers engaged in the cul
tivation of clover, as their numbers become very con
siderable, and the quantity of herbage they consume
is very large. They are the more capable of doing
mischief, from their extreme vigilance and their acute
sense of hearing, as well as from the security afforded
them by their extensive subterranean dwellings.
One species of this animal, under the name of the
prairie marmot, or prairie dog, abounds near the Chip
pewayan Mountains. A traveller passing from the
Mississippi towards the mountains, after traversing a
vast expanse enlivened by numerous herds of browsing
animals which here find a luxurious subsistence, and
arriving at the higher and more barren parts of the
tract, is startled by a sudden shrill whistle, which he
may apprehend to be the signal of some lurking sa
vage ; but, on advancing into a clearer space, the
innocent cause of alarm is found to be a little quad
ruped, whose dwelling is indicated by a small mound
of earth, near which the animal sits erect in an atti
tude of profound attention. Similar mounds are now
seen to be scattered at intervals over many acres of
ground ; and the whole forms one village or commu
nity, containing thousands of inhabitants, whose va
rious actions and gambols awaken very pleasing
emotions. In some instances these villages are very

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

107

limited, or at most occupy but a few acres ; but
nearer to the Rocky Mountains, where they are en
tirely undisturbed, they are found to extend even for
miles. We may form some idea of the number of
these animals, when we learn that each burrow con
tains several occupants, and that frequently as many
as seven or eight are seen reposing upon one mound.
Here, in pleasant weather, they delight to sport, and
enjoy the warmth of the sun. On the approach of
danger, while it is yet too distant to be feared, they
bark defiance, and flourish their little tails with great
intrepidity ; but, as soon as it appears to be drawing
nigh, the whole troop precipitately retire into their
cells, wfiere they securely remain until the peril be
past ; one by one they then peep forth, and vigilantly
scrutinize every sound and object, before they resume
their wonted actions. While thus near to their re
treats, they almost uniformly escape the hunter ; and,
if killed, they mostly fall into their burrows, which
are too deep to allow their bodies to be' obtained.
The villages found nearest the mountains have an
appearance of greater antiquity than those observed
elsewhere ; some of the mounds in such situations
are several yards in diameter, though of slight ele
vation, and, except about the entrance, are overgrown
by a scanty herbage, which is characteristic of the
vicinity of these villages. This active and industri
ous community of quadrupeds, like every other so
ciety, is infested by various depredators, who subsist
by plunder, or are too ignorant or too indolent to
labour for themselves ; and hence a strange associa
tion is frequently observed in their villages ; for bur-
rowing-owls, rattlesnakes, lizards, and land-tortoises,
are seen to take refuge in their habitations. The
young of the marmot probably become the prey of
the owl. The rattlesnakes also exact their tribute
with great certainty, and without exciting alarm, as
they can penetrate the inmost recesses of the burrow,
and a slight wound inflicted by their fangs is followed
by the immediate extinction of life.
The species of the squirrel inhabiting the United
States are numerous and beautifnl. Like most of
the animals belonging to this order, they are very
prolific, and multiply until large districts of country
are injuriously overrun by them ; they then invade,
and literally lay waste the corn-fields, consuming vast
quantities of grain, and destroy nearly as much as
they eat, by breaking it down and scattering it on the
ground. . On such occasions, the farmers in thinly-,
settled districts severely suffer. The efforts of a
whole family are sometimes insufficient to drive off
or destroy these busy plunderers. In the state of
Ohio, in the autumn of 1822, says Dr. Godman, parts

of the country appeared to swarm with squirrels,
which were so numerous that, in travelling along the
high road, they might be seen scampering in every
direction ; the woods and fields might be truly said,
in the country phrase, to be " alive with them." A
farmer, who had a large field of Indian corn near the
road, stated, that, notwithstanding the continued ex
ertions of himself and his two sons, he feared he
should lose the greater part of his crop, in addition
to his time, and the expense of ammunition used in
killing and scaring off the little robbers. This man
and his sons frequently took stations in different parts
of the field, and killed squirrels until their guns be
came too dirty to be used with safety ; yet they al
ways found, on returning, that the squirrels had
mustered as strong as before. Squirrel-shooters were
frequently met with heavily laden with this game,
which, in many instances, they had only desisted
from slaying through Avant of ammunition, or through
mere fatigue. Fortunately for the farmers, these
animals are not at the same time equally numerous
in all parts of the country. During some seasons,
they appear to move in a mass, deserting certain dis •
tricts entirely, and concentrating themselves in others ;
in such migrations, vast numbers are drowned in
crossing the rivers, and many are also destroyed by
beasts and birds of prey, and various other causes.
The American porcupine exhibits none of the long
and large quills which are so conspicuous and formi
dable in the European species ; and the short spines,
or prickles, which are thickly set over all the supe
rior parts of its body, are covered by a long coarse
hair, which almost entirely conceals them. These
spines are not more than two inches and a half in
length, yet they form a very efficient protection to
the animal against every other enemy but man. In
the remote and unsettled parts of Pennsylvania, the
porcupine is still occasionally found ; but south of
this state, it is almost unknown. In the Hudson's
Bay country, Canada, and NeAV England, as well as
in some parts of the western states, and throughout
the country lying between the Rocky Mountains and
the great Avestern rivers, they are found in great
abundance, and are highly prized by the aborigines,
both for the sake of their flesh and their quills, which
are very extensively and very ingeniously employed
by the Indian women, as ornaments of dress.
The American hare never burrows in the ground,
like the common European rabbit. When confined
in a yard, the animal has been known to attempt an
escape by scratching a hole in the earth, near the
fence or Wall ; but there are few wild animals, what
ever may be their character, that Avill not do the

108

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

same under similar circumstances, though in their
natural condition they may never attempt to burrow.
Such is the fact in relation to the American hare,
which never burrows Avhile it is a free tenant of the
fields and woods. It has been said, that this animal
also occasionally ascends trees ; this must be under
stood solely of its going up within the trunks of hol
low trees, which it effects by pressing with its back
and feet against opposite sides of the hollow, ascend
ing somewhat in the same manner as a sweep climbs
a chimney. The bare is not hunted in America as
in Europe, but is generally roused by a dog, and
shot, or is caught in various snares and traps. In
its movements it closely resembles the common hare
of Europe, bounding along Avith great celerity ; and
would, no doubt, Avhen pursued, resort to the artifices
of doubling, &c, so well known to be. used by the
European animal.
The sloth is not found in the republic, except in a
fossil state ; and these remains are of three gigantic
but extinct species. Not even fossil traces have oc
curred of the kindred animals. We have already no
ticed the remains of the mastodon, which is allied to
the elephant ; and may here add, that bones of an
extinct species of elephant also have been found.
No living animal of that entire order appears to exist
on the North American continent.
The ruminant animals abound. The species of
deer come first to our notice. The moose was
formerly found throughout the New England states,
but is now confined to that of Maine, and is there
becoming unfrequent. Judging by the rapid dimi
nution of this species within a comparatively few
years, it is to be feared that it will, at no great dis
tance of time, be exterminated. The American elk
is a stately and beautiful animal, which is believed
at some period to have ranged over the greater part,
if not the whole, of the continent. There is much
confusion in the several accounts given by natural
ists of the moose and the elk. Dr. E. H. Smith, of
New York, pronounces them different animals, and
has given a paper on the subject in the Medical Re
pository.* The common deer is the smallest Ameri
can species at present knoAvn, and is found through
out the country between Canada in the north, and
the banks of the Orinoco in South America. It has
always been of great importance to the aborigines of
America, as an abundant source of food and raiment ;
nor ha,s its value been less to the pioneers of civili
zation, in their advances into the untrodden solitudes
of the west. The improvements in agriculture have
• Vol. ii. p, 157—163.

long since rendered this supply of food of compara
tively little value to the white man ; yet vast num
bers of this species are annually destroyed, equally
for the sake of their flesh, hides, and horns. Not-
Avithstanding this extensive consumption, however,
the species does not appear to be very rapidly di
minishing, if we except the immediate vicinity of
very thickly-peopled districts. Even in these, where
the destruction of deer during the breeding-season is
prevented by law, the increase seems quite equal to
the demand ; and such humane and judicious provi
sions Avill probably preserve this beautiful race to
adorn the forests, long after the species is extermina
ted in situations where it is not thus protected.
The prong-horn antelope is a beautiful creature,
ranging over the Chippewayan Mountains. It is of
Avonderful fleetness, and so shy and timorous, as but
seldom to repose, except on ridges which command
a vieAv of the surrounding country. The acuteness
of their sight, and the exquisite delicacy of their
smell, render it exceedingly difficult to approach
them ; and, Avhen once danger is perceived, the ce
lerity with which the ground is passed over appears
to the spectator to resemble the flight of a bird, rather
than the motion of a quadruped. " The chief game
of the Shoshonees," say LeAvis and Clarke, " is the
antelope ; Avhich, Avhen pursued, retreats to the open
plains, where the horses have full room for the chase.
But such is its extraordinary fleetness and wind, that
a single horsr> has no possible chance of outrunning
it, or tiring it down ; and the hunters are, therefore,
obliged to resort to stratagem. About twenty Indi
ans, mounted on fine horse?, armed with bows and
arroAvs, left the camp : in a short time they descried
a herd of ten antelopes ; they immediately separated
into squads of two or three, and formed a scattered
circle round the herd for five or six miles, keeping
at a wary distance, so as not to alarm them till they
were perfectly enclosed, and usually selecting some
commanding eminence as a stand. Having gained
their positions, a small party rode toAvards the herd,
and, with wonderful dexterity, the huntsman pre
served his seat, and the horse his footing, as he ran
at full speed over the hills and doAvn the steep ra
vines, and along the borders of the precipices. They
Avere soon outstripped by the antelopes, which, on
gaining the other extremity of the circle, were driven
back, and pursued by the fresh hunters. They turn
ed, and flew, rather than ran, in another direction ;
but there, too, they found new enemies. In this way
they were alternately pursued, backwards and for
wards, till at length, notwithstanding the skill of the
hunters, (who were merely armed with bows and ar

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

109

rows,) they all escaped ; and the party, after running
for two hours, returned without having caught any
thing, and their horses foaming Avith sweat. This
chase, the greater part of which was seen from the
camp, formed a beautiful scene ; but to the hunters
it is exceedingly laborious, and so unproductive, even
when they are able to worry the animal down and
shoot him, -that forty or fifty hunters will sometimes
be engaged for more than half a day, without obtain
ing more than tAvo or three antelopes." The Chip
pewayan Mountains have afforded also one species of
goat, and" one of sheep, of Avhich it might be well for
more to be known.
Of the ox kind, the bison, or buffalo, is the only,
and a very remarkable species. The buffalo Avas
formerly found throughout the whole territory of the
United States, Avith the exception of that part Avhich
lies east of Hudson's River and Lake Champlain, and
of narroAV strips of coast on the Atlantic Ocean and
the Gulf of Mexico. At present it is scarcely seen
east of the Mississippi. Its great' range is over the
plains between this river and the Chippewayan
Mountains, but it is met Avith also in the territory of
Oregon. To the Indians and the visiters of the west
ern regions, the bison is almost invaluable : they sup
ply a large part of the food used by the natives, and
covering to their tents and persons ; Avhile, in many
parts of the country, there is no fuel to be obtained
but the dried dung of this animal. The herds of
bison Avander over the country in search of food,
usually led by a bull most remarkable for strength
and fierceness. While feeding, they are often scat
tered over a great extent of country ; but when they
move in a mass they form a dense and almost im
penetrable column, Avhich, once in motion, is scarcely
to be impeded. Their line of march is seldom in
terrupted, even by considerable rivers, across Avhich
they swim without fear or hesitation, nearly in the
order in which they traverse the plains. When fly
ing before their pursuers, it Avould be in vain for the
foremost to halt, or to attempt to obstruct the pro
gress of the main body ; as the throng in the rear
still rush onward, the leaders must advance, although
destruction aAvaits the movement. The Indians take
advantage of this circumstance, to destroy great
quantities of this favourite game ; and, certainly, no
mode could be resorted to more effectually destruc
tive, nor could a more terrible devastation be produced,
than by forcing a numerous herd of these large ani
mals to leap together from the brink of a dreadful
precipice, upon a rocky and broken surface a hundred
feet below. When the Indians determine to destroy
bison in this way, one of their swiftest-footed and
Vol. II.— Nos. 45 & 46. 0

most active young men is selected, who is disguised
in a bison skin, having the head, ears, and horns ad
justed on his oAvn head, so as to make the deception
very complete ; and, thus accoutred, he stations him
self between the bison herd and some of the preci
pices which often extend for several miles along the
rivers. The Indians surround the herd as nearly as
possible ; when, at a given signal, they show them
selves, and rush forAvard Avith loud yells. The ani
mals being alarmed, and seeing no Avay open but in
the direction of the disguised Indian, run towards
him, and he, taking to flight, dashes on to the preci
pice, Avhere he suddenly secures himself in some
previously-ascertained crevice. The foremost of the
herd arrives at the brink — there is no possibility of
retreat, no chance of escape : the foremost may, for
an instant, shrink Avith terror ; but the crowd behind,
who are terrified by the approaching hunters, rush
forward with increasing impetuosity, and the aggre
gated force hurls them successively from the cliff,
where certain death awaits them.
We may here introduce, from Dr. Harlan, a state
ment of North American quadrupeds which he con
ceives to. be common both to the new and the old
world.

Species.

Species.

Species.

1 Mole.

2 Wolf.

1 Field-mouse.

2 Shrew.

2 Pox.

1 Campagnol, (rat.)

1 Bear.

2 Seal.

1 Squirrel.

1 Glutton.

2 Weasel.

2 Deer.

1 Otter.

1 Beaver.

1 Sheep.

The whole number of common species is twenty-
one ; leaving eighty-six species as peculiar to North
America, though not all of them to the United States.
Among cetaceous animals, the lamantin, or sea-cow,
is found on the coast of Florida. When full grown,
it is from fifteen to twenty feet in length, by eight in
circumference, and weighs several thousand pounds.
After having satisfied its hunger by feeding on the sea
grass or fucus, which constitutes its principal nourish
ment, it delights to sleep upon the marshy grounds
in the shallows, where it lies with the snout elevated
above the water. It is there easily taken by the har-
pooners. " Shoals of dolphins," says Dr. Godman,
" may be seen almost every day, and at any hour,
feeding or sporting in the bay and rivers near the
city of NeAv York, where we have sometimes enjoyed
an opportunity of observing, from the wharf, a large
shoal of them moving down the Hudson with tbe
tide ; some plunging along, as if in haste, others ap
parently at play, and others very sloAVly rising to the
surface for breath, and as gradually disappearing, al
lowing their dorsal fin to remain for a considerable

110

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

lime above the surface." From the month of May
until tOAvards the end of autumn, the true dolphins
frequent the bays and salt-water rivers of the United
States, in great numbers. They are most numerous
and are best observed during the run of the herring
and shad, upon which they doubtless feast abun
dantly ; they appear gradually to diminish in number
as these fish retire from the rivers and coast, though
a small party may be occasionally seen very late in
the season. The gladiator dolphins, so celebrated
for attacking and destroying the whales, are found
on the New England coasts. As they commonly
swim in small troops, they attack the Avhale in a body,
and tear off great pieces of his flesh, until, becoming
excited to a certain degree, he thrusts out his tongue,
when they immediately fasten on this organ aud de
vour it, and finally gaining access to his mouth, they
destroy the life of the animal. The porpoise, or sea-
swine, is not ascertained to have been seen in the
waters of the republic ; the animal generally called
by this name is the true dolphin. The spermaceti
cachalot is found in the greatest abundance in the
Pacific Ocean, Avhere large numbers of them are an
nually killed by the American and other whalers, for
the sake of their oil and spermaceti.
The Ornithology of the United States exhibits a
rich display of the most splendid colours, from the
green, silky, gold-bespangled down of the minute
humming-bird, scarcely three inches in extent, to the
black coppery wings of the gloomy condor, of sixteen
feet, an occasional visitant of the republic ; a numer
ous and powerful band of songsters, which, for sweet
ness, variety, and melody, are surpassed perhaps by
no country on earth ; an ever-changing scene of mi
gration from torrid to temperate, and from northern to
southern regions, in quest of suitable seasons, food,
and climate ; and an amazing diversity in habit,
economy, form, disposition, and faculties. The study
of this branch of the natural history of their adopted
country seems to have been long neglected by its
new inhabitants, the manners, language, and faces of
the feathered tribes being in general either overlooked
or unknoAvn ; and the substantial enlargement of
science in this department is mainly to be referred
to Alexander Wilson, a Scotchman, whose name
cannot be recorded without attaching to it as high
an encomium as a passionate attachment to natural
science, manifested in a thousand instances, of per
sonal labour and hazardous adventure, can- deserve.
Other writers, among whom we may mention Ord,
Bonaparte, and Audubon, have meritoriously folloAved
in his train ; and from them we shall gather our brief
notices of the principal birds of the United States.

We begin with the birds of prey. Vultures of
several species are common. One called the turkey
buzzard is remarked for a habit of repelling an assail
ant by vomiting matter intolerably offensive. They
eat so immoderately, that frequently they are incapa
ble of rising, and may be caught without much dif
ficulty ; but few that are acquainted with them will
have the temerity to undertake the task. A man in
the state of Delaware, a feAV years since, observing
some turkey buzzards regaling themselves upon the
carcass of a horse, which was in a highly putrid state,
conceived the design of making a captive of one, to
take home for the amusement of his children. He
cautiously approached, and, springing upon the un
suspicious group, grasped a fine plump fellow in his
arms, and was bearing off his prize in triumph, when,
lo ! the indignant vulture disgorged such a torrent
of filth in the face of our hero, tbat it produced all
the effects of the most poAverful emetic, and for ever
cured him of his inclination for turkey buzzards. —
The habits of the black vulture, or carrion crow,
which is not found higher than North Carolina, are
singular. In the towns and villages of the southern
states, the carrion crows may be seen either saunter
ing about the streets, or sunning themselves on the
roofs of the houses, and the fences ; or, if the weather
be cold, cowering round the tops of the chimneys, to
enjoy the benefit of the heat, which to them is a great
pleasure. They are protected either bylaw or by
usage, and may be said to be completely domesticated,
being as common as the domestic poultry, and equal
ly familiar. The inhabitants generally are disgusted
with their filthy, voracious habits ; but, notwith
standing, being viewed as conducive to the removal
of the dead animal matter, Avhich, if permitted to pu-
trify during the hot season, would render the atmo
sphere impure, they have a respect paid them as sca
vengers, whose labours are subservient to the public
good. It sometimes happens, that, after having
gorged themselves, these birds vomit down the chim
neys, which must be intolerably disgusting, and can
scarcely fail to provoke the ill-will of those whose
hospitality is thus requited.
For strength, spirit, and activity, the ring-tailed
eagle ranks among the first of its tribe. A still more
interesting species is the bald eagle, which, as he is
one of the most beautiful of his tribe in this part of
the Avorld, and the adopted emblem of the republic,
is entitled to particular notice. The celebrated cata
ract of Niagara is a noted place of resort for the bald
eagle, as well on account of the fish procured there,
as for the numerous carcasses of squirrels, deer, bears,
and various other animals, which, in their attempts

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Ill

to cross the river above the falls, have been drawn
into the current, and precipitated down that tremen
dous gulf, where, among the rocks that bound the
rapids below, they furnish a rich repast for various
predaceous birds. He is also found generally in the
vicinity of the sea, and along the shores and cliffs of
. the lakes and large rivers. Formed by nature for
braving the severest cold ; feeding equally on the
produce of the sea, and of the land ; possessing pow
ers of flight capable of outstripping even the tempests
themselves ; unawed by any thing but man ; and,
from the ethereal heights to which he soars, looking
abroad, at one glance, on an immeasurable expanse
of forests, fields, lakes, and ocean, deep beloAV him,
he appears indifferent to the little localities affected
by change of seasons ; as, in a feAV minutes, he can
pass from summer to Avinter, from the lower to the
higher regions of the atmosphere, the abode of eternal
cold ; and from thence descend, at will, to the torrid or
the arctic regions of the earth. He is, therefore, found
at all seasons, in the countries he inhabits ; but he
prefers such places as have been mentioned above,
from the great partiality he has for fish. In procu
ring these, he displays in a very singular manner the
genius and energy of his character, which is fierce,
contemplative, daring, and tyrannical ; attributes not
exerted but on particular occasions, but, when put
forth, overpowering all opposition. Elevated on the
high dead limb of some gigantic tree that commands
a wide view of the neighbouring shore and ocean, he
seems calmly to contemplate the motions of the va
rious feathered tribes that pursue their busy avoca
tions below : the snow-Avhite gulls slowly winnowing
the air ; the busy tringse coursing along the sands ;
trains of ducks streaming over the surface ; silent
and Avatchful cranes, intent and wading ; clamorous
crows ; and all the winged multitudes that subsist
by the bounty of this vast liquid magazine of nature.
High over all these appears one, whose action in
stantly arrests his whole attention. By his Avide
curvature of wing, and sudden suspension in air, he
knows him to be the fish-hawk, settling over some
devoted victim of the deep. His eye kindles at the
sight, and, balancing himself, with half-opened wings,
on the branch, he watches the result. Down, rapid
as an arrow, descends the distant object of his atten
tion, the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it dis
appears in the deep, making the surges foam around.
At this moment, the eager looks of the eagle are all
ardour ; and, levelling his neck for flight, he sees the
fish-hawk once more emerge, struggling with his
prey, and mounting in the air with screams of exul
tation. These are the signal for our hero, who,

launching into the air, instantly gives chase, and
soon gains on the fish-hawk ; each exerts his utmost
strength to mount above the other, displaying in these
rencontres the most elegant and sublime aerial evo
lutions. The unencumbered eagle rapidly advances,
and is just on the point of reaching his opponent,
when, with a sudden. scream, probably of despair and
honest execration, the latter drops his fish ; the eagle,
poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more
certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in
his grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears his ill-
gotten booty silently aAvay to the woods. These
predatory attacks and defensive manoeuvres of the
eagle and the fish-hawk are matters of daily observa
tion along the whole of the seaboard, from Georgia to
NeAV England, and frequently excite great interest in
the spectators. Sympathy, however, on this as on
most other occasions, generally sides with the honest
and laborious sufferer, in opposition to the attacks of
power, injustice, and rapacity, qualities for which our
hero is so generally notorious, and Avhich, in his su
perior, man, are certainly detestable. As for the
feelings of the poor fish, they seem, altogether out of
the question. When driven, as the eagle sometimes
is, by the combined courage and perseverance of the
fish-hawks from their neighbourhood, and forced to
hunt for himself, he retires more inland, in search of
young pigs, of which he destroys great numbers. In
the lower parts of Virginia and North Carolina, where
the inhabitants raise vast herds of those animals, com
plaints of this kind are very general against him.
He also destroys young lambs, in the early part of
spring ; and will sometimes attack old sickly sheep,
aiming furiously at their eyes. This eagle is said
to live to the great age, of sixty, eighty or even a
hundred years. A still finer bird, the sea-eagle,
Avhich dives for its own prey, has also been discover
ed in the United States, though it is not common.
An account of it is given by Audubon, who has call
ed it the bird of Washington.*
The fish-haAvk is migratory, arriving on the coasts
of New York and New Jersey about the twenty-first
of March, and retiring to the south about the twenty-
second of September. This formidable, vigorous-
winged, and Avell-knoAvn bird, subsists altogether on
the finny tribes that swarm in the bays, creeks, and
rivers ; procuring his prey by his oavii active skill
and industry, and seeming no further dependent on
the land than as a mere resting place, or, in the usual
season, a spot of deposit for his nest, eggs, and
young. On the arrival of these birds in the nor th-

* Ornithological Biography.

112

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

era parts ofthe United States, in March, they some
times find the bays and ponds frozen; and experience
a difficulty in procuring fish for many days ; yet
there is no instance on record of their attacking birds,
or inferior land animals, with intent to feed on them ;
though their great strength of flight, as well as of
feet and claws, would seem to render this no . dif
ficult matter: but they no sooner arrive, than they
wage Avar on the bald eagles, as against a horde of
robbers and banditti ; sometimes succeeding, by force
of numbers and perseverance, in driving them from
their haunts, but seldom or never attacking them in
single combat. The flight of the fish-hawk, his ma
noeuvres while in search of fish, and his manner of sei
zing his prey, are deserving of particular notice, in
leaving the nest, he usually flies direct until he
comes to the sea ; he then sails round in easy cur
ving lines, turning sometimes in the air as on a pivot,
apparently without the least exertion, rarely moving
the wings, his legs extended in a straight line behind,
and his remarkable length, and curvature or bend of
wing, distinguishing him from all other haAvks.
The height at which he thus elegantly glides is va
rious, from one hundred to one hundred and fifty
and two hundred feet, sometimes much higher, all the
while calmly reconnoitring the face of the deep beloAV.
Suddenly he is seen to check his course, as if struck
by a particular object, which he seems to survey for
a few moments Avith such steadiness that he appears
fixed in air, flapping his wings. This object, how
ever, he abandons, or rather the fish he had in his
eye has disappeared, and he is seen sailing round as
before. Now his attention is again arrested, and he
descends with great rapidity ; but ere he reaches the
surface, shoots off on another course, as if ashamed
that a second victim had escaped him. He now
flies at a short height above the surface, and by a zig
zag descent, and without seeming to dip his feet in
the water, seizes a fish, Avhich, after carrying a short
distance, he perhaps drops, or yields up to the bald
eagle, and again ascends, by easy spiral circles, to the
higher regions of the air, where he glides about in
all the ease and majesty of his species. At once,
from this aerial height, he descends like a perpendi
cular torrent, plunging into the sea Avith a loud rush
ing sound, and witb the certainty of a rifle. In a few
moments he emerges, bearing in his claws his strug-
ling prey, which he always carries head foremost, and,
having risen a few feet above the surface, shakes
himself as a water-spaniel would do, and directs his
heavy and laborious course directly for the land j
and if the Avind blow hard, and his nest lie in the
quarter from whence it comes, it is amusing to ob

serve with what judgment and exertion he beats to
windward, not in a direct line, that is, in the wind's
eye, but making several successive tacks to gain his
purpose. His flight will appear the more striking,
when we consider the size of the fish which he some
times bears along. A shad was taken from a fish-hawk
near Great Egg Harbour, on which he had begun to
regale himself, and had already eaten a considefable
portion of it ; the remainder weighed six pounds.
Another fish-haAvk Avas passing Mr. Beasley's, at
the same place, with a large flounder in his grasp,
which struggled and shook him so, that he dropped
it on the shore ; the flounder Avas picked up, and
served the Avhole family for dinner. It is singular
that the hawk never descends to pick up a fish which
he happens to drop, either on the land or on the wa
ter. In his fishing pursuits, he sometimes mistakes
his mark, or overrates his strength, by striking fish
too large and powerful for him to manage : in this case
he is dragged under the water, and though he some
times succeeds in extricating himself, after being taken
three or four times doAvn, yet oftener both parties
perish. The bodies of sturgeon, and of several other
large fish, with a fish-haAvk fast grappled in them,
have at different times been found dead on the shore,
cast up by the waves.
The peregrine falcon, or, according to Wilson, the
great-footed hawk, is in the United States the terror
of the waterfowl. When they perceive the approach
of their enemy, a universal alarm pervades their
ranks ; even man himself, with his engine of de
struction, is not more terrible, but the effect is dif
ferent. When the latter is beheld, the Avhole atmo
sphere is enlivened with the whistling of wings ;
when the former is recognised, not a duck is to be
seen in the air ; they all speed to the water, and
there remain till the haAvk has passed them, diving
the moment he comes near them. The ducks which
are struck down by this bird have their backs lace
rated from the rump to the neck ; a proof that, he
strikes Avith his talons, and not, as vulgarly sup
posed, with his breast. The Mississippi kite is one
of the numerous species peculiar to the western con
tinent, feeding chiefly on insects", Avith an occasional
repast on lizards, snakes, and small birds. Wilson
gives the folloAving account of one shot by himself:
" This hawk, Avhich proved to be a male, though
wounded, and precipitated from a vast height, ex
hibited in his distress symptoms of great strength,
and an almost unconquerable spirit. I no sooner
approached to pick him up, than he instantly gave
battle, striking rapidly with his claws, wheeling
round and round as he lay partly on his rump, and

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

113

defending himself with great vigilance and dexterity,
while his dark red eye sparkled with rage. Not
withstanding all my caution in seizing him to carry
him home, he struck his hind claw into my hand with
such force as to penetrate to the bone. Anxious to
preserve his life, I endeavoured gently to disengage
it ; but this made him only contract it the more pow
erfully, causing such pain that I had no other alter
native but that of cutting the sinew of his heel with
my penknife. The whole time he lived with me,
he seemed to watch every movement I made, erecting
the feathers behind his head, and eyeing me with
savage fierceness, and considering me, no doubt, as
the greater savage of the two."*
The republic is visited by the snow oavI, the great
winged hunter, which inhabits the coldest and most
dreary regions of the northern hemisphere on both
continents. The great horned oavI is found in al
most every quarter of the United States. His fa
vourite residence, however, is in the dark solitudes
of deep swamps, covered with a growth of gigantic
timber ; and here, as soon as evening draws on, and
mankind retire to rest, he sends forth such sounds as
seem scarcely to belong to this world, startling the
solitary pilgrim as he slumbers by his forest fire, and
" Making night hideous."
"Along the mountainous shores of the Ohio, and
amidst the deep forests of Indiana, alone, and repo
sing in the woods, this ghostly watchman has fre
quently warned me," says Wilson, " of the approach
of morning, and amused me with his singular excla
mations, sometimes sweeping doAvn and around my
fire, uttering a loud and sudden Waugh O ! Waugh
O ! sufficient to have alarmed a whole garrison.
He has other nocturnal solos no less melodious, one
of which very strikingly resembles the half-suppressed
screams of a person suffocating, or throttled, and can
not fail of being exceedingly entertaining to a lonely
benighted traveller, in the midst of an Indian Avilder-
ness. It preys on young rabbits, squirrels, rats, mice,
partridges, and small birds of various kinds. It has
been often known to proAvl about the farm-house, and
carry off chickens from roost. A very large one,
having been wing-broken while on a foraging excur
sion of this kind, was kept about the house for seve
ral days, and at length disappeared, no one knew
how ; almost every day after this hens and chickens
also disappeared, one by one, in an unaccountable
manner, till, in eight or ten days, very feAv were
left remaining. The fox, the minx, and the Aveasel,
were alternately the reputed authors of this mischief,
* Wilson's American Ornithology.

until one morning the old lady rising before day to
bake, in passing towards the oven surprised her late
prisoner, the owl, regaling himself on the body of a
newly-killed hen. The thief instantly made for his
hole under the house, from whence the enraged
matron soon dislodged him with the brush-handle,
and without mercy dispatched him. In this snug
retreat were found the greater part of the feathers,
and many large fragments of her Avhole family of
chickens." The barn owl, though so common in
Europe, is rare in the United States, and is only
found there during very severe winters ; this may
possibly be owing to the Avant of those favourite re
cesses in this part of the Avorld, which it so much af
fects in the eastern continent.
The most singular bird of this species, and one
whose habits are strikingly at variance Avith the ge
neral characteristics of the family, is the burroAving
owl. He is found in the trans-mississippian territo
ries of the United States, residing exclusively in the
villages of the marmot, or prairie dog, whose exca
vations are so commodious as to render it unnecessa
ry that our bird should dig for himself, as he is said
to do in other parts of the world, where no burroAv-
ing animals exist. In all these prairie dog villages
the burrowing owl is seen moving briskly about, or
else in small flocks scattered among the mounds ;
and, at a distance, it may be mistaken for the mar
mot itself when sitting erect. They manifest but
little timidity, and allow themselves to be approach
ed sufficiently close for shooting ; but, if alarmed,
some or all of them soar away, and settle down again
at a short distance ; if further disturbed, their flight
is continued until they are no longer in view, or
they descend into their dwellings, Avhence they are
difficult to dislodge. Mr. Say uniformly noticed the
ruinous condition of the burroAvs tenanted by the
oavI, which had frequently fallen in, and their sides
channelled by the rains ; while the neat and Avell-
preserved mansion actually occupied by the marmot
showed the active care of a skilful and industrious
OAvner. We have no evidence that the oavI and
marmot habitually resort to one burroAV ; yet Ave are
assured, by Pike and others, that a common danger
often drives them into the same excavation, where
lizards and rattlesnakes also enter for concealment
and safety.
Of 168 kinds of parrots enumerated by European
writers as inhabiting the various regions of the globe,
the Carolina parrot is the only species found native
within the territory of the United States. This bird
inhabits the interior of Louisiana, and the shores of
the Mississippi and Ohio, and their tributary waters,

114

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

even beyond the Illinois river, to the neighbourhood
of Lake Michigan in lat. 42 degrees north ; and, con
trary to the generally received opinion, is chiefly
resident in all these places. Eastward of the Apala
chian, it is seldom seen further north than the state
of Maryland, though straggling parties have been oc
casionally observed among the valleys of the Juniata,
and, according to some, even twenty-five miles to the
north-west of Albany, in the state of New York. " At
Big-bone Lick," says Wilson, " thirty miles from the
mouth of Kentucky river, I saAv them in great num
bers. They came screaming through the woods in
the morning, about an hour after sunrise, to drink
the salt water, of Avhich they, as well as the pigeons,
are remarkably fond. When they alighted on the
ground, it appeared at a distance as if covered Avith
a carpet of the richest green, orange, and yellow ;
they aftenvards settled in one body on a neighbouring
tree, which stood detached from any other, covering
almost every twig of it ; and the sun, shining strong
ly on their gay and glossy plumage, produced a very
beautiful and splendid appearance. Here I had an
opportunity of observing some very particular traits
of their character. Having shot doAvn a number,
some of which were only wounded, the whole flock
swept repeatedly around their prostrate companions,
and again settled on a Ioav tree, within twenty yards
of the spot where I stood. At each successive dis
charge, though showers of them fell, yet the affection
of the survivors seemed rather to increase ; for, after
a few circuits round the place, they again alighted
near me, looking down on their slaughtered compa
nions with such manifest symptoms of sympathy and
concern as entirely disarmed me." We are tempted
to give a further extract, though somewhat long, from
Wilson's account, not merely for the sake of exhibit
ing the habits of the bird, but because it shoAvs some
thing ofthe manner in Avhich -this enthusiastic natu
ralist prosecuted his inquiries. " Anxious to try the
effects of education on one of those which I procured
at Big-bone Lick, and Avhich was but slightly wound
ed in the wing, I fixed up a place for it in the stern
of my boat, and presented it with some cockle burrs,
which it freely fed on in less than an hour after
being on board. The intermediate time betAveen
eating and sleeping Avas occupied ur gnawing the
sticks that formed its place of confinement, in order
to make a practicable breach, Avhich it repeatedly ef
fected. When I abandoned the river and travelled
by land, I wrapped it up closely in a silk handker
chief, tying it tightly round, and carried it in my
pocket. When I stopped for refreshment I unbound
my prisoner, and gave it its allowance, Avhich it ge

nerally dispatched with great dexterity, unhusking
the seeds from the burr in a twinkling; in doing
which it always employed its left foot to hold the
burr, as did several others that I kept for some time.
I began to think that this might be peculiar to the
whole tribe, and that they all were, if I may use, the
expression, left-footed ; but by shooting a number
afterwards while engaged in eating mulberries, I
found sometimes the left, sometimes the right foot
stained with the fruit, the other always clean : from
which, and the constant practice of those I kept, it
appears, that, like the human species in the use of
their hands, they do not prefer one or the other in
discriminately, but are either left or right-footed. But
to return to my prisoner ; in recommitting it to ' du
rance vile' Ave generally had a quarrel, during Avhich
it frequently paid me in kind for the wound I had
inflicted and for depriving it of liberty, by cutting
and almost disabling several of my fingers with its
sharp and powerful bill. The path through the
Avilderness between Nashville and Natchez is in some
places bad beyond description. There are dangerous
creeks to swim, miles of morass to struggle through,
rendered almost as gloomy as night by a prodigious
growth of timber, and an underwood of canes and
other evergreens ; Avhile the descent into these slug
gish streams is often ten or fifteen feet perpendicular,
into a bed of deep clay. In some of the worst of
these places, where I had, as it Avere, to fight my
way through, the paroquet frequently escaped from
my pocket, obliging me to dismount and pursue it,
through the worst of the morass, before I could re
gain it. On these occasions I AVas several times
tempted to abandon it ; but I persisted in bringing it
along. When at night I encamped in the woods, I
placed it on the baggage beside me, where it usually
sat; with great composure, dozing and gazing at the
fire till morning. In this manner I carried it up
wards of a thousand miles in my pocket, where it
was exposed all day to the jolting of the horse, but
regularly liberated at meal times and in the evening,
at which it always expressed great satisfaction. In
passing through the Chickasaw and Choctaw nations,
the Indians, wherever I stopped to feed, collected
around me, men, women, and children, laughing, and
seeming wonderfully amused with the novelty of my
companion. The Chickasaws called it in their lan
guage kelinky ; but when they heard me call it Poll,
they soon repeated the name ; and wherever I
chanced to stop among these people, we soon became
familiar with each other through the medium of Poll.
On arriving at Mr. Dunbar's, below Natchez, I pro
cured a cage, and placed it under the piazza ; where,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

115

by its call, it soon attracted the passing flocks, such
is the attachment they have for each other. Nume
rous parties frequently alighted on the trees immedi
ately above, keeping up a constant conversation with
the prisoner. One of these I wounded slightly in
the wing, and the pleasure Poll expressed on meeting
with this new companion was really amusing. She
crept close up to it as it hung on the side of the cage,
chattering to it in a low tone of voice, as if sympa
thizing in its misfortune, scratched about its head and
neck with her bill ; and both, at night, nestled as
close as possible to each other, sometimes Poll's head
being thrust among the plumage of the other. On
the death of this companion, she appeared restless
and inconsolable for several days. On reaching New
Orleans, I placed a looking-glass beside the place
where she usually sat, and the instant she perceived
her image, all her former fondness seemed to return,
so that she could scarcely absent herself from it a
moment. It was evident that she was completely
deceived. Always, when evening drew on, and often
during the day, she laid her head close to that of the
image in the glass, and began to doze with great
composure and satisfaction. In this short space she
had learnt to know her name, to ansAver and come
when called on, to climb up my clothes, to sit on
my shoulder, and to eat from my mouth. I took
her with me to sea, determined to persevere in her
education ; but, destined to another fate, poor
Poll, having one morning, about daybreak, wrought
her way through the cage while I was asleep, in
stantly flew overboard, and perished in. the Gulf of
Mexico." A stranger who visits the United States for the
purpose of examining their natural productions, and
passes through the woods in the month of May or
June, will sometimes hear, as he traverses the bor
ders of deep, retired, high-timbered hollows, an un
couth guttural sound, or note, resembling the sylla
bles kowe, kowe, kowe, kowe, kowe, beginning sloAvly,
but ending so rapidly, that the notes seem to run in
to each other, and vice versa : he will hear this fre
quently, without being able to discover the bird or
animal from which it proceeds, as it is both shy and
solitary, seeking always the thickest foliage for
concealment. This is the yellow-billed cuckoo.
From the imitative sound of its note, it is knoAvn in
many parts by the name of the cow-bird ; it is also
called in Virginia, the rain-crow, being observed to
be most clamorous immediately before rain. Unlike
the European cuckoo, the bird now before us builds
its own nest, hatches its own eggs, and rears its own
young; and, in conjugal and parental affection,

seems nowise behind any of its neighbours of the
grove. The woodpeckers constitute a large and interest
ing class of American birds.. The ivory-billed wood
pecker is a majestic and formidable species, Avhich,
in strength and magnitude, stands at the head of the
whole class of woodpeckers hitherto discovered.
He may be called the king or chief of his tribe ; and
nature seems to have designed him a distinguished
characteristic in the superb carmine crest, and bill
of polished ivory, with which she has ornamented
him. His eye is brilliant and daring ; and his whole
frame admirably adapted for his mode of life, and
method of procuring subsistence. His manners have
also a dignity in them superior, to the common herd
of woodpeckers, to Avhom trees, shrubberies, orchards,
rails, fence-posts, and old prostrate logs, are alike in
teresting in their humble and indefatigable search
for prey ; but the royal hunter now before us scorns
the humility of such situations, and seeks the most
toAvering trees of the forest, seeming particularly at
tached to those prodigious cypress swamps, whose
crowded giant sons stretch their bare and blasted or
moss-hung arms midway to the skies. In these almost
inaccessible recesses, amid ruinous piles of impending
timber, his trumpet-like note and loud strokes re
sound through the solitary savage wilds, of which
he seems the sole lord and inhabitant. Wherever
he frequents, he leaves numerous monuments of his
industry behind him. We there see enormous pine-
trees Avith cart-loads of bark lying around their roots,
and chips of the trunk itself in such quantities as to
suggest the idea that half a dozen axe-men had been
at work there for the whole morning. The body
of the tree is also disfigured with such numerous
and large excavations, that one can hardly conceive
it possible for the Avhole to be the work of a Avood-
pecker. With such strength, and an apparatus so
poAverful, what havoc might he not commit, if nu
merous, on the most useful of the forest trees ; and
yet, with all these appearances, and much of vulgar
prejudice against him, it may fairly be questioned
whether he is at all injurious, or rather, Avhether his
exertions do not contribute most powerfully to the
protection of the timber. Examine closely the tree
where he has been at work, and you will soon per
ceive, that it is neither from motives of mischief nor
amusement that he slices off the bark, or digs his
way into the trunk. For the sound and healthy tree
is the last object of his attention. The diseased,
infected Avith insects, and hastening to putrefaction,
are his favourites ; there the deadly craAvling enemy
have formed a lodgement between the bark and tender

116

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

wood, to drink up the very vital element of the tree.
It is the ravages of these vermin which the intelli
gent proprietor of the forest deplores, as the sole
perpetrators of the destruction of his timber. Would
it be believed that the larvae of an insect, or fly, no
larger than a grain of rice, should silently, and in
one season, destroy some thousand acres of pine trees,
many of them from two to three feet in diameter,
and a hundred and fifty feet high ? Yet whoever
passes along the high road from Georgetown to
Charleston, in South Carolina, about tAventy miles
from the former place, can have striking and melan
choly proofs of this fact ; and in some places the
whole woods, as far as you can see around you, are
dead, stripped of the bark, their Avintry-looking arms
and bare trunks bleaching in the sun, and tumbling
in ruins before every blast, presenting a frightful
picture of desolation. And yet ignorance and preju
dice, it seems, persist in directing their indignation
against the bird noAV before us, the constant and
mortal enemy of these very vermin ; as if the hand
that probed the Avound to extract its cause, should
be equally detested Avith that which inflicted it, or as
if the thief-catcher should be confounded Avith the
thief. " Until some effectual preventive or more
complete mode of destruction can be devised against
these insects and their larvae," says Wilson, " I Avould
humbly suggest the propriety of protecting, and re
ceiving with proper feelings of gratitude, the servi
ces of this and the whole tribe of Avood peckers, let
ting the odium of guilt fall to its proper owners."
The same author furnishes us with the following
account of an ivory-billed woodpecker Avhich he shot :
" Having wounded it slightly in the wing, on being
caught it uttered a loudly reiterated and most piteous
note, exactly resembling the violent crying of a
young child, which terrified my horse so as nearly
to have cost me my life. It was distressing to hear
it. I carried it Avithme in the chair, under cover,
to Wilmington. In passing through the streets its
affecting cries surprised every one Avithin hearing,
particularly the females, Avho hurried to the doors
and windows with looks of alarm and anxiety. I
drove on, and on arriving at the piazza of the hotel
Avhere I intended to put up, the landlord came for
ward, and a number of other persons Avho happened
to be there, all equally alarmed at what they heard ;
and their concern was greatly increased by my asking
whether he could furnish me with accommodations
for myself and my baby. The man looked blank
and foolish, Avhile the others stared with still greater
astonishment. After diverting myself for a minute
or two at their expense, I drew my woodpecker from

under the cover, and a general laugh took place. I
took him up stairs; and locked him up in my room,
Avhile I went to see my horse taken care of. In less
than an hour I returned, and, on opening the door,
he set up the same distressing shout, which now ap
peared to proceed from grief that he had been disco
vered in his attempts at escape. He had mounted
along the side of the window, nearly as high as the
ceiling, a little below which he had begun to break
through. The bed was covered with large pieces of
plaster, the lath was exposed for at least fifteen inches
square, and a hole, large enough to admit the fist,
opened to the weather-boards ; so that in less than
another hour he would certainly have succeeded, in
making his Avay through. I now tied a string round
his leg, and, fastening it to the table, again left him.
I Avished to preserve his life, and had gone off in
search of suitable food for him. As I reascended the
stairs, I heard him again hard at work, and, on en
tering, had the mortification to perceive that he had
almost entirely ruined the mahogany table to which
he Avas fastened, and on which be had Avreaked his
whole vengeance. While engaged in taking a draAV-
ing, he cut me severely in several places, and on the
whole displayed such a noble and unconquerable
spirit, that I Avas frequently tempted to restore him to
his native woods. He lived Avith me nearly three
days, but refused all sustenance, and I witnessed his
death with regret." The ivory-billed woodpecker is
seldom seen above Virginia ; the pileated woodpecker,
next in size, is the northern chief of his tribe.
There is perhaps no bird in North America more
universally knoAvn than the red-headed Avoodpecker.
His tricoloured plumage, red, white, and black,
glossed with steel blue, is so striking and characteris
tic, and his predatory habits in the orchards and corn
fields, added to his numbers and fondness for hover
ing along the fences, so very notorious, that almost
every child is acquainted with him. " In the imme
diate neighbourhood of our large cities," says Wilson,
" where the old timber is chiefly cut down, he is not
so frequently found ; and yet, at this period, June,
1808, I knoAv of several of their nests within the
boundaries of the city of Philadelphia. ToAvards the
mountains, particularly in the vicinity of creeks and
rivers, these birds are extremely abundant, especially
in the latter end of summer. Wherever you travel
in the interior, at that season, you hear them scream
ing from the adjoining woods, rattling on the dead
limbs of trees, or on the fences, where they are per
petually seen flitting from stake to stake, on the road
side before you. Wherever there is a tree of the
wild cherry covered with ripe fruit, there you see

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

117

them busy among the branches ; and in passing or
chards, you may easily know where to find the ear
liest, sweetest apples, by observing those trees, on or
near which the red-headed woodpecker is skulking,
for he is so excellent a connoisseur in fruit, that
wherever an apple or pear tree is found broached by
him, it is sure to be among the ripest and best fla
voured : when alarmed, he seizes a capital one by
striking his open bill deep into it, and bears it off to
the woods." When the Indian corn is in its rich,
succulent, milky state, he attacks it with great eager
ness, opening a passage through the numerous folds
of the husk, and feeding on it with voracity. His
favourite retreats are among the girdled, or deaden
ed timber, so common in corn-fields in the back set
tlements, whence he sallies out to make his depreda
tions. He is fond of the ripe berries of the sour
gum, and pays pretty regular visits to the cherry trees
when loaded with fruit; and towards autumn he
often approaches the barn or farm-house, and raps on
the shingles and Aveather boards. He is of a gay and
frolicsome disposition ; and half a dozen of the fra
ternity are frequently seen diving and vociferating
around the high dead limbs of some large tree, pur
suing and playing with each other, and amusing the
passengers Avith their gambols.
On account of the vicious traits in their charac
ter, a war of extermination has been waged against
these birds, and even the legislatures of some provin
ces, in former times, offered premiums to the amount
of tAvopence per head for their destruction ; yet Wil
son, whose generous and simple-hearted advocacy
for the feathered race forms one of the principal
charms of his book, thus reasonably pleads their
cause : " Though this bird occasionally regales him
self on fruit, yet his natural and most usual food is
insects, particularly those numerous and destructive
species that penetrate the bark and body of the tree
to deposit their eggs and larvae, the latter of which
are well known to make immense havoc. He searches
for them with a dexterity and intelligence, I may
safely say, more than human ; he perceives, by the
exterior appearance of the bark where they lurk be
low ; when he is dubious, he rattles vehemently on
the outside with his bill, and his acute ear distin
guishes the terrified vermin shrinking within to their
inmost retreats, where his pointed and barbed tongue
soon reaches them. The masses of bugs, caterpil
lars, and other larvss, which I have taken from the
stomachs of these birds, have often surprised me.
These larvae, it should be remembered, feed not only
on the buds, leaves, and blossoms, but on the very
vegetable life of the tree, the alburnum, or neAvly-
Vol. IL— Nos. 45 & 46. P

forming bark and Avood ; the consequence is, that
whole branches and whole trees decay under the si
lent ravages of these destructive vermin ; witness the
late destruction of many hundred acres of pine trees,
in the north-eastern parts of South Carolina, and the
thousands of peach trees that yearly decay from the
same cause. Will any one say, that taking half a
dozen or half a hundred apples from a tree is equally
ruinous with cutting it down 7 Or, that the services
of a useful animal should not be rewarded with a
small portion of that which it has contributed to pre
serve 1 We are told, in the benevolent language of
the scriptures, not to muzzle the mouth of the ox that
treadeth out the corn ; and why should not the same
generous liberality be extended to this useful family
of birds, which forms so powerful a phalanx against
the inroads of many millions of destructive vermin V
The kingfisher is a general inhabitant of the
banks and shores of all tbe fresh-water rivers, from
Hudson's Bay to Mexico, and is the only species of
its tribe found within the United States. It is as
universally known as its elegant little brother, the
common kingfisher of Europe, is in Britain. Like
the love-lorn swains of whom poets tell us, he de
lights in murmuring streams, and falling waters ; not,
however, merely that they may sooth his ear, but, for
a gratification somewhat more substantial. Amidst
the roar of the cataract, or over the foam of a torrent,
he sits perched upon an overhanging bough, glancing
his piercing eye in every direction below for his scaly
prey, Avhich, with a sudden circular plunge, he sweeps
from their native element, and swallows in an instant.
His voice, which is not unlike the twirling of a watch
man's rattle, is naturally loud, harsh, and abrupt, but
it is softened by the sound of the brawling streams
and cascades among which he generally rambles.
He courses along the windings of the brook or river at
a small height above the surface, sometimes suspend
ing himself by the rapid action of his wings, like
certain species of hawks, ready to pounce on the fry
below ; now and then settling on an old dead over
hanging limb to reconnoitre. Mill-dams are particu
larly visited by this feathered fisher ; and the sound
of his pipe is as well known to the miller, as the rat
tling of his OAVn hopper. Rapid streams with high
perpendicular banks, particularly if they be of a hard
clayey or sandy nature, are also favourite places of
resort for this bird ; not only because in such places
the small fish are more exposed to view, but because
those steep and dry banks are the chosen situations
for his nest.
Among the most beautiful of the American birds
is the oriole. Almost the whole genus of orioles be

118

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

long to America. With few exceptions, they build
pensile nests ; but few of them equal the Baltimore
in the construction of these receptacles for their
young, and in giving them convenience, Avarmth,
and security. For these purposes he generally fixes
on the high bending extremities of the branches,
fastening strong strings of hemp or flax round two
forked twigs, corresponding to the intended width of
the nest ; with the same materials, mixed with quan
tities of loose tow, he interweaves or fabricates a
strong firm kind of cloth not unlike the substance of
a hat in its raw state, forming it into a pouch of six
or seven inches in depth, lining it substantially with
various soft substances, well interwoven with the
outward netting, and finishing with a layer of horse
hair ; the whole being shaded from the sun and rain
by a natural pent-house, or canopy of leaves. The
Baltimore inhabits North America from Canada to
Mexico, and is even found as far south as Brazil.
Since the streets of the American cities have been
planted with that beautiful and stately tree the Lom
bardy poplar, these birds are constant visiters during
the early part of summer ; and, amidst the noise and
tumult of coaches, drays, wheelbarrows, and the din
of the multitude, they are heard chanting " their na
tive Avood notes Avild," sometimes, too, within a feAV
yards of an oyster-man, who stands belloAving, with
the lungs of a stentor, under the shade of the same
tree ; so much will habit reconcile even birds to the
roar of the city, and to sounds and noises, which, in
other circumstances, would -put a Avhole grove of
them to flight. The orchard oriole, though partly a
dependent on the industry of the farmer, is no sneak
ing pilferer, but an open, and truly beneficent friend.
To all those countless multitudes of destructive bugs
and caterpillars that infest the fruit trees in spring and
summer, preying on the leaves, blossoms, and embryo
of the fruit, he is a deadly enemy; devouring them
wherever he can find them, and destroying, on Nan
average, some hundreds of them every day, Avithout
-offering the slightest injury to the fruit, hoAvever
much it may stand in his way. " I have witnessed
instances," says Wilson, " where the entrance to his
nest was more than half closed up by a cluster of
apples, which he could have easily demolished in half
a minute ; but, as if holding the property of his patron
sacred, or considering it as a natural bulwark to his
own, he slid out and in with the greatest gentleness
and caution." Nor is the gayety of his song one of
his least recommendations. Being an exceedingly
active, sprightly, and restless bird, he is on the ground
— on the trees — flying and carolling in his hurried
manner, in almost one and the same instant. His

notes are shrill and lively, but uttered Avith such ra
pidity and seeming confusion, that the ear is unable
to follow them distinctly ; between these, he has a
single note, which is agreeable and interesting.
Wherever he is protected, he shows his confidence
and gratitude by his numbers and familiarity. The
orioles are birds of passage, spending the summer
only in the northern parts of the United States.
The red-winged starlings, though generally migra
tory in the states north of Maryland, are found during
winter in immense flocks, sometimes associated with
the purple grakles, and often by themselves, through
the lower parts of Virginia, both Carolinas, Georgia,
and Louisiana, particularly near the sea coast, and
in the vicinity of large rice and corn fields. " In the
months of January and February," says the writer
above quoted, "while passing through the former of
these countries, I was frequently entertained with the
aerial evolutions of these great bodies of starlings.
Sometimes they appeared driving about like an enor
mous black cloud carried before the wind, varying
its shape every moment ; sometimes suddenly rising
from the fields around me Avith a noise like thunder ;
while the glittering of innumerable wings of the
brightest vermilion amid the black cloud they form
ed, produced on these occasions a very striking and
splendid effect. Then descending like a torrent, and
covering the branches of some detached grove or
clump of trees, the Avhole congregated multitude com
menced one general concert or chorus, which I have
plainly distinguished at the distance of more than
tAvo miles ; and which, when listened to at the dis
tance of about a quarter of a mile, with a slight
breeze of Avind to swell and soften the flow of its ca
dences, was to me grand, and even sublime." The
Avhole season of Avinter, Avhich, with most birds, is
passed in struggling to sustain life in silent melan
choly, is with the red-wings one continued carnival.
The profuse gleanings of the old rice, corn, and
buckwheat fields, supply them with abundant food,
at once ready and nutritious ; and the intermediate
time is spent either in aerial manoeuvres, or in grand
vocal performances, as if solicitous to supply the ab
sence of all the tuneful summer tribes, and to cheer
the dejected face of nature with their whole combined
powers of harmony.
In summer these birds are very mischievous. Hav
ing migrated to the northward in the spring, before
the beginning of September the flocks have become
numerous and formidable ; and the young ears of
maize, or Indian corn, being then in their soft, suc
culent, milky state, present a temptation that cannot
be resisted. Reinforced by numerous and daily flock*

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

119

from all parts of the interior, they pour down on the
low countries in prodigious multitudes. Here they
are seen, like vast clouds, Avheeling and driving over
the meadows and devoted corn fields, darkening the
air with their numbers. Then commences the work
', of destruction on the corn, the husks of which, though
¦ composed of numerous envelopments of closely Avrapt
leaves, are soon completely or partially torn off, While
from all quarters myriads continue to pour down like
a tempest, blackening half an acre at a time : if not
disturbed, they repeat their depredations till little re
mains but the cob and the shrivelled skins of the
grain ; and what little is left of the tender ear, being
exposed to the rains and weather, is generally mucb
injured. All the attacks and havoc made at this
time among them by the gun and by the hawks,
several species of which are their constant attendants,
have little effect on the remainder. When the haAvks
make a sweep among them, they suddenly open on
all sides, but rarely in time to disappoint them of
their victims ; and, though repeatedly fired at with
mortal effect, they only remove from one field to an
adjoining one, or to another quarter of the same en
closure. From dawn to nearly sunset, this open and
daring devastation is carried on under the eye of the
proprietor ; and a farmer, Avho has any considerable
extent of corn, would require half a dozen men at
least, with guns, to guard it ; and even then, all their
vigilance and activity would not. prevent a good tithe
of it from becoming the prey of the blackbirds. The
Indians, who usually plant their corn in a common
field, keep all the young boys of the village all day
patrolling round and among it ; and each being fur
nished with a boAV and arrows, Avith Avhich they are
very expert, they generally contrive to destroy great
numbers of them. For this bird, though the notori
ous corn-thief of the United States, our humane
author again puts in a plea, on the ground of the
insects and larvae destroyed by them, which he cal
culates at no less than sixteen thousand two hundred
millions in the space of four months. A similar
character and apology may be attached to the rice-
bunting and the purple grakle.
The coAV-bunting, or cow-pen finch, like the cuc
koo of Europe, has the habit of dropping her eggs
into the nests of other birds. The following account
is given by Dr. Potter, of Baltimore : — " I once had
an opportunity of witnessing a scene of this sort,
which I cannot forbear to relate. Seeing a female
prying into a bunch of bushes in search of a nest,
I determined to see the result, if practicable ; and,
knowing how easily they are disconcerted by the
near approach of man, I mounted my horse, and pro

ceeded sloAvly, sometimes seeing and sometimes losing
sight of her, till I had travelled nearly two miles
along the margin of a creek. She entered every
thick place, prying with the strictest scrutiny into
places Avhere the small birds usually build, and at
last darted suddenly into a thick copse of alders and
briers, where she remained five or six minutes, Avhen
she returned, soaring above the under-wood, and re
turned to the company she had left feeding in the
field. Upon entering the covert, I found the nest
of a yellow-throat, with an egg of each. The de
portment of the yellow-throat on this occasion is not
to be omitted. She returned while I waited near the
spot, and darted into her nest, but quitted it immedi
ately, and perched upon a bough near the place, re
mained a minute or two, and entered it again, re
turned, and disappeared. In ten minutes she return
ed with the male. They chattered with great agita
tion for half an hour, seeming to participate in the
affront, and then left the place. I believe all the
birds thus intruded on manifest more or less concern
at finding the egg of a stranger in their own nests.
Among these the sparrow is particularly punctilious ;
for she sometimes chirps her complaints for a day or
two, and often deserts the premises altogether, even
after she has deposited one or more eggs." The
most remarkable circumstance connected with this
habit is, that the young of the cow-bird is hatched
before those of the proprietor of the -nest, whose eggs,
in fact, are never hatched at all, but pushed out of
the nest, and in such a manner that no person can
yet ascertain how it is done, or what becomes of
them. The raven is a general inhabitant of the United
States, but is more common in the interior. On the
lakes, and particularly in the neighbourhood of the
falls of the Niagara river, they are numerous ; and
it is a remarkable fact, that where they abound, the
common crow seldom makes its appearance. The
crow is a constant attendant on agriculture, and a
general inhabitant of the cultivated parts of North
America. On an island in the Delaware is a very
celebrated croAv-roost. It is there known by the
name of the Pea Patch, and is a low, flat, alluvial
spot, of a few acres, elevated but a little above high-
water mark, and covered with a thick growth of
reeds ; and it appears to be the grand rendezvous, or
head-quarters, of the greater part of the crows within
forty or fifty miles of the spot. It is entirely desti
tute of trees, the crows alighting and nestling among
the reeds, which by these means are broken down
and matted together. The noise created by them,
both in their evening assembly and tlieir reascension

120

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

m the morning, and the depredations they commit in
the immediate neighbourhood of this great resort,
are almost incredible. The strong attachment of the
crows to this spot may be illustrated by the following
circumstance :— Some years ago, a sudden and vio
lent north-east storm came on during the night, and
the tide, rising to an uncommon height, inundated
the whole island. The darkness of the night, the
suddenness and violence of the storm, and the inces
sant torrents of rain that fell, it is supposed, so in
timidated the croAvs, that they did not attempt to es
cape, and almost all perished. Thousands of them
were next day seen floating in the river ; and the
wind, shifting to the north-west, drove their dead
bodies to the Jersey side, where for miles they black
ened the Avhole shore. This disaster, hoAvever, seems
long ago to have been repaired ; for they now con
gregate on the Pea Patch in as immense multitudes
as ever. One American species, the fish-crow, is a
roving inhabitant of the sea coasts, ponds, and river-
shores. The magpie is much better knoAvn in Europe than
in America, where it has not been long discovered,
although it is noAV found to inhabit a wide extent of
territory, and in great numbers. The blue jay is pe
culiar to North America, and is distinguished as a
kind of beau among the feathered tenants of the
woods, by the brilliancy of his dress ; and, like most
other coxcombs, makes himself still more conspicuous
by his loquacity, and the oddness of his tones and
gestures. It is an almost universal inhabitant of the
woods, frequenting the thickest settlements as well as
the deepest recesses of the forest, where his squalling
voice often alarms the deer, to the disappointment
and mortification of the hunter. In the charming
season of spring, when every thicket pours forth har
mony, the part performed by the jay always catches
the ear. He appears to be among his fellow-musi
cians what the trumpeter is in a band, some of his
notes having no distant resemblance to the tones of
that instrument. These he has the faculty of chang
ing, through a great variety of modulations, accord
ing to the particular humour in which he happens to
be. When disposed for ridicule, there is scarcely a
bird whose peculiarities of song he can not imitate.
When engaged in the blandishments of love, his
notes resemble the soft chatterings of a duck, and
while he nestles among the thick branches of the
cedar, are scarcely heard at a few paces distance ;
but he no sooner discovers your approach, than he
sets up a sudden and vehement outcry, flying off, and
screaming with all his might, as if he called the whole
feathered tribes of the neighbourhood to witness some

outrageous usage he had received. When he hops
undisturbed among the high branches of the oak and
hickory, his notes become soft and musical ; but his
calls of the female a stranger Avould readily mistake
for the repeated screakings of an ungreased wheel-
barroAV. All these he accompanies Avith various
nods, jerks, and other gesticulations, for which the
whole tribe of jays are remarkable. They are among
the most useful agents in the economy of nature for
disseminating forest trees, and other ruciferous and
hard-seeded vegetables on which they feed. In their
autumnal foraging they drop abundance of seed ; and
they alone are capable, in a few years' time, of re
planting all the cleared lands.
The United States present to us specimens of a
singular genus of birds, formed to subsist on the su
perabundance of nocturnal insects, and surprisingly
fitted for their mode of life. Three species only of
them are found within the United States ; the chuck-
Avill's widow, the Avhippoorwill, and the nighthawk.
The first of these is confined to those states lying
south of Maryland ; the other two are found gene
rally over the union. The chuckwill's widow and
the whippoorAvill, have received these singular names
from the similarity of their call to these words. The
nighthawk is a bird of strong and vigorous flight,
and of large volume of wing. It often visits the
city, darting and squeaking over the streets at a great
height, diving perpendicularly with a hollow sound ;
they are also seen sitting on chimney tops in some of
the most busy parts of the city, occasionally uttering
their common note. Their favourite time for flight
is from two hours before sunset until dusk. At such
times they seem all vivacity, darting about in the air
in every direction, making frequent short sudden
turnings, as if busily engaged in catching insects.
Near the sea-shore, in the vicinity of extensive salt
marshes, they are very numerous, skimming over the
meadows, in the manner of swallows, until it is so
dark that the eye can no longer follow them. The
Avhippoorwill is a singular and very celebrated species,
universally noted over the greater part of the United
States for the loud reiterations of his favourite call in
spring. The notes of this solitary bird, from the
ideas which are naturally associated with them, seem
like the voice of an old friend, and are listened to by
almost all with great interest. At first they issue
from some retired part of the woods, the glen, or
mountain ; in a few evenings, perhaps, we hear them
from the adjoining coppice, the garden fence, the road
before the door, and even from the roof of the dwell
ing-house, long after the family have retired to rest.
He is now a regular acquaintance. Every morning

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

121

and evening his shrill and rapid repetitions are heard
from the adjoining woods, and when tAvo or more
are calling out at the same time, as is often the case
in the pairing season, and at no great distance from
each other, the noise, mingling with the echoes from
the mountains, is really surprising. Strangers, in
parts of the country where these birds are numerous,
find it almost impossible for some time to sleep ; while
to those long acquainted Avith them, the sound often
serves as a lullaby.
The American chimney-swallows, of a species
peculiar to that continent, arrive in the spring, and
disperse themselves over the whole country whereA^er
there are vacant chimneys in summer, sufficiently
high and convenient for their accommodation. In
no other- situation are they observed at present to
build. This circumstance naturally suggests the
query, Where did these birds construct their nests
before the arrival of Europeans in America, when
there were no such places for their accommodation 1
Probably in the same situations in which they still
continue to build in the remote regions of the western
forests, where European improvements of this kind
are scarcely to be found, namely, in the hollow of a
tree, which, in some cases, has the nearest resem
blance to their present choice. One of the first set
tlers in the state of Kentucky informs us, that he cut
down a large hollow beech tree, Avhich contained
forty or fifty nests of the chimney-swallow, most of
which, by the fall of the tree, or by the weather, were
lying at the bottom of the hollow ; but sufficient frag
ments remained adhering to the sides of the tree to
enable him to number them. They appeared, he
said, to be of many years' standing. The present
site which they have chosen must, however, hold out
many more advantages than the former, since we see
that, in the whole thickly-settled parts of the United
States, these birds have uniformly adopted this new
convenience, not a single pair being observed to pre
fer the woods. Security from birds of prey and
other animals — from storms that frequently over
throw the timber, and the numerous ready conve
niences which these neAV situations afford, are doubt
less some of the advantages. In towns it is matter
of curiosity to observe that they frequently select the
court-house chimney for their general place of rendez
vous, as being usually more central, and less liable to
interruption during the night. The summer resi
dence of the purple martin is uniArersally among the
habitations of man ; Avho, having no interest in his
destruction, and deriving considerable advantage, as
well as amusement, from his company, is generally
his friend and protector. Wherever he comes, he

finds some hospitable retreat fitted up for his accom
modation. Even the solitary Indian seems to have
a particular respect for this bird. The Choctaws
and Chickasaws cut off all the top branches from a
sapling near their cabins, leaving the prongs a foot
or two in length, on each of which they hang a gourd,
or calabash, properly hollowed out for their conve
nience ; and on the banks of the Mississippi, the ne
groes stick up long canes, with the same species of
apartment fixed to their tops, in which the martins
regularly breed. The barn swallow is of particu
larly swift and incessant flight, and Wilson gives us
the folloAving computation of the distance he may be
supposed to traverse. " Let us suppose that this little
bird flies, in his usual way, at the rate of one mile in
a minute, which, from the many experiments I have
made, I believe to be within the truth ; and that he
is so engaged for ten hours every day ; and further,
that this active life is extended to ten years, (many
of our small birds being known to live much longer,
even in a state of domestication,) the amount of all
these, allowing three hundred and sixty-five days to
a year, Avould give us two million one hundred and
ninety thousand miles ; upwards of eighty-seven times
the circumference of the globe."
Of the numerous family of flycatchers, the tyrant
flycatcher, or king bird, is the principal. The name
king as Avell as tyrant has been bestowed on this bird
for its extraordinary behaviour, and the authority it
assumes over all others, during the time of breeding.
At that season his extreme affection for his mate, and
for his nest and young, makes him suspicious of every
bird that happens to pass near his residence, so that
he attacks without discrimination every intruder ; all
his turbulence, however, vanishes as soon as his
young are able to shift for themselves ; and he is
then as mild and peaceable as any other 'bird. But
he has a worse habit than this ; one much more ob
noxious to the husbandman, and often fatal to him
self. He loves not the honey, but the bees ; and, it
is confessed, is frequently on the look-out for these
little industrious insects. He plants himself on a
post of the fence, or on a small tree in the garden,
not far from the hives, and from thence sallies forth
on them as they pass and repass, making great havoc
among them. His shrill twitter, so near to the house,
gives intimation to the farmer of what is going on,
and the gun soon closes his career : yet, the death of
every king bird is an actual loss to the farmer, by
multiplying the numbers of destructive insects, and
encouraging the depredations of croAvs, hawks, and
eagles, Avho avoid as much as possible his immediate
vicinity. The yellow-breasted chat, which belongs

122

TOPOGRAPHY OF -THE UNITED STATES.

to this tribe, has a singular habit of concealed vocife
ration. When he has once taken up his residence
in a favourite situation, which is almost always in
close thickets of hazel, brambles, vines, and thick
underwood, he becomes very jealous of his posses
sions, and seems offended at the least intrusions ;
scolding all passengers as soon as they come within
vieAV, in a great variety of odd and uncouth mono
syllables, which it is difficult to describe, but Avhich
may be readily imitated, so as to deceive the bird
himself, and draw him after you for half a quarter of
a mile at a time. On these occasions, his responses
are constant and rapid, strongly expressive of anger
and anxiety ; and while the bird itself remains un
seen, the voice shifts from place to place, among the
bushes, as if it proceeded from a spirit. All his notes
are uttered with great vehemence, in such different
keys, and with such peculiar modulations of voice,
as sometimes to seem at a considerable distance, and
instantly as if just beside you ; now on this hand,
now on that ; so that, from these manoeuvres of ven
triloquism, you are utterly at a loss to ascertain from
what particular spot or quarter they proceed.
Among the many novelties which the discovery
of this part of the western continent first brought
into notice, we may reckon the mocking-bird, which
is peculiar to the new world, and inhabits a very
considerable extent of both North and South Ameri
ca ; having been traced from the states of New Eng
land to Brazil. The plumage of the mocking-bird,
though none of the homeliest, has nothing gaudy or
brilliant in it ; but his figure is well proportioned,
and even handsome. The ease, elegance, and rapi
dity of his movements, the animation of his eye, and
the intelligence he displays in listening and laying up
lessons from almost every species of the feathered
creation within his hearing, are pre-eminent. To
these qualities may be added that of a voice full,
strong, and musical, and capable of almost every
modulation, from the clear mellow tones ofthe wood-
thrush, to the savage scream of the bald eagle. In
measure and accent, he faithfully folloAvs his origi
nals ; in force and sweetness of expression, he great
ly improves upon them. In his native groves,
mounted on the top of a tall bush, or half-grown tree,
in the dawn of dewy morning, while the woods are
already vocal with a multitude of warblers, his ad
mirable song rises pre-eminent over every competi
tor. The ear listens to his music alone, to Avhich
that of all the others seems a mere accompaniment.
Neither is this strain altogether imitative. His own
native notes, which are easily distinguishable by
such as are well acquainted with those of our vari

ous song-birds, are bold and full, and varied seem
ingly beyond all limits. His expanded wings and
tail, glistening with white, and the buoyant gayety of
his action, arresting the eye, as his song most irresist
ibly does the ear, he sweeps round with enthusiastic
ecstasy, and mounts or descends as his song swells
or dies away ; and, as Mr. Bartram has beautifully
expressed it, " he bounds aloft with the celerity of
an arrow, as if to recover or recall his very soul,
expired in the last elevated strain." While thus
exerting himself, a bystander destitute of sight would
suppose that the whole feathered tribes had assem
bled together, on a trial of skill, each striving to pro
duce his utmost effect ; so perfect are his imitations.
He many times deceives the sportsman, and sends
him in search of birds that perhaps are not within
miles of him, but whose notes he exactly imitates :
even birds themselves are frequently imposed on by
this admirable mimic, and are decoyed by the fancied
calls of their mates, or dive, with precipitation, into
the depth of thickets, at the scream of what they
suppose to be the sparrow-haAvk. The mocking bird
loses little of the power and energy of his song by
confinement. The only bird in the world worthy of
being compared with him, is the European nightin
gale. In his account of the cat-bird, a common and well
known species, Wilson says, — "in passing through
the woods in summer, I have sometimes amused my
self with imitating the violent chirping or squeaking
of young birds, in order to observe what different
species were around me, — for such sounds, at such
a season, in the woods, are no less alarming to the
feathered tenants of the bushes, than the cry of fire
or murder in the streets is to the inhabitants of a
large and populous city. On such occasions of
alarm and consternation, the cat-bird is the first to
make his appearance, not singly, but sometimes half
a dozen at a time, flying from different quarters to
the spot. At this time, those who are disposed to play
with his feelings may almost throw him into fits, his
emotion and agitation are so great, at the distressful
cries of Avhat he supposes to be his suffering young.
Other birds are variously affected ; but none show
symptoms of such extreme suffering. He hurries
backAvards and forAvards, with hanging wings and
open mouth, calling out louder and faster, and actu
ally screaming with distress, till he appears hoarse
with his exertions. He attempts no offensive means ;
but he bewails — he implores — in the most pathetic
terms with which nature has supplied him, and with
an agony of feeling which is truly affecting. Every
feathered neighbour within hearing hastens to the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

123

place," to learn the cause of the alarm, peeping about
with looks of consternation and sympathy."
-The robins are so fond of' gum-berries, that
wherever there is one of these trees covered with fruit
and flocks of robins in the neighbourhood, the sports
man need only take his stand near it, load, take aim,
and fire ; one flock succeeding another, Avith little
interruption, almost the whole day. When berries
fail, they disperse themselves over the fields, and
along the fences, in search of worms and other in
sects. Sometimes they disappear for a Aveek or two,
and return again in immense numbers ; the cities
then pour out their sportsmen by scores, and the mark
ets are plentifully supplied with them at a cheap rate.
Among the numerous warblers of the United
States, we can only further mention the blue bird.
He is of pleasing manners and a sociable disposition.
As one of the first messengers of spring, he bears his
own recommendation ahvays along with him, and
meets with a hearty welcome from every body. In
his motions and general character, he has a great re
semblance to the robin redbreast of Britain ; and,
had he the brown olive of that bird, instead of his
own blue, could scarcely be distinguished from him.
Like him, he is known to almost every child ; and
shows as much confidence in man by associating
with him in summer, as the other by his familiarity
in winter. Few farmers neglect to provide for him,
in some suitable place, a snug little summer-house,
ready fitted and rent free ; for which he more than
repays them by the cheerfulness of his song, and the
multitude of injurious insects which he daily de
stroys. Several species of wren are common. The house
wren, a familiar bird, is marked by a strong antipathy
to cats ; for, having frequent occasion to glean among
the currant bushes, and other shrubs in the garden,
those lurking enemies of the feathered race often
prove fatal to him. " A box fixed up in the window
of the room where I slept," says Wilson, " was taken
possession of by a pair of wrens. Already the nest
was built and two eggs laid, when one day, the win
dow being open as well as the room-door, the female
wren, venturing too far into the room to reconnoitre,
was sprung upon by grimalkin, who had planted her
self there for the purpose ; and, before relief could
be given, she was destroyed. Curious to see how
the survivor would demean himself, I watched him
carefully for several days. At first he sang with
great vivacity for an hour or so, but becoming un
easy, went off for half an hour. On his return he
chanted again as before, went to the top of the house,
the stable, and the Aveeping willoAV, that she might

hear him ; but seeing no appearance of her, he re
turned once more, visited the nest, ventured cautious
ly into the windoAV, gazed about with suspicious looks,
his voice sinking to a low melancholy note as he
stretched his little neck about in every direction.
Returning to the box, he seemed for some minutes at
a loss Avhat to do, and soon after went off, as I thought,
altogether, for I saw him no more that day. To
wards the afternoon of the second day he again made
his appearance, accompanied with a new female, Avho
seemed exceedingly timorous and shy, and who only
after great hesitation entered the box ; at this moment
the little widower or bridegroom seemed as if he
Avould warble out his very life with ecstasy of joy.
After remaining about half a minute in, they both
fleAv off, but returned in a few minutes, and instantly
began to carry out the eggs, feathers, and some of
the sticks, supplying the place of the two latter with
materials of the same sort ; and they ultimately suc
ceeded in raising a brood of seven young, all of
Avhich escaped in safety."
The brown creepers are distributed over the whole
United States ; but are most numerous in the western
and northern states, and particularly so in the depth
of the forests, and in tracts of large-timbered woods,
Avhere they usually breed ; visiting the thicker-settled
parts of the country in fall and winter. The white-
breasted nuthatch is common almost everywhere in
the Avoods of North America, and may be known at
a distance by the notes quank, quank, frequently re
peated as he moves upAArard and downward, in spiral
circles, around the body and larger branches of the
tree, probing behind the thin scaly bark of the white
oak, and shelling off considerable pieces of it, in his
search after spiders, ants, insects, and their larvae.
The red-bellied black-capped nuthatch is particularly
fond of the seeds of pine trees. You may traverse
many thousand acres of oak, hickory, and chestnut
woods, during winter, without meeting Avith a single
individual ; but no sooner do you enter among the
pines, than, if the air be still, you have only to listen
for a few moments, and their note will direct you
where to find them. The brown-headed nuthatch is
chiefly an inhabitant of Virginia and the southern
states, and seems particularly fond of pine trees.
The humming-bird is migratory through the whole
of the United States, excepting Florida. As it passes
on to the northward as far as the interior of Canada,
where it is seen in great numbers, wonder is excited
how so feebly constructed and delicate a little crea
ture can make its way over such extensive regions
of lakes and forests, among so many enemies, all its
superiors in strength and magnitude ; but its very

124

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

minuteness, the rapidity of its flight, which almost
eludes the eye, and that admirable instinct, reason,
or whatever else it may be called, and daring courage,
which heaven has implanted in its bosom, are its pro
tectors. The humming-bird is extremely fond of
tubular flowers. When arrived before a thicket of
trumpet-flowers that are full-blown, he poises, or sus
pends himself on Aving, for the space of two or three
seconds, so steadily, that his wings become invisible,
or only like a mist, and you can plainly distinguish
the pupil of his eye looking round with great quick
ness and circumspection ; the glossy golden green
of his back and the fire of his throat, glistening in
the sun, forms altogether a most interesting appear
ance. When he alights, Avhich is frequently, he al
ways prefers the small dead twigs of a tree or bush,
where he dresses and arranges his plumage with great
dexterity. His only note is a single chirp, not louder
than that of a small cricket or grasshopper, generally
uttered while passing from flower to flower, or when
engaged in fights with his fellows : for, when two
males meet at the same bush or flower, a battle in
stantly takes place ; and the combatants ascend in
the air, chirping, darting, and circling round each
Other, till the eye is no longer able to folloAV them.
The conqueror, however, generally returns to the
place, to reap the fruits of his victory. He is ope
of those few birds that are universally beloved ; and,
amidst the sweet dewy serenity of a. summer's morn
ing, his appearance among the arbours of honey
suckles, and beds of flowers, is truly interesting.
The tanagers are gaudy birds, who annually visit
the republic from the torrid regions of the south.
The scarlet tanager is, perhaps, the most show}*-.
He spreads himself over the United States, and is
found even in Canada. He rarely approaches the
habitations of man, unless, perhaps, in the orchard,
where he sometimes builds ; or in the cherry trees,
in search of fruit : the depth of the woods is his
favourite abode. Among all the birds that inhabit
our Avoods, there is none that strikes the eye of a
stranger, or even a native, with so much brilliancy
as this. Seen among the green leaves, with the
light falling strongly on his plumage, he really ap
pears beautiful. Another species, tbe summer red-
bird, delights in a flat sandy country, covered with
wood and interspersed with pine trees ; and is, con
sequently, more numerous towards the shores of the
Atlantic than in the interior. In both Carolinas, and
in Georgia and Florida, they are in great plenty.
Among the numerous birds of the finch family we
briefly notice a few. The indigo-bird is another of
the rich-plumaged tribes, which migrate from the

south. . It is numerous in all the settled parts of the
middle and eastern states ; in the Carolinas and
Georgia it is also abundant. Its favourite haunts are
about gardens, fields of deep clover, the borders of
woods, and roadsides, where it is frequently seen
perched on the fences. In its manners, it is extremely
active and neat, and a vigorous and pretty good song
ster. In some lights, his plumage appears of a rich
sky blue, and in others of a vivid verdigris green ;
so that the same bird, in passing from one place to
another before your eyes, seems to undergo a total
change of colour. The painted bunting is one of
the most numerous of the little summer birds of
Lower Louisiana, where it is universally known
among the French inhabitants, and called by them
" le pape," and by the Americans " the nonpareil."
Its gay dress and docility of manners have procured
it many admirers. The low countries of the south
ern states, in the vicinity of the sea, and along -the
borders of the large rivers, particularly among the
rice plantations, are the favourite haunts of this ele
gant little bird. It is very commonly domesticated
in the houses of the French inhabitants of New
Orleans, appearing to be the most common cage bird
they have. The negroes often bring them to market
for sale. The cardinal grosbeak is one of the most
common cage birds, and is very generally known,
not only in North America, but even in Europe,
numbers of them having been carried over both to
France and England, in which last country they are
usually called " Virginia nightingales." To this
name Dr. Latham observes they are fully entitled,
from the clearness and variety of their notes, which,
both in a wild and domestic state, are very various
and musical ; many of them resemble the high notes
of a fife, and are nearly as loud. The sprightly
figure and gaudy plumage of the red-bird, his vivaci
ty, strength of voice, and actual variety of note, and
the little expense with which he is kept, will always
make him a favourite. This species, like the mock
ing-bird, is more numerous to the east of the great
range of the Apalachian mountains, and is found
from New England to Carthagena. Through the
lower parts of the southern states, in the neighbour
hood of settlements, they are numerous ; their clear
and lively notes, in the months of January and Feb
ruary, being almost the only music of the season.
Along the roadsides and fences they are found hover
ing in half dozens together, associated with snow
birds, and various kinds of sparrows. The crossbill
is a regular inhabitant of almost all the pine forests
situated north of 40°, from the beginning of Septem
ber to the middle of April.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

125

Respecting the melody of the transatlantic birds
generally, Wilson makes the following observations :
" The opinion which so generally prevails in Eng
land, that the music of the groves and woods of
America is far inferior to that of Europe, I, who
have a thousand times listened to both, can not ad
mit to be correct. We can not with fairness draw
a comparison between the depth of the forest in
America, and the cultivated fields of England ; be
cause it is a well known fact, that singing birds sel
dom frequent the former in any country. But let
the latter places be compared with the like situations
in the United States, and the superiority of song, I
am fully persuaded, Avould justly belong to the west
ern continent. The few of our song-birds that have
visited Europe extort admiration from the best judges.
' The notes of the cardinal grosbeak,' says Latham,
1 are almost equal to those of the nightingale.' Yet
these notes, clear and excellent as they are, are far
inferior to those of the wood thrush ; and even to
those of the brown thrush, or thrasher. Our inimi
table mocking-bird is also acknowledged, by them
selves, to be fully equal to the song of the nightin
gale in its whole compass. Yet these are not one
tenth of the number of our singing birds. Could
these people be transported to the borders of our
woods and settlements in the month of May, about
half an hour before sunrise, such a ravishing con
cert would greet their ear as they have no concep
tion of."
The American crossbill is a regular inhabitant of
almost all the pine forests situated north of 40°, from
the beginning of September till the middle of April.
They then appear in large flocks, feeding on the
seeds of the hemlock and white pine, have a loud,
sharp, and not unmusical note, chatter as they fly,
alight, during the prevalence of deep snoAvs, before
the door of the hunter, and around the house, pick
ing off the clay with which the logs are plastered,
and searching in corners where any substance of a
saline quality has been thrown. At such times they
are so tame as only to settle on the roof of the cabin
when disturbed, and in a moment afterwards descend
to feed as before. They are then easily caught in
traps, and will frequently permit a person to approach
so near as to knock them down with a stick. On
first glancing at the bill of this extraordinary bird,'
one is apt to pronounce it deformed and monstrous ;
but on attentively observing the use to which it is
applied by the oAvner, and the dexterity with which
he detaches the seeds of the pine tree from the cone
and. from the husks that enclose them, we are obliged
to confess on this, as on many other occasions where
Vol. IL— Nos. 47 & 48. ' Q,

we have judged too hastily of the operations of na
ture, that no other conformation could have been so
excellently adapted to the purpose.
The turtle dove is a general inhabitant, in summer,
of the United States, from Canada to Florida, and
from the sea-coast to the Mississippi, and far to the
westward. This is a favourite bird with all those
who love to wander among the woods in spring, and
listen to their varied harmony. They there hear
many a singular and sprightly performer ; but none
so mournful as this. The hopeless wo of settled sor
row swelling the heart of female innocence itself,
could not assume tones more sad, or more tender and
affecting. Its notes are four: the first is somewhat
the highest and preparatory, seeming to be uttered
with an inspiration of the breath, as if the afflicted
creature Avas just recovering its voice from the last
convulsive sobs of distress ; this is followed by three
long, deep, and mournful moanings, which no person
of sensibility can listen to without sympathy. There
is, however, nothing of real distress in all this. The
bird who utters it wantons by the side of his beloved
partner, or invites her by his call to some favourite,
retired, and shady retreat. It is the voice of love, of
faithful connubial affection, for which the whole
family of doves are so celebrated ; and, among them
all, none more deservedly so than the species now
before us. — The wild pigeon of the United States in
habits a wide and extensive region on this side of the
Chippewayan Mountains. The most remarkable
characteristic of these birds is their associating to
gether, both in their migrations and during the period
of incubation, in such prodigious numbers as almost
to surpass belief, and certainly to have no parallel
among any other of the feathered tribes on the face
of the earth, with which naturalists are acquainted.
Their roosting-places are always in the Avoods, and
sometimes occupy a large extent of forest. When
they have frequented one of these places for some
time, the ground is covered to the depth of several
inches with their dung ; all the tender grass and
underwood is destroyed ; the surface is strewed with
large limbs of trees, broken down by the weight of
the birds clustering one above another ; and the trees
themselves, for thousands of acres, killed as complete
ly as if girdled with an axe. The marks of this
desolation remain for many years on the spot ; and
numerous places could be pointed out, where, for
several years afterAvards, scarcely a single vegetable
made its appearance. When these roosts are first
discovered, the inhabitants from considerable distances
visit them in the night, with guns, clubs, long poles,
pots of sulphur, and various other engines of destrue-

126

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

tion ; and in a few hours they fill many sacks, and
load their horses with the birds. The breeding-
places are of greater extent than the woods. In the
western countries they are generally in beech woods,
and often extend nearly in a straight line across the
eountry for a great way. Not far from Shelbyville,
in the state of Kentucky, about five years ago, there
was one of these breeding-places, which was several
miles in breadth, and upwards of forty miles in length.
In this tract, almost every tree was furnished with
nests, whereA'-erthe branches could accommodate them.
The pigeons made their first appearance there about
the 10th of April, and left it altogether, with their
young, before the 25th of May. As soon as the young
were fully grown, and before they left the nests, nu
merous parties of the inhabitants, from all parts of
the adjacent country, came with wagons, axes, beds,
cooking-utensils, many of them accompanied by the
greater part of their families, and encamped for seve
ral days at this immense nursery. " Several of them
informed me," says Wilson, "that the noise in the
woods was so great as to terrify their horses ; and
that it was difficult for one person to hear another
speak, without bawling in his ear. The ground was
strewed with broken limbs of trees, eggs, and young
squab pigeons, which had been precipitated from
above, and on which herds of hogs Avere fattening.
HaAvks, buzzards, and eagles, were sailing about in
great numbers, and seizing the squabs from their
nests at pleasure; Avhile, from twenty feet upwards
to the tops of the trees, the view through the woods
presented a perpetual tumult of croAvding and flut
tering multitudes of pigeons, their wings roaring like
thunder, mingled with the frequent crash of falling
timber ; for noAV the axe-men Avere at work, cutting
down those trees that seemed to be most crowded with
nests, and they contrived to fell them in such a man
ner, that, in their descent, they might bring down se
veral others ; by which means the falling of one large
tree sometimes produced two hundred squabs, little
inferior in size to the old ones, and almost one mass
of fat. It Avas dangerous to walk under these flying
and fluttering millions, from the frequent fall of large
branches, wbich were broken by the weight of the
multitudes above, and which in their descent often
destroyed numbers of the birds themselves ; while the
clothes of those engaged in traversing the Avoods were
completely covered with the excrements of the pi
geons." In his remarks on the Columba Migratoria, or pas
senger pigeon, the late Governor Clinton of New
York embraces some observations of singular inte
rest to the inquirer in natural history. "It is a

bird," says he, " peculiar to North America. It ex
tends its migrations from Hudson's Bay to the Gulf
of Mexico, and it occupies occasionally that vast re
gion which reaches from the Gulf of St. Lawrence
to the Rocky Mountains. Its change of residence is
not owing to the influence of heat or cold, of rain or
drought, but is made with a view to the acquisition
of food. The vast flocks in which this bird congre
gates, are unequalled as to extent. La Hontan says
that the bishop of Canada has been forced to exorcise
them oftener than once, on account of the damage
they do to the products of the earth. Weld, an Eng
lish traveller, speaks of a flock eighty miles long fly
ing over Lake Ontario ; and Wilson the great orni
thologist, estimates one seen in Kentucky two hundred
and forty miles long, a mile broad, and containing
two thousand two hundred and thirty millions, and
two hundred and seventy-two thousand pigeons,
which would consume, on a moderate allowance, se
venteen millions four hundred and twenty-four thou
sand bushels of mast a day.
" The gregarious habits and vast flocks of this
bird will of course occasion a correspondent consump
tion of food ; and it is therefore compelled to be con
stantly erratic, and to be among the feathered race
what the nomades are among mankind. The rapidi
ty of its flight is superior to that of the carrier pigeon,
which has been knoAvn to pass from St. Edmundsbury
to London in two hours and a half. At this rate,
the passenger pigeon can travel seven hundred miles
in twenty-four hours ; and at the rate of a mile a
minute, the same distance in less than twelve hours ;
and this velocity may account for undigested rice
being found in its craAV six hundred miles from the
rice fields : but as this has been observed in the spring "
of the year, it must have been derived in that case
from the gleanings of a former season, or procured at
a greater distance, or confounded Avith the zizania
aquatica of the western Avaters. The favourite food
of this bird is the beech nut, and it prefers to establish
its roosting quarters and its breeding place within the
reach of this aliment. It also subsists on the acorn,
chestnut, wild cherry, seeds of the red maple, and of
some Aveeds, poke, and other kinds of berry, buck-
Avheat, and the principal cerealia. It resorts to the
sea-shore and the salines of the west for salt, and it
is frequently seen at the mineral springs of Saratoga
enjoying the luxury of the waters.
" This bird is in much request as an article of
food : and in the spring it arrives at an opportune
period for our markets, during a scarcity of domestic
poultry, and in the interval after the consumption of
most of the old stock, and before the maturity of the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

127

new brood. In the hard winter, as it is commonly
called, of 1741, the weather was intensely cold from
the middle of November to the latter end of March.
The snow was six feet deep. The Hudson river
was passed on ice at the city of New York. The
cattle perished ; and the deer were starved for want
of food. The prices of food and fuel were exorbi
tant, and the sufferings of the poor were severe. In
this crisis, and five or six weeks earlier than the time
of their usual appearance, flights of wild pigeons ap
peared in greater numbers than were ever before
known, and which, by the abundance of the food thus
afforded, greatly relieved the prevalent distress. This
at the time was attributed to a special interposition of
providence, under a supposition that this bird is in
capable of resisting severe cold ; and this is noAv the
general impression, which shows that its nature is
not well understood. It has been seen at Hudson's
Bay in the month of December, and large flocks were
observed in Albany and the north-Avestern parts of
this state in January and February, 1819.
" There are other errors with respect to this bird.
It is generally believed, that it will not breed in cap
tivity, and that it is incapable of domestication. And
Our distinguished ornithologist, Wilson, has unhesi
tatingly asserted, that it only has one squab or youno;
at a time.
" If this latter position were true, it would furnish
an anomaly in ornithology. All birds of the Columba
genus, have heretofore been supposed to produce by
pairing, and .to have two young at a time, generally
a male and female. The male pigeon participates in
the labours of nidification and incubation, supplies
the female with food when on the nest, and assists in
feeding the young. But where polygamy prevails
among birds, the whole labour devolves on the mother.
The domestic or exotic pigeon lays two eggs at a
time ; and our only indigenous birds of the Columba
genus, (besides the passenger pigeon,) the turtle dove
and the ground dove, do the same. Why then should
the passenger pigeon be an exception 1 The male
assists in building the nest, and occasionally relieves
the female in incubation ; and it is remarked, that in
the breeding season, the two sexes are never seen to
gether. This is owing to their divided labours : for
the male makes up for the greater devotedness of the
female to incubation, by occasionally supplying her
and the young with food. We then can see no rea
son for so strange a departure from the general rule,
attributed by Wilson to the passenger pigeon in the
extent of its production ; and when we further con
sider the prodigious flocks of this bird, transcending
all other collections of birds, we cannot easily acqui

esce in his opinion, especially as he admits that it
only produces three or four times in a year. But
there is no reasoning down facts, and this is a ques
tion of fact. On diligent inquiry, I am satisfied that
Wilson has been misled by inaccurate information."*
The quail, or partridge, is a general inhabitant of
North America. Where they are not too much per
secuted by the sportsmen, they become almost half
domesticated ; they approach the barn, particularly
in winter, and sometimes, in that severe season, mix
with the poultry to glean up a subsistence. What is
commonly called the pheasant in Pennsylvania and
the southern districts, is the ruffed grouse. Its fa
vourite places of resort are high mountains, covered
with the balsam pine, hemlock, and similar evergreens.
Unlike the pinnated grouse, it always prefers the
woods ; is seldom or never found in open plains, but
loves the pine-sheltered declivities of mountains near
streams of water. The pinnated grouse avoid wet
and swampy places, and are remarkably attached to
dry ground ; the low and open brush is preferred to
high shrubbery and thickets. Into these latter places
they fly for refuge when closely pressed by the hunt
ers ; and here, under a stiff and impenetrable cover,
they escape the pursuit of dogs and men. During
the time of mating, and while the females are occu
pied in incubation, the males have a practice of as
sembling by themselves. To some select and central
spot, where there is very little underwood, they repair
from the adjoining district ; and from the exercises
performed there, this is called a scratching-place. As
soon as the light appears the company assembles,
sometimes to the number of forty or fifty. When the
dawn is past, the ceremony begins by a low tooting
from one of the cocks ; this is answered by another ;
and they then come forth one by one from the bushes,
and strut about with all the pride and ostentation
they can display. Their necks are incurvated ; the
feathers on them are erected into a sort of ruff; the
plumes of their tails are expanded like fans ; and they
strut about in a style resembling, as nearly as small
may be illustrated by great, the pomp of the turkey
cock ; they seem to vie with each other in stateliness ;
and, as they pass each other, frequently cast looks of
insult, and utter notes of defiance. These are the
signals for battles, in which they engage with won
derful spirit and fierceness, and during which they
leap a foot or two from the ground, and utter a cack
ling, screaming, and discordant cry. After the ap
pearance of the sun, they disperse. These places of
exhibition have been often discovered by the hunters,:

* Letter to J. W. Francis ; New York Medical and Physical
Journal, vol. ii. 1823.

128

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

who have freely availed themselves of the facilities
thus afforded for the destruction of the birds ; and
the grouse, after having been repeatedly disturbed,
are afraid to assemble. Several new species of grouse
have recently been discovered by Mr. Douglas, among
the Chippewayan Mountains : the finest bird of this
species, hoAvever, is described by Charles Lucien Bo
naparte, under the name of the cock of the plains. It
must have formed, from the earliest periods, a prin
cipal ornament of the distant wilds of the west : hard
ly inferior to the turkey in size, beauty, and useful
ness, this bird is entitled to the first place in the series
of North American grouse, Avith a pre-eminence like
that which the cock of the woods so justly claims
among those of Europe and Asia.
The native country of the Avild turkey extends
from the north-western territory of the United States
to the Isthmus of Panama. In Canada, and the now
densely-peopled parts of the United States, they
were formerly very abundant; but, like the Indian
and the buffalo, they have been compelled to yield to
the destructive ingenuity of the white settlers, often
wantonly exercised, and to seek refuge in the re
motest parts of the interior. On hearing the slight
est noise, they conceal themselves in the grass, or
among shrubs, and thus frequently escape the hun
ter, or the sharp-sighted birds of prey ; and the
sportsman is unable to find them during the day, un
less he has a dog trained for the purpose. When
only wounded, they quickly disappear, and, accele
rating their motion by a sort of half flight, run with
so much speed that the swiftest hunter cannot over
take them. The traveller driving rapidly down the
declivity of one of the Alleganies, may sometimes see
several of them before him, evincing no urgent de
sire to get out of the road ; but on alighting in hopes
of shooting them, he soon finds that all pursuit is vain.*
The wading birds of the United States, as might
be expected from the great extent of its various
waters, are of great multitude and variety. The
kildeer plover, so called from its note, is a restless
and noisy bird, known to almost every inhabitant of
the republic, being a common and pretty constant
resident. During the severity of winter, when snow
covers the ground, it retreats to the sea-shore, where
it is found at all seasons ; but no sooner have the
rivers broken up, than its shrill note is again heard,
either roaming about high in air, tracing the shore
of the river, or funning amidst the Avatery flats and
meadows ; as spring advances, it resorts to the newly
ploughed fields, or level plains bare of grass, inter-
11 ,  ,  , 
* Bonaparte's Continuation of Wilson's Ornithology.

spersed with shallow pools ; or, in the vicinity of the
sea, to dry, bare, sandy fields. The oyster-catcher
frequents the s^ndy sea-beach of New Jersey and
other parts of the Atlantic coast, in summer, in small
parties of tAvo or three pairs together. They Walk
along the shore in a Avatchful, stately manner, at
times probing it with their long wedge:like bills, in
search of small shell fish. It is the only one of its
genus hitherto discovered, and a fanciful observer
might imagine, that it had borrowed the eye of the
pheasant, the legs and feet of the bustard, and the
bill ofthe woodpecker.
The whooping crane is the tallest and most stately
species of all the feathered tribes of the United States ;
the watchful inhabitant of extensive salt marshes,
desolate swamps, and open morasses in the neigh
bourhood of -the sea. They wander along the marshy
and muddy flats of the sea-shore in search of marine
worms, sailing occasionally from place to place, with
a low and heavy flight, a little above the surface ;
and they have at such times a very formidable ap
pearance. At times they utter a loud, clear, and
piercing cry, which may be heard at the distance of
two miles ; they have also various modulations of
this singular note, from the peculiarity of which they
derive their name. This bird is nearly five feet in
height, and four feet six inches in length. The
great heron is a constant inhabitant of the Atlantic
coast, from New York to Florida ; in deep snoAvs
and severe Aveather seeking the open springs of the
cedar and cypress swamps, and the muddy inlets
occasionally covered by the tides. On the higher
inland parts of the country, beyond the mountains,
they are less numerous ; and one which was shot in
the upper parts of New Hampshire, was considered
as a great curiosity. The snowy heron is seen at
all times during summer among the salt marshes,
watching and searching for food, or passing, some
times in flocks, from one part of the coast to another.
They often make excursions up the rivers and inlets,
but return regularly in the evening to the red cedars
on the beach, to roost. The American bittern is a
nocturnal species, common to all the sea and river
marshes, though nowhere numerous : it rests all day
among the reeds and rushes, and, unless disturbed,
flies and feeds only during the night. In some
places it is called the Indian hen ; on the sea- coast
of New Jersey, it is known by the name of dunkadooT
a Avord probably imitative of its common note. They
are also found in the interior. It utters at- times a
hollow guttural note among the reeds, but has nothing
of that loud booming sound for which the European
bittern is remarkable.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

129

The United States present several species of the
ibis, the curlew, and the sandpiper. One of the most
common strand birds is the purre. It is extremely
active and expert in running and searching among
the sand on the reflux of the waves, as it nimbly
darts about for food. These birds, in conjunction
with several others, sometimes collect together in
such flocks, as to seem, at a distance, a large cloud
of thick smoke, varying in form and appearance
every instant, while it performs its evolutions in the
air : as this cloud descends and courses along the
shores of the ocean with great rapidity, in a kind of
waving ' serpentine flight, alternately throwing its
dark and white plumage to the eye, it forms a very
grand and interesting appearance. At such times
the sportsman makes prodigious slaughter among
them ; while, as the showers of their companions
fall, the Avhole body often alight, or descend to. the
surface with them, till he is completely satiated with
destruction. The semipalmated snipe is one of the
most noisy and noted birds that inhabit the salt mar
shes in summer. Its common name is the willet, by
which appellation it is universally known along the
shores of New York, New Jersey, DelaAvare, and
Maryland, in all of which places it breeds in great
numbers. It is peculiar to America. It arrives
from the south on the shores of the Middle States
about the 20th of April, or beginning of May ; and,
from that time to the last of July, its loud and shrill
reiterations of pill-will-willet, pill-will-willet, resound
almost incessantly along the marshes, and may be
distinctly heard at the distance of more than half a
mile. The American woodcock is universally known
to the sportsman ; but from the nature of the ground
where they are to be sought, viz. deep mire intersect
ed with old logs, which are covered and hid from
sight by high reeds, weeds, and alder bushes, both
men and dogs are soon tired out.
The clapper-rail is a very numerous and well-
known species, inhabiting the whole Atlantic coast
from New England to Florida. It is called by dif
ferent names, such as the mud-hen, clapper-rail,
meadow-clapper, big-rail, &c. Its principal resi
dence is in the salt marshes. None of the species
afford the American sportsmen greater entertainment,
or a more delicate repast, than the Carolina rail.
Early in August, when the reeds along the shores of
the Delaware have attained their full growth, the rail
resort to them in great numbers to feed on the seeds
of this plant, of which they are immoderately fond.
When the reeds are ripening, and even while they
are in blossom, the rail are found to have taken pos
session of them in great numbers. As you walk

along the embankment of the river at this season,
you hear them squeaking in every direction like
young puppies ; if a stone be throAvn among the
reeds, there is a general outcry, and a reiterated kuk,
kuk, kuk, something like that of a guinea-fowl. In
the mean time none are to be seen, unless it be at or
near high water ; for, when the tide is low, they
universally secrete themselves among the interstices
of the reeds, and you may Avalk past, and even oA^er
them, where there are hundreds, without seeing a
single individual. On their first arrival, they are
generally lean, and unfit for the table ; but, as the
reeds ripen, they rapidly fatten, and from the 20th
of September to the middle of October they are ex
cellent, and eagerly sought after. The usual method
of shooting them in this quarter ofthe country is as
follows: — The sportsman furnishes himself with a
light boat, and a stout experienced boatman, with a
pole of twelve or fifteen feet long, thickened at the
loAver end to prevent it from sinking too deep into the
mud. About two hours or so before high water,
they enter the reeds, and each takes his post, the
sportsman standing in the bow ready for action, the
boatman on the stern seat pushing her steadily
through the reeds. The rail generally spring singly
as the boat advances, and at a short distance ahead
are instantly shot down, Avhile the boatman, keeping
his eye on the spot Avhere the bird fell, directs the
boat forAvard, and picks it up as the sportsman is
loading. In this manner the boat moA^es steadily
through and over the reeds, the birds flushing and
falling, the sportsman loading and firing, while
the boatman is pushing and picking up ; and
the sport continues till an hour or two after high
Avater, Avhen the shallowness of the Avater, and
the strength and Aveight of the floating reeds, as
also the backwardness of the game to spring as the
tide decreases, oblige them to return.— The red fla
mingo is occasionally seen in Florida ; and the
roseate spoonbill inhabits the coast as high as Geor
gia. The latter bird has been found as far - up the
Mississippi as Natchez.
The black-skimmer, or sheerwater, is a truly sin
gular fowl, the only species of its tribe hitherto dis
covered. It inhabits the whole Atlantic coast, du
ring the summer, and retires early in September.
Its favourite haunts are low sand bars, raised above
the reach of the summer tides, and dry flat sands on
the beach in front of the ocean. The sheerwater is
formed for skimming while on wing the surface of
the sea for its food, which consists of small fish,
shrimps, young fry, &c. whose usual haunts are near
the shore, and towards the surface. That the lower

130

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

mandible, Avhen dipped into and cleaving the water,
might not retard the bird's Avay, it is thinned and
sharpened like the blade of a knife ; the upper man
dible being at such times elevated above the water,
is curtailed in its length, as being not wanted, but
it tapers gradually to a point, so that, on shutting,
it offers little opposition. To prevent inconvenience
from the rushing of the Avater, the mouth is confined
to the mere opening of the gullet, which, indeed,
prevents mastication taking place there ; but the
stomach, or gizzard, to which this business is solely
allotted, is of uncommon hardness, strength, and
muscularity, far surpassing in these respects any
other water bird yet known. To these peculiarities
is added a vast expansion of wing, to enable the bird
to sail with sufficient celerity while dipping in the
water. The general proportion of the length of the
swiftest hawks and swallows to their breadth, is as
one to two ; but, in the present case, as there is not
only the resistance of the air, but also that of the
water, to overcome, a still greater volume of wing is
given, the sheerwater measuring nineteen inches in
length, and upAvards of forty-four in breadth. The
bill of this bird and his Avay of life have by some
authors been depreciated ; but Avhoever attentively
examines this curious apparatus, and observes the
possessor, with his ample wings, long bending neck,
and loAver mandible occasionally dipt into and plough
ing the surface, and the facility with Avhich he pro
cures his food, cannot but consider it a mere playful
amusement, when compared Avith the dashing im
mersions of the tern, the gull, or the fish-hawk, who,
to a superficial observer, appear so much better
accommodated. The laughing gull, known in Ame
rica by the name of the black-headed gull, is one
of the most beautiful and most sociable of its genus.
They make their appearance on the coast of New
Jersey in the latter part of April ; and do not fail to
give notice of their arrival by their familiarity and
loquacity. The inhabitants treat them with the
same indifference that they manifest towards all those
harmless birds which do not minister either to their
appetite or their avarice ; and hence the black-heads
may be seen in companies around the farm-house,
coursing along the river shores, gleaning up the re
fuse ofthe fisbermen and the animal substances left
by the tide ; or scattered over the marshes and newly-
ploughed fields, regaling on the worms, insects, and
their larvae, which, in the vernal season, the bounty
of nature provides for the sustenance of myriads of
the feathered race.
The Canada goose is the common wild goose of the
United States, whose migrations are the sure signals

of returning spring or winter. In their aerial voya
ges to and from the north, these winged pilgrims pass
over the interior on both sides of the, mountains, as
far west, at least, as the Osage river. Wounded
geese have, in numerous instances, been completely
domesticated, and they readily pair with the tame gray
geese ; the offspring are said to be larger than either,
but the characteristic marks of the wild goose still
predominate. The sportsmen on the sea-shore have
long been in the practice of taming the wounded of
both sexes, and have sometimes succeeded in getting
them to pair and produce. On the approach of every
spring, however, these birds discover symptoms of
great uneasiness, frequently looking up into the air,
and attempting to go off; and some whose wings
have been closely cut, have travelled on foot in a
northern direction, and have been found at the dis
tance of several miles from home. They hail every
flock that passes overhead, and the salute is sure to
be returned by the voyagers, who are prevented from
alighting among them only by the presence and ha
bitations of man. Our readers will be entertained
with the following surprising but well-authenticated
narrative : —
" Mr. Piatt, a respectable farmer on Long Island,
being out shooting in one of the bays which, in
that part of the country, abound with water-fowl,
Avounded a wild goose. Being wing-tipped, and un
able to fly, he .caught it, and brought it home alive.
It proved to be a female ; and, turning it into his yard
with a flock of tame geese, it soon became quite tame
and familiar, and in a little time its wounded wing
entirely healed. In the following spring, when the
Avild geese migrated to the nortrnvard, a flock passed
over Mr. Piatt's barn-yard ; and, just at that moment,
their leader happening to sound his bugle note, our
goose, in whom its new habits and enjoyments
had not quite extinguished the love of liberty, re
membering the well-knoAvn sound, spread its wings,
mounted into the air, joined the travellers, and soon
disappeared. In the succeeding autumn, the wild
geese, as Avas usual, returned from the northward in
great numbers, to pass the winter in our bays and
rivers. Mr. Piatt happened to be standing in his
yard Avhen a flock passed directly over his barn. At
that instant, he observed three geese detach them
selves from the rest, and, after wheeling round several
times, alight in the middle of the yard. Imagine his
surprise and pleasure/ when, by certain well-remem
bered signs, he recognised in one of the three his
long-lost fugitive. It was she indeed ! She had
travelled many hundred miles to the lakes ; had there
hatched and reared her offspring ; and had now re-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

131

turned with her little family, to share with them the
weets of civilized life."*
The mallard, or the common wild duck, is found
in every fresh-water lake and river of the United
States in winter, but seldom frequents the sea-shores
or salt marshes. This bird is numerous in the rice-
fields of the southern states during winter, many of
- the fields being covered with a few inches of Avater ;
and, the scattered grains of the former harvest lying
in abundance, the ducks swim about and feed at
pleasure. This is the original stock of the common
domesticated duck, reclaimed time immemorial from
a state of nature, and now become so serviceable to
man. In many individuals, the general garb of the
tame drake seems to have undergone little or no al
teration ; but the stamp of slavery is strongly imprinted
in his dull indifferent eye and grovelling gait, while
the lofty look, long tapering neck, and sprightly action
of the free bird, bespeak his native spirit and inde
pendence. The canvass-back duck, a celebrated American
species, altogether unknown in Europe, arrives in
the United States from the north about the middle of
October. A few resort to the Hudson and Delaware,
but the great body of these birds descend to the nu
merous rivers in the neighbourhood of the Chesa
peake, particularly the Susquehannah, the Patapsco,
Potomac, and James rivers, which appear to be their
general winter rendezvous. They are chiefly found
in that particular part of tide water -where a certain
grass-like plant grows, on the roots of which they
feed. They swim with great speed and agility, and
sometimes assemble in such multitudes as to cover
eeveral acres of the river ; when they rise suddenly,
they produce a noise resembling thunder. They
float about the shoals, diving and tearing up the grass
bjr the root, which is the only part they eat. They
are extremely shy, and can rarely be approached,
unless by stratagem ; and when wounded in the wing,
they dive to such prodigious distances, and with such
rapidity, continuing it so perseveringly, and with such
cunning and vigour, as almost always to render the
pursuit hopeless. From the great demand for these
ducks, and the high price they uniformly bring in
market, various artifices are practised to get within
gunshot of them. The canvass-back, in the rich
juicy tenderness of its flesh, and its delicacy of fla
vour, stands unrivalled by the whole of its tribe in
this, or perhaps in any other quarter of the world ;
and those killed in the waters of the Chesapeake are
generally esteemed superior to all others, doubtless

: Wilson's Ornithology.

from the great abundance of their favourite food
which these rivers produce. At public dinners, ho
tels, and particular entertainments, the canvass-backs
are universal favourites.
The widgeon is the constant attendant of the can
vass-back duck, by the aid of whose labour he has
ingenuity enough to make a good subsistence.
This bird is extremely fond ofthe tender roots of that
aquatic plant on which the canvass-back feeds, and
for which that duck is in the constant habit of di
ving. The widgeon, who never dives, watches the
moment of the canvass-back's rising, and, before he
has his eyes Avell opened, snatches the delicious morsel
from his mouth, and escapes. On this account the
canvass-backs and widgeons, or, as they are called
round the bay, bald-pates, live in a state of perpetual
contention ; the only chance the latter have is to re
treat, and make their approaches at convenient op
portunities. The goosander, called by some the
water-pheasant, and by others the sheldrake, fisher
man, diver, &c. is a winter inhabitant only of the
sea-shores, fresh-water lakes, and rivers of the United
States. They usually associate in small parties of
six or eight, and are almost continually diving in
search of food. Several species of merganser are
common. The snake bird is an inhabitant of the
Carolinas, Georgia, the Floridas, and Louisiana. It
seems to have derived its name from the singular
form of its head and neck, which at a distance might
be mistaken for a serpent. Its habits too, while in
the water, have not a little contributed to its name.
It generally swims with its body immersed, especially
when apprehensive of danger, with its long neck ex
tended above the surface, and vibrating in a peculiar
manner. " The first individual that I saw in Florida,"
says Wilson, " was sneaking away to avoid me, along
the shore of a reedy marsh which was lined with
alligators, and the first impression on my mind was
that I beheld a snake ; but the recollection of the
habits of the bird soon undeceived me. On approach
ing it, it gradually sank, and my next view of it was
at many fathoms' distance, its head merely out of the
Avater." To pursue these birds at such times is
useless, as they cannot be induced to rise, or even
to expose their bodies. Wherever the limbs of a
tree project over and dip into the water, there the
snake birds are sure to be found ; these situations
being convenient resting-places for the purpose of
sunning and preening themselves, and probably
giving them a better opportunity than when swim
ming, of observing their finny prey. They crawl
from the water upon the tree, and fix themselves in
an upright position, which they maintain in the ut-

132

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

most silence ; and if there be foliage or long moss,,
they secrete themselves in it in such a manner that
they cannot be perceived, unless one be close to them.
When approached, they drop into the water with such
surprising skill, that one is astonished how so large a
body can plunge with so little noise, the agitation
of the water being apparently not greater than that
occasioned by the gliding of an eeL— Tne n°ise of
the countless flocks of migratory Avater-fowl, as they
journey through the air in the spring to the sources
of the great rivers and lakes, and in autumn to the
gulf of Mexico, is one of the most familiar sounds to
the ear of an inhabitant of the west, and is one of
his strongest and pleasantest associations with spring
and autumn. The noise of migrating geese and
ducks, at those periods, is also familiar to the ear of
an Atlantic inhabitant ; that of the swans, pelicans,
and Cranes, is peculiar to the central valley. The
swan is well known for its stateliness and brilliant
white. Its migrating phalanxes are in perfectly re
gular forms, as are those of the geese ; and they
sometimes join forces, and fly intermixed with each
other. Their noise on the wing is like the distant
sound of a trumpet. They are killed on the rice-
lakes at the north in the summer, and in the gulf
and its neighbouring waters in the winter ; the
younger ones are as fine for the table as geese.
Mr. Flint makes the following observation respect
ing the birds of the Mississippi valley, as compared
with those of the Atlantic regions : — " This valley,
embracing all the varieties of climate of the country
east of the mountains, might be supposed to have
the same birds, and those birds the same habits.
The former is true, and the latter is not. We have
noted no birds in the Atlantic country that we
have not seen here ; we have many that are not
seen there ; and those that are common to both
regions have not the same habits here as there.
We have no doubt, that cultivation and the presence
of civilized man affect the habits, and even the resi
dence, of birds. There are many in the more popu
lous and cultivated regions beyond the mountains,
that seem to belong to orchards and, gardens, and
that appear to exult and be at home only in the niidst
of fruit arbours, and groves reared by art and lux
ury. It is remarked in the more populous and cul
tivated districts of the Avest, that, in proportion as
the wilderness disappears, and is replaced by apple,
pear, peach, and plum trees, and fruit gardens, the
birds which cheered the infancy of the immigrants,
and whose notes are associated in recollection with
the charms of youthful existence, and the tender
remembrances of the natal spot, and a distant and

forsaken country, are found among the recent or
chards. Every immigrant, especially, who was reared
in New England, remembers the magpie, the bird of
half-formed leaves, of planting, and the freshness of
spring ; and he remembers to have heard them
chattering in the woods, almost to tiresomeness.
They are occasionally seen in the middle and nor
thern regions of this valley ; but they are seldom
heard to sing, and are only known by the lover of
nature, who hears in the air, as they pass over his
head, the single note which they utter in the east, when
they are leaving that country. Some years since,
in Missouri, we saw a number of the males gathered
on a spray, in the midst of a low prairie, of a sunny
morning, after a white frost ; they were chattering
away in their accustomed style, but they did but
half carry out the song that we used to hear in the
meadows of New England."
Reptiles, or animals of the serpent, turtle, and
lizard class, are, of course, numerous in the United
States. All the varieties of the rattlesnake are seen, in
some places in pernicious abundance. The yellow
rattlesnake is the largest of the species ; they are
sometimes seen as large as a man's leg, and from six
to nine feet in length. A species of small rattlesnake
is sometimes seen in great numbers on the prairies ;
they are said, in the regions far to the west, to con
sort with prairie dogs, and to inhabit the same bur
rows. There is a very troublesome species, called
snappers, or ground rattlesnakes ; they travel in the
night, and frequent roads and house-paths. The
copper head is a terrible serpent, supposed to inflict
a more dangerous bite than the rattlesnake ; they in
habit the same region, but are not so common as the
former. They are of a dirty brown colour ; and
when they have recently shed their skin, some parts
of their body resemble burnished copper, whence
they derive their name. There are three or four
varieties of the moccasin snake inhabiting the south
ern country. The upland moccasin has many as
pects in common with the rattlesnake, but is a ser
pent still more repulsive in appearance. They have
been seen of great size, and their „fang teeth are ex
tremely large and long : they are most frequently
seen basking among the bastard cane. The largest
variety of the water moccasin resembles the water-
snake of the Atlantic country. It has a very large
flat head, and it opens its upper jaw at right angles
to the under one. It is a lazy, reckless animal, neither
flying nor pursuing man ; it is a serpent of the largest
size ; has a ground-coloured, scaly back ; and, in
point of venom, is classed with the rattlesnake.

TOPOGRAPHY OP THE UNITED STATES.

133

There is another species of the moccasin rarely seen
out of the water, of a brilliant copper colour, with an
nular gray stripes, marking off compartments at equal
distances. The brown viper, or hissing snake, is of
a dirty broAvn colour, from six to eight inches long,
with a body large in proportion, and terminating ab
ruptly in a sharp tail : when angry, their backs change
colour, and their heads flatten, and dilate to twice
the common extent, and their hiss is like that of a
gdose. They are extremely ugly animals ; and,
though very diminutive, are supposed to be of the
most venomous class. One being confined by a stick
across its back, it instantly bit itself in two or three
places ; and when set at liberty it soon became very
much swollen, and died. The accounts of the deadly
venom of the horn-snake, being Avithout actual attes
tation by fact, are considered as unfounded. Mr.
Flint expresses his conviction that the Mississippi
valley presents a greater number of serpents, and is
more infested by them, than the country on the At
lantic, excepting perhaps the southern portion of it.
Wherever the population becomes dense, the swine
prey upon them, and they quickly disappear. Their
most permanent and dangerous resorts are near the
bases of rocky and precipitous hills, about ledges and
flint knobs, and in the lower and southern country,
along the stagnant water channels, and near those
'" vast swamps that cannot be inhabited for ages. Peo
ple are often bitten by these terrible animals ; the
pain is excruciating, and the person that is badly
bitten swells, and soon becomes blind. The more
venomous of the serpents themselves become blind
during the latter part of summer : they are then, of
course, less apt to strike their aim ; but their bite, at
this period, is most dangerous. The people suppose
this blindness to be occasioned by the absorption of
their own poison into their system. Whether it be
that the numerous remedies that are prescribed are
really efficacious, or whether the bite of these veno
mous reptiles is not fatal unless the poison is con
veyed into some leading vein, or from whatever cause
it be, it so happens that few fatalities occur from this
cause. Of harmless serpents this country has the usual
varieties, as the green, garter, chicken, and coach-
whip snakes. Tbe glass-snake is often seen with a
body of the most lustrous brilliance. A stroke across
the back separates the body into a number of pieces ;
each of these pieces preserves for some time the power
of locomotion, and continues to exercise it ; and the
inhabitants believe that these pieces soon meet, and
unite, and become as before the separation. The
bull, or prairie snakes, are of great size, and horrid
Vol. IL— Nos. 47 & 48. R

appearance : they are common on the prairies, live
in holes in the ground, and run at the passing travel
ler with a loud hiss ; but if he stands, they instantly
retreat to their holes. They are believed to be per
fectly harmless ; though such is their size, boldness,
and formidable appearance, that it is long before the
resident in these regions gets over his horror of
them. Ugly animals of the lizard kind are seen, in greater
or less numbers, in all the climates : they are found
under rotten logs, and are dug from the rich and
muddy alluvions ; these last are lazy and loathsome -
animals, and are called "ground puppies." It does
not appear that they have any disposition to bite.
Common small lizards are frequent in the south
ern districts, running along the logs, and making just
such a sound as the rattlesnake, when he gives his
warning. There are varieties of small cameleons;
they are apparently harmless animals, though, when
caught, they show a disposition to bite. They will
change in half an hour to all the colours of the
prism. Green seems to be their favourite colour, and
when on a green tree, that is their general hue ;
while in this colour, the under part of their neck
becomes of a beautiful scarlet ; their throat swells,
and they emit a sharp note, like that of one of the
larger kinds of grasshoppers when singing. " We
have placed them on a handkerchief," says Mr. Flint,
" and they have gradually assumed all its colours.
Placed on a black surface, they become broAvn ; but
they evidently suffer while under this colour, as is
manifested by uneasy movements, and by strong and
quick palpitations, visible to the eye. They are very
active and nimble animals, three or four inches in
length." Some lizards of a larger class and flatter
heads are called scorpions ; they are animals of an
ugly appearance, and are deemed very poisonous,
though we have not found that any person has been
known to be bitten by them. When attacked, they
show the anger and the habits of serpents, vibrating
a fiery and forked tongue, and biting with great fury
at the stick which arrests them.
The alligator is the most terrible animal of this
class. This large and powerful lizard is first seen
in great numbers, in passing to the south, on the Ar
kansas, that is to say, a little north of 33° ; and this
is its general northern limit across the continent.
Vast numbers are seen in the slow streams and shal
low lakes of Florida and Alabama ; but they abound
most on Red river, the Mississippi lakes, and the ba
yous west of that river : forty at one time have been
numbered on a muddy bar of Red river ; and on these
sleeping waters, the cry of a sucking pig on the banks

134

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

will draw a shoal of them from their muddy retreats
at the bottom. The largest alligator that Mr. Flint
ever saw killed in these regions measured something
more than sixteen feet from its snout to the extremity
of its tail. They have at times, especially before
stormy weather, a singular roar or bellow, not exactly
as Bartram has described it, like distant thunder,
but more like the half-suppressed roarings of a bull.
When moving about on their customary avocations
in the water, they seem like old logs in motion. In
fine weather they dose in listiessness on the sand
bars ; and such is their recklessness, that they allow
the people on the passing steam-boats to come within
a few paces of them. The ascent of a steamboat on
an alligator stream, at the proper season for them, is
a continual discharge of rifles at them ; a rifle ball,
however, will glance from their bodies, unless they
are hit in a particular direction. They are not, like
tortoises and other amphibious animals, tenacious of
life, but bleed profusely, and immediately expire when
mortally wounded. They strike with their tails coil
ed into the section of a circle ; this blow has great
power, and the animal stricken is, by the same blow,
propelled tOAvards their mouth, to be devoured. Their
strength of jaw is prodigious, and they are exceedingly
voracious. They have large ivory teeth, which con
tain cavities sufficiently large to hold a musket-charge
of poAvder, for which purpose they are commonly
used by sportsmen. The animal, when slain, emits
an intolerable smell of musk ; and it is asserted that
its head contains a quantity of that drug. They will
sometimes chase children, and would overtake them,
were it not for their inability to make lateral move
ments. Having few joints in their body, and very
short legs, they cannot readily turn from a straight
forward direction ; consequently, those who under
stand their movements avoid them without difficulty,
by. turning off at right angles, and leaving the ani
mal to move forward, under its impulse in that di
rection : indeed, they are by no means so dangerous
as they are commonly reputed to be. It is said they
will attack a negro in the water in preference to a
white ; but they are chiefly formidable to pigs, calves,
and domestic animals of moderate size. They are
rather objects of terror from their dimensions, strength,
and ugly appearance, and from their large teeth and
strong jaws, than from the actual injuries which they
have been known to inflict. The skin of the alligator
is valuable for the tanner.
The tortoise is found in considerable variety and
number. The soft-shelled mud-tortoise of the lakes
about New Orleans, and west of the Mississippi, is
said to be not much inferior to the West India sea-

turtle for the table ; and epicures who are dainty in
their food consider their flesh a great delicacy. — In
the pine barrens of Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi,
is found an animal, apparently of the tortoise class,
commonly called the gouffre. It has a large and
thick shell, and burrows to a great depth in the
ground ; it is of prodigious power and strength, and
resembles in many respects the loggerhead-turtle.^-
The siren (murena siren) is a very singular animal ;
it somewhat resembles the lamprey, and is nearly two
feet in length. It seems intermediate between the
fish and the lizard class ; it has two short legs, placed
near the head, is amphibious, and penetrates the mud
with the facility of a crawfish. — The whole of the
republic is prolific in frogs, toads, and animals of that
class, but more especially so the more southerly parts
of it, the land of lakes, marshes, and swamps, com
bined with high temperature. The deep notes of the
bull-frog are heard in perfection in the swamps at the
back of New Orleans.
It is reasonable to suppose that so vast an extent
of maritime and inland waters should afford a great
quantity and variety of the finny tribes ; it is to be
regretted, however, that very small progress has yet
been made in the scientific observation of this inte
resting class of animals. American ichthyology is
yet in its infancy.
Nevertheless, several American writers have con
tributed advantageously towards the elucidation of
this subject. The most conspicuous of these is the
late Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, whose elaborate memoir
of the fishes of New York has commanded the appro
bation even of Cuvier. In the paper of Dr. Mitchill,
now referred to, and printed in the first volume of the
Transactions of the Literary and Philosophical So
ciety of NeAv York, there are enumerated no less than
one hundred and forty-seven species of fish, inhabit
ants, or visiters, of the waters of New York, besides
varieties, nineteen, making a total of one hundred
and sixty-six.* I can not entertain a doubt, says Dr.
Mitchill, that there are various kinds which I have
neither seen nor heard of. I have reason to believe,
that the caprinus or carp family, the esox or pike,
and the salmo or trout, will be found to comprehend
a considerable number of new sorts. In the Trans
actions of the same society, may be found a paper on
the fishes of the western waters of the state of New
York, by Governor De Witt Clinton. The ichthy
ology of the United States is still further illustrated
by other eminent Avriters, (Le Sueur, &c.) in the re
cent volumes of the Transactions of the American
* See Transactions of the Literary and Philosophical Society M
New York, vol. i.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

135

Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, in the Journal
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
and in the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History
of New York.
The fishes which fill the coasts and bays of the
United States are generally of the same species as on
the opposite coasts of Europe. They are abundant,
especially along the shore of the New England states,
which, however, have no bank of the same extreme
richness as that of NeAvfoundland. The shad and
the salmon are fine fish, abounding in the Atlantic
rivers ; and beautiful trout are taken in the mountain
streams of the northern states. Among the fish of
the western waters, probably in a great measure com
mon to them and other rivers, are noticed several va
rieties of perch, one of which,' the buffalo-perch, de
rives its name from the singular grunting noise which
it makes, a noise which is familiar to every one who
has been much on the Ohio. It is a fine fish for the
table, weighing from ten to thirty pounds. There
are also varieties of the sun-fish, the bass, and the
hog-fish. Besides the shad, false herring, and trout,
we find in these waters sixteen species of minny, the
largest of which are called shiners ; but the brown
buffalo-fish is one of the best fishes in the western
rivers, and is found in all of them, in length from
two to three feet, weighing from ten to thirty pounds.
The black buffalo-fish, found in the lower waters of
the Ohio and in the Mississippi, sometimes Aveighs
fifty pounds. The buffalo of the Mississippi is larger ;
it is taken in immense quantities in the meadows and
lakes of the Mississippi, and greatly resembles the
Atlantic shad. The trout of Louisiana and Florida
is not the same with the fine fish of that name that
is taken in the cold mountain streams of the northern
country of the Atlantic ; it is a fish of the perch class,
beautifully marked with golden stripes, and taking
the bait with a spring, like the trout. It weighs
from one to four pounds, and is a fine-flavoured and
solid fish for the table. " We have never witnessed
angling," says Mr. Flint, " that could compare Avith
that of this fish in the clear pine-wood streams of the
southern divisions of this country. With fresh bait, a
barrel may be taken in a few hours."
The Salmo Otsego, or the Otsego bass, is a supe
rior fish, caught in the Otsego lake, New York, and
may be considered as almost a non-descript. Some
account of it was published several years ago by
Governor Clinton. A specimen of one in the go
vernor's possession, was seventeen inches in length,
five in depth, and in one thickness, and it weighed
two pounds six ounces. " The pupil of the eye is
black," says he ; " the iris silvery ; the opercula spot

ted with yellow on a silver ground ; the mouth
small, and exactly like that of a shad, except a little
protuberance of the upper lip, which is also bifid.
No teeth in the jaws, palate, roof of the mouth,
tongue, or throat. The lateral line straight, and
hardly discernible ; appearance of lateral stripes,
like the Perca Mitchilli, or Roch fish — colour sil
very white below the linea lateralis— somewhat
darkish above it ; scales small ; back highly cur
ved. The first dorsal fin has nine softish rays,
three of which are imperfect : it is about midway
in the back, and over the ventral fin. The second
dorsal fin is small and filamentous, and directly
over the anal fin. The caudal fin is forked — the
belly not serrated.
" This fish is of the abdominal order, and cannot
be satisfactorily arranged under any genus of the
Linnaean system. As it is, however, included in
Bloch's description of the salmon, Avhich he repre
sents as an abdominal fish, with an adipose fin on
the back, and a body covered with scale's, I shall, in
order to avoid the multiplication of genera, consider
it as a Salmo ; and, as it is probably a non-descript,
and peculiar to the Otsego lake, its specific name
may, with propriety, be^ derived from the water
Avhich it inhabits : I shall, therefore, call it Salmo
Otsego. " This fish is nearly equal to any fish that swims
for exquisite and delicious food. It is among fishes,
what the grouse, or canvass-back duck, is amOng
birds. The flesh is fine, Avhite, and delicate.
" It sometimes Aveighs six pounds ; it is neArer found
in the neighbouring lakes or streams, or in the Sus-
quehannah river. It is not anadromus, and appears
to be always stationary in the lake. It appears in
shoals every spring and fall, and at other times retires
to the deeps of the lake, like the black bass and perch
of lake George, Avhich are only seen periodically.
The latter lake has no outlet which can be ascended
by fish : This proves, conclusively, that their retreat
is only into its deep waters : and as these lakes are
very deep, they afford ample space for seclusion.
Perhaps the notion of Pennant, that the herring
proceed from the Polar seas, is incorrect. I cannot
believe that they extend their migrations beyond the
seas in Avhich they periodically appear.
" The Otsego bass is very rarely taken by the
hook. It was formerly caught in great numbers by
the seine — sometimes five thousand at a draught.
There is now a comparative scarcity. The diminu
tion of fish, greatly in demand, may be attributed,
generally, to the havoc created by the increasing
population of the country, and to the destruction ol

1*

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

the food of fishes produced by cultivation ; but in
this case it is ascribed to peculiar causes."*
The cat-fish is the most common fish in all the
western waters. Twelve species have already been
noted in the Ohio, and the varieties are very numer
ous in the waters west of that river. They are
without scales, and of all colours and sizes ; their
mouths, Avhen open, are circular ; and they are easily
taken with a hook. They receive their English name
from the noise which they make when at rest ; a
noise very similar to the purring of a cat, and one of
the most familiar to those who are used to the west
ern states. The cat-fish of the Mississippi often
weighs more than a hundred pounds. — The Ohio
toter is a fish of the length of from two to three
inches ; it makes itself a cell by surrounding its place
with pebbles ; and hence, from the Virginia word
*' tote," to carry, is called a toter. — There are a great
many species of pike in the Ohio and the Mississippi,
and their waters ; they are called pike, pickerel, and
jack-fish, and perfectly resemble the fish of the same
names in the Atlantic waters. They vary from half
a pound to twenty pounds. — Of the gar-fish there are
a great many varieties in the Avestern country. Tbe
alligator-gar is sometimes eight feet in length, and is
strong, fierce, voracious, and formidable, not only to
the fish, which he devours by tribes, but even to
men, who go into the water near him. Its dart
equals the flight of birds in rapidity. It has a long,
round, and pointed mouth, thick set with sharp teeth ;
its body is covered Avith scales of such a texture, as
to be impenetrable by a rifle bullet, and, when dry,
to make fire with steel. It is a fish of most outland
ish appearance, weighing from fifty to two hundred
pounds. It is considered as a far more formidable
animal than the alligator : it is, in fact, the shark of
rivers. — The devil-jack-diamond-fish is another mon-
' ster of the rivers. It is rarely seen as high as the
falls of Ohio, and probably lives in the Mississippi :
its length is from four to ten feet, and one was caught
which weighed four hundred pounds. It is extreme
ly voracious ; and, like the preceding, its scales Avill
give fire Avith the steel.
Eels are in length from two to four feet. The
yellow eel is the best species for the table. Six spe
cies of sturgeon occur in these rivers, some of them
four feet in length, and some of them eatable. There
is also a Mississippi saw-fish, in length from three to
six feet ; it has twenty-six long sharp teeth on either
- side, in the form of a saw, and is commonly shown
in museums. Likewise a spotted horn-fish, in length

* New York Medical and Physical Journal, vol. i. p. 188, 189.

from two to three feet ; the horn being one fourth
the length of the body. The bar-fish are taken with
a hook ; they go in shoals in the southern running
Avaters, weighing from one to three pounds, and are
beautifully striped with brown and silver. The
spade, or shovel-fish, a mud fish of the middle regions
of the valley, is found in muddy lakes ; they weigh
from ten to fifty pounds, are without scales, and have,
in advance of their mouths, a smooth bony substance,
much resembling an apothecary's spatula, from six
inches to a foot in length, and two or three inches in
width ; its use, apparently, is to turn up the mud in
order to find subsistence. They are extremely fat,
and are taken for their oil. " We have never re
marked this fish in any museum," says Mr. Flint,
" although to us the most strange and whimsical-look
ing fish we have seen. We have seen," he adds,
" one instance of a horribly deformed animal, appa
rently intermediate between the class testudo and
fishes. We saw it in a water of the Washita, and
had not a fair opportunity to examine it. It is
called toad-fish ; has a shell like a tortoise ; but has
the other aspects of a fish. It is said to be sufficiently
strong to bear a man on its back ; and, from the ac
count of those who have examined it, this animal
must be a singular lusus naturce." — The drum, rock-
fish, sheep's-head, &c. are large and fine fish, taken
in the lakes on the gulf of "Mexico that are partially
mixed with salt water, and so saline as not to be po
table. They correspond in size to the cod and had
dock of the Atlantic country, and are among the
most common fish in the market at New Orleans.
The fish of the gulf shore are of a very peculiar
character, being taken in shallow lakes, principally
composed of fresh water, but having outlets into the
gulf, through which, when the wind blows strongly
from the south, the sea-water is forced to such a
degree that they become salt : the fish, accordingly,
possess an intermediate character, between those of
fresh and salt water. There are vast numbers of
crawfish everywhere in the shallow waters and low
grounds. By penetrating the bank of the Mississippi,
they have more than once made perforations which
have imperceptibly enlarged to crevices, by Avhich
the inundation of the river has been let in upon the
country. The fish of the western rivers are generally less
esteemed than those of the Atlantic waters, and, as it
would appear, with some justice ; although, in ma
king the comparison, it should in fairness be remem
bered that fresh-water fish in general will not vie
with those of the sea. The fishes of the Mississippi
and its tributaries, generally, are tough, coarse, large,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

137

and unsavoury. The trout, so called, and the bar-
fish, are fine. The pike, perch, and other fish of
the Illinois, are represented as excellent ; and, in that
river they are taken in great abundance. A line,
here called a " trot line," drawn across the mouth of
the Illinois where it enters the Mississippi, with hooks
appended at regular distances, took five hundred
pounds in a night. " Except the trout, the small
yellow cat-fish, the pike, the bar-fish, and the perch,"
says Mr. Flint, "we do not much admire the fish of
the western waters."
Dr. Mitchill gives the following account* of a gi
gantic fish of the ray kind, which he calls the oceanic
vampire. It had been taken in the Atlantic Ocean,
near the entrance of Delaware Bay, by the crew of a
smack. They had heard that creatures of extraor
dinary form and size were frequent in the tract situ
ated off Capes May and Henlopen, during the warm
season ; and accordingly equipped themselves for the
purpose of catching one or more of them. After an
absence of about three weeks, the adventurers return
ed Avith an animal of singular figure and large mag
nitude, which they had killed after a long and ha
zardous encounter. The weight was so considerable
after it had been towed to the shore, that three pair
of oxen, aided by a horse and twenty-two men, could
not drag it, by their united strength, to the dry land.
By estimation it was supposed to be between four and
five tons. Feet. Inches.
The length from the fore margin of the head to the
root of the tail  10 9
Length of the tail . . "  4 0
Length ofthe fins projecting forward from the corners
of the mouth  2 6

17 3
Making the whole length, from the tip of the head
fins to the tip of the tail, seventeen feet and three
inches. The breadth from the extremity of one pec
toral fin or wing to the other, measuring along the
line of the belly, was sixteen feet ; when measured
over the convexity of the back, eighteen feet. On
each side of the mouth there was a vertical fin tAvo
feet and six inches long, twelve inches deep, and two
inches and a half thick in the middle, whence it ta
pered toward the edges, which were fringed before
with a radiated margin. The fin or organ so con
stituted could, from its flexibility, bend in all direc
tions, and be made in many respects to perform the
function of a hand, so as by twisting round, to seize
an object and hold it fast. The wings, flaps, or pec-
* Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York, vol. i.
t See Say on American Entomology, 8vo. ; also the same au-

toral fins, were of very curious organization There
was a scapula, humerus, ulna, carpus, and an un
common number of phalanges, of a cartilaginous
structure ; all these joints were articulated with each
other, but the articulations, like those of the human
sternum, had very little motion. It had more analo
gy to the wing of a bird than to any thing else ; and
yet was so different from it, as to manifest a remarka
ble variety of mechanism, in organs intended sub
stantially for the same use. Fish of the kind now
under consideration may be aptly denominated sub
marine birds, for they really fly through the water as
birds fly through the air. Fishes of this organization
perform their flights by flapping their wings after the
manner of crows, haAvks, and eagles, in their pro
gress. The insects of the United States are of course nu
merous, and many of them of great beauty. Many
of the species are entirely new, and science is par
ticularly indebted to Mr. Say for the addition of no
inconsiderable number to American entomology.-!
The moths and butterflies are extremely splendid,
and one of them, the atlas moth, the largest hitherto
known. Among the spiders is a huge species, called
the tarantula, supposed to inflict a dangerous bite.
The annoyance inflicted by the mosquito flies, a
species of gnat, in hot weather is well known ; by
these, and other insects armed with stings, damp and
low situations are rendered during the summer almost
untenable. The fire flies, Avhich glitter especially in
the forests of the south, are merely entertaining. The
copper-coloured centipede, a creature of a cylindrical
form, and as long as a man's finger, is dreaded as
noxious ; a family is said to have been poisoned by
taking tea in wliich one of them had been inadver
tently boiled.
One insect, the ageria exitiosa, has long been the
cause of solicitude and regret to all lovers of fine
fruit in the republic, as the insidious destroyer of the
peach tree. The larva commences its destructive
career about the beginning of October, by entering
the tree, probably through the tender bark under the
surface of the soil ; after having passed through the
bark, it proceeds downwards, within the tree, into
the root, and then turns its course upAvards towards
the surface, where it arrives about the commence
ment of the succeeding July. They voraciously de
vour both the alburnum arid the liber, the new wood
and the inner bark, leaving the cortex and epidermis
as a covering and defence. The insects deposit their
eggs within the bark of the tree, which they perforate

thor, in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Socie
ty, &c.

138

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

by a blunt-pointed instrument, and leave from one to
three hundred eggs, according to the capacity of the
tree to support their progeny.
The United States are not free from the scourge
of the locust. The males have under each wing a
ribbed membrane as thin as a gossamer's web, which,
when inflated, constitutes their musical organ. The
female has a tuberous sting or drill the size of a pin,
and near half an inch in length, of a hard and brittle
substance, which lies on the under surface ofthe body ;
with this the insect drills a hole into the small limbs

of trees quite to the pith : there it deposits through
this hollow sting or drill some dozen or two of small
white eggs. The time required to drill the hole and
deposit the eggs is from two to five minutes. When
undisturbed they make some half dozen or more in
sertions of their drill in the same limb, perhaps an
inch apart, and these punctures usually produce
speedy death to the end of the limb. They some
times swarm about the forests in countless multitudes,
making " melancholy music," and not less melancholy
desolation.

BOOK III.

STATISTICS.

CHAPTER I.

AGRICULTURE.

It would manifestly be foreign to the nature of
the present undertaking, even did we deem ourselves
competent to the task, to enter into the general theory
or science of agriculture. It will, however, be our
endeavour to give a brief yet faithful sketch of the
agriculture, in the most comprehensive sense of the
term, of the United States, enlarging only either on
those points which are peculiar to that country, or
upon productions which differ materially from those
of Great Britain. The vast extent of latitude, and
the consequent variety of climate which the republic
comprises, will give to the subject a variety, interest
ing even to those who are not engaged in that most
primitive of all occupations — the cultivation of the
soil. — The agriculture of the United States naturally
divides itself into northern and southern : the middle
states, indeed, partake of some of the characteristics
of both extremes, but do not, in a brief summary like
the present, require to be ranked as a separate class ;
while the culture of the soil in the southern states
is so entirely different in its processes and its products,
that it is impossible to mingle its history with that of
the northern portion of the Union.
It appears to be admitted by our transatlantic
* It would have been, perhaps, more accordant with strict pro
priety, to have commenced this section of the work with the chap
ter on population; but as the publication of the census of 1831 may
be shortly expected, it has been deemed advisable to defer the ac
count of the population to a subsequent portion of the work.
t " It is indeed a lamentable truth," says Mr. Watson, " that, for
the most part, our knowledge and practice of agriculture, at the
close of the revolutionary war, was in a state of demi-barbarism,
with some solitary exceptions. The labours, I may say, of only
three agricultural societies in America at that epoch, conducted by
ardent patriots, by philosophers, and gentlemen in this state, Phila
delphia, and Boston, kept alive a spirit of inquiry, often resulting
in. useful and practical operations ;. and yet, these measures did not
reach the doors of practical farmers to any visible extent. Nor
was their plan of organization calculated to infuse a spirit of emu
lation, which farmer, which county, or state, should excel in the
honourable strife of competition in discoveries and improvements,
in drawing from the soil the greatest quantum of net profits within I

neighbours themselves, that while most abundant
supply of all the bounties of nature has ever been
their peculiar privilege, agriculture as a science has,
till recently at least, been at a very low ebb.t The
neglected state of this important branch of pohtical
economy may be traced to the condition of the first
settlers and their descendants, rather than to any de
fect in soil or climate. Their first settlements were
made along the shores of the sea, or on the banks of
navigable waters. The ocean and its tributary streams
offered fields for cultivation easier and more lucrative,
in the scattered state of their population, than any
which the land could afford. The fisheries, and
navigation, thus naturally arrested the attention and
chiefly occupied the thoughts of early settlers ; and
whatever there was of agriculture was limited to the
supply of the essential necessities of the people, and
to the yielding of a scanty surplus for the humble
demands of colonial commerce. The circumstances
of the country during the first century and a half
after its settlement, — down to the time, indeed, of the
revolutionary struggle, — were such as tended un
avoidably to reduce agriculture below its just conse
quence in the scale of useful employments ; and to
elevate all the arts connected with navigation in a
proportionate , degree above their proper estimation.
Not only was a large proportion of the little capital
a given space ; at the same time keeping the land in an improving
condition, in reference to its native vigour. These results, and
the renovation of lands exhausted by means of a barbarous course
of husbandry for nearly two centuries, are the cardinal points now
in progression in our old settled countries, stimulated by the in
fluence of agricultural societies. Nor did their measures produce
any essential or extensive effects in the improvement of the breeds
of domestic animals ; much less in exciting to rival efforts the fe
male portion of the community, in calling forth the active energies
of our native resources in relation to household manufactures.
The scene is now happily reversed in all directions. Perhaps there
is no instance in any age or country, where a whole nation has
emerged, in so short a period, from such general depression, into
such a rapid change in the several branches to which I have al
ready alluded ; in some instances it has been like the work of
magic." — Memoirs of ihe Board of Agriculture of the state of New
York, vol. iii. p. 524.

140

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

then in the country attracted to the pursuits of com
merce, and drawn aAvay from those of agriculture,
but the temptations to trade and to a seafaring life
were so strong, as often to deprive the farmer of the
most active and intelligent of his sons. When to
this is added the unceasing drain upon the agricul
tural population, by the prospects which the extent
of the interior and the cheapness of lands opened to
their enterprise, and the consequent effect upon the
demand for labour, there is more cause of -surprise
that the actual state of cultivation is so good, than of
reproach that it did not receive higher improvement.
Besides, in England itself the state of agriculture
did not begin to attract any general and systematic
attention until a little after the middle of the last
century. The American farmer and capitalist would
probably have joined earlier in the eager activity
which this neAV state of things excited, had not the
revolutionary contest, and tbe subsequent political
embarrassments, at one period, both deprived them
of the means of doing so, and forced their attention
upon other objects ; and had not, subsequently, the
advantages resulting from neutrality during the wars
of the French revolution, required at another the
employment of all, and more than all, the pecuniary
resources of the country.
A very different arrangement in the relations of the
useful arts to each other seems to have commenced
in America, upon the new state of things Avhich peace
among the powers of Europe, and the increase of
population and capital, (the effect of time and of suc
cessful commercial industry,) have induced. The
natural result of peace, and of the comparatively un
restricted competition of the commercial nations of
the earth, must necessarily be to limit the sphere of
commercial speculation, and to diminish its profits ;
and capital will therefore be thrown back from the
water, to seek employment upon the land. Of the
excess, beyond the Avants of the merchant, one part
will be applied directly to agriculture, and the other
indirectly, by its being vested in manufactures ; for
whatever tends to create and fix a great population
in a country, must manifestly tend to increase in that
country the production of food necessary for its sup
port : it may therefore be safely asserted, that what
ever capital commerce cannot employ, becomes event
ually a bounty on agriculture, until at least the
resources of a country for vegetable production are
fully developed. The republic already begins to
perceive the effects of the great increase of capital
and population, in the attention paid to the cultiva
tion of the soil, in the agricultural associations, and
the legislative patronage, which are active in the

principal states of the Union. A new era in the state
of agriculture has unquestionably commenced ; the
effect of which is to attract general consideration and
concern for the art, to stimulate the ambition of the
farmer, and to multiply and concentrate the means of
information in relation to all the subjects connected
with its prosperity.
Feelings of deep disappointment appear to have
been excited in the minds of most English agricultu
rists, who either engaged in the labours of the field
themselves, or visited the farms of the republic, arising,
as it appears to us, from the want of a due consider
ation of the different — the opposite— circumstances,
in Avhich the two countries are placed. In perusing
the volumes of Messrs. Parkinson, Faux, Fearon, and
others, some hundred pages of invective occur, be
cause the Americans will persist in taking up fresh
land, instead of the more costly process of manuring
a worn-out soil ; will raise extensive crops, instead
of highly cultivating and beautifying a small space ;
in fact, will employ their time in a manner calculated,
in their estimation at least, to produce the greatest
profit with the least exertion.
In noticing the process of taking possession of and
clearing for cultivation the virgin soil, some account
of the simple agricultural erections which the settler
requires Avill be both necessary and interesting. The
building first erected on a neAV lot, or on a tract of
land not yet cleared from its native growth of timber,
is Avhat is called a log-house. This is a hut or cabin
made of round, straight logs, about a foot in diameter,
lying on each other, and notched in at the corners.
The intervals between the logs are filled with slips
of wood, and the crevices generally stopped with mor
tar made of clay. The fire-place commonly consists
of rough stones, so placed as to form a hearth, on
which wood may be burned. Sometimes these stones
are made to assume the form of a chimney, and are
carried up through the roof; and sometimes a hole
in the roof is the only substitute for a chimney. The
roof is made of rafters, forming an acute angle at the
summit of the erection, and is covered Avith shingles,
commonly split from pine-trees, or with bark peeled
from the hemlock (pinus canadensis.) When the
occupant or first settler of this new land finds himself
in comfortable circumstances, he builds what is styled
a frame-house, composed of timber, held together by
tenons, mortises and pins, and boarded, shingled, and
clap-boarded on the outside, and often painted white,
sometimes red. Houses of this kind generally con
tain a dining-room and kitchen, and three or four
bed-rooms on the same floor. They are rarely desti
tute of good cellars, which the nature of the climate

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

141

renders almost indispensable. The farm-buildings
consist of a barn, proportioned to the size of the farm,
with stalls for horses and cows on each side, and a
threshing-floor in the middle ; and the more wealthy
farmers add a cellar under the barn, a part of which
receives the manure from the stalls, and another part
serves as a store-room for roots, <fcc, for feeding stock.
What is called a corn-barn is likewise very common,
which is built exclusively for storing the ears of In
dian corn. The sleepers of this building are gene
rally set up four or five feet from the ground, on
smooth stone posts or pillars, which rats, mice, or
other vermin, cannot aseend.
In those parts of the country where wood is of but
little value, the trees are felled in one of the summer
months, the earlier in the season the better, as the
stumps will be less apt to sprout, and the trees will
have-a longer time to dry. The trees lie till the fol
lowing spring, when such limbs as are not very near
the ground should be cut off, that they may burn the
better. Fire must be put to them in the driest part
of the month of May, or, if the whole of that month
prove wet, it may be applied in the beginning of June.
Only the bodies ofthe trees will remain after burning,
and some of them will be. burned also : those which
require to be made shorter having been cut in pieces
nearly of a length, they are drawn together by oxen,
piled in close heaps, and burned ; such trees and logs
only being reserved as may be needed for fencing the
lot. The heating of the soil so destroys the green
roots, and the ashes made by the burning are so be
neficial as manure to the land, that it will produce a
good crop of wheat or Indian corn without ploughing,
hoeing, or manuring. If new land lie in such a
situation that its natural growth may turn to better
account, whether for timber or fire-wood, it will be
unpardonable waste to burn the wood on the ground ;
but if the trees be taken off, the land must be plough
ed after clearing, or it will not produce a crop of any
irind. The following remarks on this subject are
extracted from some observations by Samuel Preston,
of: Stockport, Pennsylvania, a very observing culti
vator, and may prove serviceable to settlers on un
cleared lands. Previous to undertaking to clear land,
Mr. Prestoh advises — " 1st. Take a vieAv of all large
trees, and see which way they may be felled for the
greatest number of small trees to be felled along-side
or on them. After felling the large trees, only lop
. down their limbs : but all such as are felled near them
should be cut in suitable lengths for two men to roll
and pile about the large trees, by which means they
may be nearly all burned up without cutting into
lengths, or the expense of a strong team, to draw them
Vol. IL— Nos. 47 & 48. S

together. 2d. Fell all the other trees parallel, and
cut them into suitable lengths, that they may be readi
ly rolled together without a team, always cutting the
largest trees first, that the smallest may be loose on
the top, to feed the fires. 3d. On hill-sides fell the
timber in a level direction, then the logs will roll to
gether ; but if the trees are felled down hill, all the
logs must be turned round before they can be rolled,
and there will be stumps in the way. 4th. By fol
lowing these directions, two men may readily heap
and burn most of the timber, without requiring any
team ; and perhaps the brands and the remains of the
log-heaps may all be wanted to burn up the old fall
en trees. After proceeding as directed, the ground
will be clear for a team and sled to draw the remains
of the heaps Avhere they may be wanted round the
old logs. Never attempt either to chop or draw a
large log, until the size and weight are reduced by
fire. The more fire-heaps there are made on the
clearing, the better, particularly about the old logs,
where there is rotten wood. The best time of the
year to fell the timber in a great measure depends on
the season's being wet or dry. Most people prefer
having it felled in the month of June, when the leaves
are of full size. Then, by spreading the leaves and
brush over the ground, (for they should not be heap
ed,) if there should be a very dry time the next May,
fire may be turned through it, and will burn the
leaves, limbs, and top of the ground, so that a very
good crop of Indian corn and pumpkins may be raised
among the logs by hoeing. After these crops come
off, the land may be cleared and sowed late with rye
and timothy grass, or with oats and timothy in the
spring. If what is called a good burn cannot be had
in May, keep the fire out until some very dry time in
July or August, then clear off the land, and sow-
wheat or rye and timothy, harrowing several times,
both before and after sowing ; for, after the fire has
been over the ground, the sod of timothy should be
introduced as soon as the other crops will admit, to
prevent briers, alders, fire-cherries, &c. from springing
up from such seeds as were not consumed by the fire.
The timothy should stand four or five years, either
for mowing or pasture, until the small roots of the
forest-trees are rotten ; then it may be ploughed ; and
the best mode which I have observed is, to plough it
very shallow in the autumn ; in the spring, cross-
plough it deeper, harrow it well, and it will produce
a first-rate crop of Indian corn and potatoes, and, the
next season, the largest and best crop of flax that I
have ever seen, and be in order to cultivate with any
kinds of grain or to lay down again with grass.
These directions are to be understood as applying to

142

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

what are generally called beech lands, and the chop
ping may be done at any time in the winter, when
the snow is not too deep to cut low stumps, as the
leaves are then on the ground. By leaving the brush
spread abroad, I have known such winter choppings
to burn as well in a dry time in August as that which
had been cut the summer before."*
The subject of improving the character of various
inferior soils, or of restoring exhausted soils, by
manure, is becoming of increasing importance to the
American farmer, and has consequently attracted in
creasing attention. It is true that in situations in
which large sections of fertile soil still remain unac-
cupied, the subject is at present of little or no im
portance ; but to localities in the vicinity of cities or
populous towns, where the land has risen to a great.
value, it is a question of deep interest. Drought is
one of the greatest evils to which the soil of America
is exposed, and gypsum is very extensively used,
from the quality it possesses of attracting moisture.
It does not answer near the sea or salt water, nor on
wet stiff lands ; it ansAvers best on hot, loose, or sandy
soils, and if streAved over the land, five or six bushels
are found sufficient for an acre. Bone-dust would
probably answer where gypsum will not succeed.
The method of using all manures of animal or vege
table origin while fresh, before the sun, air,, or rain,
or other moisture, has robbed them of their most
valuable properties, noAV generally prevails ; but it
was formerly the practice to place barn-yard manure
in layers or masses, for the purpose of rotting, and
turn it over frequently with the plough or spade, till
the whole had become a mere caput mortuum, desti
tute of almost all its original fertilizing substances,
and deteriorated in quality almost as much as it was
reduced in quantity. It Avould be foreign to our
purpose to enter more particularly into the system of
manuring practised in the United States ; the results
ofthe experiments of many respectable agriculturists
will be found in the publications of the New York,
Pennsylvania, and other agricultural societies.
The price of labour being very high, especially
when compared with the value of produce, draining
is but little attended to. — The fences are almost ex
clusively wooden rails, thorn hedges being very rare.
In the eastern states it is probable that the thorn
would not succeed, owing to the severe frosts in
winter ; but in the middle and western states there
is no doubt that it would flourish ; and certainly it
would afford a shelter for the cattle during the op
pressive heat of summer. If the thorn would not
* Encyclopaedia Americana, vol, i. p. 1 09.

answer as a fence, the prickly locust, and several
other small trees, indigenous to the country, would
make an impenetrable barrier.
Among the objects of culture, maize, or Indian
corn, must -take precedence, even of wheat : it is pro
lific beyond comparison, yielding from thirty to one
hundred bushels per acre ; and is cultivated in the
eastern, middle, and western states, though much
more successfully in the latter. Maize constitutes
the principal food of man in some districts ; while it
supersedes the growth of the horse-bean, and other
plants, which in Europe are essential to the support
of animals used in husbandry, or raised for the
market. It is, in fact, one great cause of the cheap
ness of cattle, hogs, and poultry. Wheat, however,
the grain so decidedly esteemed above all others, is
considered a more valuable crop in the soils adapted
to it, and where culture has made the requisite pro
gress ; it is the grain generally used for bread, and
the best fitted for exportation. In the NeAV England
states, the soil and climate do not appear to reward
the cultivation of wheat by an abundant produce ;
and the southern states of the Carolinas and Missis
sippi have too much moisture, and a climate too tro
pical. The middle states, Pennsylvania, New York,
Maryland, and in the west, Ohio and Kentucky, are
the tracts in which this important grain is produced
with that excellence which enables it to become a
leading article of American export. Rye, for mixing
with maize in the common bread, oats for horses, and
barley for distillation, are also raised ; though the
two last not on so great a scale as in the northern
countries of Europe.
The cultivation of plants, for their roots, has re
cently attracted much more of the attention of Ame
rican agriculturists than formerly. The winters in
the northern section of the union, hoAvever, are so
severe, that turnips can rarely be fed on the ground,
and all sorts of roots are with more difficulty pre
served and dealt out to stock, in this country, than
in those Avhich possess a milder climate. Happily,
hay is more easily made from grass in the United
States than in Great Britain, owing to the season for
hay-making being generally more dry, and the. sun
more powerful, which renders root husbandry less
essential to the prosperity of the American farmer.
The different sorts of grasses Avhich are cultivated
for hay, grazing, <fec. are lucern, sainfoin, burnet,
timothy ; red, white, and yellow clover ; green-sward,
blue-grass, crib-grass, &c, according to the section
of the union in which they are found respectively to
be most advantageous.
Hemp is produced in some parts of the United

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

143

States. Considerable portions of the lands in the
states of Kentucky, Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana, are
well adapted to its profitable culture. It may also be
grown to advantage in several of the counties of the
state of New York, and on the borders of the Con
necticut river ; or indeed in any of the middle and
eastern states, where the soil is composed of a rich
loam, or on alluvial bottoms. Kentucky is the only
state where it is at present raised in any considera
ble quantity, and the crop in that state alone has
been from five hundred to a thousand tons, which is
manufactured chiefly into cotton-bagging, and the
coarser kind of ropes, such as bale-rope, &c. Indeed,
it is supposed that Kentucky could furnish a sufficient
supply for the consumption of the United States.
Hemp being an exhausting crop, it has been stated
that the best land will not bear a succession of more
than three crops ; but in Kentucky it has been as
certained by experience, that the land, by being after
wards put into grass, especially clover, will, in three
years, be restored to its ability to produce a further
succession of three crops of hemp. The quantity
obtained from an acre, by the ordinary process of
rotting and preparing the hemp, is from 500 to 800
pounds ; but when cleared in an unrotted state, it is
supposed that the yield will be from one half to two
thirds more. The perfection to which machinery for
cleaning hemp, both in a rotted and unrotted state, is
now brought, warrants the conclusion, that in a short
time it will be in general use. The ordinary mode
of sowing the seed is considered defective, from the
small quantity put into the ground. At present a
bushel and a quarter is the usual quantity ; but it is
said by judicious farmers, that upon rich soil two
bushels of seed at least ought to be used to an acre.
The hemp of the United States, before rotting, is fully
equal to any hemp of foreign groAvth, the texture of
the fibre generally resembling that of St. Petersburgh
and Archangel ; and the-finest fibres being fully equal
to the best Riga. The average price for Russian
hemp is from 230 to 250 dollars per ton, while Ame
rican (solely from the imperfect manner of rotting it)
sells for about 175 dollars per ton. The hemp of
the United States is almost invariably what is termed
dew-rotted, and experience has shown, that cordage
made of hemp of this description is by no means so
durable as that made of water-rotted hemp, and the
foreign hemp above mentioned is all of this kind.

* Report of the Committee of Agriculture, in relation to Ameri
can canvass, cables, and cordage, presented to the house of repre
sentatives, on the fifth of January, 1825.— As an instance, among
a multitude of similar facts, of the interest congress takes in pro
moting the agricultural, as well as commercial interests of the
union, it may be observed, that of this report, (No. 381,) which

Dew-rotted hemp does not contain the tar necessary
for the protection of the cordage from the effects of
the wet, and without tar it is injuriously affected by
the Avater, in a much greater degree than Avater-rotted
hemp. " In order to make our hemp equal to any of
foreign growth," say the manufacturers of New York,"
" and to supply its place altogether as far as quality
is concerned, nothing further is necessary than that
it be water-rotted, or prepared without rotting, if,
upon proper investigation, it be found that the ma
chines constructed for that purpose will make the
hemp suitable for all kinds of cordage. We have
long and anxiously looked forward to an improve
ment in the culture and preparation of the hemp of
our own country, and inquiries, Avhich we have dili
gently made, have resulted in the conviction, that the
expense and difficulties of water-rotting hemp have
been much over-rated with us. It was tried upon a
small scale in Orange county, in this state, and the
experiment resulted very satisfactorily."
Flax is grown extensively ; and the seed being
highly esteemed for some of the European soils, it
forms an export of considerable amount. It is stated
that in some instances an acre of land has produced
a profit of twenty, and in others of thirty dollars.
The manufacture of it, however, seems in a great
measure to have been superseded by the use of cot
ton. Indeed, the same inferiority is found in the
quality of this article as in that of hemp, and from a
similar cause. " In 1822," states Mr. Travers, the
manager of a large factory at Paterson, New Jersey,
in his examination before the committee of manufac
tures, t " I made duck of American flax, but I ascer
tained from actual experiment, that it would not an
swer, and that my credit as a manufacturer was likely
to suffer, and I abandoned it. I am satisfied that the
superior quality ofthe foreign over the American flax,
is to be attributed, almost exclusively, to their pre
paring it by water-rotting, while in America it is pre
pared by dew-rotting, in this country too, it is suf
fered to grow too long, with a view of saving the
seed, whilst the foreign is pulled when the bloom
falls, and before the bole is formed. I conceive the
difference between American flax, pulled when the
blossom falls and water-rotted, and that which is
pulled after it has seeded and dew-rotted, would be
fifty per cent, better to the farmer and to the manu
facturer, estimated upon the present prices. The

contains a mass of information on this subject, important both to
the grower and the manufacturer, six thousand copies were printed
by order of the house, for distribution.
t Report (No. 115) presented to the house of representatives,
January 31, 1828, p. 136.

144

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

one gains that much by the quantity and quality of
the article, and the latter can afford to giAre that
much more for it that it is now worth to him. Flax
pulled at this time Avill weigh thirty-three and a half
per cent, more than when suffered to go to seed."
The animals, either employed in agriculture, or
reared for food, are very similar to those of Great
Britain. In the southern, middle, and Avestern states,
much attention is paid to the breeding of horses.
British race, and also Arabian horses, have been im
ported, to improve the breed of this animal. Neither
the intense cold of winter in some of the states, nor
the excessive heat of summer in all the states, appear
much to distress the horse in America. Some of
the American horses are likewise very fleet ; the races
in New York, Virginia, and South Carolina, prove
that the swiftness of the American horse equals that
of the British. There are none of those very heavy
cart-horses Avhich we have in the British sea-ports.
The coav in general use is about the size of the
Devonshire one, giving five or six quarts of milk at
each milking. The Holderness coav, and other large
breeds, would certainly not suit the United States ;
they are more adapted to a humid climate. It has
been said that all animals dwindle in size in this
country, a statement certainly very incorrect. If the
same care be taken there in the breeding and feeding
of horses and other animals as in England, there is
not a doubt that the animal, would attain an equal
size or weight. Bullocks have been fed in America,
weighing 2000 to 25001bs. ; hogs, 800 to 14001bs.
Sheep do not appear to succeed so Avell as oxen and
swine. The mutton is not so good or fine-fla
voured as the English, and it is frequently sold at
half the price of beef. It is probable that proper at
tention is not paid to this animal ; for it is healthy,
not subject to the rot, or to many diseases which are
prevalent in England. Mutton is not esteemed by
the inhabitants for the table, and the sheep is princi
pally reared for the wool, for which the demand has
recently much increased. Poultry of all kinds is
abundant and good, but the climate does not seem to
suit the rabbit.
The implements used in agriculture in most points
resemble those of Great Britain. Circumstances
however require variations, Avhich the sagacity of the
American cultivator Avill lead him to adopt, often in
contradiction to the opinions of those Avho understand
the science better than the practice of husbandry.
In Europe, land is dear and labour cheap ; but in
the United States the reverse is the case. The
European cultivator is led, by a regard to his own
interest, to endeavour to make the most of his land ;

the American cultivator has the same inducement to
make the most of his labour.
The principal products of the southern states are
tobacco, cotton, rice, and sugar. The first of these
indeed is grown largely in Virginia and other of the
middle states, and, together with the cultivation of
wheat, has enabled many of the proprietors to amass
considerable wealth ; though, from the low price of
tobacco, it is said now to be a speculation often at
tended Avith loss. In common Avith the other plants
Avhich thrive in the warm climates of the southern
states, tobacco is cultivated almost exclusively by
slave-labour : it is raised in the same manner as
cabbages are in England, only planted at a greater
distance. A bed is made as early in the spring as
possible, generally in a wood, as no kind of animal
Avill touch or eat the plant ; they seem even to avoid
treading upon it. The preparation is by felling the
timber, and burning the tops on the place intended
to be soavii Avith seed ; to raise the plants, the seed
being small, the ground is hoed up, and the ashes
and earth mingled together as fine as possible. New
land is preferred, and treated in the same manner as
that for the seed-bed : if old land, it is very highly
dunged, or coAv-penned, Avhich is by folding the cat
tle at night on a small piece or patch of ground, as
sheep are folded in England ; and the latter mode is
preferred to the former. The ground is then ploughed,
and made fine by the harrows, in the same manner
as for turnips in England. That being done, the
plants are set ; after Avhich it is very common, if the
man has sheep, to keep them in the fields to eat the
weeds ; even cattle are kept in the field for that pur
pose. Before the plant is set, the earth is generally
drawn up into bills Avith the hoe, at the distance of
three feet asunder, and dung put into them. It is
said by the planters, that an industrious black man
or woman will manage three acres. There is a
caterpillar, or beautiful Avorm, more than an inch and
a half long, of such a devouring nature, that if it be
not observed every day, it soon spoils a great number
of plants ; therefore the plants are searched over
every day, which is one cause of the three acres
being set off to every planter. The culture of tobac
co exhausts the land to such a degree, that it will
only sustain two, or, at most, three crops. The en
tire process employs the negroes during the whole
year : preparing the land in March and April, plant
ing in May, hoeing and overlooking in June, July,
August, and September, cutting and housing in Oc
tober ; the other months, in moist weather, to be
pulling the leaves off the tobacco-stalks, and preparing
them for market ; in frosty weather in clearing the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

145

wood off, to plant new land the next year, and cut
ting the wood for rails, fire, &c. The following de
scription of the mode of preparing tobacco for ex
portation is given by a recent traveller in the United
States. " A party of a dozen negroes, on the floor of
a tobacco-house, Avere placed, men, women, and
children, in a circle, drawing the leaves from the
stalk. In the centre stood tAvo men, who, on re
ceiving the leaves from the pickers, distributed them
in heaps according to their quality. • There seem to
be three qualities of tobacco. The lower leaves, or
those which touch the ground, are liable to get dirty
and torn ; but on the higher parts of the same stalk
two different sorts of leaves are found, one yellow
and one brown. These being carefully separated,
and made up into little bunches, someAvhat thicker
than a man's thumb, are tied round Avith a thong
formed out of the leaf itself. The bunches are then
slung in pairs, across bars of wood, stretching from
side to side of the roof, not unlike herrings in a dry
ing-house. In the course of time, the house becomes
so completely filled with these bars carrying bunches
of tobacco, that there is barely left space enough for
a man to creep under them to trim the fires, kept
constantly burning on the mud floor to dry the leaves.
The next process is to pack it into the large hogs
heads which every one has seen before the door of
a tobacconist's shop. This operation is performed
by means of long levers worked by hand, Avhich force
it into a compact mass."
The cultivation of cotton is conducted in a man
ner very similar to that of tobacco. It is an annual
plant, growing to a considerable height, and has
leaves of a bright green colour, marked with broAvn-
ish veins, and each divided into five lobes. The
flowers have only one petal in five segments, with a
short tube, and are of a pale yellow colour, with five
red spots at the bottom. The cotton-pods are of
somewhat triangular shape, and have each three cells.
These, when ripe, burst open, and disclose their snow-
white or yellowish contents, in the midst of which
are contained the seeds, in shape somewhat resem
bling those of grapes. The fibres of cotton are ex
tremely fine, delicate, and flexile. When examined
by the microscope, they are found to be somewhat
flat, and two-edged, or triangular. Their direction
is not straight, but contorted, so that the locks can
be extended or drawn out without doing violence to
the fibres. These threads are finely toothed, which
explains the cause of their adhering together with
greater facility than those of bombax and several
apocynece, which are destitute of teeth, and which
cannot be spun into thread Avithout an admixture of

cotton. In the southern states of the Union, the
cotton cultivated is distinguished into three kinds — •
the nankeen cotton, so called from its colour ; the
green-seed cotton, producing white cotton with green
seeds ; and the black-seed cotton. The first two
kinds grow in the middle and upper country, and are
called short-staple cotton ; the last is cultivated in
the lower country, near the sea, and on the isles near
the shore, and produces cotton of a fine, white, silky
appearance, very strong, and of a long staple. Cot
ton appears to have been found indigenous in Ame
rica ; but for a long period after it had been grown
in some of the southern states, it seems to have been
consumed in domestic use, and none exported ; in
deed, the factories at this time were supplied with a
foreign article. When, in 1784, a small quantity of
cotton was imported into Liverpool, in a vessel from
the United States, it was, at first, considered as an
illegal transaction, as it was not supposed possible for
it to have been the growth of any of the states of the
Union ; and Avhen, about the same period, a duty was
proposed in the United States Congress on the import
of foreign cotton, it Avas declared by one of the re
presentatives from South Carolina, that the cultiva
tion of cotton Avas in contemplation by the planters
of South Carolina and Georgia, " and that if good
seed could be procured it might succeed." How ra
pidly this produce must have risen in amount, and
what wealth must have been accumulated by its cul
tivators, may be supposed, when it is stated that the
crop in 1824-5 was 369,259 bales ; that of 1825-6,
Avas 720,027 bales ; of 1826-7, 957,281 ; of 1827-8,
720,593 ; of 1828-9, 870,415. This rapid increase
of production has been attended by proportionate
diminution of price, which averages only about one
third what it did formerly : " Loav as the price has
sunk, however," says Mr. Everett,* " there is good
reason to think it still, with thrift and economy, a
profitable branch of industry. I have been lately
favoured with a minute statement of the average pro
duct of five or six cotton plantations in two of the
south-western states, ascertained by putting together
the income of a good and a bad year. The result
of this statement is, that the capital invested in these
plantations yields from fifteen to tAventy per cent.
clear ; and that the net profit accruing to the pro
prietor, for the labour of each efficient hand, is 237
dollars 50 cents per annum ; being a cjear gain of
4 dollars 50 cents per Aveek. It further appears, that
on one of these plantations, (and the same, though
not stated, is believed to hold of the others, in due

* Address delivered before the American Institute ofthe city o
New York, at their fourth annual fair, October 14, 1831, p. 40.

146

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

proportion) worth altogether, for land, labour, and
stock, 92,000 dollars, the entire amount of articles
paying duty annually consumed is 2,300 dollars.
The average crop of this plantation, taking a good
and bad year, is 14,500 dollars.— Suppose the duties
to be thirty-three and a half per cent., and the whole
amount of the duty to be actually assessed, in the
shape of an enhanced price of the article, (the con
trary of which is known to be true, for in several
articles the entire price is little more than the duty,)
it would amount to less than 730 dollars per annum,
Or a clear profit of 14,000 dollars. The great wealth
of the south is, of course, the product of the labour
there performed. The productiveness of this labour
must greatly depend on the cost at which it is sus
tained. This cost must consist chiefly of that of
food and clothing. Food is subject to no duty, nor
is there any duty, which, except in the most remote
and indirect manner, can enhance its price. The
annual cost of clothing in the south-western states, —
probably in all the states south of 35°, — is said to be
eight dollars per head. Suppose this supply to come
enhanced one third, it is a very small sum when as
sessed upon the annual product of the industry of
the labourer. These statements are furnished to me
on the very highest authority. There is no reason
why the plantations, to Avhich they refer, should be
more productive than others in their neighbourhood,
except as they may be conducted with greater skill
and prudence. But there never existed, and never
will exist, any branch of industry, which, in the
long run, will be profitable in any but skilful and
prudent hands." There are two machines for cleans
ing cotton from the seeds ; these are the roller-gin
and the saw-gin. The essential parts of the first are
two small cylinders, revolving in contact, or nearly
so. The cotton is drawn between the rollers, Avhile
the size of the. seeds prevents them from passing.
The saw-gin, invented by Mr. Whitney, is used for
the black-seed cotton, the seeds of which adhere too
strongly to be separated by the other method. It is
a receiver, having one side covered with strong par-
rallel wires, about an eighth of an inch apart. Be
tween these wires pass a number of circular saws,
revolving on a common axis. The cotton is entan
gled in the teeth of the saws, and draAvn out through
the grating, while the seeds are prevented, by their
size, from passing. The cotton thus extracted is
swept from the saws by a revolving cylindrical brush,
and the seeds fall out of the bottom of the receiver.
Rice is cultivated extensively in the southern
states, by a method somewhat similar to that of gar
den peas in this country. The grains of this plant

grow On separate pedicles, or little fruit-stalks, spring
ing from the main stalk. The whole head forms what
a botanist would call a spiked panicle ; that is, some
thing between a spike like wheat, and a panicle like
oats. The grain is sown in rows, in the bottom of
trenches, made by slave-labour entirely. These
ridges lie about seventeen inches apart, from centre
to centre. The rice is put in by the hand, generally
by women, and is never scattered, but cast so as to
fall in a line. This is done about the 17th of March.
By means of floodgates, the water is then permitted
to flow over the fields, and to remain on the ground
five days, at the depth of several inches. The ob
ject of this drenching is to sprout the seeds, as it is
technically called. The Avater is next drawn off,
and the ground allowed to dry, until the rice is risen
to what is termed four leaves high, or between three
and four inches. This requires about a month.
The fields are then again overflowed, and they re
main submerged for upwards of a fortnight, to des
troy the grass and Aveeds. These processes occupy
till about the 17th of May, after which the ground
is alloAved to remain dry till the 15th of July, during
which interval it is repeatedly hoed, to remove such
weeds as have not been effectually droAvned, and also
to loosen the soil. The Avater is then, for the last time,
introduced, in order that the rice may be brought to
maturity ; and it actually ripens while standing in
the Avater. The harvest commences about the end
of August, and extends into October. It is all cut by
the male slaves, Avho use a sickle, while the women
make it up into bundles. As it seems that no inge
nuity has yet been able to overcome the difficulty of
threshing the grains out by machinery, without break
ing them, the whole of this part of the process is
done with hand-flails in a court-yard. The next pro
cess is to detach the outer husk, which clings to the
grain with great pertinacity. This is done by pass
ing the rice between a pair of mill-stones, removed to
a considerable distance from each other. The inner
pellicle, or film, Avhich envelopes the grain, is re
moved by trituration in mortars under pestles weigh
ing from 250 to 300 pounds. These pestles consist
of upright bars, shod with iron, which being raised
up by the machinery to the height of several feet,
are allowed to fall plump down upon the rice, the
particles of which are thus rubbed against one another
till the film is removed. It is now thoroughly win
nowed, and, being packed in casks holding about 600
pounds each, is ready for distribution over all parts
ofthe world.
The extraction of sugar from the maple has al
ready been described, but that from the cane far sur-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

147

passes it in amount, and will probably soon supersede
it altogether as an article of sale. The sugar-cane
is extensively cultivated in Louisiana, Georgia, and
West Florida. Five kinds of sugar-cane are culti
vated in Louisiana. 1st. The cane called Creole
ane. It is supposed to have come originally from
Africa ; its stalk rises vertically, the joints are closer
than in the other kinds, and it is not so long and
thick ; its leaves also are vertical, and remarkably
lanceolated ; it requires as much labour as the cane
of Otaheite : it is, of all the five kinds, the one that
is most exhausting to the earth, so that, after a few
years, the land on which it has been cultivated is so
impoverished, that it becomes necessary to substitute
cane of another kind. The sugar it produces has
more strength or body than that from the others ; it
is, consequently, preferable for exportation, and suf
fers less waste by dripping, in crossing the sea.
2d. The cane from Otaheite, called Bourbon cane.
The stalk is thicker than that of the other kinds, and
longer than that of the Creole cane ; the joints are
further apart, the leaves broader, of a lighter colour,
turning over, and hanging towards the ground. The
roots branch out less than those of the Creole cane,
and it is more liable to be thrown down by the wind.
The eye or bud of this cane is very small, and so flat
as to be difficult to judge of its quality. It is the
most watery of all, and consequently not suitable for
new land ; it succeeds better in an old soil, provided
that it be well ploughed. Cultivated in this way, the
Otaheite cane is the one that produces the most su
gar. It suffers less from the cold than the Creole,
but it is more tardy in coming up ; yet, when it has
started, its vegetation is more rapid than that of the
others. The plants are not so easily preserved, and
it must be replanted every year. It is admitted that
the sugar it produces has less body than that from
the others. 3d. The riband cane, green and red.
4th. The riband cane, green and yellow. These
two species of cane grow rapidly ; their stalks are as
high as those of the Otaheite cane, and a little less
thick ; the joints very far apart, as in that cane ; the
eyes more prominent and larger ; the leaves are more
bushy on the top of the cane, which exposes it to be
prostrated by the wind ; but this accident is little
to be dreaded in these canes, because it does not ger
minate so easily ; Avhilst, in the other species, the
buds, in being brought in contact with the earth,
vegetate speedily, which changes the sap, and injures
the production of the sugar. The green and red
riband cane comes up earlier than any other ; it is
peculiarly adapted to neAvly-cleared land and low
grounds ; it is the most vigorous, the easiest to pre

serve as a plant, the one that bears the most cold,
and the culture of which requires the least labour ;
but, by reason of the thickness of its bark, it requires
a stronger pressure than any other to extract the
juice ; and steam power alone can produce the de
gree of pressure necessary to avoid a considerable
loss of the saccharine matter. The sugar that this
cane produces possesses body, is easily made, and
gives less molasses than that from any other. The
green and yellow cane bears a considerable resem
blance to the Otaheite ; it is almost as watery, and
is not hard ; but it seems to be the general opinion,
that the plants are more easily preserved ; its stalk
is larger than that of the green and red riband ; it is
late in coming up, like the Otaheite cane, withstands
the cold at least as well, and appears equally suited to
lands somewhat exhausted by cultivation. 5th. The
violet cane of Brazil. This plant was introduced in
Louisiana in or about 1806, but it was soon aban
doned, the planters having found that in the climate
of the United States it is much less productive than
any of the others. The Creole, the Otaheite, and the
riband canes, are at present the only ones cultivated
in Louisiana, and are the best suited to the nature of
the soil. They are all more or less affected by the
variations of the atmosphere, are very sensible to cold,
and are killed in part by the frost every year. They
are also exposed to other injuries, which renders the
culture very expensive.
Experience has shown that the cane may be cul
tivated in a latitude much colder than was generally
supposed ; for fine crops are now made in Louisiana,
in places where, a few years ago, the cane froze be
fore it was ripe enough to make sugar. In the pro
cess of cultivation, the ground is ploughed as deep as
possible, and harrowed : after it has been thus broken
up, parallel drills or furrows are ploughed at the dis
tance of two feet and a half to four feet from one an
other ; in these the cane is laid lengthwise, and co
vered about an inch with a hoe. Small canals to
drain off the water are commonly dug, more or less
distant from each other, and these are crossed by
smaller drains, so as to form squares like a chess
board. These ditches are necessary to drain off the
water from rains, as well as that which filters from
the rivers, which Avould otherwise remain upon the
plantations. The average quantity of sugar that
may be produced upon an acre of land of proper
quality, well cultivated, is from 800 to 1,000 pounds,
provided that the cane has not been damaged, either
by storms of wind, inundations, or frost. The.
strong soil is easiest of cultivation, and most produc
tive in rainy seasons. The light soils require less

148

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

abour, and yield more revenue in dry seasons. To
these variations others are to be added, resulting from
the different exposure of the lands, the greater or less
facility of draining, and also from the greater or less
quantity of a weed, known by the name of coco or
grass nut. Sixty working hands are necessary to
cultivate 240 acres of cane, planted in well-prepared
land, and to do all the Avork necessary until the sugar
is made and delivered. The sugar, up to the mo
ment it is delivered to the merchant, costs the sugar-
planter about three and a half cents per pound for
expenses incurred, without reckoning the interest on
his capital.*
It will give our readers great satisfaction, however,
to find that this article can be raised without the ab
solute necessity of employing slaves, which has been
by some so strongly contended for. Mr. Coxe, in his
" Statement of the Arts and Manufactures of the
United States," undertaken by the direction of con
gress, observes, " This new mode of managing sugar
lands appears to be worthy of particular attention and
statement. Instead of the employment of slaves re
quiring a very burdensome advance of capital, and an
expensive subsistence, the occasional labour of neigh
bouring, transient, hired white persons, is often used
to prepare the grounds with the plough and harrow,
to plant the new canes, to dress the old ones, and to
clear the growing plants from weeds. The same or
other white labourers are afterAvards employed by the
planters to cut, and stack under cover, the ripened
canes, so as to prepare them for the grinding-mill and
boiler. The operation of planting occurs after the
sickly autumnal season, and before the vernal ; and
the operation of cutting also occurs in the healthy
season, at the end of the following autumn. The
service is therefore not unhealthy. It is considered
to be expedient that the planters who own, and they
who cultivate the soil, should not expend great sums
in the establishment of mills and sets of works, on
all the sugar estates, after the manner of the West
Indian colonies of the European states. But it is
found much more convenient and profitable, to leave
the business of grinding and boiling to one manufac
turer of muscovado sugar, for a number of planters.
These persons, like the owners of grain-mills and
saw-gin mills, can be employed for a toll in kind, or
part of the produce, or for a compensation in money.
By this method, a tract of three miles square, or three
hundred and twenty perches square, which would
contain twenty-five plantations of above one hundred
and two acres each, may be accommodated by one cen-
* Answer of the Central " Committee of the Sugar Planters of
the State of Louisiana," contained in a " Letter from the Secreta-

tral manufactory of muscovado sugar from the cane
stalks ; for none of these plantations will be more
distant from the boiler than a single mile ; a mere
city porterage or cartage. Refineries for making
white sugar, and distilleries, may be added, and the
economy and accommodation to the planters will be
more complete. The effect of this division of labour
and ownership will be, rapidly to bring into the most
complete and productive cultivation, all the cane-
lands in the United States, and to advance the various
manufactures of this valuable and wholesome agri
cultural production. The easy and cheap mainte
nance of cattle, the abundant supplies of provisions
and building materials for man and beast, and the
redundance of fuel and cask lumber, with the benefits
to our planters from being more frequently and com
fortably their OAvn stewards and overseers, will greatly
redound to their convenience and profit."
Indigo was formerly an object of very extensive
cultivation, but the growth of it was generally aban
doned Avhen cotton became the great staple of the
south. It is still produced, however, in some of the
southern states, but not to any very great extent, the
exportation amounting only to a few thousand or
sometimes only a few hundred dollars annually, while
it is imported to a large amount.
The cultivation of the mulberry tree, and the
raising of silk-worms, have occupied a considerable
and increasing portion of attention in the United
States, and may be considered as a branch of agri
culture the least pre-occupied, and the most open to
energetic pursuit, that the country affords. Before
the revolution, attempts to produce silk were made
in Georgia with some success ; but, circumstances
Avere unfavourable, and ultimately they were aban
doned. Sewing-silk, indeed, has been made for up
wards of seventy years, and still continues to be made,
in the state of Connecticut, and in some other parts
of the Union ; but this silk is of so inferior a quality,
that it not only can not be exported abroad, but can
not even find a cash price in the domestic markets.
It is disposed of in barter among the farmers, and
is acknowledged not to be fit to compete with the same
article imported from Europe, which still continues to
be imported. The reason of this is not the want
of ingenuity in the females, who, it is understood,
exclusively attend to this manufacture, but to their
ignorance of the art of preparing this precious mate
rial, an art Avhich can only be acquired by experience
and practice, and which must be taught by a person
fully skilled in it. Such persons are not to be ob-
ry of the Treasury," presented to the house of representatives^
January 21, 183i;

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

149

tained from foreign countries without the greatest
difficulty. In several parts of the country, however,
this important branch of agriculture is now more or
less attended to. Societies of various kinds have
been established for its promotion. With the same
vieAvs, acts of incorporation have been granted by the
state legislatures, and the national government them
selves have not thought this object unworthy of their
special patronage. The works of foreign authors on
these interesting subjects issue in translations and
abridgments from the press ; manuals, and even
periodicals, are published by American authors, all
tending to produce the same result — the introduction
of silk as a profitable object of culture into that
country. During the year 1829, a series of essays
were written by M. D'Homergue, the son of an emi
nent silk-manufacturer, at Nismes, who had arrived
in Philadelphia at the instance of an association for
the promotion of the culture of silk ; they have since
been published in a separate form, and will well re
pay the perusal of those who may feel peculiarly
interested in the. subject.* The report of the " Com
mittee of Agriculture," who were instructed "to in
quire into the expediency of adopting measures to
extend the cultivation of the mulberry-tree, and to
promote the cultivation of silk by introducing the
necessary machinery," &c. made to the house of
representatives, March 12, 1830, states these essays,
and the facts contained, to be entitled to high confi
dence. "It appears from them," states the report,
" that American silk is superior in quality to that
produced in any other country : — in France and Italy,
twelve pounds of cocoons are required to produce
one pound of raw silk, whilst eight pounds of Ameri
can cocoons will produce one pound of raw silk : —
that cocoons cannot be exported to a foreign market
from several causes, — their bulk, their liability to
spoil by moulding on ship-board, and because they
cannot be compressed Avithout rendering them inca
pable of being afterwards reeled. It is further de
monstrated in these essays, and in a memorial lately
presented by the manufacturers of silk stuffs of Lyons,
in France, to the minister of commerce and manufac
tures, that the art of filature can only be acquired by
practical instruction, by some one intimately acquaint
ed with, and accustomed to, that process ; that no
human skill or ingenuity, unaided by practical in
struction, is capable of acquiring that art, to any pro
fitable extent. It is made manifest, that, although
the culture of silk has been carried on for many years
in some parts of the United States, and more particu-
* Essays on American Silk, &c. by John D'Homergue and P.
S. Duponceau. Philadelphia: 1830.
Vol. II.— Nos. 47 & 48 T

larly in Connecticut, it has been conducted very un-
profitably, compared with what the results might have
been, if the art of filature had been understood. The
sewing-silk made in Connecticut is from the best of
the silk, and is, after all, quite inferior to that of
France and Italy ; in these latter countries, sewing-
silk is manufactured from imperfect cocoons, or from
refuse silk. It appears also that, unless the silk is
properly reeled from the cocoons, it is never after
wards susceptible of use in the finer fabrics. It is a
gratifying consideration that the benefits from the
culture of silk, and the acquisition of the art of reel
ing the same, will be common to every part of the
United States. The climate of every state in the
union is adapted to the culture of silk ; hatching the
eggs of the silk-worms may be accelerated or retarded,
to suit the putting forth the leaves of the mulberry.
That tree is easily propagated from the seeds of the
fruit, and is adapted to almost any soil. The com
mittee regard the general culture of silk as of Vast
national advantage in many points of view. If zeal
ously undertaken and prosecuted, it will, in a few
years, furnish an article of export of great value ; and
thus the millions, paid by the people of the United
States for silk stuffs, will be compensated for by the
sale of our raAV silk. The importation of silk, during
the year which ended on the 30th of September, 1828,
amounted to 8,463,563 dollars, of Avhich, 1,274,461
Avere exported ; but, in the same year, the exportation
of broad stuffs from this country amounted only to
5,414,665 dollars, leaving a balance against us of
nearly two millions. The committee anticipate that,
at a period not remote, when we shall be in posses
sion of the finest material produced in any country,
the manufacture of silk stuffs will necessarily be in
troduced into the United States. The culture of silk
promises highly moral benefits, in the employment of
poor women and children in a profitable business,
while it will detract nothing from agricultural or
manufacturing labour. The culture of sfk will
greatly benefit those states which have abundant
slave-labour, the Value of whose principal productions,
particularly in the article of cotton, has been depress
ed by over production." .
The first object to be obtained is undoubtedly the
preparation of an abundant supply of food for the
worms, Avhich may be effected at a very small expense.
There are two different species of mulberry, — the
black, which is cultivated for its excellent fruit, of a
dark purple colour, almost black ; and is a tree of
slower growth than the white ; the leaves are larger,
of a darker green, thicker and stronger. The silk
worms will eat them for the want of better, but they

150

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

do not thrive upon them, and the silk is coarse and
inferior. The Avhite mulberry-tree bears a white or
light pink fruit, and its leaves are the most congenial
food for these precious insects ; is of a quicker growth,
and does not come to so large a size as the black.
The white mulberry is a very hardy tree, and bears
the severest winters without any apparent injury ;
will last a great many years, and if cut down close
to the ground, will send up many suckers all around,
and resist destruction for several years. There are
many kinds of white mulberry, the leaves of Avhich
differ in point of merit as a food for the silk-worm.
Some are of a small size, earlier, and more tender ;
and, on that account, are cultivated as the most proper
for the Avorms Avhen first hatched ; others are large,
and of a peculiar quality, which suit the taste of the
worms, upon Avhich they thrive best, and make the
handsomest silk. The best plants for earliness and
superiority of leaves should be set out and noted, as
they may hereafter furnish scions for grafting. Upon
a dry soil the mulberry-trees do not grow much taller
than the largest peach-trees ; but they are stouter and
thicker set. Their roots, which are of a remarkably
bright gold colour, (that of silk,) extend to a consider
able distance ; and they ought not to be planted on
that account nearer than thirty feet from tree to tree.
As the gathering of leaves too soon would injure the
growth and constitution of the trees, Ave would re
commend that no leaves should be gathered from
them until after the fifth year. In the mean time,
plantations may be made for immediate use, by sow-
- ing the seed in drills, at a convenient distance, plant
ing beans or potatoes between, to keep the ground
clear of weeds. The second year after sowing,, these
seedlings might be cut doAvn Avith a sharp instrument,
three or four inches from the ground, and Ayould give
a second crop the same season. In the silk countries,
they raise seedlings in rows for the first feeding of
the worms : these young plants putting out their
leaves earlier than the old trees, and being more ten
der, are better adapted for the worms in the first stage
of their existence. They also plant the mulberry-
trees, and suffer them to grow according to unre
strained nature, branching out from the ground, for
the convenience of gathering the leaves more easily,
and making a food stronger than the seedlings.
They consider the leaves from trees, regularly train
ed, with a single butt, and of several years growth,
to give the most substantial food. The Avhite mul
berry thrives in all soils and situations, and will grow
very rank and full of leaves upon low, moist ground ;
but the food it affords in such situations is very in
ferior, and apt to disorder the Avorms. A warm loam,

even if gravelly, Avill give leaves of the best quality,
and a sheltered warm situation will produce leaves
many days sooner than one Avhich is exposed to cold ;
and is desirable on that account. The mulberry-tree
may be raised from suckers : sometimes slips, planted
in a moist soil, will take root ; and if the low branches
of a tree can be bent so as to be fastened and covered
in the ground, they will take root. The trees may
be planted near buildings for shade, or in a yard ; the
fowls are very fond of the fruit when it falls. A va
riety of situations will increase the - means of early
and late feeding, Avhich is very desirable. The most
esteemed seed of that tree in Europe is that raised in
Piedmont. The seed from Spain is also excellent.
The seed of the best quality is large, bright, and
heavy ; when bruised it Avill appear oily, and when
throAvn on ignited coals, it will crackle. .
It would be superfluous here to give detailed in
structions respecting the best methods of raising the
silk-Avorm and -winding the silk. V°fumes have been
written by Dandolo and others on this important sub
ject ; but every needful information may be obtained
from the article on this subject in the New American
Gardener, by T. G. Fessenden ; from the Essays
already referred to ; and from the Philadelphia Silk
Society. Persuaded that we are concurring in pro
moting both national and individual benefit, by ex
tending in any degree the circulation of appeals on
the importance of this subject, Ave shall conclude with
an extract from the first of the above publications :
" Fully aAvare of the importance of the object we have
presented to the attention of the community, we can
not leave it without making a concluding appeal to
the intelligence and energy of our countrymen, not
to suffer any delay to take place in setting their hands
to a work so promising of results the most favourable
to our comforts, and for our welfare : the first step is
within the farmers immediate department, to sow the
mulberry- seed, and rear the young trees ; and after
two years of attendance, the silk raising may com
mence in good earnest, and will become a healthy
and pleasant business for children and young women.
This rich crop will require but two montbs care to
secure it, and when the business shall flourish on a
large scale, which we may anticipate as probable
within a short period, the raising of the cocoons will
become a distinct occupation for farmers' families ;
the Avinding and reeling of them, most probably, will
be carried on as a distinct and separate branchof in
dustry ; this is actually the case in all the silk-grow
ing countries, where the cocoons are carried to the
public markets, and sold for ready cash to those who
keep filatures, where they wind and reel them. Great

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

151

advantages will accrue to the younger members of
farmers' families in cultivating so pleasant and profit
able an employment at home : it will offer to many
young women a choice between home and the facto
ries, and a resource in case the liberal encouragement
given to manufactures should eventually prove the
cause of business being overdone ; it will also offer
valuable resources for the pauper establishments,
where the old and infirm, under a discreet and judi
cious government, may be made to provide themselves
a. comfortable support. If we take a retrospective
view of the affairs of mankind, since the times of
early record, we find that the riches and the pros
perity resulting from commerce and navigation, or
from a system of extensive manufactures, however
brilliant, are comparatively of short and uncertain
duration ; the changes of views and systems of a go
vernment at home, the changes of policy among
foreign nations, render the whole fabric subject to
many sudden and unforeseen vicissitudes, and depend
ent upon the results of relations abroad, and of the
compromise of jarring interests at home, setting at
defiance, in the course of time, the subtle calculations
of the most accomplished statesman ; but the pros
perity which is founded upon a perfected agriculture,
that combines with intelligence the abilities of the
soil and climate, so as to naturalize, by industry, rich
crops of products, unknown to its original situation,
is a prosperity not liable to changes ; it becomes in
herent and lasting."
, By the latest intelligence that has been received on
this interesting subject, there appears every reason to
believe that the difficulty in winding the silk will
speedily be overcome. The indefatigable and patri
otic advocate of this branch of national Avealth, M.
Du Ponceau, with the assistance of M. D'Homergue,
has already made considerable progress in instruct
ing young females in the art of winding, arid they
have, in the midst of the obstacles by which they
were surrounded, succeeded in producing about fifty
pounds of raw silk in marketable condition ; part of
which has been manufactured into a national flag,
and presented to the house of representatives.*
The vine grows in most parts of the United States,
and yields a plentiful return for the labour of culti
vation. A few years since a number of Swiss settlers
at Vevay, in Indiana, commenced the cultivation of
the grape on a large scale, an example which has
been followed in many parts of the west. The vi
cinity of Vevay still boasts the largest vineyards in
the United States. " We have witnessed nothing in
* Twenty-first congress, second session, report No. 1.
t Geography and History of the Western States, vol. ii. p. 149.

our country," says Mr. Flint,t " in the department of
gardening and cultivation, which can compare Avith
the richness of this vineyard in the autumn, when
the clusters are in maturity. Words feebly paint
such a spectacle. The horn of plenty seems to have
been emptied in the production of this rich fruit.
We principally remarked the blue or Cape grape,
and the Madeira grape. The Avine of the former
has been preferred to the claret of Bordeaux. The
fruit seems to have a tendency to become too succu
lent and abundant. It is now supposed that some
of our native grapes will more easily acclimate to
the country and soil, and make a better wine. —
These amiable, industrious, and intelligent people,
are constantly profiting by the benefit of experience,
and this species of agriculture already yields them a
better profit than any other practised in our country,
while they are every year improving on the vintage
of the past." A large grant of land, in the territory
of Alabama, was made by the general government to
a French association under M. Villar, for the purpose
of encouraging the cultivation of the vine and the
olive. About 270 acres had been occupied with
vines in 1827, and nearly 400 olive trees had been
planted. The latter, however, do not thrive, and it
, is apprehended will not attain an available degree of
perfection in that climate, as the tree is perished to'
"the roots by every winter's frost, although fresh shoots
appear every spring. %
Horticulture has not been overlooked in the Uni
ted States ; although, amidst the bustling pursuits
and profitable occupations of the agriculturist, the
manufacturer, and the merchant, it has not received
that general attention Avhich is evinced in our OAvn
country : those, hoAveArer, Avho, either from views of
pleasure or of gain, have devoted their time to the
culture of the garden, have not had to complain of
an unsuccessful or unprofitable pursuit. Some idea
of the variety of fruits and of flowers which the cli
mate will admit of, may be formed from the follow
ing statement of the contents of a garden in the
neighbourhood of Philadelphia, which may be relied
on as authentic, being extracted from the report of
the committee appointed by the Pennsylvania Horti
cultural Society for visiting the Nurseries and Gar
dens in the vicinity of that city :§ "Here are to be
found," say the committee, " one hundred and thirteen
varieties of apples, seventy-two of pears, twenty-two
of cherries, seventeen of apricots, forty-five of plums,
thirty-nine of peaches, five of nectarines, three of al
monds, six of quinces, five of mulberries, six of rasp ,

t Report made to the secretary ofthe treasury, Dec. 24, 1827.
§ Hazard's Register of Pennsylvania, vol. vii. p. 106.

152

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

berries, six of currants, five of filberts, eight of wal
nuts, six of strawberries, and two of medlars. The
stock, considered according to its growth, has in the
first class of ornamental trees, esteemed for their
foliage, flowers, or . fruity seventy-six sorts ; of the
second classy fifty-six sorts ; of the third class, one
hundred and twenty sorts ; of ornamental evergreens,
fifty-two sorts ; of vines and creepers, for covering
walls and arbours, thirty-five sorts ; of honeysuckle,
thirty sorts, and of roses, eighty varieties."
There are, however, considerable difficulties to be
overcome in this pursuit, arising from the sudden
transitions of temperature, long periods of drought,
and the tremendously heavy rains which wash away
the soil. To avoid, as much as possible, the first of
these evils, a situation sheltered from the north and
northwest winds should be selected ; to meet the se
cond, the vicinity of a perennial stream will of course,
if possible, be sought ; and to prevent the third, a
level plat, free from any considerable undulations,
should be preferred. — Our limits do not admit of our
entering into a detail of the various species of. trees
and plants suitable for cultivation. The quotation
we have made will prove that most of the fruits and
flowers of Europe may be raised in the transatlantic
republic. Peaches flourish in such abundance, that
in many cases they furnish food for swine ; and ap
ples are no less plentiful, the finer sorts being consi
dered superior to those produced in Europe.. Large
quantities of cider are manufactured, and this is an
article that, in a great measure, supersedes the use of
malt liquor. On the other hand, some of the vege
tables most esteemed in the old world are difficult- to
raise, and inferior, in the new ; as is the case Avith
the potato, which, in quantity and in flavour, is far
inferior to the Irish. Notwithstanding the difficul
ties we have mentioned, and the inferiority of some
productions, we are compelled to admit, that the ba
lance is in favour of the American horticulturist, and
we believe that there are few branches of business in
which an industrious English emigrant, well ac
quainted with the principles of gardening, Avould find
more profitable employment.
The English editor of this work, probably, had not
the means of getting correct information on the sub
ject of the horticulture of the United States. It has
been more attended to than he imagines. It would
be difficult for any one, at present, to go into the
minutiae of this culture, as much more has been done
than has been recorded, ample and satisfactory as
are the volumes of the Berkshire Horticultural So
ciety, as also those of the Society of Pennsylvania,
the Transactions of the Society of Arts of Nbav York,

and of the Agricultural Board of that State, See. &Cv
Professor John W. Francis, a distinguished physician
of the city of New York, and an able contributor to
works in almost every branch of science, has touched
upon this subject, in an address delivered in Septem
ber, 1829, before the " New York Horticultural So--
ciety,". with his usual felicity; After having dwelt
upon the importance of horticultural studies, and the
attention which the science has received in Europe,
by the most eminent men who have adorned the an
nals of philosophy, he notices the condition of this
branch of human pursuit, in this country, as fol
lows : —
" Turn we," says Professor Francis, " from ancient
and venerable Europe, to the fresh and verdant fields
and ever-during forests of America. What accession
has been made to the treasures of the vegetable and
mineral kingdoms, what resources of the forests by
the discovery of the new world, Ave can only in part
conjecture. The extensive and well directed labours
of Humboldt and Bonpland, give us some idea of the
latent stores of nature ; and an inference may be
made, when we are told that the number of vegeta
ble species collected in Brazil, and now in the hands
of European botanists, is estimated at 14,000, of
which number, not more than 500 were known at
the commencement of the present century. We have
good reason to conclude that the north has not Avith-
beld her proportion.
" Our demonstrative proofs may be found by an
examination of the Floras of Pursh, of Bigelow, of
Torrey, of Muhlenburgh, of Barton, of Elliot, and of
Nuttali, with the species Plantarum of Linnseus.
"The colonial condition of this country prior to
the revolution, was little favourable to the promotion
of agriculture, or the cultivation of the arts. Accus
tomed to look up to the mother country as the seat of -
science, and the arbiter of her destiny, as well as for
protection, the provident arts were- neglected; and in
deed, England could scarcely be supposed desirous of
encouraging pursuits, Avhich would render her colo
nies less dependent. Nevertheless, Ave -find that at
even an early day, France, Spain, Holland, and Eng
land, sent out to this country men of science, to ex
plore the vegetable and mineral riches of the Ame
ricans, The names of La Hontan, Herrara, Henni-
pen, Clavigero, Clayton, Catesby, the elder Michaux,
Vanderdonk, Kaim, Wangenheim, Pownall, Schoepf,
Coxe, Bannister, will at once occur.
" The testimony of these able and enlightened
writers, is most respectful to the variety and value
of the productions of America, and amply vindicates
the equality of the western to the eastern hemisphere.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

153

It Avas the good fortune of many of these eminent
travellers, to find in their journeyings, kindred spirits,
with souls like their own, alive to the wild and novel
scenes of nature ; who looked upon the objects which
surrounded them, not merely as matters of curiosity,
but of taste, of benefit to -the arts culinary and reme
dial, of service in rural affairs and domestic economy.
Hence to investigation of properties, the practicability
of foreign naturalization became a subject of great
consideration. To facilitate researches and inquiries
of this kind, who could more advantageously be con
sulted than Mitchell, Clayton, Jefferson, and Walter,
of Virginia ; Garden, of South Carolina ; Boardsley,
of Maryland ;' Logan, Marshall, Bartram, Hecke
welder, and Rush, of Pennsylvania ; Colden and
Livingston, of New York ; Humphreys, of Connecti
cut ; Holyoke and Cutler, of Massachusetts ; and Bel
knap, of New Hampshire.
" In this reciprocity of intellectual pursuits, we
find much to illustrate the history of the tobacco, the
cotton plant, the sugar cane, the indigo, and many
of our most efficient medicinal remedies derived from
the vegetable kingdom. See further, the catalogue
of plants which may be useful in America, drawn up
by Ellis, the agent for West Florida, but whose ser
vices are, perhaps, better known to us, by his disco
very of the art of preserving seeds during long voy
ages. These practical philosophers seem, without
the lights of modern political economy, to have well
Understood, that the strength of a people mainly de
pended upon their agriculture, and that the introduc
tion of but a single grain or plant, as the rice of
Carolina, or the turnip of Norfolk, will sometimes
totally change the face and condition of a country.
There is a large amount of information on these
matters to be derived from the Linnean correspond
ence lately published by Sir James Edward Smith.
The zeal of the colonies to improve their natural ad
vantages, was equally rare and effective.
" Dr. Garden, of South Carolina, tells Ellis in his
letter, dated May, 1757 : ' at this time we certainly
send £150,000 sterling value of indigo to Britain,
and we take the manufactures of Britain for every
farthing of it.'
" An arithmetipal and geographical distribution has
been made of vegetables : the total number of species
of plants known, or believed to exist, amounts to
about 44,000 ; 38,000 of which have been described
according to Humboldt and Brown ; 7,000 of these
belong to Europe. In temperate America, in both
hemispheres, 4^000 ; in equinoctial America, 13,000 ;
of these 17,000, there are probably described, about
3,500. What a field of inquiry does this present to

our ingenious countrymen, and to the lover of phi
losophy every where ? We need not marvel that
Linnaeus was desirous of visiting America.
" Catesby, in 1767, observed that a small spot of
land in America, within less than half a century, fur
nished England with a greater variety of trees, than
had been procured from all other parts of the world,
for more than a thousand years past. Hoav far there
is reason for America to boast of her forests, we may
learn from Michaux. ' It should be remarked;' says
the younger Michaux, ' that the species of large trees
are much more numerous in North America, than
in Europe. In the United States there are more than
one hundred and forty species that exceed thirty feet
in height, all of which I have examined and descri
bed : in France, there are but thirty that attain to
this size, of which eighteen enter into the composition
of the forest, and seven only are employed in building.'
" A late English traveller, in his journey through
the western states, remarks on Kentucky ; ' the
scenery is peculiarly fine, with attendant cultivation.
Here the trees attain an altitude and a size unknown
in Europe.' In short, every additional information
Ave derive from the researches and enterprise of en
lightened adventurers, gives us additional proofs of
the extraordinary natural riches of our vegetable
Avorld. Mr. David Douglas, a practical botanist,
who but very recently returned from an exploratory
tour to the west coast of North America, has com
municated to the Horticultural Society of London,
riches hitherto unknown in the products of the vege
table kingdom. Among them Ave find two new spe
cies of pine, of more gigantic dimensions than any
hitherto described in Europe or America. One spe
cies {Pinus Doug-lasii) grows to the height of two
hundred and thirty feet, and is upwards of fifty feet
in circumference at its base. It is stated to have a
rough corky bark, from one inch to twelve inches
thick. The leaves resemble those of the spruce, and
the cones are small. The timber is heavy and of
good quality. It was found growing on the banks of
the Columbia, where it forms extensive forests, ex
tending from the shores of the Pacific to the Stony
Mountains. The other species {Pinus Lambertiana)
was discovered in Northern California, where it is
dispersed over large tracts of country. It is a most
majestic tree. One specimen, which in consequence
of its having blown doAvn, Mr. Douglas was enabled
to measure, was two hundred and fifteen feet in length,
fifty-seven feet nine inches in circumference at three
feet from the root, and seventeen feet five inches at
one hundred and thirty-four feet. It is thought to
be the largest mass of timber ever measured by man ;

154

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

and yet some of the growing specimens of the same
pine were evidently of greater elevation. A singular
property of this tree is, that when the timber is partly
burned, the turpentine loses its peculiar flavour, and
assumes a sweetish taste. It is used by the natives
as a substitute for sugar.
" A people so enlightened, scattered over a territory
so Avidely extended, diversified by such great variety
both in soil and climate, Avould naturally turn their
attention to the augmentation of the native resources
of the country, to the products of the soil, and their
own better accommodation. To these circumstances
we may attribute the origin of our numerous agricul
tural societies. The earliest association devoted to
this express object, was the Agricultural Society of
Pennsylvania, founded in 1785. This has proved
the most successful institution of the kind in the
United States, and has had great influence in ameli
orating the condition of husbandry in our sister com-
monAvealth. " The introduction of plaster of Paris, which has
had a most important and decided effect on the agri
culture of America, under the direction of Judge
Peters, is owing to this society. Let those. who
would distinctly learn the extent of obligation by this
innovation, read the essay of this learned judge and
practical farmer. While I bear my feeble testimony
to the value of the sendees of the Pennsylvania So
ciety, and look into their printed records for the ma
terials of sound georgical science from the experi
enced Cooper, Mease, Hoi combe, Haines, Pickering,
and others ; of Judge Peters, I may be permitted to
take a passing notice. Arriving at adolescence during
the troublesome period of the revolution, he embarked
in it with characteristic zeal andintrepidity. On the
termination of that momentous struggle, he com
menced the study of the science of the law, and soon
became so distinguished a member of the bar, that he
was elevated at an early age to a seat on the bench
of the supreme court. The intervals of a laborious
profession, he devoted to the cultivation of that
science, in honour of Avhich we this day convene.
To no individual is agriculture more indebted than
to this distinguished man, and the volumes of the
Agricultural Transactions of Pennsylvania, contain
the evidences of his devotion and care. Long may
his memory continue to be honoured among us, and
may his example stimulate others to similar efforts in
the cultivation of this noble science.
" The Agricultural Society of Berkshire is con
spicuous among these establishments. Instituted by
the public spirit and foresight of the venerable Elka
nah Watson, it has become noted throughout our

states, for the wisdom and success of its operations.
In the ancient and patriotic state of Virginia, the
Albemarle Agricultural Society boasts as its active
president and most efficient member, the former chief
magistrate of our nation, the illustrious Madison.
" Of the vital importance of agriculture and horti
culture, the legislature of the state of New York has
always been duly sensible. At an early period, the
members of that honourable body formed themselves
into ft society for the promotion of those branches of
physical knowledge ; and at least, this good has flow
ed from their zeal, that our state has been gradually
stimulated to a degree of exertion and patronage in
favour of these pursuits, greater than that of any other
member of the confederacy.
" All our governors since the revolution, from the
patriotic George Clinton to his enlightened relative,
have, in their communications to our state councils,
recommended this great interest to their protection.
' As agriculture is the source of our subsistence, (says
the late De Witt Clinton, in his inaugural speech as
governor of NeAV York,) the basis of our strength, and
the foundation of our prosperity, it is pleasing to ob
serve the public attention awakened to its importance,
and associations springing up in several counties, to
cherish its interests.' Again he observes, ' this im
portant pursuit is the foundation of wealth, power,
and prosperity : it requires the energies of the mind,
as well as the powers of the body: it demands the
light of science to guide its progress, and the munifi
cence of government to accelerate its movements, to
extend its usefulness, and to diffuse its blessings.'
" Alive to these views, a society for the promotion
of agriculture and the useful arts, Avas organized by
our state authorities in 1791, and no one can read
the memorials of their acts and proceedings, without
feeling the obligation this state owes to the good sense
and practical sagacity of the members of this early
association, Rutherford, L'Hommedieu, Jones, De
Witt, Kent, and the late Chancellor Livingston.
" At the earnest suggestion of the late Governor
Clinton, an act was passed by the legislature of New
York, in 1819, for tbe institution of a board of agri
culture, and the sum of $10,000 appropriated annu
ally for six years, to further its various objects in the
different counties of the state.
" Of the peculiar merits of the transactions of the
agricultural board, let the learned and skilful in geor
gical science speak : But wherever agriculture is ap
preciated as an art, or understood as a science, the
labours of Armstrong, Buel, De Witt, Bradley, Brown,
Van Rensselaer, and Featherstonhaugh, will be re
cognised, and add to that spirit of emulation which

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

155

is indispensable to the cultivation of rural affairs. ' If
the county of Schoharie alone,' says E. Watson, 'had
received all this bounty, it would have fully justified
the Avisdom of our councils.'
' " To render this hasty sketch of the progress of
rural affairs less imperfect, it would become necessary
to take some notice of the establishment of botanical
and other horticultural institutions in this country ;
of the gardens of Parmentier, Prince, and others ; but
opportunity does not allow us at this time.
' " In common with all lovers of nature, we must
regret the destruction of the garden at Charleston, the
earliest in these states, and formed by the elder Mi
chaux : The Botanical Garden at Kingsess was long
the theme of praise, and is still the resort of philoso
phy. This establishment was first carried into effect
by the self-taught naturalist, John Bartram. Here, in
a delightful situation, he brought together a large
collection of American plants and exotics, and by
extensive travelling through the country, from Canada
to Florida, added to their number. So successful a
botanist did he become, that Linnasus, in one of his
letters, speaks of him as the greatest natural botanist
in the world.
" He maintained an extensive correspondence with
eminent men, both in his native country and abroad,
and Gronovius and Kaim, Hans Sloane and Linnaeus,
were instructed by his discoveries. Subsequently
the garden came under the superintendence of his
son William, extensively known by his travels, who
seems to have inherited the unwearied zeal and vigo
rous capacity of his father, for the sublime studies of
nature. In 1801, the former distinguished president
(Dr. David Hosack) of this society, instituted by in
dividual effort, an extensive botanic garden in the vi
cinity of this city, which Avas purchased by the state
in 1810. Flourishing under its founder, it perished
under the neglect of the public. It is not for me to
speak of the disgrace which the state sustains by its
failure in this enterprise.
The New York Horticultural Society, though re
cently instituted, has not been without its profitable^
results. The products of our gardens, and the rich
ness of our markets, indicate its salutary effects ;
which, I trust, are the harbingers of still more valu
able and important advantages. It must be gratifying
to those who have so assiduously laboured in the
cause, that the services of this society have been
placed in so favourable a light, by the president
(Myron Holley, Esq.) of a kindred institution in the
western part of this state. Indeed, this day's exhibi
tion has regaled our senses with richer gifts than
have been presented to us on any former occasion.

" This city is most happily situated for the pur
poses to which this society is devoted. Open in its
intercourse to every part of the globe, it receives in
its capacious bosom, the tribute of every climate and
soil ; and, under proper regulations, this institution
may be the means of rendering the most ample re
turns. Moreover, by a proper understanding with
our sister states, a profitable interchange may be es
tablished Avith every part of our country, and above
all, the different counties of our state may be made
to partake in all the rich variety of our natural and
artificial culture. Already has one of our western
counties imitated our example, and borne testimony
to our success. May the example spread. — This so
ciety will not withhold its countenance, and Avhatever
aid may lie within its power.
" It will not, perhaps, be deemed foreign to the
objects of this discourse, to suggest to the proper au
thorities, the propriety of establishing in the vicinity
of this city, or in whatever place may be deemed most
appropriate, an institution for the promotion of Agri
culture, in a mode somewhat analogous to that of the
military academy at West Point. An experimental
farm, with a school for instruction in the various
branches of preliminary education and agriculture,
the teachers paid by the state, the student at liberty
either to make compensation by labour on the farm,
or by pecuniary remuneration, for the expenses of his
living ; to each county the privilege afforded of
sending a pupil for a certain number of years, and in
proportion to its representation in the house of assem
bly, would probably be the best means of furnishing
to each portion and section of the state, every im
provement which either philosophy or experience
might contribute to this science. How far the inter
ference of this society in favour of such a project,
might aid in its accomplishment, or whether indeed
the suggestion is worthy of their consideration, I
leave to the determination of those who possess a
more intimate and practical acquaintance with these
affairs. ' The art of agriculture, (says Sir John Sin
clair,) can never be brought to its highest degree of per
fection, or established on rational and unerring princi
ples, unless by means of experiments accurately tried,
and properly persevered in. The ardent inquirer has
too long been obliged to rely on vague opinions and as
sertions, which have not been warranted by sufficient
authority. It is full time, therefore, by the establish
ment of experimental farms, under the sanction, and
at the expense of government, or by enabling the
board of Agriculture to grant adequate premiums to
deserving persons for new discoveries, to bring the
art to as great perfection as possible, by ascertain-

156

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

ing the principles on which it ought to be con
ducted.' "Whether the New York Horticultural Society
Avill be content in the present sphere of its usefulness,
a usefulness admitted by the unanimous approbation
of our citizens, and lauded by the soundest farmers of
our country, depends, as all future operations must do,
upon the available means it may command, and the
energy and cordial co-operation of its members. In
wider sphere, objects of no less consideration, and, per
haps, of greater value, might justly demand a portion
of its care, and the employment of its resources.
" Of the many subjects deserving particular inqui
ry, conspicuous among all others, would be a greater
attention to trees, the ornament and defence of our
nation ; Decus et tutamen.
' With the tree,' says Pliny, ' we plough the ocean
and the land, and construct our dwellings.'
" Neither the federal government, nor the several
states, have reserved forests. The effect is already
very sensibly felt in the large cities, where the -com
plaint is every year becoming more serious, not only
on account of the excessive dearness of fuel, but for
the scarcity of timber. Even now inferior wood is
frequently substituted for the white oak ; and the live
oak, so highly esteemed in ship-building, will soon
become extinct upon the lands of Georgia.
" Several admirable papers have been published
on the best means of cultivating and preserving our
fruit trees, by those of our countrymen Avho were
most competent, from practical knowledge on the
subject. The venerable Thacher has enriched this
department of horticultural science with a sound
A'olume, entitled the Orchardist. Among American
physicians, Dr. Thacher ranks high, not only by his
labours in his profession, but by various efforts in
the departments of natural science. In his Military
Journal of American Independence, his patriotism
and his fidelity to truth are equally evident. But it
is more pertinent to our present purpose to observe,
that his Orchardist may be consulted by American
farmers with advantage, and that by his recent work
On Bees, he has evinced a degree of observation,
Avhich adds to his reputation as an admirer of na
ture. May I be permitted to add, that my OAvn per
sonal acquaintance Avith this exemplary individual,
corresponds with the opinion I had formed of his
character, and that he unites to the utmost urbanity
of demeanour, the most valuable qualifications in his
profession. Mr. Coxe, of New Jersey, in his Trea
tise on Fruit Trees, has displayed a research which

gives his labours a value not possessed by those of
Forsyth ; and several reprints in this country of the
Agricultural Chemistry of Sir Humphrey Davy, de
monstrate that the philosophy of agriculture has be
come a study of deep interest to our American
farmers. " On the cultivation of the silk, a distinguished
member of this society, Dr. Pascalis, has lately fa
voured us with the first portion of a treatise of great
excellence, on the cultivation of the mulberry tree.
Of the redeeming powers which this nation possesses
in the consequences which must ensue from this cul
ture, let the statesman and the political economist
speak. Our foreign trade in silk costs this nation
annually fourteen millions of dollars. In the opinion
of some of our most capable judges, the culture of
silk might become a subject of great importance
among us, and thus the fair daughters of our land be
decorated only in native charms ; for American beauty
needs not the aid of foreign ornctment. Within the
past week we have been informed, that at a late
meeting of the Agricultural Society of Ohio, beauti
ful specimens of silk, the growth and. manufacture of
that state, were exhibited.
" The cultivation of the vine is also here noticed,
because the feasibility of the measure is most readily
admitted, by those who know most on -the subject.
More than fifty years ago, a judicious practical ob
server urged its practicability upon the attention of
this state, as one of peculiar importance, and entirely
Avithin their power. But without a longer enumera
tion, I will briefly add, that a philosopbical inquiry
might well be instituted into the expediency of re
viving the cultivation of indigo, and the greater se
curity to life and health, in deriving this article from
the dry rather than from the wet leaf.
" In the culture of cotton and the sugar cane, long
time as both these staples have occupied our atten
tion, each challenges greater care and more correct
principles. The invention of the cotton gin, for
separating the seed from the cotton, and the applica
tion of improved machinery to the manufacture of
the raw material, have given to this article its pre
sent value and importance : they are the great agents
by which all the wonders of the cotton cultivation
in the United States have been effected. In 1789, a
member of the house of representatives of the United
States, from South Carolina, stated, that the people
of the southern states intended to cultivate cotton ;
and added, if good seed could be procured, he hoped
they might succeed. In 1817, the cotton exported
amounted to 86,649,328 pounds. If Professor Olm
sted's late experiments on cotton seed shall be proved

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

157

to be correct, we have still further inducements held
out to us. We have good reason to believe that
South Carolina alone may furnish three millions of
bushels of cotton seed, Avhich will command nearly
a million of dollars for the manufacture of oil, when
the principle of its manipulation shall be fully, esta
blished. The nature, composition^ and analysis of
our soils, offers much for the talents of the most skil
ful. Dr. Macneven has already in part performed
this service : it would be well, for agriculture, that
others would imitate his example, and rival his efforts.
" In an augmented sphere of action, this society
would be obligated to throw light on those intricate
subjects, the diseases of vegetable life and of domes
tic animals. Here is a vast and comparatively un
explored field, which, if properly investigated, Avould
give to the husbandman a triumph for his toils, which
he despairs of ever possessing in the present condi
tion of our knowledge. The agriculturist Avho
stocks his farm with foreign breeds, or cultivates our
domestic animals with proper solicitude, Avould de
rive results from studies connected with the economy
of animals and their disorders, and the comparative
illustrations adduced from vegetable life, that could
not fail to secure the most desirable results. We
have reason to suppose that these pursuits were che-
.rished with special regard in the early state of hus
bandry and rural economy.
" The contested points concerning seedlings and
ingraftings, demand our severest scrutiny. Mr.
..Knight's inferences, that those fruit trees which have
for rnore than a century been propagated by ingraft
ing, and not from seeds, are liable to canker, and are
not worth cultivation, have recently been ascertained
to be too well founded. The golden pipin is fast wear
ing out, and the winter pears of England have nearly
disappeared. But fortunately, they (the English) have
lately procured from our country, by means of our
late president, (Dr. David Hosack,) the seckle pear,
already of extensive growth among them, a fruit
which they pronounce of excellent flavour. I saw
that the plane trees (American platanus occidentalis)
in the gardens of Chelsea, Oxford, and Cambridge,
were all of them simultaneously in a state of decay,
though they had flourished in these respective places
for a long series of years. The conservators of those
gardens, with all their philosophy, were unable to
explain the cause. Do the products of grafting die
with the parent stock ? Miller long ago observed,
that herbaceous plants propagated by cuttings, be
came sterile in a few years. Are tbere disorders of
:an epidemical and hereditary nature among trees and
¦Vegetables ? What is the cause of the calamity which
Vol. II.— Nos. 49 <fc 50. U

has lately befallen the venerable elm, both in this
country and in Europe ? Flax, so much neglected
at present, might, with proper attention, become one
of the most productive and profitable occupations of
husbandry. It is one of the labyrinths of our policy,
to account for the present neglect on this subject.
" That our agriculturists have the means, under
improved and more extensive regulations, to secure
to themselves and to their descendants, the blessings
now in anticipation by such investigations, is seen
in the discoveries and suggestions they have already
made. We need most the precepts of those Avho
practice on our OAvn soil; and after having perused
the works of Dickson, and Marshall, and Hunter,
and Abercrombie, we turn Avith a more solid, because
a more practical satisfaction, to the pages of our OAvn
Avriters ; the New England Farmer of Deane, the
American Gardener of Fessenden, the Kitchen Gar
den of Wilson, and the Essays of Arator, by Taylor,
of Virginia. In addition, the New England Farmer,
by Fessenden ; the New York Farmer, under the
patronage of this society ; the American Farmer of
Skinner, and other periodical journals, by their mu
tual co-operation and rivalry, contribute - to illustrate
and extend the principles and improvements of Ame
rican horticulture.
"I am -proud that my native state has not been
behind hand in furnishing her quota of distinguished
writers and patrons of agriculture.
" The late Chancellor Livingston will ever be
cherished by New York, as one of her most gifted
sons ,and accomplished agriculturists. After devo
ting his youth and manhood to the defence of his
country in the hour of peril, and his maturer years
to rear her civil institutions, asking permission to
retire from political tumult and contention, he taught
our hardy farmers how to till the- soil Avith most
profit, and what herds might most advantageously
graze upon her lawns. Of Dr. Mitchill, of this city,
it would be unjust to omit his name in the list of
those who, by their talents and knowledge, have con
tributed to encourage a taste among us for the beau
ties of nature. His versatile talents, his various
knowledge, his urbanity and courtesy, are known to
all of you ; but I can not omit the opportunity to say,
that amidst the bustle and business of a commercial
metropolis, surrounded by the zealous and exclusive
devotees of wealth, he has nobly pursued the path
of science, generously pointed out the way to our
youth, and cheered them in their course. If there
be among us any taste for Natural History, to him
are we in a great degree indebted for it ; and that
excellent institution, the Lyceum of Natural History

158

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

of New York, attests his activity and zeal, and con
tains the recorded evidences of his science.
,, " There still resides among us another distinguish
ed citizen,, (Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer,) whose
name reminds us of all that is magnificent in patron
age, and generous in hospitality ; and Ayhose exertions
in the interests of agriculture, have far exceeded all
that has been allotted to any other individual of our
state. Omitting as irrelevant to our purpose, his
labours in the councils of the nation, I shall only at
present point out to you, countries explored, and in
stitutions for agriculture founded, by his wealth, and
reared by his care. Long may this illustrious citizen
live to exhibit to our people, a benignant example of
the civic virtues of opulence devoted to the benefit of
the indigent, and of patronage bestowed on the arts
of agriculture.
" In the absence of all aid from the state, no means
•can be devised more appropriate to those great under
takings, than the union of those devoted to their ac
complishment. Most happy have been the results of
the labours of those who have united in efforts re
quiring co-operation ; stimulated by mutual zeal, and
rewarded by mutual success.
" Is it an unwarrantable extravagance, to anticipate
that America will become the chosen residence of
agriculture, and the rites of Flora. Although in the.
infancy of our condition, commerce, and more re
cently, manufactures, have gained a supremacy ; and
the former, as contributory most to its support, may
also expect to attain most of its protection ; the claims
of agriculture will ultimately prevail in a country of
such boundless extent, and which no less boasts in
dependence on the rest of the world by the multipli
city of its resources, than it sets defiance to their
poAver, by the vigour and Aralour of its population. We
trust it never can be said, that a people who derived
their origin from the most enlightened of modern
nations, in an age fertile beyond all former example
in genius and improvement, Avho Avere impelled by
elevated and generous incentives in their adventure,
and Avhen checked in their enterprise, turned their
arms with dauntless boldness, and final success, upon
their unnatural parents ; who inhabit a country which
contains within itself, the productions of every soil
and climate, become recreant to its own honour and
greatness, and false to its own high destiny. The
omens are auspicious : and when in the course of
time, and the progress of society, her population shall
have beconle augmented, and her resources develop
ed ; when the grandeur and sublimity of her native
scenery, and the magnificence of her rivers shall
have been appropriated and cultivated, and the fairy

hand of civilization have enchanted and enlivened
her woods arid forests, admiring nations will yield
that tribute to her moral greatness, which they had
before rendered to the arm of her physical power.
, " The present age can alone be supposed to have
been fully aware of the advantages of science, or to
have improved it with the proper aids of experiment
and art. In Great Britain have those facilities com
bined, which were necessary to the development of
its principles. In- having recourse to her science, we
do but acknowledge her greater maturity in those
arts, in which it will be our pride to join hereafter in
mutual emulation. The obligation will be recipnh
cal, and she is already indebted to us for a gift more
precious than the mines of Potosi.
" Of the moral purity and dignity inherent in the
cultivation of the earth, I need not here insist at
length. It is too obvious to be misunderstood, and
is illustrated in the life and writings of many of the
most distinguished names in our own, as well as in
foreign nations. I will merely allude to the fact,
that a garden was the seat of man- in his state of in
nocence, and that it Avas in a garden that Plato and
Aristotle instructed their disciples in sublime lessons
of wisdom, inferior only to the truths which revela
tion has brought to light. And when majestic Rome
subjugated and civilized the barbarous nations around
her, by the vigour of her arms and the triumphs of
her policy, the commanders of her victorious legions
were chosen from the cultivators of her fields.
"In our OAvn nation," concludes Dr. Francis, "the
father of his country left reluctantly the farm for the
field of battle, and having overcome the enemies of
freedom, returned to the labours of agriculture. And
Avhen a second time his sendees were demanded, ha
ving filled the measure of his Own and his country's
glory, he again resumed those peaceful pursuits which
it was his delight to cherish, and which nothing but
his country's call could have induced him to forego.
Thence he was summoned by his Maker to a higher
scene; and although death on the field of battle is
more consonant to human pride, to surrender our life
at his bidding, is more agreeable to the wish of our
Maker, Thus it was ordered by his Creator, that
man in a state of innocence, should exercise the arts
of agriculture for his enjoyment, and in a state of
trial, its labour for his security. The foundations of
our republic were cemented in blood; but let us trust
that its supremacy will be reared by the innocent arts
of peace."*

* See Address delivered before the New York Horticultural
Society, at their anniversary, 1829. By John W. Francis, M.I>.,
&c. New York, Conrad, 8vo. 1830.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES,

159

CHAPTER II.

MANUFACTURES.

The subject on which we now enter is one, the
importance of which is too deeply felt by the mass of
the community, both in America and Great Britain,
especially at the present period, to require any prefa
tory observations to attract attention to it. The
manufactures of the United States, if not altogether
of recent origin, are of surprising recent growth.
During their colonial state, the British government
discouraged to the utmost every tendency to manu
facture even comparatively trifling articles : Avith
other .articles, the manufacture of hats Avas entirely
prohibited.* The cessation of intercourse between
the two countries during the revolutionary period,
gave- the first great impulse to the manufacturing
principle, and left the states no longer dependent on
Britain for several, of the minor articles of manufacr
ture. " On the return of peace, in 1783," says Mr.
Everett, in his admirable address before the Ameri
can Institute, October 14, 1831,t " the influx of
foreign goods, in many respects prejudicial to the
country, proved in the highest degree disastrous to
its mechanical and manufacturing industry. The
Avant of one national government, and the division
of the powers of government among thirteen sove
reignties, made it impossible, by a uniform revenue
system, to remedy the evil. The states generally at
tempted, by their separate navigation laws, to secure
their trade to their OAvn vessels ; but the rivalry and
selfish policy of some states counteracted the efforts
of others, and eventually threw almost the whole
navigation of the country into foreign hands. So
low had it sunk in Boston, that in 1788 it was thought

* " While the colonies were increasing in population, and en
deavouring to secure to themselves, in some degree^ the1 benefits of
their own industry and economy, complaints were constantly made
to parliament, by interested individuals, that the colonists were not
only carrying on trade, but were setting up manufactures detrimental
to Great Britain. These complaints produced an order ofthe house
of commons, in 1731, directing the Board of Trade to inquire and
report, ' with respect to laws made, manufactures set up, or trade
carried on, detrimental to the trade, navigation, or manufactures of
Great Britain.' In a report made, in pursuance of this order, the
commissioners found that certain trades carried on, and manufac
tures set up in the colonies, were injurious to the trade, navigation,
and manufactures of the parent country. Among the manufac
tures,- were enumerated those of wool and flax, iron, paper, hats,
and leather. The Company of Hatters in London complained that
great quantities of hats were made in New England, and exported
to Spain, Portugal, and the British West India islands; and through
their influence, an act of parliament was procured, not only to pre
vent the exportation of hats from'the colonies to -foreign countries,
and from being carried from one plantation to another, but to re
strain, to a certain extent, the manufacture of them in the colonies.
In 1732, hats were prohibited from being shipped, or even laden
upon a horse, cart, -or other carriage, with an intent to be exported
to any other plantation, or to any place whatever. At the same

expedient, on grounds of patriotism, to get up a subscrip
tion to build three ships ; and this incident, proving
nothing but the poverty and depression of the town,
Avas hailed as one which would give renewed activity
to the industry of the tradespeople and mechanics of
Boston ! The same class of citizens, and the manu
facturers in general, in the state of Massachusetts,
petitioned the government of that state, by bounties,
imposts, and prohibitions, to protect their industry.
This prayer Avas granted, and a tariff of duties laid,
which, in some points, — that of coarse cottons for in
stance, — Avas higher than any duty laid by congress
before the war of 1812. But the state of the country
rendered these laAvs of little avail. Binding in Bos
ton, they were of no validity in Rhode Island ; and
what Avas subject to duty in New York, might be im
ported free in Connecticut and New Jersey. The
state of the (industry of the country was depressed to
a point of distress unknown in the midnight of the
revolution. The shipping had dwindled to nothing.
The maniffactu ring establishments were kept up by
bounties, and by patriotic associations and subscrip
tions, and even the common trades were, threatened;
with ruin. It was plain, for instance, that, in the
comparative condition of the United States and Great
Britain, not a hatter, a boot or shoe maker, a saddler,
or a brassfounder, could carry on his business, except
in the coarsest and most ordinary productions of their
various trades, under the pressure of foreign compe
tition. Thus was presented the extraordinary and
calamitous spectacle of a successful revolution wholly
failing of its ultimate object* The people of Ameri
ca had gone to war, not for names, but for things':
it was not merely to change a government, adminis
tered by kings, princes, and ministers, for a govern-

time, no hatter in the colonies was allowed to employ more than
two apprentices at once, or to make hats, unless he had served an
apprenticeship to the trade seven years, and no black or negro was
permitted to work at the. business of making hats.
" The manufacturers of iron next claimed their share in the be
nefits to be derived from the colonies. They were willing the poor
colonists should reduce the iron ore, with which their land abound
ed, into pigs, and even bar iron, and that the same be brought to
their doors, duty free, provided they could monopolize the manu
facture of it beyond this incipient stage. In the year 1750, parlia
ment permitted pig and bar iron to be imported from the colonies
into London duty free, but prohibited the erection or continuance
of any mill or other engine for slitting or rolling iron, i or any pla
ting forge, to work with a tilt hammer, or any furnace for making
steel in the colonies, under the penalty of two hundred pounds.
More effectually to carry this act into execution, every such mill,
engine, plating forge', and furnace, was declared a common nui
sance, and the governors of the colonies, on the information of two
witnesses on oath, were directed to cause the same to be abated
within thirty days, or to forfeit the sum of 50(M." — Pitkin's Civil
and Political History, vol. i. p. 101, 103.
t We should recommend all our readers wko feel interested in
the question of " free trade," 1o procure this judicious and lucid
discourse.

160

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

ment administered by presidents, and secretaries, and
members of congress ; it Avas to redress their own
grievances, to improve their own condition, to throw
off the burden which the colonial sytsem laid on their
industry. To attain these objects, they endured in
credible hardships, and bore and suffered almost be
yond the measure of humanity. And when their in
dependence was attained, they found it was a piece-
of parchment. The arm which had struck for it in
the field, was palsied in the workshop ; the industry
which had been burdened in the colonies, Avas crush
ed in the free states ; and, at the close of the revolu
tion, the mechanics and manufacturers of the country
found themselves, in the bitterness of their hearts,
independent — and ruined. They looked round them
in despair. They cast about for means of relief, and
found none, but in a plan of a voluntary association
throughout the continent, and an appeal to the patri
otism of their fellow-citizens. Such an association
was formed in Boston in 1787 or 1788, and a circu
lar letter was addressed by them to their brethren
throughout the union. The proposal was favoura
bly received, and in some of the cities zealously acted
upon ; but, unsupported by a general legislation, its
effects must at best have been partial and inadequate.
But before our meritorious citizens had discovered
this, by sad experience, a neAV and unhoped-for reme
dy for their" sufferings had been devised. The day-
star of the constitution arose ; and of all the classes
of the people of America, to whose hearts it came as
the harbinger of blessings long hoped for and long
despaired of, most unquestionably the tradesmen,-
mechanics, and manufacturers; ha'iled it Avith the
warmest Avelcome. It had in fact groAvn out of the
all-pervading inefficiency and wretchedness of the
revenue system, which had been felt in ruin by them
more than by any other Glass."
Under the new constitution, a system' of revenue
laws, which afforded considerable protection to the
manufacturers, was adopted ; and to these, combined
with the effect of the embargo of 1807, and the sub
sequent war, the present manufacturing system of
the United States may be said to owe its rise ; for
the progressive enactrrients of protecting' duties since
the close of the war may be truly said to have been
originated by the amount of capital involved and la
bour employed previously. Before Ave notice the
particular species of manufactures noAv carried on, a
general sketch of their progress, and the legislative
measures by Avhich they have been fostered, will not
only afford matter of interest to the political econo
mist, but Avill enable those engaged in mercantile pur
suits to form a tolerably correct idea of the course

which will probably be, pursued in future by the
United States.
The first attempt to obtain a general account . of
the state of manufactures throughout the United
States, was made by the government in 1810. The
marshals of the several states, and the secretaries of
the territories, and their assistants, were directed,
pursuant to instructions from the secretary of the
treasury, to make returns of the manufacturing esta
blishments, and of the manufactures- within their re
spective districts, territories, and divisions, and these
were transmitted to the secretary of the treasury, for
the purpose of being laid before congress. Some
elaborate and valuable returns were made and trans
mitted, though the greater number of them were ir
regular, and evidently very deficient ; those which
came from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York,
Pennsylvania, and Virginia, were the most complete.
Notwithstanding, however, the imperfection of the
returns, the agents reported 1,776 carding machines,
by Avhich 7,417,216 pounds of materials had been
carded; 1.6S2 fulling mills, and 5,452,960 yards,
which had been -fulled ; 122,647 spindles ; 325,392
looms ; 153 iron furnaces, and 53,908 tons of iron
manufactured ; 330 forges, which made 24,541 tons
of bar iron ; 316 trip hammers ; 34 rolling and slit
ting mills, Avhich required 6,500 tons of iron ; 410
naileries, in which 15,727,914 pounds of nails had
been made ; 4,316 tanneries, producing 2,608,240
pounds of leather ; 383 flaxseed oil mills, making
770,583 gallons of oil ; 141,191 distilleries, produ
cing 22,977,167 gallons of spirits from grain, and
2,827,625 gallons from molasses ; 132 breweries, in
which 182,690 barrels of beer had been made ; 89
carriage makers, who^made 2,413 carriages ; 33 Su
gar refineries, in which 7,867,2.11 pounds of refined
sugar had been manufactured ; 179 paper mills, fur
nishing 425,521 reams of paper ; 4 stainers, who'
stained and stamped 148,000 pieces ~ of paper ; 22
glass works, Avhich furnished 4,967,000 square feet
of window glass ; 194 potteries ; 82 snuff mills ; 208
gunpowder mills,in which 1,397,111 pounds of pow
der had been made.
The following, summary of the value of the ma
nufactures of the United States is founded on the
above returns : — - ' Value in Dollars.
1 Goods manufactured by the loom, from cotton,
wool, flax, hemp, and silk; including-stockings 39,497,057
2 Other goods spun from the five materials above
enumerated  2,052,120
3 Instruments and machinery manufactured, esti
mated at 186,650 dollars ;" carding, fulling,
and floorcloth stamping by machinery, estima
ted at 5,957,816 dollars  , 6,144,466

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

161

,;;;:,,., . , , Value in Dollars.
4 Hats of wool, fur, &c, and from mixtures thereof 4,323,744
5 Manufactures of iron ; .-' . .'. ¦ . . . J4;364,526
6 Ditto of gold, silver, set work, mixed metals, &c. 2,483,912
7 Ditto of lead ... . . , . . ... . 325,560
8 Soap, tallow candles, and wax, spermaceti, and
whale oil ¦ . . . . -. . ... . ". . 1,766,292
9 Manufactures of hides, and skins ... . ..-.-.'. 17,935,477
10 Ditto from seeds . .... . . . . . . 858,509
1 1 Ditto from graiji, fruit, and case liquors, distilled
and fermented  16,528,207
12 Dry manufactures from, grain, exclusively of
flour, meal, &c. . . .'.¦'.'. . . „. . . 75,766
13 Manufactures of wood . . '. . .'. . . . 5,554,708
14 Ditto of essences and oils,, and from wood - . . 179,150
15 Refined sugars . . ... . . . . . .; 1,415,724
16 Manufactures of paper, pasteboard, cards, &c. . 1,939,285
17 Ditto of marble, stone, and slate . ".. . . . . 462,115
18-Ditto of glass . . . . . . . ... '. . . ¦ 3,047,004
19 Earthen manufactures . . . -. . . . ... 259,720
20 Tobacco ditto . . . ..... . ... . 1,260,378
21 Drugs, dye stuflfs, paints, and dyeing .... 500,382
22 Cables and cordage . . .  4,243,168
23 Manufactures of hair .  129,731
24 Miscellaneous manufactures ....... 4,347,611

Dollars 127,694,602

Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia, to whom the
secretary of the treasury, in 1810, confided the ar
rangement of the returns of the marshals, &c, con
cerning, the manufactures of the United States, in
addition to the above ' estimates, observes, " From a
consideration of all the reported details, and by a
valuation of the manufactures which are entirely
omitted, or imperfectly returned, for 1810, the fore
going amount of 127,694,602 dollars, is extended to
172,762,676 dollars ; the sum last mentioned does
not embrace the doubtful articles. The doubtful
branches include such manufactures as have a very
near relation in their character; to; and connexion
with, agricultural pursuits, among which are the fol
lowing ; viz-, cotton pressing, flour and meal, the
mills for grinding grain, the barrels for csntaining
the articles manufactured, malt, saw mills, horse mills,
pot and pearl ashes, maple sugar, sugar from the cane,
molasses, "rosin, pitch,- slate, bricks, tiles, Saltpetre, in
digo, red ochre, yellow ochre, hemp and hemp mills,
fisheries, lime, grinding of plaster of -Paris, <fec. &c. ;
all of- which are estimated at 25,850,795 dollars,
making the aggregate value of the manufactures, of
every description, within the United States, for 1810,
198,613,471 dollars."
The preceding was the state of American manu
factures previously to the war, which lasted from
1812 to 1815. During this period, the country was
in the same state with regard to manufactures, as
though they had been protected by duties .absolutely
prohibitory, and, consequently, a most amazing in
crease of the capital and labour engaged in manu

factures accrued, especially in the staple articles of
cottons, woollens, and iron. The capital employed in
various -manufactures at this period has been estima
ted at 1000 millions of dollars ; but on the return of
peace, - the influx of European goods reduced the
prices nearly 50 per cent., and- closed, probably, one
half the manufacturing establishments of the Union.
This circumstance alone could not fail, to Iraise the
question of the propriety of some additional protect
ing enactments being passed ; but the effect of the
British corn laws on both the agriculture and com
merce of America, tended yet more than the distressed
state of her manufactures to render popular the im
position of protecting duties; and in 1816 a consider
able increase of duties on many articles of foreign com
merce Avas enacted by congress. A few years' experi
ence, however, under the uninterrupted operation of
the commercial regulations of the two countries, de
monstrated that inequalities still existed, and produced
the' conviction, that a further modification of the reve
nue laws was necessary. The people themselves took
the le'ad, and gave the impulse to congress. An unsuc
cessful attempt was made in 1822. In 1824, the at
tempt succeeded, and various augmentations in the
imposts were made, Avith the view of protecting Ame
rican manufactures, and to secure to them the domestic
market. On some articles of foreign manufacture, and
more especially on the great British staple of cotton
cloths, duties were imposed almost prohibitory, except
on those of the finer kind ; and the experience of a feAV*
years established the ability of the Americans to sup
ply themselves with manufactured cottons, upon bet
ter terms than they could be procured from England,
On Avoollen manufactures, the duty imposed in 1824
proved inadequate fer protection ; and the languish
ing state of that manufacture indicated the ruin of
those engaged in it, without further legislative en
couragement. Application was accordingly made to
the nineteenth congresSj for an increase of duties on
imported woollens. After a long and animated dis
cussion, the bill received' the sanction of the house,
106 to 95 ; but was laid on the table (which was
equivalent to rejection) in the senate, by "the casting
vote of the vice-president. Steps were immediately
taken to bring the subject again before congress ; and
a general' convention of delegates from the states was
held at Harrisburgh, with the view of concentrating
public opinion, and of obtaining an harmonious Co
operation in the measures' to be taken for the encou
ragement of domestic manufactures. Contrary to-
general expectation, no notice was taken of the sub
ject in the opening message to the following congress ]
but in the annual report from the secretary of the

162

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.,

treasury, on the 10th of December, 1827, an elaborate
view was taken of the manufactures of the country,
and their encouragement and protection warmly re
commended. " The time that has passed since the
tariff of 1824," says the secretary, Mr. Rush, "has
been sufficient to shoAV, that the duties fixed by it
upon these articles* are not adequate to the measure
of success in producing them at home, which their
cardinal importance merits. A change, since 1824,
in the laws of Great Britain, in regard to those first
named, has also rendered almost abortive the provi
sions of the tariff in their favour. It belongs to the
purpose of this report, which looks to the encourage
ment of the national industry in preference to any
that is foreign, here to state, that, for a period of six
successive years, ending with 1826, the value of
woollen goods and cotton goods imported into the
United States from the country just named, exceeds
one hundred millions of dollars ; and the value of
iron, and of articles manufactured from iron, seven
teen millions. During one of these years, the woollens
exported from that country to this exceeded the amount
of those exported to the Avhole of Europe put together.
For the means of exchange against an amount of
foreign manufactures so great, the United States hpve
had three principal staples of their soil, viz. wheat-
flour, tobacco, and cotton. The first of these the
same country has, by her laAvs, positively or virtually
excluded, during the same period cf years, from con
sumption within her dominions. The second she has
admitted, under a duty of more than 600 per cent.
The third she has received with little scruple. She
has known hoAv to convert it into a means of wealth
to her own industrious people, greater than had ever
before, in her whole annals, been derived from, any
single commodity. This she has done, first by work
ing it up for her home use upon the largest scale,
and, next, by making it subserve the interests of her
foreign trade. The complete establishment of Ame
rican manufactures in wool, cotton, iron, and hemp,
is believed to be of very high moment to the nation.
All the principal raw materials for carrying them on
are at hand, or could be commanded. The skill for
imparting excellence to them would come at the pro
per time. There Avould be no want of labour, to
which an abundant Avater-power, as Avell as artificial
machinery, would every where be lending its assist
ance. Capital would be found for investment in
them. If their establishment, by the immediate pro
tection of the laws, should, at first, raise the cost of
the article^, and, for a succession of years, keep it up,
* Manufactures from woollens, cotton, and iron.

a true forecast, looking to the future, rather than
adapting all its calculations to the existing hour,
would not hesitate to embrace the protecting pohcy
If it were , a question of fostering manufactures for
which the circumstances of the country yielded not
abundant facilities, then indeed could success be ac
complished only by indefinite forcing, to be followed
by indefinite monopoly in price. Such is manifestly
not the case. Manufactures of fine cotton, of wool
lens of almost all descriptions, of iron articles, and
of those from hemp, have already arrived at a point,
in the United States, justifying the conclusion that
some additional encouragement from congress is alone
wanting to fix them upon lasting and profitable found
ations. This additional encouragement is invoked
as a proper offset to the high degree of success which
foreign industry has attained in these branches by the
effect of capital and skill, long pre-existing in older
nations, and long aided by their laws. These are
advantages not intrinsic, but accidental. Yet they
cannot be countervailed but by efficient legislative
aid to our OAvn establishments in the beginning."
Early in the session, the committee on manufac
tures entered on the investigation of the subject ; and
to them the petitions which flowed in from all por
tions of the country, both for and. against an increase
of duties, Avere referred,. The resolutions also which
Avere transmitted to congress from- the legislatures of
Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Ohio, and Indiana, in favour of an augmentation of
duties, and those from Virginia, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, in opposition
to that measure, were referred to the same committee.
On the 31st of December, the chairman of the com
mittee, Mr. Mallary, by direction, submitted a reso-.
lutioh, that the committee be vested with power to
send for persons and papers ; which waSj after. a long
debate, agreed to. The committee, thus authorized,
issued subpoenas for twelve witnesses, who Avere
examined, together Avith nine who voluntarily attend
ed, and seven members of the house. The examina
tion was principally directed to ascertaining the cost
of manufacturing iron, steel, wool, hemp, flax, sail
duck, spirits from grain and molasses, glass, cotton,
and paper ; the capabilities of the country to manu- .
facture them, at that time ; and Avhether any .altera
tion of the duties Avas required to protect the manu
facturer against foreign competition. After four
weeks spent in examining the Various witnesses, the
committee, on the 31st of January, made a report,
accompanied by the testimony taken, and a bill, in
which an increase of various duties was recommend
ed, and which, after long discussion in both houses,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

163

ahd receiving several amendments, was passed into a
law.* This measure was not only violently opposed
in both houses, by the representatives of the southern
states, but after it had become a laAV, the vehemence
of opposition was still more manifest among the in
habitants, and even in the state legislatures of that
section of the union. The question still continues to
occupy the first place in the discussion of the periodi
cal-press, the language of which is still occasionally
so, violent .as almost to indicate the probability of se
paration between the southern and northern states,
if the tariff is persisted in.
It would be incompatible Avith the limits, if not ir
relevant to the purpose of this work, to enter into any
lengthened discussion of the now virulently-contested
question of free trade, as applicable to the United
States. "With all the light which political economists
have thrown on the subject,, (and for some modifica
tions of non-Intercourse laws the nations are certain
ly indebted to their labours,) the scheme of establish
ing a general system of free trade, in the present con
dition of the Avorld, seems to be utterly hopeless.;
and this being the case, it appears to us, and" -we ap
prehend it will to every one'Vho follows candidly
* The bill, as originally proposed, was as -follows: — (The final
result will be apparent in the table of duties.) On iron in bars,
not manufactured by rolling, 1 cent per lb. — On iron in bars,
manufactured by rolling, 37 dollars per ton. — On pig iron, 62 1-2
cents per cwt. — On iron and steel wire, not exceeding No. 14, 6
cents per lb. ;. exceeding No. 14, ] 0 cents per lb. — On round iron,
of three sixteenths to eight sixteenths of an inch in diameter? on
nail rods, slit or rolled ;, on sheet and hoop iron ; on iron slit or
rolled for bands, scroll, or casement rods, 3 1-2 cent? per lb. — On
adzes, axes, -drawing and cutting knives, sickles, sithes, spades;
shovels, squares, (of iron or steel,) bridle-bits, steelyards and scale-
beams, socket chisels, vices,' and screws for wood, 1 0 per cent, ad
valorem beyond the present duty.— On steel, 1 dollar 50 cents per
cwt.— On raw wool, 7 cents per lb. ; and, in addition thereto, 40
per cent, ad valorem, until June 30th, 182.9; from which time an
additional duty of 5 per cent, ad valorem shall be imposed annu
ally, until it shall amount to 50 per cent. All wool imported in the
skin to be estimated as to weight and value, and to pay the same
rate of duty as other wool. — On woollen manufactures, of which
the actual value shall not exceed 50 cents the square yard, 16 cents
duty the square yard. — On all of which the value is between 50
and 100 cents the square yard, 40 cents duty the square yard. — On
all between 1 dollar and 2 dollars 50 cents, a duty of 1 dollar the
square yard,— On all between 2 dollars 50 cents and 4 dollars, a
duty of 40 per cent, ad valorem to be levied, and the goods to be
valued at 4 dollars, the square yard. — On all exceeding 4 dollars,
a duty of 45 per cent, ad valorem. — On woollen blankets, hosiery,
mits, gloves, and bindings, 35 per cent, ad valorem. — On raw
hemp and raw flax, 45 dollars the ton, until June 30th, 1829, and
then an additional duty of* 5 dollars annually, until the whole shall
amount to 60 dollars per ton. — On sail duck, 9 cents the square
yard.— On molasses, 10. cents per gallon. — On all imported spirits,
10 cents per gallon, in. addition to the. present duty. — On window
glass, above ten inches by fifteen, 5 dollars for every 100 square
feet, and charging all window glass imported in sheets, uncut, with
the same rate of. duty. — On phials and bottles, not exceeding the
capacity of six ounces each, 1 dollar 75 cents per gross,— AH cot
ton cloths (except nankeens from: China) of which the cost, to
gether with the custom-house additions, shall be less than 35 cents

the path of investigation through which the claims
of this work have necessarily led us, that there is no
nation to which laws restricting the admission of
foreign manufactures, if judiciously arranged, can be
more beneficial than the United States. In consi
dering this subject, those who, on either side of the
Atlantic, have charged the American legislature with
folly, overlook a very important circumstance, arising
from the extent of space,, and the variety of climate
embraced by the limits of the republic, namely, that,
to a vast extent, trade, which to other nations is a
foreign trade, is to the United States domestic ; for
instance, as far as commerce is affected, Louisiana
and Georgia are at least as foreign in relation to New
York or Massachusetts, as Spain or Turkey are to
Great Britain :f consequently, the relative importance
of foreign commerce, the interests of which are main
ly impeded by restrictive laws, must ever be less than
in the case of other nations ; while, on the other
hand, 'the existence of a manufacturing population
must tend to promote domestic cultivation, trade, and
commerce, to an extent proportionably greater than
would be effected in other kingdoms.!: With respect
to the numerous other circumstances which must be
the square yard, shall be deemed to cost 35 cents, and duty charged
accordingly. . t It is true that, including her colonial possessions, the same re
mark applies to Great Britain ; and, on this very ground mainly
rests that " British system" of protective duties.
t This point is well stated by Mr. Rush, secretary of the treasu
ry, in his report to congress, in 1817. " The United States," says
Mr. R. " are distinguished in this respect, by a lot as peculiar as
it is favourable. Nothing can exceed the inducements to various
and subdivided traffic, tha,t abound within their own limits. It is
here that the economist may hope to see exemplified every essential
advantage of the foreign and home trade, blended in the same
system, moulded 'by the same policy, and freed from the jealousies
that have frustrated and must ever continue to -frustrate, the be
nevolent, but impracticable theories of commercial intercourse as
between distinct nations. It is not merely that the extent of cli
mate and soil in the union are adapted to all pursuits that can give
activity and fruitfulness to industry under every form. These are
but natural advantages. It is the exchange of the products of in
dustry upon terms the most desirable, and the most gainful, through
out so ample an extent of home dominion, that will exalt such na
tural advantages to the utmost. It is here that commerce may be
carried' on freed from every restriction, and probably for the first
time, upon a political and geographical theatre so expanded. The
appropriate industry of each portion may go into unfettered action ;
of Louisiana and of Massachusetts, of Georgia' and Rhode Island.
A vast home trade, resembling foreign trade, as well by interve
ning distances as the nature of its exchanges, will be prosecuted,
whether along the ocean, or the water highways of the interior,
untrammelled by tolls or imposts of any kind, and without even
the necessity of custom-houses ; or giving to such establishments
uses only formal. Such a trade can only, however, have its pro
per value by the extensive success of manufactures. There is no
thing else that can impart to labour, in the United States, the ne
cessary variety in its objects, and the necessary regularity and
fulness in the demand. There is nothing else can adequately aug
ment and diversify the list of commodities for which the necessities
and enjoyments of improved life are ever making calls. There is
nothing else will raise up towns on the surface of our territory, at

164

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

taken into account before it can be affirmed that any
nation can conduct some of the principal branches
of manufacture at all, and still more to advantage, it
so happens that the United States possess, in a pre
eminent degree, the great requisites of manufactures —
water, coal, iron, cheap provisions, and an intelligent
and active, population : and that in such circum
stances they should feel a desire to manufacture their
own raw produce, and to be enabled to do so by pro
tection from foreign competition, to say the least,
does not appear either unnatural or- unreasonable.
The general principle of protecting duties being ad
mitted, however, its application to any particular
branch of manufacture must depend on its own sepa-"
rate merits, and upon the commercial arrangements
existing with other countries. As an example of
the latter case, we may cite the duty levied on Ame
rican flour in British ports, a reduction of which,
might justify the Americans in diminishing the rate
of duty on British cottons or Avoollens, as a benefit
would accrue equal to, or perhaps greater than, the
loss incurred. We apprehend the history of Ameri--
can manufactures and commerce will fully sustain
the preceding observations.
Having thus briefly noticed the circumstances
which have conduced to the establishment of manu
factures in the United States, we shall lay before our
readers such information respecting the present state
of the principal branches of manufacture as we have
been able to collect from public documents and other
sources. As, however, there are no annual returns
made to the government of the gross quantity manu
factured of every article, but only of the exports,
which comprise a very small portion of the whole, the
information Ave can present, while important, will be
inevitably but partial and incomplete.
In the United States, as in Great Britain, the ma
nufacture of cotton has outstripped all its competitors,
and claims the first notice : on this subject we shall
avail ourselves of information contained in a very
able Avork noAV publishing at Philadelphia.* The
progress of this manufacture, as might be supposed,
has partaken of the characteristic energy and vigour
of the country. It is only, however, since the intro
duction of the power-loom, that it can be considered
as having been established on a permanent and use
ful basis ; the scarcity of skilful Aveavers, and the
high prices of weaving, had been found serious ob
stacles to its success, which has been, therefore, se-

every commanding point, without which land can never be made
to yield the full amount of which it is susceptible, or the farmer
be sure of prices steady and remunerating. It hardly need be
added, how a course of policy that would infuse augmented vigour

cured only by this invention. The first successful
experiment with this instrument was made at Walt-
ham, Massachusetts, in 1815, on the coarser fabrics ;
but so rapid has been the extension of the manufac
ture, that, besides furnishing the United States with
its full supply of the more staple productions, and a
considerable export of coarse goods, the beautiful
prints of Mancbester' and Glasgow are imitated in
great perfection ; and more than half the consump
tion ofthe country, in this important branch, is sup
posed to be now furnished from native industry.
The actual extent of this manufacture in the United
States, at the present time, (1830,) is -matter of esti
mate onl'y^ a very moderate one is believed to be
the consumption of 35,000,000 pounds of cotton per
annum, manufactured into 140,000,000 of yards of
cloth, of which about 10,000,000 are exported, and
upwards of 20,000,000 printed ; the value, twelve to
fourteen millions of dollars, and employing a capital
of twenty-five to thirty millions. Several improve
ments,' originating in the country, have been intro
duced into the manufacture, and the whole process is
believed to be performed to as great advantage as in
any part of the world. The cottons exported are
mostly of a coarse fabric, which are taking the place
of the cottons of India, and are known abroad by the
name of American domestics. They have been ex
tensively imitated by the English,- and a competition
is going on, between the manufacturers of the two
countries, for the possession of the foreign markets.
It is thought that the possession of the raAv material
on the spot, and the use of the comparatively cheap
moving poAver of Avater instead of steam, with the
proximity of the great markets of South America, are
advantages in favour of the United States, more than
sufficient to counterbalance some disadvantage in the
higher cost of machinery, and, as is commonly sup
posed, in the higher wages of labour. But the la
bour in the cotton mills producing these goods being
wholly performed by females, it has been ascertained
not to be materially dearer than the same description
of Avork in England ; and as the same labour is not
easily applicable to any other branch of industry, it
would- seem not improbable that the United States
will ultimately supply the foreign market with the
coarser cottons. The great profits attending this
manufacture, in the first instance, attracted to it, in a
very short period, a large amount of capital, and pro
duced a violent competition : the consequence has

and briskness into a coasting trade, embracing in its range nearly
one half of a continent, would tend to enlarge, in all ways, the es
sential foundation of naval strength."
* Encyclopaedia Americana, vol. iii. p. 5.73.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

173

TARIFF.— TABLE I.

A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE TARIFF LAWS.

Protecting Tariff of 18

Iron, in bolts or bars, not rolled, 1 cent per lb 
 , rolled also in slabs, blooms, and loop, or other- 1
wise, except pigs and cast iron, $37 per ton . . . . . . . . . 5
 , in pigs, 62 1-2 cts. per cwt. 
Wire, of iron or steel, not finer than No. 14, 6 cents, finer than No. 14, >
10 eents  5
Round iron, or braziers' rods, 3-16ths to 1-2 inch, nail or spike rods, iron )
in sheets or hoops, and slit or rolled for bands, casement rods, 3 1-2 cts. \
per "b.  .V
Axes, adzes, drawing knives, cutting knives, sickles or reaping hooks,] '
sithes, spades, shovels, squares of iron or steel, bridle-bits, st.eelyards, i
scalebeams, socket chisels, vices, and wood screws, 10 per cent, ad- f
ditional  J
Steel, $1 50 cts. per cwt 
Lead, in- pigs, bars, Or sheets, 3 cents per lb. .- 
— — shot, 4 cents per lb. , 
 , red of white, dry or ground in oil, 5 eents per lb 
- — pipes, 5 cents per lb. 
Litharge, orange mineral, and sugar of lead, 5 cents per Ib 
Wool, (the.same if on skins,) 4 cents per lb. and 40 per cent, ad valorem ?
until June 30, 1829, then 5 per cent, increase annually to 50 per cent. ^
Woollens, (wholly or in part,) except carpeting, blankets, worsted stuffs,
bombazines, hosiery, rhits, gloves, caps, and bindings, the value of
which, at the place Whence exported, (except flannels and baizes,)
does not exceed 33 1 -3 cents per square yard, to pay 14 cents per square
yard ; from 33 1-3 to 50 cents, to'be estimated at 50 cents ; from 50 cents
to $1, at $1 ; from $1 to $2 1-2, at $2 1-2 ; from $2 1-2 to $4, at $4, and to
be charged with 45 per cent! duty; and exceeding $4, to be charged
with 50 per cent. ; .and all unfinished woollens are to be estimated at
the same value as if finished  : .
Woollen blankets, 35 per een t. . .'  - 
Hosiery, mits, gloves, and bindings, 35 per cent. 
Clothing ready made, 50 per cent 
Brussels, Turkey, and Wilton carpets, 70 cents per square yard . . . .
Venetian and ingrain carpeting, 40 cents per square yard 
All other carpeting, of wool, hemp, or cotton, or in part of either, 32 cts. ;
per.square yarcl _  5
Patent printed or painted floorcloths, 50 cents per square yard ; other oil- y
cloiins 25 per cent.; furniture 'oilcloths, and floor matting of flags or[
other materials, 15 cents per square yard . . . . . .'..'. . . )
Hemp, $45 per ton, and $5 additional annually, from June 30, 1S29, }
until $60  :  S
Flax, $35 per ton, and $5 in addition annually, from June 30, 1S29, until $60.
Cotton bagging, 5 cents per square yard 
Sail duck, 9 cents per square yard, and 1-2 cent additional yearly, from J
1828, until 12 1-2 cents, arid no drawback on less than 50 bolts in one {
shipment  . . . )

Distilled spirits, IB cents per gallon additional on the duties- of -1824 . ¦

Indigo, 5 cents additional from June 30, 1829, to June 30, 1830, and 10 )
, cents additional per annum, until the whole duty shall be 50, cents S
Molasses; 10 cents per gallon, and no drawback on the exportation of j
spirits distilled therefrom . . .... . .  . 1
Manufactures of silk from beyond the Cape of Good Hope, 20 per cent. )
after June 30, 1829 .'. .' . . . ."...'  5
Window glass, larger than 10 by 15, -and in sheets uncut, $5 per 100 feet
Apothecaries'' vials, not exceeding 6oz. $1 per 75 gross . . ,-. . -. .
Slates-for building, not Jarger than 12 by 6 inches, $4 per ton ; 12 to 14 )
.incjhes- long, $5'.;. 14 to 16, $6; 16 to 18, $7; 18 to20, $8; 20 to24, $9; >
larger, $10 .. . ." ...........1 ... .... . . r ;
Slates for schools* 33 1-3 per cent . .... ¦. • i - . .-',-. .
Cotton cloths,, (except -nankeens direct from China,) of whatever. cost, "|
shall, wiqh. the .addition of 20 per .cent, if- beyond the Cape of Good 1
Hope,, and 10 per cent, if from other places, be deemed tp have cost f

35 cents per, square yard, and be charged with 25- per cent.

Protecting Tariff of 1824.

90 cents per cwt. or 112 lbs. . . .
$1 50 cts. per cwt. 
50 cents per cwt  '.
Not finer than No. IS, 5 cents ; >
finer, 9 bents  S
3 cents per lb 
Wood screws, sickles, sithes,')
spades, 30 per cent.; all other .
manufactures of iron, 25 per j
cent  J
$1 per cwt. . . . . . . " . ." .
2 cents per lb 
3 1-2 cents per -lb. ' 
4 cents per lb 
25 per cent. .........
15 per cent 
Costing not more than 10 cents,
15 per cent. ; higher cost, 30
percent. 

Costing less than 33 1-3. cents"!
per sqDare yard, 25 per cent. ; 1
all others 33 1-3 per cent, ad >
valorem, on actual value or 1
cost  J
25 per cent. <¦-..' 
,33 1-3 percent. . 
30 per cent 
50 cents per square yard ....
25 cents per square yard ....
20 cents per square yard ....

30 per cent.
r
$35 per ton

15 per cent  . .
3 3-4 cents per square yard .
15 per cent  From grain,
1st proof 42 cents per gallon

45 ditto .
48 ditto .
52 ditto .
60 ditto .
75 ditto .

2d3d „
4th „
5th „
higher 15 cents

5 cents per gallon
25 per cent. . . .

ditto
ditto ditto
. ditto
ditto

$4 per 100 feet .
Si a $1 25 cents

25 pe!r cent. .

15 percent. .........
Minimum under some conditions, j
30 cents, with 25 per cent, j
duty.. ; 

Old Tariff up to 1824.

75 cents per 1 12 lbs.
$1^60 cts. per cwt.
60 cents per cwt.
Not finer than No. 18, 5 cts. ;
finer, 9 cents.
$2 50 cents per cwt.
20 per cent.
¦$1 per cwt.
1 cent per pound.
2 cents per pound.
3 cents per pound.
20 per cent.
15 per cent.
15 per cent.

25 per cent.

15 per cent.
25 per cent.
30 per cent.
25 per cent.
25 per cent. .
25 per cent.
30 per cent.
$30 per ton.
15 per cent.
20 per cent.
Russia, $2 ps. ; Ravens,
$2 25 cts. Holland, 50 cents.
From other materials,
38 cents.
38 „
' 42 „
48 „
. 67 „
TO „
15 cents.
5 cents per gallon.
15 per cent.
$3 25 cents.
20 per cent.

15 per cent.
15 per cent.

25 per cent.

Vol. IL — Nos. 51 & 52

174

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

TARIFF.— TABLE II.

IMPORTATION OF DRY GOODS UNDER THE NEW TARIFF LAW.

A Table showing what Description of Goods mat be Imported under the Tariff passed by the Congress of the United States,
' May, 1828.

Woollens; (except Flannels'and Baizes,) 33 1-3 Cents minimum, Duty
14 Cents per Square Yard.

Width.

-

NEicoBi,iaa8.

Net Cost, 1827. -

24 inches.

Is

Od. , B/Lg.]

'37 1-2
cts.
per
vd.
3? cts. per yd
27 „
1
1 1-2 „
42
,,
40 „
30 „
1
3
46 1-2
,,
44 ,i ,
33 „
1
4 1-2 „ .-
51
,,
49- „
36 „
1
6
-ill 25"
56
n
53 1-2 „
45 „
1
10 1-2 „
69 1-2
,,
67
54 „
2
3 „ J
^83,1-2
it
80 1-2 „
Broadcloths, Kerseymeres, Pelisse Cloths, Kerseys, Forest
Cloths, Valentia and Woollen Vestings and Flannels, 50 cents
minimum, Duty 45 per Cent, ad valorem.
24 inches.
Is.
6d.
27 „
1
8,1-4
30 „ '
1
10 1-2
33 „
2
0 3-4
36 „
2
3
54 „
3
4 1-2
stg-l 1, \
" I is
" J-°M'
;;JIJl
Net Cost, 1828.
Net Cost, 1827.
57 cts. per. yd. 53 1-2 cts. per yd.
63 1-2 „ 60
70 1-2 „ 67
77 „ 74
84 1-2 „ 80 1-2
127 '- „ 120 1-2
Flannels, Duty 45 per Cent.
Width,
27 inches. £3 17
27 inches.
Net Cotf, 1838.
$29 11
30 23
31 21
32 33
33 44
34 56
35 53
36 65
37 75
38 87 J
r ° •<
I s
$27 78
28 84
29 74
30 82
31 89
32 97
33 86
34 94
36 02
37 09
Duly, 1828.
. $7 59
. 7 87
. , 8 154472
0028 6684
10-' 12
8
2 6 0
2 8 0
2 11 Q
2 14 0
2 17 0
3 0 0
13 3 0
30 inches.
"3 6
0
3 a
0
3 12
0
3 15
0
3 18
0
4 1
0
4 4
0
t.4 6
0
$20 09
20 92
21 76
22 59
23 42
24 26
25 09
$26 78
27 60
28 44
29 28
30 10
30 94
31 78
32 33
$16 12"|
17 20
18
28
19
35 y
20
42 1
21
50
22
58 J
$23 65"|
24 73
25 80
26 88
27 95
29 03
30 10
30 82 J
$7 59
$8 44
Broadcloths, Kerseymeres, &c. $1 minimum, "Duty 45 per Cent.
Width.
24 inches. 3s.
27 3033 36 54
Od. 4 1-2
9 1 1-2
6
Net Cort, 1828.
'$1 13 '.- .
1 27 . .
1 41 . .
55
69 . .
2 53 . .
il
Net Cost, 1827,
$t 07 1-2 per running yd.
l 201-2 „
l 34 „
1 47 1-2 „
1 61 1-2 ' „
2 42
Broadcloths, Kerseymeres, oVc. $2 50 Cents minimum, Duty 45 per
Cent, ad valorem.
Width 27 'inches.
£0 8 5
„ 31 1-2 „
0 9 10
, 0 11 3
„ 54
0 16 10
,. 63
0 19 8
) I
ii
Must not exceed these prices per run
ning yard.
Broadcloths, $4 minimum-; Duty 45 per Cent.
Width 54 inches. £17 0 > Must not exceed these priceg - mn.
in o> v ¦ i
63
72
1 16 0 3
ning yard.
Woollen Blankets, Woollen and Worsted Hosiery, Gloves, Bindings, and
Mitts, to pay a Duty of 36 per Cent, ad valorem..
Brussels, Turkey, and Wilton Carpets and Carpeting, 70 Cents per
Square Yard.
Venetian and Ingrain Carpets and Carpeting, 40 Cents per Square
Yard, -
Cotton Goods, if they do not cost 35 Cents per Square Yard, including
the addition of 10 per cent., must pay a Duty of '8 3-4 Cents per
Square Yard. ¦ •
Worsted Stuff Goods, .Bombazines, Linens, Lawns, Linen Diapers
and Cloths, Cotton Braces, Cotton Hose, Silk and Leather Gloves,
Sewing Cottons, Tapes, Smalt Wares, &c. pay the same Duty as
they did previous to 1828,
-Net Cost to Import the following Goods.
Width.
fOs
24 inches. ) 0
U
. 9d.
10
11 0
stg.
10 9 „
., , !° >° ..
27 inches. <| o 11 ,,
1 0 „
ll H-2„
27 inches.
7
8 6 8
10 024
Net Cost, 1828.
30 1-2 cents.
32t-2 „
3537
31 1-2
'33 1-2
36 38
42 B8I-260 1-2
63
1 03
1 07
1 12
1 161-2
1 21 1-2
1 26
Net Cost, 1827.
27 cents.")
30 „ IPIainsor
33 „ [paddings.
36 ,, J
27 ,,
30 „
33 „
36 „
40 „
53 1-2 „
66 1-2,,
B9 1-2,,
.891-2,, 951-2,,
1 01 1-2 „
1 071-2,,
1 13 1-2,,
1 19,1-2,,
, Plains or
paddings.
"Ke.rseys and
Forest
Cloths.
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

175

CHAPTER III.
COMMERCE, AND AGRICULTURE.
Commerce has frequently, in the history of na
tions, evinced the rapidity of its growth, as in the
cases of Venice, Holland, and Great Britain ; but in
no instance has its progress been more remarkable
than in that of the United States. It will not be
necessary to insert any details respecting the state
of commerce while the Americans were under the
colonial yoke, since, under the commercial laws then
existing, the energies of the colonies were as much
as possible repressed, except in subserviency to the
interests of the mother-country. During the war of
the revolution, the degree of traffic which had pre
viously existed, was, of course, suspended ; and after
the peace of 1785, commerce still laboured under
peculiar difficulties. The chief of- these resulted
from the political constitution which the thirteen
".sovereign states" had thought fit to adopt. Thi,s
subject has already been referred to as affecting the
manufacturing interest ; but the introduction of some
additional particulars, illustrative of its bearing on
commerce, will not be deemed unnecessary. The
original constitution did not admit of the imposition
of any duties by the congress, without the unani
mous vote of all the states; while the right which
Was thus shackled as it respected the general govern
ment, was accorded to each of the separate states.
It is not, therefore, matter of surprise, that some of
the- states should have acted in opposition to others,
as their interest might dictate. When the state of
Pennsylvania laid a duty on foreign merchandise
imported, the state of New Jersey, equally washed
by the waters of the Delaware river, admitted the
same articles free of duty ; and they -could easily be
smuggled into one state frpm the other. The seve
ral states laid different rates of duty on foreign ton
nage ; in some, one shilling sterling per ton was
imposed on vessels, which in other states paid three
shillings sterling per ton. Such was the misunder
standing amongst the several states, that there were
no general commercial regulations, nor could the
congress enforce any, while the opposition of any
one of the states.could prevent the passage of any
act on the subject. The evil of this condition of
affairs was flagrantly manifest, when, to provide a
fund to discharge the public debt, and to pay the
arrears due to the soldiers who fought the battles of
this revolution, it was proposed in congress, during
the operation of the articles of confederation, to lay
a duty of 5 per cent, ad valorem, on foreign mer
chandise imported into the United States, and the

opposition of the state of Rhode Island was of itself
sufficient to defeat this plan.
The nations of Europe were well pleased to avail
themselves ofthe embarrassed condition, of the United
States ; for even those who had assisted them in
their struggle for independence, now viewed them
with a jealous eye as competitors in the field of 'com
merce ; and when, soon after the peace, the republic
endeavoured to negotiate treaties of commerce with
Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, the offer
Was in each case met with a refusal. The convic
tion that this portion of the federal constitution re
quired amendment, was one of the principal reasons
which induced the people of the United States to
call a convention for its revision. Happily, the con
vention, when assembled, concurred in the necessity
of an alteration on this point, and the new constitu
tion contained the following clauses : — " Art. I. Seet.
VIII. To regulate commerce with foreign nations.,
and among the several states, and with the Indian
tribes.; — Sect. IX. No tax or duty shall be laid on
articles exported from any state. No preference shall
be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue
to the ports of one state over those of another ; nor
shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged
to enter,- clear, or pay duties in another.— Sect. X.
No state shall, without the consent of the congress,
lay any imposts or duties on imports, of exports, ex
cept what may be absolutely necessary for executing
its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties
and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports,
shall be for the use of the treasury of the United
States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the re
vision and control of the congress." Not long after
the new constitution had been adopted, the secretary
of state proposed a liberal system of policy, in rela
tion to commercial intercourse with other nations.
His views were detailed in a report, made in answer
to a resolution of the House of Representatives, of
the 23d of February, 1791. Strongly advocating a
free commerce with every nation, the secretary thus
expressed himself : — " Instead of embarrassing com
merce under piles of regulating laws, duties, and
prohibitions, it should be relieved from all its shackles
in all parts of the world. Would even a single na
tion begin with the United States this system of free
commerce, it would be advisable to begin it with
that nation."
These domestic arrangements had a very favoura
ble influence on American commerce ; but a new
and mpst extensive field for it was now opened by
the circumstances w;hich transpired in Europe.
" The wars consequent on the French revolution

176

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

created a demand for our exports," says Dr. Seybert,
" and invited our shipping for the carrying trade of
a "very considerable portion of Europe ; we not only
carried the colonial productions to the several parent
states, but we also became the purchasers of them in
the French, Spanish, and Dutch colonies. A new
era was established in our commercial history ; the
individuals who partook of these advantages were
numerous ; our catalogue of merchants was swelled
much beyond what it was entitled to be from the
state of our population. Many persons who had se
cured moderate .capitals from mechanical pursuits,
soon became adventurers ; and the most adventurous
became the most wealthy, and. that without the
knowledge of any of the principles which govern
commerce under ordinary circumstances. No one
was limited to any one branch of trade ; the same
individual was concerned in voyages to Asia, South
America, the West Indies, and Europe. Our ton
nage increased in a ratio with the extended catalogue
of the exports ; we seemed to have arrived at the
maximum of human prosperity ; in proportion to our
population, we ranked as the most commercial of
nations ; in point of value, our trade was . only se
cond to that of Great Britain."*
In 1790, the aggregate of exports was estimated at
19,012,041 dollars ; in 1791 their value was increased
"by 1,741,057 dollars, or about one eleventh of their
amount in 17-90. In 1792,. the aggregate of the ex
ports amounted to 26,109,572 dollars ; the addition
in the course of this year was 5,356,474 dollars,, or
more than one fifth of their total value in the prece
ding year. In 1793, the exports were estimated at
33,026,233 dollars, or they were augmented consider
ably above one fourth of their amount in 1792. The
value of the exports increased with- the progress of
the war in Europe ; this effect was common to the
domestic surplus products, and to the foreign mer
chandise re-exported. Prior to 1795, there was no
discrimination at the treasury department of the value
of the domestic and foreign merchandise exported
from the United States. In 1795, the aggregate
value of the merchandise exported was estimated at
67,064^097 dollars ; of this amount the domestic pro
ductions were estimated at 40,764,097 dollars, and
the foreign produce re-exported at 26,300,000 dol
lars. In 1796, the foreign merchandise re-exported
was only 2,850,208 dollars less in value than that of
the domestic exports ; in 1797, the foreign merchan
dise exceeded the value of the domestic exports by
4,472,903 dollars ; during several of the succeeding
? Seybert's Statistical Annals of the United States, p. 61.

years, the value of the foreign merchandise exported
greatly surpassed that of the domestic articles, and,
in 1806, was estimated at 59,643,558 dollars, or it
exceeded the value of the domestic -exports by more
than one fifth, or 22,47 per cent. In 1805, the fo
reign merchandise re-exported arrived at the. maxi
mum, and amounted to 60,283,236 dollars, and in that
year exceeded the value of the domestic productions
exported in any one preceding or succeeding year,
1816 and 1817 excepted." The periodical progress
of the export trade is exhibited by the following
statements, viz. : — -Dollars.
Total value of the exports from the United States,
in 1795 .  67,064,097
Ditto ditto, 1790  .' 19,012,041
Increase in five years . . . . . . . . . 48,052,056
Total value of the exports from the United States,

in 1800

94,115,925

Increase in ten years  75,103,884
Total value of the exports from the United States,
in 1805 . . . .  .'.'.. 101,536,963

Increase in fifteen years

82,524,922

Total value of the exports from the United States,
in 1806, when they arrived at the maximum . . 108,343,150
Increase in sixteen years  89,331,109

This astonishing progress could riot fail to attract
the attention, and to excite the commercial jealousy
of the principal nations of Europe ; and the war at
this time raging between England and France was
carried on not only by military and naval armaments,
but by commercial codes of restriction and prohibi
tion, by which the Americans, as a neutral power,
were more seriously injured than either of the bel
ligerents. Indeed, between the years 1804 and 1807
inclusive, above 1000 American merchant vessels were
captured, by nations professedly at peace with the
United States, for alleged breaches of blockade, or of
commercial decrees. Under these circumstances, the
government of' the United States, at the close of the
year 1807, resorted to an embargo 4o prevent the
destruction of the mercantile navy, which was eon-,
tinued till March, 1809. Thus the export trade of
the United States, after having, in the course of six
teen years, from 1790 to 1806, acquired an augmen
tation of 89,331,109 dollars, was, in 1807, in an in
stant, reduced to the aggregate of 22,430,96Q dollars
only 1,677,862 dollars more than the amount in 1791,
the second year after, the organization of the present
government. After the embargo, was taken off in

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

177

1809, commerce speedily revived) and during that
and. the following year the amount of exports, so far
as related to domestic products, was greater than the
average of. the ten yeaTs from 1802 to 18.12. Sub
sequently to the declaration of war with Great Bri
tain, the export trade of the United States was of
course materially and progressively depressed, till, in
the year 1814, it did not amount to seven millions of
dollars. At the conclusion of the war the exports
rose, in 1815, tp fifty-two millions ; iri 1816, to eighty-
one ; in 1817, to eighty-seven ; in 1818, to ninety-
three. From 1819 tp 1824, the amount ranged be
tween sixty-five and seventy-five millions, the average
being above seventy ; but, in 1825, the amount of ex
ports again rose to nearly one hundred millions of dol
lars. From the year 1826 to 1830, the exports have
raqged from seventy to eighty millions ; the exports
of foreign goods have declined materially, the amount
for the year 1830 being little more than fourteen mil
lions, a smaller amount than ariy year since 1803, ex
cept that of the embargo, and those of the war, while
the domestic exports are nearly sixty millions, an
amount exceeding those of any preceding year, since
the. establishment of .the republic, except the years
1816, 17, 18, and 25.
The official returns presented to congress divide
the exports into four classes : those of the sea, the
forest, agriculture, and manufactures. The follow
ing is a summary of the exports of the year 1830 ;
the details will be found in Table, No. I., at the
close of this chapter. The products of the sea, con
sisting of the results of the whale, cod, mackerel,
and herring fisheries, exported mostly from the north
ern states, amount to 1,725,270 dollars, being nearly
a thirty-fifth part of the whole domestic export.
About one third of this value consists of codfish, and
more than half of the products of the whale-fish
eries. The value of skins, furs, ginseng, lumber, staves,
bark, tar, pitch, rosin, and turpentine, and pot and
pearl ashes, partly from the northern, and partly from
the southern states, which were formerly of much
greater comparative importance in the trade of the
country, now constitutes nearly one fifteenth part of
the whole value of the domestic exports, and amounts
to 4,192,040 dollars. A large proportion of the trade
in these articles, as well as in those of codfish and
bread-stuffs, is carried on with the West Indies, Mex
ico, aud South America. The skins and the furs go
to Europe and Canton, the ginseng to Canton, but in
less quantity than formerly, and 'the pot and pearl
ashes'are sent to England and France.
The chief amount, however, of articles of export

consists, as would naturally be supposed, of the pro
ducts of agriculture. The article of cotton alone
furnishes nearly half the amount of the whole ex
ports of the United States, being, for the year 1830,
29,674,883 dollars. The next article in importance
of export is wheat, either as grain, flour, or biscuit,
the amount being 6,320,617 dollars. The third in
amount is tobacco, 5,586,3,65 dollars ; the fourth, rice,
1,986,824 dollars ; the fifth, the produce of swine,
including pork, bacon, and live hogs, 1,315,245 dol
lars. Three of the most important of these articles,
(cotton, tobacco, and rice,) amounting collectively to
37,248,072 dollars, are the produce of the southern
states, including Virginia and Kentucky. The other
agricultural exports, namely, beef, tallow, hides and
cattle, butter, cheese, horses, mules, sheep, rye-meal,
oats, potatoes, and apples, flax-seed, and hops, are most
ly furnished by the middle and western states. Cat
tle, and their products, including butter and cheese,
amounted to 860,053 dollars. This species of ex
port is of far less comparative, importance than for
merly, being limited to its present amount, not by the
capacity for production, but by the extent of demand
in the foreign markets ; an increase of the foreign
demand would very soon double and treble the quan
tity. Some of the articles comprehended in the above
list, though agricultural products, yet involve some
process of manufacture ; such, for example, as butter,
cheese, bacon, flour, biscuit, meal, and part of the to
bacco. A great many, however, of the exports com
ing under the head of manufactures include in them
the value of materials supplied by agriculture, such
as the cotton fabrics, those of leather, and spirits dis
tilled from grain ; so that, on the whole, the strictly
agricultural products of the country constitute a lar
ger prPportion of the whole exports than the tables
represent ; and, if we add the value of the materials
supplied by agriculture for the manufactured exports,
we shall have at least six sevenths of the whole do
mestic exportation consisting of the raw products of
agriculture. The total amount of manufactured articles ex
ported from the United States, in the year 1830, is
estimated in the official returns, at 6,258,131 dollars,
being rather more than one tenth of the domestic
exports of the country ; about 930,000 dollars should,
however, be struck out of the list of domestic imports,
being gold and silver coin, consisting mostly of me
tals imported from abroad, and, after being coined at
the mint, again exported. The labour put upon
these materials, in coining, is so inconsiderable a
part of their value, that the amount of the coin of
country exported ought not to be included in the esi-i-

178

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

mate ofthe value of manufactured exports,, Consi
derable quantities of gold, it is true, have been pro
duced in North Carolina, but by no means enough,
as yet, to supply the demand for the consumption of
the country, though it is to be considered, at the
same time, that this article, as far as it is supplied
from the domestic mines, will be chiefly exported,
being drawn into this channel by the higher price
of gold, as compared with silver, in England and
France than in . the United States. , Some of it is ar
rested for use in jewellery and the arts, but very lit
tle in the currency, or in the vaults of the banks.
As cotton fabrics also form a large item in this list
of exported manufactures, and those fabrics are
mostly of the coarser kind, the raw material will
constitute a very considerable part of their value,
and the proportional value of the ¦direct wages of
manufacturing labour incorporated in. these exports
will be proportionately less. If, for instance, a plough,
. or trunk, or quantity of combs, be sent abroad, almost
the whole value of the export consists of the wages
of the manufacturers ; and a still greater proportion
of the value of earthen and stone wares, whicbmake
a very considerable item in this list, is of this descrip
tion ; whereas an export of spirits distilled from
West India molasses comprises a comparatively small
proportional value of manufacturing labour. Taking
the whole list of domestic manufactured articles to
gether, and making allowances for the cost of the raw
materials in their rudest state, after they are taken
from the ground or from animals, and assume the
character of merchandise, by deducting their value
from the gross amount of that of theexported manu-
factures, the remainder, which is the result of the
manufacturing labour, interest of capital, and profits
incorporated into these materials, to bring them into
the state in which they are exported, may be estima
ted at about 4,000,000 dollars. Of the articles of ex
port on which the arts of the United States are em
ployed, the most considerable are cotton, twist, thread,
and fabrics, the, exported value of which for the year
1830 was 1,318,183 dollars, being more than one
fiftieth part of the whole domestic exports, the prin
cipal markets of which are South America, Mexico,
and the Mediterranean. The value of leather and
its various. manufactures exported, is 375,250 dollars.
Hats exported during the same year amount to
309,362 dollars, a very large sum, considering the
short period during which this article has been sent
to foreign markets. Soap and candles have long
been supplied for. the foreign markets, but have
lately been on the decline, the amount for the year
1830 being 619,238 dollars, The various articles

manufactured for the most part of wood, such as fur
niture, or of wood, leather, and iron, such as coaches
and carriages, besides various agricultural imple
ments supplied to the West Indies and South Ameri
ca, constitute an important branch of trade. The
American glass begins to appear in the foreign mar
kets : the value sent abroad ifi 1830 was 60,28Q dol
lars, and it bids fair to be increased. The other ex
ports consist of a variety of articles in small quanti
ties, among which are, wearing apparel, combs and
buttons, brushes, fire engines and apparatus, printing
presses and types, musical instruments, books, maps,
paper and stationary, and trunks. It is apparent from
the above enumeration and estimates, that -the manu
factured articles of which the export is most consr-
derable and the most flourishing, are those of which
the raw materials consist mostly of cotton, wood, and
- leather. The foreign articles imported and again exported
from the country during the year 1830, amounted to
14,378,479 dollars. This transit trade thus appears
to form a very important part of the American com
merce. The principal foreign articles re-exported
are cottons, coffee and cocoa, sugar, tea, wines, and
hardware. The imports of the United States are of ' great im
portance to the commercial interest ofthe world, but
especially to that of Great Britain ; and the regula
tions respecting their admission, as already referred
to in Connexion with manufactures, form- the most
prominent topic of discussion, as a domestic question,
in the several states composing the republic. It will
therefore neither be uninteresting nbr unimportant
to exhibit a statement of the amounts of the principal
imports, distinguishing the countries from which the
greater portion of them are severally received. In
doing- so, we shall, with some slight deviations, fol
low the order observed in the annual statements of
the secretary of the treasury made to congress, and
take as the basis of our observations the statement of
the year ending the 30th of September, 1830. The
principal articles are manufactures of wool, cotton,
silk, flax, and hemp, iron, tea, wine, and earthen
ware ; also raw hides and skins, and gold and silver:
there are, however, considerable quantities of a great
variety of other articles, the produce or manufacture
of the different nations of the globe. The informa
tion which the following statements contain, if atten
tively considered, will afford a more correct idea of
the state of the inhabitants of the republic, than the
personal narration of any individual, however accom
plished or intelligent, and however extensively he
may have travelled, It must be borne in mind, that

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

179

the imports are consumed by a population scarcely
amounting tp thirteen millions, and in addition to a
greater amount of domestic produce than is supplied
by any corresponding amount of population.
The articles first noticed are those admitted free
of duty — among these are philosophical apparatus,
for- the use of incorporated societies for the promotion
of learning and science, to the amount of 9,830 dol
lars, imported in nearly equal proportions from Eng
land and France ; books, maps, and charts, under
the same conditions, to the amount of 19,621 dollars,
more than three fourths of which were from England,
and the remainder about equally divided between
France and Germany, the latter through the medium
of the Hanse Towns ; specimens of botany and na
tural history, to > the amount of 6,118 dollars, from
upwards of twenty .different countries ; models of in
vention and machinery, , 897 dollars, almost exclu
sively n;om England;, and .anatomical preparations;
274 dollars, from France, -The fact -that this class
of articles is dutyfree, evinces a laudable .attention
on the part of the congress of the United States to
the interests of science and literature ; and we hope
that no long period will elapse before every produc
tion connected with their advancement, not only in
the recognised institutions of the country, but in the
' pursuits of individuals or farnilies, will be accessible
on the same terms. We deem it a sound and in
controvertible principle, that the improvement and
expansion of the. national mind ought not to be im
peded or delayed, either for the revenue of govern
ment, or for the gain of individuals. To act on a
contrary principle is bartering that which is beyond
all price.
The remaining articles which are admitted with
out payment of duty, are either articles derived from
mining or from agriculture, which the United States
do not produce in sufficient quantities ; or of manu
factures in which they do not excel. We can only
mention a few ofthe principal of them, referring our
readers for the particulars ofthe remainder to Table
IV. Furs were imported in 1830 to the amount of
305,782 dollars, of which, 205,090 dollars were from
England ; 64,584 dollars from the British American
colonies; 19,363 dollars from Ff ance ; and the re
mainder in small portions from nine other countries.
Raw hides and skin's constitute the largest amount
of articles (with the exception of specie) imported
duty free, being, in 1830, 2,409,850 dollars, of which,
1,904,251 dollars are from the states of South Ame
rica ; * 85,374 dollars from Hayti ; and the remainder
* In these statements it is found convenient to regard Mexico
as one of the South American states, as it is generally included

in portions, varying from 100 dollars to 60,000 dol
lars, from twenty other countries. \ Plaster of Paris
is, imported to the amount of 125,606 dollars, of
which, 119,234 dollars were from the British Ameri
can colonies, and the remainder from France. Dye
wood to the amount of 279,411 dollars, of which,
161,634 dollars were from South America ; 77,078
dollars from Hayti ; and the remainder chiefly from the
West Indies. Mahogany timber to the amount of
286,825 dollars, of which, 203,948 dollars were from
Hayti ; 28,917 dollars from Cuba ; 25,018 dollars
from the Central Republic of America ; and the re
mainder chiefly from Mexico and the British West
Indies. Of metals, tin was imported to the amount
of 101,341 dollars, of .which, 62,862 dollars were from
England ; 15,450 dollars from the Dutch East Indies ;
5,960 dollars from China ; 9,007 dollars from the Ne
therlands ; 2,485 dollars from the British East Indies ;
and the remainder from Chili and Peru :( copper is
imported to a; large amount, — 403,203 dollars in bars,
283,785 dollars in plates for the sheathing of ships,
&c. ; 14,435 dollars for the use of the mint, and
83,413 dollars of old copper to be rematiufactured ; of
the former amount, 231,493 dollars were from Peru ;
154,965 dollars from Chili ; 14,700 from Colombia ;
and the remainder chiefly from the British American
colonies : the amount for sheathing ships was almost
exclusively from England, as was also that for the
use of the mint, ' The amount of gold as bullion,
imported in 1830, was ,115,267 dollars, of which,
39,557 dollars were from Mexico ; 33,022 dollars
from Africa ; 25,633 dollars from Peru ; and 12,056
dollars from Colombia : the amount of gold, as specie,
was 705,000 dollars, of which 131,852 dollars were
from Colombia ; 81,343 dollars from other countries
of South America ; 69,267 dollars from Cuba ;
81,262 dollars -from British American colonies, and the
West Indies ; 81,384 dollars from the Swedish West
Indies ; 78,534 dollars from the Danish West Indies ;
76,356 dollars from the Dutch West Indies ; 53,123
dollars from England ; and the remainder in small
amounts from various countries. The amount of
silver imported is much larger than that of gold ; the
amount in bullion was 1,049,343 dollars ; of which,
781,201 dollars' were from Mexico; 159,735 dollars
from Peru ; 75,712 from other parts of South Ameri
ca ; 18,719 dollars from Cuba ; and the remainder
from the Dutch and Danish West Indies, and the
South Seas. The silver, in specie, imported in 1830,
amounted to 6,285,475 dollars, of which, 3,860,936
dollars were from Mexico ; 988,756 dollars from
in that appellation by Americans in their commercial transac
tions.

180

TOPOGRAPHY Of THE UNITED STATES.

South America generally; 273,498 dollars from
Cuba ; 242,468 dollars from the French West Indies :
237,953 dollars from the British American colonies
and West Indies ; 161,452 dollars from the Danish
West Indies ; and the remainder from all other parts
of the world.
The total amount of articles admitted duty free,
in 1830, was 12,746,245 dollars, of which, considera
bly more than half, however, was gold and silver ;
of the remainder, raw hides and skins constituted
more than three sixths, or nearly one fourth of the
whole amount of articles imported duty free ; copper
about one sixth'; furs, dye wood, arid mahogany,
one sixth, the remaining sixth being divided among
miscellaneous articles, the particulars of which will
be found in the Table IV.
It cannot fail to have struck our readers, that,
When the gold and silver are deducted, the amount
of articles admitted duty free bears an extremely
small proportion to the whole amount of imports;
and it will appear in the sequel, that duties of a great
er or less degree have been imposed, not only on all
articles which could be procured in sufficient quanti
ties or could be manufactured in America, but upon

those, also, where there could not possibly be at pre
sent any international competition. It is, therefore,
probable that duties of the latter kind will be remit
ted, when, the public debt being discharged, the re
venue arising from them will not be required ; though
but little expectation can exist that the protection af
forded to American manufacturers will be dimi
nished. '•¦:'"
Of the imports subject to duty, the first, as to
amount, is cotton, in its various forms of manufac
ture. It is liardly heedful to state, that the great
bulk of this article is supplied from England. The
amounts from England, Scotland, and France, will
be seen in the following table, which, with similar
tables subsequently given of the principal articles of
import, has been compiled from the last treasury
statement, that of the year 1830. The tables have
been so arranged as to exhibit the information con
tained in that publication in a form more readily ap
prehended,, and also to afford the additional informa
tion of the total amount -of each article imported
from the several countries named. They have also
been condensed, by omitting the countries from
which small amounts only have been imported.

COTTONS.
Printed or Coloured .........
White 
Hosiery, Gloves, Mits, Bindings, &c. . . .
Twist, Yarn, and Thread . . .< . . . .
Nankeens 
All other Manufactures - . . . . . ". .
Total from each country

England.

Dollars.
3,553,509 1,868,723 301,783 141,212 23,658 96,572

5,885:457

Scotland.

Dollars. 259,038 65,862 4
26,899 2,786

354,589

France. ¦

Dollars. 355,227 178,784 4,O0l 693
2,078
79,204

619,987

All other
Countries.

Dollars. 188j901
374,535 181,666 3,981
202,497 50,813

1,002,393

Total.

Dollars.
4,356,675 2,487,804 387,454 172,785
228,333
229,375

7,862,326

The following statement of the manufacture of
cotton in the United States, which has lately been
published, seems sufficiently authentic. The state
of the cotton manufactures in the United States, in
1831, as collected by the Committee of the. New
York convention, shows, that there were in twelve
states of the Union, 795 cotton mills, with a capital
of $40,714,984, manufacturing annually 77,751,316
lbs. of cotton, or 214,882 bales of 361,86,100 lbs.
Number of spindles ........... 1,246,903
Number of looms  ' 33,506
Pounds of yarn sold . . \  1 0,642,000
Yards of cloth made  ' . 230,461,900
Pounds of cloth  . 59,604,925
Males employed  ' . . . . 18,593
Females employed .  38,927
Pounds of starch used  . . 1,641,253

Barrels of flour for sizing,  17,245
Cords of wood iurnt  46,519
Tons of coal burnt . . '. .  24,420
Bushels of charcoal burnt .. . . . . -. ... . 9,205
Value of other articles consumed not enumerated . 599,223
Spindles then building  ,172,924
Gallons of oil consumed  300,338
Hand weavers  , . .  4,760
Total dependents . . .'  '. . . . 117,626
Annual value of cotton manufactures .-.,.' . . 26,000,000
Aggregate or total annual amount of wages paid . 10,294,944
Of articles manufactured from wool, it will be per
ceived that France furnishes a considerable quantity,
although bearing a very small proportion to' that of
England. The importations from France consist
chiefly of stuffs, and other light articles, in which
their manufacturers excel those of England, and also
some sorts of blankets.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

165

been, a sudden reaction, and great depression of prices,
producing considerable embarrassment in those es
tablishments operating with inadequate capital, and
unable to meet the shock of impaired credit. But,
although individuals may meet with heavy losses by
imprudent speculations, there is no reason to distrust
the eventual success of the manufacture, which must
soon find relief under the increasing consumption of
the cpuntry. The largest establishments for the
manufacture of cotton in the United States, at pre
sent, (1830,) are at Dever, New Hampshire ; Lowell,
Massachusetts ; Pawtucket, Rhode Island ; Paterson,
New Jersey ; and in the neighbeurhood of Philadel
phia and Baltimore. The reduction of price in the
raw material, which is now of only one third the
value of 1815, has still more extended the manufac
ture, which,- in many instances, supersedes coarse
linens, and even hempen sail cloth.*
Woollen factories are- numerous in the eastern
states ; and the manufacture of this article excites a
deep and general interest in the republic, as the pro
duction of the raw material is not confined to one
portion ofthe country, but maybe profitably pursued
in some parts of nearly all the states. The protec
tion of this manufacture was one principal object of
the tariff of 1828. That without further protec
tion both the manufacture and the growth of wool
would have been abandoned, was made very apparent
in the evidence tendered to the committee of manu
factures appointed by congress early in that, year. It
appeared that several of the joint-stock manufacturing
* The following details respecting the operations of a cotton
factory, near Springfield, Massachusetts, in the summer of this
year, are not without interest. " There are about 15,000 spindles
in operation, and from 10,000 to 13,500 yards of cloth manufac
tured daily — 20,000 spindles are soon to be at work. About 800
hands are employed— 700 of these are females, who earn from 12
to. 21 dollars a month: they pay 8 dollars for board, washing, &c;
but they all work by the piece, and some clear 1 8 dollars monthly.
The village contains 1,400 souls: it is inhabited only by persons
employed in the factories, or their families. The agent receives
3,000 dollars a year, the superintendent 2,000, and the concern is
said to yield 10 per cent, on the capital invested."
t The statement of the superintendent ofthe Oriskany Woollen
Manufacturing Company, before the committee of manufactures,
affords some interesting information respecting the management
and operations, of similar institutions: although, of course, they
vary fronr each, other, both in extent arid in some points of manage
ment. " The officers of the company," says Mr. Dexter, " are five
directors, who receive, each, 2 dollars for every attendance at the
meetings of the board. The number of these meetings averages
about four annually. The board appoints, from its own body, a
president, secretary, and treasurer. The president and secretary-
receive nothing as compensation. The treasurer receives 50 dol
lars per annum, over and above his pay as a .director. A super
intending agent, who is paid 800 dollars per annum, and is fur
nished with a house and garden, rent free ; and a clerk of the
store, who receives about 10 dollars per month, and is boarded.
The company employs in its service one head carder, at a salary
of 4S0 dollars per annum, who boards himself, as do all the hands j
employed in the factory, except three apprentices, who receive I
Vol. IL— Nos. 49 & 50 X

companies'! had never paid any dividends on the cap
ital subscribed, and that not from losses by bad debts
or mismanagement, but from the -reduction of the
price of woollen cloths through importation from Eu
rope. The increase of duty (for the details of which
we refer to Table, No. I. at the close of this chapter,)
on foreign cloths, has led to great activity in the
woollen manufacture, and at the present time it is in
a very prosperous state. The demand for wool is so
great, that large quantities are imported from Europe,
and the price of native wool has risen from 50 to
100 per cent., an advance, however, which cannot
long be sustained ; but unless great caution is used, it
will lead to a most injurious reaction and depression.
To enter into details respecting particular factories
would be unnecessary in this part of the work, as
they will be noticed, in a subsequent department, in
the respective localities in which they occur. This
observation will apply to the other articles of manu
facture which remain to be noticed. Before leaving
the subject of woollens, however, we regret to be
compelled to add an observation not all to the credit
of the commercial world : — there appears to be too
much reason to apprehend that the duties to which
the several descriptions of woollens are subject ac
cording to their quality,! are extensively evaded by
mean of false invoices and false oaths. One great
evil of high protecting duties is undoubtedly the
strong temptation it affords to men, whose only deity
is gold, to enter on a system of fraud, and conse
quently to ruin those in the same line of business

board and clothing ; one machinist, at 1 dollar 50 cents per
working day; one superintending weaver, at 1 dollar 37 1-2 cents
per working day ; one principal fuller ; one presser, &c. ; two
hands in the finishing room, and one dyer, each at 1 dollar 25
cents per working day ; ten hands in the spinning and carding
rooms ; two assistant carders, and one assistant in and about the
dying house, each at" 1 dollar per working day; and one watch
man, also at 1 dollar per day, for every day ; one fireman, at about
80 cents per day, and two or three other labourers, getting wood,
&c. at about 75 cents per day, each. These include all the labour
ing men I can now recollect. One girl to letter the cloth, at 4
dollars per week ; twenty-four women and girls, at 3 dollars each
per week} and eighteen or twenty women and girls, at 2 dollars
50 cents each per week. The residue of the hands are young
boys and girls, whose wages will vary from 1 dollar 25 cents to
2 dollars per week, each. The whole number employed will range
from 80 to 100. Also, an assorterof wool, at about 30 dollars per
month, and an assistant assorter, at about 20 dollars per month.
The working hours, summer and winter, are, I think, eleven in
number. They commence work at five o'clock in the morning, in
winter, and, I think, in summer also. The leisure for breakfast
and dinner is thirty minutes each; but at what hour they break
off for breakfast I can not say; for dinner, it v at 12 o'clock at
noon. Each person employed is held to work eleven hours for a
day's work ; if any works less time, it is deducted ; if more time,
he is paid extra in proportion to the time. When there is a hurry,
the hands are induced to work one and two hours over the regular
time, each day, for which they are compensated.".
t See Table, No. II. at the close of this chapter.

166

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

who are too honourable to descend to such practices.
We hope, however, there may be some other method
of accounting for facts which appear at first sight to
admit only of such an unpleasant and disgraceful
solution.* Household manufactures of woollen, linen, and
cotton, are carried on to a great extent. Many thou
sands of families spin and make up their own
clothing, sheets, table-linen, &c. They purchase
cotton yarn, and have it frequently mixed with their
linen and woollen ; blankets, quilts, or coverlets, in
short, nearly all articles of domestic use, are chiefly
made, in the family. It is supposed that nearly two
thirds of all the clothing, linen, blankets, <fcc., of
those inhabitants who reside in the interior of the
country, are of household manufacture. It is the
same in the interior with both soap and candles, the
inhabitants happily having no exciseman to prevent
their making those articles at any time or to any ex
tent in the family.
Next in importance and amount to the manufac
ture of wool is that of iron. The abundance in
which the ore is found, and in the immediate vici
nity of coal, has naturally promoted the erection of
forges in various parts of the union, but particularly
in the state of Pennsylvania. As in other cases
during the war, many extensive establishments were
erected, and were very successful ; but the return of
* That our mercantile readers, who may feel peculiarly interest
ed in this subject, may clearly apprehend the charge, as stated by
the American manufacturer, we insert an extract from a letter,
inserted in Niles' Register, of July 2, 183.1 : — "A cloth of 6-4 wide
(which is the ordinary width) costing 6s. 9d. sterling, or 1 dollar
50 cents per running yard, being the highest cost which can law
fully come in under the 1 dollar minimum, can be imported at 2
dollars 53 cents, which includes cost, duties, and expenses of im
porting ; add to this, 25 cents per yard for credits on sales, com
mission, guarantee, &c, making up the whole cost, and expenses
of sale, to 2 dollars 78 cents per yard for dollar minimum cloths;
if they will sell at 3 dollars per yard it is a clear profit on the in
vestment of 15 per cent. If the cloth cost but 8s. sterling, and
pays the lawful duty, which is 1 dollar per yard more than on the
cloth costing 6s.. 9d., it must sell for 4 dollars per yard to pay the
cost and charges, and remit to the owner his net cost of 8s. per
yard, without any profit. If a cloth cost 9s. sterling, it mast at
least bring 4 dollars 30 cents to pay cost. If it cost 10s. it must
bring 4 dollars 60 cents. If it cost lis., 5 dollars to pay the cost.
" Merchants will not long carry on business that yields no profit,
either on one or the other side of the Atlantic. On the contrary,
it appears that some classes of importers appear to have made
profits beyond all belief, orTiave suffered heavy losses. Thousands
of pieces of cloths have been sold in this market by private and
public sale, at the prices of between 3 1-4 and 4 1-4 dollars per
yard, mostly at 3 i-4 and 3 3-4 dollars, and the sellers were well
satisfied, as I am informed, with the prices they obtained.
" All cloths that cost but 6s. 9d. sterling per running yard of 6-4
wide, paying the dollar minimum duty, and which sell
At 3 dollars per yard, yield a clear profit of 15 per cent.
At 3 dollars 25 cents do. do. do. 31 do.
At 3 dollars 50 cents do. do. do. 53 do'.
At 3 dollars 75 cents do. do. do. 75 do.

peace, and the consequent influx of pig and bar iron
from Europe, annihilated a very large proportion of
them, the price of iron being reduced to fifty-five or
sixty dollars per ton, which was less than the cost
of manufacture in America, except Under very fa
vourable circumstances. The following statement
of facts and estimates, showing the nature, extent,
and results of the iron-making business, as conduct
ed in the state of New Jersey, deposed by Mr. Jack
son before the committee on manufactures in 1828,
affords a very clear and interesting development of
the state of the trade at the time, and, with the in
formation subsequently given, will enable any indi
viduals, who might be inclined to embark capital in
this branch of American manufactures, to farm a
tolerably correct - idea as to the probabilities of suc
cess : — I. The Nature of the Business.
The iron-making business in .this section of (.Gantry is princi
pally conducted by persons who have severally commenced theii
operations by the purchase of a tract of land embracing the neces-
sary water-power for propelling the works, and affording a suffi
cient quantity of timber to supply them with fuel for a number of
years. In the improvement of such tracts, the first step is the
erection of a dam ; a forge, or iron mill, which usually contains
two fires; two pair of bellows ; one hammer, anvil, and the har
ness connected therewith ; two water-wheels to move the bellows
and ore, stampers, and one for the hammer; a coal house; a
smith's shop; and dwellings for the owner and workmen. The
business then proceeds in the emplqyment of the necessary work
men, such as wood choppers, colliers, teamsters, and forgemen;
If they cost but 3d. sterling more than 6s. 9d. they, of course, come
under the 2 dollar 50 cents minimum, and are subject to a duty of
1 dollar per yard more. Thus, if a cloth, cost but 7s. sterling per
running yard of 6-4 wide, pays the lawful duty, and sells for but
3 dollars, it produces a loss to the owner of 55 per cent.
If at 3 dollars 25 cents the loss is '38 do.
If at 3 dollars 50 cents the loss is 23 do.
" To an intelligent public I appeal, whether either of these two
cases is probable. That the market has been well stocked with,
cloths selling at 3 1-4, 3 1-2, to 4 dollars, is notorious ; to believe
that either can be true,' we must consent to the absurdity, that the
owners have either realized the enormous profits of from 30 to 75
per cent., or lost from 2,3 to 55 per cent. There' is no mistake in
these figures I l
" When, therefore, to these calculations, which can not be con
troverted, the fact is added, that no honest man can import from
England (purchased for cash) at a cost of 6s. 9d. a cloth that will
sell, taking the average of all colours, for more than 3 dollars per
yard, can a doubt remain 1 The writer has in vain tried to have
cloths bought in England at 6s. 9d. that would sell for more than
3 dollars; and he asserts fearlessly, (and challenges proof that he
is in error,) that the whole average of cloths, of all colours, that
have been honestly imported at 6s. 9d. for the past nine months,
have not sold in this market above the average of 3 dollars per
yard, — many cloths would not bring that price ; and that nearly
every yard of cloth that has been sold in this market at 3 i-2 dol
lars to 4 dollars, has either been smuggled or fraudulently enter
ed, or it produced a considerable loss to the owner ; and from
what has been previously stated, no doubt Can exist, that by fraud
only is this market so fully supplied with cloths of this description,
thousands of pieces of which have been sold this season, both at
public and private sale, and the owner no doubt laughing at our
folly and credulity."

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

1G7

and the preparation of teams for carting the coal, ore,, and iron.
It is the practice of the owners, in the prosecution of their busi
ness, to furnish to the workmen, at the works, such supplies of
provisions and other necessaries as they may require.
II. The Extent of the Business, and Facilities for enlarging it.
1st. The amount of . iron actually made per annum, so far as
the same can be ascertained by the returns from the different forge
owners, is 2,750 tons.
2. The amount of. capital invested embraces the following
items, viz. : — Dollars.
Cost of erecting 110 forge fires, now in operation, at an
average expense, including machinery, , dams, and
coal-houses, of 1,500 dollars each  165,000
Amount invested in woodland, allowing each fire to re
quire 750 acres for its support in producing its pro
portion of the 2,750 tons, made in all, equal to 82,500
acres, at an average price (the water privileges in
cluded) of ten dollars per acre ........ 825,000
The expense^of teams, tools, &c, for each fire, is 500
dollars  . 55,000
Cost of houses for the accommodation of workmen, al
lowing to each fire five houses^ at 200 dollars each,
1,000 dollars  110,000
Amount of floating capital necessary to conduct the bu
siness, 500 dollars for each fire  55,000

Dollars 1,210,000

3d. The number of workmen employed in the business, allowing
each fire to require two forgemen, two colliers, two cartmen, one
coal stocker, five wood choppers, and a carpenter and blacksmith,
equal to one hand, are thirteen to each fire, numbering, in all,
1,430 workmen, who, with their families of four persons each,
make the number of souls dependant upon the business, 5,720.
4th. The facilities for extending the business are ample. There
are now in operation, as appears by this statement, 110 forge fires,
producing, on an average, about twenty-five tons, each per annum.
Were sufficient encouragement afforded, it is presumed that these
fires may be made to produce thirty-five tons each per annum, in
stead of the present quantity, and that a number more of equal
ability would soon be put in operation, all of which could be fully
supported with charcoal and ore, the materials now used in the
manufacture. III. The Results of the Business, and Details of the Manufacture. Dolls, cts.
To make one ton of bar iron, it requires
Three tons of ore, at an average cost of five dollars per
ton  . . . . . . 15 HO
Ten loads of coal, at four dollars per load  40 00
The additional expenses are,
Stocking ten loads of coal, at Is. per load  1 25
Small repairs of forge, per lon  1 50
Wages of workmen for making, per ton  16 50
Average expense of cartage and freight to New York, per
ton ...   500

Dollars 79 25

The average price of American bar iron in New York, for most
of the time during the last eleven years, has not been greater than
it now is, viz. seventy to eighty dollars per ton.
In the above estimate of cost in making the one ton of iron, it
is assumed that the-coal and ore are purchased by the manufac
turer at the current prices. If, however, the coal is- made upon
his own premises, and the ore raised from his own mine, the fol
lowing estimate will show the result: — Dolls, cts.
Cost of cutting twenty cords of wood, for one ton of iron,
at 3s. per cord  7 50
Cooling ten loads of coal, at 12s. per load  " 15 00

Dolls, cts.
Carting ten loads of coal, at 8s. per load,  10 00
Stocking ditto, at Is. per load  ] 25
Raising three tons of ore, at 12s. per ton ...... 4 50
Carting ditto, at 8s. per ton  3 Ot,
Wages for making one ton of iron  16 50
Small repairs of forge, per, ton  150
Cartage and freight to New York, per ton . . .. . . 5 00

Dollars 64 25

Should any allowance be made in the last estimate, for the value
of the standing wood used in making the coal, and of the ore in
the bed, the following sum should be added to the amount of this
estimate, viz. < Dolls, cts.
Twenty cords of standing wood, at 4s. per cord . . . 10 00
Three tons of ore in the bed, at 12s. per ton .... 4 50

14 50
Amount of the last estimate added  64 25

Dollars 78 75

It is perceived that the foregoing estimates include no account
of interest of capital invested, decay of works, expense of manage
ment, taxes, &c. ; nor is any provision made for risks or losses,
although the business is greatly exposed to the hazards of both."
Were these items estimated, there should be an addition of ten to
fifteen dollars per ton, to each of the foregoing estimates. It will
also be perceived, that in this statement no estimate has been sub
mitted of the amount of capital invested in mines, or the cost of
opening them, from the impossibility of arriving at any thing satis
factory respecting them. It can only be stated, that there are fifty
mines in this district already opened, fifteen of which are at pre
sent worked, and that the quantity of good ore is presumed to be
inexhaustible. This statement is, moreover, strictly confined to facts and esti
mates in relation to manufacturing of bar iron, without any allu
sion to furnaces, of which there are several, or to rolling mills, of
which there are four in the district; three situated at Dover, and
owned by Messrs. "Blackwell and M'Parlan, of the city of New
York, which annually convert into rolled iron 1,000 tons of the
manufactures of the district ; and the other at Rockaway, owned
by Colonel Joseph Jackson, capable of rolling about 400 tons more.
On a cursory view of this subject, it wpuld be
matter of surprise that the manufacture of iron from
native ore should have continued to exist in the
United States ; but another statement of the same
witness throws a light not only on this particular
subjeet, but indicates one of the peculiar advantages
which tend to counterbalance some of the unfavour
able circumstances with which manufactures in
America have to contend. The committee very
reasonably inquire, "If the business of manufactur
ing bar iron is as bad as you represent it, and if
others in your neighbourhood have failed in it, how
have you been able to sustain yourself; and why
have you continued the business ?" To which Mr.
Jackson makes the following reply : " I have been
able to sustain myself because I carry on a farm,
and the manufacturing establishments furnish a good
market for my farming produce. I also keep a store,
and pay for a share of the labour of my workmen out
of the store, and get a profit on my 'goods. I have,

168

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

also, a grist mill and a saw mill, which have aided me
in my buildings, <fcc. ; but establishments unconnected
with these, or like advantages, have failed. My rolling
mill, also, enables me to do more business, and upon
which I get a little profit : and 1 have continued to
hope for belter times. I have, also, some govern
ment contracts, which have assisted me, not so much
by an advance of price, as by a sure market for a
large quantity ; which enabled me to proceed with
certainty, and without being subjected to the fluctua
tions of the market for the manufacture."
In consequence of this state of things, an advance
of duty, averaging from five to twenty-five per cent.
on that already imposed on foreign iron, was enact
ed.* The method in which this duty was arranged
appears, however, to have been much more in favour
of the proprietors of the iron mines and smelters than
of the manufacturers of hardware, the advance of
duty being on iron rolled ; also, on slabs, blooms,
and loop, or other wire, from thirty to thirty-seven
dollars per ton, or nearly twenty-five per cent. ; while,
oh manufactured articles, as axes, knives, <fcc, the
advance was only ten per cent., the alteration being,
manifestly, nearly fifteen per cent, in favour of the
British manufacturer. The "Petition of the Iron
Manufacturers of Philadelphia, presented to congress
in the session of 1831," states, that under these en
actments, even " horseshoes" have become an article
of considerable export from Britain. If the state
ments of the manufacturers of Philadelphia should
not prove erroneous, which, from the very extensive
orders executed this year at Sheffield and Birming
ham, we apprehend will not be the case to any mate
rial extent, the history of the past would lead us to
expect that congress will speedily remedy what they
will deem an anomaly in the " American system." —
Among articles of which iron forms the material,
steam-engines now undoubtly claim the first rank ;
and the Americans are remarkable for the number of
these admirable machines, both on land and water.
Although the demand for them is constantly increas
ing, such is the skill which competition has brought
to bear on this important article, that an engine,
which, a few years since, would have cost 2,000 dol
lars, may now be purchased for 800 dollars.
Glass, both for windows and domestic purposes, is
manufactured extensively in the United States, prin
cipally at Pittsburgh. The price of this article has
much declined, owing chiefly, if not entirely, to in
ternal competition,! a healthy process indeed, when

* See Table, No, I. at the end of this chapter.
t Some addition to the import duty was, however, made in the
tariff of 1828.— See Table, No. I.

not carried to excess ; but sometimes a direful dis
ease, that may be termed the " madness of the few
for the gain of the many," if, indeed, in some cases,
it may not be more truly said, " for the gain of
none." When it is carried to the extent of destroy
ing, not only the master's profit, but the value ofthe
labour of the mechanic, it is the madness of the few
for the destruction of thousands ; a result which has
accrued to a lamentable extent in Great Britain.
Happily, however, the American labourer is as yet,
by the quantity of unoccupied land which still re
mains, protected from this deplorable result of the
folly of his master, and, consequently, it is found,
that, while the prices of articles of glass have de
clined in value at least fifty per cent, within a few
years, there has been " a great uniformity of wages"
during that period. "In 1808," says Mr. Bakewell,!
" we sold common flint half-pint tumblers at two dol
lars per dozen ; after the currency of the state be
came settled, we sold them at one dollar per dozen ;
and now we sell them at about, eighty-one cents per
dozen. Plain quart decanters, which, in 1808, we
sold at six dollars per dozen, we now sell at two dol
lars and twenty-five cents. Wine glasses, in 1808,
were one dollar and fifty cents per dozen, and they
are now seventy-five cents per dozen."
Earthenware of the coarser kinds has long been
manufactured in various parts of the Union ; and
recently, the finest qualities of china ware have been
attempted, and with considerable success.
The manufactories in the eastern and northern
states not only, supply those states with hats, but they
send large quantities to the middle, southern, and
western ; and have nearly excluded the British hat-
manufacturer from the market. It is only a few
years since, that all who had any pretensions to gen
tility, purchased hats at eight or ten dollars each :
these certainly were handsome, well-made beaver
hats. Lately, however, other hats have been intro
duced, which at first look equally well with those
expensive ones, and very few now purchase the high-
priced hats. The amount of hats manufactured in
the United States is stated to be 13,000,000 dollars
annually. Shoes and boots are made in great quantities, and
may be purchased at very low prices, particularly in
Massachusetts and New Jersey. Boots are sold whole
sale at from two to three dollars per pair ; shoes from
three quarters to one dollar per pair. Many boots
and shoes are made with wooden or cppper pegs, with
which, instead of stitching the soles, they fasten them
t Report of the Committee on Manufactures, 1828, p. 149.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

169

together, and the price is rather less. The eastern
export many shoes to the middle and southern states ;
the latter, indeed, are almost entirely supplied from
thence, very few shoes being now imported from
Great Britain, while the annual value of the boots
and shoes manufactured in the United States is said
to be 26,000,000 dollars.
All articles in wood, household-furniture, and car
riages of all kinds, are executed in great variety.
We have been surprised to find, however, that not
withstanding the beautiful descriptions of wood which
the American forests yield, chairs, and other articles
of domestic furniture, are, for the most part, painted.
Articles of furniture aye, in most instances, rather
cheaper than in England.
Ship-building is carried on to a great extent. In
some years, the amount of tonnage has equalled, if
not exceeded, that launched iii Great Britain ; at any
rate, the United States are second only to ourselves
in this noble art.* In steam-boats, or more properly,
steam-ships, they far outstrip us, their" mighty internal
waters affording such admirable scope for those ves
sels. It is said that upwards of thirty have been
built this year between Pittsburgh and Louisville
alone, in addition to 250 already employed in naviga
ting the Mississippi, or its tributary streams. The
magnitude of these vessels bears full proportion. to
their number, some of them consisting of three stories,
containing a variety of apartments, and making up

* The Americans may be excused for deeming the British second
to themselves.
t Curious as the fact may seem, there are strong grounds to
suppose that stereotyping had occupied the attention of a philoso
pher of New York, long before the practice of the art became
popular abroad. We allude to the singular circumstances deve
loped in the correspondence between Lieutenant Governor Colden
and Dr. Franklin, which we are induced to insert, from the
American Medical and. Philosophical Register, edited by Drs.
Hosack and Francis, and published in New York, 1810.
" An original paper of the late Lieut. Gov. Colden, on a new method
of Printing discovered by him ; together with an original letter
from the late Dr. Franklin, on the same subject ; and some account
of Stereotyping, as now practised in Europe, <frc, by the Editors
' of the Register.
" As the art of printing has, without question, been of very great
use in advancing learning and knowledge, the abuse of it, as of
all. other good things, has likewise produced many inconveniences.
The number of books printed on the same subject, most of which
are nothing but unskilful and erroneous copies of good works,
written only for ostentation of learning, or for sordid profit, ren
ders the path to knowledge very intricate and tedious. The
reader, who has no guide, and the greatest number have none, is
lost in the wilderness of numberless books. He is most commonly
led astray by the glaring appearances of title pages, and other ar
tifices of the mystery of bookselling. It is likewise a common
complaint, that a poor author makes nothing near the profit that
the bookseller does of his labour; and probably, the more pains
the author has taken, the more difficult Ihe performance, and the
more masterly it is done, the less profit to him ; for the good books,
like jewels, never lose their intrinsic value ; yet, they have fewer
purchasers than Bristol stones, and the sale of them is slow.

200 beds. In 1830, the amount of tonnage of steam
boats was 54,036 tons.
Locomotive engines are now built in this country.
Mr. R. L. Stevens, of New York, who is extensively
connected with rail-roads and steamboats, has lately
constructed a locomotive of increased powers, and
superior to any hitherto in use.
The manufacture of paper, type, and books, is
scarcely surpassed by that of any equal number of in
habitants in the world. ' Of the first of these, there
are many very extensive manufactories. The business
of type founding is carried on to a great extent in the
American states, and stereotyping has become a mat
ter which ipvolves a large capital, and engages many
workmen ; among the most prominent individuals
occupied in these branches of industry are the Messrs.
Conner & Cooke, White, Hagar, & Co., Bruce & Co.,
Pell <fc Brother, of New York ; Lyman, of. Albany ;
Johnson & Smith, of Philadelphia ; and the Boston
type and stereotype foundry, in Boston. One is
found in the west, where, only thirty years ago, a set
tlement was scarcely made. The vast number of
publications which are issued from the American
press at the present day, by means of stereotype print
ing, is scarcely credible to one who has not closely
investigated the fact ; the consequent cheapness oi
books is such, that literature, comparatively speaking,
is scattered among the people for the smallest consi
deration, t The daily and weekly periodicals con-

" As the lessening or removing of some of these inconveniences
may be of use lo the republic of letters', I hope to be excused in
making the following attempt for that purpose, by proposing a new
method of printing.
" Let there be made of some hard metal, such as copper or brass,
a number of types, or rather matrices, on the face of each of which,
one letter of the alphabet is to be imprinted en creuse, by a stamp,
or such other method by which the matrices for founding of types
are commonly made. They must be all of the same dimension,
as to breadth and thickness, with that of types, but half their length,
seems sufficient. Their sides must be so equal and smooth as to
leave no vacuity between them when joined. There must like
wise be a sufficient number of each letter or character to compose
at least one page in octavo, of any book.
" These matrices, I suppose, may be cast in a mould, or a plate
of copper may be divided ' exactly into squares, and the letter or
character be stamped into the middle of each square, and the
squares afterwards cut asunder by a proper saw. The best method
of making these will be easily discovered by those whose business
it is to make founts for printing types.
" When a sufficient number of each letter and character is ob
tained, they are to be placed in the same manner that types are,
when composed for printing, only that they must all stand directly
as they are read, and as they will appear afterwards on the paper.
" The composure of one page, after it is carefully corrected, is
to be placed in a case or mould, fitted to it, of the length and breadth
of the page, and of such depth as to cast a plate a quarter of an
inch thick, which will perfectly represent a page composed in the
common manner for printing.
" As to the art of casting the plate perfect, founders and type
makers must be consulted ; for the composition of the metal, and
for the flux for running it clean and clear, so that no vacuities be
left ; for which purpose, I am told, that the funnel, by which the

170

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

sume a large quantity of paper, being estimated at
nearly a thousand. The principal publications will
claim our attention as connected with literature, more

melted metal is poured in, being made large, and the filling it with
•the melted metal after the mould is full, is of use to make the letter
every where full and complete. For, by the weight of the metal
in the funnel, the liquid metal in the mould is pressed into every
crevice. The funnels extending the whole length of one of the
sides, gives, likewise, free vent to the air.
" Or, after a page shall be composed, as before mentioned, and
the types and matrices well secured in a frame upon a strong
plate, they may, by a screw, be pressed upon a sheet "of melted
lead, and thereby a plate of lead be procured, representing as the
former a page composed of types for printing. Which of the
methods are most practicable artists can best determine.
" After the page shall be thus formed, the matrices may be
loosened and dispersed into their proper boxes, and may serve for
as many other pages as types in common printing do.
," When a number of pages, sufficient for a sheet, are thus made,
they may be carried to any printing press, and such a number of
sheets as shall be thought proper be cast off, and then be laid by
till more copies be wanted.
" I choose an octavo page, because, if the page title and page num
ber be left out, as likewise the directions and signatures at the foot
of the page, by joining two pages together, it maybe made a quarto,
or by joining four, a folio. Thus several editions in octavo, quar
to, and folio, may at once be made, to suit every buyer's humour.
" The page titles, number, and bottom signatures, may be cast
in small moulds apart, and joined, as may be proper.
" The most convenient size of a page is that of small paper, so
as to fill it up, and to leave very little margin ; then by adding the
page titles, or marginal notes, or notes at the bottom, all cast in
frames separately, the large paper may be sufficiently filled.
" I believe that this method of printing, every thing considered,
will not be more chargeable than the common method. A thou
sand, or some thousands sometimes, of copies, are cast off at once
in the common method, and the paper and pressman's labour of
what is not speedily sold may or must lie dead for some years,
whereas in this method, no more need be cast off at a time than
may well be supposed to sell speedily. If I be not mistaken, the
metal necessary for one sheet will not exceed the value of four
hundred sheets of paper, and in. the common method several hun
dred sheets lie useless for, sometimes, many years. If the book
should not answer, there is a great loss in the paper, whereas the
metal used in this method retains its intrinsic value.
" I shall instance some of the advantages in this method which
induce me to communicate my thoughts to others.
" 1. An author by this means can secure the property of his own
labour. " 2. A correct edition is at all times secured, and therefore may
be useful in the classics, trigonometrical tables, &c.
"3. A weak and ignorant attempt on the same subject will be
discouraged, for as a new edition of a valuable book is continually
secured, without any new expense, booksellers will not readily ha
zard the publishing of books of the same nature.
" 4. But what I chiefly value this method- of printing for, is,
from the advantages it gives an author in making his work per
fect, and in freeing it from mistakes ; for, by printing off a few
copies of any sheet, and sending them among his friends, and by
suffering them to fall into the, hands of a malevolent critic, he may
have an opportunity of correcting his mistakes, before they appear
to the worjd. By the same means he may make his work more
complete than otherwise he could, by the assistance which his
friends may give him in several parts of it. It is for these reasons,
chiefly, that I propose the plates not to exceed an octavo page, and
to have no signatures; for in case of a mistake, the loss, of one
page may correct the error, and where improvements or additions
are necessary, as many pages maybe intermixed as shall be neces
sary, without any inconvenience, and small explications may be
made by the marginal notes.
" Lastly. The greatest advantage I conceive will be in the learn
ed sciences; for- they often require a long time to bring these to

emphatically than with manufactures. A duty equal
to the price of the paper is placed on foreign books',
an error of policy we hope soon to see erased from
perfection, and require the assistance of others in many particu
lars. Many a valuable piece has been lost to the world, by the
author dying before he could bring his work to the perfection he
designed. Now, by tho assistance which he may have by this
method from others, this time may be much shortened, and' the
progress he has made may be preserved for others to continue in
case of his death. An author may publish his work in parts, and
shall continue, in many cases, to complete and make them more
perfect, without any loss of what was done before. By this method
-likewise, a man of learning, when poor, may leave some part of
his estate in his own way for a child, as mechanics often do for
theirs. " Whether the method I propose will answer the end designed,
or whether it be practicable, I can not with sufficient assurance
say ; because we have no artists in this country who can make the
experiment, neither can they have encouragement sufficient to
tempt them to make the trial. However, I hope to be excused, by
the use of the design , and as it may chance to give some hint to a
skilful person to perform effectually what I only aim at in vain.
" If the charge of lead or metal plates be thought too great, I
know not but that the impression may be made on, thin planes of
some kinds of wood, such as lime tree or poplar, which have a
soft smooth grain -when green, and are h?rd and smooth when dry.
"Ever since I had the pleasure of a conversation with you,
though very short, by our accidental meeting on the road, I have
been very desirous to engage you in a correspondence. You was
pleased to take some notice of a method of printing which I men
tioned to you at that time, and to think it practicable. I have no
further concern for it than as it may be useful to the -public ; my
reasons for thinking so, you will find in the inclosed copy of a pa
per which I last year sent to Mr. Collinson, in London. Perhaps
my fondness for my own conceptions may make me think more of
it than it deserves, and may make me jealous that the common
printers are willing to discourage, out of private interest, any dis
covery of this sort. But as you have given me reason to think
you zealous in promoting every useful attempt, you will be able
absolutely to determine my opinion of it. I long very much to
hear what you have done in your scheme of erecting a society at
Philadelphia for prompting of useful arts and sciences in America.
If you think of any thing in my power whereby I can promote so
useful an undertaking, I will with much pleasure receive your in
structions for that end. As my son Gadwallader bears this, I
therebv think myself secured of the pleasure of a line from you by
him." " Philadelphia, November 4, 1743.
" Sir, — i receivea the favour of yours, with the proposal for a
new method of printing, which I am much pleased with ; and since
you express some confidence in my opinion, I shall consider it very
attentively and particularly, and in a post sr' two, send you some
observations on every article.
" My long absence from home in the summer, put my business
so much behind hand, that I have been in a continual hurry ever
since my return, and had no leisure to forward the Scheme of the
society. But that hurry being now near over, I purpose to proceed
in the affair very soon, your approbation being no small encourage
ment to me.
" I can not but be fond of engaging in a correspondence so ad
vantageous to me as yours must be. I shall always receive your
favours as such, and with great pleasure.
" I wish I could by any means have made your son's longer stay
here as agreeable to him, as it would have been to those who began
to be acquainted with him.
"I am; sir, with much respect,
" Your most humble servant,
" B. FRANKLIN.
" Dr. Colden."
" Remarks. — The mode of printing above described is now known
by the term Stereotype ; and it is a curious fact, that the stereotype

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

171

the statutes of the United States. A duty of one-
fourth the amount {3d per pound) would be amply
sufficient to secure to American publishers the re
print of all works, the demand for which was suffi
cient to justify the expense of their being reprinted ;
so that the present duty has the sole effect of raising
the price, and, iii many cases, denying possession of
a variety of English works to the American public,
without any corresponding advantage to their manu
factures. There are many works on particular
branches of mechanical science, for instance, of which
comparatively few copies are printed even in Eng
land, and the free circulation of which in the United
States cannot be otherwise than an important advan
tage, but which is prevented by the present state of
the revenue laws. Even if the interests of the Ameri
can printers should for a moment sustain a slight
uisadvantage, the writer has far too high an opinion
of their patriotism to suppose they would suffer that
fact, in the slightest degree, to retard the intellectual
progress of their country.

process, said to have been invented by M. Herhan, in Paris, and
now practised by him in that city, under letters patent of Napoleon,
is precisely the same as that spoken of by Dr. Colden, more than
sixty years ago.
" It is more than probable that when Dr. Franklin went to
France, he communicated Dr. Colden's 'new method of printing'
to Some artists there, and that it lay dormant until about sixteen
years since, when Herhan, a German, who had been an assistant
to M. Didot, the printer and. type founder of 'Paris, but then sepa-'
rated from him, took it up in opposition to M. Didot. We have
conversed with gentlemen who have seen M. Herhan's method of
stereotyping, and they describe it to be exactly what Governor
Colden invented. This fact established, there can be no doubt that
M. Herhan is indebted -to America for the celebrity he has obtain
ed in France.
" Since the above paper fell into our hands, we have endeavour
ed to obtain information respecting the different methods of stereo
typing now in use. The following is the result of our inquiries.
" By a book published, in Paris, about ten years since, by M. Ca
mus, of the French National Institute, we find thafa Bible was
printed in Strasburgh, by one Gil'et, more than a hundred years
ago, with plates similar to those now used by Didot and Herhan,
but not by any means so perfect. Gillet's mouldswere made of a
fine clay, and a particular kind of sand found only in the neigh
bourhood of Paris. It is also stated that a number of other inge
nious men had at various times produced plates tolerably perfect,
by different processes, but we may safely infer, from the art having
made no great progress until the time of Didot the elder, that their
endeavours had not. been crowned with much success.
" At the beginning of the French revolution great quantities of
paper money becoming necessary to supply the deficiency of specie
either concealed or sent out of the kingdom by the rich, Didot was
applied to by the national assembly to invent some kind of assignat
or bank-bill, which should not easily be imitated ; and at this peri
od it was that M.' Didot first directed his attention to the means of
producing, in relief, a set of plates, to print on a common printing-
press, which were exactly fac-sim.iles, and could not without much
difficulty be falsified. This process was termed Polytyping ; as
the mould in which the plates were cast was durable^ and would
produce any number of copies ; the usual mode of stereotyping be
ing, as the French term it, a moule perdu ; it being necessary to
make a new mould for every plate.
" But as M. Didot's views' were by degress extended to the cast-

Distillation is extensively, we fear too extensively,
carried on in the United States. Some of the dis
tilleries work entirely from molasses, others from
grain ; the former is distilled into rum, and the lat
ter generally into gin and whisky. These articles, —
whisky, gin, and rum, are sold wholesale by the
distillers at from thirty-seven and a half to fifty cents
per gallon, or about Is. 9d. to 2s. 3d. per gallon
sterling. When cider is made, a considerable quan
tity is fermented, and distilled into what is called
apple-brandy : this is sold at the same price as Ameri
can gin. Peaches are also fermented, and distilled
into what is termed peach-brandy ; the wholesale
price is from a half to three quarters of a dollar per
gallon. Morel than thirty millions of gallons of ar
dent spirits are annually distilled and consumed in
the United States. A considerable check has been
given to this manufacture,, and numerous distilleries
have been closed, by the exertions of temperance so
cieties, whose operations will require notice in a sub
sequent section of the work.

ing of pages for book printing, he found it unnecessary to use du
rable moulds, and therefore, after a year's experiment, invented a
composition, which, like the sand used by brass- founders, might
be wrought over again for different casts. The elegant editions
produced by M. Didot and sons, are the best proofs of his success.
" When the fame of M. Didot's invention reached. England,
Lord Stanhope, an ingenious and wealthy nobleman, whose time
and fortune are principally devoted to the advancement of the arts,
made propositions to Mr. Andrew Wilson, of Wild court, Lincoln's
Inn Fields, proprietor of the Oriental press, to assist him in such
experiments as might bring to perfection a new mode of, stereoty
ping, of -which his lordship had obtained some ideas. Mr. Wilson
embraced the proposal ; and after four or five years of incessant
labour, they attained nearly all the advantages they had contempla
ted. Mr. Wilson,- in the year 1802, built his foundry in Duke
street, Lincoln's Inn Fields, and in the following year disposed df
the secret for six thousand pounds sterling, and some future ad
vantages, to Mr. Richard Watts, for the use of. the university of
Cambridge. In the year following he disposed of it on similar
terms to the university of Oxford.
" About two years ago, a brother of Mr. Watts, of Cambridge,
began a course of experiments in this city for a more cheap and
easy manner of stereotyping, than any hitherto discovered ; and,
in spite of innumerable disadvantages, has succeeded beyond his
utmost expectation. We have seen plates of his casting of the
greatest-perfection and beauty. The chief difficulty he has expe
rienced arose from the jealousy. and illiberality of the common
type-founders, who refused to lend the little aid he required of
them. It is agreeable to us, however, from our own observation,
to be able to state, that, by uncommon perseverance through accu
mulated obstacles; Mr. Watts has invented a method of casting
the common types much more perfect than those made in the
usual way; and now will proceed with his plates without the as
sistance of other artists.
" The principal defects in M. Didot and Lord Stanhope's pro
cess, arise from the softness of the moulds they employ, which are
composed of plaster of Paris and some other ingredients. In ta
king them from the page, of which they are intended to cast a per
fect copy, some part of the composition will always remain in the
type, and leave the mould imperfect. After the plates are cast,
there is consequently much work for an engraver, to make them
fit for use. Mr. Watts' mould, being of solid materials, no such
inconvenience can arise."

172

TOPOGRAPHY OE THE UNITED STATES.

The minerals of the United States, the procuring
and smelting of which is a species of manufacture,
besides iron and coal, are lead and copper.* The
first is found in considerable quantities in several
parts of the Union. In the Huron country, where
the mines have only been worked three years, under
every disadvantage, thirty millions of pounds of lead
have been produced. Only about a mile square of
surface has yet been opened, and from this, thirty

millions of pounds more might be extracted without
opening a new mine. The whole of the lead district
occupies a surface of one hundred miles square,-inclu-
ding, however, a district of copper ore- about twenty
miles long, and four or five broad. Mines of lead
and copper abound also on the Missouri. The quan*
tity of lead produced at the United States lead mines,
annually, from 1823, to the 30th of September, 1829
is exhibited in the following table : —

To t 1824 

Fever River. "

Missouri.

Total.

Pounds. 335,130 175,220
664,530
958,842
5,182,180
11,105,81013,343,150

Pounds. 386J590
1,374,962 910,380
1,205,9201,-198,160

Pounds. 335,130 175,220
1,051,120
2,333,8046,092,560
12,311,730
14,541,310

To 1825  ' 

To „ ' 1826 . . 

To 1828 

31,764,862

5,076,012

36,840,874 (

The Galenian, a news journal, furnishes a table of
the quantity of lead annually made at the lead mines
in the United States, from their first opening in 1821
to 1833, inclusive. The statement contains a remark
that the lead is less abundant this spring than at any
preceding times, and that, comparatively spfeaking,
little will be made this year. The whole quantity
made during the twelve years mentioned, is set down
at 63,845,740 lbs., of which 7,941,792 lbs. were made
during the year 1833. The mining business during
that time seems by the table to have fluctuated with.-
out any perceptible law of increase. The quantity
of lead raised in 1828, was more than twelve millions
of pounds, and the next year more than fourteen
millions and a half. It fell in 1832 to little more
than four millions. This variation arises, we sup-
* The gold mines of the Carolinas and Georgia havt reen no
ticed in Book ii. Chap, ii., where, also, will be found particulars
respecting lead, copper, mercury, iron, coal, &c>

pose, from the want of a regular plan of operations,
a deficiency of capital, and the uncertain tenure by
which the lead mine lands are held.
The quantity of the various manufactures export
ed throws considerable light on their progress and
present state ; but the statements illustrative of that
subject connect themselves more properly,' and in
deed inseparably, with commerce, and will form the
materials of a considerable portion of the following
chapter. From them it will be evident that several
important articles, which, a few years since, were
articles of import only, are already become exports
of a very considerable amount.
The first table appended to this chapter exhibits
a comparative view of the several tariff laws which
have been enacted in the United States ; and the
second shows more precisely the size and value of
which the several articles of manufacture must be,
to come within the respective gradations of duty.

TOPOGRAPHY OP THE UNITED STATES.

181

woollens.
Not exceeding 50 cts. per square yard' 
Exceeding 50 cts. and not exceeding 100 cts. per sqtiare yard .
Exceeding 100 cts. and not exceeding 250 cts. per squareLyard
Exceeding 250 cts. and not exceeding 400 cts. per square^jrard
Exceeding 400" cts. per square yard 
Blankets . ,  ¦'.- 
Hosiery, Gloves, Mits, &c. . - 
Bombazines  P . . . .
Worsted Stuff Goods  ,. .
All other Manufactures  .
Not exceeding 33J cts. per square yard 
Total from each country 

England.

Dollars. 41-8,324- 958,458
1,137,370 69,984 5,890
551,149 124,116 22,906
1,228,707 157,869
263,283

4,938,056

Scotland.

Dollars^ 3,604 453
1,726 486 10
91
838
- 6,155
2,307

15,670

Ireland.

Dollars. 8
12 6

124
3,794

40

3,984

France.

Dollars. 25,09898,69568,166 3,439
42,588 1,040
10,927
102,234
132,379 170

484,736

All other
Countries.

Dollars. 5,709
26,197
28,792 1,797 125
173
4,412 54
65,72622,903 300

156,188

Total.

Dollars. 452,743
1,083,8151,236,060 75,706 6,015
594,044 133,453 33,887
1,397,545 319,306266,060

5,598,634

About six tenths of the ,silk used in the United
States is imported from France, nearly two tenths
from China, rather more than one tenth from Eng
land and the British East Indies, and the remainder
chiefly from Italy. It will be apparent in this arti

cle, as in many others, that the inhabitants of the
union have an advantage over the nations of Europe,
in the opportunity of importing their manufactures
from those countries which severally bring them to
the highest perfection.*

SILKS.
II \ Other Manufactures . . .
Iii -ft-l Other Manufactures . . .
Total from each country . .

England, &c.

British
East Indies.

France.

China.

Italy.

All other
Countries.

Total.

Dollars. 29,358
249,860 119,701

Dollars. 376,166

Dollars. 2,922
2,256,529 1,291,849

Dollars. .
942,923 28,750

Dollars. 265,892 89,545

Dollars. 15,723 2,468
, 52,637
49,681

Dollars. -
1,367,092 31,224
2,824,918 1,550,776

398,919

376,166

3,551,300

971,679 .

355,437

120,509

5,774,010

The importations of the manufacture of flax are
from the northern nations of Europe ; more than six
tenths from England, Scotland, and Ireland, two tenths

from the Hanse Towns, one tenth from France, one
twentieth from Russia, and the remainder chiefly from
the Netherlands, or through the medium of Cuba.

MANUFACTURES OP FLAX.
Linen 
Total from each country . . .

England.

Scotland.

Ireland.

Hanse
Towns.

France.

Russia.

All other
Countries.

Total.

Dollars.
1,088,554 23,028
.170,295

Dollars. 156.495 2,750
185,481

Dollars. 288,524 606

Dollars. 496,907 16,92320,855

Dollars. 282,372 9,137

Dollars. 93,019
88,350

Dollars. 79,182 24
. 8,778

Dollars.
2^485,053 -42,725
483,502

1,281,877

344,726

289,130

534,685

291,509

181,369

87,984

3,011,280

Ofthe articles made from hemp, Scotland furnishes
nearly half, Russia a quarter, England an eighth, and

the remaining eighth comes chiefly from the Hanse
Towns.

MANUFACTURES OF ^EMP.
Ticklenburghs, &ic 
Sheeting 
Other Manufactures ......
Total from each country . .

England.

Dollars. 79,846 9,138
28,642

117,626

Scotland.

Dollars. 400,070 95,635

495,705

Ireland.

Dollars. 4,046

4,046

Russia.

Dollars. 241,098 3,225

244,323

Hanse
Towns.

Dollars. 79,663 5,517

85,180

All other
Countries.

Dollars. 40 1
84

125

Total.

Dollars. 563,665
250.237 133,103

947,005

Carpeting was imported during the year to the
amount of 200,451 dollars, exclusively from Great
* It will perhaps raise the character of the inhabitants of the
United States in the opinion' of some of our fasliionable coteries, if
*hey are informed that French silks and Canton crapes are pro-
Vol. IL— Nos. 51 & 52 Z

Britain or her colonies ; sail duck, to the amount of
317,347 dollars, of which 259,896 were from Russia,

fusely worn in that country, even bythe moderately gay; and that
female dress is sometimes as splendid, and sometimes as ridiculous
in New York as in London.

182

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

28,485 from the Netherlands, 18,483 from England
and Scotland, and 9,567 from the Hanse Tptvns ;
cotton bagging, to the amount of 69,126 dollars, of
which 52,918 were from Scotland, 5,852 from Eng
land, and 10,345 from the Hanse Towns.
Travellers in the United States have expressed

themselves surprised at the variety of foreign wines
produced at the tables of the more wealthy inhabit
ants : when the various kinds included under the
different heads of the following table are considered,
the .amateur in this luxury is left without a wish un-
gratified, except that of actual participation.

WINES.
Red of France and Spain .
Of France, Spain,Germany,
and Mediterranean, not
Of Sicily and all others not
Total from each country

Engl'and.

British
E. Indies.

Portugal'.

Gibraltar.

France.

Spain.

Italy and
Malta.

All other
Countries.

Total.
value.

Dollars. 20,631
29,263 1
404
15,203

Dollars. 50,239 100
355

Dollars: 10,579
84,321'

Dollars. 40
1,2761,310
27,097 3,309

Dollars. 137
245,549202,029 187,443

Dollars. 38,12420,517
166,882 5,231

Dollars. 3
1,244
5,744
44,685

Dollars. 248,797 781
4,412
22,148
97,248

Dollars. 330,423 «9,547
273,033
. 424,304
437,795

65,502

50,694

94,900

33,032

635,158

.230,754

51,676

373,386

1,535,102

However delicious the wines, the desert would be
incomplete without the fruits of various climates :
but when, in addition to the melons, apples, peaches,
pine-apples, oranges, and a hundred other fruits which
are the domestic produce of different sections of the

union, are added all the varieties of foreign fruits,
epicures, either ofthe city or west-end species, might
partake of an American desert without one serious
regret, except, perhaps, that its flavour was destroyed
by the day-light.

FRUITS.

England.

Gibraltar.

France.

Spain.

Cuba.

Italy and
Malta.

Adriatic Ports.

Turkey, Le
vant, &Egypt.

lbs.
392,839 41,338 54,981

lbs.
65,757 21
1,169
429,385

lbs.
836,526 70,139 313
28,838

lbs.
165,213 407
14,576
111,151
4,892,819

lbs.
27,140 2,139
39,99172,403

lbs.
64,00623,962 1,669

lbs.
153,731 11,299

lbs.
156,590
1,423,759 741,017

Total from each country . .

489,058

496,332

935,816

5,184,166

141,673

89,637

165,030

2,321,366

By the quantity of spirits distilled in America, and
the duty imposed on those coming from abroad, the
quantity imported is reduced to a comparatively
small amount. Of spirits manufactured from grain,
the amount imported is 205,704 dollars, of which,
183,551 dollars are from the Netherlands : of those
distilled from other materials, the total amount is
453,286 dollars, of which, 199,945 dollars are from
the Danish West Indies, and 200,899 from France.
The amount of molasses imported is 995,776 dollars,
of which, 665,238 dollars are from Cuba; 66,097
dollars from other Spanish West Indies ; 154,833
dollars from the French West Indies ; 72,549 dollars
from the Dutch West Indies ; while from the British
West Indies, in consequence of the commercial regu
lations existing, the amount is only 1,239 dollars.
Of beer, ale, and porter, the quantity is only 65,260,
and the value 60,420 dollars : almost the whole comes
* We request the advocates of "West India slavery to reconcile
this authentic statement with their assertion, that since the blacks
of Hayti had enfranchised themselves, they had ceased the culti-

If the price of English

per gallon, (more than five times

from England and Scotland.
porter is 4s. 6d.
the price of French wines,) the diminutive amount
ofthe quantity imported can not be matter of sur
prise. The amount of tea consumed in the United States
is very considerable, and,, with exceptions scarcely
worth mentioning, is imported direct from China.
Of Bohea, 152,990 lbs. only are imported ; but of
Souchong, and other black, 2,166,142 lbs. ; of Hyson
and other green, 5,637,247 lbs., and 653,036 lbs. Im
perial ; the whole value being 2,425,018 dollars.
Considerable as is the import of tea, that of coffee is
nearly double in value, and six times the amount in
weight, being 51,488,248 lbs., worth 4,227,021 dol
lars. Nearly sixteen millions of pounds are import
ed from Cuba, fourteen millions and a half from Bra
zil, and more than eleven millions from Hayti,* while
yation of this plant, or at least, did not carry it beyond their own
immediate necessities.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

188

the amount from the British West India islands is
only 57,632 lbs.
The next article we have to notice is of a charac
ter very different from the preceding, though not in
ferior to any in utility, — it is iron. In the variety of
articles manufactured from it, this material is pre
eminent ; and it 'will be seen that, almost without
exception, the manufactured articles imported, from
the needle to the jsledge hammer, are from Great Bri
tain ; while, on the other hand, the chief importation
of bar and bolt iron is from Sweden and Russia.
No table more manifests the superiority of British
skill, industry, and capital, over that of her competi
tors, than that respecting iron ; and we apprehend

this is almost the last point which will yield to foreign
competition. The lighter manufactures of Great
Britain may the sooner be superseded in the Ameri
can market, because on these females labour, and
from the decided aversion of the youth of that sex to
domestic service, their labour may be brought to
bear at a rate very little exceeding the pittance now
paid to the English weaver ; while, notwithstanding
a protecting duty varying from twenty-five to one
hundred per cent, on iron, it may be found impossi
ble to exclude the foreign article on account of the
high price in the United States of such labour as can
only be performed by men.

IRON.
Subject to ad valorem duties.
Side-arms and Fire-arms, other than Muskets and
Rifles 

England, &c.

British
Colonies.

Russia.

Sweden.

All other
Countries.

Total.

Dollars. 98,248
28,998 62,25330,89985,82166,832
2,791,487 10,824 58
59,326
44,57024,181 12,252 '473
34,291 .
33,304 6,348
55,27025,643
243,802 233,200

Dollars. 12 94
714 38
2754
240606200 128 52
1,144 71
2,061 1
1,767 97

Dollars. 2,482
541,445

Dollars. , 300240
1,148,604 6,499

Dollars. 80,893 18
9,179 3
116,777 13,980 105
286
1,098 520 2
4,238 7019
27,00021,093 52,161

Dollars. 179,153 29,007 62,27130,89995,00466,835
2,908,978 25,142 85
59,485
45,096 25,885 12,452 1,121
34,34538,686 6,729
59,82252,644
1,956,711 291,957

Drawing-knives, Axes, Aijzes, and Socket-chisels
Bridle-bits . . .  .

Subject to specific duties.

Steel ........ 
3,948,080
7,225
543,927
1,155,643
327,342
5,982,307
Owing to the heavy duty, the amount of paper im
ported into the United States is very limited, being
only 110,408 dollars; of this amount, 36,023 dollars
are from France ; 36,654 dollars from Cuba ; 16,208
dollars from England ; and 10,168 dollars from
Italy. It will be perceived that the articles are con
fined to letter paper, or mere fancy papers, there be
ing no amount worth mentioning of printing or plate
paper. We do not know that this duty has any un
favourable influence on the progress of knowledge, as
paper is manufactured nearly as well, and quite as
cheap, in the United States as in other countries.
PAPER.
Folio and 4to Post 
Foolscap, Drawing, and Writing . . .
Printing, Copper-plate, and Stainers . .
Binders arid Wrappers 
All Other 
Value in Dollars 
England.
lbs. 6,682
6,160 5
1,005
20,113
16,208
France.
lbs.
24,746
195,660 32
11,831 11,038
36,023
Italy.
lbs,
14,669
79,757 766
10,168
Cuba.
lbs.
189,136 902
2,507
36,654
184

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

It is with regret we perceive that the importation
of books is so comparatively trivial — certainly the
amount not at all corresponding with the mental de
mands of a prosperous republic, containing thirteen
millions of inhabitants. The total amount from all
foreign countries is only 130,632 dollars, of which,
81,752 are from England, 34,262 from France, 7,075
from the Hanse Towns, 2,346 from the Netherlands,
and 1,897 from Italy. We have already expressed
our regrets and our hopes on the subject of the pro

tecting duty which thus limits the importation of
knowledge, and will only, therefore, repeat our firm
expectation, that the impolicy of an impost so con
trary to the peculiar characteristic of an age in which,
by " running to and fro," '-' knowledge is increased,"
will speedily be discovered by the very class for whose
sake it has been enacted, and who, were they less en
lightened, might deem it a benefit to themselves, t© be
nothing less than a national injury.

BOOKS.
f Printed previous to 1775 
Volumes < In other Languages, except English, Latin, and
( Greek 
f„ t>  j„ S Latin or Greek 
111 PoundsUll others (English) . . . . 
Value in Dollars 

England.

785
2,1782,712
79,478

81,752

France.

67,433 1,636
2,191

34,262

Italy.

1,999 •74 58

1,897

Hanse
Towns.

9,3483,407 122

7,075

Cuba.

1,790 54

474

Nether lands'.

4,198 42

2,346

Glass still continues to fonn an article of import,
though to a very diminished amount. It is chiefly
imported from Great Britain. France, and the Hanse
Towns. The Scotch proverb, that " many mickles make a
muckle," has no better exemplification than in the
import of cigars into the United States, which amounts
to 251,818 dollars, of which 243,526 are from Cuba.
Thus nearly double the amount of dollars is spent in
smoke by the Americans, of that bestowed on works
of English and other foreign literature. Surely it
would be better to protect cigars, and leave know
ledge free.
It only remains for us to notice a few articles of
raw material, which are imported into the United
States. Hemp, to the amount of 200,338 dollars, al
most exclusively from Russia ; flax, 39,055, of which
29,101 are from Russia, 8,604 from Prussia, and the
remainder from the Netherlands ; Wool, to the amount
of 96,853 dollars, of which 39,846 were from Eng
land, 20,329 from Turkey, the Levant, and Egypt,
13,932 from Spain, 8,594 from Portugal, 6,252 from
the Hanse Towns, and the remainder from the British
colonies and South America. Only a few years since,
the American wools were an article of export to Great
Britain ; but a duty being placed on the importation
of inferior wools, for the protection of the British
farmer, (or, perhaps, more truly — and it is well to
accustom ourselves to write the truth on all occa
sions — for the benefit of the British landholder,) the
Americans were forced to commence, though, at first,
in the very rudest shape, the manufacture of woollens ;
and from this commencement the manufacture of that
article has advanced, till it not only consumes all the

American wool, hut requires a large amount of im
port. The amount of this article imported for the
year 1831, (of which the official accounts are not yet
published,) has, we find, far exceeded that of any
former year.
Notwithstanding the abundance of salt and coal
in America, they are both, to some extent, articles of
import ; of the former, upwards of five millions of
bushels (value 671,979 dollars) have been imported,
chiefly from Great Britain or her colonies ; and of
the latter, 1,640,295 bushels, (value 204,773 dollars,)
almost entirely from Great Britain and her depend
encies. The total amount of the imports for the year 1830
(70.876,920 dollars) exceeds that of the expoits
(63^849,508) by 7,027,412 dollars, or about ten per
cent. There should, of course, be an excess of
value of imports according to those returns, whether
their value is estimated at the cost in foreign ports,
or at the market-price in the American ports ; for
these goods are the returns for the exports, the value
of which is estimated at the rate of the markets in
the United States; and, unless a greater value of
merchandise can be obtained in exchange in the
foreign ports, the ship-owners would obtain nothing
for outward freight. : and still more ought the value
of the imports in the American markets, after deduct
ing duties, to exceed that of the exports, since this
excess is the only fund for paying the two freights
and interest oh the capital employed. It can scarce
ly be doubted, that the estimated amount of the im
ports must be much under the real value ; for the
difference of ten per cent, between the imports and
expoits would be utterly inadequate to remunerate

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

185

the ship-owner and the merchant, especially as more
than sixty-six millions of the imports are in Ameri
can vessels, and less than five millions in the ships
of other nations. With the world at large, therefore,
there is no balance oftrade against the United States,
the real excess of imports being, in fact, only the
profit of the parties who devote their capital, time,
and skill, to commerce. With separate countries,
however, the balance is, in some cases, generally
against, and in others almost as uniformly in favour
of the United States. With Great Britain, at the
present time, the balance is considerably against the
United States, ^nd the rate of exchange is conse
quently ten per cent, in favour of Great Britain,
which operates, to a considerable extent, as an addi
tional duty on the imports of the latter country, as
for every hundred pounds the American merchant
has to remit, he can only procure bills on England
at a premium of ten pounds.
The navigation of the United States, although so
intimately connected with commerce, requires to be
noticed separately. It is certainly a most important
interest, not only as associated with the employment
of a numerous class of individuals, and a large
amount of capital, but from considerations of a na
tional and political character. It is only through
their naval power, as combined with their commercial
importance, that the United States can cause them
selves to be respected by European nations ; and it
is manifest, that the adequate supply of hardy and
well-disciplined mariners, in case of war, must most
materially depend on the state of the commercial ma
rine in times of peace. To foster and protect the
naval interest was, therefore, naturally one of the
earliest measures of the general government of the
United States, after their independence had been es
tablished. While, as a necessary addition to the
revenue, a duty of six cents per ton only was im
posed on vessels of the United States, when entering
any of her habours from any foreign port, on all ves1
sels belonging to foreign nations, there was laid a
duty at the rate of fifty cents per ton, with an addi
tion of ten per cent, to the several rates of duty on
merchandise brought into the. United States, when
Hot imported in ships or vessels thereof. The bene
ficial operation of this system, from the confidence, it
inspired in the estimation in which the government
held the navigation of the country, from the protec
tion afforded by it to an interest destined to be the
great source of its revenue, and from its various re
lations to the industry, the commerce, the fiscal con
cerns, and the external defence of the republic, was
soon made manifest by the resuscitation and rapid

increase of the navigation of the United States, which
immediately ensued from the adoption of it, and
which were, doubtless, produced in a good degree
by these measures of protection, aided however by
other causes/which soon after followed and co-ope
rated with them. The discriminating duty was ap
plauded by the merchants of the United States, and
by all those classes more immediately connected with
its navigation ; in addition to its effects on individual
interests, and its countervailing influence on the du
ties imposed on American shipping in foreign ports,
it required indeed little prescience to perceive, that,
with an extended sea-coast of near two thousand
miles, bordering a vast and fertile country, inhabited
by an intelligent, brave, and enterprising people, the
ocean was destined, at no distant, period, to become
one of the great sources, alike of their wealth and
their industry— of their prosperity and their glory.
The discrimination thus instituted between foreign
vessels and those of the United States, with occasional
alterations, dependent on the circumstances of the
times, and the varying dispositions and conduct of
other nations towards the republic, with a duty on
foreign vessels of fifty cents per ton, as light-money,
in 1804, have been continued to the present time, ex- '
cept with those powers with whom conventions or
arrangements have been made for a reciprocal aboli
tion, or suspension of them, in whole or in part.
That the increase of the navigation of the United
States, before alluded to, was as rapid and gratifying
as it was unexpected and unexampled, is established
by the fact, that the tonnage of the United States,
which, in 1789, amounted to 204,998 tons, of which
127,329 were employed in the foreign, 68,607 in the
coasting trade, and 9,062 in the fisheries, had reach
ed, in 1807, to 1,477,075 tons, giving, in that space of
time, a sevenfold increase, whereof 1,116,241 were
employed in foreign trade, 285,090 in the domestic
trade of the country, and 75,744 in the fisheries.
This very important expansion of the navigation of
the United States, as before observed, emanated in
part from the discriminating duties ; while the un
precedented political circumstances of the times, could
not but also have a powerful influence in producing
a result so desirable.
The French revolution, which commenced nearly
contemporaneously with the adoption of the federal
constitution, deranged for a series of years the mer
cantile operations of nearly all the navigating nations
of Europe ; and for long periods between the epochs
of 1789 and 1807, left the United States as the only
important neutral power traversing the ocean. Un
der these circumstances, the increase and employ-

186

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

ment of the shipping of the United States was fa
voured in a manner which could not, within the
same compass of time, have been effected by any
other causes ; as the hazards of capture and the
higher rates of insurance which attached to Europe
an vessels at that period in intercourse with the Uni
ted States, greatly exceeded the influence of the dis
criminating duties, and served almost to extinguish,
at least for a time, the freighting business of this
country, and of other nations, in the vessels of the
belligerents. But, in 1807, it became apparent, that,
amid the collisions of a world in arms, this state of
unrivalled prosperity for the commerce and naviga
tion of the United States, was not to have a longer
continuance ; for aggressions on their rights as a
neutral nation, and depredations on the commerce of
the United States by the more important of the mari
time powers of Europe, multiplied so fast as to occa
sion the withdrawment, for a time, of American na
vigation from the ocean, and to give rise to those
measures of resistance which issued in a war with
Great Britain. At the conclusion of the war, it was
the desire of the government of the United States to
promote freedom of commerce among the nations of
the earth upon a fair and equal footing, as conducive,
by the friendly intercourse and interchange of com
modities to which it would give rise, to their mutual
advantage ; they also felt confident that the vigour
and maturity which the navigation of the republic
had attained, would enable it successfully to meet a
competition with that of other powers upon principles
of reciprocity : the act of congress of March, 1815,
repealing the discriminating duties on foreign vessels
and vessels of the United States, and on goods im
ported therein, was therefore passed, abolishing the
distinction and duties which previously existed, so
far as regarded the vessels of those powers which re
ciprocated the same conditions to the United States.
This act was confirmed by an act, passed January 7,
1824, extending the principle so far as to include
within it those article's of produce and manufacture
which could only be, or most usually are, first ship
ped from a port or place in Europe, when brought
into the United States in the vessels of such nation,
whether the articles be of its oWn produce or manu
facture or not : the proffer of which conditions has
been accepted by several of the powers of Europe.
Both the facts and the sentiments which we have
just stated are, in substance and partly in words, those
of the report of the committee made to the senate in
the year 1826.* We are aware that the position has
* Nineteenth Congress, First Session, Rep. No. 16.

been strenuously maintained, that American naviga*
tion has been materially depressed by the enactment
of the tariffs of 1824 and 1828. Mr. Cambreleng,
chairman of the committee of commerce appointed
by the house of representatives, in 1830, in a very
long and very able report, takes this view of the sub
ject ;t but it appears to us, that, owing to circum
stances which no longer exist, the commercial navy
of the United States has engrossed more than its due
proportion of foreign trade ; of which, having so
ample a field of employment both for labour and
capital, they should be the less tenacious, especially
as the amount of tonnage employed in the coasting
trade and the whale fishery is decidedly on the in
crease. It would, however, certainly be desirable,
that every diminution of the expense of fitting out
vessels which can accrue from the reduction of du
ties on tonnage, dec. should be effected.
The tonnage of the registered vessels employed in
foreign trade at the close of the year 1829, was
650,142 tons ; enrolled and licensed vessels, inclu
ding licensed craft under twenty tons, employed in
the coasting trade, 508,858 tons; vessels employed
in the whale fishery, 101,796 tons ; making a total
of 1,260J797 tons. Of the registered tonnage, 57,284
tons were employed in the whale fishery ; and of
the tonnage reckoned as employed in the coasting
trade, 54,036 tons were employed in steam naviga
tion ; a larger amount, we apprehend, than the ton
nage of steam vessels in the aggregate of all other
nations. The tables annexed to this chapter have already
been frequently referred to. — Table I. contains a
statement of the value of the domestic exports of the
United States, from 1821 to 1830, inclusive ; and sd
far as exports may be regarded as a test, exhibits the
progress of the fisheries, the agriculture, and the
manufactures of the republic, during that period.
Table II. is a statement of the total value of exports,
domestic and foreign, from 1790 to 1831 ; and though
but a brief compendium, affords important matter for
the economist and the politician : the figures opposite
the years 1814 and 1825 stand as memorials of the
evils of war and of excessive speculation. Table III.
contains a statement both of the value and the desti
nation of the exports, domestic and foreign, during
the last ten years. The stream of American com
merce, and the relative importance of each country
to her markets, are here exhibited. It is gratifying
to perceive, that more than one third of the exports
of the United States are consumed by Great Britain.

t Nineteenth Congress, First Session, Rep. No. 169.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

187

Table IV. is a statement of the kind and value of
articles imported into the United States during the
year 1830, and will enable manufacturers or mer
chants to ascertain, with the minutest accuracy, the
value of every class of articles imported into the Uni
ted States. Table T. exhibits, combined in one view,
the value of the imports and exports from each
foreign country during the year 1830 ; and affords
an opportunity of ascertaining the relative proportion
ofthe imports and exports in each case. The large

amount of commerce with the island of Cuba will
not fail to attract observation. This table also con
tains the amount of the tonnage of American and
foreign vessels engaged in conducting the commerce of
the United States into the several nations of the world.
It will be perceived, that in their transactions with
Great Britain, about three fourths of American and one
fourth of British, are employed ; while, in the aggre
gate, the Americans continue to engross nearly seven
eighths of the tonnage employed in their commerce.

188

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATKS.

COMMERCE.— TABLE I.

A SUMMARY STATEMENT OF THE VALUE OP EXPORTS, OP THE GROWTH, PRODUCE, AND MANUFACTURE OP THE
UNITED STATES, FROM 1821 TO 1830, ENDING THE 30th OP SEPTEMBER IN EACH YEAR.

THE SEA.
Dried fish, or cod fisheries . .
Pickled fish 
Whale (common) oil and bone
Spermaceti oil and candles

THE FOREST. .
Skins and furs 
Ginseng 
Product of wood —
lumber, (boards, staves, shin
gles, hewn timber, &c.) .
oak bark and other dye . _.
naval stores, (tar, pitch, rosin,
& turpentine) .....
ashes, pot and pearl . . .

AGRICULTURE.
Product of animals-
beef, tallow, hides, hve cattle
butter and cheese ....
pork, (pickled,) bacon, lard,
live hogs 
horses and mules ....
sheep  .
Vegetable food —
wheat, flour, and biscuit . .
Indian corn and meal . . .
rye meal 
rice 
all other, (pulse, rye, oats,
potatoes, apples) ....
Tobacco 
Cotton 
All other agricultural products-
indigo 
flax-seed 
maple, or brown sugar . .
hops 
wax 

MANUFACTURES.
Soap, and tallow candles . .
Leather, boots, shoes, saddlery,
&c 
Hats 
Grain,' (spiritslbeer, and starch,)
Wood, including coaches and
other carriages ....
Cordage and canvass ....
Iron . . 
Spirits, from molasses . . .
Sugar, refined 
Chocolate 
Gunpowdef 
Brass and copper 
Medicinal drugs 
Various items, (snuff", wax, lead,
cotton goods, gold and sil
ver coin, umbrellas, books,
maps, &c.) 
Uncertain — manufactured . .
raw produce . .

Total

1821.

Dollars.
708,778
264,813
350,480 175,117

1,499,188

766,205 171,786

1,512,808 139,534
314,660889,348

3,794,341

698,323 190,287
1,354,116 59,830
22,175
4,476,357 606,279
1,494,307 173,543
5,648,962
20,157,484 420,202 1,975
18,498
85,654

• 35,407,992

661,409
304,430 63,363
120,561
369,611 26,662
108,083
280,648 24,051 2,166
,56,919 26,69444,998

173,127

492,009
215,742

2,262,622

707,751

43,671,894

1822.

Dollars.
666,730
249,108311,415157,286

1,384,539

601,302 313,943

1,307,670 145,707
447,869
1,099,053

3,815,542

844,534
221,041
1,357,899 93,753 12,276
5,287,286 900,656
1,553,482 233,825
6,222,838
24,035,058

392,772 805
23,02593,129

¦ 41,272,379

788,946385,086 86,007
124,140
487,141 33,807
132,727 60,04626,320 3,391
82,94736,97443,711

191,810

637,978 280,589

2,483,052

918,667

44,897,097

1823.

Dollars.

734,024
270,776
432,115221,309

1,658,224

672,917 150,976

1,335,600 111,333
457,562
1,770,523

4,498,911

739,461 192,778
1,291,322 123,373 15,029
5,151,437 930,489
1,820[985 248,981
6,282,672
20,445,520 2,314
262,314 353
27,124
112,574

¦ 37,646,726

664,807666,489115,168 89,615
421,633 22,659 97,27137,807 9,249
66,326 16,768
74,490

175,245

782,071211,949

2,357,527

994,020

47,156,408

1824.

Dollars.

873,685263,019 168,272
306,014

1,610,990

661,455229,080

1,734,586 95,674
555,055
1,613,796

4,889,646

707,299
204,205
1,489,051 213,396 14,938
5,977,255 736,340
'l,-882[982 271,907
4,856,566
21,947,401

504,327 434
81,810
107,451

•38,995,198

816,095814,638
217,648 154,144513,435
- 47,262
142,974 61,172 7,195
2,285
163,165 26,981 78,676

228,752

1,676,962 312,283

3,264,421

1,889,245

50,649,500

1826.

Dollars.

830,356
248,417
296,425219,867

1,595,065

524,692 144,699

1,717,571 93,809
463,897
1,994,381

4,938,949

930,465
647,787
1,832,679 283,835 20,027
4,466,679 878,073 73,245
1,925,246 183,476
6,115,623
36,846,649 7,084
324,845 2,632
13,865
85,592

¦ 64,237,751

790,975 724,281
240,074 154,223
470,006
¦ 28,114
156,173 61,505 6,9631,184
234,366 30,472 69,460

210,619

2,660,682 443,183

3,169,115

3,003,865
66,944,745

TOPOGRAPHY OP THE UNITED STATES.

189

COMMERCE.— TABLE I.— continued.

THE SEA.
Dried fish, or cod fisheries . .
Pickled fish  .
Whale (common) oil and bone
Spermaceti oil and candles

THE FOREST.
Skins and furs . . . . . .
Ginseng 
Product of wood^-
lumber, (boardsj staves, shin
gles, hewn timber, masts,
&c.) . 
oak bark and other dye . .
.naval stores, (tar, pitch, rosin,
and turpentine) ....
- ashes, pot and pearl . . .

AGRICULTURE.
Product of animals-
beef, tallow, hides, and hve
cattle 
butter and cheese . > . .
pork, (pickled,) bacon, lard,
live hogs .... . .
horses and mules '. .. . .
sheep . . 
Vegetable food-
wheat, flour, and biscuit . .
. Indian corn and meal ...
rye meal 
rye, oats, and other small
grain and pulse ....
potatoes 
apples 
nee 
Tobacco 
Cotton 
All other agricultural products-
indigo 
flax-seed 
hops  , . .
maple, or brown sugar . .-

MANUFACTURES.
Soap, and tallow candles . .
Leather, boots, and shoes
Saddlery ........
Hats 
Wax 
Spirits from grain, beer,- ale,
and porter ....
Wood, including carriages, fur
niture &c  '. .
Snuff and Tobacco ....
Lead .... 
Linseed oil and spirits of turpen
tine 
Cordage and canvass ....
Iron, pigs, bar, nails, &c. . .
Spirits, from molasses ....
Sugar, refined 
Chocolate ........
Gunpowder  ,
Brass and copper .....
Medicinal drugs ... . .
Cotton piece goods-
printed ana Coloured . 1
white  . I
nankeens  -. ¦>
twist, yarn and thread . i
all other manufactures of J
Flaxand hemp —
cloth' and thread . . . y
bags, and all manufactures >
of  )

1826.

Dollars.
667,742257,180
236,845 311,621

1,473,388

582,473 137,014

1827.

2,011,694 65, 120
254,491
,900,458
 ¦ 3,951,250

733,430
207,765
1,892,429 247,543 17,693
4,411,870 1,007,321 49,297

72,371
41,533
27,370
1,917,445
5,347,208
25,025,214 3,922
144,908 100,668 4,964

- 41,253,001

722,417 586,576 66,994
272,431206,001 143,966
631,060
210,134 3,347
27,116
31,482
248,960 "70,212 27,043 2,427
174,273 60,083
133,716

1,138,125

8,381

Dollars.
747,171
240,276 223,604364,281

1,575,332

441,690 79,566

1,697,170 79,884
402,489 643,171

1828.

3,343,970

772,636- 184,049
1,556,693 173,629 13,586
4,645,784 1,022,464 47,698 87,284
39,174 35,828
2,343,9086,577,123
29,359,545 8,358
188,606
- 8,284 1,489

- 47,065,143

901,751388,525 57,717
286,624123,354144,832
574,751
239,024 3,761
20,704 63,074
273,158 97,003
34,012 1,350
176,229 52,341
119,390 45,120
951,001 14,750
11,175
137,368 11,084 5,364

Dollars.
819,926
246,737 181,270
446,047

1,693,980

626,235 91,164

1,821,906 101,175
487,761761,370

3,889,611

719,961176,354
1,495,830' 185,542 7,499
4,464,774 822,858 59,03667,99735,371
22,700
2,620,696 5,269,960
22,487,229 1,495
1444095 25,432 4,095

- 38,610,924

912,322
401,259 49,758
326,294134,886
203,780611,196
210,747 4,184
22,11920,030
231,234 185,096 38,207 3,344
181,384 60,452 95,08376,012
887,628 5,149
12,570
28,873 5,3353,365

1829.

Dollars.
747,541
220,527495,163353,869

1,817,100

526,507 114,396

1,680,403 166,406
377,613
817,434

1830.

3,681,759

674,955 176,205
1,493,629 207,858 10,644
5,972,920 974,536 127,004
- 74,89030,07915 958
2,514,370 4,982,974
26,575,311

113,040 6,9173,289

- 43,954,584

692,691356,658 35,765
270,780 132,939
215,494 501,946
202,396 8,417.
30,442 7,984
223,705 166,740 50,739 1,759
171,924
129,647101,524145,024
981,370 1,878
3.B49
127,336 2,166
14,954

Dollars.
630,690
225,987 680,683
287,910

1,725,270

641,760 67,852

1,663,242 220,2753211019
1,105,127

4,019,275

717,683 142,370
1,315,245 182,244 22,110
6,320,603 597,119 87,79666,24939,027
23,727
1,986,824
5,586,365
29,674,883 827
180,973 30,312 2,975

- 36,977,332

619,238338,603 36,651
309,362 153,666
225,357
. 463,425
245,747 4,831
35,039
. 4,135
309,473 49,798
193,084 893
128,625 36,601
92,154 61,800
964,196 1,093
24,744
266,350 2,152 1,779

Vol. H— Nos. 51 & 52

2 A

190

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

COMMERCE.— TABLE I— continued.

-

MANUFACTURES-continced.

1826.

• 1827.

1828.

1829.

,1830.

Dollars.

Dollars.

Dollars.

Dollars.

Dollars,

85,866
94,768
143,253
.91,108
102,277
Combs and buttons ....
23,654
. 33,415
60,957
76,250
124,589
4,631
7,334
6,372
3,150
6,116
Billiard tables and apparatus .
3,811
3,191
2,240
3,443
316
Umbrellas and para3ols . . .
50,764
49,138,
24,703
22,067
25,796
Leather and morocco skins, not
43,834
119,545
,81,221 ,
80,173
70,968 '
Fire engines and apparatus
Printing presses -andtype . .
Musical instruments ....
4,935
2,513
2,384
2,832
33,509
33,713
40,199
12,908
13,274
5,157
' 14,844
10,011
8,868
10,261
- 49,340
64,012
46,937
29,010
32,004.
Paper and other stationery
39,582
37,716
32,026
25,629
40,994
Paints and varnish ....
21-, 545
• 29,664
26,229
21,133
13,716
5,801
8,182
5,884
5,953
6,690
Earthen and'stone ware . .
1,958
6,492
6,595
6,592
2,773
Manufactures of glass . . .
44,557
59,307
51,452
49,900
60,280
 tin ........
4,515
. 2,967
5,049
l,75r
4,497
'ter and lead . . .
1,820
6,183
5,545
5,185
4,172
13,303 2,297
605,855
2,647
11,250
612,886
4,655
3,605
1,043,574
7,505
693,037
3,561
Gold and silver coin ....
. 937,151
Artificial flowers and jewellery
25,162 ,
22,357
18,195
21,627
13,707
621
1,511
601
1,992
3,968
9,397
12,483
6,004
11,248
' 6,654
6,075
3,365
4,573
3,717
2,482
Salt 
....
5,993,401
27,648
5,716,100
22,978
Uncertain— manufactured . .
248,252
293,379
247,990
309,106
347,228
raw produce . . .
. 277,086
 525,338
257,021
233,763-
481,753
50,669,669
221,544
530,650
55,700,193
309,249
Total ....
..... 58,921,691
.¦...' 59,462,029
 - 53,055,710
COMMERCE.-
-TABLE II.
'
A SUMMARY STATEMENT OF THE TOTAL VALUE OF EXPORTS
, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN, FROM 1790 TO 1831.
For the
Domestic
For the
Domestic
Foreign
Year ending
Total.
Year ending
Tqtal.
Sept. 30.
Produce
Produce.
Sept. 30
Produce
Produce.
1790
?12,123,094
t8,082,062
20,205,156
1811
45,294,043
16,022,790
61,316,833
1791
*11, 407,225
+7,604,816
19,012,041
1812
30,032,10E
.8,495,127
38,527,236
1792
?12,451,860
+8,301,238
20,753,098
1813
25,008,152
,
2,847,845
37,855,997
1793
?15,665,744
+10,443,828
26,109,572
1814
6,782,272
145,169
6,927,441
1794
?19,815,741
+13,210,492
33,026,233
1815
45,974,403
6,683,350
52,557,753
1795 -
?28,793,684
+19,195,788
47,989,472
1816
64,781,896
17,138,556
81,920,459
1796
40,764,097
26,300,000
67,064,097
1817
68,313,500
19,358,069
87,671,569
1797
29,850,206
27,000,000
56,850,206
1818
73,854,437
19,426,696
93,281,133
1798
28,527,097
33,000,000
61,527,097
1819
50,976,838
19,165,683
70,142,521 .
1799
33,142,522
45,523,000
78,665,522
1820
51,683,640
18,008,029
69,691,668,
1800
31,840,903
39,130,877
70,971,780
1821
43,671,894
21,302,488
64,974,382
1801
47,473,204
46,642,721
94,115,925
1822
49,874,078
22,286,202
72,160,281
1802
36,708,189
35,774,971
72,483,160
1823
47,165,408
27,543,622
74,699,030 '
1803
42,205,961
13,694,072
55,800,033
1824
50,649,500
25,337,157
75,986,657
1804
41,467,477
36,231,597
77,699,074
1825
66,944,745
32,590,643
99,535,388-
1805
42,387,0te
53,179,019
95,566,021
1826
53,065,71C
24,539,612
77(695,322
1806
41,253,727
60,283,236
101,536,963
1 1827
68,921,691
23,403,136
82,324,827
1807
48,699,592
59,643,558
108,343,150
1828
50,669,669
21,595,017
72,264,686
1808
9,433,546
12,997,414
22,430,960
1829
65,700,193
16,658,478
72,358,671
1809
31,405,702
20,797,531
52,203,233
1830
59,462,029
14,387,479
73,849,508
1810
42,366,675
24,391,295
66,757,970
1831
62,048,233
18,324,333
80,372,566
* Estimated at three fifths of the whole.
+ Estimated at two fifths of the whole.
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

191

COMMERCE.— TABLE III.

DESTINATION AND VALUE OF EXPORTS, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN, FROM 1821 to 1830.

WHITHER EXPORTED.

Russia . . . ... . .
Prussia. ... 
Sweden^ .......
Swedish Westlndies. . .
Deft-mark and Nprwayt . .
Danish West Indies,. . .
Danish East Indies .
Holland or Netherlands* .
Dutch W. Indies and Ameri
can Colonies . ' . . . .
Dutch East Indies . . .
England, Man, and Berwick
Scotland 
Ireland ........
Gibraltar . . -. ... .
British West Indies . . .
 r East Indies . . .
Newfoundland and British
Fisheries ¦ 
-British American Colonies
—  African Ports . . .
Other British Colonies . .
The Hanse Towns and Ports
of Germany- .' .....
French European Ports on
the Atlantic . . . . . .
Ditto on the Mediterranean
French W. Indies and Ame
rican Colonies ....
French East Indies . . .
Bourbon and Mauritius? .
Other French African Ports
Hayti . . . , . ' . . . .
Spanish European Ports on
the Atlantic 
Ditto on the Mediterranean
Tenertffe and the other Ca^
naries . 
Floridas ........
Manilla and Philippine
Islands .......
Honduras, Gampeachy, and
Musquito Shore ....
Cuba .  .
Spanjsh West Indies . .
Spanish South American
Colonies .......
South America and Mexico
Portugal 
Madeira . ... . . .
Fa'yal, and the other Azores
Cape de Verd Islands . .
Coast of Brazil and other
American Coloniesll . .
Italy and Malta . . . :
Trieste, and other Austrian
Ports on the Adriatic . .
Turkey, Levant, Egypt, Mo
cha, and Aden ....
Morocco and Barbary States
Cape of Good Hope . . .
China 
Asia— generally ....
Westlndies, ditto ....
Europe, ditto ......
Africa, ditto . . . ...
South Seas ......
N. West Coast of America .

1821.

Domestic Produce.

Dollars.
¦ 127,939

154,213607,077 165,568
1,316,2961,954,513 533,259133,010
16,339,109 1,405,448 889,577956,111
264,632 32,089 260
2,009,336 9,953
12,113
1,535,5065,098,843 69,855
846,597 5,784
19,600

1,740,383 324,706 24,22574,828
300;248 1,359
.99,895
2,950,055 175,217 508,176
147,726193,414 26,837
22,176

410,171 31,781 30,883

388,535 32,467
513,039 183,854 85,062
40,328 94,493

' Foreign
Produce.

Dollars 600,955

62,968 53,149
360,535485,483
. 1,739,692 149,784
1,581,803
2,125,594 13,683 4,069
513,635
¦ ' 470
1,934,190 4,478 455
5,013
2,357
597,038
349,010 10,851
49,838 1,784
22,556

530,218 189,900 915
48,-63749,522
209,964 106,830
1,590,625, 33,604
529,559

66
26,667 11,158 7,656
496,412 689,496
308,580 406,997

3,902,025 1,180,797 47,474 10,782
41,629
, 31,080
282,505

1822.

Domestic Produce. '

Dollars. 177,261

180,411
669,566 32,023
1,603,494 7,344
2,077,368 921,072 121,441
21,072,395 1,615,565 770,176 525,708
449,601 67,979 1,3.14
1,881,273

Foreign
Produce.

Dollars 351,820

1,644,226
4,561,299 183,191
918,699 17-, 9 52

1,746,107 116,270 25,20085,937

123,116
3,201,045 150,435
1,592,767

102,935
186,952 33,160
34,941
1,217,411 560,714 38,752 6,124

6,150
439,230 74,346
515,729 58,575 71,968
37,209
54,799

' 80,21091,247
160,757
628,256 2,172
1,524,683 157,704
999,571
1,029,224 10,987
625,074 2,540
1,968,365

16,286

860,789
1,210,533 70,337
42,30371,018

373,704 67,742 1,354
29,140

11,799
127,943
1,069,573 7,606
1,828,286

18,555 4,662
10,454
35,832
246,518889,470 436,968
405,197

5,506,138 1,087,989 24,331 6,391
,69,410 11,934
110,790

1823.

Domestic Produce.

Dollars. 61,635 7,268
151,037
241,701 39,783
1,231,152

2,642,930 655,763 151,120
18,968,185 1,158,495 714,037875,604
1,617,845 10,642 3,183
1,818,113

26,232
1,582,364
4,6-77,914 323,861
804,218

1,670,140 130,966 20,876 58,002

5,449
211,383
3,271,270 256,033
1,372,526

48,077
117,685 27,841
22,055
1,062,209 115,994 25,697 4,877

288,375 65,902
554,273 10,994
49,971
21,741

Foreign
Produce.

Dollars. 597,099 668
147,191 18,362
63,134
631,002

1824.

Domestic Produce.

2,409,216 157,065
1,760,981 978,474 10.1Q4
37,644
1,028,272 10,122
307,738 2,560 3,347

463
1,587,085
2,527,656 1,171,898 63,377

708,642 65,96619,447

41,275
100,052
2;i34,095 _ 25, 405
3,229,347

300
3,976
15,704
11,010
279,181 951,911919,618 559,783

4,347,686 436,759 59,41717,956 65,999
45,429

Dollars. 92,766 5,163
163,725204,983 35,487
1,149,641

1,597,514 689,775 61,669
18,218,841 1,196,219 913,532
934,402
1,750,703 34,354 7,243
1,773,107

20,463
859,383
7,585,815 26,5,815 770,515

36,692

1,901,926 140,436 9,840
42,845

8,958
157,060
3,611,693 306,896

2,827,521 77,255
315,896 17,46351,019
1,669,754 76,868 6,596
25,171 1,694

330,466 19,271
559,998 55,401 83,900
44,063 9,703

43,671,894 21,302,488 49,874,079 22,286,202 47,155,408 27,543,622 50,649,500 25,337,157 66,944,745 32,590,643

Foreign
Produce.

Dollars. 139,215

161,033 39,687
299,822698,302

1825.

Domestic Produce.

617,831 111,984
638,616
1,268,282 14,632 8,673
934,445 20,305
927,716

2,617

2,311
1,003,890
1,095,612 750,431 41,217

6,207
463,229366,434

20,144

210,562 194,365
2,195,840 233,718

5,040,966 5,168
26,347 4,023
21,665
602,150 687,480518,057314,257 3,819

4,970,705 450,358 39,886 1,608
64,506
119,367 29,675

Dollars. 55,191 4,918
222,164 193,761
214,517
1,281,248

Foreign
Produce.

2,486,468 497,194 163,022
32,096,390 1,699,526
1,247.550 861,733
1,636,574 206,450 16,068
2,538,224 7,735
23,612
1,144,474
7,338,693 187,242
937,368

40,125 968
1,648,055 73,515 18,814
70,380

23,169 57,286
3,276,556 216,102

3,419,158 110,015 122,840 33,421 60,072
1 641,296 66,605 8,834
34,373 3,589

160,059
t 37,486
"646,638 16,31259,365
29,090 11,500

Dollars. 232,210 12,650
112,378 41,247
-637,146 568,177

1,306,839 77,092
1,364,884
2,031,186 7,657
20,669
941,981 11,472
784,629

1,740 <
1,977
2,025
1,976,559
2,625,963 726,499

74,588
41,202
406,560

82,722 6,336
21,271

185,554 23,543
1,844,146' 22,156

7,757,325 2,824
55,326 4,695
18^,967
752,458 578,434643,568-
364,691 3,720

5,410,466 675,597 23,03(5 135
' 35,720
27,16* 43,601

? After 1823, the Exports were to Sweden and Norway.
% After 1824, to Mauritius.

t After 1823, to Denmark.
II After 1823, to Brazil.

t After 1824, to the Netherlands.

192

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

COMMERCE;— TABLE III— continued.

DESTINATiON AND VALUE OF EXPORTS, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN, FROM 1821 to 1830.

WHITHER EXPORTED.

Russia 
Prussia. .......
Sweden and Norway . .
Swedish Westlndies. . .
Denmark . . . . - . •
Danish West Indies . . .
Netherlands 
Dutch West Indies . . .
Dutch East Indies ...
England, Man, and Berwick
Scotland .;...'.".
Ireland ........
Gibraltar  '
British East Indies . .
 West Indies . . .
Mauritius and Bourbon4 .
British American Colonies
and Newfoundland . .
Other British Colonies . .
The Hanse Towns and Ports
of Germany 
French European Ports on
the Atlantic 
Ditto on the Mediterranean
French West Indies . . .
 African Ports . . .
Hayti ........
Spanish European Port's on
the Atlantic 
Ditto on the Mediterranean
Teneriffe and -the other Ca
naries . ... . . .
Manilla and Philippine
Islands 
Cuba 
-Other Spanish West Indies
Portugal 
Madeira 
Fayal, and the other Azores
Cape de Verd Islands . .
Italy and Malta ....
Trieste, and, other Ports on
the Adriatic 
Turkey, Levant, and Egypt,
Greece, and Grecian Archi
pelago 
Morocco and Barbary States
Cape of Good Hope .
China 
Mexican Ports on the Atlan
tic ... . 
Central Republic of South
America 
Honduras, Campeachy, &c.
Colombian Ports.oh the At-
» Ian tic 
Brazil  . ¦ •
Buenos Ayrest .....
Chili 
Peru  .
South America— generally .
Asia, ditto 
West Indies, ditto ....
Europe, ditto . . . . ,
Africa, ditto 
South Seas 
North West Coast of Ame-

1826.

Domestic Produce.

Dollars. 11,044 15,129
126,034120,573100,582
1,391,004 1,970,199 434,125 67,506
19,065,185 572,894775,137 692,396 -24,226
2,078,871 13,g93
2,564,166 34,378
979,313
9,075,254 273,675 904,115 512
1,252,910 71,313 80,964
42,761 14,133
3,749,658 210,858 99,945
119,068 16,976
36,69381,622 13,387
46,897

Foreign
Produce!

21,154
242,451
1,024,275 79,294

946,014
1,597,344 222,832 512,650
278,724 56,725 17,565
603,807 166,875
108,226 27,46829,921

53,055,710

Dollars. 163,604 3,421
88,489
23,284
245,288676,001
1,899,857 57,426
374,957
1,569,023 2,952 6,684
1,055,525 418,042 31,931
22,000 24,030 500
1,137,384 1,316,178 483,677 52,059 959
161,584 22,227 20,04621,742 58,207
2,382,774 12,668 538
25,549 2,495 9,299
448,599
273,933271,438

6,433
2,324,193 5,256,775 40,480

Domestic Produce.

Dollars. 45,510 8,515
201,488416,822 148,958
1,463,6912,339,381 387,573 :38,859
23,514.421 1,336,169 637,120
1,040,999 32,717
683,105

1,006,658 603,005 156,508
934,848231,175 8,003
387,490 14,062
- 12,443-54,84062; 859
74,870

24,539,G12

Foreign
Produce.

Dollars. 336,734

207^653 25,014
253,983 538,190888,950 44,162
127,749
904,596

1828.

Domestic Produce,

864,387
1,018,733 7,470

2,797,014

1,693,971
8,712,011 475,647979,697

1,162,473 74,761
32,353 46,163

4,160,747 218,156 116,103 100,153 13,487
80,01074,417
42,671
131,734 14,634 2,031

290,862 886,907 147,574 13,261
611,312
1,486,433 100,780
1,040,748 202,944 71,537 21,139
454,904 150,236126,968
. 24,923 37,702

58,921,691

1,319,214
2,555,869 781,076 61,156

169,436

47,178 7,112

39,817

2,655,341 10,363 220
18,281 4,861
24,155
536,804234,122470,325

2,003

3,573,5433,286,350 77,198 1,573
333,222 377,373 50,424
661,853 70,077
21,489
640,670 11,956 779
67,872 287
40,882

23,403,136

Dollars. 108,922 15,430
266,532 611,584 150,979
2,202,465 1,863,767 415,343 83,710
18,737,661 959,560394,450899,411 45,19926,149

1,618,288

1,804,333
7,091,699 606,638'
1,009,437

1,123,405 40,94666,84433,529 19,914
3,912,997 222,191 77,010
101,948 19,559
67,502
279,620 119,233 78,374

Foreign
Produce.

Dollars. 341,573

215,222 23,616
386,689
608,034
365,646 41,616
313,277
2,960,261 7,927 810
506,719795,682 2,706

56,386

1,190,918
3,095,826 279,407 15,334

209,306 199,953 51,193 8,551
141,838
2,490,994 15,677 1,164

4,719 9,727
641,230205,255 124,567

1829.

DomesticProduce.

Dollars. 51,684 14,411
122,663
684,523 73,597
1,942,010
3,095,857 379,874 62,074
21,281,334 895,315 327,728
301,132 69,070 1,463
10,602
2,724,104

1,998,176
8,008,923 886,122
1,056,639

230,385522,016 106,773 6,950.
660,846
1,505,770 94,372
1,619,978 169,389146,967 46,776
437,916 46,586
131,249 42,147
¦¦ 39,020

50,669,669

1,252,417
2,364,468 52,499 2,371
323,678482,935 69,856
1,109,424 100,555 13,808
356,835 22,281 9,367
26,361 40,989 65,365

21,595,017

814,987 645,753
185,962 42,839 10,802
3,719,263 209,780 42,088
175,074 7,949
68,528
289,755 409,288 27,600

260,759495,626 123,631 12,693
525,783
1,510,260 444,716 890,356 91,542
147,670 40,721
359,496 102,364108,837 45,969 2,911

Fo/eign
Produce,

Dollars. 334,542

126,971 23,791 13,16€
282,401 889,330 '*8,667
176,318
1,767,457 19,493 366
160,130
477,629 5,068

40,805

1,278,984
2,105,573 748,777 15,768

160,171
139,732 45,70023,31766,430
1,859,626. 38,900 628
15,089. 78
13,477
611,257
280,200 47,384

1,094,103
1,835,525 116,223 8,229
241,565419,667 181,336530,778 119,616 6,175
¦ 232,768 10,123 250
49,516
20,991 4,399

1830.

Domes tic
Produce.

Dollars. 35,461 16,501
181,353
552,700 76,292
1,688,022
3,354,551 319,495 63,273
23,773,020 1,465,211 261,687613,248 93,731 140

1,549,732 9,183,894 717,252
792,241 5,931
714,791
538,956 145,556 19,040
39,129
3,439,060 245,636 43,408
155,719 6,649
50,660
326,239 300,859 75,801

55,700,193| 16,658,478 59,462,029

, 156,290
985,764 138,456 25,132
316.732
1,600,999 426,220 915,718 32,400 9,190
56,318
242,114 16,090
96,867
21,17828,392

Foreign
Produce.

Dollars. 381,114
*189,949 37,727 29,048
220,723 675,527- "
42,298
107,293
- 826,946 2,488
'370, 150
553,126 1,761

136,342

725,148 661,925
430,888 13,528 .579
108,387 61,327

610
54,539
1,477,675 27,523 1,803
12,358 1,5247,778
414,121
293,261 337,539

5,85,903
3,851,694 111,662 5,432
180,258
242,239204,667 620,396 39,402 170
229,290 5,010
. 22,65362,236 6,764
24,698

14,387,479

? After 1828, the exports were to Bourbon.

t After 1828, to the Argentine Republic.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

193

COMMERCE— TABLE IV.

A SUMMARY STATEMENT OF THE VALUE OF GOODS IMPORTED, from the 1st or oct. 1829, to the 30th sept. 1830.

SPECIES OF MERCHANDISE.

MERCHANDISE FREE OF DUTY.

Articles-imported for theuse-of the United States . . .
Articles specially imported for Philosophical Societies, &c-
I'hilosophical apparatus, instruments, &c. . . . . .
Books, maps, and charts 
Paintings and drawings 
Medals, and collections of antiquity 
Anatomical preparations ............
Antimony, regulus of  
Lapis calaminaris, tutanag, spelter, or zinc 
Burrstones, unwrought  .
Brimstone and sulphur  ¦...,'.
Cork tree, bark of 
Clay, unwrought 
Rags of any kind of cloth  !
Furs of all kinds .........,,...!
Hides and skins, raw  .
Plaster of Paris  \
Specimens of botany, natural history, and mineralogy '.
Models of invention and machinery .....
Barilla   \ \
Wood, dye 
unmanufactured mahogany ....'.'..[

VALUE.

Animals for breed
Pewter, old .... • 
Tin in pigs and bars  \
Brass in pigs and bars 
— — , old, . 
Copper in pigs and bars ........
 in plates, suited to the sheathing of ships
 for the use of the Mint ...'...
„ ' , old, fit only to be re-manufactured . .
Bullion, gold 
 , silver 
Specie, gold. . .-  , \
. '¦' . , silver  '
All other articles 

MERCHANDISE SUBJECT TO DUTIES AD VALOREM.

¦ . . , . , Manufactures of ' .
wool, or of which wool is a component material—
Not exceeding 50 cents per square yard . ....
Exceeding 50 cents, and not exceeding 100 cent's, iter ditto
Ditto . .100 .... ditto .... 250 .. . ditto , .
Ditto . . 250 .... ditto .... 400 .. . ditto . .
Ditto . . 400  J . .
Blankets ........'.[.'''
Hosiery, gloves, mits, &c. ...'.'..'.'.'''
Bombazines .........
Worsted stuff goods  .'.'.''''
All other manufactures of  . . ' '
Cotton— Printed or coloured ....
White  .'.'.'.'.'.''
Hosiery, gloves, mits, and bindings ..'.'.'
Twist, yarn, and thread 
Nankeens 
_ . All other manufactures of . . . \
Vesting? and plaids— Of wool, or wool and cotton, or silk '.
«-il w ' x ,- .Of cotton, or cotton and silk . . . .
oiUr.— * rom India, piece goods .- 
Ditto . . . . other manufactures . ..'..!!!
* rom other places, piece goods  \
Dltt0  other manufactures . . . '. .

Dollars.

430
9,830
19,621 322 95
274
6,745
2,560
16,317
17,240 2,5389,048
¦ 7-2,661
305,782
2,409,850 125,606 •6,118 ,897
66,222
279,411286,825 23,151 ,815
101,341 29,615 3,344
403,203283,785 14,435
83,413
115,267
1,049,343 705,879
6,285,475 8,787

12,746,245

452,743
1,083,8151,236,060 75,706 6,015
594,044133,453 33,887
1,397,545 ,319,306
4;356,6752,487,804 387,454 172,785
"" 228,233229,375 53,916 2,292
1,367,092 31,224
2,824,9181,550,776

SPECIES OF MERCHANDISE.

MERCHANDISE SUBJECT TO DUTIES AD VALOREM.

Lace-

Manufactures of
¦Of thread, silk, or cotton 
Coach 
Flax — Linen, bleached and unbleached 
Checks and stripes 
Other manufactures of 
Hemp— Ticklenburgs, osnaburgs, and burlaps ....
Sheeting, brown ... ~. ....... .
Ditto . . white
All other manufactures of 
Clothing, ready made 
Hats, caps, and bonnets— Leghorn, straw, chip, <fcc. . .
Fur, wool, leather, or silk . .
Iron, or Iron and S teel Wire^-
Side arms and fire arms, other-than muskets and rifles
Drawing knives, axes, adzes,, and socket chisels . . .
Bridle-bits of every description ............
Steelyards, scalebeams and vices 
Cutting knives, sithes, sickles, reaping hooks, spades and
shovels, . . 
Screws weighing 24 pounds or upwards . . . . '. '.
Wood screws 
Other articles not specified  .' !
Copper-^Vessels of  ' '. ! !
All other manufactures of  \
Gold and silver— Lace  •
Watches, and parts thereof ....'.
Articles composed of, &.c 
Wares— Glass not subject to specific duties . . . . \
China or porcelain .......... \
,Eartheir and stone  '.','.'
Japanned . ........
Plated  .....
Gilt  " '

BrassTin

Pewter and lead, except shot ....','.'
Wood, including cabinet wares  \
Leather, including saddles, bridles, and harness ."
Plated saddlery, coach, and harness furniture
Marble, and manufactures of .....
Square wire, used for umbrella stretchers . '.
Ciphering slates 
Prepared quills  ...!!!.!
Blacklead pencils  .'!.'."
Paper hangings .......''"
Brushes of allkinds  '.'..'.
Hair seating ....
Bolting cloths

Copper bottoms, cut round, raised to the edge"
tAuicksuver ¦

Brass, in plates 
Tin, in plates 
Crude saltpetre  '.'"'.'
Opmm 
Unmanufactured— Raw silk .' .' .' ' .' .' .' .' .'.'"'
Articles not specially enumerated, subject to a duty of 12 1-2
per cent. v.  '
Ditto ..... ditto ....". .' ditto ! ."
Ditto  ditto ....... ditto . .
Ditto  ditto ....... ditto . .
Ditto ..... ditto  . . ditto . .
Ditto  ditto .  ditto . .
Ditto  ditto .  . ditto . .
Ditto  ditto ...... ditto . .
Ditto ....... ditto . . ... . ditto . .
Ditto  ditto  ditto . .

• 15 per cent
. 20
. 25
. 30
. 33 1-2
. 35
. 40
. 45
. 50

VALUE.

Dollars.

824,997 3,026
2,485,053 42,725
483,502663,665
209,152 41,085
133,103 46,789
326,793 49,C04
179,153 29,007 62,27130,89995,004 17
66,817
2,908,978 1,235
15,198 3,191
312,924 65,026
119,925 90,583
1,168.477 36,233
95,225 60,785
• 329,716 6,248
24.409
112,047
499,923 47,872
. 14,417 5,550
11,526 15,881 4,850
59,524 9,362
25,33239,158 3,609
314,167 10,608
390,900 32,214
139,596
119,074

2,558,«58 105,610101,102
389,821 . ,761
1,233 , 14
,813
2,610

36,835,450

m

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

COMMERCE.— TABLE IV,— continued.

SPECIES OF MERCHANDISE.

MERCHANDISE PAVING SPECIFIC DUTIES.

Manufactures of wool, not exceeding 33 1-2 cents per square
yard 
Carpeting — Brussels, Turkey, and Wilton 
Venetian and ingrain 
All other of wool^ flax, or cotton .' . . . . .
Patent printed or stained floorcloths 
Oilcloth, other than patent floorcloth 
Furniture oilcloth . 
Floor mattings.-of flags or other materials 
Sail duck . 
Cotton bagging 
Wines— Madeira ' 
Sherry 
Red, of France and Spain 
Of France, Spain, and Germany, not enumerated .
Of Sicily and other countries, and all wines not
enumerated, in casks and bottles 
Foreign spirits— From grain . . . . . ... . . . . .
From other materials ......;..
Molasses  ' . • . - 
Beer, ale, and porter  .- .
Vinegar 
Oil— Foreign fishing, spermaceti, whale, olive (in casks,)
castor, linseed, and hempseed 
Teas— Bohea, souchong and other black, hyson skin and
other green, hyson and young hyson, imperial, gunpow
der, and Gomel 
Coffee 
Cocoa  i
Chocolate 
Sugar — Brown 
- White, clayed, ,&c  .
Candy and loaf  '.- .
. Other refined 
Fruits— Almonds^ currants, prunes and plums, figs, raisins
(in jars and boxes,) and all other : 
Spices — Ginger, Cayenne pepper, maee, nutmegs, cinnamon,
cloves, black pepper, pimento, and cassia 
Candles— Spermaceti and wax 
Tallow  ]
Cheese  ;
Soap .  .
Tallow  - 
Lard 
Beef and pork ....;*..;.;. 
Bacon .  i
Butter .

Saltpetre 
Camphor, crude 
Salts, Epsom 
Tobacco, manufactured, other than snuff and cigars
Snuff  .
Indigo 
Cotton 
Gunpowder  ,
Bristles  . ;
Glue  _  I .
Ochre— Dry  ; 
In oil ...... a ...... '.
White and red lead 
Whiting, and Paris white  \ [
Sugar of lead 
Lead— Bar, sheet, and pig ...'.'.'.'..'.
Shot 

VALUE.

Dollars.

266,060 77,562
123,950 137
19,865 762
2,5969,486
317,347
, 69,126
330,423 69,647
273,033424,304437,795
205,704453,286 995,7,76 60,420 4,241
18,074

2,425,018 4,227,021 137,453 899
3,985,865 644,477 571 9
520,275
457,723 519
8,959
8,8983,310 4310
23,220 681652 80
26,374 111
224834
715,715 34,737
20,48826,518 3,110
21,182 430
14,231 3,933
11,846 18,757 1,638

SPECIES OF MERCHANDISE.

MERCHANDISE PAYING SPECIFIC DUTIES.

Iron-

Cordage— Tarred and cables  . ,
Un tarred and yarn  ,
Twine, packthread, and sein  ,
Corks  . . .*... . . . . . . . ,
Copper — Rods and bolts . ... . ... . . . ,
'"S Nails and spikes 
Fire-arms— Muskets
Rifles  ' .
-Iron and steel wire . .'. 
Tacks, brads, and sprigs  - . . .
Nails,  . .
Spikes  .
Cables and chains, or parts thereof . . . . . .
Mill-cranks, and mill-irons of wrought iron . . .
Mill-saws  . . . .....
Anchors 
Anvils . . . . . . . . .... . . ¦ . .
Hammers and sledges for blacksmiths 
Castings, vessels and all other 
Braziers' rods or round iron, of 3-10 to 8-16 diameter
inclusive  - . .... . . . .
Nail or spike rods, slit 
Sheets and hoop 
Slit or rolled, &c. 
In pigs 
Bar and bolt, rolled 
 hammered 

Steel ...
Hemp 
Flax, unmanufactured .
Wheat flour 
Wool, unmanufactured ,
Salt .......
Coal .......
Wheat 

OatsPotatoes  !....!!!!!!
Paper— Folio and quarto post, foolscap, drawing, and wri
ting, prin ling, copperplate, and stainers', sheath-
,, ing, binders', wrapping, box boards, &c. . . .
Printed books, in all languages 
Glassvpare— Cut and not specified  .' ]
AU other articles of , . .... . . .
Glass— Apothecaries' phials, not above Boz. ..... .
Bottles, not above 1 gallon 
Demijohns .........."..'
Window ...........
Fish— Foreign, dried or pickled ..'.'.'.'''
Shoes and slippers ' 
Boots and bootees  .
Cigars'  ¦¦.....'.'.
Playing cards . 
Roofing slates  ' '

Value of merchandise paying specific duties . .
Ditto . . . ditto . . . paying ad valorem duties
Ditto . . .ditto . . . free of duty ...'..

VALUE.

Dollars.

71,291 8,114
75,006 30,730 262
2,141
25,142 85
59,485 2,799
40,906 1,391
25,885 200
12,252 1,121
31,249 3,096
38,686

5,945 784
59,822 81
25,644
226,336
1,730,375 291,957
200,338 39,055 599
96,853
671,979204,773 492 378
9,189

110,408130,632 6,192
129,632 3,473
62,991 15,624
?5,59727,621 5,362
l;013
251,818 430
34,683

22,295,225 35,835,450 12,746,215

TOTAL  70,876,920

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

195

COMMERCE.— TABLE V.

A STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE VALUE OF IMPORTS FROM, AND EXPORTS TO, EACH FOREIGN COUNTRY, AND THE
TONNAGE OF AMERICAN AND FOREIGN VESSELS EMPLOYED, FOR THE YEAR ENDING SEPT. 30, 1830.

COUNTRIES'.

Russia 
Prussia . . .... . . .
S weden and Norway . .
Swedish West Indies . . .
Djenmark . . .-.-.-, . .
Danish West Indies . . .
Netherlands 
Dutch East Indies . . .
--  West Indies . . .
England 
i Scotland . . . .....
Ireland . 
Gibraltar . ... . ... ..
, British East Indies . . .
 West Indies . . .
Newfoundland . . »
British American Colonies
— —  African ports ...
Other British Colonies . .
Hanse Towns .....
France on the Atlantiq . .
Ditto oh the Mediterranean
French West Indies . . .
 African Ports . . .
Spain on the Atlantic . .
Ditto ,on the Mediterranean
Teneriffe, and other Canaries
Manilla - and Philippine
Islands .......
Cuba ...... . . .
Other Spanish West Indies
Portugal ~. .-". . ."'•¦ .
Madeira  , . .
Payal, and the bther Azores
Cane de Verd Islands . .
Italy . 
Sicily . 
Trieste, and ,other Adriatic
ports . . . . . . ...
Ragusa, and the Seven
Islands 
Turkey, &c. .......
Hayti ........
Mexicd ........
Central Republic . '. . .
Colombia ... ......
HondurasBrazil ....... ,\
Argentine Republic ...
Cisplatine Republic . . .
JChiu. ., . . . , . . .
Peru '.'.'' 
South America, generally .
China 
Asia, generally j, . .
West Indies, dit'to ....
East Indies, ditto . . .
Europe, ditto "*. . . . .
Africa, ditto . . . . . .
Cape of Good Hope . . .
South Seas 
North West Coast of Ame
rica . . ... .

COMMERCE.

VALUE OF
IMPORTS.

Dollars. 1,621,899 16,605
1,168,110 230,530 5,384
1,6.65,834 888,408 181,843
286,509
22,755,040 1,382; 841
381,333 90,028
1,373,297 168,579

650,303 2,300 1,263
1,873,253
6,831,015. 891,183518,687
' 461,267543,271 '99,878
'384,887
5,577,230 1,307,148 165,321
239,652 32,91233,758
940,254 3,740
132,093,

.417,392
1,697,1405,235,241 302,833
1,120,095 1,472
2,491,460 1,431,883

182,585
972,884 40,269
3,878,141 98,451 7,386

,394
172,861

23,748

70,876,920

VALUE OF EXPORTS.

Domestic
Produce.

Dollars. 35,461 16,501
181,353
552,700 76,292
1,688,022
3, 354,55 1
63,273
319,495
23,773,020 1,465,211 261,687513,248 93,731 140

3,650,031

1,549,732 9,183,894 717,252
792,241 5,931
538,956 145,556 19,040
39,129
3,439,060 245,636
-¦¦ 43,408
155,719 6,649
50,560
326,239

300,859

75,801
714,791
,985,764 138,456
316,732 25,132
1,600,999 425,220

915,718 32,400 9,190
156,290
, 56,318
242,114

16,090
96,867

21,17828,392

59,462,029

Foreign
Produce.

Dollars. 381,114
' 189, 949
37,72729,048
220,723 675,527
107,293 42,298
826,946
' 2,488
370, 150
553,126 1,761

136,342

725,148 661,925
430,888 13,528 579
61,327 ' 6*10
54,539
1,477,675 27,523 1,803
12,358 1,5247,778
414,121

293,251

337,539 108,387
.3,851,694 111.662
180,258 5,432
242,239204,667

620,396 39,402 170
585,903
229,290 5,010

22,653 52,236

6,764
24,698

14,387,479

TOTAL.

Dollars. 416,576 16,501
371,302 690,427 105,340
1,908,745
4,030,078 . 170,566
361,793
24,599,966 1,467|699 261,687 883,398 646,857 1,901

3,786,373

2,274,880 9,845,819, 1,148,140 805,769 6,510
600,283 145,556 19,650
93,668
4,916,735 273,159 45,211
168,077 8,173
58,338
740,360

594,120

413,340823,178
,4,837,458 250,118496,990 30,564
1,843,238 .629,887

1,536,114 71,802 9,360
742,193
285,608 247,124

38,743
149,103

27,942 53,090

73;849,508

NAVIGATION.

AMERICAN TONNAGE.

Entered into
the U. S.

Tons. 13,681 372
15,14410,406 877
38,767
42,998 662
12,047
199,972 5,7845,494
3,346
4,806
22,428 452
130,527

396
17,259
79,459- 15,406
25,928

16,288
10,920 1,762
2,774
97,644 19,031
12,287 3,212 634
,1,253 5,0621,6974,332 '345
3,668
18,513
¦22,062 4,560
13,514. 68
38,005 6,584 236 304
3,276 394
8,595 1,679
2,288

1,904
2,730

15,392

967,227

Departed
from- the U. S.

Tons. 3,492 232
3,502
19,960 1,923
52,53535,220 1,501
11,043
192,714 6,9134,594
13,450 4,029
.2,395 1,523
117,171 ' 610

14,728
82,521 18,96747,129 106
9,3873,017 796458
114,054 8,7342,243 6,080 244
2,628 6,626 135
4,662

2,887
19,395
27,295 3,0445.955 1,042
44,450 9,565 1,373
12,287 732 679'
3,5013,'6977,417 424
'911
2,560 580
28,222 522

971,760

FOREIGN TONNAGE.

Entered into
the U. S.

Tons. 264
' '2,935 965

600793
' '248
61,355 12,560 6,949

,275

4,002

'4,061 205
5,945

122
12,954 625

114
137

1,633
4,362

1,076

248225

141618

131,900

Departed from
the U. S.

Tons.

2,023 984

,849
4,515 220 124
68,589 7,707
2,570'

14,267

10,262 6,014 1,074
4,325

11.356 489 184

137
418

282

1,7483,551'

601
116

155
'260 290

,133,436

196

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

CHAPTER IV.
FINANCES  REVENUE, EXPENDITURE, DEBT.
The revenue of the United States is derived
chiefly from the duties levied on the importation of
foreign commodities, or the sale of public lands ; the
former source at present* producing twenty-two parts
(22,681,996 dollars) out of twenty-four of the whole
amount, (24,767,122 dollars,) the remaining twelfth
being raised from the latter, (1,457,004 dollars ;) to
gether with dividends or sales of bank stock, (490,000
dollars ;) the arrears of internal duties, (14,404 dol
lars ;) direct taxes, (11,231 dollars;) and miscellane
ous charges, (112,425 dollars.) The post-office de
partment has frequently been a source of gain to the
treasury ; but in the year 1819, the whole amount
received appears to have been expended in improve
ments of the post-roads, and, indeed, for the last ten
years it has not, for a similar reason, been at all ma
terially productive. We shall notice very briefly each
of the sources from which the revenue is derived.
The present rates of duty imposed on the most
Important articles imported from foreign countries
have been given in a table at the close of the chap
ter on manufactures, as indicative of the extent to
which they are severally protected. The amount
received from the customs annually, from 1791 to
1830, will be found in Table T., at the end of this
chapter. It will be perceived that from the year
1792, when it was 3,443,070 dollars, it gradually
rose to the year 1808, when it reached 16,363,550
dollars. This increase manifests very decidedly the
progressive prosperity of the republic during that
period, since it did not accrue from any increase of
the rate of the imports, but of the quantity of the
articles consumed or the amount of the tunnage em
ployed. During the years 1809-10, in consequence
of the embargo, the amount declined to about half
the sum ; in 1811 it reached thirteen millions of dol
lars ; but, in consequence of the war, it sank again,
in 1812, to under nine millions of dollars. In July
of that year the rate of duties was doubled ; and in
1813, they exceeded thirteen millions of dollars : in
1814, however, in consequence of the continuance of
the war, and the effectual manner in which the Bri
tish navy blockaded the American coast, they did not
amount to six millions of dollars, and in 1815, a lit
tle exceeded seven millions of dollars. After the
close 6f the war, the double duties, which were con
tinued to the 30th of June, 1816, and the immense

* These statements and calculations are founded on the official
reports of the year ending 30th of September, 1 829.
t Since these sheets were prepared for the press, the Report of

importation of goods which the active competition ol
British manufacturers and merchants poured into the
United States, raised the amount of customs for the
year 1816 to the surprising sum of 36,306,874 dol
lars, the highest amount, by nearly one third, they
have ever attained. The tariff which was established
on the abandonment of the war duties, in June, 1816,
Was at a considerably higher rate than the old duties,
and produced, in 1817, a revenue of upwards of
twenty-six millions of dollars. The American mar
ket, during the first two years of peace, was glutted
with foreign manufactures, and consequently, a re
action in the imports took place, which reduced the
amount, in 1818, to little more than seventeen mil
lions of dollars ; in 1819 it reached twenty millions
of dollars; from 1820 to 1825 the amount varied
from thirteen to twenty millions of dollars. Since
that time it has, with the exception of 1827, been
about twenty-three millions of dollars. It is gener
ally understood (although we have not received the
official returns) that in- consequence of the large im
portations under the high duties imposed by the tariff
of 1828; the revenue derived from the customs this
year will reach twenty-eight millions of dollars, an
amount greater than that of any year since the es
tablishment of the republic, except the first after the
war.t The sale of public lands is at present almost the
only real source of revenue besides the customs ; for
although an amount of 499,000 dollars from dividends
on stock in the bank of the United States appears in
the statement of receipts, while any public debt re
mains, that sum, or nearly so, must be paid to the
public creditor as interest on the debt, of which the
loan to the United States bank forms a part, and upon
which the interest paid by the bank cannot therefore
be esteemed as clear revenue. The title of the
United States to the public lands is derived from
three distinct, sources : first, from treaties with foreign
nations, by which territory has been acquired, or
boundaries settled ; secondly, by treaties with the
Indian tribes, by which, for a certain remuneration,
the title of the natives to the land has been extin
guished; and thirdly, from cessions of territories
made by individual states to the general government.
It cannot be matter of surprise, that the title of the
United States should be frequently disputed by indi
viduals, on the ground of claims existing previously
to the cession of the land in question to the govern
ment. No -less than fourteen extensive claims are
the Finances of the United States has been received, in which the
receipts for the year ending 30th September, i&3l, are estimated
to be 28,000,412 dollars.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

197

•stated by SeyBert,* some of them, arising from alleged
purchases from the Indians, which however were,
even if substantiated, undoubtedly contrary to law,
and others originating in grants from officers of the
different governments to which the territory belonged
before its acquisition by the United States, but of
which \the evidence of confirmation by their respec
tive governments is either totally wanting or incom
plete. Our limits will not permit us to state the de
tails of these disputed claims : there is one, however,
both from its peculiar character and ^its magnitude^
too remarkable to be passed over. The Yazoo cjaims,
as they were called,, embraced 35,000,000 acres in the
! Mississippi territory, and were derived from a pre
tended sale by the legislature of Georgia, but declared
null, as fraudulent, by a subsequent legislature. "The
evidence, as published by the state of Georgia, and
by congress," says Dr. Seybert, " shows that that
transaction, even if considered as a contract, is, as
such, on acknowledged principles of law and equity,
null, ab initio ; it being in proof that all the members
of the legislature who voted in favour of the sale,
that is to say, the agents who pretended to sell the
property of" their constituents, were,' with the excep
tion of a single person, interested in, and parties to
the purchase." This claim, however, was arranged
by commissioners appointed by congress in 1814,
and treasury certificates. to the amount of' more than
four millions of dollars were awarded among the
various claimants..
On the 10th of May, 1800, an act of congress was
passed, laying, the foundation of the land system, as
it now exists. Under this law, all the lands, before
they are offered for sale, are surveyed, on a rigidly
accurate plan, at the expense of the government.
This is the corner-stone of the system. In this con
sists its great improvement over the land system of
Virginia, according to which, warrants were granted
to those entitled to receive them, for tracts of unsur-
veyed public land. These warrants might be located
on any land not previously appropriated. In the
absence of geometrical surveys, it was difficult, by
natural boundaries, Indian paths, and buffalo traces,
to identify the spots appropriated. The consequence
was, that numerous warrants were laid on the same
tract, conflicting claims arose, and the land titles of
the country were brought into a state of the most
- ¦ I >*r. ¦
>  '  -^ — —
* Statistical Annals, chap. v. p. 3'55.
t The following first section of. a private act, passed in 1825,
may serve as a specimen pf the nomenclature by which lots of land
may be indicated in the system of the public surveys : — ¦" Be it en
acted by the senate and house of representatives of the United
States of America, in congress assembled, that, when the secretary
of the treasury shall be satisfied' that John Johnson of Indiana, did
Vol. IL-^-Nos. 53 & 54 2 B

perplexing and injurious embarrassment. The state
of Kentucky, and that portion of Ohio allotted as
bounty-lands to the Virginia troops,, have constituted
one great theatre of litigation, from their first settle
ment. On the other hand, land titles acquired under
the system of the United States are almost wholly
exempt from controversies arising from uncertainty
of location or boundary. The surveys of the public
lands of the United States are founded upon a series
of true meridians. The first principal meridian is
in Ohio, the second in Indiana, the third in Illinois,
&c, each forming the base of a series of surveys, of
which the lines are made to correspond, so that the
whole country is at last divided into squares of one
mile each, and townships of six miles each ; and these
subdivisions are distributed with mathematical accu
racy into parallel ranges. The greatest division of
land marked out by the survey is called a township,
and contains 23,040 acres, being six English or
American miles square. The township is subdivided
into thirty-six equal portions, or square miles, by lines,
crossing each other at right angles. These portions
are called sections. The section contains 640 acres,
and is subdivided into four part, called quarter-sec
tions, each of which, of course, contains 160 acres.
The quarter-sections are finally divided into two
parts, called half-quarter-sections, of eighty acres
each, and this is the smallest regular subdivision
known to the system.. The sectional and quarter-
sectional divisions are designated by appropriate
marks in the field, which are of a character to be
easily distinguished from each other. The half-quar
ter-sections are not marked in the field, but are de
signated on the plot of the stirvey, by the surveyor-
general marking the distance on one of the ascertained
lines, in order to get the quantity of such half-quar-.
ter-sections as exhibited by his plan of survey.- The
fractional sections, which contain less than 160 acres>
are not subdivided ; the fractional . sections which
contain 160 acres and upwards are subdivided in
such a manner as to preserve the most compact and
convenient forms. A series of contiguous townships
laid off from north to south is called a range. The
ranges are numbered north and south from the base,
or standard line, running due east acd west. They
are counted from the standard -meridian'^ east and
west.t The dividing lines of the sections, of course,

enter at the Brookville land-office, in said state, the east half of the
north-east quarter of section thirty-five, and the west half of the
north-west quarter of section thirty-six in township seventeen
north, in range four east, by mistake, instead of the- east half of
the south-east quarter, and the west half of the south-west quarter
of the said sections, it shall be lawful for a patent to be issued to
the said Johnson, for the two last mentioned half quarters, so in- '

198

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

run by the cardinal points, except where what is
called a fractional section is created by a navigable
river or an Indian boundary.
The superintendence of the surveys is committed
to five surveyors-general. One thirty-sixth part of
all the lands surveyed, being section No. 16, in each
township, is reserved ' from sale, for the support of
schools in the township ; and other reservations have
been made for colleges and universities. All salt
springs and lead mines are also reserved, and are
subject to be leased under the direction of the presi
dent of the United States. Whenever the public
interest is supposed to require that a certain portion
of territory should be brought into market, for the.
accommodation of settlers or others who may wish
to become- purchasers, the president issues instruc
tions to the surveyor-general, through the commis
sioner of the general land office, at Washington, to
have such portion of territory surveyed. The sur
veyor-general makes this requisition publicly known
to those individuals who are in the habit of contract
ing for public surveys ; and a contract for the execu
tion ofthe surveys required is entered into between
the surveyor-general and deputy surveyors. The
contract is given to the lowest bidder, provided the
surveyor-general be fully satisfied of his capacity to
fulfil the contract. The maximum price established
by law for executing the public surveys is three
dollars a mile, in the upland and prairie countries.
In the southern parts of the United States, where the
surveys are rendered difficult by the occurrence of
bayous, lakes, swamps, and- cane-brakes, the maximum
price established by law is four dollars a mile. The
deputy surveyors are bound by their contract to re
port to jthe surveyors-general the field notes of the
survey of each township, together with a plan of the
township. From these field notes the surveyor-gene
ral is enabled to try the accuracy of the plan returned
by the .deputy surveyor, and of the calculations of
the quantity in the legal subdivisions of the tract
surveyed. From these documents three plans are
caused to be prepared by the surveyor-general ; one.
for his own office ; one for the register of the proper
land office to guide him in the sale of the land ; and
the third for the commissioner of the general land
office at Washington. The government has general
ly found it expedient to authorize the surveying of
forty townships of land annually, in each land district,
so as to admit of two sales by public auction annually,
of twenty townships each. The general land office
at Washington is under the superintendence of an
tended to be entered, on-his relinquishing to the United States his
interest in, and surrendering the patent issued for, the two first

officer, called the commissioner of the general) land
office. It is subordinate to the treasury department.
The public lands are laid off into districts, in each of
which there is a land office, under the superinten
dence of officers appointed by the president and
senate, called the register of the land office, and the
receiver of public moneys. There are at present
forty-two land offices. The register and the receiver
each receive a salary of 500 dollars per annum, and
a commission of one per cent, on the moneys paid
into their office.
. Till 1820, a credit was allowed on all purchases
of publiclands. In consequence of this system, large
quantities of land had been purchased on speculation,
and in the ordinary course of purchases a vast amount
of land debt to the government had been contracted.
To relieve the embarrassed condition of these debtors,
an act was passed, authorizing the relinquishment of
lands purchased, and substituting cash payments for
the credit system. The most beneficial effects have
resulted from this change, apart from the relief of
those who were indebted to the government. At the
same time the minimum price of the land was redu
ced from two dollars to one dollar and twenty-five
cents an acre. In the first instance the public lands
are offered for sale, under proclamations of the pre
sident, by public auction, with the limitation of the
minimum rate. Lands not thus sold are afterwards
subject to private sale at the minimum price.
A very large amount of public land is in the occu
pation of persons who have settled upon it without
title. This is frequently done, in consequence of
unavoidable delays in bringing the land into market,
and not from any intention, on the part of the settler,
to. delay payment. Laws have been passed, grant
ing to settlers of this description a pre-emptive right
in the acquisition of a title, that is, the preference
over all other persons at private sale. These laws
afford the actual settler no protection against those
who might choose to overbid him at the public sales ;
but it is believed, that in most cases, by mutual
agreement among purchasers, the actual settler is
enabled to obtain his. land, even at public sale, at the
minimum price. It is stated, however, that great
injury is done to the settlers by combinations of land
speculators, who infest the public eales, purchasing
the lands at the minimum price, and compelling bona
fide settlers to take them at an enhanced valuation.
Should the settler refuse such an agreement, the spe
culators enter into competition with him at the sale.
On the whole it would appear, that, in general, the
mentioned half quarters, in such manner as shall be directed by
the secretary of the treasury."

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES,

199

government obtains but the minimum price for its
'lands, although what is actually sold and occupied,
being the choice of the whole quantity brought into
market, is, of- course, worth much more.
It has been suggested, and with an appearance of
justice, that the price of the public lands is still too
high. The government, having already reimbursed
itself for the cost of them, cannot be considered as
having any other duty to perform than to promote
their settlement, as rapidly as it can take place by a
healthy process, and to meet the wishes of all who
desire bona fide to occupy them. Considering the
class of men most likely to take the lead in settling
a new country, one hundred dollars, (the price of a
half-quarter section) paid in cash to the government,
is a tax too heavy perhaps for the privilege of taking
up a farm in an unimproved wilderness. The price
is already too low to oppose a serious obstacle to
speculation ; so that a considerable reduction of it
would not probably increase that evil, while it would
essentially relieve the bona fide settler. There would,
in fact, perhaps be little else to object to apian of
gratuitous donation of a half-quarter-section to actual
settlers, than the comparative injustice of such a.
plan toward those settlers who have already pur
chased their farms.
Five per cent, on all the sales of public lands with
in the several states is reserved ; three fifths of which
-are to be expended by congress in making roads
leading to the states, and two fifths to be expended
bythe states in the encouragement of learning. The
first part of this reservation has been expended on
the Cumberland-road ; and the treasury of the United
States is greatly in advance to that fund on account
of this public work. — It appears, that up to the pre
sent time, about 150 millions of acres of the public
lands have been surveyed. Of these, thirty millions
have not been proclaimed for sale ; twenty millions
have been sold and, as much more granted by con-

* It would appear that in consequence of the revenue produced
from the sale of public lands being no longer needful to the ge
neral government, a most important change respecting tnem
may possibly occur— the transfer of their title from the general
government to the states where they are situated. '" On this
point," says Mr. M'Lane, " the1 undersigned deems it proper to ob
serve, that the creation of numerous states throughout the western
country, now forming a most important part of the union, and the
relative powers claimed and exercised by congress and the respect
ive states over the public lands, have been gradually accumulating
causes of inquietude and difficulty, if not of complaint. It may
well deserve consideration, therefore, whether at a period demand
ing the amicable and permanent adjustment of the various subjects
which now agitate the public mind,, these may not be advanta
geously disposed of in common with the others, and upon principles
just and .satisfactory to all parts of the union. It must be admitted
that the. public lands were eeded by the states, or subsequently ac
quired by the United States, for the common benefit, and that each

gress for education, internal improvement, and other
purposes. There are then 110 millions of acres sur
veyed, but not sold, eighty millions of which are in the
market, ready for sale at the minimum price, and
thirty millions subject to be proclaimed for sale
whenever there is a demand. The total quantity of
land, the title of which vests in the United States, is
estimated by Pitkin and Seybert at 400 millions of
acres : the Indian title to a very considerable propor
tion of this, however, is not yet extinguished. It
must be evident, that while such a resource is pos
sessed for the profitable occupation of redundant la
bour or capital, the labourer will never be without
remunerating produce for his roily and the capitalist
will be clear of the folly, not to say the guilt* of re
ducing profits to such a shade, that no small manu
facturer or small vender can possibly exist ; and con
sequently, that the country so favoured will enjoy a
long period of prosperity.
The total amount received by the treasury for the
sale of public lands, from the year 1796 to 1829, as
stated in a letter from the secretary of the treasury to
the chairman of the committee of retrenchment, in
April, 1830,- was 32,403,527 dollars; the highest
amount was in 1819, 3,274,422 dollars. It appears
that the capital thrown out of employ by the destruc
tion of manufactures, on the return of peace, was ap^ ,
propriated to speculations in land, in 1817, 1818, and
1819; but many of these speculations turning out
unfavourably, the amount expended in the purchase
of land resumed its usual leveh From that year to
the year 1829, the amount received from this source
has varied from about one million to one million and
a half of dollars ; but during the last two years it has
greatly increased — the amount of 1830 being 2,329,356
dollars, and the amount for the present year, as cal
culated by the secretary of the treasury, would prove
to be about three millions and a half, a sum exceed
ing that of any former year.*

state has an interest m. their proceeds, of which it can not be
justly deprived. Over this part of the public property the powers
of the general government have been uniformly supposed to have
a peculiarly extensive scope, and have been construed to authorize
their application to the purposes of education and improvement, to
which other branches of revenue were not deemed applicable. It
is not practicable to keep the public lands out of the market ; and
the present mode of disposing of them is not believed to be the most
profitable either to the general government or to the states, and
must be, expected, when the proceeds shall be.no longer required
for the public debt, to give rise to new and more serious objections.
" " Under these circumstances, it is submitted to the wisdom of
congress to decide upon the propriety of disposing of all the public
lands in the aggregate, to those states within whose territorial
limits they lie, at a fair price, to be settled in such manner as
might be satisfactory to all. The aggregate price of the whole
may then be apportioned among the several states of the union,
according to such an equitable ratio as may be consistent with the

200

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Respecting the internal TevenTte, as It has aihiost
ceased to exist except in the shape of arrears, it is
unnecessary to enter into any lengthened detail.
Soon after the establishment of the government, it
was found necessary to impose internal taxes, and
the articles made liable to them are stills and spirits,
snuff, refined sugar, sales at auction, licenses to retail
wines and spirituous liquors, carriages for the con
veyance of passengers, and stamped paper. It is in
teresting to observe the regular and rapid increase
in the product of these duties, from about 209,000
dollars to upwards of one million, from 1792 to 1801.
As the rate of duty was not increased, it must be evi
dent the quantity consumed of the articles liable to
them must have increased in the ratio of fifty per
cent, per annum, the amount of the last year being
five times that of the first. There is only one draw
back on the satisfactoiy nature of this statement — a
large portion of the increased consumption was in
spirituous liquors ! The above duties were repealed
in 1802 ; but the arrears of them continue to occupy
a place in the treasury accounts till the year 1814,
when, with very little variation, they were re-enacted.
Subsequently, however, in consequence of the war,
additional duties were imposed by congress on spirits
and other articles, and during the same session taxes
were imposed on most of the articles manufactured
in the United States. In 1815, the revenue derived
from internal taxation amounted to more than four
and a half million of dollars, and in 1816 it reached
its maximum of upwards of five millions. Soon af
ter the termination of the war, many of the duties

were either reduced or repealed, and subsequently
the remainder have been dismissed from, the statute
book, unless the "fees on letters-patent," which
amount for 1829 to 12,990 dollars, may be termed
a remnant of internal taxation. It has already been
intimated that the amounts which are stated in Ta
ble I., in the column of internal revenue, are. only
the arrears of the former imposts, whieh as debts due
to the government, continue to be collected.
The direct taxes are those laid upon houses and
lahds, and upon slaves. They were first, imposed
in 1798, to the amount of two millions of dollars,
apportioned to the several states according to the
constitution. Of this sum, rather more than one
third was collected in- the year 1800, another third
in 1801 and 1802, and a portion only of the remain
der has since been collected as arrears. In 1813 a tax
to the amount of three millions of dollars was impo
sed ; and in 1815 an annual direct tax of six millions
of dollars was enacted, which, however, was reduced
to three millions of dollars by the congress of 1816,
and entirely repealed in 1817. The arrears of this
tax still continue to flow annually into the trea
sury. The whole amount levied by the four enact-
' ments was fourteen millions of dollars, and in the
[ year 1829, 12,702,597 dollars had been received,
which allowing for expenses of collection, does not
leave room for many defaulters. The following
statement of the rate of assessment on each occasion
of the several states will be instructive, as another
test of the progressive increase in value of the pro
perty of the inhabitants.

STATES.

New Hampshire
MassachusettsRhode Island . .
Connecticut . .
Vermont . . .
New York . .
New Jersey . .
Pennsylvania . .
Delaware . . .
Maryland . . .
Virginia . . .
Kentucky . . .
North Carolina .
Tennessee . . .
South Carolina '.
Georgia . . .
Ohio 
Louisiana . . .

Quotas apportioned in

Quotas appor ¦1813.

ioned in

Quotas apportioned in

1798.

1815.

Dolls. Cts. Mills.

Dolls.

Cts

Doll's.

Cts.

77,705 36

2

96,793 •

37

193,586

74 -.

260,435 31

2

316,270

98

632,541

96

37,502 08

0

34,702

18

69,404

36

129,767 00

2

118,167

71

236,335

42

46,864 18

7

98,343

71

196,687

42

181,680 70

7

430,141

62

860,283

24

98,387 25

.3

108,871 ,

83

217,743

66

237,177 72

7

. 365,478

16

736,958

32

30i430 79

2 ,

32,046

25

64,092

50

152,599 95

4

151,623

94

303,247

88

345,488 66

5

369,018

44

738,036

88

37,643 99

7

168,928

76

337,857

52

193,697 96

4

220,238

28

440,476

56

18,806 3§

3

110,086

55

220,173

10

112,997 73

9

151,905

43

303,810

96

38,814 87

5

94,936

49

189,-872

98

....

104,150
14
208,300
28
28,295
11
56,590
22 . ¦:.
objects ofthe original cession; and the proportion of each may be
paid or secured directly to the others by the respective states pur
chasing the land. All cause of difficulty with the general govern
ment on this subject would then be removed ; and no doubt can be
entertained, that, by the means of stock issued by the buying states,
bearing a moderate interest, and which, in consequence of the re
imbursement of the public debt, would acquire a great value, they
would be able at once to pay the amount upon advantageous terms.
It may not be unreasonable also to expect, that the obligation to
pay the annual interest upon the stock thus created, would diminish
the motive for selling the lands at prices-calculated to impair the
general value of that kind of property. It is believed, moreover,
TOPOGRAPHY, OF THE UNITED STATES.

201

Of the various tests by, which tbe progressive pros
perity of a country may be ascertained, the extension
of its internal communications is certainly not one
of the least important. In this respect the progress
of the United States is, perhaps, more conspicuous
than in almost any other. In the year 1775, con
gress first established a line of posts from Falmouth,
in New England, to Savannah, in Georgia: in 1782
all the surplus income derived from the postage was
directed to be applied to the establishment of new
post-offices, and the support of packets. In the year
1790, there were 75 post-offices, and 1,875 miles of
post-roads ; in the year 1810 there were 2,300 post-
offices, and 36,406 miles of post-roads ; and in 1829
there were 8,004 post-offices, and 115,000 miles of
post-roads. The general post-office is established at
Washington, under the direction of a postmaster-ge
neral, who is authorized to appoint two assistants,
and the requisite numberof clerks ; he is further direct
ed to superintend the business of the department in all
the duties that are or may be^assigned to it ; and he is
required, once in three months,to render to the secre
tary of the treasury an account of all the receipts and ex
penditures in the department, to be adjusted, and set
tled as other accounts. The postmaster-general
may establish post-offices, and appoint post-masters
on the post-roads which are or may be authorized by
law, at all such places as to him may appear expedi
ent. He regulates the number of times the mail shall
go from place to place, and he is authorized to contract
for carrying the mail, and to establish post- roads.
The rates of postage are very moderate, being
about half those of Great Britain. For any distance
not exceeding 30 miles, six cents ; 80 miles, ten cents ;
150 miles, twelve cents and a half; 400 miles, eighteen
cents and three quarters ; above 400 miles, twenty-
five cents.* Thus a letter may be conveyed from
Maine to New Orleans, at least 2,000 miles, for a
fraction more than one shilling sterling. Double
that the interests ofthe several states would be better promoted by
such a disposition of the public- domain, than by sales in the mode
hitherto adopted; and it would at once place at the disposal of all
the states of the union, upon fair terms, a fund for purposes of
education and improvement, of inestimable benefit to the future
prosperity of the nation." — Finance Report, December 7, 1831, pp.
19,20. * It may not be improper to remind our readers, who may not
be familiar with American coins, that a cent, or the hundredth
part of a dollar, is nearly equivalent to the English halfpenny.
t Newspapers are not subject to stamp or other duty in the Uni
ted States.
t Privilege of Franking. — " Letters and packets to and from the
following officers of the government, are by law received and con
veyed by post, free, of postage: — The president and vice-president
of the United States ; secretaries of state, treasury, war, and navy;
attorney-general ; postmaster-general and assistant postmaster-ge
neral; comptrollers, auditors, register, and solicitor of the trea
sury; treasurer; commissioner of the general land office; com-

letters, or those composed of two pieces of paper, are
charged with double the above rates, and triple and
quadruple letters in the same proportion. All letters
weighing one ounce avoirdupois, or more, are
charged at the' rate of single postage for each quarter
of an ounce, or quadruple postage for each ounce,
according to their weight; and no letter can be
charged with more than quadruple postage, unless
its weight exceeds one ounce avoirdupois. The
postage on ship letters, if delivered at the office
where the vessel arrives, is six cents ; if conveyed
by post, two cents in addition to the ordinary post
age. For each newspaper! not carried out of the
state in which it is published, or, if carried out of the
state, not over 100 miles, one cent^ over 10Q miles,
and out -of the state in which it is published, one cent
and a half. Magazines and pamphlets, if published
periodically, distance not exceeding 100 miles, one
cent and a half per sheet ; ditto, distance over 100
miles, two cents and a half per sheet ; if not pub
lished periodically, distance not exceeding 100, miles,
four cents per sheet ; ditto, distance over 100 miles,
six eents per sheet. ' Small pamphlets, containing
not more than a half sheet royal, are charged with
half the above rates ; eight pages quarto are rated as
one sheet, and all other sizes in the same proportion.
The number of sheets in a pamphlet sent by mail
must be printed or written on one of the outer pages ;
when the number of sheets is not truly stated, double
postage is charged. Every thing not coming under
the denomination of newspapers .or pamphlets is
charged with letter postage.!
Before entering on the general expenditure of the
United States, it may be proper to ^notice the mint
establishment, and the state of the circulating medi
um. In 1792, a mint establishment for the United
States, to ,be carried on at the seat of government for
the time being, was authorized by. congress- Since
the removal of the seat of government to Washington,

missioners of the navy board ; commissary-general ; inspectors-
general ; quartermaster-general ; paymaster-general ; superintend
ent of patent office ; speaker and clerk of the' house of representa
tives; president and secretary of the senate; and any individual
who shall have been, or may hereafter be, president of the United.
States ; -and each may receive newspapers by post free of postage. —
Each member of the senate, and each member and delegate of the
house of representatives, may send, and receive, free of postage,
newspapers, letter^ and packets, weighing not more than two
ounces, (in case of excess of weight, excess alone to be paid for,)
and all documents printed by order of either house, during and
sixty days before- and after each session of congress. — Postmasters
may send and receive, free of postage, letters and packets not ex
ceeding half an ounce in weight; and they may receive one daily
newspaper each, or what is equivalent thereto, — Printers of news
papers may send one paper to each and every other printer of
newspapers within the United States, free of postage, under such
regulations as the postmaster-general may provide.'W American Al
manac, 1832.

202

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

this establishment has, by special act of congress,
been continued at Philadelphia ; and very recently,
a handsome and commodious new building has been
provided, on such, a plan as to admit of its operations
being carried on to much greater extent than, former
ly.- The gold coins of the United States are— eagles,
of the value of ten dollars or units, containing 247 1-8
grains of pure, or 270 grains of standard gold ; half
eagles, of the value of five dollars ; quarter eagles, of
the value of two and a half dollars. The silver
coins are — the dollar or unit, of the value of one
hundred cents, containing 371 4-16 grains of pure
silver, or 416 grains of standard silver ; half dollar,
of the value of fifty cents ; quarter dollar, of the
value of twenty-five cents ; dime, of the value of ten
cents ; half dime, of the value of five cents. The
copper coins are — cent, of the value of the one hun
dredth part of a dollar, and containing eleven penny
weights of copper ; half cent, of the value of the two
hundredth part of a dollar. The devices upon the
coins are, upon one side, an impression emblematical
of Liberty, with an inscription of the word " Liber
ty," and the year of the coinage ; upon the reverse
of the gold and silver coins, the representation of an
eagle, with the inscription, " United States of Ame
rica ;" upon the reverse of the copper coins, an in
scription expressing the denomination of the piece.
The proportional value of the gold and silver in all
the coins which are current in the United States, is
as fifteen to one, according to quantity in weight :
that is to say, every fifteen pounds weight of pure
silver, are of equal value with one pound weight of
pure gold. The standard of all the gold coins of the
United States is eleven parts fine to one part of al
loy ; the alloy is composed of silver and copper in
proportions not exceeding one half of silver. The
standard of all the silver coins is 1,485 parts fine, to
179 parts of alloy ; the alloy is wholly of copper.
Any person may carry gold or silver bullion to be
coined at the mint ; the bullion so brought is assayed
and coined as speedily as possible, free of expense.
As soon as the bullion has been coined, the person
who deposited the same, may upon demand receive
* A late British writer gives the following account of the quan
tity of the precious metals produced from the American mines : —
" An elaborate paper prepared in the foreign office has been laid
before parliament, which decides the question as to the compara
tive productions of the American gold and silver mines during the
last ten years, ending with 1829, and the periods immediately pre
ceding. This return exhibits a material falling off; and although
much of the diminution may, perhaps, fairly be attributed to the
unsettled state of the countries in which the mines are situated,
still there is abundant reason for concluding, that the source itself
is approaching to exhaustion. From this curious document we
make the following abstract : — From 1790 to 1 809, the mines of
Mexico yielded gold of the value.of 4,523,37 81., silver, 94,429,303'. ;

in lieu thereof, coins of the same -species of bullion
weight for Weight of the pure gold or pure silver
therein contained. The gold and siver coins struck
at the mint are a lawful tender ; the value thereof is
in proportion to their respective weights.
The coinage effected within the last year (1830)
amounts to 3,155,620 dollars, comprising 643,105
dollars in gold coins, 2,495,400 dollars in silver,
17,115 dollars in copper, and consisting of 8,357,191
pieces of coin, viz. Dollars. 631,755 11,350

Half eagles .
Quarter eagles

126,351 making
4,540 "

Half dollars . : . 4,764,800
Dimes ...... 510,000
Half dimes . . . 1,240,000
Cents  1,711,500
8,357,191

2,382,400 51,00062,00017,115
3,155,620

Of the amount of gold coined within the last
year, about 125,000 dollars were derived from Mexi
co, South America, and the West Indies ; 19,000
dollars fr6m Africa ; 46.6,000 dollars from the gold
regions of the United States, and about 33,000 dol
lars from sources not ascertained. Of 4he goldof the
United States above mentioned, 24,000 dollars may
be stated to have been received from Virginia, 204,000
dollars from North Carolina, 26,000 dollars from
South Carolina, and 212,000 dollars from Georgia.
In the last annual report of the director of the mint,
the progressive development of the gold region of the
United States was illustrated by referring to the in
crease of the annual receipts from North Carolina,
which, previous to 1824, had been inconsiderable ;
but from that year to 1829, inclusive, had advanced
from 5,000 dollars to 128,000 dollars, and also to the
then novel occurrence of gold having been received
at the mint from Virginia and South Carolina, about
2,500 dollars having been received from,. the former,
and 3,500 dollars from the latter. The past year
exhibits, in relation to all these states, a conspicuous
increase in the prodnction of gold, and presents, also,
the remarkable fact of 212,000 dollars in gold received
from Georgia, from which state no specimen even
had been received at the mint in any previous year.*

those of Panama, gold, 223,5182.; Chili, gold, 863,9742., silver,
944,7362.; Buenos Ayres, gold, 1,862,955?., silver, 19,286,8302.
From 1810 to 1821, Mexico yielded gold, 1,913,0752., silver,
45,388,729/.; Panama, gold, 23,6032. ; Chili, gold, 1,904,5142., sil
ver, 878,1882. ; Buenos Ayres, gold, 2,161 ,940/., silver, 7,895,8422.;
Russia, gold, 3,703,7432., silver, 1,502,9812. The returns from
Monte Video are too vague to lead to any safe results. The com
parative increase or decrease in, periods of ten years is as fol
lows :— Mexico, from 1790 to 1799, and 1800 to 1809, in gold, an
increase of 16 l-10th; in silver, a decrease of 2 2-5ths; on the
whole, a decrease of 1 3-5ths, as compared with the first period ;
from 1 810 to 1819, in gold, a decrease of 30 ; of silver,a decrease
of 48 3-5ths; on the whole, a decrease of 47 4-5ths, as compared

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

203

Owing to the proportionate value of the gold and
silver coins not being properly adjusted, (gold being
valued at only 15 to 1 of silver, while its real value
is very nearly 16 to 1,)* there is no gold coin now in
circulation.! It has been^ a question much agitated amongst
financiers and political economists, whether the ab
sence of the precious metals is a subject for lamenta
tion or for congratulation.. It has been affirmed by
some, not without apparent reason, that as the circu
lating medium is only an instrument — a machine —
the less the. expense of its construction and mainte
nance, the more profit-or the less loss must accrue :
while it has been maintained, on the other hand, that
there is no safety forvcommerce, unless gold, or paper
immediately convertible into gold, be the circulating
medium. We shall not so far forget the nature and
limits of our undertaking, as to enter into this con
troversy, but content ourselves with stating our
, opinion, that, excepting the advantage of cheapness,
it is a matter of indifference whether the circulating
medium be of value in itself, or be the representative
of value ; that if it be the representative of value, it
is not important whether that value be gold, or land,

with the first period; from 1820 to 1829, in gold, a decrease of
78 7-10ths; silver, a decrease of 56 2-5ths ; on the whole, a de
crease of 57 2-5ths, as compared with the first period. Panama,
from 1790 to 1799, and 1800 to 1809, in gold, a decrease of
.. 11 7-10ths, as compared with the first period; from 1810 to 1819,
a decrease of 93 3-10ths; 1820 to 1829, a decrease of 86 4-5ths.
Chili, from 1790 to 1799, and 1800 to 1809, in gold, an increase
of 65 4-5ths; silver, a decrease of 31 ; on the whole, an increase
of 4 3-5ths; from 1810 to 1819, in gold, an increase of 330 1-2;
silver, an increase of 30 4-5ths; on the Whole, an increase of
148 3-5ths; 1820 to 1829, in gold, an increase of 55 2-5fhs; silver,
a decrease of 81 3-10ths; on the whole, a decrease of 31 9-60ths.
Buenos Ayres, from 1790 to 1799, and 1800 to 1809, in gold, an
increase of 45 4-5ths ; silver, a decrease of 23 4-5ths ; on the
whole, a decrease of 19 l-5th; from 1809 to 1819, in gold, an in
crease of 42 3-5ths ; silver, a decrease of 51 ; on the whole, a de
crease of 51 1-2 ; 1820 to 1829, in gold, an increase of 42 3-5ths;
silver, a decrease of 70 ; on the whole, a decrease of 62 3-5ths.
From 1820 to 1829, Russia produced, in gold, 3,703,7432., in sil
ver, 1,502,9812. Oh the produce of the whole of these mines,
therefore, from 1790 to 1799, and from 1800 to 1809, there has
been, as compared with the first period, in gold, ah increase of
26 4-5ths ; silver, adecrease'of 6 3-5ths.; on the whole, a decrease
of 4 4-5ths; from 1810 to 1819, in gold, an increase of 20 2-5ths;
silver, a decrease of 49 1-2 ; on the whole, a decrease of 45 4-5ths ;
and from 1820 to 1829, in gold, an increase of 74 3-5ths; silver,
a decrease of 56 3-5ths ; and on the whole, a decrease of 49 7-1 Oths."
* " The relative value of gold and silver in' our coins should be^
15.9 to 1. In France, the relative value of gold to silver is about
15.82 to 1. In Great Britain, gold is" in value to silver about as
15.86 to 1. The relative value of gold and silver in Spain has
been 16 to 1 during the last fifty or sixty years, and, according to
recent information, the value of gold in Spain is now a little higher
than this proportion. In Portugal, the rise pf gold and the decline
of silver in relative value were slower and later than in Spain ;
but the relative value of the two metals in Portugal is now about
16 to 1, and this proportion appears to have prevailed there for
many years. From all the information which can be obtained, it
appears that tbe value of gold in relation to silver, is about 16 to I

or houses, or barrels of flour, provided the circulating
medium by which they are represented does not re
present more than their marketable or exchangeable
value ; and that the interests of commerce are not
directly affected by the question, whether the circu
lating medium, be real value itself, or the representa
tive of real value, but by the amount of the circula
ting medium, the variations of which have a cor
responding effect, upon the prices of all articles of
trade. There can be no doubt, that as the interests
of all are affected by the increase or diminution of the
currency, this point should be sufficiently under the
control of the executive, to prevent or mitigate the
pernicious extremes in which the avarice or indiscre
tion of individuals have too often resulted. The
committee, however, consider that the abundance of
" paper money" in the United States is an evil.
" While we have so much paper money," they state,
"we can not have any great quantity of the precious
metals in use, as money ; and while this extensive
use of paper money shall continue, an adjustment of
the relative value of gold and silver will not bring
much gold into circulation. Still, the necessary ad
justment should be made. No man can foresee how

in all the American countries south of the United Spates. This
relative value seems to have prevailed in those parts of America
which were formerly Spanish, and especially in Mexico and Peru,
during the last forty or fifty years. In Brazil, gold was for a long
time somewhat less valuable, but during the last ten years, the
relative value of gold in Brazil has also been about 16 to I. In
the West Indies, the two metals fluctuate much in respect to each
other ; but the ratio 1 6 to 1 seems to be the average of relative
value." — Report of the Select Committee appointed to consider the state
of the Current Coin, tyc, presented to the Senate, 1 5th of December,
1830. t " The fact that we have no gold coins in use, is not the intend
ed effect of our institutions. It has resulted from too low a valua
tion of gold in respect to silver, when our system was established,
and a progressive rise in the relative value of gold since that time.
By our system, the two metals are coined upon the basis that one
pound of gold is equal in value to fifteen pounds of silver, and all '
our coinage of the two metals has been executed in conformity to
this relative valuation. This proportion was too low a valuation of
gold in the year 1792, and it is certainly much too low a valuation
of gold in relation to silver at this time. Our gold coins being
much underrated in respect to silver, have never had any general
circulation in the country ; they have ceased to be used as money ;
they are merely merchandize, purchased by a considerable premU
um over silver, and they are used in manufactures, or exported to
Europe. Our public coinage of gold is now wholly without any
public benefit : we prohibit and punish all private coinage of gold ;
we coin this metal at the mint upon a principle which' does not
permit it to circulate as money, and vie pay the" expense of this
useless coinage. In practice, this coinage affords a facility to the
possessor of gold bullion, since it enables him to employ the mint
to weigh and assay his bullion, and to divide it into very convenient
portions, without expense to himself. When the coins are receiv
ed from the mint they are sold for their value as bullion ; some' of
them are used in manufactures, and the greater part are exported.
If we will not rectify the legal proportion between the coins of the
two metals, we ought to abolish the coinage of gold, save a useless
expense, and leave gold to be treated like" other metals not coined
as money." — Report of the Select Committee, 1830.

204

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

far the present course of issuing paper will proceed,
or how long paper money, in its present form and
abundance, will be tolerated. Whatever may hap
pen in respect to paper money, the precious metals
should always be coined, and a sound system of coins
should be in constant operation, to the end that
whether paper money shall be used or ""not, and
whether the amount of "our coins shall be great or
small, a portion of them may consist of gold, and
another portion of silver."*
It appears from the testimony of the select com
mittee, that the coins now in the United States, and
the bank notes now circulating as money, are esti
mated at about One hundred millions of dollars.
The coin is estimated at about twenty-three millions
of dollars ; of which sum, it is conceived, that about
fifteen millions of dollars are held by the banks, and

* Very recently, so late as in June, 1834, three several bills were
ftassed by the government of the United States, relative to the gold
and silver currency of the country. These several acts altering
and regulating the value of gold and silver coins, foreign and do
mestic, are as follows : they have too important a bearing not to
be here inserted.
An Act concerning the gold coins of the United Slates, and for
Other purposes. — Be it enacted by the senate and house of iepre-
Sentatives of the United States of America, in congress assembled,
That the gold coins of the United States shall contain the follow
ing quantities of metal, that is to say: each eagle shall contain
two hundred and thirty-two grains of pure gold, and two hundred
end fifty-eight grains of standard gold ; each half eagle one hun
dred and sixteen grains of pure gold, and one hundred and twenty-
bine grains of standard gold ; each quarter eagle shall contain
fifty-eight grains of pure gold, and sixty-four and a half grains of
standard gold. Every such eagle shall be of the value of ten dol
lars ; every such half eagle shall be of the value of five dollars ;
and every such quarter eagle shall be of the value of two dollars
and fifty cents. And the said gold coins shall be receivable in all
payments, when of full weight, according to their respective values ;
and when of less than full weight, at less values, proportioned to
their respective actual weights.
Sec. 2. And be it further enacted. That all standard gold or sil
ver deposited for coinage after the thirtieth day of June next, shall
be paid for in coin under the secretary of the treasury, within five
days from the making of such depdsiterdeducting from the amount
of said deposite of gold and silver one half of one per centum.
Provided, That no deduction shall be made unless said advance
be required by such depositor within forty days.
Seo. 3. And be it further enacted, That all gold coins of the
United States minted anterior to the thirty-first day of July next,
shall be receivable in all payments at the rate of ninety-four and
, eight tenths of a cent per pennyweight.
Sec 4. And be it further enacted, That the better to secure a
conformity of the said gold coins to their respective standards as
aforesaid, from every separate mass of standard gold which shall
be made into coins at the said mint, there shall be taken, set apart
by the treasurer, and reserved in his custody, a certain number of
pieces, not less than three, and that once in every year the pieces
so set apart and reserved shall be assayed under the inspection of
the officers, and at the time, and in the manner now provided by
law ; and if it shall be found that the gold so assayed shall not be
inferior to the said standard hereinbefore declared, more lhan one
part in three hundred and eighty-four in fineness, and one part in
five hundred in weight, the officer or officers of the said mint whom
it may concern, shall be held excusable ; but if any greater inferi
ority shall appear, it shall be certified to the president of the United
States, and if he shall so decide, the said officer or officers shall be

about eight millions of dollars are in circulation
among the people. The bank notes in circulation
are estimated at about seventy-seven millions of dol
lars. The amount of money in circulation among
the .people is, accordingly, about eighty-five millions
of dollars, consisting of about seventy-seven millions
of bank notes, and about eight millions of coin. The
banks in the principal sea-ports have at this tima an
unusual quantity of coin ; and the amount of coin
now held by those banks is much greater than the
sum which they have generally held. Of the sum
of seventy-seven millions of dollars of bank notes in
circulation, it is estimated that about one half consists
of notes for sums exceeding five dollars, about one
fourth of notes for five dollars, and about one- fourth
of notes for sums less than five dollars. The notes
for sums less than five dollars are chiefly for one dol-

thereafter disqualified to hold their respective offices : Provided,
That, in making any delivery of coin at the mint in payment of a
deposite, the weight whereof shall be found defective, the officer
concerned shall be responsible to the owner for the full weight, if
claimed at th« time of delivery.
Sec. 5. An be it further enacted, That this act shall'be in force
from and after the thirty-first day of July, in the year of one thou
sand eight hundred and thirty-four.
An Act relating to the value of certain foreign gold coins within
the United States. — Be it enacted by the senate and house of repre
sentatives of the United States of America, in congress assembled,
That from and after the thirty-first day of July next, the following
gold coins shall pass current as money within the United States,
and be receivable in all payments by weight, for the payment of
all debts and demands, at the rates following, that is to. say: the
gold coins of Great Britain, Portugal, and Brazil, of not less than
twenty-two carats fine, at the rate of ninety-four cents and eight
tenths of a cent per pennyweight; the gold coins of France, nine
tenths fine, at the rate of ninety-three cents and one tenth of a
cent per pennyweight ; and the gold coins of Spain, Mexico, and
Colombia, ofthe fineness -of twenty carats, three grains and seven
sixteenths of a grain, at the rate of eighty-nine cents and nine tenths
of a cent per pennyweight.
Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, That it shall be the duty ol
the secretary of the treasury to cause assays of the aforesaid gold
coins, made current by this act, to be had at the mint of the Uni
ted States, at least once in every year, and to make a report of the
result thereof to congress.
An Act regulating the value of certain foreign silver coins within
the United Slates. — Be it enacted by the senate and house of repre
sentatives of the United Slates of America, in congress assembled,
That from and after the passage, of this act, the following silver
coins shall be of the legal value, and shall pass current as money
within the United States, by tale, for the payment of all debts and
demands, at the rate of one hundred cents- the dollar ; that is to
say : the dollars of Mexico, Peru, Chili, and Central America, of
not less weight than four hundred and fifteen grains each ; and
those restamped at Brazil, of the like weight, of not less fineness
than, ten ounces fifteen pennyweights pure silver in the Troy pound
of twelve ounces of standard silver; and the five franc pieces oi
France, when of not less fineness than ten ounces and sixteen pen
nyweights in twelve ounces Troy weight of standard silver, and
weighing not less than three hundred and eighty-four grains each
at the rate of ninety-three cents each.
Sec 2. And be it further enaeted, That it shall be the duty o.
the secretary of the treasury to cause assays ofthe aforesaid" silver
coins made current by this act, lo be had at the mint of the United
States, at least once in every year, and to make report of the re
sult thereof to congress.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

205

lar, two dollars, and three dollars ; and a great por
tion of them consists of notes for one dollar.
The power to establish banks is claimed and ex
ercised by the government of the United States, and
also by each of the states. There are now in the
United States about five hundred incorporated banks,
and the number is annually increased. The public
revenue of the United States, and of every one of the
states, is collected and disbursed almost wholly in
bank notes. The coin held by the banks, and in
circulation among the people, is silver. All the coin
in common circulation, and most of that held by the
banks, is half dollars and the minor silver pieces.
It will have been perceived, that the subject of
coinage is eventually interwoven with that of the use
of bank notes. Before we leave this subject, there
fore, we shall notice the bank of the United States—
an institution, the existence of which, on constitution
al grounds, forms the subject of considerable discus
sion in the republic at. this time.* The old bank of
the United States was incorporated by an act of
congress, approved in February, 1791. By the limit
ation of the charter, it Was to expire on the 4th of
March, 1811. This, like the, banks of England and
France was a bank of' deposit, discount, and circu
lation, with a capital of 10,000,000 dollars. Those
European writers, both British and French, who have
eulogized this institution as being purely commercial,
and distinguished from those of England and France
by not being connected with, the government, or an en
gine of finance, cannot have read the charter, the pre
amble to which begins thus : " Whereas the establish
ment of a bank will be very conducive to the conduct
ing of the' national finances, will tend to give facility
to the obtaining of loans for the use of the govern
ment in sudden emergencies, and will be productive
of considerable advantages to trade and industry in
general," &c. Instead of being a merely commercial
establishment, therefore; it was, essentially and "main
ly, of a financial and political, character, and it was
on this ground that its constitutional character was
defended ; the right of congress to grant such a char
ter being 'claimed mostly upon the, strength of that
Clause of the constitution, which gives to congress
the authority necessary for carrying into execution
the powers enumerated,, and expressly vested in that
body. The origin of this establishment was, there
fore, similar to that of the bank of England, and the
resemblance is riot limited to the general purposes of
*. For this statement respecting the United States'bank., We with
.pleasure.ie.knowledge our obligations to that ably conducted work,
the Encyclopaedia Americana. Although we have, read much in
various American publications upon the subject the ' statements" of
Vol. IL— Nos. 53 & 54 2C

its institution ; for, as the bank of England originated
in a loan to the British government, so the act by
which the old bank of the United States was charter
ed, provided that the sums subscribed by individuals
and corporations should be " payable, one fourth in
gold and silver, and three fourths in the public debt'
certificates. The president of the United States was
authorized to subscribe for two millions of the stock
in behalf of the United States. The directors, being
twenty-five, were chosen by the stockholders, without
any interference on the part of the government in
the election ; but the government reserved the right
of inspecting the affairs of the bank, and, for this
purpose, the secretary of the treasury was authorized
to demand of the president and directors a statement
of its concerns as often as he might see fit. The
corporation was authorized to establish branches in
any part of the United States. - The only restriction,
as to circulation, was, that the amount of debts due
from the corporation by bond, bill, note,- or otherwise,
besides the debts due for deposits, should never ex
ceed 10,000,000 dollars ; and, in case of excess, the
directors, by whose agency such debt should be in*
curred, Were made personally answerable. This bank
went into operation, and had a most powerful agency
in establishing the credit of the government, facilita
ting its financial operations, and promoting the inte
rests of industry and commerce. Congress having
refused to renew -the charter, it expired by its own
limitation, in 1811.
During the war, however, the want of a national
bank was severely felt, not only as an agent for col
lecting the revenues, but more especially for trans
mitting funds from one part ofthe country to another;
and then it might have been a useful auxiliary to
public credit, by supplying temporary loans in cases
of emergency. So thoroughly convinced were the
public of the necessity of such an institution, that
the members of the same political party by which
the constitutional objections had been made to the
old bank, and which had refused to renew its charter-
passed an act of congress, which was approved by
the president April 10, 1816, chartering the present
bank ofthe United States, with a capital of 35,000,000
dollars, upon principles, and with provisions, very
similar to those contained in the former charter. For
this charter the government demanded and received
a bonus of 1,500,000 dollars from the, stockholders.
The government became a stockholder in the same

the editors appeared to us so correct, and their view's so just, that
we found it unnecessary to do more than to add the state of the
bank at a period some^what later than that work contains. >

206

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

proportion as in the former bank, taking one fifth, or
7,000,000 dollars of the stock. The direction of the
institution was left to the stockholders, as in the old
bank, except that the government- reserved the right
of appointment and removal at pleasure, by the pre
sident, of five directors out of the twenty-five, the
other twenty being elected by the stockholders- The
government also reserved the right to demand a state
ment of the concerns of the institution by committees
of either branch of the legislature. One quarter of
the subscriptions to the stock were payable either in
gold and silver, or United States stock,, at the option
of subscribers. The seven millions to be subscribed
by the government was payable either in gold and
silver or public stock, at an interest of five per cent.,
at the option of the government. The. transactions
of the corporation were limited to making loans and
trading in the precious metals, arid the sale of such
goods or proceeds of such lands as should be pledged.
Branches may be established in any parts of the
United States or their territories. No other similar
corporations are to be chartered by the government,
except banks in the district of Columbia, with a
capital, in the whole, not exceeding 6,000,000 dollars,
during the period for which the charter was granted,
namely, to the 3d of March, 1836. The bank is pro
hibited from purchasing any part of the public debt,
taking interest above six per cent., or lending to the
government more than 500,000 dollars, or to any
state more than 50,000 : and the debts of the insti
tution are in no case to exceed the amount of depo
sits by more than 35,000,000 dollars. In case of re
fusing payment of its notes or deposits in specie, the
bank is make liable to pay interest at the rate of
twelve per cent, per annum. The bank is also
obliged, by its charter, to give the government the'
necessary facilities for transferring the public funds
from place to place within the United States, without
charging commissions, or claiming any allowance on
account of the difference of exchange, and to trans
act all the business of commissioners of loans when
ever required sb to do. The bank is prohibited from
issuing bills under the denomination of five dollars.
It is an object proposed by the charter, as appears
from some of the provisions already noticed, to make
the institution independent of the fortunes, and place
it beyond the exigencies, of the government, by limit
ing the amount of loans that may be made to the
government, and prohibiting the purchase of the

* The present secretary of the treasury, Mr. M'Lane, in his Fi
nance Report for 1831, judiciously observes, — " The indispensable
necessity of such an institution for the fiscal operations of the go
vernment, in all its departments, for the regulation and preserva
tion of a sound currency, for the aid of commercial transactions

public debt. It is not in tne power of congress to
exonerate the bank from the liability tq pay, in specie,
its deposits made, or notes . put into circulation, pre
viously to the passing of any act for that purpose ;
so that the depositors and holders of its .notes are
entirely secure from any interposition of the govern
ment between themselves and the bank, in violation
of the contract held by them. The institution is
thus essentially commercial in its character, being
directly auxiliary to the government, and subject to
its control, only as a financial engine.- It has had
an important influence upon the industry and com
merce of the country and the credit of the govern
ment, and has been of iirimense utility in the man
agement of its finances. But its greatest and most
beneficial influence has been felt in the restoration of
the currency to a sound state ; for, at the time of its
going into operation, many of the, state banks had
an immense amount of unredeemable paper in cir
culation, purporting, it is true, to be payable to the
bearer in specie, on presentment for that purpose, but
which was not, in fact, so paid. Immediately on the
bank of the United States going into operation, with
its various branches in the principal commercial ci
ties, it became necessary for all the other banks with
in the circle of its influence to resume specie pay
ments, or discontinue their operations. Those which
had not resources to resume specie payments neces
sarily stopped ; and the consequence ofthe influence
of this institution is a complete restoration ofthe cur
rency to specie, or its equivalent. In fine, whether
we consider the extent of the capital of the institu
tion, that of its operation, or'its commercial and finan
cial utility and influence, it may justly be considered
the second institution of the kind in the world, rank
ing, in all these respects, next after that of England.
The stock was made the subject of speculation soon
after its establishment, and rose, at one time, to the
enormous advance of fifty-six per. cent, upon the ori
ginal subscription ; but the great losses incurred by
some of the branches, especially those of the new
states, and other causes, subsequently reduced- it to
ten per cent, discount on its original value. It has
since risen to a more steady market-value of from
twenty to twenty-five per cent, advance. The amount
Of the circulation for 1828 was between 12,000,000
and 13,000,000 dollars. The deposits for the same
year averaged from 13,000,000 to 14,000,000t The
dividends have varied from five to six per cent.* Be-

generally, and even for the safety and utility of the local banks, is
not doubted, and, as is believed, has been shown in the past expe
rience of the government, and in the general accommodation and
operations of ,the present bank. The present institution may, in
deed, be considered as peculiarly the offspring of that necessity,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

207

6ides the principal bank, there were in January, 1830,
twenty-two offices of discount ; namely, at ^Portland,
Portsmouth; Boston, Providence, Hartford, New York,
Buffalo, Pittsburgh, Baltimore, Washington, Rich
mond, Norfolk, Fayetteville, Charleston, Savannah,
Mobile, New Orleans, Nashville, Lexington, Louis
ville, Cincinnati, and St. Louis. The state of the
bank, April 1, 1830, was as follows :-- Dollars. Cents.
Notes discounted ...... 32,138,270 89
Domestic bills discounted . . . 10,506,882 54
Funded debt held by the bank . . 11,122,530 90
Real estate  '2,891,890 75
Funds in Europe, equal to specie . 2,789,498 54
Specie , . . . ... . . . 9,043,748 97
Public deposits . . . . . . . 8,905,501 87
Private deposits  7,704,256 87
. Circulation  16,083,894 00
The expenditure of the United States is divided
into four -departments : the civil list, which includes
the salaries paid to all the political, judicial, and di
plomatic functionaries of the general government,
both at home and abroad, as -well as a large amount
for miscellaneous items ; the military establishment,
including Indian affairs and internal improvements ;
the naval establishment ; and the public debt. The
last of them is an item which will probably not ap
pear in any finance report after the present, or, at any
rate, the following year. At the close of this chap
ter we have given a detailed statement of the expen-
4iture of the United States for the year 1829, extract
ed, from the appendix ofthe. Finance Report for that
year. It speaks volumes in favour of the govern
ment from which it issues. Here are no attempts at
concealment — no appropriations obtained for one ob
ject and devoted to another— but a simplicity of state
ment worthy of the utility of the objects to which
the revenue is devoted; indeed, the statement is so
springing from the inconveniences which followed the first loss of
-tne bank of the United States, and the evils and distresses incident
to the excessive, and, in some instances, fraudulent issues of the
local banks during- the war.- The propriety of continuing it is to
be considered hot more in reference to the expediency of banking
generally, than in regard to the actual state of things, and to the
multiplicity of state banks already in existence, and which can
neither be displaced, nor in other manner controlled, in their
issues of paper, by the general government. This is an- evil not
lo be submitted to ; and the remedy at present applied, while it
preserves a sound currency for the country at large, promotes the
real interests of the local banks, by giving soundness to their paper.
If the necessityof a banking institution be conceded or shown, that
which shall judiciously combine the power of the government with
private enterprise, is believed to be most efficacious. The go
vernment would thus obtain the benefit of individual sagacity in
the general management of the bank ; and, by means of its de
posits and share in the direction, possess the necessary power for
the prevention of abuse.
" It is not intended to assert that the bank of the United States,
as at present organized, is perfect, or, that the essential objects of
such an institution might not be attained by means of an entirely

clear and satisfactory, that any American who can
read can not fail to apprehend the manner in which
its funds are appropriated.
Having put our readers in possession of this docu
ment, it will be only necessary for us to make some
general observations on the principal items in each
department of the expenditure. The whole amount
of the civil list for the year 1829, including miscel
laneous and foreign intercourse, was 3,101,514 dol
lars ; of this sum 1 ,327,069 only belong properly to
the civil list, the remainder belonging to the miscel
laneous (1,566,679) and to the diplomatic depart
ments (207,765 ;) and even then the civil list is
charged with disbursements which are not connected
with it in other countries, the legislature receiving
467,447, the judiciary 239,447, and the governments
of the territories 55,344, besides' several other items;
leaving for the whole executive department only
530,172 dollars, or little more than 100,000Z. sterling.
The first item in the disbursements is the salary of
the president, 25,000 dollars, about 5,000Z. sterling.
The vice-president has only one fifth of that sum ;
the secretaries of state, of the treasury, of war, of
the navy, and the postmaster-general, receive 6,000
dollars annually ; the attorney-general 3,500 ; the
chief clerks to each of the secretaries 2,000. In
the treasury department the comptroller receives
3,500 ; and the second comptroller 3,000 ; five au
ditors, the treasurer, and registrar, 3,000 each ; the
solicitor to the treasury 3,500 ; and the commissioner
of the land office 3,000. In the judiciary, the chief-
justice of. the supreme court of the- United States
receives 5,000 annually ; and six associate justices
4,500. In the foreign intercourse, nearly. half the
amount of the disbursement is for expenses of treaties
and other contingencies. The plenipotentiaries at
foreign courts receive only 9,000 dollars per annum,
new one, organized upon proper principles, and with salutary limit
ations. It must be admitted, however, that the good management
of the present bank, the accommodation it has given ,the govern
ment, and the practical benefits it has rendered the community —
whether it may or may not have accomplished all that was expect
ed from it — and the advantages of its present- condition, are cir
cumstances in its favour entitled to great weight, and give it strong
claims upon the consideration of congress in any future legislation
upon the subject. To these may be added, the knowledge, the pre
sent bank has acquired of the business and wants of the various
portions of this extensive country, which, being the result of time
and experience, is an advantage it must necessarily possess over
any new institution. It is to be observed, however, that the fa
cilities of capital actually afforded by the present institution to the
agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing industry of all parts
of the union, could not be withdrawn, even by transferring them to
another institution, without a severe shock to each of those inte
rests, and to the relations of society generally. To similar consi
derations, it may be presumed, is to be traced the uniform policy
of the several states of the union, to rechartering their local insti
tutions, with such modifications as experience may have, dictated,
in preference to creating new ones." — Pp. 14 — 16.

208

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

besides 9,000 for an outfit ; a charge d'affaires re
ceives a salary of 4,500 ; and a secretary of legation
2,000. There are employed six plenipotentiaries,
with a secretary of legation attached to them, and
ten charge d'affaires. We apprehend that our readers
on both sides of the Atlantic will- concur in the ob
servations of Mr. M'Lane on the amount of remune
ration received by the ministers to foreign courts ;
and many will probably be inclined to extend the
principle to other officers of the republic. " The
salaries of the public ministers abroad," observes Mr.
M. " must be acknowledged to be utterly inadequate,
either to the dignity of the office, or the necessary
comforts of their families. At some foreign courts,
and those whose relations towards the United States
are the most important, the expenses incident to the
station are found so burdensome as only to be met
by the private resources of the minister. The ten
dency of this is to throw those high trusts altogether
into the hands of the rich, which is certainly not
according to the genius of our system- Such a pro
vision for public ministers as would obviate those
evils, and enable the minister to perform the common
duties of hospitality to his countrymen, and promote
social intercourse between the citizens of both na
tions, would not only elevate the character of his
country,- but essentially improve its public rela
tions."* Among the miscellaneous items are- the mint es
tablishment, 85,931 dollars ; the lighthouse establish
ment, 289,149; surveys of public lands, 51,289;
marine and navy hospitals, 188,562 ; public buildings
at Washington, 74,114 ; shares in several canal com
panies, 468,500 ; and revolutionary claims, 288,446.
It is impossible to close this brief account of the
civil list of the United States without expressing a
sincere admiration of the purposes to which its funds
are devoted. Not only is the catalogue of its ex
penditure free from those corruptions which either
are too gross to be clearly expressed, or if stated fill
the mind with a just indignation ; , but it is to us
surprising how large a portion of the funds are
made directly to bear oh the welfare of the people
themselves, either in the shape of internal improve
ment, (which, while it promotes commercial advan
tage, by facilitating the communications between the
sea-ports and the states of the interior, confers scarce
ly a less benefit in the well remunerated occupation
it affords to the labourer,) or of hospitals, or light-'
houses, or other similar objects ; while the amount
paid in salaries to a few individuals cannot possibly
? Finance Report for 1831, p. 18.

be deemed either burdensome to the nation, or cor
rupting to the possessors of office.
The amount under the head Military . Establish-.
ment (6,267,626 dollars,) is nearly half the gross sum
expended by the government, exclusive of that de
voted to the liquidation of the public debt; but a
very large proportion of it is applied to purposes,
either not at all, or very indirectly, connected with
military affairs. The amount for pay, subsistence,
clothing, medicines, recruiting, and contingencies, is
little more than two millions of dollars. This amount
is found sufficient to keep on foot an army of 6,000
men, to which the peace establishment was reduced
(from 10,000) in 1821. The force consists of the
general staff, 119 ; comprising, medical department,
pay and purchasing departments, a corps of military
and a corps of topographical engineers : four regi
ments of artillery, consisting of 545 officers and, men,
the supernumeraries amounting to 2,240 ; and seven
regiments of infantry, consisting of 547 officers and
privates, amounting to 3,829 ; total organized force,
6,188.* Iii the armouries, arsenals, and ordnance,
armament of fortifications, and arming and equipping
the militia, there were disbursed, in 1830, nearly^one
million of dollars ; and in the construction of forti
fications, and in the erection of barracks, were ex
pended about 800,000 dollars. The military academy
at West Point, an interesting and important institu
tion, an account of which will appear in a subsequent
section of the work, requires nearly 28,000 dollars
annually : and this closes the list of expenses strictly
military, making the whole, 3,800,000 dollars. The
remaining two and a half millions are expended in
the erection of breakwaters,' and other improvements
of harbours ; in deepening and improving the navi
gation of the Mississippi, Ohio, and about thirty other
rivers or harbours ; and in the construction or repair
of the Cumberland, and twelve other lines of road.
The pensions for soldiers who devoted their lives and
fortunes to the great cause of the revolution, amount
to 764,492 dollars ; it must therefore be' admitted,
even by the most bitter opponents of republicanism,
that it has improved since the days of the splendid
barbarians of Sparta and of Athens, whose ingrati
tude to their most devoted patriots has ever been a
reproach, which the conduct of the modern Greeks
has tended to confirm rather than to remove. With
the exception of a few miscellaneous items of little
importance, the remainder is disbursed in the depart
ment of Indian affairs ; the annuity to Indians, in
the fulfilment of treaties for the payment of lands,

t American National Calendar for 1830.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

209

the title of which has been conveyed by the several
tribes to the United States,, amounting, for the year
1829, to 245,108 dollars, and various other payments,
among which we find one, and one only, for " schools"
for an Indian tribe, making the sum total half a mil
lion of dollars. Before taking leave of the details
of the expenditure in the military department, it may
hot be improper to suggest to those who may feel
desirous to ascertain the present defensive power of
the United States, in comparison with that of 1814,
that it will amply repay their attention, if they, will
note on a map the points in fortifying which the gov
ernment' are annually expending a large sum. We
are the more induced to make this observation, from
a conviction that a compliance with it will tend to
promote the growth of that just respect which is the
true basis of political friendship between nations, and
which some of the leading literary publications of
the day have so pertinaciously laboured to prevent or,
to destroy. The navy has always been a favourite object in
the United States, as in Great Britain ; and, from the
flourishing state of the revenue^ it will probably re
ceive increased support. The amount disbursed an
nually in the navy establishment is about three and a
quarter millions of dollars, of which a considerable
portion is devoted to its gradual improvement, by the
accumulation of stores, the erection of dry docks,
and the building of additional vessels. In 1830, the
United States navy consisted of seven sail of the line,
all of Which were laid up in ordinary ; seven frigates
of the first class, of which three were in ordinary,
and four in commission ; three frigates of the second
class, of which one was a- receiving ship, one in ac
tual service, and one in ordinary ; fifteen sloops, of
which two were in ordinary, and the' remainder on
different foreign stations ; seven schooners, of which
three were in employ as receiving ships, one in ordi
nary, and two in commission. There were also five
ships of the line and seven frigates in such a state
of forwardness, that they could be ready for sea in
from three to six months. There are seven navy
yards maintained by the government in different
states of the Union, for an account of which we
must refer to the topography of the states in which
they are located. Although we are compelled, by
the -limits of our undertaking, to condense our inform
ation as much as possible, there are some passages
in the report of the secretary of the navy, recently
presented to congress, indicative of the progress of
this department, too interesting to be omitted. " The
construction of the two dry docks," says the secretary,
Mr. Woodbury, "has advanced with great rapidity

during the past year. Both are now mostly comple
ted, except the removal of the coffer dams, and the
finishing of some of the gates and steam maphinery.
They present to the eye specimens of stone masonry
seldom rivalled in beauty and solidity. The expen
ditures on each have been about 500,000 dollars ;
and by the 4th of next July, it is hoped, that some of
the public vessels requiring repairs may be safely
docked in these useful, economical, and splendid con
veniences for our naval establishment. The build
ings for accommodation to the officers of yards report
ed in the surveys and plans of a. d. i828, are in
progress where most needed, and, in connexion with
the storehouses, sheds, wharfs, walls, and shipways,
require, annually, such appropriations as can be ex
pended without a neglect of more urgentduties. — -An
increased estimate, to advance all these improve
ments, is presented for the ensuing year. Among
other contemplated improvements in those plans, were
rope walks at some of our present yards. All obser
vation and experience in the navy show, that in
nothing does it suffer more at this time than from
bad cordage. The impositions in the quality of the
hemp, in the manufacture, and in the tar, are numer
ous, and difficult of detection, productive of injurious
delays when defected, and w,hen not detected, exceed
ingly hazardous to the safety of both crews and ves
sels. — The vessels in ordinary have been at most of
the yards, covered, so as to shelter them effectually
from sunshine and storms, and to render their security
from decay much greater than' heretofore. It is a
gratifying circumstance, that -most of those vessels,
as well as those upon the stocks, are in a condition
highly creditable to the persons who planned and ex
ecuted the present mode of preserving them ; and
that, by proper care in future, until put in commis
sion, no probability whatever exists of much further
decay in the important portions of their expensive
works, or of any decay in those portions composed
of the invaluable material of live oak. The whole
purchases of timber and stores, under the act for the
gradual increase of the navy, and which remain in
deposit at the yards, are over a million and a half in
value. Tne amount of purchases, under the act
for the gradual improvement of the navy, in deposit, is
nearly half a million. The amount of property on
hand for repairs is almost a million. The ordnance,
provisions, <fcc. amount to upwards of a million and
a half more." — It is most sincerely to be wished, that
the vigorous attention which the government of the
United States devote to the subject of their naval
power, may not only tend to secure and perpetuate
their peaceful relations with foreign powers, but to

E10

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

moderate the notions of a few overheated individuals,
who- would apparently rather make an effort to dis
solve their connexion with the Union, than acquiesce
in an arrangement which, while certainly beneficial
to a very large portion of the republic, is very slight
ly, if at all, injurious to themselves. ,
If satisfaction has been felt in the management of
the funds of the several departments already noticed,
who can withhold the meed of praise and congratu
lation when the state of the public debt of the repub
lic is developed 1 The Table No. IV., at the close
of this chapter, exhibits operations of finance such as,
we believe it may be safely asserted, no nation has
ever before achieved. On some points, indeed, it
has been a subject of dispute, whether the example
of America has been beneficial or injurious ; but
surely all must concur in the opinion, that in being
the first nation to annihilate her national debt, not
by any " equitable adjustment," nor by following the
example of the " beloved!' Ferdinand, but by the le
gitimate mode of direct payment, the nation is pla
cing a laurel on her brow that will wear its green
ness when the trophies of mere military prowess are
faded and turned to dust. In 1817, owing to the
war with Great Britain, the public debt of the United
States amounted to nearly one hundred and sixteen
millions of dollars, or about twenty-five millions ster
ling. In comparison with our own debt, indeed, this
may appear trifling ; but when the circumstances and
resources of the - two countries are considered, the
Americans may well be excused for deeming it large
and oppressive. During twelve years it was reduced
to fifty-eight millions of dollars, which was the
amount when General Jackson ascended the presi
dential chair. Fortunate in his military career, the
general seems not to be forsaken in his political
course ; but appears likely to render his administra
tion celebrated, by accomplishing the entire liquida
tion of the public debt before the expiration of his
presidency. During the first three years of his ad^
ministration, the amount has been reduced from
58,362,138 to 24,322,235 dollars. The whole of this
amount, the secretary, in accordance with " the views
of the president," proposes to liquidate before the 3d
of March, 1833. " The occasion," observes Mr.
M'Lane, (( is deemed a propitious one to bring before
the legislature the subject of the debt, with a view
to its redemption, at a period not only earlier than
has been heretofore anticipated, but before the termi
nation of the present congress. Dolls. Cts.
" The entire public debt on the 2d of January next,
as has been already shown, will amount to . . 24,322,235 18

The amount ofthe receipts into the treasury during
the year 1832, after satisfying all the demands
of the year, other than on account of the public
debt, are estimated, as above, at 
To this may be added the balance in the treasury
on the 1st of January, 1832, (exclusive of the
ineffective funds and the Danish indemnity,) at

From this aggregate of , 
After deducting the amount of the unsatisfied ap
propriations already estimated at . . . . .

Dolls. Ct*
16,734,797 84
1,208,276 24
17,943,074 03
3,423,525 87

There will remain a surplus in the year 1832, of 14,519,548 21
Which, unless congress should enlarge the appro
priations for other objects, may be applied to "
the public debt.
The interest on the debt during the year 1832,
may be -estimated at  500,000 00
Leaving for the principal in thatyear ....
Which, being applied to that object, will leave
the total amount of the public debt at the close
of the year 1832, at 
The government, • however, has other means,
which, if congress see proper, may be applied
towards the payment of the debt, viz. the shares
in the bank of the United States, amounting at
par to 7,000,000 dollars ; but which, as will be
presently explained, may be estimated at not
less than ............. 8,000,000 00
In that event, the amount of the debt on the 1st
of January, 1833, would be but . . . ... 2,302,686 97
Which sum, together with a fair allowance for
the cost of purchasing, at the market price, the
stocks not redeemable in the course of the pro
posed operation, might be supplied in the months
of January and February, 1833, by the applica
tion from the,revenues of that year of a sum
equal to two twelfths of the amount applied
from the ordinary revenues to the debt of the
year 1832, say  . 2,503,258 02
" It may be further observed, that should any di
minution take place in the estimated revenue, or
should the expenditure exceed the estimated amount,
the deficiency which either event might produce in
the means of the treasury applicable to the debt,
would be supplied by the amount reserved in this es*
timate for the unsatisfied balances of appropriations ;
for, although that sum constitutes a legal charge on
the treasury, to be met as occasion requires, yet, in
any estimate of present means, it may be considered
rather as a nominal than a real charge. It will be
thus perceived, that the government has the means,
if properly employed, of reimbursing the whole of the
public debt, by purchase, or otherwise, on or before
the 3d of March, 1833. The moral influence which
such an example would necessarily produce through
out the world, in removing apprehension, and inspi
ring new. confidence in our free institutions, can not
be questioned. Seventeen years ago, our country
emerged from an expensive war encumbered with a

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

211

debt of more than one hundred and twenty -seven
millions, and in a comparatively defenceless state.
In this short period it has promptly repealed all the
direct and internal taxes which were imposed during
the war, relying mainly, upon revenue derived from
imports and sales of the public domain. From these
sources, besides providing for the general expendi
ture, the frontier has been extensively fortified, the
naval and maritime resources strengthened, and part
of the debt of gratitude to the survivors of the revo
lutionary war discharged. We have, moreover, con
tributed a large share to the general improvement ;
added to the extent of the union, by the purchase of
the valuable territory of Florida ; and, ' finally, ac
quired the means of extinguishing the heavy debt in
curred in sustaining the late war, and all that re
mains of the debt of the revolution."*
We most cordially Congratulate the government
and the people of the United States on the happy
prospect of being free from the incubus which weighs
down the energies of other nations ; and most sin
cerely hope that the novel and extraordinary diffi
culty which has eome upon theni, of having to dis
pose of, or to reduce, a revenue nearly twice the
amount of the expenditure, may not be attended With
any of the injurious consequences arising from party
violence and internal dissensions, that present cir
cumstances appear to indicate. As the subject con
nects itself directly with a question of the utmost im
portance to the interests of "commerce and of manu
factures on both sides of the Atlantic, it will be desi
rable for our readers to be put in possession of the
views of the present administration, although it is by
no means certain that they may ultimately prove to
be in accordance with those of the legislature.
" Whatever room there may be," says the secretary
of the treasury, " for diversity of opinion with re
spect to the expediency of distributing among the
several states any surplus revenue that may casually
accrue, it is not doubted that any scheme for encou
raging a surplus for distribution, or for any purpose
which should make it necessary,- will be generally
discountenanced. There is too much reason to ap
prehend that a regular, uniform dependence of the
state governments upon the revenue of the general
government, or an uniform expectation from the
same source, would create too great an incentive to
high and unequal duties, and not merely disturb the
harmony of the union, but ultimately undermine and
subVert, the purity and independence of the state
sovereignties. * Finance Report for 1831, pp. 9—11,

" To distribute the duties in such a manner, as far
as that may be practicable, as to encourage and pro
tect the labour of the people of the United States
from the advantages of superior skill and capital,
and the rival preferences of foreign countries, — to
cherish and preserve those manufactures which have
grown up under our own legislation, which contri
bute to the national wealth, and are essential to our
independence and safety, to the defence of the coun
try, the supply of its necessary wants, and to the ge
neral prosperity, — is considered to be an indispensa
ble duty. The vast amount of property employed
in the northern, western, and middle portion of the
union, upon the faith of our own system of laws,
and in which the interests of every branch of our in
dustry are involved, could not be immediately aban
doned without the most ruinous consequences. The
various opinions by which the people of the United
States are divided upon this subject, concern the
peace and the harmony of the country,, and recom
mend an adjustment on practical principles, rather
than with reference to any abstract doctrines of po
litical economy. The objects more particularly re
quiring the aid of the existing duties, upon the prin
ciples of this report, are believed to be wool, woollens,
cotton, iron, hemp, and sugar, as cofhprehending
those articles in which the agricultural and manu
facturing industry are more particularly interested.
Upon these articles, the average duty collected in
the years 1829 and 1830, amounted to 8,940,593
dollars. "" These duties could not be materially
changed at present, without the effect already depre
cated. No objection is perceived, however, to such
gradual reduction of them in future as may with
draw the aid thus afforded, as the growth and stabili
ty of our manufactures will enable them to dispense
with it, to such a degree at least, as will, with the
aid of an increase of population, and the means of
consumption, still leave a revenue adequate to the
expenditures ; or until what maybe withdrawn from
them may be levied on other articles which may be
found to admit of it. The additional sum, which,
together with the amount of those duties, it maybe
necessary for congress to provide, in a re-adjustment
of the tariff, will depend upon its decision as to con
fining the expenditures to the present objects, or ot
enlarging them, as herein suggested. In the former
case, the sum of 4,559,607 dollars, — and in the latter,
the sum of 6,059,607 dollars, will be required ; and,
in regard to either estimate, the provision should he
upon a scale sufficiently liberal to guard against the
chance of a deficiency. In providing for either sum,
the duties may be advantageously retained upon ar

FINANCES.— TABLE II.
EXPENDITURE OF THE UNITED STATES, FROM MARCH 4, 1789, TO DECEMBER 31, 1829.

via.

From March 4, 1789, to
December 31, 1791
¦—— 1792
— 1793
 1794
 1795
 1796'
— - 1797
 1798
 1799
 1800
 1801
 1802
-^— 1803
— — 1804
 1805
 1806'
.  1807
 1808
 1809'
 1810
— — 1811
¦  1812
.  1813
 1814
 1815
 . 1816
 1817
<  1818
 1819
 1820
'  1821
 1822
 1823
— r- 1824
— 1825
 1826
 1827
 1828
 1829
Total .....

Civil List.

Dollars. Cts.
787,134 45
380,917 58
358,241 08
440,946 58
361,633 36
447,139 05
483,233 70
504,605 17
692,905 76
748,688 45
549,238 31
596^81 11
526,583 12
624,795 63
585,849 79
684,230 53
655,524 65
691,167 80
712,465 13
703,994 03
644,467 27
826,271 55
780,545 45
927,424 23
852,247 16
1,208,125 77
991.556 17
1,109,559 79
1,142,180 41
1,248,310 05
1,112,292 64
1,158,131 58
1,058,911 65
1,336,266 24
1,330,747 24
1,256,745 48
1,228,141 04
1,455,490 58
1,323,966 86

32,400,706 44

Foreign
Intercourse.

Dollars. Cts
14,733,3378,766 67
89,500 00
146,403 51
912,685 12
184,859 64
669,788 54
457,428 74
271,374 11
395,288 18
295,676 73
550,925 93
1,110,834 77
1,186.655 57
2,798,028 77
1,-60,421 30
677,826 34
304,992 83
166,306 04
81,367 48
264,904 47
347,703 29
209,941 01
177,179 97
290,892 04
364,620 40
281,995 97
420,429 90
284,113 94
253,370 04
207,110 75
164,879 51
292,118 56
5,140,099 83
371,666 25
232,719 08
659,211 87
1,001,193 66
207,060 35

23,225,074 49

Miscellaneous.

Dollars. Cts.
311,533 83
194,572 32
24,709 46
118,248 30
92,718 50
150,476 14
103.8SO 82
149,004 15
175,111 81
193,636 59
269,803 41
315,022 36
205,217 87
379,558 23
384,720 19
445,485 18
464,546 52
427,124 98
337,032 62
. 315,783 47
457,919 66
509,113 37
738,949 15
1,103,425 50
1,755,731 27
1,416,996 00
2,242,384 62
2,305,849 82
1,640,917 06
1,090,341 85
903,718 15
644,985 15
671,063 78
678,942 74
1,046,131 40
1,110,713 23
826,123 67
1,219,368 40
1,570,656 66

26,991,617 23.

Public Debt

Dollars. Cts,
5,287,949 50
7,263,665 99
5,819,505 29
5,801,578 09
6,084,411 61
5,835,846 44
6,792,421 82
3,990,294 14
4,596,876 78
4,578,369 95
7,291,707 04
9,539,001 76
7,256,169 43
8,171,787 45
7,369,889 79
8,989,884 61
6,307,720 10
10,260,245 35
6,452,554 16
8,008,904 46
8,009,204 05
4,449,622 45
11,108,128 44
7,900,543 94
12,628,922 35
24,871,062 93
25,423,036 12
21,296,201 62
7,703,926 29
8,628,494 28
8,367,093 62
7,848,949 12
5,530,016 41
16,568,393 76
12,095,344 78
11,041,082 19
10,003,668 39
12,163,438 07
12,383,800 77

362,719,701 34

Naval
Establishment.

Dollars. Cts.
570 00
63 02
61,408 97
410,562 03
274,784 04
382,631 89
1,381,347 76
2,858.081 84
3,448,716 03
2,111,424 00
916,561 87
1,215,230 53
l,189j,832 75
1,597,500 00
1,649,641 44
1,722.064 47
1,884,067 80
2,427,758 80
1,654,244 20
1,965,566 39
3,959,365 16
6,446,600 10
7,311,290 60
8,660,000 25
3,908,278 30
3,314,598 49
2,953,695 00
3,847,640 42
4,387,990 00
3,319,243 06
2,224,458 98
2,503,765 83
2,904,581 56
3,049,083 86
4,218,902 45
4,263,877 45
3,918,786 44
3,312,931 87

101,656,137 64

Military Establishment.

Military serviies,
including Forti
fications, Arse
nals, Armories,
Ordnances, In
ternal Improve
ments, &c.

Dollars. Cts.
632,804 03
1,100,702 09
1,130,249 08
2,639,097 59
2,480,910 13
1,260,263 84
1,039,402 66
2,009,522 30
2,466,946 98
2,560,878 77
1,672,944 08
1,179,148 25
822,055 85
875,423 93
712,78128
1,224,355 38
1,288,685 91
2,900,834 40
3,345,772 17
2,294,323 94
2,032,828 19
11,817,798 24
19,652,013 02
20,350,806 86
14,794,294 22
16,012,096 80
8,004,236 53
5,622,715 10
6,506,300 37
2,630,392 31
4,-461,291 78
3,111,981 48
3,096,924 43
3,340,939 85
3,659,914 18
3,943,194 37
3,938,977 88
4,145,544 56
4,730,605 03

175,489,957 86

Revolutionary Pensions.

300,000 00
1,847,900 85
2,766,440 00
1,642,590 94
1,449,097 04
1.267,600 41
1,308,810 57
1,305,194 82
796,012 52
723,134 80
767,492 38

14,174,274 33

Other Pensions.

Dollars. Cts.
175,813 88
109,243 15
80,087 81
81,399 24
68.673 22
100,843 71
92,256 97
104,845 33
95,444 03
64,130 73
73,533 37
85,440 39
62,902 10
80,092 80
81,854 59
81,875 53
70,500 00
82,576 04
87,833 54
83,744 16
75,043 88
91,402 10
86,9S9 91
90,164 36
69,656 06
188,804 15
297,374 43
590,719 90
568,039 00
441,936 31
242,817 25
305,608 46
331,491 48
231,726 18
251,399 01
180,126 34
127,438 77
185,344

6,119,172 44

Indian
Department.

Dollars. Cts.
27,000 00
13,648 85
27,282 83
13,042 46
23,475 58
113,563 98
t>2,396 38
16,470 09
20,302 19
31 22
9,000 00
94,000 00
60,000 00
116,500 00
196,500 00
234,200 00
205,425 00
213,575 00
337,503 84
177,625 00
151,875 00
277,845 00
167,358 28
167,394 86
530,750 00
274,512 16
319,463 71
505,704 27
463,181 39
315,750 01
477,005 44
575,007 41
380,781 82
429,987 90
724,106 44
743,447 83
760,624 88
705,084 24
589,159 41

10,520,582 57

Balances in the
Treasury at tho
end of each year.

Dollars. Cts.
7,207,537 02
9,141,569 67
7,529,575 55
9,302,124 74
10,435,069 65
8,367,776 84
8,626,012 78
8,613,517 68l
11,077,043 50
11,989,739 92
12,273,376 94
13,276,084 67
11,258,983 67
12,624,646 36
13,727,124 41
15,070,093 97
11,292,292 99
16,764,584 20
13,867,226 30
13,319,986 74
13,601,808 91
22,279,121 15
39, W0, 520 36
38,028,230-3239,582,493 35
48,244,495 51
-40,877,646 A4
35,104,875 40
24,004,199 73
21,763,024 85
19,090,572 69
17,676,592 63
15,314,171 00
31,898,538 47
23,585,804 72
24,103.398 46
22,656,765 04
25,459,479 52
25,071,017 59

753,297,124 34

Dollars. Cts.
973,905 75
783,444 51
753,661 69
1,151,924 17
516,442 61
888,995 42
1,021,893 04
617,451 43
2,161,867 77
2,623,311 99
3,295,391 .00
5,020,697 64
4,825,811 60
4,037,005 26
3,999,388 99
4,538,123 80
9,643,850 07.
9,941,809 96
3,848,056 78
2,672,276 57
3,502,305 80
3,862,217 41
5,196,542 00
1,727,848 65
13,106,592 88
22,033,519 19
14,989,465 48
1,478,526 74
2,079,992 38
1,198,461 21
1,681,592 24
4,237,427 55
9,463,922 81
1,946,597 13
5,201,650 43
6,358,686 18
6,668,286 10
5,972,435 81
5,668,540 44

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

215

FINANCES.— TABLE III.
A STATEMENT OF THE EXPENDITURES OF THE UNITED STATES FOR THE YEAR 1829.

CIVIL, miscellaneous, and foreign
INTERCOURSE.
Legislature 
Executive deportments .......
Officers of the Mint 
Surveyors and their clerks 
Commissioner of the public buildings . .
Governments in the territories of the United
States 
Judiciary 
Annuities and grants 
Mint establishment  r 
Extending the Mint establishment . . . .
Unclaimed merchandise ........
Lighthouse establishment .......
Surveys of public lands 
Registers and receivers of land offices . . .
Preservation of the public archives in Florida
Land claims in Florida territory 
Ditto .... in Michigan territory ....
Ditto .... in St. Helena land district . .
Roads within the state of Ohio ,. . . . .
Roads and canals within the state of Indiana
Encouragement of learning within the state of
Illinois 
Repayment for lands erroneously sold by the
United States 
Marine Hospital establishment 
Appropriation for the Navy Hospital fund . .
Public buildings in Washington 
Penitentiary for the District of Columbia . .
Accommodation of the President's household
Consular receipts, underthe act of April 14, 1792
Bringing votes for President and Vice-President
Payment of balances to officers of old internal
revenue 
Payment of balances to collectors of new inter
nal revenue . 
Payment of claims for buildings destroyed '.
Florida claims 
Stock in the Louisville and Portland Canal
Company 
Stock in the Dismal Swamp Canal Company
Ditto . . . . Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Com
pany 
Stock in the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal
Company 
Building custom-houses and warehouses . .
Revolutionary claims, per act of May 15, 1828
Miscellaneous expenses ..;.....
Diplomatic department 
Contingent expenses of foreign intercourse .
Agency in relation to northeastern boundary .
Relief and protection of American seamen
Treaties with the Mediterranean powers . .
Claims on Spain 
Payment of claims under the ninth article of
the treaty with Spain 
Awards under the first article of the treaty of
Ghent 

military establishment.
Pay of the army, and subsistence of officers
Subsistence . '. . 
Quartermaster's department 
Forage 
Clothing or purchasing department . . .
Bounties and premiums 
Expenses of recruiting .......
Medical or hospital department ....
Purchase of woollens for 1829 and 1830 . .
Contingencies 
Military Academy, West Point 
Armories . 
Arsenals  !!!!.'
Arsenal at Augusta, Maine 
Ditto at Mount Vernon, Alabama . ¦

Dollars. Cts. Dollars. Cts.

467,447 59
530,172 14
9,600 00
23,057 44
2,000 00

55,344 99
239,447 20

1,800 00

34,265 00

51,666 67

716 69

289,149 07

51,289 08

1,125 00

1,077 v45

3,549 74

2,202 79

800 00

3,577 93

8,902 11

1,727 83

92 50

63,662 28

125,000 00

74,114 67

14,500 00

14,000 00

156 84

2,706 50

215 57

248 46

1,480 00

1,238 74

143,500 00

50,000 00

125,000 00

150,000 00

9,131 93

288,445 24

51,436 57

1,327,069 36

122,452 14
15,515 16
19,280 22
10,410 67
11,938 88
18,537 40
598 00
9,033 38

1,566,679

207,765 85
3,101,514 87

1,134,284 40
299,408 63
341,138 18
39,874 97
167,366 41
25,601 13-
13,987 84
23,362 14
20,000 00
7,987 39
27,925 11
361,384 44
107,125 18
18 40
23,200 00

MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT-'contoued.
Ordnance 
Armament of fortifications 
Arming and equipping of militia . . _ . .
Repairs and contingencies of fortifications
Fort Monroe 
 Calhoun 
 Delaware 
 Hamilton 
 Adams -. 
 Jackson 
 at Mobile Point  ,
 Macon  ,
 at Oak Island, North Carolina ....
Fortifications at Charleston, South Carolina
Ditto  at Savannah, Georgia . . ,
Ditto  at Pensacola, Florida ....
Repairs and preservation of Fort Lafayette .
Completion of battery at Bienvenue . . . .
Erection of a tower at Bayou Dupre, Lafayette
Construction of a wharf at Fort Constitution,
Portsmouth, New Hampshire 
Construction of a wharf at Fort M'Henry, Bal
timore, Maryland 
Construction of a wharf at Fort Wolcott . .
Barracks at Miehilimackinae, Michigan . .
Ditto . . at Fort Sullivan, Eastport, Maine .
Ditto  Trumbull, New London, Con
necticut 
Barracks at Fort Severn, Annapolis, Md. . .
Ditto  Winnebago, N. W. T. . .
Ditto  Crawford, Prairie du Chien.
N. W. T  '
Erection of a breakwater at the mouth of Dela
ware Bay . . . . ... . . . . .
Building piers, mouth of Oswego River, N. Y.
Ditto  ditto . . . Buffalo Creek, N. Y.
Ditto  New Castle, Delaware . . .
Ditto  at Allen's Rock, Warren River
Ditto  at La Plaisance Bay, Michigan
Ditto  <fcc: Merrimack River, Couri.
Ditto  &c. Stonington, Connecticut
Ditto  harbour of Dunkirk, New York
Extending piers, harbour of Edgartown, Mas
sachusetts 
Extending piers, harbour of Black Rock, N. Y.
Examining piers at Sandy Bay, Massachusetts'
Repairing piers at Port Penn and Marcus Hook,
Pennsylvania 
Repairing piers at Kennebunk River, in Maine
Preservation of islands in Boston Harbour .
Completion of sea-wall, George's Island, Bos
ton Harbour  .
Deepening the harbour of Sackett's Harbour,
New York 
Deepening the harbour of Mobile, Alabama .
Ditto ... the channel through the Pass au
Heron, near Mobile Bay 
Deepening the channel between St. John's and
St. Mary's Harbour 
Closing the breach made in the Peninsula at
Presque Isle Bay, Pennsylvania ....
Improving the navigation of the Ohio and Mis
sissippi rivers 
Improving the navigation of the Ohio River .
Ditto . . . ditto .... of Red River, Arkansas
Ditto . . . ditto . . .... of Mill River, Conn. .
Ditto . . . ditto .... of Genesee River, New
York 
Improving the navigation of Cape Fear River,
North Carolina 
Improving the navigation of Conneaut Creek,
Ohio 
Improving the navigation of the harbour of
Cleayeland, Ohio 
Improving the navigation of the harbour of Hy-
annis, Massachusetts . . , 
Removing obstructions, mouth of Grand River,
Ohio . . . 
Removing obstructions, Huron River, Ohio .

Dollars. Cts. Dollars. Cts.

95,551 88
136,767 61
219,664 37
7,496 30
101,500 00
100,000 00
12,000 00
100,000 00
97,277 06
16,000 00
100,000 00
67,975 00
66,534 12
31,672 00
4,300 00
90,000 DO
22,000 00
«,447 80
16,677 41
600 00
1,500 03
31 21
1,765 40
2,500 00
6,900 00
1,000 00
9,000 00
10,000 09
66,905 09
22,618 34
9,206 09
17,895 99
3,751 26
2,000 00
32,100 00
19,358 14
9,812 75
2,500 00
30,000 00
150 00
5,000 00
6,000 00
61,203 59
7,310 54
1,187 00
2,650 00
2,250 00
10,000 00
7,390 25
47,200 60
10,000 00
5,760 00
3,941 00
10,000 00
6,760 00
6,590 08
9,000 00
1,650 00
3,135 11
5,935 00

21S

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

FINANCES.— TABLE III.— continued.

military establishment— continued.
Removing obstructions, Ashtabula Creek, Ohio
Ditto .... ditto . . Cunningham Creek, Ohio
Ditto .... ditto . . .Berwick branch of Pis
cataqua River, N. H. 
Removing obstructions, BJack River, Ohio .
Ditto .... ditto . . Apalachicola River, Flor.
Ditto .... ditto . . Kennehunk River, Maine
Ditto .... ditto . . Ocracock Inlet, N, C.
Ditto .... ditto .... Nantucket Harbour,
Massachusetts 
Removing obstructions, Big Sodus Bay, New
York 
Survey of obstructions, Wabash River, Indiana
Ditto . . ditto . . the Cocheco branch of Pis
cataqua River, New Hampshire ....
Survey of obstructions, Penobscot River, &c,
Maine . 
Survey of obstructions, North. River, Massa
chusetts 
Survey of obstructions, the harbour of Bass
River, Massachusetts ; 
Survey of obstructions, the river Thames, Con
necticut 
Survey of obstructions, the harbour of West-
brook, Connecticut 
Survey of obstructions, the harbour of Nor-
walk, Connecticut .... .....
Survey of obstructions, the harbour of Stam
ford, Connecticut 
Survey of obstructions, the. harbour of Sag
Harbour, New York ........
Survey of obstructions, of Flat Beach, alias
Tucker's Island, New Jersey 
Survey of obstructions, Deep Creek, Virginia
Ditto . , . ditto .. . . Pasquotank River, N. C.
Ditto . . .ditto . . . the passes at the mouth
of the Mississippi ..........
Surveyor obstructions, the water tract between
Lake Punchartrain and Mobile Bay . .,.
Survey of obstructions, the harbour of St. Au
gustine, Florida  .
Surveys and estimates of roads and canals .
Completion of the Cumberland Road to Zanes
ville 
Preservation and repairs of the Cumberland
Road . ' 
Construction of the Cumberland Road in Ohio,
west of Zanesville . .- 
Continuation of the Cumberland Road in In
diana . . . . ¦ 
Road from Detroit lo Fort Gratiot ....
Ditto . . . ditto . . to Saganaw .....
Ditto . . . ditto . . to Chicago 
Ditto . . . Mattanawcook to Mars Hill, Maine
Ditto . . . Little Rock to Cantonment Gibson,
Arkansas . 
Road from Fort Smith to Fort.Tovvson, Ark.
Ditto . . . Colerain to Tampa Bay, Florida
Rnad between Pensacola, Blakely, and Mobile
Point, Florida j 
Repairing road between Pensacola and Talla-
hasse, in Florida 
Repairing road between St. Augustine andTal-
lahasse, Florida 
Payment of Georgia militia claims ......
Balances due to certain states on account of
militia 
Relief of officers and others engaged in the-
Seminole campaign ........ . .
Relief of a company of rangers under Captain
James Bigger 
Ransom of American captives in the late war
Relief of sundry individuals . . ' . . , . ;
Invalid and half-pay pensions ......
Pensions to widows and orphans . . . . .
Revolutionary pensions . I ...... .
Arrearages 
Civilization of Indians . . > 
Pay of Indian agents 
Ditto . . . . . sub-agents . . . . . . .

Dollars. Cts. ' Dollars. Cts.
6,000 00
2,956 00
3,170 00
5,500 00 v
1,500 00
1,720 32--
22,000 00
19,653 00
12,000 00
600 00
59 76
297 30
178 94
149 93
15000130 00
80 01)
100 00
150 00
100 00 -
80 00
• 80 00
500 00
175 00
300 00
30,044 01
42,624 82
100,000 00
50,212 82
14,600 00
8,150 00
8,188 90
8,250 00
29,224 89
258 26
860 10
2,810 36
3,000 00
3,000 00
3,000 00
712 40
2,216 85
356 09
54~S0
109 00
3,274 85
180,865 63
4,236 46
764,492 38
6.948 84
4,549"87
29,825 00
15,100 00

military establishment — continued.
Presents to Indians 
Contingencies of Indian department . .
Suppression of Indian aggressions on the fron
tiers of Georgia and Florida . . . . .
Choctaw schools . . ¦-. . -'. . . . .
To aid the emigration of the Creek Indians
Pay of Illinois and other militia ....
Expenses of an exploring delegation of Indians
To extinguish the claims of Cherokee Indians
to lands in Georgia 
Compensation, to Indians in Ohio, for depreda
tions committed by white citizens ....
Purchase of provisions for Quapaw Indians
Effecting certain Indian treaties, per act of 20th
May, 1826 
Effecting a treaty with the Creek Indians, per
act of 22d May, 1826 
Effecting certain Indian treaties, per act of 24th
May, 1828  _ 
Effecting certain Indian treaties, per act of 2d
.March, 1829 
Annuities to Indians ........

From which deduct the following repayments :
Road from Pensacola to St. Augustine $3,460 20
Opening the Old King's Road, Florida 1,550 00
Materials for a fort on the right bank -
of the Mississippi  192 00
43 09

63

Fort Rigolets and Chef Menteur
Survey of the harbour of Nantucket,
Massachusetts 
Survey Of the harbour of Stonington,
Connecticut . . . . . _ . . . .
Survey of the swash in Pamlico Sound,
North Carolina 
Maps, plans, books, &c. for the war
department .  341 05
Running boundary line between Geor
gia and Florida ......... 275 80
Purchase of Creek and Cherokee re
servations of lands in Georgia . . 9,183 00
Expenses of treating with the Choc-
taws and Chickasaws 
Holding a treaty with. Cherokee Indi
ans for lands in North Carolina .

6 37
17 30

1,253 79

1,073 07

naval establishment.
Pay and subsistence of the navy afloat . . .
Ditto . . . ditto . . . ditto .'. . shore stations
Pay of superintendents, artificers, &c. . . .
Provisions 
Medicines and hospital stores . . -. . . .
Repairs and improvement of navy yards . .
Ordnance and ordnance stores .....
Gradual improvement of the navy ....
Repairs of vessels  .
Labourers and fuel for engine 
Survey of the harbours of Savannah, Balti
more, &c 
Agency on the coast of Africa ... . . . .
Reimbursement 'of the marshal of Florida, for
expenses of certain Africans 
Rewarding officers and crew ofthe ship Wasp,
for destroying the Avon and Reindeer . .
Erection of a breakwater at the mouth of Dela
ware Bay';* "..'..  .
Arrearages prior to 1st January, 1827 . . .
Ditto . . . ditto . . 1st January, 1828 . . .
Ditto . . . ditto . . 1st January, 1829 . . .
Contingent expenses for 1825 
Ditto . . . ditto . . for 1827 
Ditto . . . ditto . . not enumerated for 1827
Ditto . . . ditto . . ditto  for 1828
Ditto . . . ditto . . for 1829 

Dollars. Cts. Dollars. Cts.
11,246 76
97,338 34
3,041 04
7,599 41
16,510 45
856 55
6,589 50
2,768 00
1,539 25
1,000 00
3,031 91 -
8,599 39
7,920 44
125,506 49
245,108 00

6,267,626 58

17,396 30

¦ 6,250,230 28

1,160,068 09
161,830 26
6,2,222 56
461,636 83
25,772 60
148,989 09
26,262 61
444,395 98
470,945 68
1,660 45
34 07
2,766 41
4,208 32
,418 50
7,873 00
410 80
2,911 25
3,682 67
365 88
40 88
138 17
2,567 47
250,770 13

TOPOGRAPHY OE THE UNITED STATES.

217

FINANCES. — TABLE III. — continued.

naval establishment— continued.
Contingent expenses not enumerated for 182.9
Pay and subsistence of the marine corps
Clothing of the, marine corps ....
Military stores of the marine corps . •
Medicines for the marine corps . .. .
Barracks for the marine corps . . . .
Repairing marine barracks at Washington
Fuel for the marine corps ......
Contingent expenses of the marine corps ,

From which deduct the following repayments :
Gradual increase of the-pavy . . .329,795.86
Building ten sloops of war . . . 19,592 24
Repairing and building sloops of war 9,743 25
Navy hospital fund ...... 20,82399
Navy pension fund  '. 15,462 77
Privateer pension fund  62 06
Contingent expenses prior to 1824 . 23 30

Dollars. Cts. Dollars. Cts.
3,092 32
117,329 19
11,850 61
693 36
794 77
363 98
3,499 42
8,504 34
13,792 76

3,405,890 45

NAVAL ESTABLISHMENT — continued.

Contingen expenses for 1824 .
Ditto . . . ditto . . for 1826 .
Ditto . . . ditto . . for 1828 .

61 88
180 82
1,398 81

PUBLIC DEBT.
Interest on the funded debt 
Redemption of the 6 per cent, stock of 1814,
(loan of ten millions) 
Redemption of the 6 per cent, stock of 1814 .
Ditto .... ditto . . . ditto ...... of 1815,
(loan of $18,460,800) 
Principal and interest of Treasury notes . .
Reimbursement of Mississippi stock ....
Paying certain parts of the domestic debt .- .

Total

Dollars. Cts. Dollars. Cts.

97,144 98

¦3,308,745 47

2,542,843 28
6,251,827 59
637,896 77
3,049,542 93
1,264 27
450 00
43 99

-12,383,867 78

25,044,358 40

FINANCES.— TABLE IV.
SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF THE PUBLIC DEBT, AT SEVERAL PERIODS, FROM 1791 TO 1832, RECKONED ON THE 1st
JANUARY, IN EACH YEAR.

In 1791
1796
1799 18011803 1804 1809 1810
181218131816

$75,169,974 81,642,27277,399,90982,000,16774,731,922 85,353,643 56,732,3.79
53,156,532
45,035,123 55,907,452
123,016,375

C There was some increase of the debt in each of
s these six years, except 1794, in which there was
( a reduction of it.
[The debt was increased in consequence of the
J military preparations against France, .before
j the year 1801, when Mr. Jefferson's administra-
(. tion commenced.
f The debt was increased by the purchase of Louis-
J iana, in 1803, for the sum of $15,000,000. Mr.
i Jefferson's administration ended March 3d,
I 1809.
C The debt was at its lowest amount in 1812, in
j Mr. Madison's administration, and before the
' war.
S The debt greatly augmented by the war :— high-
l est amount in 1816.

In 1817

$115,807,805

1820

91,015,566

1821

89,987,427

1822

93,546,676

1823

90,375,877

1824

90,269,777

1825

83,788,432

1826

81,054,069

1827

¦ 73,987,357

1828

67,475,622

1829

58,362,135

1830

48,565,405

1831

39,082,461

1832

24,282,879

[Mr. Monroe's administration. Rapid reduction
j of the debt since 1816 ; the receipts from the
( customs, &c. being large.
fThe debt increased in consequence of the pur
chase of Florida, in 1821, for the sum of
$5,000,000; and a diminution in the receipts
from the customs, &c. in the years 1820, 1821,
&c. Mr. Monroe's administration ended in
I 1825.
[Mr. Adams's administration commenced on the
< 4th of March, 1825, and ended on the 3d. of
! March, 1829.
S General Andrew Jackson's administration began
^ on the 4th of March, 1829.

FINANCES.— TABLE V.
A STATEMENT OF THE FUNDED DEBT AS IT EXISTED ON THE 1st OF JANUARY, 1831 AND 1832; ALSO THE DATES
OF THE ACTS UNDER WHICH THE SEVERAL STOCKS WERE CONSTITUTED, AND THE PERIODS AT WHICH THEY
ARE REDEEMABLE.

STOCKS.

Three per cent, stock, (revolutionary debt) . .
Five per cent stock, (subscription to Bank U. S.)
Five per cent, stock  . .
Five per cent, stock 
Five per cent, stock, (exchanged) . . . . .
Four and. a half per cent, stock 
Four and a half per cent, stock . . . . . .
Four and a half per cent, stock, (exchanged) .
Fourand a' half per cent, stock, (exchanged) .

Date ofthe Acts con
stituting tbe several
Stocks.

4 Aug. 1790
10 Apr. 1816
15 May, 1820'
3 Mar. 1821
20 Apr. 1822
24 May, 1824
26 May, 1824
26 May, 1824
3 Mar. 1825

When redeemable.

At the pleasure of government .
Ditto  ditto . . . '.
After the 1st day of Jan. 1832 .
After the 1st day of Jan. 1835 .
C & after the 31st day of Dec. 1830 )
] £ after the 31st day of Dec. 1831 >.
C i after the 31st day of Dec. 1832 )
After the 1st day of Jan. 1832 . .
After the 31st day of Dec. 1831 .
f i after the 31st day of Dec. 1832 "|
J I after the 31st day of Dec. 1S33 1
1 J after the 31st day of Dec. 1829?
1 1 after the 31st day of Dec. 1829 J

Amount, 1831.

$13,296,397 57
4,000,000 00
999,999 13
4,735,296 30
56,704 77
5,000,000 00
6,000,000 00
4,454,727 95
1,539,336 16

$39,082,461 88

Amount, 183

$13,296,626 21

4,735,296 30
56,704 77
1,739,524 01

45454,727 95

$24,282,879 24

218

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

FINANCES.— TABLE YI.

SHOWING THE WHOLE QUANTITY OF LAND IN THOSE STATES AND TERRITORIES IN WHICH THE PUBLIC LAND
IS SITUATED ; THE QUANTITY OP PUBLIC LAND TO WHICH THE INDIAN TITLE HAD BEEN EXTINGUISHED, JUNE
30, 1828; AND THE QUANTITY TO WHICH IT HAD NOT BEEN EXTINGUISHED AT THE SAME DATE.

STATE OR TERRITORY.

Tennessee ........
Mississippi ........
Indiana 
Ohio 
Louisiana 
Illinois .........
Michigan Territory, (peninsular)
Arkansas,  (ditto) . .
Missouri 
Florida Territory 
Alabama  .

Territory of Huron, lying west of Lake Michigan, and east of the Mississippi River
Great Western Territory, extending from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean

Add quantity to which the Indian title is extinguished ....
Total acres belonging to the United States

Whole quantity , of
land in each state
or territory.

Quantity of land bo-
longing to the Uni
ted States, to which
che Indian title is
extinguished.

Acres.
26,432,00031,074,23422,459.66924,810,246 31,463,04035,941,902
24,939,87028,899,620 39,119,01935,286,76034,001,226

Acres.
3,000,000
11,514,517
12,308,465 4,984,348
26,364,197
-23,575,300 16,393,420
26,770,941 35,263,541 29,728,300 19,769,679

334,627,486 56.804,854
750,000,000

205,672,698

1,140,432,330

Quantity of land be
longing to the Uni
ted States, to which
the Indian title is
not extinguished.

Acres. ¦
lo,885,760 6,335,632 409,601
' 6,424,6407,378,400

4,032,640 9,519,066

49,985,63966,804,834
750,000,000

856,790,473205,672,698

1,062,463,171

FINANCES.— TABLE VII.

SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF LAND SOLD IN EACH OF THE SEVERAL STATES AND TERRITORIES, PROM THE 1st
OF JULY, 1820, TO THE 31st OF DECEMBER, 1829, A PERIOD OF NINE YEARS AND A HALF.

Alabama .
MississippiLouisiana
Ohio . .
Indiana .

Acres, hds.
1,469,054 78
644,523 82
150,839 36
1,405,267 73
2,169,149 70

Illinois ....
Missouri 
Florida Territory . .
Michigan Territory .
Arkansas Territory .
Total

Acres, lids.
667,200 44
923,506 32
336,667 60
443,209 23
69,899 36

8,167,218 23

FINANCES.— TABLE VIII.

SHOWING THE QUANTITY OP LAND SOLD IN EACH OF THE FOLLOWING YEARS.

In half the year of 1820
In 1821 ......
In 1822 
In 1823 ......
Im 1824 

Acres, hds.
303,404 09
781,213 32
801,226 18
653,319 52
749,323 04

In 1826 
In 1826 
In 1827 
In 1828 
In 1829  Total

' Acres, hds.
893,461 69
848,082 20
926,727 76
965,600 36
1,244,860 01

8,167,218 23

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

219

CHAPTER V.

^POPULATION..

Where the increase of the human family is look
ed upon as an evil, society must be poisoned at its
very source, and some great change must be both
needful and near. The United States are happily
circumstanced in this respect, whatever disadvantages
they may lie under in others ; there, at least, the hu
man infant is not welcomed with less satisfaction
than though he were one of the progeny of the stall
or the sty ; but the rapid increase of the population
is esteemed conducive alike to the wealth, the glory,
and the happiness of the republic.
It is greatly to be J regretted, that the different na
tions of the civilized- world have not kept regular
,arid authentic accounts of the progress of their popu
lation, as important moral and political truths might
have been elucidated by comparison, if such tables
had existed. It appears that the population of
France does not double itself in less than 150 years,
and that of Great Britain in about half that time ;
while the population of the United States doubles
itself in less than thirty years. The congress early
determined to ascertain, at regular intervals, the pro
gress of population ; and, according to its enactments,
the first census was taken in the year 1790. The
number of inhabitants was then nearly 4,000,000, of
-whom not quite 700,000 were slaves; in 1800, the
population had increased to 5,300,000, of whom near
ly 900,000 were slaves.; in 1810, the numbers were
7,239,000, of whom 1,191,000 were slaves ; in 1820,
9,638,000, of whom 1,538,000 were slaves ; and, in
1830, the population amounted to 12,856,000, of
Whom rather more than 2,000,000 were slaves. The
precise particulars, including the numbers in each
state, will be found in Tables I. and II. annexed to
this chapter. It will be perceived, that in the forty
years .during which the census has been taken, the
Increase of the population has been steady, though
rapid ; and that it is, at the close of the period, more
than three times the number that it was at the com
mencement. The increase during the last ten years
has been 33.4 per cent., which is quite equal to that
of the preceding periods. The increase of the free
population has uniformly been the most rapid, and
that of the slaves the most retarded : the increase of
the slaves will, hereafter, be further checked, as their
importation has been some years prohibited. From
1800 to 1810, the ratio of the increase of the free
population was lessened, and that of the slaves aug
mented : the former effect was, probably, owing to
the small addition accruing from immigration ; and

the latter tp the importation of negroes from 1800 to
1808, especially in 1806 and 1807, in anticipation
of the prohibition of the inhuman traffic in slaves ;
the number of the slaves was also increased by. the
additions of Louisiana, where they constituted nearly
the half of the population.
The rapidity of the increase of the population of
the United States forms the principal fact on which
the Ma-lthusian system has been founded ; and it has
consequently been a subject of much controversy,
whether its ratio is materially affected by immigra
tion. There appears to be no decisive authority by
which to determine the actual number of emigrants
arriving annually in the United States. Dr. Seybert
estimates their amount from 1790 to 1810 at 6,000
per annum. " In 1790," says Dr. Seybert, " the free
population of the United States amounted to 3,223,629
persons, and in 1810 it was 6,048,539; the actual
increase in the twenty years was 2,824.910, from
which deduct 120,000, for the emigrants who arrived
during that period, and allow for their increase at
the extraordinary rate of 5 per cent, per annum, or
60,000 for the twenty years, making the aggregate
from the emigrant stock 180,000, which, when de
ducted from the total actual increase abovementioned,
will leave 2,644,910 persons for the augmentation,
independent of any aid from abroad ; or the duplica
tion of the free inhabitants, without addition from
the emigrants, would only require about four fifths
of a year more than it did when they were added."*
Messrs. Godwin and Booth, opponents of Mr. Mal-
thus, take another method of ascertaining the amount
of immigration, , and arrive at a very different result :
" When enumerations are taken every ten years, it
is obvious, exclusive of immigration, that, in any
particular census, the persons living above ten years
of age must, have all existed in the census immedi
ately preceding. In that of 1810, for instance, all
above ten years formed part of the population for
1800, and are in reality the same, except inasmuch
as they are diminished by death. Those under ten
have all been born in the interval between the cen
suses. Comparing the American censuses on this prin
ciple, we shall find an astonishing extent of immigra
tion. The white population of 1800 was 4,305,971.
These in ten years would be diminished by a fourth.
It is very improbable that more than 3,200,000 would
have been alive in 1810 ; for, whatever proportion
the births of that country may bear to the whole po
pulation, the proportion of deijfhs is certainly greater
than in Europe. These 3,200,000, then, should have

* Statistical Annals, p. 30.

220

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Constituted the number of those above ten years of
age in the census of 1810, had there been no impor^
tation from other countries. But the actual census
above ten years of age was 3,845,389, giving a sur
plus of 645,389, which can be accounted for in no
other way than by immigration. ^
To account for the difference between the censuses
of 1800 and 1810,, the immigration must have been,
therefore, on the principles adopted by Godwin and
Booth, at least 35,000 per annum, being nearly six
times the number calculated by Dr. Seybert. This
would appear to be utterly inconsistent with facts,
and as far above the truth as Dr. Seybert's estimate
is below it. The solution of this difficulty must be
sought in the incorrect estimate of the ratio of deaths
which has been adopted — that of one fourth in ten
years. The Edinburgh Review runs to the other
extreme, and estimates the proportion of deaths at
only one eighth. " If we had American tables," says
the writer, supposed to be Mr. Malthus himself, " form
ed like those of Dr. Price for Sweden, we should
expect that, on account of the peculiar structure of
the American population, arising from the great ex
cess of births above deaths, it would turn out that
the proportion which a given population, without any
fresh accession of births, would lose in ten years,
instead of being rather more than one seventh, would
not be more than one eighth ; in which case, the
amount of immigration annually would, by Mr.
Booth's own rule, be only between seven and eight
thousand, and tbe period of doubling would come
near to the calculation of Dr. Seybert."* Mr. Booth
has occupied a considerable portion of his reply in
proving this statement of the Edinburgh reviewer to
be incorrect. The details" of the controversy, owing
to the absence of any direct and general authentic
data, are by far too intricate and extended to intro
duce into our work ; we shall therefore satisfy our
selves with stating, .that, after investigating the sub
ject, we are convinced that the truth lies, as in many
other cases, between the two extremes, the result of
Mr. Booth's estimate of the deaths being quite irre
concilable with the annual rate of immigration upon
the most liberal scale ; and that of the Edinburgh
reviewer, making every allowance for the different
condition and circumstances of the United States,
being inconsistent with the ratio of deaths hi other
countries. From the result of these statements, in
themselves contradictory, but constituting, in fact,
checks upon each other, we think it may be conclu-
* Edinburgh Review, No. LXX. pp. 365, 366.
t The assertion of Mr. Booth, that, " however the births in the
United States may exceed those of Europe, the deaths can not be

ded, with some tolerable degree of satisfaction, that
the ratio of deaths is about one sixth in every ten
years,t which, allowing a procreative increase from
immigration at the rate of ten pei\ cent, per annum
instead of five per cent., as calculated by Dr. Seybert,
would require the number of immigrants to have
been, from 1800 to 1810, at least 10,000 annually.
A much more masterly performance than the la
bours either of Mr. Godwin or Mr. Booth has recently
appeared in opposition to the Malthusian system, from
the pen of Mr. Sadler ; indeed, however our opinions
may differ from some of his deductions, the "Law
of Population" is equally creditable to the soundness
of the author's principles as a moralist, and to his
indefatigable industry as a political economist. " The
theory," says Mr. Sadler, " that mankind would double,
at the very slowest ra-te of increase, by procreation
only, in five-and-twenty years, is founded upon the
supposed increase of various colonies of America,
and, finally, upon the growth of the entire popula
tion of the United States, which, it is asserted, have
doubled, on the lowest calculation, in that term, and
many much more rapidly, independently of foreign
emigration. In refutation of this position, it has
been shown, that none of the states instanced have
ever so doubled in any part of their history ; that
the population of New England in particular, as
well as that of the remaining colonies, at the period
whence these doublings are dated, has been grossly
understated, and that there are not, in reality, half
the number of white inhabitants now in the United
States that the theory demands-, had not a single
emigrant proceeded to that country ; that, on the
contrary, a vast and incessant afflux of emigrants
has proceeded to America, first from England, but,
very early afterwards, from the remaining parts of
the British empire, and from every country of Eu
rope ; that, so far from this emigration having been
immaterial in its effects, it has influenced, in every
possible way, the manners, customs, habits, religion,
and even language, of the various states ; has shown
its presence by every species of statistical evidence,
excepting that of direct enumeration ; that, more
satisfactorily even than by such a mode, it has mani
fested its extent, by altering the natural proportion of
the sexes, and the classifications of society through
out ; has varied the established proportions of nature,
as it respects the ages of the living in the censuses,
and of the dead in the registers of mortality: and,
finally, to epitomize the argument no further, it has
less numerous," is obviously unsatisfactory, as there are. many cir
cumstances in a newly-settled country which tend to diminish the
ratio of deaths, although there are some of an opposite character,

TOPOGRAPH? OE THE UNITED STATES.

221

been proved, from the very admissions of those who
are anxious to demonstrate to the contrary, that emi
gration has been the main cause of that rapid in
crease in the population of America, on which alone
they build their entire system." Nearly one half of
the two thick octavo volumes, of which Mr. Sadler's
work is composed, is devoted to the consideration of
the rate of increase of the population of the United
States, and abounds with calculations which must
be the. result of a high degree of mental exertion;
but we can obtain no specific result from his pages,
unless it be that the population of the United States
is wholly (the Indians excepted) derived from emi
gration from Europe,* a fact sufficiently manifest tp
persons at all acquainted with American history. We
Cannot perceive where Mr. Sadler draws any line :
all the inhabitants of the United States are the de
scendants of emigrants undoubtedly ; but the first
point at issue is, stating the population of the United
States at nine and a half millions in 1820, and at
twelve and a half in 1830, how many of the persons
composing the difference between these two amounts
were immigrants from foreign countries '} The se
cond point to ascertain would be, how many persons
were living in 1830, born within the term of the last
Census, of parents one or both of whom were not
natives of the United States 't These would be two
plain and simple statements, and would be the utmost
that could be interesting to the national statistics of
America ; indeed, we doubt whether the latter is at
all necessary, as the natives of a country can in no
practical sense be considered immigrants. To what
further extent the estimate of the influence of emi
gration must be carried to overthrow the system of
Malthus we do not perceive, unless it be to the "pil
grim fathers,*! which would be equally subversive of
all systems.
It is much to be regretted that authentic records
ofthe immigrants arriving in the United States are not
regularly kept and annually published by the govern
ment of the United States : such information of this

* "Mr. Malthus has, indeed, only commenced his calculation,
relative to this annual emigration, with the year 1782; but I think
it will be quite as difficult for him to persuade the historian that
emigration first began at that period, as to convince the arithmeti
cian, that even if calculated only thence, such an addition, in
creasing as he admits, can have been ' immaterial,' whoever may
attempt demonstrations to the contrary." — Sadler on Population,
vol. ii. p. 79.
t Taking the scale of emigration at 10,000, the calculation of
Mr. Sadler, founded on the proportion of marriages which would
arise from this relative proportion of males and females among
the immigrants, (a calculation evidently exaggerated in favour of
his own position, as he makes no adequate deduction from the
number of males for travellers on pleasure or business,) very little
exceeds our estimate of the addition which immigration occasions,
Vol. IL— Nos, 55 & 56 2 E

character as exists we shall now lay before our
readers. iC The subject of emigration to this coun
try," says the editor of the North American Review,
" is not, however, one involved in such utter darknessj
but that we can do something towards enabling our
readers to form a tolerably correct estimate of the
actual number of foreigners who arrive here ; and
the first document which we offer is nothing more
nor less than an official transcript of all the lists of
passengers who arrived in the United States from the
1st October, 1819, to September 30th, 1820, inclu
sive : — total arrived, 7,001 ; of these there are 1,959
females and 5,042 males.t Now it is to be observed,
that this list embraces not only the foreigners coming
here with the intention of remaining, but those who
came here only on a visit, and our own citizens, who
returned from visits to foreign countries. For these
reasons we should deduct nearly all ofthe following
classes, viz.: ambassadors, clergymen, consuls, judges,
lawyers, merchants, mariners, physicians, supercar
goes, gentlemen, and ladies, and probably the plant
ers, amounting in the whole to 1,579, which leaves
but 5J422. But as our deductions are merely conjec
tural, we will estimate the number of emigrants for
that year at 6,000. A second report for the year
ending 30th September, 1821, was presented to con
gress at their last session ; but, owing to some strange
oversight, no order was passed for its being printed.
The particulars, therefore, we are not acquainted
with ; but we have ascertained that the whole num
ber of passengers was 10,722, of which 2,415 were
from the United States, leaving 8,307 foreigners.
Besides this, we have a newspaper before us, which
professes to give an abstract of ofiicial returns ordered
to be printed by the house of commons of Great
Britain. From these it appears, that from the year
1812 to the year 1821', both years included, theT©
emigrated to the United States — from Ireland, 30,653 j
from England, 33,608; from Scotland, 4,727 : the
whole amount of emigrations to the United- States,
68,988. During the same period, there embarked for

(one fifth,) and, if connected in correspondence with the intima
tion just made, would probably accord with an accuracy somewhat
surprising. — See " Law of Population," vol. i. pp. 50 and 58. It
is true that we calculate an immigration of 20,000 per annum to
be necessary to produce the same result ; but that is on the suppo
sition that if the unmarried immigrants marry American females,
the procreative result was not wholly to be carried to the account
of the immigrants; but to be divided j and still less that the results
of the intermarriages of the children ofthe immigrants with native
Americans should be placed also to the same account. Upon this
principle, the ratio of increase of the population of England must
be most materially diminished, by deducting the proeteative result
of a certain immigration- of Normans, which took place some few
hundred years since.

222

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

the British dominions in North America — from Ire
land, 47,223 ; from England, 23,783 ; from Scotland,.
19,971. Total of emigration to the British domi
nions, 90,977. Total of the emigrations from the
United Kingdom, 159,965. This gives us an annual
average of 6,89$ emigrants to the United States ; and
this we take to be not far from the true average ; for,
if the above period embraces the years of the war,
when there were no emigrations to this country, it
likewise embraces the extraordinary years 1817 and
1818, when the emigrations were double or treble
what they ever were before, or have been since. We
should add about one ninth to the above amount for
emigrants from other countries than Great Britain ;
for we take it that about nine tenths of all the foreign
ers who come to this country come from the United
Kingdom, and we shall have an average of little more
than 7,500 efhigrants per annum. And whilst we
thus find the documents of the British government
and of our own coinciding so nearly, it is impossible
to think that both are very far from the truth. The
number pf passengers arriving at the principal, ports of
the United States during the year 1817, as obtained
from the records of the several custom-houses, was
22,240. If we make a proper deduction for the number
of Americans who must have been among these passen
gers, we shall conclude that the number of emigrants
for that year was about 18,000. The amount of emigra
tion in the common years, we are of opinion, varies
from six to eight thousand. If any thing be wanting to
confirm the above statement, we may find it in the last
census. The number of foreigners not naturalized is
there given, and amounts only to 53,655. No fo
reigner can be naturalized until he has resided with
in the United States at least five years ; and
consequently we have the whole number which could
have arrived during the five years preceding the
census, even if we suppose that all who arrived be
fore that period were naturalized as soon as the law
would permit. But we know that, a great many delay
obtaining naturalization for several years after they
are entitled to it ; and not a few are never naturalized
at all."* It will be observed that the North American Re
view allows no addition to the .number of immigrants
from those who emigrated to Canada, although on other
occasions American writers do not hesitate to affirm,
that the greater part of those who leave Great Bri
tain professedly for the Canadas,. ultimately settle in
the United States ; and we are inclined to think it
very probable, that, whatever may be the case under
* North American Review, vol. xv. p. 301 — 305

the present arrangements, one third of the person*,
emigrating to Canada between 1810 and 1820, settled
in some of the states of the republic. This would
raise the number who arrived in the United States
from Great Britain alone to 12,0Q0 per annum ; -and
it is by no means impossible, that from other countries,
or from sources not adequately ascertained, the total
annual number of emigrants might have amounted to
20,000 ; but we cannot conceive it could much exceed
that number. We are the ' more confirmed in this
opinion, as it is sustained by the enumeration of the
census of 1820, admitting the ratio of deaths to be
one sixth in ten years. The total free population of
the United States in 1810 was 6j049,539 : had there
been no deaths or immigrations, this number would,
of course, have been the number of free persons
above the age of ten1 years in 1820 ; deducting, how
ever, according to our estimate, one sixth for deaths
in ten years, or 1,008,256, it will leave 5,041,283, as
the number of persons who would be above ten
years old in 1820. The census of 1820, however,
gives a total of free persons above *ten years of age
of 5,380,644, which indicates an addition of 339,361
by immigration alone, as between 1810 and 1820
there was no accession of territory, that of Louisiana
having accrued before 1810, and Florida after 1820.
Estimating the increase of the immigrant population
at ten percent, per annum, it would require more
than 20,000 persons to have arrived annually in the
United States from 1810 to 1820, a period which,
though it includes some years in which the number
probably exceeded that estimate considerably, yet it
includes also the period of the war, during which
little or no immigration could take place. We ap
prehend, therefore, that when we admit the immigra
tion of 20,000 persons annually, it reaches the utmost
limit of truth, allowing for those who may pass
through Canada or the West Indies. The increase
of free persons from 1810 to 1820 was 1,686,000 :
allowing, therefore, 340,000 for immigrants and their
descendants, it would diminish the ratio of increase,
as nearly as possible, one fifth, and would extend the
period of duplication of the population by procreation
alone, five years instead of four fifths of a year, as
stated by Dr. Seybert ; or, in other words, the period
in which the population of the United States would
naturally double itself, is reduced by immigration
from thirty to twenty-five years. Mr. Sadler appears
to think that population will not duplicate from procre
ation only, in the most favourable circumstances, in
less than from forty-five to fifty years'; and that the
" law of population" is, that its ratio of increase dimin
ishes as its number to the square mile increases ; but

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

223

the ratio of increase in* the United States from
1820 to 1830 being greater than that from 1810
to 1820, appears to be irreconcilable with that po
sition. We have entered into this discussion not from any
peculiar interest we feel in the Malthusian contro
versy, but because we deemed a consideration of it
as essentially connected with the subject of American
population. We are quite willing to admit, that in
favourable circumstances population may double itself
in thirty, or possibly in twenty-five years ; but the
fact is not to us a matter of regret, but of congratu
lation : the world is yet a wide waste, in compari
son with the population it is capable of sustaining ;
and it is the disgrace of humanity, not the order of
Providence, that men should have been continually
engaged in destroying themselves by vice, or each
other by war, instead of bringing into cultivation the
beauteous plains with which the world abounds.
We can not for one moment believe, that He who
formed the earth, and hath " given it to the children of
men," has established laws of human procreation in
compatible with the dimensions and capabilities of
the physical world ; and entertaining no doubt that
the earth is calculated to maintain a vastly greater
population than has ever yet existed upon it, we can,
with the utmost confidence, leave the ultimate result
to the disposal of Almighty power and infinite wis
dom, without attempting to contravene the laws of
nature by the impotent arm of human legislation.*
In the census for 1830, a new and much more
satisfactory division of the free white persons was
adopted, than in any previous census, each sex being
distributed into quinquennial divisions under twenty
years, and into decennial classes from twenty to one
hundred ; but a different method was followed with
respect to the free coloured persons and the slaves,
each sex of these two classes being formed into six
divisions. The number of white persons, and also
the number of coloured persons who were deaf and
dumb, were also stated, and each divided, according
to age, into three classes ; and the numbers of per
sons blind is also exhibited. This census, however,
though the returns are now completed, has not yet
been published, and the total number of each class
throughout the United States is not yet made known ;
* Mr. A. H. Everett, in his " New Ideas on Population," has
most satisfactorily confuted the doctrine of population pressing on
subsistence otherwise than from imperfect social institutions ; and

we shall, therefore, present the details of the census
of 1820, which supply many interesting particulars :

l.
2. 3.
4. 5.
6.
7. 8.
9.
10.11.12.13. 14.15.16.17.18.19.
20.21.22.23.24. 25.
26. 27.

Free white males under 1 0 years of age .
— of 10 and under 16
— of 16 and under 26
— of 26 and under 45
— of 45 and upwards
Free white females under 10 years . . .
— of 10 and under 16
— of 16 and under 26
— pf 26 and under 45
— ' of 45 and upwards
'males under 14 years .
of 14 and under 26
of 26 and under 45
of 45 and upwards
Slaves -J females under ( 14 years . . .
of 14 and under 26
of 26 and under 45
of 45 and upwards
' males under 1 4 years
¦ — of 1 4 and under 26
of 26 and under 45
— of 45 and upwards
Free coloured persons i females under 14 years
— of 14 and under 26
— of 26 and under 45
— of 45 and upwards
All other persons, except Indians, not taxed . .

1,345,220 612,535
776,150 766,083495,065
1,280,550 605,348
781,371736,600 462,788343,852
203,088 163,723 77,365
324,344
202,436 152.693 70^627
' 47,659
24,048
23,450 17,613
45,898
28,80027,181 18,881 4,631

Total .... 9,637,999
28'. Free white males between 16 and 18  182,205
'29. Foreigners not naturalized .  53,687
30. Number of persons engaged in agriculture . . . 2,070,646
31. — — , in commerce . . . 72,493
32. — — in manufactures . . 349,506
The third table, annexed to this chapter, exhibits
the number of persons, upwards of one hundred years
old, distinguishing the whites, slaves, and free blacks.
The whole number appears very large ; but the great
proportion of blacks, being four to one, will strike
many with surprise : it is, however, to be observed
that the ages of the blacks are not generally so accu
rately ascertained as those of the whites, and the pro
portion can not therefore be fully relied on.
Additional particulars, respecting the population of
each state, will be given in the section of the .work
which treats of the states separately ; and, in closing
the department of statistics, it may be proper to re
mind our readers, that much important statistical in
formation respecting manufactures and other subjects,
will be found in connexion with individual states,
which, as no collective statement exists, could not with
propriety be introduced in this portion of the work.
Mr. Sadler has most ably and unanswerably demonstrated, that the
" preventive check" recommended by Mr. Malthus is " unnatural,
unlawful, and wicked." •

224

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

POPULATION.— TABLE I.

POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES.

ACCORDING TO FIVE OFFICIAL ENUMERATIONS.

STATES and
TERRITORIES.

Maine . . . .
New Hampshire
Vermont . .
MassachusettsRhode Island
Connecticut .
New York .
New Jersey .
Pennsylvania Delaware . .
Maryland . .
Virginia . .
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia .
Alabama
MississippiLouisianaTennesseeKentucky
Ohio . .
IndianaIllinois .
Missouri
Dis. of Columbia
Michigan Ter.
Arkansas Ter,
Florida Ter. ,

:-!

Total

lat Census.
Pop. 1790.

96,540
141,885 85,539
378,787 68,825
237,946340,120 184,139
434,373 59,096
319,728
747,610 393,951
249,073 82,548

73,677

Pop. 1300.

151,719183,858
154,465
422,845 69,122
251,002 586,050211,149
602,545 64,273
345,824880,200 478,103345,591
162,686 8,850
105,602
220,959 45,365 4,651 215
15,093 551

3d Census.
Pop. 1810.

228,705214,46.0217,895472,040 76,931
261,942 959,049
245,562 810,091 72,674
380,546 979,622 555,500
415,115
252,433 40,352 76,556
261,727 406,511
230,760 24,520 12,28219,783
24,023 4,762 1,062

3,929,328 5,309,758 7,239,903 9,638,166 12,856,171 1 .33,4

•Uli Census.
Pop. 1820.

29,8,335244,161235,764623,287 83,059
275,248
1,372,812 277,575
1,049,313 72,749
407,350
1,065,366 638,829502,741
340,989
J 127,901
t 75,448
153,407
420,813
564,317 581,434 147,178 55,211 66,58633,039 8,896
14,273

5iii Census.
Pop. 1830.

399,462269,533280,679 610,014 97,210
297,711
1,913,508 320,779
1,347,672 76,739
446,913
1,211,272 738,470 581,458
516,567308,997 136,806
215,575
684,822 688, S44
937,679
341,582 157,575140,074 39,858
31.26030,38334,729

P™
Cent.
10 years.

33,9 10,419,016,6
17,0 8,2
39,4 15,6
28,4 5,59,7
13,7
15,6
15,7
51,5
141,6 80,1
40,762,7
22,1 61,2
132,1 185,4
110,4 20,1
250,1 113,3

POPULATION.— TABLE II.
SLAVES IN THE UNITED STATES.
ACCORDING TO FIVE OFFICIAL ENUMERATIONS.

STATES nnd
TERRITORIES.

Maine . . . .
New Hampshire
Vermont . .
Massachusetts
Rhode island
Connecticut .
New York .
New Jersey .
PennsylvaniaDelaware . .
Maryland . .
Virginia . :
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia .
Alabama MississippiLouisiana
Tennessee
Kentucky
Ohio . .
Indiana .
Illinois .
MissouriDis. of Columbia
Michigan Ter.
Arkansas Ter.
Florida Ter. ,
Total ..

Slaves. 1790.

158 16

¦:\

948
2,764
21,32411,423 3,7378,887
103,036
292,627 100,572
107,094 29,264

Slavoj. 1800.

12,430 3,417

697,697

380
951
20,613 12,422 1,706
6,153
108,554
346,968 133,296 146,151 59,699 3,489

Slaves. 1810.

13,584
40,343 135

108
310
15,01710,851 795
4,177
111,502392,518
168,824196,366105,218 17,088
34,66044,53580,661 ' 237 168
3,0115,395 24

896,849 1,191,364 1,538,061

4897
10,088 7,557 211
4,509
107,398
425,153
205,017 268,475 149,656
i 41,8.79
1 32,814
69,064
.80,107
126,732 ' 'l90 917
10,222 6,377
' 1,61*7

14
2346
2,246 386
3,305
102,878
469,724246,462315,665
217,470 117,294 65,659
109,631
142,382 165,350

746
24,990 6,050 27
4,578
15,510

2,010,436

POPULATION.— TABLE III.
SHOWING THE NUMBER OF PERSONS, OP THE SEVERAL CLASSES, WHO WERE ONE HUNDRED YEARS OLD AND
UPWARDS, ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1830.

STATES AND TERRITORIES.

White

White

Males.

Females

1

3

3

6

3

6

1

2

4

3

35

18

1

2

37

20

...

1

7

17

23

26

23

26

14

19

13

22

15

10

• • .

2

9

1

39

27

27

11

21

8

10

2

4

1

2

2

2



1

. . ,

1

. . .

1

3

Males.

Females.

FREE BLACKS.

Males.

Females.

Total.

Maine .......
New Hampshire . . .
Vermont ......
Massachusetts ....
Rhode Island . .
Connecticut 
New York 
New Jersey 
Pennsylvania ....
Delaware 
Maryland ......
Virginia ......
North Carolina . . .
South Carolina . . .
Georgia .: 
Alabama 
Mississippi . » ....
Louisiana 
Tennessee . . . . .
Kentucky. 
Ohio 
Indiana 
Illinois 
Missouri 
District of Columbia . .
Florida Territory . . .
Michigan Territory . .
Arkansas Territory . .
=  Total

1
3
50
122 92 98
106 30
2337 6945

2
41 3

3
53
143114 847825 21
89 3449

11
2 5
32
22 4
30 13
49
143 22 19 11 11
11 7
17 82 1
23 1

54 43
11
61 6
33 18
8622
27 66 6
28 6
17 551
28

5
15
1412 6
30
130 14
130 38
262 479304240236 87
47
125 172
166 42 19
1251 18 2 17

297

234

717

662

382

359

2,664

BOOK IV.

STATE OF SOCIETY.

CHAPTER I.
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS, AND JURISPRUDENCE.
In former portions of this work, it has been at
tempted to exhibit clearly the bold and conscientious
origin, the subsequent noble struggles, and the pre
sent prosperous condition, of the people of the United
States of North America. The spirit of liberty has
been shown to have been their unwearied attendant
in all their changes; and, during a steady progress
through difficulties which would have appalled any
but the stoutest hearts, they have earned, well the
blessings of freedom, by duly estimating its cheering
influence. A few pages only can be given to a no
tice, much too brief for the subject, of the constitu
tional and legal institutions of the country, which,
under Providence, have made more than ten millions
of men prosperous, by the rational freedom of their
character. The government in the United States is either that
which is formed from the whole people, or those
which are formed from the people of particular states.
The general government, and those of the particular
states, possess -distinct constitutions ; and each state,
of course, possesses a constitution distinct from the
others. No subject perhaps is more generally mis
understood, even in well-educated European society,
than the nature of the general and state governments
of the United States, and their relation to each other:
the fact can not be stated too strongly, that the ge
neral government is answerable only for the exercise
of those powers which have been delegated to it by
the people of the respective states, and that only to
the extent and within the limits prescribed by the
terms of the compact. The most correct view of
the constitution of the United States appears to us to
* Title to the Constitution of 1787, p. 311. Whilst adopting the
principle of the unity of the inhabitants Of all the states as one
people, a principle, which appears to be justified by the original in
struments of the confederation of even an earlier date, it is proper
to mention, that an important party have maintained with great

be that of a confederation of independent republics,
who have thought proper, in addition to the usual
character of confederations, to establish a general go
vernment, and to delegate to it such powers. as render
the several states, in their external policy, one nation ;
while, iu the internal economy, the general govern
ment has only certain prescribed and limited powers,
the. several republics retaining to themselves all those
powers, the delegation of which was not deemed ne
cessary for the good of every state. It is, therefore,
for instance, as unjust to reproach the northern and
western states, which repudiate the system of slavery,
with being accessary to its existence in the southern
states, as it would be to impute the superstitions of
Spain to the influence of England ; the power to
abolish slavery being one, the delegation of which,
from the separate states to the general government,
it has not been possible to procure, either at the
formation of the original confederation, at the adop
tion of the present constitution, or at a~ny subsequent
period. The old colonies, indeed, were integral
parts of one nation, composing the British empire ;
but that connexion being lost in 1776r a new and
far Jess absolute union arose from the influence of
those common interests and ancient feelings which
survived the separation of the states from Great
Britain. The three great principles which now characterize
the constitution of the general government, are, first,
"the people of the United States,"* being the inde
pendent and equal source of all its powers ; — second
ly, the people at large, or the separate states, retaining
all the powers which they have not conferred on the
general government ; — thirdly, the special powers
thus conferred being set forth in instruments and
articles, submitted to state conventions before being
force, that it was assuming a foundation of power necessarily sub
versive of public freedom, as well as ofthe just extent ofthe state
sovereignties. See especially Mr. Henry's speech in 1787, in the
Debates of the Virginia Convention, p. 36 and Wirt's Life of Heivry,
p. 265. Pitkin, vol. ii. p. 270.

226

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

ordained, and sanctioned by the direct consent of the
people. The constitutions of the separate states are
derived even more directly from the people, as the
declared source of all authority, limited powers only
being intrusted either to the general or to the state go
vernments. Whilst also the vast majority* of the
men, at the age of twenty-one, are consulted, in or
der to settle the limits of those powers, such as are
not intrusted to the general or to the state govern
ments remain unimpaired for individual and popular
enjoyment. Independently of these deep and firm foundations of
the North American commonwealth, it possesses
guarantees of happiness and stability, not easy to be
enumerated. t Some of them are new, others are
common to the Americans with many of their neigh
bours in both hemispheres ; but the greater part are
only the development of rights and powersf well
understood in England, and the more worthy of our
careful examination and entire respect, as being the
rights for which British patriots have long zealously
contended. What, however, Englishmen claim often
by obscure inferences and antiquarian research, has
been in America cleared of all doubt, and set forth in
express declarations. But the vigour and healthy
character of the branch are unquestionable proofs of
the instrinsic virtue of the parent stem, which, in
reverence to our forefathers and in justice to our
children, we are bound to train up to its true des
tination.

* From these colonies have, as it were, sprung a new race of men, —
freemen, — who never saw a king, nor acknowledged an hereditary
chief among them. If we cannot be called the cradle of nations, we
have produced the seedlings and germs of the great changes in the
world. Nurtured in the wilds, we were impatient of restraint ; free
among ourselves, we could not brook foreign encroachments of tyran
ny ; and, with a spontaneous burst of resentment, the American
people rushed to arms before they had calculated their strength, or
.examined the foundation of their hopes. Inured to hardships, and
patient of labour, we have gone onward, from one degree of success
to another, to our present high standing.
But little more than half a century ago, we had but a few institu
tions of learning in the country ; now, they abound on the seaboard,
and are growing up in the back country. In our time, where the
Indians roamed, followed only by the straggling hunter from the
abodes of the white man, you may now find extensive libraries, rich
with the classics of ancient days and of modern times. The best
authors ofthe times of Elizabeth and Anne are not unfrequently found,
for the accommodation of travellers, in the hotels and steam-boats.
Almost every flourishing town has its lyceum, associate library, litera
ry club, and often its able and eloquent lecturer. These institutions
claim no high literary or scientific honors,— shower down no degrees,
such as are often given to dunces, as well as to intelligent and in
dustrious students, in colleges ; but they diffuse no small proportion of
information throughout the land. They were founded precisely in the
right time. ;
vVithin the last century, the different branches of. science and lite
rature have been arranged under well-defined heads, enabling the
teacher to present his observations distinctly to his audience. Within
that time, the science of chemistry, so useful to all, has been brought

The old guarantees are, amongst others, the general
supremacy of law over all discretion ; — the right to
personal liberty ; — freedom of speech, and kindred
right of free printing; — the right of calling for spe
cial amendments of the law when defective, and that
of seeking general amendments in the forms of the
constitution when not adapted to their end — the
public good ; — the right to know the details of what
ever concerns the people, and of assembling together
to discuss these details ; the power of resisting and
correcting evil rulers, by indictment, by impeachment,
and otherwise ; — the right of having' arms ; — of send
ing representatives to consent to taxes and laws when
needed ; — and the direct responsibility of every man
for his own acts, with the impossibility of a superior's
instructions being admitted in bar of that responsibi
lity. Such are the main objects common to both
the English and the United States constitutions, how
ever differently guarded in each.
The new guarantees of the public welfare pecu
liar to the United States are, such as a separation of
the legislative, executive, and judicial authorities^
more complete than in England ; the degree of con
trol possessed by the people, by frequent elections,
either directly or indirectly, over all those authorities
and public functionaries ; rotation in office ; the pro
hibition of orders of nobility; the substitution of a tem
porary president with narrow powers, for an hereditary-
king with limited authority; the abolition of the
right of primogeniture ; the absence generallyt of

from chaos to marvellous light, and is now rapidly advancing with
numberless beautiful creations. The study of chemistry has been as
common as that of simple arithmetic. It enlightens the parlour, and
from it the light is reflected to the kitchen, and every day comes
home to us as a household divinity. — Am. Editor.
The second classes excluded are (to take Massachusetts for an ex •
ample) Jews, and all other persons not being Christians. Before 1821,
all but Protestants were excluded. In this year, Roman Catholics and
other Christians were admitted ; and a powerful party urged the pro
priety of removing all limitations of the same nature. It has been
urged on this head, that any tests are repugnant to the constitution;
and in North, Carolina the legislature has so determined. — Governor
Worthington's Speech on the Maryland Test Act. Baltimore, 1824.
The third classes are paupers, and persons under guardianship,
together with convicts. Upon the propriety of exclusion of these
classes, no difference of opinion seems to exist.
t It has not been attempted to enumerate all the rights which
the American citizens claim ; and it is believed that no full cata
logue of them is any where to be found. The early patriots seem
to have been apprehensive that a professed enumeration of all
might be injurious in regard to such as, by insufficient care, should
be omitted. In Virginia a- minute list was prepared in 1788; and,
like some of the state constitutions, contains most of what is essen
tial to good government. See St. George Tucker's Blaekstone,
vol. i. p. 1 ; Appendix, p. 161, 1803; and Jackson's Constitutions,
passim., t Franchises, and corporate rights of an exclusive character, to
a certain extent, are far from being unknown in the United States.
A remarkable instance upon this head occurred lately in Connecti
cut. Two collegiate bodies had long supplied the wants of the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

227

exclusive privileges ; the absence of a national church
and tithes ; the establishment of the equality of
all denominations of Christians ; the admission of its
being a public duty to educate the whole community ;
and the frequent reference of great affairs to the
people in convention.
The constitution of the United States, formed in
the way already stated, is a comparatively brief
instrument, and to important too be offered in an
abridged form j it is therefore given entire : —
We, the people of the United States, in order to .form a more per-
, feet union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide
for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secui e
the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain
and establish this Constitution for the United States of Ame
rica: — ARTICLE I.
Section I. — All legislative powers herein granted shall be vest
ed in a congress of the United States, which shall consist of a
senate and house of representatives.
Section II. — 1. The house of representatives shall be composed
of members chosen every second year by the people ofthe several
states ; and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications
requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state le-
gislature* ;
2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have at
tained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citi
zen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an
inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen.
3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among
the several states which may be included within -this union, ac
cording to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by
adding t6 the whole number of free persons, including those bound
to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed,
three fifths of all othe^ persons. The actual enumeration shall be
made within three years after the first meeting of the congress of
the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years,
in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number pf. repre
sentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand ; but each
state shall have at least one representative ; and until such enu
meration shall be made, the state of -New Hampshire shall be en
titled to choose three; 'Massachusetts, eight; Rhode' Island and
Providence Plantations, one ; Connecticut, five ; New York, six ;
New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Mary
land, six ; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; South Carolina,
five ; and Georgia, three.
4. When Vacancies happen in the representation from any state,
the executive authority thereof shall issue Writs of election to fill
such vacancies.

district, when at length a third seemed desirable to many of the
people. The old colleges were prone to think their long undis
turbed priorityhad endowed them with exclusive rights ; and they
actually resisted the reasonable claim of a younger establishment,
not without temporary success. Calm and vigorous discussions,
however, convinced the state legislature that the new body was
entitled' to receive capacities similar to those which the others
would fain have called privileges ; and the third college now
flourishes in all respects like its fellows, which it doubtless im
proves bythe stimulus of. its example.. Had the case occurred
when the state was only an, English colony, the claim would pro
bably have been refused.. By the sixth article of the Massachu
setts Declaration of Rights, it' is settled, that no "corporation, or
association of men, have any other title to obtain advantages, or
particular and exclusive privileges, distinct from those of the com
munity, than what arises from the consideration of services ren-

5. The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and
other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment.
Section III. — 1. The senate of the United States shall be com
posed of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature
thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote.
2. Immediately after they shall be assembled, in consequence of
the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into
three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be
vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the second class,
at the expiration of the fourth year ; and of the third class, at the
expiration of the sixth year ; so that one third may be chosen every
second year : and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise,
during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive
thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting
of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.
3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to
the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that
state for which he shall be chosen.
4. The vice-president of the United States shall be president of
the senate, but shall have no vote, unless' they be equally divided.
5. The senate shall choose their other officers] and also a presi
dent pro tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he.
shall exercise the office of president of the United States.
6. Tbe senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments:
when sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation.
When the president of the United States is tried, the chief justice
shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted without the con
currence of two thirds of the members present.
7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further
than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy
any office- of honour, trust, or profit, under the United States; but
the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable -and subject to in
dictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law.
Section IV. — 1. The times, places, and manner of holding
elections for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in
each state by the legislature thereof; but the congress may at any
time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as tp the
places of choosing senators.
2. The congress shalt.assemble at least once in every year, and
such meeting shall be on the , first Monday in- December, unless
they shall by law appoint a different day.
Section V. — 1 . Each house shall be the judge of the elections,
returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of
each shall constitute a quorum, to do business ; but a smaller num
ber may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to com
pel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under
such penalties, as each house may provide.
2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings,
punish its members for disorderly behaviour, and, with the con
currence of two thirds, expel a member.
3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may, in
their judgment, require secresy ; and the yeas and nays of the
members of either house on any question, shall, at the desire of
one fifth of those present,, be entered on the journal.

dered to the public." — Jackson's Constitutions of the States of Ame
rica, p. 41. In the convention of Massachusetts, of 1820, it was
urged, that a clause for limiting the power of the legislature to in
corporate only towns of 10,000 inhabitants, and upwards, was a
breach of the foregoing article of the original Declaration of Rights.
The limiting clause was, however, adopted, which, with, other de
tails too long for this place, prove that the principle of freedom,
on the point of privilege, is not yet thoroughly acted upon in Ame
rica. In the debate it was stated, in support ofthe clause alluded
to, that the application of "a little clump' of Indians" fpr city pri
vileges, in addition to numerous applications of others for the like
powers, caused the legislature of Connecticut to cease granting
t-hem, as being inconvenient. Such arguments led 223 member"
of the convention to make the law exclusive. — Journal of Proceed
ings in the Convention to revise the Constitution of Massachusetts
1820, p. 99.

228

Topography of the united states.

4. Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, with
out the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days,
nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be
sitting. Section VI. — 1. The senators and representatives shall receive
a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and
paid out of the treasury.of the United States. They shall in all
cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged
from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respect
ive houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for
any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned
in any other place.
2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for whi«D
he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority
of the United States, which shall have been created:, or the emolu
ments whereof snail have been increased during such time ; and
no person holding aDy office under the United States, shall be a
member of either Rouse during his continuance in office.
Section VII. — 1. All bills for raising revenue- shall originate in
the house of representatives ; but the senate maypropose or concur
with amendments as on ether bills.
2. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representa
tives and the senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to
the president of the United States : if he approve, he shall sign it ;
but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in
which it shall have originated, who shall enter the "objections at
large on their journal, and pTPceed tc reconsider it. If,-after such
reconsideraticn, two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the
bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house,
by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two '
thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases,-
the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and
the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be
entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall-
not be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays except
ed) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a
law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the congress, by
their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it shall not be
a law.•3-. Every1 order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of
the senate and house of representatives may be necessary, (except
. on a question of adjournment,) shall be presented to the president
of the United States ; and before tlie same shall take effect, sfiall
be approved by him ; or, being disapproved by him, shall be re
passed by two thirds of the senate and house pf representatives, ac-
eprding to the rules and limitations prescribed in the ease of a bill.
Section VIII. — -The congress shall have powe*,>'
1 . To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay
the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare
of tbe United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall be
ttniform throughput the United States :
k 2. Te borrow money on the credit of the United States :
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the
' several states, and with the Indian trjbes:
4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform
laws- on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States :
5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures :
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities
and current coin of the United States :
7. To establish post-offices and post-rpads:
8. Tp promote the progress of science and useful arts,; by se
curing, for limited times-, to authors and inventors, the exclusive
right to their respective writings and discoveries :
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court :
10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the
high seas, and offences against the law of nations :
11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and
make rules concerning captures on Iand and water :
12. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriations of money
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years :
13. To provide and maintain a navy :
14. Te make rules fer the gpvernment and reguAuioIi of the
loud and naval forces z

,15. To provide for'calling fortjrthe militia to execute the laws
of the union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions :
16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the mi
litia, and for governing such, part of them as may be employed in
the service ofthe United States, reserving to the states respeptively
the appointment of the officers, and'the authority of training the
militia according to the discipline prescribed by congress*
17. Tp exercise "exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever,
over, such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may by ces
sion of particular states, and the acceptance of congress, become
the seat of the government of the United States; and to exercise
ljke authority over all places purchased by the consent of the le
gislature of the state in which the same shall be, for tlie erection
of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful build*
ings: — and,
i- 18. To make ail laws which shall be necessary and proper for
carrying intc execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers
vested by this constitution in the government of the United States,
or in any department or officer, thereof.
Section IX.— 1. The migration or importation, of such persons
as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall
not be prohibited by the congress prior to the year pne thousand
eight hundred and eighty but a tax pr duty may be imppsed pn
such importation, not exceeding ten-dollars for each person.
2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus
pended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public
safety may require it.
3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed.
4. No capitation, or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in pro
portion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be
taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any
state. 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce
or revenue to- the ports of one state over those of another : nor shall
vessels bound to, or from, one state, b.e obliged, to enter, clear, or
pay duties in another. .,
7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in conse
quence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement
and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money
shall be published from time to time.
8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : and
no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall,
without the consent of the congress, accept of any present, emolu
ment, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince,,
or foreign state.
Section X. — 1 . No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or
confederation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ;
emit bills of credit ; make any thing but gold and silver coin a
tender in payment of debts ; pass-any bill of attainder, ex post facto
law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts ; or grant any
title of nobility.
2. No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any
imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso
lutely necessary' for executing its inspection laws ; and the net
produce of all duties and Imposts, laid by any state on imports or
exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States;
and all such laws shall be .subjeet to the revision and control of the
congress. 3. No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any
duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter
into any agreement or compact with another state, or with aforeigtt
power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or ia sueh im
minent danger as will' not admit of delay.
ARTICLE II.
Section I. — I . The executive power shall be vested in a presi
dent of the United States of America. He shall hold his office
during the term of four years, and, together with the vice-presi
dent, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : —
2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the. legislature
thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole num
ber of senators and representatives to which the state may l>e enti»

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

229

tied in* the' congress : but no senator or representative, or person
holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be
appointed an elector.*
/- 3.. The cpngress may determme the time, cf -chcpsing the elec
tors, and the day pn which they shall give their votes ; which day
shall be the same .throughput the Unj.ted States,
4. Np perspn, except a natural-,born citizen, or a citizen of the
¦ United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall
be eligible to the office of president; neither shall any. person be
eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of
thirty-five years, and been fourteen years' a resident within the
United States^
5. In case ofthe removal of the president from office, or of his
death, resigna|ion, or inability to discharge the powers and duties
of- the said office, the same shall devolve on the. vice-president ;
and the ccngress may, by law, provide for the case of remcval,
-death, resignation, pr inability, both ofthe president and vice-pre
sident, declaring what officer shall then act as president, and such
officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a
president shall be elected.
6. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a
compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished
during the period for which he shall have been elected ; and he
shall not receive, within that period, any other emolument from
the United States, or any of them.
7. Before he enter on the execution of his office;- he shall take
the following oath or affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or af
firm) that I will faithfully execute the office of president of the
United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect,
and defend the constitution of the United States.
Section II. — 1. The president shall be commander in chief of
the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the
several states, when called into the actual service of the United
States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal
Officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject re
lating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have
power to grant reprieves aDd pardons for offences against the Uni
ted States, except in cases of impeachment,
2. He shall have power,'by and with the advice and consent of
the senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators pre
sent concur ; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and
consent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public mi
nisters, and consuls, judges of the supreme, court, "and all other of
ficers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein
otherwise provided for, and which, shall be established by law:
but the -congress may, bylaw, vest the appointment of such inferior
officers as they think proper, in the president alone, in the courts
of law, or in the heads of departments.
3. The president shall have power to fill" up all vacancies that
may happen during the recess of the senate, by granting' commis
sions, which shall expire at the end of their next session.
Section III. — He shall, from time to time, give to the congress
information of the state of the union, and recommend to their con
sideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expe
dient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses,
or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with
respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such
time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and
other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faith
fully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United
States. Section IV. — The president, vice-president, ;&nd all civil officers
of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment
for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and
misdemeanours. ARTICLE III. *
Section I. — The judicial power of the United States shall be
Tested in one supreme court,' and in such inferior courts as the
congress may, from time to time; ordain and establish. The
* A long clause, regulating the proceedings at the election of
president and vice-president, was here introduced ; but as it is su-
Vol. l£— Nos. 55 & 56. 2 F

judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their of
fices during good behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for
their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during
their continuance in office.
Section II. — 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in
law and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of the
United States, and treaties made, or ,which shall be made, under
their authority,-; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public
ministers, and consuls ; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime
jurisdiction ; — to controversies to which the United States shall
be a party ; — to controversies between two or more states ; -^be
tween a state and citizens of another state ; — between citizens of
different states ; — between citizens of the same state claiming lands
under grants of different states, and between a state or the citizens
thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.
2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and
consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the supreme
court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases be
fore mentioned, the supreme court shall have'appellate jurisdiction,
both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such re
gulations, as the cpngress shall make.
• 3. The-trial ef all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall
be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said
crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within
any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the congress
may by law have directed.
Section III.: — 1 ¦ Treason against the United States shall consist
only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies,
giving them aid and comfort.
2. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testi
mony of two witnesses lo the same overt act, or on confession in
open court.
3. The congress shall have power to declare the punishment of
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood,
or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted.
ARTICLE IV.

the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other
state. And the congress may, by general laws, prescribe the man
ner in which such acts, records, and proceedings, shall be proved,
and the effect thereof.
" Section II. — 1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to
all privileges and immunities of citizens in -the several states.
2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other
crime, who. shall flee from justice, and be found in another state,
shall', on demand of the executive authority of the state from which
he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdic
tion ofthe crime.
3. No perspn -held tp service cr labpur in pne state, under the
laws thereof, escaping intp anpther, shall, in consequence of any
law or regulation-therein, be discharged from such, service or la
bour, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such
service or labour may be due.
Section III. — 1. New states may be admitted- by the congress
into this union : but no new state shall be formed or erected within
the jurisdiction of any other state ; nor any state be formed by the
junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the con
sent of the legislatures of the states concerned, as well as of the
congress. 2. The congress shall have power to dispose of and make need
ful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property
belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this constitution
shall be so ccnstrued as to prejudice any claims of the United
States, or of any particular state.
Section IV. — The United States shall guarantee to every state
in this union a republican form pf government, and shall protect
each, of them against invasion ; and, en application of the legisla
ture^* or ef the executive, (when the legislature can net be con
vened,) against domestic violence.

perseded by Article X*II. of the Amendments, it is unnecessary to
insert it.

230

TOPOGRAPHY OF THB UNITED STATES.

, ARTICLE V.
The congress, whenever two thirds of both' houses shall deem
it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution, or, on
the application of the legislatures pf twp thirds pf the several states,
shall call a ccnvention fer proposing amendments, which, in either
case, shall he valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this con
stitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the
several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the
one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the con
gress ; provided that no amendment, which may be made prior to
the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, shall in any man
ner affect the first and fourth clauses in . the ninth section of the
first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be de
prived of its equal suffrage in the senate!
ARTICLE VI.
1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before
the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the Uni
ted States, under this constitution, as under the confederation.
2. This constitution, and, the laws of the United States, which
shall be made in pursuance thereof, and alltreaties made, or which
shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be
the supreme law of the land > and the judges in every state shall
be- bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or laws of any
state to the contrary notwithstanding.
3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the
members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and
judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states,
shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this constitution.;
but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any
office or public trust under the United States.
ARTICLE VII.
The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be suffi
cient for the establishment of this constitution between the states
so ratifying the same. AMENDMENTS* .
TO the constitution of the united states/ratified according to the
PROVISIONS OF THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE FOREGOING CONSTITUTION.
Article I. — Congress shall make no law respecting an establish
ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or
abridging the freedom of speech or of the press ; or the right of
the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government
for a redress of grievances.
Article II.— A well-regulated militia being necessary to the
security of a free state, the right ofthe people to keep and bear arms
shall not be infringed.
Article III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in
any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war,
but in" a manner to be prescribed by law.
Article IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their per
sons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches
and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue,
but. upon probable cause, supported by bath or affirmation, and
particularly describing the place to be searched, and the person or
things to be seized.
Article V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital, of
otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment

* Congress, at their first session under the constitution, held in
the city of New York, in 1789, proposed to the legislatures of the
several states twelve amendments, ten of which oniy were adopted.
They are the first ten of the amendments in the text ; and they
were ratified by three fourths, the constitutional number of the
states, on the ISth of December, 1791, The eleventh amendment
was proposed at the first session of the third congress, and was de-

o'f a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces
of in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or publie
danger ; nor shall any person be subject, for the same -pffenee; to
be twice put in jeepardy pf life.er limb ; npr shall be ccmpelled,
in any criminal case, tc be a witness against himself, ner be de
prived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ;
nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just
compensation. Article VL— In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall
enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury
of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been com
mitted, which district shall have been previously ascertained by
law, and to be informed of the -nature and cause of the accusation ;
to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have ccmpul-
sery process for obtaining witnesses in his favour, and. to have the
assistance of counsel for his defence. , , . -
Article VII. — -In suits at common law, where the value in con
troversy shall exceed twenty dollars, >th-e right of trial by jury shall
be preserved; and no fact tried by a jury. shall be otherwise re
examined in any court of the United States, than according to the
rules of the. common law.
Article VIIL — Excessive bail shall not be required, nor exces
sive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. .
Article IX. — The enumeration in the constitution of certain .
rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained
by the people.
Article X. — The powers not delegated to the United States by
the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to
the states respectively, or to the people.
Article XI. — The judicial power of the United States shall not
be construed to extend tp any suit in law or equity, commenced or
prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another
state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.
Article XII. — The electors shall meet in their respective states,
and vote by ballot for president and vice-president, one of whom,
at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with them
selves; they shall, name in their ballots the person voted for as
president; and, in distinct ballots, the person voted for as vice-
president ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted
for as president, and of all persons voted for as vice-president, and
of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and
eertify, and transmit, sealed,, to the seat of the government of the
United States, directed to the president of the senate.. The presi
dent of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of
representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then
be counted; — the person having the greatest number of votes for
president shall be the president, if such number be a majority of
the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have
such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers,
not exceeding three, on the list -of those voted for as president, the
house of representatives, shall choose immediately, by ballot, the
president. But in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken
by states, the representation from each state having one vote;' a
quorum for this purpose shall consist cf a member pr members
from twp thirds pf the states, and a majprity pf all the states shall.
be necessary tc a chcice. And if the house of representatives shall
not choose a president, whenever the rignt of choice shall devolve.
upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then
the vice-president shall act as president, as in the case of the
death or other constitutional disability of the president. The
person having the greatest number of votes as vice-president,, shall
be the vice-president, if such number be a majority of the whole
number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority,
then from the twe highest numbers pn the list the senate shall
chppse the viee-president ; a quorum for the purpose, shall consist

clared in a message from the president of the United States to both
houses of cpngress, dated the 8th ef January, 1798, to have been
adopted by the constitutional number of states. The twelfth
amendment, which was proposed at the first session of the eighth
congress, was adopted, by the constitutional number of states in the
year 1804, aecofding'to a public notice by the secretary of state,
dated the 25th of September* 1804*

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

231

of two thirds of the whole number of senators, and a "majority of
the whole number shall be necessary tp a chpice, But no person
* In the first vclume of this Histpry will be found cppies of the
other instruments, which maybe considered the foundations, of the
present cpnstitutipn ; in page 216 is the Declaraticn pf Rights and
Grievances cf 177 4 ; in page 242 is the Declaratipn pf Independ
ence of 1-776; and in page 270 is a summary cf the Articles ef
Confederafipn pf 1777 ; but the cpnstitutipn set forth in the text is
new that of the uniph. Thpse ef the separate states may be un-
derstood generally by the examples of Virginia and Mississippi.
VIRGINIA.
The constitution of this state, which has hitherto, since its first
adoption, been in operation, was formed in 1776; but on the first
Monday in October, 1829, a convention met at Richmond, " to
consider, discuss, and propose a new constitution, or alterations
and amendments to the existing constitution;" and on the 14th of
January, 1830, the convention adopted an amended constitution,
by a vote of fifty-five to forty. The amended constitutipn, on be
ing submitted to the legal voters of the state, was ratified by a ma
jority of 10,492 votes, as appears by the following statement: —

Pof.
Votes in Trans- Alleghany district . . 2,123
Vallev district . . . . . 3,842
Middie district  12,417
Tide-water district .... 7,673

26,055

Against. 11,289 2,097 1,086
1,091
15,563

By this constitution the legislative power is vested in a senate
and a house of delegates, which are together styled " The General
Assembly of Virginia." The house of delegates cqnsists of 1 34
members, chosen annually ; thirty-one from the twenty-six counties
west pf the Alleghany Mountains ; twenty-five from the fourteen
counties between the Alleghany MPun tains and the Blue Ridge ;
ferty-twp from the twenty-nine counties east cf the Blue Ridge and
abcve Tide- water; and thirty-six frem the ccunties, cities, towns,
and boroughs, lying upon Tide-water. The senate consists of
thirty-two members, thirteen from the counties west of the Blue
Ridge, and nineteen from the counties, cities, towns, and boroughs,
east thereof. The senators are elected for four years ; and the
seats of one fourth of them are vacated every year. In all elec
tions to any office or place of trust, honour, or profit, the votes are
given openly, or viva voce, and not by ballot. A reapportionment
for representation in both -houses is to take place every ten years,
commencing in 1841, until which time there is to be no change in
the number of delegates and senators from the several divisions ;
and after 1841 the number of delegates is never to exceed 150;
nor that of the senators 36.
" The executive power is vested in a governor elected by the
joint vote of the two houses tff the general assembly. He holds
his office three years, commencing on the 1st of January next suc
ceeding his election, or on such other day as may be, from time
to time, prescribed bylaw; and he is ineligible for the three years
next after the expiration of his term of office. There is a council
of state, consisting of three members, elected for three years by the
joint vote of the two houses; the seat of one being vacated annu
ally. The senior counsellor is lieutenant-governor. The judges
of the supreme court of appeals, and of the superior courts, are
elected by a joint vote of both houses of the general assembly, and
hold their offices during good behaviour, or until removed by a
concurrent vote of both houses ; but two thirds of the members
present must concur in such vote, and the cause of removal be en
tered on the journals of each house.
" The right of suffrage is extended to every white male citizen
of the commonwealth resident therein, aged twenty-one years and
upwards, who is qualified to exercise the right of suffrage accord
ing to the former constitution and laws ; or who owns a freehold of
the value of twenty-five dollars ; or who has a joint interest to the
amount of twenty^five dollars in a freehold ; or who has a life estate
in, or reversionary title to, land of the value of fifty dollars, having

constitutionally ineligible to the office of president, shall be eligible
to that of vice-president of the United States.*
been so possessed for six months ; or who shall own and be in the
actual occupation of a leasehold estate, having the title recorded
two months before he shall offer to vote, of a term originally net less
than five years, and ef the annual value or rent ef 200 dpllars; or
who, for twelve months before offering to vote, lias been a house
keeper and head of a family, and shall have been assessed with a
part ef the revenue ef the ccmmonwealth within the preceding
year, and actually paid the same.
" Executive government. — Governor, salary, 3,333 1-3 dollars per
annum; lieutenant-governor and president of the council, and
seven counsellors, '8,000 dollars; clerk- of the council and keeper
of the public seal, 1,320 dollars; assistant clerk of the council,
1,000 dollars; attorney-general, 1,000 dollars; treasurer of state,
2,000 dollars; auditor, 2,000 dollars ; second auditor, 1,800 dol
lars; register ofthe land office, 1,500 dollars; keeper of the peni
tentiary, 2,000 dollars; penitentiary store-keeper, 1,500 dollars;
adjutant-general, 500 dollars.
-" The number of members of the existing senate is twenty-four ;
and of the house of delegates two hundred and fourteen, two from
fjach of the one hundred and five counties, and one from each of
the. two cities and two boroughs. The senators and delegates re
ceive four dollars a day, and twenty cents a mile for travel ; the
speaker of each house, eight dollars a day.
" Judiciary.— The offices of all the following judges of the su
preme court of appeals, of the general court, and of the superior
courts of chancery, will expire at the termination of tbe session of
the first legislature under the new constitution. Supreme court
of appeals, — five judges, 2,500 dollars each. Superior courts of
chancery, — four judges. 1,667 dollars each. Fifteen judges ofthe
general court, who are also judges of the superior courts of law
held in each county: these judges receive each a salary of 1,500
dollars, and three dollars for every twenty miles travel on the
circuit." ' . MISSISSIPPI.
The constitution of this state was formed at the town of Wash
ington, in August, 1817. " The legislative power is vested in a
senate and a house of representatives, which are together styled
' The General Assembly of the State of Mississippi.' The repre
sentatives are elected annually on the first Monday in August, in
the ratio of one to every 3,000 white inhabitants. Each.county,
however, is entitled. to one; and the present whole number is
thirty-thre.e. According to the constitution, when the number of
white inhabitants exceeds 80,000, the number of representatives
can not be less than thirty-six, nor more than one hundred. The
members of the senate are elected for three years, one third heimg
chosen annually. Their number can not be less than one fourth,
nor more than one third ofthe whole number of representatives. ,
" The executive power is vested in a governor, who is elected*
by the people for two years, on the first Monday in August. At
every election of a governor, a lieutenant-governor is also chosen,
who is president of the senate, and\on whom the executive duties
devolve in case of the death, resignation, or absence, of the go
vernor. " The general assembly meets at Jackson, annually, on the first
Monday in Npvember.
" The right of suffrage is granted to every free white male citi
zen of the United States, of the age of twenty-one years or up
wards, who has resided within this state one year next preceding
an election, and the last six months within the county, city, or
town, in which he offers to vote, and is enrolled in the militia
thereof, unless exempted by law from military service ; or, having
the aforesaid qualifications of citizenship and residence, has paid
a state or eounty tax.
" The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, and such su
perior and inferior courts of law and- equity, as the legislature
may from time to time establish. The judges of the several courts
are elected by the general assembly, and hold their offices during
good behaviour,, until the age of sixty-five years.
" Executive government.— Governor's salary, 2,500 dollars ; lien-

232

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

The originators of the Constitution are the people,
by direct votes given upon resolutions prepared by
their delegates in convention ; a term with which
the reader of this history is familiar,; but of which
the precise import upon the present occasion deserves
further remark. Conventions, then; in this sense,
are the supreme and primary assemblies of the peo
ple in the several states, which have for their rule
only the public will, and for their objects justice and
the public good. Like the merely voluntary meet
ing of ihe people — the conventus publicos propria
authoritate of England of the twelfth century — they
originate in the old common law ; but they are much
more regular in form, although not more legal or
important, than voluntary meetings of the people for
less momentous purposes. When experience suggests
that the constitution wants amendment, the subject
is referred to conventions. The legislature (we
speak of Massachusetts, in 1820, By way of example)
pass a law, that inhabitants qualified to vote for the
senators and representatives shall assemble in regular
town meetings on a certain day, and give their votes
by ballot on this question — " Is it expedient that
delegates should be chosen to meet in convention for
tenant-governor's pay, six dollars a day during the session pf the
legislature; secretary of state's salary, 1,200; state treasurer,
1,000 dollars-; auditor of public accounts, 1,000 dollars; attorney-
general, 1,000 dollars.
"Judiciary. — Court of chancery: chancellor's salary, 2,000 dol
lars.. Supreme c->-i'1 : chief justice, and four associate' justices^
2,000 dollars each. Circuit courts : the state is divided into five
districts, in which the judges of the supreme court severally hold
eircuit courts.. These courts have original jurisdiction in all cases
where the sum in dispute exceeds fifty dollars ; and appellate ju
risdiction, from the courts of the justices of the peace, when the
sum exceeds twenty dollars. They are also invested with criminal
jurisdiction,, except in the county of Adams, which has a court ex
clusively of criminal jurisdiction : judged; salary, 800 dollars.
Probate and county courts : there are, in every county, a probate
court and a county court, the judges of which have no salary, but
are paid by fees, and by an allowance of three dollars a day. The
county court is composed of three judges, of which the- probate
judge is the presiding justice. The court has jurisdiction over all
pffenees committed by slaves ; and "for such trials it is invested
with the ppwers which usually belcng to courts of oyer and ter
miner. It has appellate jurisdiction from the courts of the justices
of the peace, when the sum involved does not exceed twenty dollars."
DEPENDANT TERRITORIES.
With respect to the vast territories belonging to the United
States, — territories not formed into states, and which are not yet
distinct societies, known to the - constitution as separate states,-^-
congress has assumed to exercise supreme sovereignty over them,
until the means pf internal prganizatipn as states exist there. In
the Arkansas territory, for example, the gpvernpr and judges are
appointed by the president and senate, but they are removable at
the pleasure of the president ; and the judges, subject to such re
moval, hold office for four, and the governor for three years. A
legislative body, composed of nine counsellors appointed by the
president and senate of the United States, to continue in office for
five years ; and of a house of representatives, to be chosen by the
inhabitants every two years, was provided by congress in 1820.
The superior court of justice has exclusive cognizance of all capi-

the purpose of revising or altering the constitution ?"
And if the majority of votes is in favour of choosing
delegates, the inhabitants entitled to vote for repre
sentatives to the legislature shall elect delegates to
take into consideration the propriety of making any
and what amendments in the constitution ; and such
amendments shall be submitted to the people for their
adoption, in such manner as the convention direct ;
and if ratified by the people, the constitution shall be
deemed to be amended accordingly ; and if not so
ratified, the present constitution shall remain. (Act
of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, June 16,'
1820.) Under this act, delegates met on the 15th of
November in the same year, and resolved to abolish
the old property qualification of electors of represent
atives ; to extend to militia soldiers under twenty-
one years of age the right of voting for their ensigns,
lieutenants, and captains ; — to render more complete
the separation of the judicial, executive, and legisla
tive authorities ; — and to make other important
changes. The proposed amendments were then
referred to the people, who discussed them over
again in their respective townships. Of the fourteen
articles thus presented to their consideration, five
tal offences, and trial by jury is secured, together with many of the
other great fundamental principles cf civil liberty. The local le
gislatures of these territories are prohibited frohi interfering with
the primary disposal of the soil by the United States, or from tax
ing lands belonging to the United States, or the lands of absentees,
higher than those of residents, or from interrupting the navigable
waters flowing into the Mississippi and Missouri rivers- It is held
that congress has supreme power in the government of these ter
ritories, depending on the exercise of its sound discretion ; and if
the" government of the United States should carry into execution
the project of colonizing the great valley of the Oregon to the west
of the Rocky Mountains, the civil and political destiny of this
country will afford a subject of grave consideration. — Chancellor
Kent's Commentaries.
The adoption of foreign states, upon equal and constitutional
terms, into the old union, is an interesting and novel illustration
of the success of the American polity, which was applied with
great advantage upon the acquisition of Louisiana. When that
country was purchased, a great problem presented itself, which it
was necessary for the government and the people of the United
States, and the inhabitants of Louisiana, to meet. Although
France sold the country,, it is plain that, on American principles,
the United States could, acquire no rights, under the purchase, ex
cept against France and other powers, admitting the right of a
mother country to transfer the jurisdiction of a colony. It was
the opinion of Mr. Jefferson and his cabinet, that it was necessary
for the people of Louisiana to do some act expressive of -their
willingness to. join the American people: this was, however, su
perseded by the obvious good will and predisposition of the popu
lation; and the momentous result of transferring all Louisiana, an
empire in itself, from one jurisdiction to another,, was unattended
by the slightest violence, and has been succeeded by daily increas
ing satisfaction.
Had the comprehensive character of our work permitted it, we
should have presented a sketch of the constitution of each state,
and have exhibited the points in which they differ. Any of our
readers who may wish to ascertain minutely the constitutions of
the other slates, can refer to the tables in the Encyclopaedia Ame
ricana, vol. iii. art. Constitutions, or to the Companion to, th*
British Almanac for 18.32..

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

233

¦were rejected. The debates of the convention were
published, and distributed from day to day with
great care throughout the state ; and the whole busi
ness occupied about six months.*
The earliest convention of which we read in the
history of North America was formed directly upon
the model of that of England in 1689. When the
intelligence of the* Revolution reached Boston, the peo
ple rose in mass, and imprisoned an unpopular go
vernor. A small body of the principal inhabitants
took upon themselves the government, under the
title of " A Council for the Safety of the People and
Conservation of the Peace- ;" and, in imitation of the
convention called by the Prince of Orange, recom
mended to the several towns in the colony to meet
and depute persons to form an assembly. Of this
event, the governor of Connecticut says, in a contem
porary letter, " The true grounds of the precedure
of the colony in assuming the government was, solus
¦populi est suprema le.v." The king soon signified
the royal approbation of what had been done, recog
nizing, in his letters to the council,. the convention of
the representation of the people of the colony. In
this case, at the privy council, Sir John Somers, then
the counsel for the people upon a petition, said, " The
country, oppressed by an arbitary government, did
there as we did here — rose as one man." One ofthe
council remarked in this case, " I perceive the revo
lution was there as it was here — by the unanimous
agreement of the people."t

* Debates and Proceedings in the Massachusetts Convention of
1820. 8vo. Boston, 1821.
+ Hutchinson's History of Massachusetts Bay, vol. i. pp. 373 —
394. t The due limits of constructive powers have been the occasion
of anxious discussion. It has been strongly contended, that no
implied powers weYe given to the federal government ; for which
position, the following solemn declaration by members of the con^
vention of 1787, are relied upon : — " In the convention of Massa
chusetts, at which were present the two members from that state
who signed the constitution, the first amendment proposed, in order
to remove the fears of many, and more effectually guard against
an undue administration of the federal government, is in these
terms : — That it be explicitly declared, that all powers not express
ly delegated by the aforesaid constitution, are reserved to the seve
ral slates, to be by them exercised." (Debates of the Convention of
Massachusetts, Boston, 1788, p. 211.) In the legislature of South
Carolina, to which the constitution was sent, in order to be refer
red to a convention of the people, one of her delegates in the ge
neral convention, in explaining the views of the convention, and
the objects of the constitution, uses these expressions : — " The dis
tinction often taken between the natuf e of a federal and state go
vernment appeared to be conclusive ; that in, the former, no powers
eould be executed or assumed but such as were expressly delega
ted.'.' (Debates in the House of Representatives of South Carolina,
Charleston, 1788, p. 7.) General Pinckney, also a member of the
general convention, thus expresses himself: — " It is admitted on
all hands, that the general government has no powers but those
which are expressly granted by the constitution ; and that all
rights not expressed, were reserved by the several states." (Ibid,.
». 25.) And again,, when replying to some one who had remark-

Thc constituency who choose the delegates for a
convention is almost always the same constituency
who choose the members of the state legislature ; but
it seems to be open to discretion to make this occa
sional constituency even more extensive. A great
peculiarity, however, of the character of conventions,
is, that the delegates may be individuals from any
class, including the ministers of religion, the governor,
and other public functionaries, and the judges. In
this point the reader will be struck with the resem
blance it bears to the English county meetings, where
peers, and commoners, and clergy, and all other men,
assemble to deliberate on any public concerns.
Both institutions, indeed, are traceable to a common
Saxbri stock. The experience of the Americans,
however, is fast giving a new and fixed character to
these important organs of the popular will. Frequent
resort to the true source of national power has ren
dered that resort regular and easy ; and by bringing
the real sovereign, the people, into view and activity
without confusion, promises to advance the public
interests on a scale hitherto unknown, and scarcely
anticipated by the most sanguine lovers of good
governmeht. The constitution being so settled, the general go
vernment cannot exercise any powers not given either
expressly, or by the implication}: necessary to the
execution of the express powers. The powers vested
in the state governments by their respective constitu
tions, or remaining with the people of the several
ed that the liberty of the press had not been secured, he adds, —
" The general government has no powers but what are expressly
granted to it; it therefore has no poweT to take away the liberty
of the press; that invaluable blessing is secured by all our state
constitutions ; and to have mentioned it in our general constitu
tion, would, perhaps, furnish an argument hereafter, that the ge
neral government had a right to exercise powers not expressly
delegated to it. ¦ For the same reason, we had no bill of rights in
serted in our constitution ; for_as we might perhaps have omitted
the enumeration of some of our rights, it might hereafter be said,
- we had delegated to the general government a power to take away
such of our rights as we had not enumerated ; but by delegating
express pewersf we certainly reserve tp curselves every pewer and
right not mentioned in the censtitution." (Ibid. p. 44.) — Southern
Review, on the Constitution of the United States, for May, 1 828.
Upon this precise point it was prophetically said by the able and
eloquent Virginian, Patrick Henry, against granting powers, by
implication, " If they(the federal government) can use implication
for us, they can alse use implicaticn against us. We are giving
pewer, they are getting pewer; judge then en which side the im
plicaticn will be used. When we ence put it in their pewer to
assume constructive ppwer, danger will follpw. Implication is
dangerous, because it is unbounded; if it be admitted at all, and
no limits be preserved, it admits of the utmost extension. They
say that every thing not given is retained; the reverse -of the
proposition is true by implication."— Ibid. p. 315. ,
And it is well said by Mr. Webster, in justification of limiting
the power of legislation, that !' The people have most wisely chosen
to take the risk- of occasional inconveniences from the want ol
power, in order that there- might be a settled limit to its exercise,
and a permanent security against its abuse. They have imposed!

234

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

states, prior to the establishment of the United States,
continue unaltered, except so far as they are granted
to the United States. The true, construction of the
particular declarations in the constitution, and the
extent of the authority still remaining to the several
states, are to be ascertained by the practice of the
respective governments, where there is no collision.
In all other cases, where the question is of a ju
dicial nature, doubts are determined by the supreme
court of the United States. The people, as we
have seen, have declared the constitution -to be
the supreme law ; and every act of congress, every
act of the state legislatures, and every part of every
state constitution, which is repugnant to the consti
tution of the United States, is void. The determi
nation pf the supreme court must be final, because the
constitution gives to that tribunal the power to decide;
and gives no appeal from its decisions. But it is
the familiar practice of the people to discuss those
decisions with the most unlimited freedom; and the
judges who pronounce them are subject to impeach
ment at the bar of congress for malversation in their
posts. The date of the constitution, and of American law
generally, as contradistinguished from the old colonial
constitutions and laws, is perhaps subject to some
doubts. It has been shewn how gradually the na
tional independence grew out of resistance to particu
lar measures in 1774, extending itself to the abroga
tion of British authority and British courts of justice
in 1775, until, in 1776, regular war broke out ; and
independence was first resolved upon in April, and
then declared on the celebrated 4th of July of the
last mentioned year. These various circumstances
seem to render the point difficult to be determined
when British law ceased to operate in the States. For
New York, the date is said to be the 19th of April,
1775; but, generally, the 4th of July, 1776, upon
which day the declaration of independence was signed,
may be termed the earliest legal origin of American
law. There was then also adopted and continued
much of the old colonial law, or that whieh had
grown up from what had accompanied the first emi
grants, or had afterwards been adopted from England,
or enacted at home, and by the colonial legislatures.
Many difficulties attended the framing of the consti
tution : and it Was not until November, 1777, that
the congress could so far reconcile the discordant
interests and prejudices of thirteen distinct commu-

prohibitions and restraints ; and they have not rendered these al
together vain by conferring the power of dispensation. No legis
lature in this country is able, and may the time never come when
it shall be able, to apply to itself the memorable expression of a

nities as to fix upon the articles of confederation ]
nor was it until March, 1781, that all the several
states accepted those articles which had been succes
sively submitted to them for approval.
The powers of the federal government thus created
were found too dependent upon the acquiescence of
the separate states ; and, in 1786, the old congress
yielded to a call from certain delegates of a large
majority of the states, to recommend the people to
form a general convention of delegates from all the
states, to " revise, amend, and alter," the articles of
confederation. This recommendation was made ac
cordingly ; and such general convention (excepting
Rhode Island, which did not send delegates) was as
sembled at Philadelphia, in May, 1787. After several
months' deliberation, the present constitution, except
the last articles, was agreed to. It was directed to
be submitted to delegates, to be chosen by the people
at large in each state, for their assent ; the grand
question turning upon the extent of the powers with
which the several governments should be invested.
Nearly a year elapsed before nine states had adopted
this constitution ; it then received a political exist
ence ; but it did not obtain the unanimous ratifica->
tion of all the members of the original confederacy
until June, 1790. The intervening discussions were,
however, unattended by the loss of a single life ; nor
were the doubts of the objecting parties of a nature
to lead to any differences more serious than those of
opinion, or than the somewhat bitter party feelings,
now understood to be daily softening, or seeking
scope in new channels. But if the particular parties
into which political society was divided during the
last forty years have lost much of their noxious cha
racter, to her difficulties respecting the constitution, not
essentially different from the old ones, have occurred;
and they are difficulties of a kind to require the ex
ercise of all the wisdom of this people, in order that
they may find a good issue. In the construction,
too, of the constitution, great diversities of opinion
have arisen, traceable, perhaps, to the same source
of proper jealousy of the encroachments of the cen
tral government, as much as to the intrinsic difficulty
of framing important documents clearly. Of these
diversities of opinion, an able writer in the United
States has lately said, that they " threaten to become
intermingled with sectional feelings and sectional
interests, and if not terminated by some new com
promise in the spirit of our ancient friendship, they

Roman pontiff: Licet hoc, de jure non possumus, volumus tamen it
plenitudine potestatis."— Speeches and Forensic Arguments, by DaniA
Webster, Boston, 1830, p. 136.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

235

may endanger the peace and permanence of the
union."* These questions will be noticed briefly as
we proceed.
The legislative powers are vested in congress,
and in the legislatures of the separate states, ac
cording to principles settled by the constitution.
The limits of these authorities have given rise to
various questions, the nature of which may be esti
mated by the points mentioned in the notes below.t
The question how far state governments have con
current power, in the legislative or judicial, over
cases within the jurisdiction of the government of
the United States, has been much discussed. The
correct principle is, that whenever the terms in which
a particular power has been granted to congress, or
the nature of that power, require it to be exercised
exclusively by congress, the subject is as absolutely

* Southern Review, May, 1828, p. 274.
t The power to regulate commerce,. Con. Act i., s. 8. chap. iii.
is vested in congress, exclusively of each of the states. — Gibbons v.
Ogden, 9 Wheaton, 186, &c Under this power, congress may lay
an embargo.— -2 Hall's Law Journal, 255; Acts of Dec. 22, 1807.
Congress mav provide for the punishment of foreign pirates.: —
3 Wheaton, 630.
Const. Art. I. s. 8. chap. 18. — "Necessary." The word " ne
cessary" in this article means needful,. requisite, essential, condu
cive te, and gives tp congress the choice of the means best calcu
lated to exercise the powers they possess. (4 Wheaton, 413,;
2 Cranch; 358, 396; 3 Wheaton, 304.) Hence congress have
power to inflict punishment in "cases not specified by the constitu
tion ; such power being implied as necessary to the sanction of
the laws and the exercise of the delegated powers. (4 Cranch,
146; S Wheaton, 336;) and to exact an oath of office, (4 Whea
ton, 415 ;) and to punish- larceny of letters from the pest-pffice, pr
robbery pf the mail, (ibid. 417 ;) and te create a corporate bank,
if necessary, for carrying into effect the powers vested in the go
vernment pf the United States, (ibid. ; 9 Cranch, 374 ;) and to se
cure to the United States a priority of payment from the effects of
an insplvent debtor. (2 Cranch, 1 59 ; 9 Graneh, 374.)
The prohibition to pass.ez post facto laws applies exclusively to
criminal or penal cases. 3 Dallas, 386 ; and see. on this article,
I Cranch, 109 ; 4 Dallas, .14.
The president's instructions are no justificaticn tp illegal acts. —
Little v. Barenie, 2 Cranch, 170.
Public wcrks. The exercise cf authority by congress over great
public works, commonly spoken of under the terms, " internal im
provements," as roads and canals, and the like, is an occasion of
much, controversy in the United States, which seems to tend to
wards limiting the extent hitherto assumed by the federal govern
ment. ' See Webster's Speeches, pp. 39*3, 398 ; President Madison's
Letter ; and the Southern Review for May, 1828, pp. 286, 290.
The regulations of the houses of congress resemble, in many
particulars, those of the hpuses of parliament; in pther respects
they have made eriginal rules.
The hpuse pf representatives chcpse their Own speaker, but the
Vice-president pf the United States is ex-ajlcio president ef the
senate, and gives the casting vote when they are equally divided.
The proceedings and discussions in the two houses are public;
but less careful provisipns seems te have been yet made fer re
porting the debates and proceedings than, as we shall hereafter
find, have been made in regard tp the ccurts pf justice.
- The constitution of the .United States requires no evidence of
property in the representative, nor any declaration of religious be
lief ; but he must not hold any office under the United States.
A member of congress may be expelled for a high misdemean
our.— -The cases pf W. Blount, 1797 ; and J. Smith, 1807.

taken fiom the state legislature^ as if they had been
forbidden to act. When the laws of particular states
and the laws of the union are in direct and manifest
collision, those of the union being the supreme law
of the land, are of paramount authority ; and the state
law, so far only as such incompatibility exists, must
yield. If a particular state and the union impose
taxes on the same article, it has been questioned
whether the union would have the priority of pay
ment. But the United States have declared by law
that they are entitled to such priority in respect to
debts. The concurrent power of legislature in. the
states seems, indeed, to be not an independent, but a
subordinate power, liable, in many cases, to be ex
tinguished, and in all cases to be postponed to the
supreme law of the union, whenever the federal and
the state regulations interfere with 'each other.t

No member of congress shall hold any contract to be made in
behalf of the United States.— Act, April 21, 1808.
By the act of 7th March, 1822, the representatives are appor
tioned according to a ratio of one for every forty thausand per
sons, making twe hundred and thirteen members, the present num
ber of the house ; besides delegates from three of the territories be
longing to the United States, who have a right to debate, but not
to vote.
The elections are held at stated seasons established by law.
The people Vote by ballot, in small districts, and pablic officers
preside over the elections, receive the votes, and maintain order
and fairness. Though the competition between candidates is ge
nerally active, the elections are everywhere conducted with tran
quillity. A very few exceptions occur to voting by ballot, as in
Kentucky and Virginia; and in 1821, when the constitution of
Massachusetts was amended, it became a. question, whether the
votes of the people upon the proposed clauses of amendment should
be taken, in the towns of 4,000 inhabitants and under, by ballot or
not. Upon a division in the convention, a majority of 1 85 to 69
was against the ballot being necessarily the way of taking the votes
upon that occasion, which was left to the selectmen. — Massachusetts
Convention Debates, p. 272,
The electors of president, or vice-president of the union, under
section I. of the second article of the constitution, have been ap
pointed hitherto, either upon the plan of ballpting by what is term
ed, "general tickets;" cruppn the plan of balloting, " by districts."
On the former plan, each voter in the state puts into the balloting-
box a list of all the individuals' whom he chooses for the whole
state. On the latter" plan, the voters of separate districts in 'the
state put into the box the name, or names, of the elector or eleeters
for their districts ; and separate majprities determine the chcice ef
the individuals, who are afterwards united, in erder to become the
electors for that whole state.
Voters are, for the most part, all the resident white men of
twenty-one years ef age. The qualification of 200 dollars in
property was abolished in Massachusetts in 1 8Sl ; and that of being
a freeholder was abolished in Virginia in 1830, and in other states
in earlier years. Indians, if taxed, vote in Maine ; and in New
York a man of colour may vote, if possessed of a freehold worth
250 dollars ; generally, men of cofour are expressly excluded. In
seme cases, in Ccnne.cticut, "good moral character" is necessary
to the voter. In Vermont, he must be " of quiet and peaceable be
haviour." In almost all cases, residence of three, six, or twelve
months, in their particular state, before voting, is required. Some
times the qualification for voting for senators differs from that ot
voting for members of the house of representatives.
t For this doctrine, and indeed for a large portion of this chapter,
we are indebted to Chancellor Kent's Commentaries on American
Law, a work that does not require the humble tribute of our praise.

236

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

It is an illustration of the success which has at
tended the efforts of the Americans to strengthen the
guarantees of good government, and make " the. fiend,
Discretion," with all its vices, give place to the many
virtues of " sovereign law," that the statutes of the
country mark out their duties even to the great offi
cers of government.* To listen to the advocates of
despotic authority in Europe, and even to those who
are guided only by the English public service of the
last half century, it would be supposed that abject
submission to a superior's command is an inevitable
adjunct to vigorous official service ; and that to pause
till convinced of the legality of an order, would be
incurring the great evil of a feeble administration of
affairs. Tine modern Americans wisely think otherr
wise ; and are, therefore, realizing the excellent sys
tem of official responsibility, combined with sufficient
and safe despatch, which the old English constitution,
with its forgotten oaths of office, and neglected sta
tutes, equally aimed at, and which modern English
reformers must revise and improve.
A grave exception to the rule, that law govern^
every thing in the United States, is to be found in
the want of legal redress for claimants upon the
funds or justice of the government. The United
States cannot be sued ; and no other remedy exists
for a creditor who is refused payment at the treasury,
or elsewhere, than an application to congress. There
is even no lien against the government for advances
made to its use. This is one of the principles im
ported from the old governments of Europe, which
arm the strong against the weak, and, like the prior
ity given to the United States as creditors, ought to
be removed from an enlightened system of legisla
tion. The theory of even the parent English constitu
tion is adverse to this rule. There, as well as in
the United States, every wrong is presumed to have
its remedy, and every claim its redress ; but it is
abundantly clear that, without peremptory access to
a fixed judicial tribunal, invested with the ordinary
duty to dispense right to every complainant, redress
* 6 Wheaton, 411 ; 3 Hall's Law Journal, 130.
t " Mr. Gallatin came to Virginia when a very young man ; he
was obscure and unknown, and being engaged in some agency
which made it necessary to present a petition to the assembly, he
endeavoured to interest the leading members in its fate, by attempt
ing to explain, out of doors, its merits and justice. He spoke Eng
lish so badly, that they could not understand him well enough to
feel any interest either for him or his petition. In this hopeless
condition, he waited on Mr. Henry, and soon felt that he "was in
different hands. Mr. Henry, oh, his part, was so delighted with
the interview, that he spoke of Mr. Gallatin every where in rap
tures ; he declared him, without hesitation pr dpubt, to be the
most sensible and best informed man he had ever conversed with;
' he is to be sure,' said he, ' a most astpnishing man.' The reader

will often be sought in vain. Legislative justice, or
justice to be granted only on the grace of a sovereign
to a petition, implies the exercise of a discretion,.
which is but too apt to be swayed by personal" con
siderations, or by the feelings of the times. Long
experience in England has proved how great is the
evil of this principle there ; and already have some
very serious inconveniences to individuals arisen from
it in America, where it is peculiarly 'discordant with
the almost universally good guarantees established
by the republic in defence of rational freedom. There
are many cases requiring redress, which the ordinary
courts do not receive, the parties being left to the ele
emosynary remedy of petitions to congress. The
dependence of congress upon popular elections checks
the evil prevalent in other countries on the point ;
but the complaining party finds interest needful, a
thing always fatal to peace, and often to justice. How
precarious a petitioner may find his situation in such
a state of things, is pleasantly to be learned from the
passage in the note below.t
The executive power vested in the president by the
foregoing written constitution, and the influence to
be obtained from the nomination to public offices,
have often been commented upon severely as great
defects ; and the proposed remedy to be found in dis
qualifying the president from a second election has
recently been urged upon congress and the people
with renewed earnestness. In some of the states, as
in Louisiana, checks have been devised against the
appointment of unfit persons to' public posts ; and
throughout the Union, unquestionably, the president,
or any governor who should make such unfit ap
pointments, as in England any minister who should
advise them, would be punishable ; — the English
minister under the old common law, which prescribes,
that the best men shall be placed in offices of trust ;
and the American president, or governor, under the
portion of the common law originally carried from
home upon this important subject. The power of
the president, however, to remove all executive offi
cers at his will or pleasure has been settled, not in-

well knewns hpw eminently Mr. Gallatin has justified Mr. Henry's
sagacity." — Wirt's Life of Patrick Henry, p. 410.
This case was cne of harmless' exertion of interest ; but it sug
gests the importance of a rule, that all who have claims to prefer
to the consideration of public assemblies, or to sovereigns, should
be entitled te be heard as of course, and with attention, upon a
statement of their claims. ^Petitions are forms only fit to be ad
dressed to the Deity.
The foregoing defect in the American constitution has lbng been
regretted ; (St. Geerge Tucker's Blackstone, vol. i. part i. Appen
dix, p. 117. 1803;) and in the speech of the president to congress,
in 1831, it is intimated that an amendment of the law is strongly
desired. '

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

237

deed judicially, but by the declared sense of the le
gislature, and the uniform acquiescence and practice
of the government.
The appointment and the removal of public func
tionaries, however, have hot failed to attract much
consideration in the United States. If any doubt ex
ists, whether the ancient statute of Richard the Se
cond, that public offices shall be given only to the
" best" men, applied to the old colonies, unquestion
ably the still more ancient common law of the like
tehour, on which that statute was founded, was car
ried by the first settlers to America, and was retained
at the revolution. Popular election is the grand
check on favouritism and on the mischievous princi
ple of patronage ; but attempts, as above stated, have
been made in this matter, to impose rules upon the
exercise of irregular discretion ; and traces may be
found, even in periods of strong popular excitement,
of just preferences prevailing in favour of fit public
Officers, whose fair claims were endangered by the
violence of party spirit. Occasions sometimes occur
when sound views upon this subject are of great im
portance. Changes take place among leaders ; and
their power is often sought to be strengthened by a
change of the subordinate functionaries. In 1801,
circumstances of this kind happened ; and the cor
respondence of President Jefferson for that year fur
nishes admirable comments upon the duty of govern
ment in such conjunctures. Certain merchants of
New England had remonstrated with the president for
appointing a particular individual to one post, and
for removing another individual from another post.
Jn reply, Mr. Jefferson admits fully the right and the
usefulness of such remonstrances ; and adds, — " Of
the various executive duties, no one excites more
anxious concern than that of placing the interests of
our fellow-citizens in the hands of honest men, with
understandings sufficient for their stations. No duty,
at the same time, is more difficult to fulfil. The
knowledge of character possessed by a single indi
vidual is, of necessity, limited. To seek out the best
through the whole union, we must resort to other
information, which, from the best of men, acting dis
interestedly and with the purest motives, is sometimes
incorrect.'' The grounds of the appointment are
then stated, concluding with these words : — " The re
monstrance, indeed, does not allege that the office
has been ill conducted ; but only apprehended that
it will be so. Should this happen in event, be as
sured I will do in it what shall be just and necessary
for the public service. In the mean time, the person
i - -  •  .  -  — ;  _^_^_—
* The course actually taken was somewhat opposed to the eager
ness of the majority; but the republican administration of Mr. Jef-
Vol. IL— Nos. 55 & 56. 2 G

appointed should be tried without being prejudged."
In reply to a case of removal complained of, the presi
dent says, " When it is considered that, during the late
administration, those who were not of a particular
party in politics were excluded from all office ; when,
by a steady pursuit of this measure, nearly the whole
offices of the United States were monopolized by that
party ; when the public sentiment at length declared
itself, and burst open the doors Of honour and confi
dence to those whose opinions they more approved, was
it to be imagined that this monopoly of office was still
to be continued in the hands of the minority 1 Does
it violate their equal rights to assert some rights in
the majority also? Is it political intolerance to claim
a proportionate share in the direction of public af
fairs 1 If the will of the nation, manifested by their
various elections, calls for an administration of the
government according with the opinions of those
elected ; if a due participation of office is matter of
right, how are vacancies to be obtained 1 Those by
death are few ; by resignation none. Can any other
mode than that of removal be proposed 1 This is a
painful Office ; but it is made my duty, and I meet it
as such ; I proceed in the operation with inquiry and
deliberation, that it may injure the best men least,
and effect the purposes of justice and public utility
with the least private distress-; that it may be thrownj
as much as possible, on delinquency, on oppression,
on intolerance, on anti-revolutionary adherence to
our enemies. The remonstrance laments that a
change in the administration must produce a change
in the subordinate officers ; in other words, that it
should be deemed necessary for all officers to think
with their principal ; but on whom does this imputa
tion bear ? On those who have excluded, from office
every shade of opinion which was not theirs ; or on
those who have been so excluded ? I lament sincerely
that unessential differences of opinion should ever
have been deemed sufficient to interdict half the
society from the rights and the blessings of self-go
vernment — to proscribe them as unworthy of every
trust. It would have been to me a circumstance of
great relief, had I found a moderate participation of
office in the hands of the majority. I would gladly
have left it to time and accident to raise them to
their just share ; but their total exclusion calls for
prompter correction. I shall correct the procedure ;
but, that done, return with joy to that state of things,
when the only questions concerning a candidate shall
be — Is he honest ? is he capable 1 is he faithful to
the constitution ?"*

ferson persevered in it, and, in 1802, he again describes it in the
following terms : " I still think our original idea as to office is the

238

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

What has already been said of executive government
relates, in a great measure, to the union. That of the
separate states is not less important. Its character
may be collected from the constitution of the two
states, and from various details already presented to
the reader. In those states, the governors and other
functionaries derive their powers from the constitu
tion and statutes of the states respectively. But in
the territories not yet admitted as states into the union,
special acts of congress determine these points inde
pendently of the inhabitants of these territories. The
appointment, succession, correction, and removal
of such governors and functionaries, are determined
often directly, and in all other cases indirectly, by the
votes of the people. The people, too, t-ransact many
public affairs in their own persons in townships, of
which Massachusetts has for nearly two centuries ex
hibited examples not be surpassed in excellence in any
nation in the world. The constitution of 1780, for exam
ple, declares, as the old laws directed, that education
shall be duly provided for by public schools and gram
mar schools in the towns ; and the duty of making this
provision in imperative on the township corporations
elected by the people ; the breach of which duty
may be punished by indictment, preferred by any
inhabitant. Again, the same constitution declares,
as the ancient law sanctioned, that the people have a
right, in an orderly and peaceable manner, to assem
ble to consult upon the common good, and, by way of
addresses, petitions, or remonstrances, to seek redress
best ; that is, to depend for obtaining a just participation on deaths,
resignations, and delinquencies. This will least affect the tran
quillity of the people, and prevent their giving in lo the suggestion
of our enemies, that ours has been a contest for office, not for prin
ciple. To these means of obtaining a just share in the transaction
of public business, shall be added one other ; to wit, removal for
electioneering activity, or open and industrious opposition to the
principles of the present government, legislative and executive.
Every officer may vote at elections according to his conscience ;
but we should betray the cause committed to our care were we to
permit the influence of official patronage to be "ised to overthrow
that cause."
In the spirit of these principles, Mr. Jefferson, in old age, ex
pressed strong^'satisfaction at his own course on this head— a
course which affords a noble contrast to the wretched nepotism
practised in other countries: — "'In the trusts I have exercised
through life, with powers of appointment," says he, " I can say,
with truth, and wilh unspeakable comfort, that I never did appoint
a relation to office; and that merely because I never saw the cas,e
in which some one did not offer or ocpur better qualified." And
in a still more important passage on this subject, he also said, " I
have never removed a man merely because he was a federalist ; I
have never wished them to give a vote at an election but accord
ing to their own wishes : but as no government could discharge
its duties to the best advantage of its citizens, if its agents were in
a regular course of thwarting, instead of executing, all its measures,
and were employing the patronage and influence of their offices
against the government and its measures, I have only requested
they would be quiet, and they should be safe ; that if their con
science urges Ihem to take an active and zealous part in opposi
tion, it ought also to urge them to retire from posts which they

of grievances of the legislative body. Such rights as
these are for the most part exercised through the
townships, where the selectmen would be subject
to punishment in the courts of law, if they ob
structed the holding of public meetings on such
subjects. The expenditure of money for local purposes, as
the building of court-houses and the like— the as
sembling of militia — election of officers — and the ap
pointment of constables for the preservation of the
peace, are vested in the same local divisions, whose
disinterested, wise, and vigorous exertions in the
great contest for independence, have been justly
eulogized by one of the most eminent American
statesmen of the present day,* and which were thought
models for good internal government by the ablest of
his predecessors.")"
The judicial establishments of the United States
are the supreme court, the circuit courts, and the
district courts ; besides which, each state has its own
judiciary, connected, by appeals and otherwise, with
that of the union.
The supreme court consists of a chief justice and
six associate justices, any four of whom are a full
court ; and any one can make orders in suits
preparatory to the hearing or trial. It holds one
term annually, which begins in January ; it has ex
clusive jurisdiction in all causes, of embassadors and
the like, and also in all civil causes in which a state
is a party, except in suits by a state against one or

could not conscientiously conduct with fidelity to their trusts ;
and, on failure to retire, I have removed those who maintained
an active and zealous opposition to the government." — Jefferson's
Correspondence, vol. iii. pp. 474 — 508; vol. iv. pp. 397, and 101.
(A. D. 1824.)
* "We have not always," says Mr. Webster, "done justice to
the merits and to the sufferings of those who sustained, on their
properly, and on their means of subsistence, the great burden of
the revolutionary war. Any one who has had occasion to be ac
quainted with the records of the Mew England towns, knows well
how to estimate these merits and these sufferings. Nobler records
of patriotism exist nowhere; nowhere can there be found higher
proofs of a spirit that was ready to hazard all, to pledge all, to
sacrifice all, in the cause of the country. The voice of Otis and
of Adams, in Faneuil Hall, found its full and true echo in the
little councils ofthe interior towns; and if, within the continental
congress, patriotism shone more conspicuously, it did not there
exist more truly, nor burn more fervently ; it nowhere made the
day more anxious, nor the night more sleepless ; it sent up no
more ardent prayer to God for succour ; and it put forth, in no
greater degree, the fulness of its effort, and the energy of the whole
soul and spirit in Ihe common cause, than it did in the small as
semblies of the towns." — Mr. Webster's Speech in the Convention of
Massachusetts, in 1820, on the Apportionment of the Senate, p. 245.
White's Digest of the Laws of Massachusetts, 1 809.
t In describing what he thought the best organization of govern
ment, Mr. Jefferson says, — " The townships of New England are
the vital principles of their governments, and have proved them
selves the wisest invention ever devised by the wit of man for the
perfect exercise of self-government, and for its preservation."—
Correspondence, vol. iv. p. 297.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

239

more of its citizens, or against citizens of qther states,
or aliens. In these excepted causes it has original,
but not exclusive jurisdiction. It also receives ap
peals from the circuit courts, and in admiralty cases,
where the matter in dispute exceeds 2,000 dollars ;
and a judgment or decree in the highest state court
may be brought up, on error in point of law, to the su
preme court of the United States, provided the validity of
a treaty, or statute of, or authority exercised under, the
United States, was questioned in the state court, and
the decision was against that validity ; or provided
the validity of any state authority was questioned as
repugnant to the constitution, the treaties, or laws of
the United States, and the decision was in favour of
that validity ; or provided the construction of any
clause of the constitution, or of a treaty, or statute of a
commission, held under the United States, was
questioned, and the decision was against the title,
right, privilege, or exemption, claimed under the
authority of the union. By a rule worthy of
adoption in the superior courts of all countries, the
supreme court of the United States may receive
and determine a single point of law upon which the
judges in the -inferior court are opposed in opinion.*
The principle of stating specific cases for the decision
of the upper courts is not altogether new, and it ob
viously admits of very advantageous application to
all jurisdictions, but especially to every country,
where, as in English colonies, distant dependencies
have to seek the correction of errors, or the check of
abuses, almost invited by the remoteness of place, and
the inferiority of the primary tribunals. The su
preme court can issue prohibitions to the district
courts when proceeding as courts of admiralty ;—
writs, of mandamus to any courts appointed by offi
cers of the United States ; — writs of ne exeat on a
suit commenced ; — and injunctions, on reasonable
notice to the adverse party, but not to stay proceed
ings in any state court ; — and also writs of habeas
corpus. The circuit courts are seven in number, and held
in separate districts, extending over eighteen out of
the twenty-four states, by one judge of the su
preme court of the United States, and the local judge
of the district. In special cases, two of the supreme
court judges attend; and where the district judge
* Act of congress,' April 29, 1802.
t It is, however, even now considered by many persons a great
question, whether, by the terms of the constitution, and in accord
ance with sound policy,the supreme court ought not to be confined,
with all its members, to the session at Washington, solely as a
court of appeal, except in a few cases of original jurisdiction.
From 1789 the judges have made circuits over part of the states,
the more remote parts of the union being too distant for their
visitation. If a sufficient number be added for new states of the

shall be absent, or is interested, one may sit alone.
The circuit courts have original cognizance, con
current with the courts of the several states, of all
suits where the matter of dispute exceeds 500 dollars,
and the United States are plaintiffss or an alien is a
party, or the suit is between a citizen of the state
where the suit is brought and a citizen of another
state, and in all suits under any law of the United
States on copyright and patent rights. They receive
also appeals from all decrees and judgments in the
district courts, where the matter in dispute exceeds
fifty dollars ; and certain cases of the value of 500
dollars may be removed by the defendant from a
state court to the next circuit court. In criminal
trials they have, with a few exceptions, exclusive
jurisdiction of all offences cognizable under the
authority of the United States, exceeding misdemean
ours ; and in misdemeanours they have concurrent
jurisdiction with the district courts. After much
discussion, it seemsf to be now settled, that one of the
judges at the circuit courts shall be taken from the
sitting members ofthe supreme court at Washington,
who thus carries periodically into distant states the
uniformity and learning of the capital, and at the
same time acquires much knowledge whilst actually
engaged in local affairs.
The districts generally extend over an entire state ;
but in six states there are more districts than one.
A court is established in" each district, consisting of
one judge, who holds annually four stated terms, and
also special courts in his discretion. They have ex
clusive original cognizance of all civil admiralty
causes ; of seizures under impost, navigation, or
trade laws of the United States, when the seizures are
made on the high sea, or on waters navigable from
the sea by vessels of ten or more tons' burthen ; and
of all other seizures made, and suits for penalties,
under the laws of the United States. They have al
so concurrent jurisdiction with the circuit and state
courts in certain suits by aliens ; and of all suits at
common law, of 100 dollars' value and upwards, in
which the United States are plaintiffs ; and over all
captures made within the waters of the United
States, or within a marine league of its coasts ; and
they have jurisdiction of proceedings to repeal patents.
obtained surreptitiously, or on false suggestions. . In
union, not now visited by any circuit, the collected members at
Washington will, it is thought, partake too much of the character
of a popular assembly; and the objection is alleged to be still
stronger, if the great duty of the court in appeals is to be impeded
by some of its members being the parties appealed from. Upon
these grounds it- is urged that the circuits from the supreme courts
should be abolished. The president's speech to congress, in De
cember, 1831, brought the question under notice.

240

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

basnkraptcy, a summary jurisdiction, without appeal,
has been claimed for the district judges : but the
opinions of able lawers are adverse to the claim ; and
in the new bankrupt system expected to be establish
ed in the United States, no such objectionable author
ity is likely to be vested in these courts. In crimi
nal trials they have exclusive jurisdiction over
offences cognizable under the authority of the United
States, committed within their respective districts, or
upon the high seas, and punishable by a fine of 100
six months, or by corporal punishment, not exceeding
dollars at the utmost, by imprisonment, not exceeding
thirty stripes. When the parties have not reasonable
time to apply to the circuit court, the judges of the
district courts may issue injunctions to continue until
the next circuit court ; and when the judge of the
supreme court cannot conveniently come, the powers of
a circuit court are superadded to the ordinary powers
of the district court. The district judges of the
United States are required to reside within their
respective jurisdictions.
In appeals to the circuit court, if the circuit judge
and district judge associated with him differ, the
judgment is according to the opinion of the circuit
judge. In original causes, points in difference may
be certified to the supreme court for it decision ; but
in no case' shall imprisonment be allowed, or punish
ment inflicted, where the judges ofthe circuit court
are divided in opinion.
The judicial power of the general government in
the supreme court, in the circuit and district courts,
is limited to objects more expressly defined by writ
ten law than the judicial powers of the state courts ;
and between the two classes of courts, distinctions
deserving of careful notice by the student of the
American institutions, have been made by good
authority : — 1. The cognizance of every crime and
misdemeanour whatsoever, committed within the
body of any state, belongs to the courts of that state
in which the offence is committed, exclusively, un
less it can be shown that power over the subject has
been expressly granted to the United States by the
federal constitution. 2. The federal courts possess
no jurisdiction over any crime or misdemeanour
which is an offence by the common law, and not de
clared to be such by the constitution, or some statute
of the United States. 3. Although a certain class
of offences may, by the constitution of the United
States, be declared to be within the jurisdiction of
the federal courts, yet these courts cannot proceed to
take cognizance thereof, unless they be first defined
* St. George Tucker's Blackstone, vbl. iv. Appendix, p. 110.
t Chancellor Kent's Commentaries, p. 418.

by the constitution, or by statute, nor to punish them,
unless the punishment be likewise prescribed fey a
statute of the United States.* - *
The vast field of the law of property, the very ex
tensive head of equity jurisdiction, and the principal
rights and duties which flow from civil and domestic
relations, fall within the control, and we might also
say the exclusive cognizance, of the state govern
ments. The elementary principles of the common
law are the same in every state, except Louisiana
and Florida, where French and Spanish laws have
prevailed.! The state courts are invested with the cognizance
of cases arising under the laws of the United
States, in certain suits for ' taxes, and in certain
prosecutions for fines and forfeitures under the re
venue laws.
In judicial matters, the concurrent jurisdiction ot
the state .tribunals with the tribunals of the union de
pends upon the judgment of congress, and may be revok
ed and extinguished whenever it thinks fit, in every case
in which the subject matter can constitutionally be made
cognizable in tribunals of the union ; and, without
any express provision to the contrary, the state courts
will retain a concurrent jurisdiction in all cases
where they had jurisdiction originally over the sub
ject matter.
Both in the courts of the federal government, and
in those of the particular states, the important advan
tage is enjoyed of a very considerable separation of
the judicial from the executive and legislative author
ities. It is, however, a curious fact, that so late as
the year 1820, it was a subject of debate in Massachu
setts, whether the judges of that state should con
tinue to- be advisers of the executive government,
upon questions propounded to them by the govern
or. During about a century, the old practice in
England, that the judges of Westminster Hall should
give opinion upon cases from the crown, has fallen
into disuse ; but its offspring very long survived it
in America.! The independence of judges is various
ly secured : those of the United States can only be
removed by impeachment, and not by address of the
house of representatives ; they must consequently be
accused of specific offences, and be heard before con- '
demnation.t This is the general rule of the sepa-
rate states ; but in Virginia they are liable to removal
upon the address of the legislature. In Vermont and
Rhode Island they are reappointed every year.
Other states appoint them for seven, five, three, two,
and six years ; and able men still differ on what is

t Journal of the Debates of the Massachusetts Convention, of
1820, p. 213.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

241

the right basis, in this respeet, of a true judicial inde
pendence.* In some of the states, the ages of sixty, sixty-five,
and seventy, are limited for the holding ofthe judicial
office. No judge of the United States can practice
as a counsellor ; nor in the supreme court can any
counsellor practise as an attorney, nor an attorney as
a counsellor. In all the other courts the rule is
otherwise ; and in this counsellors may be admitted
as attorneys. The salary of the chief justice of the
United States is 5,000 dollars ; each of the associate
justices receives 4,500 dollars ; and the attorney-gene
ral 3,500. The salaries of the judges of the district
courts vary from 1,000 to 3,500 dollars ; each of the
attorneys-general, and the marshals, or sheriffs of the
district courts, receives 200 dollars, with fees ; nor
does any considerable attention appear to have been
yet directed to the very important subject of ad
ministering justice without allowing fees to the subor
dinate officers.
The courts of the several states have long been
held by judges bred to the law as a profession ; and
many of them are eminently learned men. Their
yearly salaries vary from 550 to 3,500 dollars. They
are appointed by the legislature in fourteen states ;
by the governor and senate in seven states ; by the
governors alone in two states ; and in the state of'
Indiana, those of the supreme court are appointed
bythe governor and senate; the presidents of the
circuit courts by the legislature ; and the associate
judges by the people.
Justices of the peace .have to decide many civil
causes, to a limited amount in value, besides the
criminal and police business within their cognizance ;
and they are severally liable to removal upon the ad
dress of the legislature, and upon condemnation of
- certain offences, and upon impeachment. In some of
the states they are appointed justices by other authori
ties, and sometimes they are elected by the people ;
but they are not restrained from seats in the legisla
ture, a circumstance which has been the occasion of
much regret to Americans of the highest authority.!
It belongs to the judicial power chiefly to declare
every act of the legislature made in violation of the
constitution, or of any provision of it, null and void.
Accordingly, in 1791, the judges of a circuit court in
New York declared an act of congress, assigning
ministerial duties to them, to be unconstitutional,
and not obligatory ; and in two other states the
circuit judges declined to act under the law in
any capacity.! In 1792, the supreme court of South
* St. George Tucker's Blackstone, vol. i. b. 1. Appendix, p. 1 IS.
t Jefferson's Correspondence, vol. iv. p. 296, &c.

Carolina set aside an act of the state legislature as
being against common right and the principles of
magna charta. In 1795, a judge at Philadelphia
declared an act of Pennsylvania to be unconstitutional,
and not binding. The same doctrine was maintain
ed afterwards in South Carolina, where the judges
claimed to be only the administrators of the public
will, and declared the law void, not because they
had any control over the legislature, but because the
will of the people expressed in the constitution was
paramount to that of their representatives expressed
in the law. Much later the subject was brought be
fore the supreme court of the United States, when the
power and duty of the judiciary to disregard an un
constitutional act of congress, or of any state legisla
ture, was declared as an argument approaching, says
Chancellor Kent, " to the precision and certainty of
a mathematical demonstration." Until 1823, the
judges in the state of New York constituted what
was called the council of revision, by which every law
was examined before it became a valid statute. The
absolute separation of the judicial from the other
powers of state is too important to justify a regret
that the judges should be withdrawn from this duty;
but the testimony of the learned chancellor, to whom
we have been sq much indebted in compiling this
summary upon the constitution of the United States,
in favour of the labours of the New York council,
suggests the importance of attaching to all legisla
tures a ministerial body of constitutional lawyers,
whose reports might merit Mr. Kent's eulogium,
" that they would show that many a bill heedlessly
passed the legislature was objected to and defeated
on constitutional grounds — reports replete with salur
tary and sound principles of public law and policy,
and monuments ofthe wisdom, firmness, and integri
ty of the council." The ' power of the judges to
check the legislative and the executive government,
is a power obviously liable to abuse by the courts
themselves, and to undue jealousy on the part of those
upon whom they are checks. Accordingly, the exer
cise of this power will be found one of the most
interesting subjects to the inquirer into the constitu
tion of the United States. The principal checks
upon the judges in their turn are, first, public opi
nion ; — secondly, the indirect elective control of the
people over the president and others who appoint the
superior judges, and the direct popular control over
those inferior judges who are elected by the people ; —
and thirdly, the liability of the judges to impeach
ment before the" elective senate.
t St. George Tucker's Blackstone, vol. i. Appendix,

242

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

The laws administered in the courts is, with a
Mist pride, termed by the writers of the United States,
il American law." Its sources are, 1st, the law of
England,, wide as that title is, and modified by the
great English principle, that colonists take abroad
with them only so much of the law of the mother-
country as is suitable to their new circumstances ;
2dly, in particular states, as Louisiana and the Flori
das, so much of other foreign law as affects those
places ; 3dly, the law of nations and nature ; and
lastly, but principally, the constitutions and statutes
of the United States, and the several domestic legisla
tures, and the treaties with foreign powers, with the
rules and decisions of the court of law.
It has been a subject of much discussion, whether
the courts of the United States have a common law
jurisdiction, and if any, to what extent. It seems to
be settled, that although the federal government has
not adopted the common law as a source of jurisdic
tion, nevertheless that the courts of justice must resort
to it largely as the instrument for exercising the juris
diction conferred by the constitution, and the means of
interpreting constitutional language.* Therefore the
study of common law is recommended by Chancellor
Kent as part of the jurisprudence of the United
States. " In its improved condition in England,"
says this eminent judge, " and especially in its im
proved and varied condition in America, under the
benign influence of an expanded commerce, of en
lightened justice, of republican principles, and of
sound philosophy, the common law has become a
code of matured ethics and enlarged civil wisdom,
admirably adapted to promote and secure the freedom
and happiness of social life. It has proved to be a
system replete with vigorous and healthy principles,
eminently conducive to the growth of civil liberty ;
and it is in no instance disgraced by such a slavish
political maxim as that with which the Institutes of
Justinian are introduced. It is the common juris-
* Mr. Justice Story, who has occupied an eminent rank amongst
the judges of the United States these twenty years, places the. true
doctrine in a very clear light. " I admit," says he, " that the
courts of the United States are courts of limited jurisdiction, and
can not exercise any authorities not confided to them by the con
stitution and the laws made in pursuance thereof. But I do con
tend, that when once an authority is lawfully given, the nature and
extent of that authority, and the mode in which it shall be exer
cised, must be regulated by the rules of the common law. Whether
the common law of England, in its broadest sense,'including equity
and admiralty, as well as legal doctrines, be the common law of
the United States or not, it can hardly be doubted that the consti
tution and laws of the United States are predicated upon the ex
istence of the common law. The constitution, for instance, pro
vides that ' the trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment,
shall be by jury.' I suppose that no person can doubt that, for the
explanation of these terms, and for the mode of conducting trials
by jury, recourse must be had to the common law. So the
clause, that ' the judicial power shall extend to all cases in law

prudence of the people ofthe United States, and was
brought with them as colonists from England, and
established in America, so far as it was adapted to
our institutions and circumstances. It was claimed
by the congress of the united colonies, in 1774, as a
branch of those ' indubitable rights and liberties to
which the respective colonies are entitled.' It fills
up every interstice, and occupies every wide space,
which the statute law cannot occupy."! The learned
Du Ponceau correctly observes,! "We live in the
midst of the common law : we inhale it at every
breath, imbibe it at every pore ; we meet with it when
we walk, and when we lie down to sleep ; when we
travel abroad, and when we stay at home ; it is in
terwoven with every idiom of our tongue ; and we
cannot learn another system of laws without learn
ing at the same time another language." Upon this
somewhat rhetorical claim of a participation of the
old common law, as carried from England, the Ame
ricans have also erected the further very important
doctrine, that usages peculiar to the United States
have been ingrafted upon it, so as that there is now
produced an American common-law jurisprudence,
different in many respects from that of their fore
fathers, and in harmony with their own more repub
lican institutions.
Equity has been less universally introduced than
tbe other branches of the common law. In Massa
chusetts, Pennsylvania, and some other states, there
are no courts of equity ; but equity processes are
given to the courts on some points ; and public opi
nion seems to be favourable to the extension thither of
that system of chancery law, which, through the
eminent judicial labours of Chancellor Kent, has
been brought to a very improved condition in New
York. The topic, however, is open to interesting
questions, and is much discussed. In Virginia, and
perhaps in other states, a principle of equity has been
transferred to the common-law courts, where the
and in equity arising under the constitution,' &c. is inexplicable,
without reference, to the common law ; and the extent of this
power must be measured by the powers of courts of law and equity,
as exercised and established by that system. Innumerable instances
of a like nature may be adduced. I will mention but one more,
which is in the clause providing that the privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of re
bellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. What is the
writ of habeas corpus % What is the privilege which it grants'!
The common law alone furnishes the true answer. The exist
ence, therefore, of the common law, is not only supposed by the
constitution, but is appealed to for the construction and interpre
tation of its powers." The United States v. Coolridge.~-l Galli-
son's Reports, p. 488. 1813.
t Chancellor Kent's Commentaries, vol. i. p. 322.
t Du Ponceau on Jurisdiction, p. 91. Oh this subject, however,
other adverse authorities should be consulted by the student, as St.
George Tucker's Blackstone, vol. iv. p. 9.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATUS

243

parties, in civil actions, may examine their adversaries
upon interrogatories, and without prejudice to a bill
of discovery in chancery.*
The laws regulating property, and intercourse
between man and man, are, in many respects, similar
to the laws of England on the same subject matter.
In numerous points, however, great changes have
been made ;! but the difficult and subtle questions
arising out of the contingencies created by the free
disposal of property, by conflicting claims, and by
doubtful construction, are necessarily numerous in
all the courts of the union. The forms of proceed
ing and practice in the courts have been extensively
simplified, although on this head much remains to be
improved.! The reduction of the court officers to a
clerk and the common crier, indicates how large a
portion of the old and useless machinery has been
dispensed with. The writ of habeas corpus has not
only been secured, as in England, but its remedy has
been extended, by the power given to the judges of
investigating the real merits of each case without
* Laws of Virginia for 1830, sect. 68.
t " The nature and extent of the improvement will be placed
in a strong light by the following enumeration of the changes made
in one or more of the states: — 1. Abolition of feudal tenures, in
cluding copyholds. 2. Abolition of tithes. 3. Making both the
real and personal property of intestates descend to the same per
son. 4. Enabling parents to become heirs to their children.
5. Abolition of primogeniture and of preference of males in de
scents. , 6. Making all estates descend in the same course, whether
acquired by purchase, or by descent from paternal or maternal re
lations. 7. Abolishing the preference of male stocks in descents.
8. Enabling half-blood relations to inherit. 9. Making husband
and wife heir to each other in case of failure of blood relations.
10. Making seisin of land pass by the mere delivery of the deed.
11. The general registration of deeds. 12. Making a fee-simple
pass without the word ' heirs,' or any equivalent, when a less estate
is not expressed. 13. Enabling tenants in tail to convey estates in fee
simple, without a fine or recovery. 14. Enabling married women to
convey their estates and bar their dower without a fine. 15. Change of
joint tenancies into tenancies in common. 16. Removing the disabili
ties of alienage with regard to real property. 17. Abolition of the
doctrine of tacking in mortgages. 18. Placing lands mortgaged,
as well as the debt, at the disposal of the mortgagee's executor.
19. Making, real estates liable to execution and sale for debt.
20. Rendering real estate assets to pay debts without any pre
ference. 21. Shortening the time of limitation." — The American
Jurist, No. 1. p. 99.
t Upon the subject of pleading, Mr. Dane, the author of the Di
gest, says, " In modern, and especially in American practice, a
great degree of liberality has been admitted, in giving matters
formerly pleaded in evidence under the general issue. It is a
very general practice in the United States to agree to cases, signed
by the parties, for the. opinions and decisions of the courts. Pleas
in abatement are almost disused. Broad and very liberal statutes
of amendments in the pleadings have been enacted in the United
States, in addition to the statutes of this sort adopted from Eng
land ; still the art of pleading is one which the Americans are
seeking to simplify." — Digest of American Law, vol. v.— Title,
" Pleading." In Louisiana, the forms of pleading by the civil law prevail, of
which an able judge says, " I can not help paying my humble
homage to the excellence of this code, which, adapt ing its remedies
to the exigency of the case, gives complete relief without tram
melling itself with prescribed forms, which often perplex, and

confining themselves to the face of the return. Im
prisonment for debt has been abolished in some of
the states ; and in almost all, females are exempt ;
and there is an increasing disposition to abolish it
throughout the union, both under mesne process and
in execution^
In the study and practice of mercantile law, II the
American lawyers have made very great advances ;
and in these branches they have perhaps as far sur
passed the English lawyers as they are excelled by
the latter upon questions respecting titles to lands and
real property, which are discussed much more fre
quently in England than the simplicity of that branch
of the law requires in America. The deep learning
and subtle argument displayed upon other legal
topics, which might be thought peculiar to our own
country, evince the great legal powers of the advocates
of the American Bar.
In admiralty causes, there is understood to be the
greatest similarity between the systems of America
and Great Britain. The reputation of Lord Stowell
sometimes defeat, the ends of justice." — American Jurist, No. i. p.
17. This testimony is given to the civil law forms, compared
with those derived from English pleadings. ;
" In England," says a learned writer in the Southern Review,
for August, 183] , " the mere subtleties of pleading, such as go not
to the merits, but tp immaterial allegations, are too much en
couraged. The record being paid for, and most extravagantly
paid for, according to its extent, is the excuse for this, (Burton v.
Wright ;. Douglas and Cowper ;) but it were better that no neces
sity for such an excuse existed, as now exists here, where (to bor
row a phrase of our own courts) ' the law mechanic' is paid a
lumping price for the job. It would be well for England if she
would copy after most of our judicial reforms, so far as they may
not be inconsistent with the frame and policy of her constitution ;
and it is, no doubt, a very great compliment to the wisdom of our
predecessors, that there is a marvellous coincidence between the
reforms projected in that country, by her ablest men, and those
which have been so generally adopted among us." — P. 393.
§ In Kentucky and Ohio imprispnment for debt is abolished ;
and the managers of the Boston Prison Discipline Society add, in
their Report for 1830, " A similar law in the northern and middle
states would have saved from imprisonment during the last year,
as nearly as we can ascertain,' about fifty thousand persons. The
number of persons discharged by the creditor or his attorney is
more than three times as large as the number of thpse whe pay
the debt." — Pp. 369, 370. Imprispnment for debt was also abolish
ed in New York, in 1832.
By the constitution of Pennsylvania it is provided, that " the
person of a debtor, where there is not a strong presumption of
fraud, shall not be continued in prison after delivering up his
estate for tVe benefit of his creditors." By the laws of the same
slafe, however, and by those ofmost parts of the union, all personal '
estate, whether in funds or otherwise, and all real estate, whether
legal or equitable, are liable to execution. Great facilities are af
forded to creditors to obtain payment of debts from any property
belonging to the debtor, but persona] liberty is exposed to few re
straints, even in the case of insolvency ; and no inconveniences
are believed to arise from this state of the law. — House of Commons'
Papers for 1831, No. 92, p. 214 : — "Evidence .of Richard Biddle,
Esq. before the common-law commissioners."
II gee particularly the arguments of Mr. Webster, on collegiate
endowments, and on the impeachment of a judge of probate. —
Webster's Speeches, pp. 110 and 138.

244

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

is very high in the former country, and, with some
exceptions, attributed to particular circumstances, the
differences between his decisions upon prize* law,
and those promulgated by the supreme court of the
United States, are so few, it is said, as to be almost
evanescent. After the most powerful arguments, and
under the highest political excitements,, there has
been but a single principle adopted by him which
has been deliberately overruled by the supreme court ;
and on that occasion there was a serious difference
of opinion among the judges.! It deserves, however,
to be remarked, that the judge who is the most emi
nent for his early and continued success in the study
of the mercantile and shipping-laws, Judge Story, is
also earnest in his expressions of respect towards
Lord Mansfield and other English judges who have
improved these branches of jurisprudence.!
The criminal laws are remarkable for their mild
ness ; although, in other respects, as in their distinc
tion between felonies and misdemeanours, and in
some of the consequences of that distinction, they re
semble the English criminal law. Although trial
by jury is perfectly understood in the United States,
and generally used, yet justices of the peace decide
upon some felonies, as petty thefts, without a jury,
Tinless the accused claims a jury trial ; and in slaves'
cases juries are very far indeed frcm being universal.
Treason is confined, by the express terms of the
constitution, to narrow limits. The only capital of
fences in any of the states are treason, murder, bur
glary, robbery from the person, and rape ; and all
these Offences, except murder in the first degree of
atrocity, are, in most of the states, usually followed
by secondary punishment ; and in some of the states
they are liable to secondary punishment only. In
Pennsylvania, no crime is punishable with death, but

* It deserves to be recorded, to the honour of the United States,
that the practice of privateering has been abandoned by the Ame
ricans in a treaty with one European power ; and that they have
earnestly sought to impose further restraints upon this barbarous
practice by similar treaties with other powers.
t North American Review for January, 1825, p. 66.
t Judge Story's Address to the Suffolk Bar. American Jurist,
No. 1 . p. 15; and see the passages in the last note to this chapter.
S First and Second Reports of the Inspectors of the Eastern
State Penitentiary of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, 1831, p. il.
II Remarks on the Expediency of Abolishing the Punishment of
Death. By Mr. Livingston. 1822, and reprinted in Philadel
phia, 1831.
IT The skilfully drawn statute of 1825, commonly called Mr.
Webster's Crimes' Act, awards death to those who set fire to
dwelling-houses in duck yards, cr tp gpvernment vessels, althpugh
no life be lest by either crime ; but thpse whe Commit arson in
other circumstances, or who forge on the public, or who plunder
ships, or use dangerous weapons, with intent to murder, but no
death ensues, are by this statute made liable to limited fines and
imprisonment only.
*« It has, however, been proposed to form a convict colony under

murder perpetrated by means of poison, or by lying
in wait, of by some other kind of wilful, deliberative,
and premeditated killing, or perpetrated in the comi-
mission of certain crimes which were formerly
capital ;§ and great exertions are making in that state,
and elsewhere in North America, not only to mitigate
all severity in the criminal law, but especially to
abolish all capital punishment.il It is said,! never
theless, that the recent legislation of the federal go
vernment in congress is more severe than that of
the separate states, either before or since the revolu
tion of 1776. Prosecutions for all capital offences,
except for wilful murder and forgery, are limited to
three years after the offence was committed ; and for
offences less than capital to two years, unless the
person flees from justice. Imprisonment under game
and vagrant laws are unknown. Colonies of convicts
have not yet been established,** with all the horrors
attendant upon communities of unrestrained men,
necessarily disproportioned in number to females, and
of dishonest people, neither corrected nor discounte
nanced by an ordinary proportion of individuals of
good principles.
The system of the best American penitentiaries
has at length, after many disappointments and much
controversy, reached the great excellencies of restor
ing many of the inmates to society in an improved
condition, both as to character and morals ; and also
of defraying the charges of the prisons by the reform
atory labour of the prisoners. The history of this
system is one ofthe most interesting examples of the
perseverance and good feeling of the people of the
United States ; and it is With regret that we can do
little more than allude to it. William Penn early
instituted in Philadelphia solitary confinement and
labour for the punishment of death, witli the best

the mest dangerplis circumstance cf permitting the convicts to go
vern themselves, uncontrolled, after transportation. The com
missioners on the penal code of Pennsylvania, in 1828, reported
upon this proposal in the following terms : — " We should haVe little
to remark upon ihis method of punishment, were it not' that it has
recently been pressed upon the legislature and the public by some
of our active and well-intentioned citizens. It has been suggested
that the objects and ends of punishment might be attained, were
the government of the United States to fake possession of some
uninhabited island, such as the Island of Tristan da: Curiha, in the
Atlantic Ocean, where the states might leave their convicts, with
a stock of food and tools, to their own exertions." The commis
sioners justly conclude, that the objections to the scheme which
they set forth will prevent its adoption. — Perlnsijlvanid House of
Representatives' Report, 4th June, 1828, p. 9. A like proposal was
half adopted by the English government fifty years' since, and
stopped by proceedings in the house of commons.— Commons' Jour
nals, vol. xl,
In regard to the New South Wales1 transportation system, the
Americans seem to appreciate its evils bOtli in point of expense,
and in point of incapability to reform otfeiirter's.— i&jrort of the
Comniissioners, p. if.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

245

effects. His views were disapproved in England,
and the common law vas restored to supersede his
innovations, when ^ime increased. In 1786, labour
alone, upon the public works, was inflicted upon
capital criminals ; and the decrease of offences was
not rapid. But after 1790, the rule of solitary con
finement, along with labour, was revived, when,
from that year until 1793, out of 200 convicts who
underwent this discipline and were pardoned, four
only were recommitted, and crime generally decreas
ed, although the population daily increased. After
1793, this prison became crowded, and the separation
of the prisoners from each other could not be ac
complished. The consequence was an increase
generally of criminals. "This double result," says
Mr. Livingston, to whom we are indebted for these
facts, "of a rapid and before unheard-of decrease
whilst the convicts were both separated and employ
ed, and an increase when they were suffered to as
sociate, seems to solve the great problem of penal
jurisprudence, and points to seclusion and labour as
effectual remedies for the prevention of crime ; for
these effects were produced without any change in
the state of society at the two periods that could be
favourable to such results.1'* "In all the other
states," he continues, "a similar result has been ob
served. During the first year, when there was
room for classification, the most sanguine hopes of
humanity were surpassed by the effect. But, with
the promiscuous intercourse of the convicts, offences
increased both in number and in atrocity." He
therefore insists, upon the necessity. of classifying the
various denominations of prisoners ; and. also of em
ploying them profitably to themselves as well as to
the state, in labour of the hands, of the heart, and of
the mind ; and completes his benevolent and states
man-like design in the following terms : " To avoid
a relapse, an asylum is provided in the house of re
fuge and industry. Here the discharged convict
may find occupation and subsistence, and receive
such wages as will enable him to remove from the
scenes of his past crimes, place him above temptation,
confirm him in his newly acquired habits of industry,
and cause him safely to pass the dangerous period
*. Livingston's Introductory Report, folio, p. 5.
t Ibid., p. 51. .
t The great model penitentiaries in the United States are at
Sing Sing, Auburn, and Wethersfield ; but many others are ra
pidly springing up in all parts pf the union. The best approved
system is briefly this :^-to employ the prisoners in quietness .and
silence, in various labours, part of the profits of which is given to
them on being discharged with good character ; to separate them
completely from each other at night, and much during the day ;
to instruct them in trades, in letters, and in religion ; to treat them
with gentleness, but firmly ; and to promote their re-establishment
Vol. II.— Nos. 57 & 58. 2 H

between the acquisition of his liberty and restoration
to the confidence of society. Independently of thia
resource, the industrious convict receives at his dis
charge a proper proportion of his surplus earnings,
he receives friendly advice as to his future pursuits,
and a certificate, if merited, of such conduct as will
entitle him to confidence. The consequences of his
reconviction are solemnly represented to him, and
his conduct, if he remain in the neighbourhood of
the prison, is carefully watched, so that, if he return
to habits of idleness and intemperance, his career to
crime may be stopped by commitment to the house
of industry as a vagrant."!
Upon similar views, to a certain extent, with those
of Mr. Livingston, many penitentiaries have been
built with the best effects.! If their projectors are
favourably circumstanced in regard to the value of
labour, the cheapness of which in England is a great
difficulty in prison discipline, in an economical light,
they deserve our unqualified respect for persevering
through many intrinsic difficulties in the nature of
bad habits and crime, so as unquestionably to have
proved that men of the most desperate character may
be reformed by steady care, and liberal and just
coercion. ' The grand proof of this rests upon the
fact of the inmates of the American penitentiaries
becoming again offenders in a proportion incompara
bly less than those who are not, either in America
or other countries, subjected to reformatory peniten
tiary discipline. Whipping is abolished in New York,
and in other states earnest endeavours have been
made for its abolition. On the subject of whipping,
Mr. Livingston's argument deserves the deepest at
tention on the part of all European governments. In
the comparative view of the punishments annexed
to crime in the United States and in England, by Mr.
Sydney Taylor of the Middle Temple, which has
been published by the Society for Diffusing Informa
tion on Capital Punishments, jt is well remarked,
that " although the legislators of the United States
deserve credit for the improvement which they have
introduced in their criminal laws, perhaps it would
have been better to have repealed the old English
laws, and to have commenced a new structure on a

in society after being released. The results at Auburn may be
taken as an example of the success of this system : there, out of
600, pnly 17 have committed new cffences during a considerable
time after being released ; and out of 206 of those who have un
dergone punishment in this prison, 146 well authenticated cases of
reform have been recorded, which results have been justly held
forth to the consideration of the British public, in the Eighth Re
port of the Prison Discipline Society ; whilst the system is at length
brought under discussion in a committee of the house of commons
on secondary punishments.

246

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

more civilized system ; as Mr. Livingston's code for
Louisiana, which has departed from the old system
altogether, approaches nearer to excellence than any
of the most improved editions of the original model.
The criminal laws of the United States are not en
tirely free from the imputation of confounding offen
ces of distinct characters ; but they have, at least,
partially achieved what the English parliament has
wholly .neglected — the establishing a gradation of pun
ishment according to the degrees of guilt."
This discipline is not yet probably adopted upon
a sufficiently extensive scale throughout the union,
to occasion the general low state of crime there. The
fact, that in several of the states criminals are only
in the very small proportion of 1 to 5,000 and 1 to
3,000 of the population, is, doubtless, chiefly attribu
table to the abundance of employment at the com
mand of the poorest, and to the anxious care bestow
ed by the public upon the instruction of the most
destitute and ignorant. It would therefore be too
much to attribute the paucity of criminals in the
United States to the mildness of the law. But the
fact of that paucity is certainly honourable to the
character of the law, as well as to many other cir
cumstances in the condition of the people. Although
the whole number of crimes and misdemeanours
committed yearly cannot perhaps be exactly ascer
tained, the amount may be safely conjectured from
the following facts : In July, 1826, out of a popula
tion of 946,133, in all the counties except, seven in
Pennsylvania, the number of persons, tried and un
tried, in prison, was 284, of whom, as near as could
be fixed, 221 were males and 45 were females. The
number of them born in Pennsylvania was 131 ; of
those from other states of the union 82 ; and 35 were
foreigners: The whites were 183 in number ; the
people of colour and blacks were 83. This is one
to above 3,600, tried and untried ; a proportion
scarcely to be paralleled in the records of any other
people. In one of the states, and perhaps in others, there
is the very important institution of what is designated
an examining-court, which takes cognizance of crim
inal cases in an earlier stage than can be convenient
to an ordinary court, and which is more solemn than
the authority of a committing justice of the peace.
The committing justice summons a bench of other
justices, within ten days of the first disposal of the
case, for the examination of the facts. This court
considers whether the prisoners may be discharged
from further prosecution, may be tried in the county
court, or must be tried in the district courts. It is
plain that this preparatory tribunal must add greatly

to the just and merciful administration of crimina;
law, an end also promoted in Virginia, the state in
which it prevails, by power being given to two
judges to bail any prisoner according to their dis
cretion. It is a point further deserving of notice, that re
cent laws have been made in some of the states, to
enable juries to apportion punishment as well as to
pronounce verdicts of guilty or not guilty.
In some of the states, laws have been applied to
acts, which, in modern times, have either been left
elsewhere to moral influence, or which have evaded
the care of legislators in Europe. For example, in
Pennsylvania, an habitual drunkard, found so by the
verdict of a jury, loses the control of his children,
whom the wife may, in his stead, bind apprentices.
Several states have also passed laws to repress duel
ling, by disqualifying from public office all the parties
to any duels, and by requiring persons entering on
office to take an oath that they have not been, and
will not be, concerned in a duel.*
The law officers are, an attorney-general for the
general government, who receives 3,500 dollars salary,
and ,1,000 dollars for the salary of his clerk, and also
attorneys for each of the districts and states, who
are paid small salaries, and settled fees for the busi
ness done by them. These law officers are efficient
and zealous prosecutors in all cases of felony what
ever, and in all misdemeanours that concern the
public. Voluntary societies also take upon them
selves the task of aiding the public prosecutors' in
repressing offenders, and the parties injured may
likewise prosecute them. In some of the states no
ex-officio informations can be exhibited to subject
any person to imprisonment, or to ignominious pun
ishment. The duties of law officers, however, seem
to stand in the same undefined situation with those
ofthe attorney-general in England and in the English
colonies ;! but the expense of criminal prosecutions
is borne chiefly by the public.
The police consists of ordinary constables and
justices of peace ; the latter having the power, upon
emergencies, of summoning the posse comitatus to
act as special constables. All the power of the con
stables, and most of that of the justices, resembles
that with which the common and old statute law re
specting public tranquillity invests the same authori
ties in England. For various local arrangements
considerable authority is also given to selectmen ;
and the justices have civil jurisdiction, without a

* Virginia Laws for 1830, sect. 3.
t Journals of the Massachusetts Conventipn pf 1820, pp. 211,
213, 258.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

247

jury or strict forms of pleading, in cases under twenty
dollars, with criminal jurisdiction in some of the
states, also without a jury, in small thefts, and over
light offences by young persons, who, however, are
then only punishable by imprisonment for short periods
of time. The people control all these functionaries,
either directly by annual elections, or indirectly by
electing the higher functionaries who appoint them.
The military power is vested in the government
of the union, not in the separate states, the president
being commander-in-chief; but the right to have arms
is not taken away from individuals ; and each state
bears the expense of many military equipments. The
regular army is subject to laws passed by congress ;
and all free, able-bodied, white male citizens, between
the ages of eighteen and forty-five, are bound to
have a musket, or rifle, and proper accoutrements
ready for service in the militia, of which the privates
elect their captains and subalterns, and the latter their
field-officers. In the militia there must be a propor
tionate number of horse and artillery. The time of
service is limited to three months in the year ; and
to a due rotation of the individuals enrolled. The
president of the United States may call them out at
his discretion, in cases of invasion, or of imminent
danger of invasion ; and at the discretion of the legis
lature, or executive councils ofthe separate states, in
cases of insurrection. Whenever, also, the laws are
opposed or obstructed by combination too powerful to
be suppressed by the ordinary course of judicial pro
ceeding, or by the powers vested in the marshals, (the
sheriffs,) the president may call out the militia ; but
he must, by proclamation, command the insurgents to
retire peaceably to tlieir homes, within a limited time ;
and the militia are not to be kept embodied in this
case more than thirty days after congress shall meet.
The soldier in the United States, as in England, is
bound to obey only lawful commands ; and he acts
there, as here, on his own responsibility, not exclu
sively on that of his officer. The rash interference
of soldiers in riots is more expressly guarded against
in America than in England.
The subject of codes of law has obtained deep
consideration in the United States. Although Mr.
Bentham's views* have not been adopted there, they
have not failed to make a great, impression : but the
difficulty of it has prevented much more being ac
complished than the accumulation of materials for
the use of another generation. One individual, of
well-deserved and high reputation, Mr. Edward Liv-
* Mr. Bentham's wprk pn legislation has, however been trans
lated from the French by an American.
t American Jurist, No. I. p. 32.

ingston, has done great things for Louisiana on this
head, in regard to the criminal law ; and in civil
jurisprudence the Code Napoleon has been adopted
in that state with comparatively few alterations.! By
a law of 1829, the legislature of Louisiana appropria
ted " 4,500 dollars to Mr. Livingston, for services in
compiling the criminal code and code of evidence,
leaving the subject of further compensation open for
future consideration."! The early views of the lead
ing statesmen in America on this subject are recorded
by president Jefferson as follows : — " Whether we
should undertake to reduce the common law, our
own, and so much of the English statutes as we have
adopted, to a text, is a question of transcendent dif
ficulty. It was discussed at the first meeting of the
committee of the revised code, in 1776, and decided
in the negative. §  We met in January, 1777,
to settle the plan of operation, and to distribute the
work. The common law, and statutes to the 4th
James I., when our separate legislature was estab
lished, were assigned to me ; the British statutes, from
that period to the present day, to Mr. Wythe ; and
the Virginia laws to Mr. Pendleton. . . . We were em
ployed in this work to February, 1779, when we met
and examined critically the several parts, sentence by
sentence, scrutinizing and amending, until we had
agreed on the whole. We had brought so much of
the common law as it was thought necessary to alter,
all the British statutes, and all the statutes of Virginia,
which we thought should be retained, within the
compass of 126 bills, making a printed folio of ninety
pages. Some bills were passed, but the main body
was not entered on by the legislature until after the
general peace in 1785, when, by the unwearied ex
ertions of Mr. Madison, in opposition to the endless
quibbles, chicaneries, perversions, vexations, and de
lays of lawyers and demi-lawyers, most of the bills
were passed by the legislature with little alteration."!]
Of later years much more has been accomplished.
In New York and in other states, many debates have
been had, and valuable volumes have been published
by authority, in order to simplify the law. In Penn
sylvania, in 1830, three commissioners were appoint
ed to collect into one act the different acts requiring
consolidation ; to divest such acts of all redundant
phrases ; to distribute the acts systematically ; to omit
all that were repealed, or repeated, or expired ; to
suggest to the legislature imperfections, with the
means of correcting them : and the same commis
sioners were to report whether it would be expedient
t American Jurist, No. III. p. 188.
5 Jefferson's Correspondence, vol. iv. p. 183.
II Ibid. vol. i. p. 37.

24S

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

to introduce any, and if any, what change, in the
forms or mode of proceeding in the administration of
the laws.
It will be a proper conclusion to the foregoing
views of American laws, intimately allied as they are
to those of England, to notice the manner in which
the ablest writers, and the greatest lawyers amongst
these kindred* foreigners, have expressed their res
pect for the first of English judges and jurists. The
most important accounts of Sir Edward Coke and
Lord Bacon will be found written by Americans ;! the
great legal fathers also of modern liberty, Lord So-
mers, Sir John Holt, and Lord Camden, have, met
with more practical and devoted homage in America
than at home ; and the just legal fame of Lord Eldon,
Lord Stowell, and Lord Mansfield, incomparably the
first of modern names in the law, has been nowhere
more fairly estimated, or more eloquently acknow
ledged, than by the greatest American lawyers ; — law
yers, however, who, as citizens, were at the same time
* This is not a mere figure of speech, as an American natural
ized by act of parliament might perhaps acquire greater English
capacities than any other foreigner. — Sir Orlando Bridgman's Re
ports, p. 633.
t North American Review.
t Speech upon American Taxation.
§ Tudor's Life of Otis, p. 10.
II The spirit of the best of their fathers has not been lost on
modern American lawyers. In remarking upon the independence
of the judges, Mr. Webster, of Massachusetts, with just discrimina
tion, observes, "I, know not whether a greater improvement has
been made in sound government, than to separate the judiciary
from the executive and legislative branches, and to provide for
the decision of private rights in a manner wholly uninfluenced by
reasons of state, or considerations of party or policy. It is the
glory of the British constitution to have led in the establishment
of this most important principle. It did not exist in England be
fore the revolution of 1 688, and its introduction has seemed to give
a new character to the tribunals. In matters of mere property, in
causes of no political or public bearing, the judges, before this
event, might perhaps be safely trusted ; but in great questions con
cerning public liberty, or the rights of the subject, they were, in
too many cases, not fit to be trusted at all. Who would now quote
Seroggs. or Saunders, or Jeffries, on a question concerning the
rights of the habeas corpus, or the right of suffrage, or the liberty
of the press, or any other subject closely connected with political
freedom 1 Yet, on all these subjects, the sentiments of the English
judges since the revolution, — of Somers, and Holt, and Jekyl, and
others, — are, in general, favourable to civil liberty, and deserve and
receive great attention whenever referred to." — Debates in the Mas
sachusetts Convention of 1820, p. 217.
Another testimony from an older tongue is more important. It
has been attempted to pay a just tribute of applause to the im
portant improvements made in the state of commercial laws by
Mr. Justice Story, of the supreme court of Washington, in his
editions of Lord Tenterden's " Law of Shipping." Models for a
better eulogy upon him, may be found in the approbation which
lhat very learned judge has bestowed upon English lawyers. After
making an original sketch of the earlier progress of our jurispru
dence, he proceeds in the following words :— " It was reserved for
Lord Hard wick, by his deep learning, his extensive researches, and
his powerful genius, to combine the scattered fragments of equity
into a scientific system ; to define with a broader line the bounda
ries between common law and chancery ; and to give vigour and
certainty to the principles as well as to the jurisdiction of the lat-

willing to put their lives at hazard in a noble oppo
sition to the unfortunate views of Lord Mansfield,
Lord Stowell, and Lord E'don, on questions of civil
policy. The leading principles of English law, and
the great names in our jurisprudence, are familiar in
America as " household words." The observations of
Mr. Burke upon this subject are well known ;t and
American biography since his time has produced a
curious confirmation, of the justice of Mr. Burke's
testimony to the eagerness with which Americans,
before the revolution, hailed the Commentaries of
Sir William Blackstone. The author of the Life of
Otis§ states, that this able and patriotic lawyer, in
conversing with his brother on the subject of the
study of the law, and speaking of the books written
upon the science, and its modern improvements, said,
that " Blackstone's Commentaries would have saved
him seven years' labour poring over and delving in
black letter." II
It is indeed, a highly gratifying circumstance, that

ter. Henceforth, equity began to acquire the same exactness as
the common law ; and at this moment, there is scarcely a branch
of its jurisprudence that is not reduced to method, and that does
not, in the harmony of its parts, rival the best examples of the
common law. Our own age has witnessed, in the labours of Lord
Eldon, through a series of more than twenty-five volumes of re
ports, a diligence, sagacity, caution, and force of judgment, which
has seldom been equalled, and can scarcely be surpassed ; which
have given dignity as well as finish to that curious moral machine
ry which, dealing in an artificial system, yet contrives to administer
the most perfect of human inventions, ihe doctrines of conscience,
ex aiquo et bono."
Again, — " How few have read with becoming reverence and
zeal, the decisions of that splendid jurist, the ornament, I will not
say of his own age or country, but of all ages and of all countries ;
the intrepid supporter equally of neutral and belligerent rights ;
the pure and spotless magistrate of nations, who has administered
Ihe dictates of universal jurisprudence with so much dignity and
discretion in the prize courts of England ! Need I pronounce the
name of Sir William Scott 1
" There is another great name respecting whom it is difficult to
speak in terms of moderate praise, and still more difficult to pre
serve silence. England and America, and the whole civilized
world, lie under the deepest obligations to him : wherever com
merce shall extend its social influences, — wherever justice shall
be administered by enlightened and liberal rulers, — wherever con
tracts shall be expounded upon the eternal principles of right and
wrong, — wherever moral delicacy and juridical refinement shall
be infused into the municipal code, at once to persuade men to be
honest, and to keep them so, — wherever the intercourse of man
kind shall aim at something more elevated than that grovelling
spirit of barter, in which meanness and avarice and fraud strive
for the mastery over ignorance, credulity, and folly, — the name of
Lord Mansfield will be held in reverence by the good and the
wise, by the honest merchant, the enlightened lawyer, the just
statesman, and the conscientious judge. The maxims of maritime
jurisprudence which he engrafted into the stock of the common
law. are not the exclusive property of a single age or nation, but
the common property of all times and all countries. They ale
built upon the most comprehensive principles, and the most en
lightened experience of mankind. He designed them to be of
universal application, considering, as he himself has declared, the
maritime law to be not the law of a particular country, but the ge
neral law of nations. And such, under his administration, it be
came, as his prophetical spirit, in citing a passage from the mpsi

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

249

the lawyers of the United States cherish a disposition
to extend the bounds of the science beyond domestic
learning, and to improve their own jurisprudence by
the study of that of other nations, ancient and mo
dern. The effects of this excellent spirit cannot fail
to be to relieve society more and more from the scourge
of uncertainty to which all laws have hitherto been
exposed; and hereafter to enable a well-informed
people to colLect a comparatively simple system from
the multitude of entangled rules and statutes now
every where prevalent. Although law reform is still
in its infancy throughout the union, materials are in
the course of accumulation which must lead to great
results. The repository of the judgments of the
numerous local courts daily improves the judges and
the people ; and the visibly increasing excellence of
the American reports, although, like the independent
states^ but of recent creation, shows that legal learn
ing is spreading every where in a degree perfectly
new to mankind. The reports are the more valuable,
as they contain the written decisions which it is the
very general practice of the judges to deliver on im
portant occasions. The establishment, also, of official
reporters, such as Lord Bacon recommended in vain
for Westminster Hall, is favourable to the greater
exactness of the reports ; and the freedom and acti
vity of the law press, as well as of the press gene
rally, which was wanting in Lord Bacon's time, will

eloquent and polished orator of antiquity, seems gently to insinu
ate : Non erit alia lex Roma, alia Athenis ; alia nunc, alia posthac ;
sed, et apud omnes gentes et omni tempore, una eademq-ue lex obiinebit.
Lord Mansfield was ambitious of this noble fame, and studied
deeply, and diligently, and honestly, to acquire it. He surveyed
the commercial law of the continent, drawing thence what was
most just, useful, and rational ; and left to the world, as the fruit
of his researches, a collection of general principles, unexampled
in extent, and unequalled in excellence. The law of insurance
was almost created by him; and it would be difficult to find a
single leading principle in the beautiful system that surrounds and
protects the commerce of our times, which may not be traced to
the judgment of this surprising man. Of him it can net be said,
' Stat magni nominis umbra.' His character as a statesman and
an orator, as the rival and equal of Chatham and Camden, would
immortalize him. But the proudest monument of his fame is in
the volumes of Burrows and Cowper and Douglas, which, we may
fondly hope, will endure as long as the language in which they
are written shall- continue to instruct mankind." — An address de
livered before the members of the Suffolk bar, at their anniversa
ry, on the 4th of September, 1821, at Boston, by the Honourable
Mr. Justice Story. — American Jurist, No. I. p. 8.
A more recent tribute to England is perhaps even worthier of-
being recprded, as it bpldly unites the best names ef both countries :
" Let us imitate the example of illustrious predecessors, (says the
writer ;) of Coke, in his industry, who thanked God that he never
gave his body to physic, his heart to cruelty, nor his hand to cor
ruption ; of Hale, the proudest, because the purest name in English
history, ' of unblemished integrity and uprightness in every cha
racter in life, of generous frankness and open sincerity in conver
sation, of unalterable adherence in all stations to the principles of
civil and religious liberty, accompanied with a serious regard to
true piety ;' and, in the words of Baxtpr, ' that unwearied student,
that solid philosopher, that famous lawyer, that pillar and basis of

tend to cheek indolence, and to add to the efficiency
of these reporters.
The increase of litigation is often urged as a con
sequence of the cheapness of law, and of the multi
plicity of tribunals scattered over the United States.
The existence of the fact may be doubted : the doing
of justice is greatly increased, but not litigation. It
is not easy to form an accurate and comparative esti
mate of the amount of business done in the courts,
and out of the courts, by lawyers and judges in any
two countries ; but if the judges are more numerous
in America than in England, it is a most important
point in the comparison, that the practitioners of the
law are fewer in number ; and, by the union of the
different branches of the practice in the same indi
viduals, they are generally a more learned and more
respectable class of men. In a work of good repute,
the result of careful calculations is, that whilst in
England and Wales there is one lawyer (barrister,
conveyancer, special pleader, solicitor, attorney, ad
vocate, or notary,) to every thousand persons, in the
United States, the average is one to every seventeen
hundred persons. It is probable that the good old
practice of uniting the two branches of attorney and
barrister in one person elevates the general character
of lawyers, and lessens litigation.
Students* generally attend at the offices of establish
ed practitioners, but law schools are increasing ;
justice, who would not have done an unjust act for any worldly
price or motive, — the ornament of His Majesty's government, and
honpur pf England, the highest faculty of Westminster Hall, and
pattern lo all the reverend and honourable judges, — that godly, se
rious, and practical Christian, the lover of goodness and all good
men, a lamenter of the clergy's selfishness and unfaithfulness and
discord.' Let us imitate the example of Selden, Clarendon, Holt,
Hardwick, Nottingham, Mansfield, Thurlow, Sir William Jones,
and the host of worthies, the lights of Westminster Hall ; and of
our distinguished men in the profession, who have done so much
for themselves and the country ; and dwell upon the recollections
of the gifted jurists who aided in the cause of our revolution, and
in the establishment of our frame of government, — of Hawley,
Otis, Adams, duincy, Ellsworth, Hamilton, Jay, Wythe, Jefferson,
Lee, Randolph, Henry, Parsons, Gore, Ames, Dexter, King ; it
was the men of this cast who in stormy periods girded on the ar
mour, and subdued might to the empire of justice. They were of
that popular cast, answering the description of James, who, when
the twelve judges were brought before him, in the case of the
Commendams, declared, ' that ever since his ccming tp the crewn,
the pppular sort of lawyers had been the men that most affrontedly
had trodden upon his prerogative.' " — Mr. Willard's Address lo the
Worcester Bar, Massachusetts, 1829.
* The following Tapid sketch of the tuition of an American
lawyer, " Edward Jackson Lowell, a member of the Suffolk bar,"
in Massachusetts, is contained in an interesting notice of one who
was lost too early to his country and friends. " Five years and a
half spent in the college and law schopl pf Harvard University ;
a winter attendance upon the lectures and private instruction of
(the retired) Chancellor Kent ; a year in a counsellor's office in
Boston ; two years spent in study and travel in Europe ; and two
years of professional seclusion and study, excepting the interrup
tions of sickness, fill out the short and simple outlines of his life.
While in France, he took an instructor in the civil and French

250

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

" and," said Dr. Du Ponceau, in 1824, " the most
exalted characters do not disdain to fill the professors'
chairs. Until lately, the only institutions of this kind
were two in Massachusetts, one in Connecticut, and
one in Philadelphia : there are now established two
in Kentucky. In the university of New York, the
Hon. James Kent, during many years the distinguish
ed chancellor of that state, and whose name and
talents will long be venerated, fills the chair of juris
prudence. At Baltimore, Professor Hoffman, and at
Northampton, Judge Home, and Mr. Mills, a member
of congress, lecture with success to considerable
numbers of students."* Since the publication of Dr.
Du Ponceau's Book, law schools and law professor
ships have been established at various other places ;
of these, one professorship, founded by a distinguish
ed lawyer, and filled by a distinguished judge, requires
especial notice : Mr. Dane, one of the fathers of the
Revolution, has dedicated the profits of his valuable
Digest to a chair of jurisprudence at the university
of Cambridge, in Massachusetts ; and he has had the
good fortune to be able to appoint Mr. Justice Story
as his first professor. The professor's eulogy of his
founder is singularly happy, in the application of
Lord Hale's character of Rolle, the learned chief-jus
tice of the English Commonwealth :— *" He argued
frequently and pertinently ; his arguments were fitted
to prove and evince, not for ostentation ; plain, yet
learned ; short, if the nature of the business permit
ted, yet perspicuous ; his words few, yet significant
and weighty ;• his skill, judgment, and advice in
points of law and pleading, were sound and excellent.
In short, he was a person of great learning and ex
perience in the common law, of profound judgment,
singular prudence, great moderation, justice, and in
tegrity."! Mr. Story himself, after securing the re
spect of one generation as a judge, like Chancellor
Kent, will earn the gratitude of another as their
teacher. The character of what the American youth
are learning by such means will be best understood
by a special notice of this eminent professor's inau
gural address. After expatiating, in the manner of
Blackstone, upon the great importance of legal know
ledge to the citizens at large, the discourse is solemnly
addressed to those Who study the law as a profession,
and holds forth the highest motives to arduous ap
plication, with large and comprehensive views of the

law ; and, bpth in France and in England, he attended the ccurts
and legislative assemblies, and paid great attentien tp the history,
the theory, and the operations, of their political and legal institu
tions. He died at the age of twenty-five years, and almost at the
very hour when he was to have performed his first act of profes
sional duty, and after having lived a life, which, though undistin-
.guished by public exertion, made it privately known exactly how

science, reminding the student that it is insufficient
to be " the sharp and cunning pettifogger, a retailer
of lawsuits, ' a canter about forms, and a caviller
upon words,' described by Cicero. God forbid that
any man, standing in the temple and presence of the
law, should imagine that her ministers were called
to such unworthy offices." The all-pervading and
all-controlling influence of the administration of the
laws upon the welfare of communities, and, most of
all, of republics, is then dwelt upon with great pow
er ; and the members of the profession are reminded
that they are the guardians and sentinels of the
purity and integrity of its administration, in defence
of which, against the popular attacks of the moment,
they are bound to sacrifice, if needful, their own
popularity, and should glory in the sacrifice. The
advocate is also called upon to vindicate the laws
from the attacks of the government itself. The dis
couragements and the long-enduring labours through
which the path to eminence lies, are then portrayed
to students ; and they are cautioned against indulging
" the belief, that fluency of speech, a kindling imagi
nation, ready wit, graceful action, and steady self-
confidence, will carry them through the struggles of
the law."! In the wise spirit of Judge Story's ad
dress, Otis had a century before urged the necessity
of various and deep learning to the American lawyer ;§
and, in 1760, the eloquent Patrick Henry, although
an unlearned student, obtained admission to the bar
of Virginia, upon proof of his extensive knowledge
of the laws of nature and of nations, of the feudal
system, and of general history. II Eminent writers in
the United States have fairly vindicated their coun
trymen from all reproach of neglecting the study or
improvement of jurisprudence : by no people has so
much been done in so short a time ; and a long ca
talogue of their elementary writers, of their reporters,
and of their laws, might be quoted to their great
honour. To these sources of legal and constitutional know
ledge must be added the two remarkable facts, that
about fifty millions of copies of newspapers are issued
in the United States in the year, in which constitu
tional and legal reports and papers are published
without limit. The local legislatures afford scope
for discussion and deliberation to more than 3j500
members on the most important topics ; and at least

he would have performed that duty." — Jurisprudent, No. 9. Bos-
tpn, 1828.
* Dr. Du Ppnceau en jurisdicticn, Philadelphia, 1824, preface,
p. 19.
t The American Jurist, No. 4. 1829, p. 407.
t Tudor's Life of Otis, p. 10. § Ibid, p. 253,
II Wirt's Life of Henry, p. 17.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

251

30,000 verdicts of juries are said to be returned
yearly in the civil and criminal courts — circum
stances which show the extent to which the minds
and passions of men must be exercised in the United
States, where, as well as in the legislative assemblies,
all transactions are conducted with great publicity.
It was one of the fruits of the revolution of 1776 to
open all the legislative assemblies to the public as
hearers ; previously, the sittings had been for the
most part close. But so early as 1776, the house of
assembly of Massachusetts, at the beginning of the
great struggle, opened " a gallery for such as wished
to hear the debates."* Law reporting is also more and
more provided for by the state governments. In 1831,
the legislature of Illinois directed 150 copies of the re
ports of their supreme court to be bought by the
public. In 1830, Alabama voted 800 dollars a year to
the reporter of the supreme court ; and the like
occurs in most parts of the union, in the best
spirit of Lord Bacon's advice in England two centu
ries ago.
In America, as elsewhere, valuable law manuscripts
exist, the careful publication of which would give
certainty upon many points not likely otherwise to be
rescued from the influence of doubt, and, worse — dis
cretion. Such materials must abound in the United
States, upon a particular class of cases, as interesting
to them historically as to Great Britain legally. Un
til the revolution in 1776, frequent appeals were
made from the colonies, On various subjects, by peti
tion to the king. These petitions were heard re
gularly at the Cockpit ; and, for the most part, the
leading lawyers of England were the advocates em
ployed in these causes. The judicious course of
Lord Somers in such a case, from Boston, has been
noticed ; and Lord Mansfield is known to have had
great practice there. The subjects being rarely in
teresting to the English bar, a very few reports of the
arguments are published in our law books ; but it is
clear that the agents of the transatlantic parties sent
home large details of every thing that passed ; and,
in desultory notices of Privy Council causes in
American books, there is proof that some of these
details are preserved, as in Belknap's and Hutchin
son's Histories of Massachusetts, and in the collection
of the Boston Historical Society ; to which society
there were lately sent the printed briefs and petitions
in the very curious Privy Council appeal of " The
Last of the Mohicans," an appeal which, in the fact
of its having been seventy years before the English
tribunal, furnishes a sufficiently clear illustration of
* Tudor's Life of Otis.

one cause of the ruin of the native tribes. These
Privy Council proceedings are important in the
United States as matter of constitutional and legal
history ; but to the existing English colonies the pre
cedents which some of them would furnish of wise
decisions, and the warnings which might be derived
from the manifest errors exhibited in others,' would
be of the highest value.
In New England there are extant also manuscript
law cases, taken before the Revolution, by such a
man as Josiah Quincy, whose short report, written
from London, in 1775, of a speech of Lord Chatham,
is one of the most precious remains we possess of that
great man's oratory.
The manuscripts in England affecting America are
numerous. One of Sir Matthew Hale's, on the law of
colonies, contains the following very curious passage : —
" Concerning; the plantations of Virginia, New Eng
land, Bermuda, and other islands and continents
towards the West Indies, and, also, our plantations in
Africa and the East Indies, the course of their ac
quisition was, that the King issued a commission to
seize them ; thus Virginia and New England were
seized in 4 Jac. I. ; Greenland and the northern
plantations in 1 Phil, and Mar. pat. 3 ; the Carribee
islands by Warner ; and so divers others 
Presently upon the acquest the English laws are not
settled there, or at least only temporary, till a settle
ment is made ; and therefore, we see there adminis
tration of justice and law much differing from the
English laws ; but the people carry with them
those English liberties which are incident to their
persons."! Another, respecting civil matters, is perhaps more
curious, by containing one of the earliest suggestions
for the settlement of the old colonies, as a means of
humbling Spain, and of avenging the cause of the
Elector Palatine, son-in-law to James I. This manu
script is from the first Lord Fairfax, a well-known
name in Virginia. It urges by way of incentive to
North American colonization, in the seventeenth cen
tury, that " in the glorious and happy days of Queen
Elizabeth, frequent were the navigations of our .wor
thy countrymen ; every brave spirit was taken up
with some action that deserves esteem ;" concluding
with the just boast,- — " Let the same occasion be that
was, and there will be found English blood in Eng
lish veins still ! The same that we received
from our fathers, the same we will leave to our
sons ;" — a boast which those sons have, indeed, nobly
vindicated.

t Lprd Hale's Prerogative Regis. — British Museum : — Hargrave
MSS. No. 81 , p. 64.

252

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

To the foregoing very incomplete sketch of the
constitution and jurisprudence of the United States,
two concluding remarks remain to be added. The
first is, that the essentially popular character of the
constitution has led a greater number of disinterested
men, than under any other form of government, to
direct their faculties calmly to the consideration of
the best means of acting upon, of improving, and
preserving it : — the second, that in consequence of
the steady and widely extended watchfulness of the
people over all that concerns them, popular affections
and direct popular intervenation have become safe
influences in public affairs ; and a degree of certainty,
at little cost, is thereby secured to the public peace,
heretofore unknown to human institutions. So deeply
do we feel that these great results are attributable in
a high degree to the character of the government
under which they are found, that it is most unwil
lingly we abstain from selecting, out of its legal his
tory, many additional excellencies of the constitution
of the American Union.

CHAPTER II.

RELIGION.

As the state of human society in regard to religion
is unquestionably the most important aspect in which
it can be viewed, so the state and progress of religion
can be nowhere contemplated with more interest, or
to greater advantage, than in the North American
republic. We have not here to trace its influence
upon savages, but upon civilized man ; not upon un
informed and wandering tribes, the natives of the
wild, but upon the population of enlightened states
suddenly transplanted to its soil. We find this popu
lation, however, in a condition entirely new. Bring
ing with them the knowledge and the arts of civil
ized life, together with the principles of the civil,
political, and religious economy of long-established
kingdoms, they entered, not only upon the soil, but
into the wild independence and unrestrained liberty
of the savage. Released on the one hand from every
thing which could have any tendency to render them
either really or apparently religious, except the per
manent force of truth and (under their circumstan
ces) the diminishing power of habit, they may be
considered as presenting a fair example of what habit
and truth can effect, when separated from the artifi
cial helps of legislative enactments, of an ennobled
and wealthy priesthood, and of an imposing public
ritual : released on the other hand from all which

might tend to fetter the free exercise of the under
standing, and permitted, not only to choose for them
selves in the first instance, but to make whatever
alterations their experience might suggest, they may
be regarded as having, for the first time, put to the
test of common sense and practical utility, the forms
both of religious sentiment and religious worship so
long established — and because established revered —
by the parent nations. The issue to which the ques
tion of a national church establishment has thus been
brought is of great importance ; and not less so is
the aspect which the progress of religion has assu-
ned, in the multiplication and extension of what has
for some time been well know under the name of a
revival. It will, of course, be recollected by the reader, that
the religious aspect of the United States is very far
from being uniform. Different portions of the re
public are characterized, not merely by less or greater
degrees of religion, but by the prevalence of different
religious sects. This has arisen principally from
the manner in which the colonies, which are now
cemented under the general title of the United States,
were formed. Little or no progress was made in cul
tivating the transatlantic wilderness, until it became
a refuge from persecution. It was natural that the
first parties who went over on this ground should
consist of persons of similar religious sentiments —
of those, namely, which at that particular period ex
posed the holders of them to suffering ; and when
persons of a different creed became the victims of
similar bigotry, in its capricious waywardness, they,
in similar bodies, sought an asylum, not in the arms
of those already banished, (where, indeed, it must be
confessed, it would not then have been found,) but in
some distant and unoccupied portion of the far-spread
ing shore. In this manner the states of Massachu
setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire,
Maine, and Vermont, together forming what is fami-
liary known as New England, were colonized by the
persecuted Puritans, and their religious condition
bears the powerful impress of their origin to this day.
Maryland was settled by Roman Catholics ; Penn
sylvania bythe Quakers, (or Friends ;) while episco
pacy prevailed in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Geor
gia. Another circumstance contributing to diversify
the religious aspect of the United States is, that seve
ral of the colonies comprehended in the republic
were not of English origin. New York, New Jersey,
and Delaware, were originally colonized by the Swedes
and the Dutch ; while Louisiana was Jong a pos^-
session of the French ; and Florida is but recently
acquired from Spain. The religious condition of

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

253

these states bears distinct traces of their origin, in
the existence, in the former, of Dutch and Lutheran
churches, and in the prevalence of popery, supersti
tion, and infidelity, in the latter. A further cause of
want of uniformity in the' religious aspect of the re
public, is the rapidity with which the settlement of
new lands is perpetually going forward. Every
year the immigrant population is pressing onwards in
the western wilderness, and at a much swifter pace
than the means of religious instruction. As you re
tire from the more populous towns and the longer-
settled districts, these means become more and more
scanty, until the border settlers are withdrawn from
every thing external by which a sense of religion
might be maintained, and abandoned, until late
ly, almost without an effort, to the prevalence of irre-
ligion and vice.
Although our limits preclude us from attempting
any thing like a history of religion in the United
States, and equally from giving an extended account
of particular sects, we have selected a few brief
notices, which will give to our readers, we trust, a
sufficient view of the existing religious bodies.
Not wishing to exhibit our own partialities, we
begin with the Roman Catholics. A Jesuit priest
accompanied the emigrants to Maryland in 1632 ;
and from that date till the period of the revolution,
the American Catholics in Maryland and Virginia
were constantly served by Jesuit missionaries, suc
cessively sent from England. The Rev. Dr. John
Carrol having been elected by the clergy the first
bishop, through a special indulgence granted them
by the pope, Pius VI., a see was constituted, and the
bishop elect consecrated in England, August 15, 1790.
In 1810, the increase of the Romish communion had
become so great in the United States, that it was
judged best at Rome to erect the episcopate of Balti
more into a metropolitan or archiepiscopal see, and to
establish four new suffragan dioceses ; namely, Bos
ton, New York, Philadelphia, and Bardstown in
Kentucky. New Orleans, Charleston, Richmond, and
Cincinnati, are now to be added to this list.* It ap
pears that the court of Rome cherishes the hope of
acquiring large accessions to its spiritual dominion in
the United States, more especially from the western
territory. - Regular missions are established over the
whole country, and the following language is held re-
* The entire number of Catholic bishops throughout the states is
fifteen. t Annales de 1' Association de la Propagation de la Foi. Paris, 1 829!
t "These establishments do wonderful good: Cathplics and
Protestants are admitted indiscriminately ; the latter, after having
finished their education, return to the bpspm of their families, full
of esteem and veneration for their instructresses. They are ever
Vol. IL— Nos. 57 & 58. 2 1

specting them : " The missions of America are of high
importance to the church. The superabundant popula
tion of ancient Europe is flowing towards the United
States. Each one arrives, not with his religion, but
with his indifference. The greater part are disposed
to embrace the doctrine, whatever it be, which is
first preached to them. We must make haste ; the
moments are precious. America may one day be
come the centre of civilization ; and shall truth or
error establish there its empire? If the Protestant
sects are beforehand with us, it will be difficult to
destroy their influence."! To these missions there
was remitted from Europe in the year 1828, out of
the funds of the Association for the Propagation of
the Faith, nearly 5,O00Z. The methods adopted by
the Catholics comprehend particularly establishments
for education, from which they evidently expect much,!
the formation of religious houses of a benevolent
character, and the building of churches, " whose
pomp and splendour form so striking a contrast with.
the barrenness and nudity of Protestant worship. "§
These efforts of the Romanists have been attended
with a degree of success, which, though by no
means extraordinary, has greatly encouraged the
papal court, and has of late been regarded with anx
iety by the more public-spirited part of other com
munions in the United States. The number of per
sons who have embraced Romanism does not appear
to have been ascertained ; but " the population be
longing to this church," (a phrase of great latitude
and vagueness,) at the highest of the various esti
mates which have been formed of it, has been com
puted at half a million. II We see nothing in this
more than commensurate with the well-designed
efforts and the devoted zeal which have been applied
to the work, especially when combined with the
j extreme neglect with which the population of the
western territory has been treated by other religion
ists, and the skilful adaptation ofthe papal system to
the corrupt heart and proud imaginations of mankind.
When American evangelical writers talk of contem
plating the extension of popery with grief, we are
ready to ask them, why they did not view with equal
grief the indifference and irreligion which were long
before prevalent, and which were in themselves
equally afflictive ; and when they speak of it as a
matter of humiliation that such a system should be
ready to refute the calumnies which the jealousy of heretics loves
to spread against the religious communities; and often, when they
have no longer the opposition of thtir relations to fear, they em
brace the Catholic religion." — Ibid.
§ Ibid.
II Quarterly Journal of the American Educilicn Society, vol. ii
p. 199.

254

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

capable of diffusing itself in such a country as theirs,
we may suggest, as a still more proper topic of abase
ment, the supineness of those who, having light in
their dwellings, have been pitiless of them that sat in
darkness and the shadow of death. There is reason
to believe, however, that the depth of this sleep is
past ; and we shall have occasion to notice, before we
close this article, some recent exertions of great ener
gy and promise in this direction.
The number of Episcopalians among the settlers
in the United States, was small ; in Maryland and
Virginia, however, many churches were early formed,
and had legal establishments for their support. The
organization of the episcopal church in America
took place after the revolutionary war. The Rev.
Samuel Seabury, D.D. of Connecticut, was consecra
ted at Aberdeen in Scotland, in November, 1784, by
the Scotch bishops ; Bishop Provost and Bishop
White, of Pennsylvania, in 1787, by the Arch
bishop of Canterbury. Since that time, the number
of Episcopalians in the republic has constantly in
creased,, and they are now found in all the states.*
The colleges of Washington in Connecticut ; Colum
bia in New York city ; Geneva, New York ; the Uni
versity of Pennsylvania ; William and Mary College,
Virginia ; and Kenyon, Ohio, are institutions under
their control. Their dioceses are fifteen, bishops ten,
and clergy five hundred and twenty-eight. Ameri
can episcopacy, though it was derived from this
country, has been so greatly modified by its separa
tion from state patronage, and is so very unlike its
still venerated parent, that we may perhaps gratify
Our readers, especially those of the same faith, by a
brief sketch of its constitution. The highest spirit
ual capacity known is, of course, a bishop. Priests
and deacons, being all the orders named in the Bible,
are the only other orders known or used in America.
The supreme authority is exercised by the general
convention, which is composed of two bodies,— a
house of bishops, and a house of lay delegates. Each
diocese has a convention for the regulation of its own
affairs. The general convention consists of the
bishops, who form the house of bishops, and of lay
men, who are sent as delegates from the state conven
tions. The object of this body is to promote har
mony and uniformity of doctrine in the whole church.
The state conventions contain the clergy of the
diocese, and a lay delegation from each church. In
both conventions, the clergy (or bishops, as the case
may be) and the laymen vote separately, a majority
of both being necessary to an ordinance. Clergymen

* The present house of bishops is at this time (June, 1 834) com
posed of sixteen bishops.

are presented by their congregations, and bishops are
elected by the conventions of the diocese, and are ap
proved of by the house of bishops. There is no sala
ry yet given to any bishop, though provision, to a
reasonable amount, is making for that object ; at
present they are all rectors of churches. The oldest
bishop for the time being is called the presiding
bishop, though he enjoys no exclusive authority.
The influence of republican institutions, even upon
episcopacy, is here decidedly manifest. With the
same name, this is obviously a very different thing
from English episcopacy : the people uniformly
choose their own ministers ; the bishops are elected
by a process in which, by their delegates, the laity
have a voice ; and no salaries are independent of a
similar vote. It is well known that the Episcopal
lians of the United States look with no complacency
on the golden fetters of their parent church ; and it
may be matter of some surprise how the admirers of
the English hierarchy can delight themselves in the
prosperity of a scion, which, while retaining an
identity of denomination, has adopted what they
must consider so dangerous and mischievous a prin
ciple, as the popular nomination to ecclesiastical offices
and appropriation of ecclesiastical funds.
The first Presbyterians in America came from
England, Scotland, and Ireland, about the year 1700,
and settled in what is now a part of New Jersey and
Delaware. The first presbytery was formed about
1706; the first synod, that of Philadelphia, in 1716;
the general assembly in 1788. The essential features
of Presbyterianism are the following : — 1. The parity
of its ministers. It recognizes but one order of minis
ters or presbyters, who receive their authority pri
marily from the Lord Jesus himself, and have power
afterwards to confer this authority upon their succes
sors. 2. The order and co-operation of ruling elders.
They are properly the representatives ofthe people,
chosen by them for the purpose of exercising govern
ment and discipline, in conjunction with pastors or
ministers. 3. The union of its churches under
courts of review and control. The general assembly
of this church in the United States has under its
care — synods, 20; presbyteries, 104; ministers, 1,800;
churches, 2,250 ; communicants, 182,000. Of the
ministers, forty are either presidents of, or professors
in, theological or literary institutions, and fifteen
foreign missionaries. In February, 1810, the Cum
berland Presbytery was formed in Tennessee without
any connexion with the Presbyterian church, princi
pally because the synod of Kentucky refused to
license ministers to preach the gospel without a clas
sical education. This was at a period of considerable

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

255

religious excitement, when the labours of clergymen
were in great demand. They dissented also in some
respects from the confession of faith of the general
assembly, particularly in regard to the doctrines of
reprobation, limited atonement, &c. At first there
were but nine preachers in the connexion, four only
of whom were ordained: They have now a synod,
consisting of several presbyteries.
The Congregationalists, although principally abound
ing in New England, have a number of churches scat
tered over other parts of the country.' The funda
mental principle of Congregationalism, and that from
which the name is derived, is, that each congrega
tion, assembly, or brotherhood of professed christians,
meeting together for religious purposes in one place,
is a complete church. It may commune with other
churches, but it is a church of itself, and not by vir
tue of any connexion with another body of christians.
It has the right, under Christ, to appoint its own of
ficers, to discharge the duties of worship, to observe
the instituted sacraments, and to exercise discipline
upon its own members. The name Independent,
which has sometimes been applied to these churches,
has been objected to as inapplicable, because " they
hold friendly mutual intercourse for various purposes,"
and are only independent as to authoritative control ;
but this, so far as we understand it, is the exact
meaning of the word Independent, as the denomina
tion of a religious body, and the term seems to be
just as applicable to the American Congregationalists
as to the body who have long been designated by it
in Britain. An account of the emigration of Mr.
Robinson and his church, from whom the Congrega
tionalists of the republic took their rise, will be found
in a former part of our work. Formerly there were
three officers known in these churches ; pastors, ru
ling elders, and deacons. The intermediate class is
now discontinued. The constitution of these churches,
so far as there is any, is derived from ancient con
gregational writers on this subject, from the Cam
bridge platform of 1648, and the collateral discus
sions, from the Saybrook platform, and from general
usage.* The strictly congregational form of church
constitution and government in this body, has under
gone some singular modifications, by the connexion,
or rather the identification, in the origin and early
proceedings of the colonies, of the. church with the
state. Migrating as a church, the settlers, not per
haps unnaturally, though clearly .both unjustly and
unwisely, conducted civil matters in the same capa-
* For an account of the Cambridge and Saybrook platforms, see
vol. i.
t Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. i. p. 114. It appears from this ar-

city, and would allow none but church members to
be elected to any office, or to possess the entire privi
leges of citizenship. In order to provide more com
pletely for public worship, there was effected a di
vision of the country and of the larger towns into
parishes, a place of worship belonging to some Con
gregational Society being often considered as the
parish church, and the residents in the parish having
a joint right with the members of the church in the
election of the minister. These things are obviously
incongruous with the great principles of the congre
gational system, and must have proceeded from an
oversight of them. They have produced the results
which might have been expected. By a recent legal
decision, in a case in which the parish and the church
could not agree in their choice, the church has been
merged in the parish, its distinct rights of property
taken away, and even its separate existence denied.
Loud, and, as we think, just complaint, is made by
the Congregationalists against this decision, and we
hope it will be cancelled ; but should it be establish
ed and acted upon as law, the whole body may
tremble for their very sanctuaries, and will have to
learn, by costly and bitter experience, the evil of de
parting from their principles.! There are about 1,000
Congregational ministers, 1,270 churches, and 140,000
communicants. The Baptist churches in the United States are
formed upon the same theological model as the Con
gregational, and differ only in baptizing by immersion
on a profession of faith. The Calvinistic Baptists
formed their first church at Providence, Rhode Island,
in 1639, and are now found in all parts of the union,
They are a highly numerous and influential body,
having 224 associations, 4,384 churches, 2,914 min
isters, and 304,000 communicants. This is far, how
ever, from being the whole body of American Bap
tists ; there are others of "one faith and one baptism,'
appearing under subordinate distinctions : such are,
1. The Seventh-day Baptists. The first Sabbatarian
church in America was formed in Newport, Rhode '
Island, in 1671, and they are confined principally to
that state. A few years since they numbered about
1,000 communicants. In the United States there are
now about 2,000 members, united together in an an
nual conference. 2. Emancipators, consisting of- a
number of ministers and churches in Kentucky, who,
in 1805, took a decided stand against slavery, in prin
ciple and practice : their number is constantly in
creasing. 3. Free-communion Baptists, a name given

tiele, that some places of worship belonging to other denominations
are likewise " connected With parishes."

256

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

to about thirty ministers and churches, who reside
west of Albany, in the state of New York. The
receding are all of them Calvinistic. 4. Free-will
Baptists : the number of ministers probably amounts
to 300 ; churches, 400 ; communicants, 16,000. 5.
Tunkers, or Dunkers, who have acquired this name
from the manner in which they perform the rite of
baptism, the word Tunker being a corruption of tum
bler. They first appeared in America in 1719 : they
hold the doctrine of universal salvation, with some
peculiar qualifications. They have, probably, forty
or fifty churches, principally in the western states,
and have great singularities. 6. Mennonites, of whom
there were, in 1824, about 200 churches. 7. Six-
principle Baptists, so called, from their belief that the
custom of the imposition of hands, recognised in Heb.
vi. 1, 2, is still binding as a prerequisite to church
communion. As these two verses contain six distinct
propositions, these persons have acquired the name
of Six-principle Baptists, to distinguish them from
others, sometimes called Five-principle. They reside
mostly in Rhode Island and New York, and, in 1828,
consisted of about twenty churches, and from 1500
to 1800 members.
The Congregationalists and Baptists already men
tioned require to be further designated as orthodox, in
order to distinguish them from some of a similar con
stitution, but of a different creed. Of this kind is a
Baptist community calling themselves Christians, in
defence of the name they have assumed quoting Acts
xi. 26, xxvi. 28, and 1 Peter iv. 16, and regarding
all others as the invention of men. The first society
of this kind was formed in Portsmouth, New Hamp
shire, in 1803 ; they have spread extensively in all
parts of the United States ; they are anti-calvinistic
and anti-trinitarian, and have not far from 1,000 con
gregations. A portion of the congregational churches,
likewise, is now characterized by what may be desig
nated English Unitarianism. The origin of this
form of belief in the states is not to be traced to emi
gration, but to the decay of vital piety among the
Congregationalists of New England, which is stated
to have occurred about seventy years since. Under
the cover of indifference, Unitarianism but too ef
fectually insinuated itself among the members and
into the pulpits of that body, with no small measure,
as is alleged, of secrecy and artifice ; some conceal
ing their sentiments because they were unpopular,
others because they felt indifferent about them ; and
others, more reflecting and philosophical, because
they conceived that their extension would be most
effectually promoted at that particular time by re
serve and caution. The first Unitarian congregation

formed in America was established in the king's
chapel soon after the revolution, a case in which an
open change was faciliated by the chapel becoming
private property. As Unitarian sentiments became
more general, they were gradually avowed with less
reserve : yet the pulpits of many ministers who were
supposed to have imbibed them gave no evidence of
the fact, except by the systematic omission of dis
tinct statements on discriminating points of doctrine.
This at length brought upon them the charge of in
sincerity from their more orthodox brethren. The
imputation was repelled with warmth, and the public
were left in great doubt as to the precise sentiments
of many of their pastors. Dr. Morse, the most pro
minent of those who publicly manifested their regret
at the supposed defection of their brethren from the
common faith, was accused of misrepresentation ; and
the most candid felt it almost impossible to arrive at
the real state of things. At this time Dr. Morse
happened to meet with Mr. Belsham's Life of Lind
say, in which he found his own representations borne
out by letters and documents transmitted from Boston
by the Unitarians themselves : these he put together
in the form of a pamphlet, under the title of " Ame
rican Unitarianism ; or a brief History of the Pro
gress and Present State of the Unitarian Churches
in America, compiled from Documents and Informa
tion communicated by the Rev. James Freeman, D. D.
and William Wells, jun., Esq., of Boston, and from
other Unitarian gentlemen in this country. By the
Rev. T. Belsham, Essex-street, London. Extracted,"
&c. This pamphlet was eagerly read, and produced
a great sensation. It disclosed the actual state of
things, brought the question to issue, and ranged in
opposite ranks those advocates of conflicting senti
ments who had hitherto been confusedly intermin
gled.* The Unitarian party were not compelled to
avow themselves, and to assume a distinct form in
the United States, without loud complaints of illiber-
ality against the orthodox Congregationalists ; but,
as it appears to us that this measure was right and
imperative in its principle, so it is acknowledged on
all hands to have been powerful in its influence, the
orthodox churches having much increased since the
commencement of this controversy, and Unitarianism
being at a stand. The number of churches belong
ing to the Unitarians is not definitely known. Six
or eight are found in Maine ; four or five in New
Hampshire ; one in Vermont ; one hundred and thirty
or forty in Massachusetts ; two in New York city ;
and a few in other places, south and west. It thus

* Letters from North America, by Adam Hodgson, vol. ii. p. 237.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

257

appears that they are by no means a large body, and
that they are almost entirely confined to New Eng
land, their head-quarters being in Boston, where they
have possession of seven or eight churches, and
where, at one period, only one or two were filled by
evangelical ministers. Striking and surprising as it
may appear, that such a system should have had its
birth in the part of the United States most eminent
for knowledge and religion, and that it should have
enthroned itself in the very centre of orthodox Con
gregationalism, (for such Boston has always been,)
gaining possession of its pulpits, its revenues, and its
oldest, best endowed, and most influential university,*
we conceive that there is nothing in these facts out
of keeping, either with the character of Unitarianism,
or the nature of man. The history of Unitarianism
in our own country demonstrates it to be a system,
delighting to insinuate itself into places it did not
build, especially when attracted by funds which it is
worth while to divert from their just appropriation ;
and proves equally, that nothing is so favourable to
its progress as a religious state compounded of form
ality and indifference. Just so it has been in New
England. The case of the Congregationalists there
is but a repetition of that of the Presbyterians among
ourselves : they stand, as a body, partly orthodox
and partly Unitarian ; and the strife on the part of
the former will be, to induce, as vacancies may arise,
the election of orthodox ministers. In this respect,
if they could act as churches alone, their work would
be much more easy, and their efforts more successful :
it is the combination of parishes with churches which
has given Unitarians their chief advantage, and
creates for the orthodox their chief difficulty.! It is
not the Congregational system, therefore, but a de
parture from it, which has suffered Unitarianism to
enter ; and in exact proportion to the degree in which
its consistent operation can be restored, will be the
prospect of expelling the intruder.
The first Methodist society in the United States
was formed in the city of New York, in 1776, by
some emigrants from Ireland. During the war of
the revolution, all the preachers, except Mr. Asbury,
returned to their native land. In 1784, Dr. Thomas
Coke went to America, with powers to constitute the
Methodist societies into a church :. before this the
* Harvard University ; now opposed by a flourishing institution
at Andover.
t It is this controversy which has given rise to the legal appeal
and decision to which we have referred in our account of the
Congregational body. At a place called Dedham, the church
having elected an orthodox minister, the parish elected a Unita
rian ; to which the church not submitting, the parish carried the
matter before the supreme court, and the judge determined, not
only that the election of the parish should stand against that of the

preachers were considered only as laymen, and did
not administer the ordinances. Dr. Coke ordained
Mr. Asbury a bishop, and thus gave to the whole
Methodist body an episcopal character, which it has
ever since retained. There is something singular in
the contrast which is thus created between the Me
thodists of America and those of Britain ; and we
feel inclined to ask whence it arose. How is it that
bishops were not ordained on both sides of the Atlan
tic 1 Was it originally intended, and frustrated on
this side of the water by feelings relating to the proud
episcopacy of the national church, which had no ex
istence in America, at least after the establishment
of its independence? The clergy of the Methodist
Episcopal church consist of bishops, presiding elders,
elders, deacons, and an unordained order of licensed
preachers. The ministry is divided into itinerant
and local : the former are constantly engaged in
preaching and pastoral labour under the direction of
the bishops and conferences ; the latter perform these
offices only as opportunity offers. The highest au
thority of the Methodist Episcopal church is the ge
neral conference, which meets once in four years,
and consists of delegates from the annual conferences,
in the ratio of one delegate for every seven itinerant
preachers. The annual conferences are seventeen
in number, dividing the whole territory of the United
States : these conferences consist of all the travelling
preachers in the connexion. Their numbers, in
1829, were 437,000, with 1639 travelling preachers.
The Quakers, or Friends, are found principally in
Pennsylvania.! Within a few years past there has
been a serious schism among them : a part professing
the doctrines of Unitarianism, and called Hicksites,
from their leader, Elias Hicks ; the other portion- ad
hering to orthodox sentiments. It having been made
a question which of them ought to be considered as
seceding from the doctrines of the original sect, the
yearly meeting of Friends in London, May 20, 1829,
sent forth an epistle, containing a statement of their
belief ; from Avhich it appears, that they fully believe
in the inspiration of the Scriptures, the supreme di
vinity of our Lord Jesus Christ, atonement by his
sufferings and death, &c. The Hicksites, therefore,
though not the minority, are the seceders. Of
150,000 members of this society, 56,026 are Hicksites,
church, but that all the property of the church should likewise be
at the disposal of the parish, equally irrespectively of the will of
that body. Enormous injustice, truly, and flagrant law ! but a fit
employment for Unitarian artifice, and a fit recempense for Cpn-'
gregatipnal inccnsistency. — Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. i.
t The editprs pf the Quarterly Jpurnal pf the American Educa-
tipn Society tell us that the Quakers " agree with the Baptists in
denying the validity of infant baptism." — VpI. if, p. 187. Query :
Dp they allew the validity ef adult baptism 1

258

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

and 28,904 are orthodox; the others are not known.
¦ — The Dutch reformed church was the established
church in the state of New York until it was surren
dered to the English. ,The church was dependent
for the ordination of its ministers, <fcc, on the classis
of Amsterdam, in Holland, till 1757, when the first
classis was formed in America. Its government is
committed to consistories, classes, and synods. —
Some members of the German reformed church were
among the early settlers in Pennsylvania : they are
descended from the reformed or Calvinistic church
in Germany, and remained in a scattered state till
1746, when the Rev. Michael Schlatter, who was
sent from Europe for the purpose, collected them to
gether. They are found principally in Pennsylva
nia ; but there are a few in Maryland, Virginia, Ohio,
and other states. The following may be given as a
general estimate of the condition of this synod, in
cluding that of Ohio : — classes, eight ; ordained mi
nisters, one hundred and twenty ; congregations, five
hundred. — Some persons of the evangelical Lutheran
church settled in Pennsylvania and the adjoining
states on their arrival in America, and were for a
considerable time supplied with ministers from Ger
many, some of whom were eminent men : they are
now found in Pennsylvania, New York, North Caro
lina, Maryland, and other states. The Augsburg
Confession, consisting of twenty-one articles, is the
acknowledged standard of faith for the Lutherans.
Among the American Lutherans are three judicato
ries : — 1. The vestry of the congregation. 2. The
district conference. 3. The general synod, from
which there is no appeal. The general synod con
tained, in 1828, about 200 ministers, and 800 con
gregations. — The principal settlements of the United
Brethren are in Pennsylvania and North Carolina ;
their congregations, in 1828, were twenty-three ;
communicants, 2,000; members, 6,000.— In the
United States, there are probably about 300 societies,
and 150 preachers of the Universalist persuasion : a
general convention is annually holden, in which the
several societies in New England, and some from other
states, are represented.-^The Swedenborgians are
organized into , a general convention, which meets
annually \ the eleventh meeting Was held in Boston,
in August, 1829 ; it consists of pastors, or teachers,
and lay delegates.— The population of the Sha
kers, whose worship consists in religious dancing,
was, in 1828, 5,400, in sixteen societies) and with for- |
ty-five preachers.
Our readers cannot fail to have observed, that, in I
the preceding account of the religious bodies existing |
in the United States, we have made no mention of a I

national church, or a state religion. There is, in truth,
no such thing in the republic. Religion is scrupu
lously dissevered from the state, and as much from
its patronage as from its control. The general go
vernment is prohibited by a fundamental article of
the union from making any laws relating to religion,
a right which the separate states have reserved to
themselves ; and they have determined, we believe
unanimously, not to use it. The states, indeed, allot
portions of land in new settlements for the support of
schools or divine worship, but they leave the appro
priation of the grant to the vote of the inhabitants,
without preference being shown by the legislature to
any sect. If any more religious legislation than
this exists, it is only in the laws by which some of
the states prescribe qualifications for office ; but these
are, we believe, universally a dead letter. We do
not consider it as an exception to this rule, that act
ing ministers of the gospel are, by law, in some
states, not eligible to the legislature, or to the office
of governor : where no such laws exists, the princi
ple, we are informed, is equally held and acted upon,
that the union of civil and religious duties in the
same person is inexpedient, — -a point on which Mr.
Cooper states " the opinions of the whole nation" are
agreed. The opinion of the Americans in this re
spect is the more worthy of regard, because it is not
the offspring of theory, but the result of experience.
In many cases, and in some almost inevitably, the
early magistrates of the colonies were ministers.
Here, therefore, the utility of a clerical magistracy
has been put to a practical test, and the decision of
experimental wisdom is against it. Truly happy
should we be to see a similar division between civil
and sacred duties among ourselves.
We were saying, however, that, in the United
States, religion is not established by law : so far as
the government is concerned, every man is left entire
ly free to be of any religion or none, without any
forfeiture of any civil right ; and religious people are
permitted to propagate every man his system, to
whatever extent they please, alike without patronage
and without resistance. This feature in the religious
aspect of the republic has been regarded with consi
derable interest, and has become the subject of much
discussion. Those who yield themselves to the
imagination that a nation without a state religion is
a nation of atheists, " a nation without a God," have
naturally deemed it a horrible enormity ; those who
conceive religion to be the only foundation of civil
government, have not less naturally apprehended
from it the irruption of anarchy ; while those who
identify the existence and spread of religion with the

Topography of the united states.

259

apparatus and wealth of an establishment, have, with
equal reason, trembled for the ark of God. There
are Others, on the contrary, and we place ourselves
in this class, who deem the existing state of things
in the republic right in its principle, and rejoice
to believe, that it has been, and will be, beneficial in
its results.
It should be recollected in the outset of this dis
cussion, that the separation of religionfrom the state
in the North American republic has not arisen from
the original structure of the colonies, or from the
principles or designs of the first settlers. As the co
lonists went out for the most part as religious bodies,
so they were almost universally impregnated with a
passion for making religion the basis of the state, or
of putting the state under the government of religion,
— the reigning passion of the age, from which even
persecution had not purified them.* Hence, almost
everywhere, one of the first proceedings was to esta
blish religion by a fundamental law ; and thus Ro
manism was established in Maryland, Episcopacy in
Virginia, and, with grievous inconsistency, Congre
gationalism in New England. If in these regions
religion is not now established by law, it is because
establishments were found not to be useful, and for
no other reason. Here is no mere theory brought
forward and put into action, but, on the contrary,
the exclusive result of experience. It is, moreover,
not the experience of states in which an unestablish-
ed religion was instituted from the commencement, but
of states in which establishments were first tried, and
in which they were loved, and clung to with almost
infinite tenacity. They were abandoned gradually,
only as the necessity of circumstances and the light
of experience dictated, and only as it was demonstra
ted that they did more harm than good. Here,
therefore, we have the system of ecclesiastical estab
lishments put to the most critical and satisfactory test,
for such that of experience confessedly is. There is
proverbially nothing crude, nothing rash, nothing
delusive, in the lessons of this teacher, who is withal
so effectual, that she is said to teach fools, at least if
they will ever learn. To this it may be added, that
no trial of the system of state religions can be more
advantageous for the advocates of establishments
than that to which' it has been subjected in the
United States ; and though it is far less favourable
for the principles of Congregationalism than a fair
trial of their value might demand, yet we are content.
It is so much the more satisfactory if the result be on
our side.

work.

Ample proofs of this may be found in the first volume of this

The practice of connecting the more ample or
more restricted enjoyment of social privileges with a
particular religious profession, which some of the
colonies at first rigorously enforced, was soon found
incompatible with their secular welfare. Persons
aggrieved in this method could so easily remove
themselves, either into another territory, or into the
unsettled wilderness, that such a policy had for the
most part no other effect than that of banishing
valuable residents, and this at a time when it was of
the utmost importance to multiply them. To the ne
cessity of encouraging population we are indebted for
the first instance of a government in this respect
entirely equal, that of Maryland, into which, although
it was colonized by Roman Catholics, and although
Romanism was made the religion of the state, per
sons of all religious persuasions were welcomed upon
equal terms as to civil rights, while bigotry was
driving Presbyterians from the south, and Episcopa
lians from the north, to cultivate the lands, to aug
ment the resources, and to reward the liberality, of a
wiser state. In other instances, the near equality
between the parties inflicting and those suffering the
grievances contributed to the promptness of its cure.
During their infancy, the colonies received such
numerous accessions of persons not of the religious
persuasion of the first settlers, and these often became
of such special value and indispensable importance
to the colonies themselves, that when they complain
ed, their voice was necessarily heard. The reigning
church became merged in the general population ;
and the equalization of civil rights became too gene
ral and imperative a demand to be refused. Its refu
sal, had it been possible, would have been not merely
folly, but suicide.
The interference of the state with religion was
found by no means conducive to the prosperity of
religion. Those who settled in the transatlantic
wilderness not unnaturally partook of the boldness
and freedom of the wilderness itself ; and religionists
of the same sect assumed no inconsiderable diversi
ties. This was the case at least in New England,
where, in consequence of it, an attempt was made to
introduce a uniformity of worship, by a meeting of
delegates under the sanction of the government.
From this body issued the ecclesiastical constitution
called the Saybrook Platform. It was approved by
the existing legislature ; but what then 'I It caused
great discontent among the people, and it was. not
adopted in general practice. Resolved to try their
hands again at this hopeless work, another meeting
was held at Cambridge, and a second " platform," or
code of ecclesiastical laws, was promulgated. The

260

TOPOGRAPHY "OF THE UNITED STATES.

result is, that the churches which these legislative
enactments were to regulate have, to the present day,
no uniform constitution at all ; but each has adopted
which of the laws it pleased, and the others remain
a dead letter. It was found impracticable to enforce
them, without inflicting evils far more than commen
surate with the benefit ; and experience thus taught
these meddling legislators and divines that uniformity
of worship, if it be any benefit at all, which may
well be doubted, is too dearly purchased by animosity
and oppression.
Equally adverse to the interests of true godliness
has been found the secular endowment and nomina
tion of the ministers of religion. In no section of
the republic was this system more deeply rooted, or
more fondly clung to, than in Virginia, where Epis
copacy had been established as the state religion from
the first. After it had been abandoned every where
else, it was acted upon here, conjoined with a legal
prohibition of a different worship. According to the
wisdom of some persons in the old world, Virginia,
under this treatment, ought to have been a religious
paradise : unhappily, however, it was a religious
desert, the ecclesiastical revenues of which were ab
sorbed by a tribe of irreligious clergymen, and the
people abandoned to neglect and impiety, while
neighbouring states were enjoying the benefits of a
disinterested and devoted ministry. The consequence
was, that the common sense of the population dicta
ted a petition to the state for the abolition of the re
ligious establishment, and the legislature had wisdom
enough to comply with it.
Sound wisdom and great liberality were long
thought to be embodied in that act of some American
legislatures, by which all persons were compelled to
pay a rate proportioned to their property in support of
religion generally, but were allowed to select the de
nomination to which it should be applied. Even
this,, it seems, does more harm than good ; and the
last fragment of that system of secular interference
or support on behalf of religion, which has been con
templated among ourselves with such profound vene
ration, and which has so long been identified in ima
gination with the existence of religion itself, is pro
bably doomed speedily to follow the fate of the struc
ture of which it formed a part.
What then is the fact 7 Has religion perished in
the ruins of its. secular supports 'I and have the rash
hands, so unkindly laid on religious platforms, fallen
with a kindred violence on piety herself, whose sa-
* " "Whatever may be the actual state pf religien in this country,
I am quite satisfied that it is en the advance. There maybe many
local exceptions, but my inquiries and observations in every part

cred person they were "intended to enthrone ? It is
an incontestable fact that nothing like this has oc
curred. Not only have these successive, and, in the
eyes of some persons, these, alarming changes, been
made by those who wished religion, not harm, but
good ; but religion has actually survived this peril
ous treatment, and now appears in a state of no
ordinary vigour and advancement. Nowhere has
vital Christianity suffered any injury by it : although
she has had to grapple with, the wickedness of man's
heart in successive generations, and to sustain the
assault where circumstances have given an extraor
dinary and almost unprecedented license and power
to evil propensities : and although, while her domi
nion was yet young, and might have been supposed to
be feeble, she had to contend with the mighty cham
pions of infidelity, whose writings were poured like
a flood into the bosom of the republic from revolu
tionary France, with a boastful confidence of success,
she has nobly maintained her ground. Where reli
gion ever flourished, it flourishes still, except where
the baneful influence of religious establishments, or
of practices partaking of the nature and principles
of establishments, have enfeebled her energy. To
such a cause exclusively, we conceive, must be re
ferred the generation of Unitarianism in Massachu
setts, together with the state of apathy by which it
was preceded ; results which the parochial division
and the ^religious tax undoubtedly facilitated, and
which the removal of these vaunted " aids" to piety
will probably not only check, but ultimately leave
to perish.To say that religion has maintained its ground in
the United States, however, is far too little, lt has
been continually and greatly on the increase. Vol
untary zeal, without the lure of secular emolument,
has extended the preaching of the gospel through a
very large portion of that immense territory ; and
every where with a measure of success proportionate
to the activity employed. Let our readers but refer
to the hundreds of thousands of communicants com
prised in the religious bodies of unexceptionable
character already described, recollecting that they
are gathered from all parts of the union ; and, ma
king a reasonable allowance for children, and others,
among whom, as usual, these persons of piety may
be scattered, let them say whether. these fruits of a
few years' labour are not tolerably creditable to a
religious system without that indispensable fjelp, an
establishment.* It may add to the distinctness of

ef my route, have led me to a cpnfident conclusion as to the general
fact." — Hodgson.
" No one of reflection and candour can fail to be convinced,, that

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

261

the fact, if we mention the annual increase of some
of the principal denominations : — the Presbyterian
official reports for 1831 exhibit a clear increase of
nearly 20,000 commuriicants during the year; the
Congregationalists have had an equal number of ac
cessions ; and the Baptist denomination, as far as
can be ascertained, experienced an increase of about
10,000 members during the same period.
But, perhaps, the religion thus disseminated is of a
spurious and unsatisfactory kind ; perhaps, without
the pressure of ecclesiastical authority in matters of
faith, religious excitement may have run wild, and
generated forms of superstition and error, fantastic
beyond all former example. Open as the bosom of
the states has been to the reception and unshackled
utterance of all diversities of opinion from all quar
ters of the world, it could have been no matter of
surprise if this had been the case ; but while some
of the numerous sects are certainly singular enough,
and some may, perhaps, be peculiar to the republic,
its condition in this respect presents nothing at all
extraordinary. — It is well known that sects do not
exist only in America. Their number on that side
of the Atlantic does not appear to exceed those which
exist in our own country, and they are far fewer than
those which have been generated in the bosom of the
Romish church, and cloaked in the mantle of her
infallibility. For nearly the whole of its diversities,
the union is indebted to other countries ; and if in
any case a vagary of religious enthusiasm has shown
itself in America to which Europe is a stranger, how
many forms of fanaticism exist on this side of the
Atlantic which have taken no root on the other ! Be
sides, sects of great peculiarity are invariably small
and insignificant. The great masses in America, as
in Europe, and more especially as in England, are
the Roman Catholics, Episcopalians, Congregation
alists or Independents, Baptists, Methodists, Unitari
ans, &c. Freedom of thought and discussion, though
it has been highly advantageous to the science of
theology, has given birth to no new forms of religious
belief; while the pillars of the moral and religious
system stand but the more firmly amidst the deep
convictions of the mind, for the shrewd and fearless
investigation to which they have been subjected; and
truth and error are but repeating the same phrases
with which the old world has for ages been familiar.
With some exceptions,' of which it is impossible to
speak without mihgfleb! censure and regret, there is
truth and righteousness do, to a very important extent, prevail :
and that those principles are in a state of increasing progress, and
develop much."— Duncan.
" I-found mpre places of worship in the large towns of America
than in similar towns ir. Britain ; and much genuine piety among
Vol. IL— Nos. 56 & 58. 2 K

no departure from the sobriety and sound judgment
by which the ministrations of religion, and the con
duct of its professors, should unquestionably be cha
racterized. To these observations it may be added,
we believe with indubitable truth, that, in some places,
if not in all, personal piety is more decided and vi
gorous than among ourselves ; we mean, that persons
who are religious are more manifestly so, and that
their religion imparts more of its character to their
converse and general deportment ; so that among
professors there is a tone and atmosphere of piety of
a more elevated and decided kind. In this connex
ion we ought to notice, likewise, those remarkable
periods which are now so familiarly known on both
sides of the Atlantic as revivals of religion, during
which conversions of ungodly men are multiplied to
an extent, and with a rapidity, in modern days alto
gether unparalleled.
In reference to the influence of religious establish
ments, it is not a little remarkable how the very sys
tems which have been accustomed to them, and have
for the most part been identified with them elsewhere,
thrive in America without them. Both the Roman
Catholics and the English Episcopalians are in a state
of vigorous action and prosperity, which, upon the
supposition of secular support being of any great
consequence, is altogether inexplicable. While they
were established they were feeble ; when their secular
props were broken from under them they began to
prosper. They are now associations of an exclusively
voluntary character, and have neither impulses nor
resources but such as individual sentiment may af
ford ; and yet they are marching through the length
and breadth of the American union, diffusing and
establishing an influence which the secular arm could
never have acquired for them. We entertain a full
conviction, that now these bodies have breathed the
air of freedom, and felt its inspiring energy, neither
of them would wish to receive the gaudy trappings
and oppressive patronage of a state establishment,
and that such a step, if it were practicable, would
speedily reduce them to a state of torpor and decay.
We have looked with some care at the topics which
have been adduced on the contrary side of the argu
ment to that which we have taken ; and we may be
expected, perhaps, to take some notice of them in
passing. Some writers speak of the Value of " na
tional religion as distinguished from personal reli
gion ;" and, from certain forms of phraseology in

the Presbyterians, the Congregationalists, the evangelical Episco
palians, the Methodists, and the Baptists ; ahd, as far as my jour
neying extended, I observed a cheering exhibition of Christian
progress ; as in England, all denominations of real Christians are
increasing, and all are growing better." — Ward, of Serampore.

262

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

state documents, augur the stability or the ruin of
empires. We wish these gentlemen would be at the
pains to acquire a distinct notion of religion itself,
and then they would see in a moment that it cannot
be otherwise than personal, and that their notion of
" national religion" is one of the merest fictions ever
imposed upon the human mind. A nation can in no
other sense be religious or irreligious, than as a
greater or less proportion of the individuals who
compose it are so. As for the whim of prophesying
that the American union will some time be violated,
because religious phrases were not incorporated in
the constituent legislative act, it is purely ridiculous.
Writers who contend that religion is the only basis
of government, forget how many governments have
existed and prospered without being founded upon
any religion but a false one, the efficacy of which we
suppose the advocates for the excellency of the true
will not very strenuously maintain. To us it is ob
vious, that, while religion undoubtedly tends to pro
mote the welfare of a nation, by causing the duties of
social and public life to be better understood and ful
filled, the principles on which the existence and pros
perity of nations are founded are not those of reli
gion, but of mutual interest ; principles which it does
not require Christianity either to understand or to
follow. To quote the French revolution as an example of a
throne destroyed by the overthrow of religion, is
quite in character for the advocates of priestcraft
and of despotism ; but we marvel at such language
being held by Americans. The feelings of the peo
ple, it is true, were wrought to desperation by a set
of designing infidels : but they were wrought upon
by an appeal to the oppression which, alike from the
court and the church, they had endured ; and it was
to avenge these social wrongs that they lifted them
selves up against the powers which had inflicted
them. They imbibed the poison of infidelity ; but
to say that they destroyed religion is absurd, for in
all that their fury overwhelmed there was no religion
to destroy. They suffered a period of anarchy and
bloodshed, not because they had cast off religion, for
none had previously existed ; but because they yielded
themselves to the frenzy of a selfish ambition. If
they have subsequently been more tranquil, religion
has had nothing to do with it; if they are yet rest
less, it is not for want of religion, but of a due re
gard, to the principles of mutual interest. Without
these, the government of an intelligent community
never can be stable, as with them it can be in no
considerable peril ; and if the American union ob
serves them, without making any pretension to the

prophetic gift, history and common sense assure us
that long will be her prosperity.
It has been alleged, as an evil resulting from the
absence of a state or national religion, that it allows
persons to be of no religion at all ; a permission of
which it appears that no inconsiderable number on
the western side of the Atlantic have availed them
selves. Now, without questioning in the first instance
the power of the state in this respect, we may ask,
why the right of being of no religion should be de
nied by any government to its subjects 1 Is not this
a question lying exclusively between man and his
Maker, and to be settled on moral considerations,
entirely apart from authoritative human interference 1
But suppose the state sets out on the quixotic errand
of making * christians of its subjects by wholesale,
what can it do 1 Nothing but impose a ceremony
and a name, while all the principles of character are
left unchanged. If, therefore, the United States
were to pass a law that all persons who did not
choose to identify themselves with any minor religious
sect, should be considered as belonging to some one
henceforth to be made national, what would result,,
but that the present avowedly irreligious population
would be compelled to assume a disguise and play
the hypocrite, without having one particle more of
religion than they had before 1 We ask any man
of common sense to say whether there would be any
advantage in this ; and whether it is not better that
persons who will be irreligious, as vast numbers
will, and perhaps equal numbers whether there be a
state religion or not, should appear to be so, rather
than be screened alike from knowledge, rebuke, and
conviction, by an inappropriate name 1 It is easily
intelligible, that the absence of a national religion in
the republic should be connected with the absence
of that habit of religious forms which, in other
countries, give a semblance of religion to society at
large, and, by allowing irreligious character to show
itself with greater distinctness and freedom, should
tend to the diminution and ultimate annihilation of
that large class of persons, who avail themselves of
decent forms to conceal sceptical opinions, and an
irreligious or perhaps a profligate life. And this we
conceive to be the whole Of the case in the North
American republic. We see no proof that the popu
lation is more wicked there than in countries where
a national religion, as it is called, is maintained ; but
there being no bounty put upon the observance of
religious forms, and little penalty in public opinion
attached to the neglect of them, the wicked are
perhaps somewhat more openly and more freely
wicked ; and instead of extenuating their wickedness

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

263

by saying, as here, that they belong to the church,
they avow, what is equally the fact in both cases,
that they are of no religion at all. So far from
esteeming this an evil, we consider it a benefit. All
experience shows that the method of disguising
wicked men under the name of christians, has done
little towards- the repression of vice, while it has done
much to dishonour the profession, to obstruct the pro
gress, and to paralyze the power of Christianity. In
the United States every man may be judged of "by
his fruits ;" and the ungodly part of the population,
instead of being claimed in their sins as good mem
bers ofthe national church, lie open, as acknowledged
sinners, to the instruction, reproof, and persuasion,
of all who may take pity on their souls. This, if we
mistake not, ranks high among the very reasons why
religion spreads more rapidly in that country than in
any other in the world. Before we leave this topic,
we may add, that we scarcely know how to suppress
a smile when we find a respectable writer in Ame
rica,* eagerly quoted by high churchmen in England,
speaking of the class of persons above referred to,
those of " no religion," with horror, as " unbaptized
infidels," and that unbaptized infidels are " the most
atrocious and remorseless banditti that infest and
desolate human society." That the vast territory of
the republic is infested with " atrocious banditti" to
a lamentable extent may possibly be true enough, as
well as that it contains no small number of "infidels ;"
but Mr. Bristed's doctrine is, not merely that the
infidels and the robbers are actually " unbaptized,"
but that it is the want of baptism which has caused
the mischief ! If it will be any comfort to this
gentleman, we can assure him that his wonder
working rite has done very little in the Old World
to prevent either infidelity or murder ; and if he will
take the pains to make the inquiry, we think he will
find fewer of the American banditti and infidels
"unbaptized" than he may have been inclined to
suppose. Another evil alleged to arise from the want of a
national religious establishment in the United States,
is the destitute condition of the new settlements.
Now it is an unquestionable fact, that the border
settlements in the western country are, to a very
lamentable extent, characterized by prevalent irre-
ligion, and unprovided with means of religious
instruction. In many cases, a remedy for these evils
is not desired ; and when it is, the combined and
only adequate exertion of the scattered population for
this end, is often obstructed by sectarian attachments.
? Mr. Bristed, " America and her Resources," p. 394.

We do not wonder that the idea of government di
viding such districts into parishes, and appointing a
minister to each, with a salary from the public purse,
should occur to the friends of establishments in such
a case as this : it accords with their habits of think
ing, and it is perhaps plausible in itself; but it is only
plausible. The nomination of religious instructors
by the state has never been found to secure a faithful
and devoted ministry ; and to try the experiment
again on the Ohio or the Mississippi, would only be
to renew disappointments which have already been
sufficiently plentiful, both in the Old World and the
New. Besides, in this case, one of several coexistent
and rival sects must be adopted and patronized by the
state, a step which has always been found to inflame
animosity rather than to allay it, and which would
spon add to the evils of the border settlements,
already sufficiently great, the worse mischief of party
feuds. It is remarkable, indeed, that one of the most
strenuous advocates of state support for religion,!
while loudly calling for a parochial provision in the
new country, acknowledges its inutility in the old.
Speaking of Massachusetts, where the desired method
has had the longest and the fairest trial, he says,
" Even here, we are beginning to feel the evils
arising from division, and to feel them severely : —
your parishes are crumbling into ruins, — party is
arrayed against party, — to settle a minister becomes
impracticable." Why, therefore, should an apparatus
be set up elsewhere, which, in the most favourable
circumstances, has produced such unsatisfactory re
sults '/
While we are convinced, however, that no ultimate
or permanent good could arise to these destitute
regions from the interference of the state, we must
add that they have a strong and imperative claim
upon the friends of religion in the more favoured
parts of the union. This is the source from whence
their help should be derived. They present an ap
propriate sphere for operations of a truly missionary
character, and can be effectually benefitted only by
missionary zeal. Considering the rapid population
and the growing influence of the western states, no
religious object should be deemed by American
christians of equal importance with the diffusion of
vital religion throughout their whole extent. There
can be no doubt of their competency to the task ; and
if it is painful to see how much in past years it has
been overlooked, it is matter of joy to know that it
has recently been entered upon in a spirit of great
promise. Besides the labours of the American Home

t Dr. Jarvis, as quoted by Mr. Hodgson, " Letters from North
America," vpI. ii. p. 224.

264

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Missionary Society, which are not inconsiderable, a
vigorous effort of Sunday-school instruction has been
made by several thousand teachers, who have pledged
themselves to go through the Avhole of the great
central valley, and are still engaged in the accom
plishment of their purpose. Those who have already
encountered the labour of sowing the seed of divine
truth in this hitherto barren region, have found it far
from unproductive ; and there is every reason to
believe, that, under the hand of assiduous cultiva
tion, it will ere long be fruitful as the garden of the
Lord.* To bring this long, but we hope not unimportant
or useless discussion, to a close, we may remark, that,
if the absence of a national establishment of religion
be connected with no evil, it is an obvious and posi
tive good. The advocates of such institutions, while
they have contended that they yielded benefits for
which it was worth while to bear them, have never
maintained, we believe, that they were blessings in
themselves. The heavy expense which they entail
upon a country — the corrupting influence of church
patronage — the anti-national bias of an endowed
hierarchy — the inundation of interested and worldly
ministers — and the heart-burnings inseparable from
the elevation of one sect above its fellows — are evils
which might be thought too great to be suffered for
any price ; but they are at all events too great to be
endured for nothing.
To the absence of a religious establishment has
been referred, and perhaps with some justice, the
liberality of different sects towards each other, which
exists to an eminent degree in the republic. The
feature itself is at all events a very pleasing one, and
must contribute very materially, both to the facility
of individual labour, and the power of united exer
tion. " The different denominations in this country,"
says Mr. Ward, "come together in delightful harmony,
and co-operate without being obstructed by those
impediments which exist in other countries. The
Sunday-school Union, in New York, exhibits a noble
specimen of the true christian feeling, and the Union
flourishes accordingly."
We may now turn to the consideration of a subject
which we have already incidentally noticed, — we
mean the Revivals of Religion by which some parts
ofthe United States have been distinguished. Few
things have struck the ear of the christian public in
this country with more surprise and incredulity than
the accounts which have of late more particularly
, * We reccmmend it tp the seripus ccnsideratien pf religious in
dividuals or families who propose to emigrate, whether it is net
their duty, by settling in spme pf the new states of the Mississippi

reached us, of wide-spreading religious excitements,
and conversions in a few weeks amounting to several
hundreds, and in some cases, thousands. Not a few
have asked, with the very best intention, What is to
be thought of these things ? Must not large allow
ances be made, either for glowing representations, or
for enthusiastic feeling? We apprehend that no
judicious person, on either side of the Atlantic, com
mits himself to the approbation of every thing which
may be called a revival of religion, or may be attendant
upon one- Some of them, it is admitted on all hands,
have been enthusiastic to a great degree ; while
others have been eminently characterized by the
exercise of sound judgment, the awakening of holy
emotion, and the production of valuable fruits. For
the former we make no apology ; of the latter we shall
endeavour to lay before our readers a brief but com
prehensive view.
It appears we are not to consider a revival of reli
gion as synonymous with a multitude of conversions.
By an author who writes from his own observation,
their peculiar feature is illustrated in the following
manner : — " Imagine a sinner awakened, and led on
to conversion by reflection ; having, in the mean
time, little or no intercourse with other minds on the
subject of religion, but associating principally,
or exclusively, with his bible, and communing
alone with his own heart and with God. Scarcely
a Second person is aware of the state and progress of
his mind, except that, if he is concerned in the com
mon intercourse of life, the more than usual gravity
and seriousness of his demeanour will naturally be
observed. There are, doubtless, a great many con
versions of this sort, and they may be, called, in dis
tinction from another class, insulated conversions.
Suppose an individual has been awakened by the
admonitions of a sermon, or of some private inter
course with other minds, and is conducted by the
Spirit of God to the stage of genuine conversion, but
is virtually alone in this state and progress of his
mind, there being no second person in his neighbour
hood in a similar condition ; this may also be called
an insulated conversion, though not so absolutely so
as the other case supposed : there was, indeed, a
social influence which first awakened his attention,
but no sympathy of other minds in a like condition,
either to originate instrumentally, or to urge on his
career. There is little reciprocal influence between
such conversions and society. We may suppose, again,
a community of greater or less extent, bound together

valley, to assist in the promotiph pf vital religien in a pprtion of
the world, the importance and influence of which is increasing at
a ratio of which it is difficult to form an adequate estimate.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

265

by many common ties of a social character, through the
channels-of which sympathy on all subjects of common
interest, especially those calculated to agitate the mind,
is easy and quick. It may further be supposed, that
the spirit of God arrdsts the attention of an unconvert
ed individual of such a Community, producing a very
anxious solicitude for the salvation of his soul — so
anxious that he cannot keep it a secret if he would.
It is, moreover, supposed, that this community are
generally instructed in the doctrine of repentance,
as essential to peace with God,— and of regeneration,
to salvation. It is the common public opinion — the
popular belief, by an habitual speculative assent. Of
course it is an easy and natural step to the conclusion,
that it is quite reasonable, and even important, for
every individual, at some period of his life, to devote
himself, in special earnest, to his own preparation for
eternity — that he is in danger of being overtaken in
his sins by death. When, therefore, an individual of
such a community is suddenly and powerfully seized
with a concern for his soul's eternal welfare — so pow-
fully that he cannot conceal it — that his feelings
break out in tears and in prayers — that he throws him
self upon the compassion of christians as more fitted
to guide his anxious mind, and to be his intercessors
with God — -and that, of necessity, the matter becomes
a subject of some public notoriety — it very naturally
produces a pause in the ordinary career of those with
whom this individual is more intimately allied. And
it may also be supposed, that the same Spirit which
has smitten the individual with a conviction of his
guilt, and a sense of his danger, employs that very
event as an instrument of awakening his former as
sociates to an equal degree of concern, so that they
not only pause at his arrest, but are themselves arrest
ed, finding that they too are involved in the same
condemnation, and have need of the same pardoning
mercy and sanctifying grace. And now a group of
individuals are together, asking, with an affecting and
overpowering earnestness — What must we do to be
saved '\ And this increase of the number renders it
still more a matter of public notoriety. ; and there is
a general pause. Every individual of this group has
his more intimate connexions with society as the first
individual had with them ; and for the same reasons,
and we will suppose, by the same divine influence, the
number of the anxious is soon multiplied, till a crowd
of individuals are together asking and seeking the
way of salvation ; and soon a whole community are
affected, in a greater or less degree. All sympathize.
Christians are ' filled with faith and the Holy Ghost,'
and with an uncommon spirit of prayer ; they are ex
cited to diligence and roused to activity. The minis

ter or ministers of religion are greatly animated, and
uncommonly furnished by the natural excitements of
such a state of things. The house of God is throng
ed, and the assemblies deeply affected and impressive
ly solemn. Every sermon, and every prayer, and
every exhortation, seem to tell with amazing power
on the congregated multitudes.. Sinners are convert
ed, and others awakened, and the work goes on with
increasing power, extending through the community.
Meetings are necessarily multiplied to meet the exi
gencies ; ministers and christians have as much as
they can do to attend to the anxious, to guide the
inquiring, and to conduct the frequent public as
semblies of the people. They visit from house to
house, warning the careless, encouraging and con
firming the trembling hope, rejoicing with those who
rejoice, instructing, exhorting, and offering up prayer.
And this is" somewhat the manner of an American
revival of religion. And the fruit of it is, that
many sinners are hopefully born again, the church
enlarged, believers improved in their christian. cha
racter, the interests of religion obtain a wider and
more solid foundation in the community, and the
way is better prepared for another season of like re
freshing influence from above."*
American revivals, therefore, in part at least, owe
their existence and peculiarities to sympathy. The
supposition, however, that they wholly do so, and
that they are nothing more than powerful sympa
thetic excitements, is by no means reconcilable with
the nature of the results. "There is nothing in the
social principle," as Mr. Colton justly remarks, " to
account for a great and sudden movement of a whole
community, upon a subject which, like that of the
christian religion, has been before them from time
immemorial, with all its sanctions and with all its
motives — nothing in it, independent of the coming in
of a special influence — an influence which does not
lie in the letter of Christianity. A community may
be surprised by what is new — but every thing in the
letter of Christianity is old. A community may be
greatly moved by what naturally and deeply affects
their passions, when unexpectedly brought before
them by the eloquence of the tongue, or under the
affecting power of circumstances. All such excite
ments, however, can only be momentary. But that
the histories, and doctrines, and truths of religion, in
which the public rnind had been thoroughly versed
from the cradle, should suddenly be armed with an
unwonted power, not only over the minds of indi
viduals, but so as manifestly to affect a whole com-

* Rev. C. Coltpn on American Revivals of Religion, pp. 10 — 14.

266

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

munity, and operate a thorough change in the hearts
and lives of many individuals of that community, is
a fact which, so far as I know, it lies within the
compass of no philosophy to account for, but that of
the religion which is the instrument of the change,
and which professes to solve the problem by a
reference to the powers of the Holy Ghost. What
r.eason is there that one community should feel more
than another, or one person more than another ; —
their education being the same, and other things
equal, which belong to the same relations and influ
ences of society ? And what reason, that the same
communities and the same persons should feel more
at one time than another, under the same system of
means 1 Independently of the Spirit of God, there
is a mystery in this ; but with it, there is no
mystery." It has been customary to regard American revivals
of religion as connected generally, if not uniformly,
with scenes of enthusiastic extravagance ; but it
would appear that such an idea has been entertained
with little truth. Without maintaining an entire
absence of irregularities, which, indeed, it would
have been, in the highest degree, ¦ unreasonable to
expect, the author we have already quoted gives the
following general statement : — " The ostensible phe
nomena of revivals of religion in the United States
have exhibited themselves very much according to
the characters of the communities affected, and of
the individuals to whom, in the providence of God,
have been committed the guidance and control of
public feeling. In New England, the character of the
communities has always been of a grave and sober
cast, where thought takes lead of feeling ; and the
temperament of the ministry is more severe than
ardent — more prone to stock the understanding than
excite the passions. Hence the public excitements
of revivals have never exposed the people or the
ministers to extravagances. The most remarkable
characteristic of such seasons is not noise but still
ness — the reign of contemplative silence and solemn
reflection. The world itself seems hushed, as if
awed by eternity. The public assemblies are thronged,
indeed, but the ordinary restiff listlessness of an un
thinking crowd is settled into a wrapt attention of the
soul, and into the silent, but not less expressive
demonstrations of the deepest emotions. Public
order is not less, but more exact. A violation of it
would be the more shocking. There is no want of
feeling, and no difficulty in controlling it. And I
have yet to learn the occurrence of any notable dis
orders in all the revivals of New England that have
ever come to my knowledge. They may have hap

pened, but I never heard even of one. All is decency,
and all quietness — not, however, the quietness of
stupor, but of subdued, feeling. A large portion of
New England is literally educated to revivals. The
present generation of ministers and churches has
been born in them, and brought up in them, and is
familiar with all their scenes. They understand the
symptoms — they know what to do and how to do—
and the people know how to behave. In the highest
excitement of public feeling, it would be morally im
possible to drive the people into disorder or extrava
gance. They have no such habit. Such is the
fixedness of their character, that no power on earth
could essentially discompose the public mind. But
all this cannot be said of every portion of the popu
lation of our country. Farther west there is less of
the stubbornness of a well-defined and fixed character,
as the settlements are new, and society comparatively
heterogeneous and unorganized. Farther south, the
people are more ardent and more excitable. But the
medium of those extremes is of a character qualified
between the two — I mean that medium of society,
which is found in the intermediate territories. And
there are many, very many communities without,
and some of them far without New England, in the
states of New York, New Jersey, and Ohio, where
revivals of religion are characterized with as much
sobriety as in the land of the pilgrim fathers. Irregu
larities and extravagance are no more essential attri
butes of revivals, than are the physical conditions of
the territory and climate. They are mere accidents,
when they happen to occur, owing to the state of
society, or to the want of a proper superintendence,
or to the combined influence of both these causes. A
proper superintendence may, at all times, and in any
community, prevent them."*
It is conceived by Mr. Colton, and doubtless by
his American brethren generally, that there is in the
revivals with which they have been favoured, some
thing peculiar, not only to their own country, but to
the last age of Christianity.
We cannot here enter into the details by which he
supports his opinion ; but if the views of this writer
be adopted, (and we confess that we are disposed to
adopt them,) it becomes of some interest to inquire
what the reasons may have been which, either in
themselves have favoured the production of revivals
in the United States, or may have rendered it good in
the eyes of divine wisdom thus peculiarly to honour
them. On these points, let us again hear Mr. Colton.
"It is remarkable that revivals of religion, under

Colton, p. 132,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

267

their American character, commenced in New Eng
land, and were, till quite recently, principally confined
to that region. And their extension westward and
southward, I believe, has generally been found in
the track of New England emigrants, or springing
up under the labours of New England ministers,
until they are now beginning to be reported from
every part of the land. The great bjulk of revivals,
however, are still found in the east and north. Such
facts may be presumed to have a connexion with the
original elements and peculiar frame of society, as
also with the blessings of God in reward of the dis
tinguished christian virtues of the founders of such
institutions, and of the fidelity of successive genera
tions in supporting them in their original spirit. It
is a general and exact truth — that the pilgrim fathers
of New England laid the foundations of their civil
and social edifice, and of their religious institutions,
in. tears, and prayers, and in much faith. And the
experiment of 200 years has proved that God has
regarded those tears; and remembered those prayers,
and plenteously rewarded those works of faith."
Our author refers us likewise to the general aspect
of society in the transatlantic republic. " It is ge
nerally understood, that the state of society in the
United States is very near to a common level. And
so far as the sympathies of the community are con
cerned, on any subject of great and common interest,
it is agreeable to fact. Especially is it so in those
regions where revivals of religion originated, and
have principally flourished. It may be said of all
the minor communities, of which the grand com
munity is composed, that, in each of them, every
body knows every body, and feels an interest in every
body ; so much so, that nothing of material interest
transpires with a family, or scarcely with an indi
vidual, but that a pulse of sympathy beats through
the whole body.. Such being the state of society,
and religion being generally acknowledged and es
teemed the paramount interest of man, and, withal,
the public conscience being preserved pure and sus
ceptible, it is not very difficult to see, that the marked
conversion of one or more individuals might become
a subject of common and public interest. And ad
mitting the scripture doctrine of the office and special
* Though Unitarianism stands far remeved frpm all ccnnexion
with revivals, its diffusion has been with great probability traced
to this sympathetic practice. " The question has often been asked,
what has led to that awful degeneiaey of Boston with respect to
evangelical truth, which the friends of the ' faith once delivered to the
saints,' have so long observed and deplored 1 Various reasons have
been assigned for this phenomenon, a pbenomenpn nearly, if npt en
tirely unparalleled in ecclesiastical histcry: but I acknewledge nene
of these reasens have ever satisfied me. The licenticusness and de
rangements of the revolutionary war were known, and exerted an

agency of the Holy Spirit in the work of conversion,
the change might well be regarded with a high de
gree of respect and reverence. It has ever been
considered as a great and decided change — a change
which every one must undergo, in order to salva
tion. It has been, habitually urged and pressed upon
the conscience as a present duty. With a public
mind so enlightened, and a conscience so susceptible,
and a common sympathy so all-pervading, it can
nardly appear incredible that the awakening of one
sinner should be the means of awakening others, and
the conversion of one the means of other conver
sions. And to this day there are no barriers of caste
in the United States — no impaled, insulated condi
tions of society, of a character to limit the common
circulation of good and healthful moral influences —
or to prevent a reformation begun in one place, from
reaching every other place." It is a striking indica
tion of the extent to which sympathy is carried in
religious concerns, that, among ministers of the same
denomination, a custom of exchanging pulpits exists,
to the amount of nearly one fourth of their services.
It thus arises that the influence of even a single mi
nister of peculiar energy becomes widely felt ; and
it is an honourable feature in the congregation over
which he is fixed, that they can rejoice in this ex
tension of his usefulness.*
To these causes may be added, we conceive, the
character of the theological system, which, within
the last century, has been advocated in New England,
and has now obtained a general prevalence. The
change accomplished within this period is thus lumi
nously stated by Dr. Lyman Beecher : " Our Puritan
fathers adhered to the doctrine of original sin, as con
sisting in the imputation of Adam's sin, and in a he
reditary depravity ; and this continued to be the re
ceived doctrine of the churches of New England,
until after the time of Edwards. He adopted the
views of the reformers on the subject of original sin,
as consisting in the imputation of Adam's sin, and a
depraved nature transmitted by descent. But, after
him, this mode of stating the subject was gradually
changed, until, long since, the prevailing doctrine in
New England has been, that men are not guilty
of Adam's sin, and that depravity is not of the sub-

influence in ether places as well as in Boston. The literary cha
racter and inquiring spirit cf the clergy have been quite as much
distinguished in some other places as in that town. The same re
mark might be made with respect to several other considerations
usually offered to assist in solving the difficulty. I have scarcely
any remaining doubt, that a principal cause of the effect in ques
tion is to be sought in indiscriminate exchanges with all classes of
heterodpx ministers. There probably never was a place in which
this system has been carried te such a length as in Bpston."— Spi
rit of the Pilgrims, p. 143.

268

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

stance of the soul, nor an inherent or physical qual
ity, but is wholly voluntary, and consists in the trans
gression of law, in such circumstances as constitutes
accountability and desert of punishment. This change
was not accomplished without discussion. It was
resisted by those who chose to be denominated Old
Calvinists, and advocated by those who were called
Hopkinsians and New Divinity men, until, for many
years, these views of original sin have been the pre
dominant doctrine of the ministers and churches now
denominated Evangelical. These, while they dis
claim the language held by Calvin and Edwards on
the subject of imputation, do, in accordance with the
bible and the reformers, hold that there is a connex-
i6n of some kind between the sin of Adam and the
universal, voluntary, and entire depravity of his pos
terity ; so that it is in consequence of Adam's sin
that all mankind do sin voluntarily, as early as they
are capable of accountability and moral action. The
pamphlets and treatises on this subject were written,
and the subject settled," adds Dr. B. " chiefly before
my recollection. But I have read them, and have
searched the scriptures, and have, from the beginning,
accommodated my phraseology to opinions which
had been adopted as the result of an investigation
which commenced more than seventy years ago, and
has been settled more than fifty years ; and which
is now, with some variety of modification, received
substantially, as I apprehend, by two thirds, if not
by three fourths, of the evangelical divines in the
United States."*
This change of theological system, (we speak with-

* Spirit pf the Pilgrims, vel. i. p. 158. Dr. Beecher goes on to
say, " Some of the most approved writers on this subject are, Hop
kins, the younger Edwards, West, Smalley, Spring, Strong, Dwight;
and in England, Andrew Fuller, one of the greatest and best of
men. The following quotations from several of these writers will
show the fact, and the nature ofthe change in the mode of stating
the doctrine of original sin. ' It is not to be supposed that the of
fence of Adam is imputed to them, [his posterity,] to their con
demnation, while in their cwn perspns innocent ; or that they are
guilty of the sin of their first father antecedent to their own sinful
ness. All this is asserted as to what the scriptures teach us, that,
by a divine constitution, there is a certain connexion between the
first sin of Adam, and the sinfulness of his posterity.' — Hopkins,
vol. i. p. 319.
"The subject is thus stated by Dwight: ' 1. That by one man
sin entered into the world. 2. That in consequence of this event,
all men have sinned. 3. That death, as the consequence of sin,
has passed upon all men.' And he says, ' It is clearly impossible
that any being except a thinking, voluntary one, should be the sub
ject of either virtue or sin.'
" Please to remember that your wicked nature is your own, in
the mpst personal sense; for, though we are sinners by Adam;
though there is an established cpnnexien between the sin cf Adam
and the sin of his ppsterity; theugh all the children cf men are,
by nature, tetally depraved, in censequence ef Adam's sin ; yet sin
is a persenal quality. And as ypur hearts and seuls are your own,
and npt the hearts and spuls of pther men ; as your theughts and
volitions are ypur own, and npt the thpughts and. vplitipns pf
others ; so ypur sin and evil nature are your ewn, and not the sin

out committing ourselves to its entire approval,) must
undoubtedly have exercised an extensive influence
on the modes of conceiving other topics, besides
those more immediately specified, and have power-
fully modified the whole style of pulpit address. In
the latter respect, the change is wholly in favour of
a more efficient ministry. The notions that men are
born to be punished for Adam,'s sin, that they are
summoned to duties they are not able to perform, and
are to be tormented with the loss of happiness they
never had the opportunity of attaining, whatever may
be their other merits, have a clear adaptation, on the
principles of common sense, to frustrate all exhorta
tions, and to lull men into an imperturbable slumber.
The new Calvinism of New England, on the con
trary, bears upon the conscience with a direct and
immense pressure ; and to this cause some of their
writers have, we think with great reason, attributed
the signal success of their ministry.
But it appears, that, beyond the general influence
of a stimulant and awakening ministry, there are
methods employed in the western world for the direct
and specific purpose of producing revivals of reli
gion. On this part of the subject, Mr. Colton's
treatment of which is highly interesting and impor
tant, our limits will not allow us to enter into detail.
The modes of proceeding which have been adopted
are of great variety ; but they are obviously perva
ded by the general design of bringing known and
familiar truth into a more direct and powerful bear
ing upon individual feeling. Hence the protracted
services, in which preaching and other exercises are

and evil nature pf another. David, in his penitential confession,
evidently refers to the established connexion between the sin Of
Adam and his posterity ; for, he says, with the note of attention,
' Behold, I was shapen in iniquity, and in sin did my mother con
ceive me.' But he does not confess the sin of Adam any more
than the sin of Seth ; nor will any other man who is, the subject
of a proper share of conviction ; for sin is a personal quality, and
can not be transferred from one to another, any more than the
heart or soul of one man can be transferred to another." — Spring's
Disquisition, as quoted in Ely's Contrast, p. 79.
"Adam's first offence was some way or other the occasion of
the universal sinfulness of his future offspring. And the question
now before us is, how his sin was the occasion of ours. 1. Adam
did not make us sinners by causing us to commit his first offence.
Nor can we more easily believe, 2. That he made his posterity
sinners by transferring to them the guilt of his first transgression.
The doctrine cf imputation, therefore, gives us no ground to sup
pose that all mankind sinned in, and fell with, Adam, in his first
transgression ; or that the guilt of his first sin was, either by him,
or by the Deity, transferred to his posterity. Nor can we suppose,
3. That Adam made men sinners by cenveying to them a merally
ccrrupt nature. There is np mprally ccrrupt nature distinct from
free, voluntary, sinful exercises." — Emmans, as quoted in Ely's
Contrast, pp. 67,69, 71.
" Men have lest npnc ef their ability to obey his cpmmands by
the fall ; they are as really able tp pbey every divine command as
Adam was when he came" cut ef the forming hand pf his Maker."
— Mass. Miss. Magazine, as quoted in Ely's Contrast, p. 75.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

269

kept up incessantly for a number of days, varying
from four to twelve or thirteen ; and hence the vari
ous methods of dividing congregations, from which
such valuable effects have often resulted. Variety,
in truth, is stated to be essential to the system:
something to break in upon the ordinary routine of
religious services, by the very regularity of which,
perhaps, much may be done to lull the mind into
slumber in the midst of awakening truths. That
much wisdom is necessary to the beneficial use of
such methods, we have no inclination to deny ; but
we are fully convinced that the system which em
ploys them is founded upon right principles, and that
they need only to be wisely used in order to produce
effects of extraordinary power.
Among the various methods adopted for the diffu
sion of the gospel in the United States, the holding
of "camp-meetings," a practice prevailing chiefly
among the Methodists, has attracted considerable
attention and. animadversion. When such a meeting
is announced, presently all the roads, sometimes for
a hundred miles round, are covered with travellers
on foot, on horseback, and in gigs or wagons,
hastening themselves and their families to this grand
celebration. The centre of a forest, " deep, dark,
lonely, and almost impenetrable," is the theatre usually
chosen. The native tenants of the wood being
frightened away by the noise and tumult, it is taken
possession of by this immense congregation. The
horses being tied to the trees, and the wagons
ranged in rows along the skirts of the forest, the
interior is prepared for the purpose by cutting down
the trees, and laying their branches along the ground
to be used as seats ; the space is railed round, and a
pulpit elevated. Religious services are then kept up
for several days. Great evils have been ascribed to
these meetings ; but while it would obviously be too
much to expect that such an occasion should attract
no persons of profligate character, or that they should
not avail themselves of such an opportunity for licen
tious excesses, the unsparing manner in which the
accusations have been brought, throws great suspicion
upon the charges themselves. What is unusual may
easily be deemed wrong ; and when a thing is ranked
as an evil, nothing is easier than to imagine mischiefs
which do not, exist, and to exaggerate those which
do. Admitting such meetings to be in themselves
undesirable, it may be questioned whether, in the
actual state of the republic, some such services are
not necessary ; and whether efforts of any other kind
could adequately convey religious instruction to a
population so widely dispersed among the vast forests
and prairies of the west. It is a relief, at least, to
Vol. II.— Nos. 59 & 60. 2 L

know that all testimony is not against them. Mr.
Cooper, who is at all events no enthusiast in religion,
speaks of such services as " alike impressive and
beautiful." " It is a fashion," he adds, " to ridicule
and condemn these meetings, on the plea that they
lead to excesses and encourage superstition. As to
the former, the abuse is enormously exaggerated,
though, beyond a doubt, there are individuals who
attend them that would seek any other crowd to
shield their vices ; and as to the latter, the facts
show, that, while new and awakened zeal, in ignorant
persons, frequently breaks out in extravagance and
folly, they pass away with the exciting cause, and
leave behind them tender consciences and a chastened
practice." Before closing this chapter, we must, take a passing
notice of the important theological institutions, with
which it may be said that the republic abounds.
This spacious territory, notwithstanding its recent
settlement, is almost studded over with colleges and
universities. Of the rank of these in relation to
general literature some notice will be taken in the
following chapter ; we only observe here, that in
many of them there is a theological department of
great value and efficiency. Besides these, there are
also a number of strictly theological seminaries, of
which a tabular view is annexed, devoted entirely to
the training of ministerial candidates. The American
Education Society is a valuable auxiliary to these ;
taking for its object, and pursuing it in a very catholic
and praiseworthy spirit, the pecuniary provision ne
cessary for eligible candidates, when they are destitute
of resources for completing their education. A new,
and hitherto, we believe, a peculiar feature in educa
tional institutions, has been recently introduced into
some of the transatlantic theological seminaries,
namely, that of combining study with manual labour •
several hours daily being devoted to some vigorous
bodily employment. The principal object sought by
this arrangement, appears to be the preservation of
health of body and elasticity of mind ; and, so far as
experience has hitherto gone, the results are highly
favourable to the wisdom of its adoption. The num
ber of theological institutions in the United States
decisively indicates the value which the professors ot
religion there attach to an educated gospel ministry.
The benevolent institutions of the republic, on
which, perhaps, we may here make the single
remark we have to offer, although most of them of
comparatively recent origin, and most of them formed
in generous imitation of British example, are of ex
traordinary vigour for their youth, of rapid growth,
and of great promise. Their general denominations,

270

TOPOGRAPHY OP THE UNITED STATES.

and the amount of their receipts for the years 1829
and 1830, will be found in one of the tables at the end
of the chapter.
We may conclude this chapter with a general
view of the religious character of the republic in the
words of a pious English traveller.* The extent in
which vital religion prevails here is known only to
the Searcher of hearts ; but there is the strongest
reason to believe that it is very considerable. I am
disposed to think that a cursory traveller visiting
England and America, without prejudice, and with
equal opportunities of observation, would draw a more
favourable inference with respect to the state of reli
gion in the Atlantic cities of the eastern and middle
states, than with respect to the towns or cities of the
former. I confine my supposition to the Atlantic
cities, because the benighted shores of the Gulf of
Mexico, and many portions of the western wilds,
possess few features in common with our favoured
country, and should rather be compared with our
colonial possessions in the East , or West Indies.
Indeed, I might include extensive districts in the back
parts of many of the Atlantic states, where population
* Mr. Hodgson.

is thinly scattered, and opportunities of public wor
ship occur only once or twice a month. In some of
these, I thought I observed great coldness in religious
concerns ; the unfrequent return of public ordinances
rendering the inhabitants rather less than more will
ing to avail themselves of them when offered. I felt
more disappointed in such districts, than in the
frontier settlements. In the latter, some spiritual -as
well as temporal privations are naturally to be ex
pected, though I thought their inhabitants often
exhibited greater solicitude for schools and churches
than those of the former. In fact, the new settlers
from the Atlantic states have, in many cases, partici
pated in the advantages of that general revival of
religion which promises to be the characteristic of
modern times ; and before their zeal has had time to
cool in solitude and separation, it has often secured
a provision for those religious ordinances by which
it may be cherished and sustained. But the back
parts of Pennsylvania and Virginia were settled in
less auspicious days ; and we must not be. surprised
if the flame of piety, burning less brightly at that
time, even on the coast, should have grown pale and
sickly when removed into an atmosphere which
ministered little to its support.

THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.

Name.

Bangor Theological Seminary 
Theological Seminary 
Theological School 
Massachusetts Episcopal Theological School . .
Theological Institution 
Theological Department, Yale College ....
Theological Institution, Episcopal Church . . .
Theological Seminary of Auburn 
Hamilton Literary and Theological Institution .
Hartwick Seminary 
Theological Seminary, Dutch Reformed Church
Theological Seminary, Presbyterian Church, U.S.
Seminary, Lutheran Church, United States . .
German Reformed 
Western Theological Seminary 
Episcopal Theological School, Virginia . . .
Union Theological Seminary 
South Theological Seminary 
South-Western Theological Seminary ....
Lane Seminary 
Rock Spring Seminary 

Place.

Denomination

Com.
opera tion.1816180818341831182518221819 182118201816i812 18261825182818241829 18211829 1827

No. .
educa.

Stud. in
1831

Volumes in
Library.

No..
Prof

Bangor, Maine . .
Andover, Mass.
Cambridge, do. . .
Ditto Ditto . .

CongregationalCongregationalCong. Unitarian
Episcopal . .

50
514 87
25 70
134157 100
537 ii
3041
14
139 332348 2851 80249243 14
22 19
42 9
22 .
5
1,200
10,000 1,020
3,600 4,000 1,600
6,0006,200
3,964 1,500
3,000 5,500 1,200
4442
New Haven, Ct. .
New York, N. Y. .
Auburn, dittp . .
CongregationalProtestant Epis.
Presbyterian .
3
4 3
4
Hartwick, do. . .
New Brunswick, N.J.
Princeton, ditto . .
Gettysburg, Pa.
York, ditto . . .
Alleghany T. ditto
Fairfax County, Va. .
Prince Ed. Co. do.
Columbia, S. C.
Lutheran . .
Dutch Reformed
Presbyterian .
Evangelical L.
German Reform, <
Presbyterian .
Protestant Epis.
Presbyterian .
Ditto . .
:h
3222 33
2
Maryville, Ten. .
Ditto ....
3
Dittp ....
Rock Spring, 11. .
1
There are Roman Catholic Theological Seminaries at Baltimore and "near Emmittsburg, Maryland ; at Charleston, South Carolina ;
at Bardstown and in Washington cpunty, Kentucky ; and in Perry ccunty, Mobile.
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

271

RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

Denominations.

Calyanistic Baptists .
Methodist Episcopal Church
Presbyterians, General Assembly
Congregationalists, Orthodox
Protestant Episcopal Church
Universalists- ....
Rpman Catholics
Lutherans Christians 
German Reformed
Friends, or Ctuakers .
Unitarians, Congregationalists .
Associate, and other Methodists
Free-will Baptists . . .
Dutch Reformed
Mennonites ....
Associate Presbyterians
Cumberland Presbyterians
Tunkers . . . . , .
Free Ccmmunipn Baptists
Seventh-day Baptists
Six-principle Baptists
United Brethren, er Mpravians
Millennial Church, or Shakers
New Jerusalem Church
Emancipators, Baptists
Jews and others not mentioned

Ministers.

Churches or
Congrega. 4,384

Cominuiiicantg.

2,914

304,827

1,777

476,000

1,801

2,253

182,017

1,000.

1,270

140,000

558

700

150

300

205

1,200

44,000

200

800

25,000

84

400
400

17,400

160

193

350
. . .
35,000
300
400
16,000
159
194
17,888
200
30,000
74
144
15,000
50
75
8,000
40
40
3,000
30
, , .
3,500
30
40
2,000
25
30
1,800
23
23
2,000
45
15
30
28
15
' 150*
600
BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES.
Name.
Ccnnecticut Missionary Society 
Philadelphia Bible Society 
American Board Foreign Missions 
American Baptist Board Foreign Missions . . .
American Tract Society, BcstPn
American Education Society 
American Asylum, Deaf and Dumb .'....
American Bible Society  ,
Presbyterian Board American Education Society
Board Missionary General Assembly ....
Methodist Missionary Society ........
Board Education General Assembly . . . . .
American Colonization Society ... . . .
Dutch Reformed Missionary Society . . . . .
American Sunday School Union 
Baptist General Tract Society  ,
Prison Discipline Society  ,
Massachusetts Sunday School Union 
American Tract Society 
American Temperance Society 
American Home Missionary Society . . . . ,
American Seamen's Friend Society 
Massachusetts Missionary Society, reorganized
American Peace Society 
.African Education Society  ,
Presidents.
Hon. Jonathan Brace 
Right Rev. William White, D. D.
John C. Smith, LL.D 
Rev. Jesse Mercer '. 
Hon. William Reed 
Samuel Hubbard, LL. D. . . .
Hon. Nathaniel Terry . ... .
Col. Richard Varick 
Arthur Tappan, Esq 
A. Green, D. D., LL. D. . . .
Rev. Elijah Hedding 
Thomas M'Auley, D. D. . . .
Charles Carrol 
Alexander Henry, Esq. .
Rev. William T. Brantly
Hon. William Jay . . .
Hpn. William Reed . .
S. V. S. Wilder, Esq. .
Marcus Morton, LL. D.
S. Van Rensselaer, LL. D.
S. Thompson, LL. D. . .
Leonard Woods, D. D. .
Right Rev. Wm. Meade, D. D.
Forma
Income.
Income.
1828-9. >
1829-30.
Dollars.
Dollars.
1798
2,070 33
3,013 06
1808
7,724 41
1810
102,000 00
106,928 26
1814
16,061 90
20,000 00
1814
13,896 18
11,102 06
1816
30,434 18
30,710 14
1816
2,341 55
1816
143,184 33
170,067 55
1817
12,632 00
1818
8,000 00
12,632 43
181918191819
14,176 11
13,128 00
19,561 93
20,295 00
1822
4,470 71
4,604 00
1824
18,527 00
70,521 70
1834
5,256 76
5,536 39
1825
3,531 00
3,353 52
1835
1,018 80
1,465 46
1825
60,000 00
60,210 00
1826
1826
26,997 31
33,229 00
1826
1,214 38
4,159 87
1827
5,247 32
1828
495 85
1830

485,714 20
584,084 29
272

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

CHAPTER III.
LITERATURE  ARTS  MANNERS.
It &as been our aim, in treating of the varied sub
jects to which the plan of the work has directed our
attention, to avoid all unnecessary comparisons between
the circumstances and condition of the republic, and
of our own country, and to leave our readers to form
their own judgment on the facts which have been
laid before them ; but the topics of the present chap
ter are of a character which frequently require com
parison in order to render them intelligible : we trust,
however, to be able to prove that even this process

* From the extension of commercial relations, and from the nu
merous conquests of the mother country, it would have been natural
tj expect that her language would have, in process of time, become
somewhat a different one from that of her colonies in this country:
but our commerce has followed hers so closely, and we have had
so entirely the benefit of her mass of literature as soon as it was
known to her own people, that the first adoption of a foreign word,
or the slightest change, in the use of one of her old stock, has been
noticed on this side of the Atlantic ; and we have wisely followed
the public taste of the mother country, nor vainly thought that it
would be wisdom to struggle for an independency in letters, as far
as they regarded the use of our vernacular. This language was
our birthright as Englishmen, and its preservation in its purity
clearly shows how much we value it. The language that is ad
dressed to the ear alone is soon changed or lost, but that which is
addressed to the eye as well as the ear, is long preserved by a two
fold impression upon the mind. The sight is. more faithful than
. the_ear, and preserves her knowledge longer ; both are necessary
to keep a language alive in its purity. The study of the language
of a people is one of the best methods of sounding the depths of
their knowledge, and of measuring their advancement in arts and
arms, and of ascertaining the nature of their general pursuits and
habits; and perhaps it may not be going too far to say, that geo
graphical positions may be known by the examination of a nation's
vocabulary alone. The soft air pf Italy and France has given, in
a long succession of years, by natural causes, operating upon body
and mind, and which might be easily analyzed, if .we Could take
the pains to do it, a delicious sweetness to the tones of the human
voice, a melody to the sounds of worrls, and a harmony in the con
struction of sentences, which the inhabitants of the colder regions
of the north can never know among themselves. This principle
is tested by the still softer and more musical notes of the West In
dia Creoles. With them almost every word is vitiated in pronun
ciation, and reduced to a sort of infantile imbecility, yet it is most
musical. The English language has not with us, generally speak
ing, been deeply studied by those who use it, either for the com
mon business of life, or by those who make it a vehicle of matters
of high import in enlightening and directing their countrymen.
English etymology has not, until lately, been a part of a classi
cal education. Our scholars-have been content to take, and use,
words as they found them, sanctioned by good writers, without
much inquiry into their derivations, or primitive significations ;
nor is it my object to go further in these remarks than to show,
that we have kept a constant watch over our" mother tongue, and
if we have sometimes, after great English models, laboured to sink
many of the good old words pf pur language, and to supply their
places by those formed from the Latin and Greek languages, yet
that we were ready, from taste and judgment, to go back again,
and take those discarded, home-bred words, of strong meaning and
peculiar fitness, whenever the established writers have led the
way. Several modern scholars have shown us the force, precision,
and even beauty of our old English, and we hail this returning to
the homestead as an unfailing sign ef good judgment. I have
thrown together a few observations uppn pur language, tp induce
the English schclar tp examine the treasures he is in possession

may be accomplished without manifesting the preju
dices of nationality to the absurd excess which some,
even of the most talented publications of the parent
state, have exhibited. As if desirous to be revenged on
the republic for the substantial advantages it pos
sesses, they pour out a torrent of contemptuous abuse
on their literature and manners.
The language ofthe United States, for the most part,
differs so slightly from that of the middle and southern
counties of England, that it requires some considera
ble discrimination to ascertain any points of distinc
tion ; and those which are perceptible rather pertain
to accent and intonation, than affect the sense.* It is
of, and to show the reader, that if pur fathers' style does not al
ways suit the present taste, yet that they were masters of their
vernacular, as well as deeply read in the learned languages. And
this I shall do, not by pointing out particular passages, but by
calling the attention of the reader to the general tenour of their
works. It is the belief of the learned, that, all languages had a common
origin ; for there are words in all the languages they have exa
mined, which bear relationship to each other. Sometimes the re
semblance or kindred features are near and strong, at other times
remote, but containing such resemblances as can not be mistaken :
and until some other account more satisfactory is given by some
retrospective seer, I am willing to take the account given by Moses
ofthe confusion of tongues, as sufficiently true to answer the phe
nomenon which has no other solution. I am a lover of words, for
I do not believe that there can be much reasoning of a moral nature
without them ; and sure I am, that no man ever despised the sci
ence of words who understood it to any considerable extent. It
may be true, that the mind may be so much engaged in the pursuit
of various tongues as to enfeeble its force in more severe studies ;
but the literary world exhibits so few instances of this nature, that
we need not fear the effects of a pretty liberal attention to the lan
guages ; certainly, a careful examination of our mother tongue
will not be thought improper by those who object to the attention
paid to the learned languages. The origin, the hislory, the sweet
ness, the copiousness, the force and majesty, and importance of
the English language, are subjects worthy the attention of the
English scholar in our country, at the present day, when so many
facilities are offered him for the study of it ; such facilities, that
one may learn more in six months upon this branch of knowledge.
now, than he could have done in ten years if he had commenced
half a century ago.
The language cf the ancient Britons, from the time they were
first known to ihe Romans, was Teutonic, or Scythian. The peo
ple were rude and fierce, and their language had the same cast ct
character, as far as we know any thing about it. When Julius
Cesar first landed on the shores of Albion, the people exhibited the
highest traits of courage, and met the polished armour ofthe skil
ful Roman soldiers in dauntless nakedness. From this time, which
was before the christian era, until the, conquest of Alaric, more
than four centuries, these rude people were instructed by the Ro
mans in arts and arms. The sons of the native kings and chiefs
were taught the philosophical and polished language of their con
querors; and this instruction was pursued and. enforced as a mean
of bringing the Britons to a state of quietude and obedience.
During this time many of the Roman words had found their way
into the native language, or at least those formed from the Latin
were in use. This is more evident in the names of places, per
haps, than in any other class of words. Those Britons who ac- •
quired the Latin, wrote the native language in the Roman charac
ter, as we now write the Indian dialects, or different languages of
the several tribes in the same character at this day. If the Scy
thians brought letters with them from Asia, they had probably been
lost ; or if any relic of them was left, they were only used as a sort
of a Cabala, as the fragments of some languages were by the

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273

matter of surprise, indeed, that the idiom of the
English language has undergone so little alteration.
Several Of the differences which exist arise from the
Druids — such as by them were called Runic characters, something
-out of which to make a charm.
About the middle of the fifth century (449) the Saxons made
their first invasion, of any importance, of the island of Britain.
Soon after Hengist gained a foothold, Horsa followed ; and Cedric
and other invaders took the same course ; but it was not until after
a lapse of many years, that the island was conquered ; and then,
not from the strength of the invaders, but from the dissensions of
the natives. This conquest was, however, a blessing ; for, not
withstanding the Saxpns were barbarous as well as the Britons,
yet they were a fearless, roaming race of men, who had made more
improvements in the arts of life than the ancient Britons, and their
habits of thinking were more enlarged, and approximated nearer
to civilized life, than those of the natives of the island. The laws
and institutions of the Saxons were of a higher mental character
than those of most other nations then about them on the continent;
but the Saxons received a vast accession to their stock of know
ledge, by the introduction of Christianity into the island in 596,
through the auspices of Pope Gregory, a most benevolent repre
sentative, of Saint Peter. This father of the church sent the
learned and pious Augustin on a mission to Britain, who, after.
many struggles, succeeded in diffusing the doctrines of the gospel
amongst them, and inspiring a taste for learning, and the arts of
industry, and social life. If not before, certainly at this time, the
Saxcn tongue became a written one, and was soon expanded and
improved by the attentive study pf it ampng thpse ecclesiastics,
who wished to diffuse through it the knowledge of the scriptures,
until -then a sealed book to the Saxons, and then only partially
opened. About ninety years after the introduction of Christianity into the
island of Britain, Alfred the Wise, of Northumbria, began his
reign. He had passed his youthful days, when, by the death of
his brother, he came, to the throne of his father. His early years,
and many of his riper ones, had been spent in study in the cloisters
of Ireland, whose ecclesiastics were then more learned than all
those on the continent, if we except a few in Italy. The Irish in
stitutions of learning at this period furnished professors for those
of France, Germany, and many other places. Alfred, when in
possession of power, did not forget his taste for letters, but gather
ed about him as many learned men as he cculd obtain. Adhelm,
a West-Saxon poet, wrote for his instruction and amusement
" Flowers of the Bible," probably a sort of dramatic paraphrase
on some portions of scripture ; and also treated his royal patron
with spme touches of the philosophy of that age. The wise king
bent his mind to imprpving his pepple and their language at the
same time, and shene conspicuously as a firm supporter of Chris
tianity and letters. He was the first to give a relish for these pur
suits to his nobles, who had hitherto found no delight but in war,
or the chase.
The improvement of the Saxon tongue was, generally speaking,
constantly going on, although the knowledge of the Latin had
greatly declined from the time of Alfred the Wise, until the time
of Alfred the Great, who was born in eight hundred and forty-
nine. This monarch fills a wider space in the Saxon history than
all his predecessors, or those Saxon kings who came after him, al
though his grandson was quite as great a man as himself. Alfred
was a pet child of his father, who took his son to Rome when he
was quite young, and brought him to France also, when Athel-
welph, the father, married Judith, the daughter of Charles of
France; but in all these journeyings the young Alfred had never
learned to read. It was his fond step-dame who set about this
task, and succeeded in laying the fcundatipn pf making him pne
pf the greatest schclars pf that age. He sought learned and gcpd
men frpm Ireland, France, and in his cwn country, and commen
cing with the poetry of his own language, which had taken fast
hold of his affections when young, he pursued it, until he had ex
hausted all the ballads and legends which were written in- Saxon,
and then set about enlarging the narrow limits of the Saxon
muses, by compositipns of his own which, in fact, surpassed in

Americans expressing their meaning by words which
were in use at the time of the emigration of the " pil
grim fathers ;" while, in the mother-country, other

excellence all the poetry of his country, as he did his predecessors
in civilization and knowledge. He was not content with this, but
learned the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and assisted to bring the
rich treasures of these repositories of wisdom into his own market,
for the supply of his own people, and the refinement of his own
court. He was not a mere book-worm neither, for he was as
ready to fight as to write ; to enforce laws as to make them. He
was no pedant, but the great instructor of his people, anticipating
ages by the power of his understanding, and the reach of his
genius. Institutions of learning arose under his fostering care.
The son of Alfred, Edward the Elder, was not a whit behind his
father in his attention to the encouragement of learning, but having
a regular education, there was no necessity for such efforts as were
made by his father ; and the infant institutions his father establish
ed were in a flourishing state. The son of Edward, Athelstan,
was a more powerful prince than his father or grandfather had
been, and extended his intercourse with the world mpre widely.
The mpnastic institutions which Alfred founded, Athelstan en
dowed, and gave them books collected from every country to which
he had access. Whatever we may think of monasteries now, they
were the protectors and preservers of all the learning of antiquity,
and the faithful trustees of all the knowledge committed to their
care when they were first created. Through several changes of
fortune, now smiled upon by Edward the Confessor, and then ne
glected by his ambitious successors, learning flourished or declined
in the more public institutions, until the invasion of William the
Conqueror ; but it was not often that contemplation was disturbed
in the convent's shades, for ages after his accession to the throne
of England. Here, indeed,
" The little, fat, round oily man of God,"
laughed, slept, or idled life away; "but these deep soli'tudes and
awful cells," contained men of true piety and profound learning;
and to whose industry and wisdom we are now indebted for much
of our present advancement in knowledge.
In 1066, William defeated Harold, and became king of England.
His triumph was so complete, that a sudden revolution was made
in the information, taste, and pursuits of men in that island. It
was natural for him to think his Norman language, uncouth and
rough as it was, greatly superior to that of the Saxon, which he
did not understand. The church and convent, and perhaps court
records, which had been kept in Latin, were now, in many in
stances, ordered to be in Norman. The ballad makers who flock
ed round the conqueror sung his praises in the Norman measure
and language, and even the deeds of former kings, whose praises
had for ages been echoed in pure Saxon, were now sung in the
rude rhymes of the minstrels ofthe Conqueror: and such was the
influence of the new order of things, that in the course of half a
century the pure Saxon was no longer to be found in England ;
and a new language, the beginning of what is now our vernacular
tongue, grew up there. Ellis; a learned writer on these subjects,
says this was effected in the course of forty years after the con
quest, and that this change in the language of England was com
pletely brought about in' this time; but we should be nearer the
truth, I imagine, if we should allow nearly a century for this trans-
fprmatipn. The language was indeed changed tc the eye and the
ear; but still a great proportion of all its elements remained, and
will for ever remain, a streng proof that in all the permanent im
provements in civilization and knowledge, the Saxons were greatly
in advance of their conquerors. This change assisted the ad
vancement, of knowledge; for language, when advanced towards
perfection, is the most labour-saving machine that ever ingenuity
attempted to invent. The scanty words found in a primitive Ian- *
guage are inadequate to the conveyance of refined or extended
thought. By these simple elements the nice shades of difference
in thought could be no more than indicated, not fully conveyed by
the words written ; therefore much was left to the imagination of
readers, which was supplied when language was only spoken by

274

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

terms have been substituted : — as, for instance, the
word " sick," which the Americans continue to use in
stead of " ill," or " indisposed." " The best English,"
the looks, gestures, and accents of the speaker; hence arose the
superiority, in the early times, of eloquence pver written composi
tions. The oral communication was then a better method of con
veying ideas than the record, however fully exemplified by the
scanty language then in use, without taking into consideration the
charm there has always been in a well toned and well regulated
voice. As language improved and expanded, the noun and the verb, the
first elements of language, were found insufficient, with all their
declinations and inflections, to convey thought accurately and for
cibly. The connecting links, the qualifying terms, the affirmaticns
and negations, with the prefixes and affixes, to increase, change,
pr qualify the ppwer pf the words, were sought for, and obtained ;
sometimes by a happy hit, which, by frequent repetitions, in time
became usage, and usage law ; or by the elaborate reasonings of
the scholar upon the doctrines of analogies, or the principles of an
easy composition or arrangement of sentences. Sometimes the
understanding directed in this work of composition and structure
of language, but oftener the ear; and when at times the wise and
the learned reasoned and laid down the rule, the great mass of the
people changed it for euphony sake, and the learned at length came
into the same use ; for custom is the despot over language. In
the laws of language, as well as in those of national policy, the
people, after all, are the revising tribunals; not by their sudden
impulses, but by the sober reflection cf years ; and even their own
opinions are revised by their own experience.
The English literature received its share of the acquisitions of
learning made by the crusaders ; and the language of course was
greatly benefitted by the taste which these heroic adventurers
awakened and cherished. In these epochs of delicacy and refine
ment, many cf Ihe cparse Words were disused, and those better
chosen and more apprepriate became fashionable. The English
language gained much from the days of Chaucer to those of
Spenser ; and more by the taste of Shakspeare than by any other
person. It is a matter of some singularity, that so little of the Saxon lan
guage is known by our scholars, when on a strict examination we
find that our poets and prose writers have used so many words de
rived from the Saxon. In Shakspeare, taking out the proper
names, eight words out of nine are found to be of Saxon origin,
as exemplified by several quotations taken promiscuously from
the works of the great dramatist. Milton, tried by the same rule,
would give the proportion of six out of seven. Johnson's works,
as he coined Latin words and used them freely, about five sixths
are Saxon. In our translation of the Bible, and the writings pf
Addison and Goldsmith, and other writers of simplicity and purity,
the proportion pf words of Saxon origin is still greater than in
Shakspeare or Milton. Our own declaration of independence, and
many other American productions, are written in the style which
contains a great proportion of these words of pure Saxon origin.
I will give a few specimens of the use pf Saxon words among our
best writers ; fair samples of their slyle, and the use of good old
English. The Saxon words are in italics.
But no ! the freshness of that past shall still
Sacred to memory's holiest musings be ;
When through the ideal fields of song al will,
He roved, and gather' d chaplets wild wilh thee ;
When, reckless of the world, alone and free,
Like two proud barks, we kept our careless way,
That sail by moonlight o'er the tranquil sea ;
Their white apparel and their streamers gay,
Bright gleaming o'er the main, beneath the ghostly ray. SANDS.
While thus the shepherds watch' d the host of night,
O'er heaven's blue concave flash'd a sudden light,
The unrolling glory spread Us folds divine,
O'er the green hills and vales of Palestine ;

says Mr. Cooper, in his Notions of the Americans,
vol. ii. p. 171, " is spoken by the natives of the mid
dle states, who are purely the descendants of English

And lo ! descending angels hovering there,
Stretch'd their loose wings, and in the purple air
Hung o'er the sleepless guardians of the fold : .
When that high anthem, clear, and strong, and bold,
On wavy paths of trembling ether ran :
Glory to God — Benevolence to man —
Peace to ihe world.  PIERPONT.
A good man's piety and virtue are not distinct possessions ; they
are himself, and all the glory which belongs lo Ihem belongs lo himself.
What is religion 1 Not a foreign inhabitant, not something alien lo
our nature, which comes and lakes up its abode in the soul. It is the
soul itself, lifting itself up lo Us Maker. Wlial is virtue 1 It is ihe
soul listening to, and revering and obeying a law, which belongs lo
Us very essence, the law of duty. We sometimes smile when we hear
men decrying human nature, and in the same breathing exalting re
ligion to the skies, as if religion were any thing more than human
nature, acting in obedience to Us chief law. CHANNINO.
There are some poems in the Saxon language which strongly
show the rude, bold, and superstitious character of the Saxons be
fore Christianity was introduced among them, or had generally
spread through the island. The Volupsa, the sybil of the Saxons
was called' Vola, is a poem given in an English translation by
Turner, from whom, with Bede, Ellis, Tooke, and Campbell, I
have derived much of my information on this subject of Saxon
literature. It is a rhapsody on the creation, according to the
Saxon notions of it, and the first lessons of wisdom given to man
from his Maker. The successive generations, with their histery,
are introduced, but only as a landscape is seen by the transitory
flashes of the lightning amid the darkness of the storm. The
Welch wrote at the same time with abruptness, and threw the fire
and fanaticism of their Druids into the fprm pf spme wild and
magic strain.
True poetry can not exist until there is a considerable degree
of mental cultivation in the bard who makes it. Men musl think,
and feel, and reason, loo, from cause to effect, before any delicacies
of poetry can be developed ; but the strong ebullitions of genius
raving to soar lo the regions of light and futurity, are -scattered
through the early ages of poetry ; and time gives these produc
tions, perhaps, an interest beyond their real merits.
The English language is now so enriched from the sources I
have mentioned, and other sources more recondite, and also from
some more recently made contributions to our stock of words, par
ticularly in terms of banking, trade, and revenue, that il may chal
lenge any other language to show more words of clear and definite
significations, than we have legitimatized and secured. The terms
of art are every day increasing, as well as those of the sciences,
and are constantly added for common use to our vocabulary,
These, in general, have been formed by new applications of old
words to the subjects, or. by new compounds made to convey the
idea of the use of the invention.
The English language is full of strength. There are no feeble
words in it, such as are often made by an efleminate people; but
every part of the fabric is of good old materials or approved new
ones. There is np thought, or shade of a thought, that the English
language is net capable cf conveying tc the mind, if used by a ju
dicious, learned, and spirited writer. In the use ef language ta
gain, or to defend a ppint, much depends upon the skill and judg
ment of the writer or speaker. The vocabulary of angels would
fail to propagate a thought, that would wake tlie genius or mend the
heart, in the mouth pf dulness or apathy. The soul of the writer
or speaker must breathe into his language the breath of life. The
earthly particles must be melted, as it were, into the ethereal, to
give a comppsition the spirit of intelligence and genius. The fol
lowing extracts, the first from Shakspeare, and the other from
Milton, show the natural strength of the English language; for

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

27£

parents, without being the descendants of emigrants
from New England. The educated men of all the
southern Atlantic states, especially the members of

without any apparent effbrt, pr artful selectien, the wprds admira
bly cpnvey the elevated thoughts which the authcrs had in their
minds, and intended te put into an imperishable form.
' The cloud-capt towers, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great glebe itself;
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve,
And, like the baseless fabric of a vision,
Leave not a wreck behind."  . Tempest, Act iv. Scene 4.
' For in those days might only shall be admir'd,
And valour an heroic virtue call'd :
To overcome in battle, and subdue
Nations, and bring home spoils with infinite
Manslaughter, shall be held the highest pitch
Of human glory, and for glory done
Of triumph, to be styl'd great conquerors,
Patrons of mankind, gods, ancl sons of gods,
Destroyers rightlier call'd, and, plagues of men.
Thus fame shall be achieved, renown on earth,
And what most merits fame in silence hid." Milton, b. xi.
The beauty of the English language is conspicuous in English
poetry and prose. It is fortunate for our vernacular, that the lan
guage of poetry does not differ, except in a few words, and perhaps
in no one, from our prose ; for in such a formation of language.
all that is gained in the interchange with other nations in prose, is
transferred to verse ; and all that is created or refined by verse, is
given over 10 prose, after due trial and final, judgment of its use or
beauty, at the tribunal of public criticism. The. following poem
is a specimen of that powerful, graceful beauty, which excites ad
miration for its elegance, and respect fer its strength. It seems
tp ccme upon us with that calmness and divinity which it describes
in the god of wisdom and taste, in his easy victory over the Python.
What a beautiful fable this is ; it was made to show how easily
refinement and wisdom can overcome and destroy the monster of
the literary world — a depraved taste.
Prize Poem— The Belvidere Apollo. (1812.)
" Heard ye the arrow hurtle in the sky 1
Heard ye the dragon monster's deathful cry 1
In settled majesty of fierce disdain,
Proud of his might, yet scornful ofthe slain, .
The heavenly archer stands — no human birth,
No perishable denizen" of earth !
Youth blooms immortal in his beardless face,
A god in strength, with more than god-like grace !
All, all divine — no struggling muscle glows,
Through heaving vein no mantling life-blopd flpws ;
But animate with deity alpne,
In deathless glery lives the breathing stone.
" Bright-kindling with a conqueror's stern delight,
His keen eye tracks the arrew's fateful flight;
Burns his indignant cheek with vengeful fire,
And his lip oui vers with insulting ire ;
Firm-fix'd his tread, yet light, as when en high
He walks the impalpable and pathless sky;
The rich luxuriance of his hair, cenfined
In graceful ringlets, wantens pn the wind,
That lifts in sport his mantles' drooping fold,
Proud to display that form of faultless mould.
"Mighty Ephesian ! with an eagle's flight
Thy proud soul mpunted threugh the fields pf light,
Viewed the bright cenclave ef Heaven's blest abode;-
And the cold marble leapt tp life a god :

those families which have long been accustomed to
the better society of their towns, also speak an Eng
lish but little to be distinguished from that of the
Cpntagious awe through breathless myriads ran,
And nations bowed before the work of man.
For mild he seemed as in Elysian bowers,
Wasting in careless ease the jpypus hours ;
Haughty, as bards have sung, with princely sway,
Curbing the fierce flame-breathing steeds of day;
Beauteous as vision seen in dreamy sleep
By holy maid on Delphi's haunted steep ;
'Mid the dim twilight of the laurel grove,
Too fair to worship, too divine to love.
" Yet on that form, m wild delirious trance,
With more than reverence gazed the maid of France ;
Day after day the love-sick dreamer stood
With him alone, npr thpught it splitude;
Tp cherish grief, her task, her dearest care,
Her cne fend hope — to perish — or despair.
Oft as the shining light her sight beguiled,
Blushing she shrunk, and thought the marble smiled ;
Oft, breathless listening, heard, or seemed to hear,
A voice of music melt upon the ear.
Slowly she wan'd, and cold and senseless grown,
Closed her dim eyes, herself benumbed to stone.
Yet love in death a sickly strength supplied,
Once more she gaz'd, then feebly smiled, and died."
Sweetness in a language is intimately connected with beauty.
Beauty may perhaps consist without sweetness ; no one of taste
would say that the head of Apollo was a sweet one, while all agree
that the face of Venus is full of sweetness ; yet, if beauty can exist
without sweetness, the converse of the proposition would be offen
sive to taste and truth, to say that sweetness was ever found with
out beauty. The impression which beauty leaves on the mind, is
pleasure and admiration ; but when sweetness is superadded, the
charm is increased to love and rapture. I have mentioned images
that strike the senses to illustrate those which are sentimental.
This is the only method by which any thing ethereal can be made
to affect us forcibly, as we are now constituted. The dirge in'
Cymbeline is full of sweetness and delicacy.
" To fair Fidele's grassy tomb
Soft maids and village hinds shall bring
Each opening sweet of earliest bloom,
And rifle all the breathing spring.
" No wailing ghost shall dare appear
To vex with shrieks this quiet grove ;
But shepherd lads assemble here,
And melting virgins own their love.
" No wither'd witch shall here be seen ;
No goblins lead their nightly crew ;
The female fays shall haunt the green,
And dress thy grave with pearly dew !
" The redbreast oft, at evening hours,
Shall kindly lend his little aid,
With hoary moss, and gathered flowers,
To deck the ground where thou art laid.
" When howling winds, and beating rain, •
In tempests shake thy sylvan cell ;
Or 'midst the chase, on every plain,
The tender thought on thee shall dwell;
" Each lonely scene shall thee restore ;
For thee the tear be duly shed ;
Belov'd, till life can charm no more,
And mourn'd, till Pity's self be dead."

276

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

are

best circles of the mother-country. Still there
shades of difference between these very persons that
a nice and practised ear can detect, and which, as
The wailing ghost — the withered witch — the howling winds, which
at first thought seem to injure the loveliness of the picture, form
a fine contrast to all the tender and affectionate images which are
grouped around the grassy death-bed of beauty and innocence.
The effect of this contrast is forcibly seen in the picture of Pros-
pero, with the snow of many winters upon his reverend head, in
the majesty of science and wisdom, and paternal affection, con
trasted with the manly youth of Ferdinand, and the delicacy and
beauty of Miranda ; and the finishing of the whole is the ugliness
and ferocity of Sycorax, with her fiend-begotten Caliban, " whose
nature nurture would not stick to."
The majesty of the- English language is conspicuous in the fol
lowing extract from Akenside :
" Look then abroad through nature, to the range
Of planets, suns, and adamantine spheres,
Wheeling unshaken through the veid immense;
',:--. And speak, O man ! dees this capacipus scene
,' > With half that kindling majesty dilate
) B. Thy strong conception, as when Brutus rose
• '"*¦ Refulgent from the stroke of Cesar's fate,
Amid the crowd of patriots;- and his arm
Aloft extending, like eternal Jove
.When guilt brings down the thunder, call'd aloud
On Tully's.name, and shook his crimson steel,
And bade the father of his country hailj
For lo ! the tyrant prostrate on the dust,
And Rome again is free !"
The majesty of the language is conspicuous also in the follow
ing extract :  " Different minds

Incline to different objects : one pursues
The vast alone, the wonderful, the wild ;
Another sighs for harmony, and grace,
And gentlest beauty. Hence, when lightning fires
j The arch of Heaven, and thunders rock the ground ;
When furious whirlwinds rend the howling air,
And ocean, groaning from his lowest bed,
Heaves his tempestuous billows to the sky ;
Amid the mighty uproar, while below
The nations tremble, Shakspeare looks abroad
From some high clift superior, and enjoys
The elemental war."
Our" own writers furnish numerous specimens of the various
characteristics of our language. The chaste, pure, classical lan
guage, abounds in Hamilton's prpse, and Pierppnt's ppetry. Fpr
sweetness, we might lpok into Ames's prose, and Percival's verse.
Robert Treat Paine would furnish us with many sentences in
streng language, in both prose and verse. Dr. Dwight's works
might also be mentioned, as exhibiting a fine selection of words
and phrases in communicating his thoughts. In fact, a hundred
others among our distinguished writers might be quoted for our
purpose, to illustrate the statement that our language is copious,
beautiful; sweet, majestic, strong, &c, but we will not at this time
make these selections, for the reader will probably call to mind as
many instances of all these traits in our writers as I can.
I need not dwell long on the importance of cultivating our
mother tongue, nor attempt to prove that it is beccming the tri
umphant language ef mankind, when it is knewn to all that it is
npw sppken by fifty milliens of enlightened freemen, who keep it
purer than that used by any other nation ; and that the number
now, to whom it is vernacular, is five fold greater than it was fifty
years ago. As empire travels westward with us, or over the im
mense plains of Asia with the English, this language, whose origin
and history, copiousness, strength, beauty, sweetness, and import
ance, will carry with it the blessings of sound political and civil

they denote the parts of the union to which they
belong, must be called provincialisms. These little
irregularities of language solely arise from the want

institutions, the blessings of letters and science, of virtue and re
ligion. As eur knpwledge, pelitical, civil, and religicus, expands, and
eur arts and sciences are extended, and the comforts and luxuries
of life increase, words of new significations and aptitude are re
quired, to correspond with these advancements. A poverty of
words is a sure sign of poverty of thought in those who have had
advantages to acquire a full supply. Not only the progress of
knowledge, but the fashion of society, has its influence over lan
guage; and the time has arrived with us, that no word found in
the dictionary of our language, that is used with good taste and
judgment, can be considered as too learned for the social circle.
It is neither affectation or pedantry to use any proper word in a
proper sense. There is too much information diffused through the
country, to require that condescension in the learned which strives
to be simple and plain in language, in order to accommodate their
hearers. The vocabulary of the scholar and the public man,
should be opulent and well arranged. There should be no " res
angusta domi" for an excuse for himself to the public, in his pos
session of the stores of his mother tongue. These are at his com
mand. Every one's warehouse of words should not only be well
stocked, but well sprted and arranged. Every synenyme should be
classed for a ready selection. Still, however, I would not be un
derstood to commend that fastidiousness that wakes to contentious
valour in defence of an accent, or strives to martyrdom for the
support of the pronunciation of a doubtful word or syllable. No,
it is only that free, generous, tasteful use of language, and com
mon regard to a just pronunciation, which shows at once the af
fluence of thought, and the extent and polish of education, that I
contend for. The conversation of the social circle is now often
rich and elegant, and even when it relaxes to trifling and playful
ness. Formerly there was a great difference between the written
language and that used in common conversation ; but these styles
are more nearly assimilated, and both have been benefitted by it.
Eloquence has ceased to strut in corsets, and to walk only in
measured steps, and to speak only in affected cadences.. Nature
has assumed her sway, and ease and grace prevail. Strong, beau
tiful, neat, or delicate thoughts, should each have their appropriate
dress. The. lion's skin to throw loosely over the shoulders, the
succinct tunic, the flowing toga, the sweeping robe, and the trans
parent veil, should all be ready for clothing for the thoughts of
the conversationist, the poet, or the orator, as these thoughts arise
in their imaginations, and are marshalled forth by their under
standings for use and display. Words should be the vassals of
the mind, at ihe call of memory ; but at the same time should
always, like the slaves of the faithful, be used only in rigid just
ness or innocent familiarity. Once profaned by an indecent use,
their character is degraded for ever. Necessity is the only true
mother of invention in words as well as in other things : wit and
profligacy often degrade appropriate words by indelicate uses.
The languages of polished nations alone are liable to this misuse er
prpfanatipn. It is in the reckless plenitude cf genius that words
are violated. A host of instances might be adduced to illustrate
my meaning, if it were proper ; but this is rather a subject for the
eye, or the imagination, than the ear. One or two instances might
be named.
The voluptuaries ef the court of . Louis 14th, called a pure white
wine Virginis Lac ; this was going far enough in all conscience ;
but another of a purple eclpur they called Lachryma Christi. Tc
compare the ruddy, joyous drops of the wine-cup, to the tears of a
suffering Saviour, was reaching the confines of blasphemy.
Every pure and elegant mind ought to rejoice in a freedom from
Ihe fetters of bigotry and the pruderyof excessive puritanism ; but
should never relax his vigils over the chastity of his mother tongue.
Morals depend more on taste, than philosophy, in her analysis of
the human character, is willing to allow ; but no one will deny
the correctness of the maxim of inspiration, that " words filly spoken
are like apples of gold in pictures of silver." — Knapp's Lectures on
American Literature.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

277

of a capital. Throughout all New England, and
among most of the descendants of the people of New
England, the English language is spoken with more
or less of an intonation, derived, I believe, from the
western counties of England, and with a pronuncia
tion that is often peculiar to themselves. They
form so large a proportion of the entire population of
the country, that some of their provincialisms are get
ting to form a part of our ordinary language. The
peculiarity of the New England dialect, (the term is
almost too strong,) is most discernible in the manner
in which they dwell on the last word of a sentence, or
the last syllable of a word. It is not properly drawl
ing, for they speak very quick in common, much
quicker than the English; so quick, indeed, as to ren
der syllables frequently indistinct: but, in conse
quence of the peculiar pause they make on the last
word, I question if they utter a sentence in less time
than those who dwell more equally on its separate
parts. Among men of the world and of education,
this peculiarity is, of course, often lost ; but education
is so common, and the state of society so simple in
New England, as to produce less apparent distinction
in speech and manners than it is usual to find else
where. The middle states certainly speak a softer
English than their brethren of the east. I should
say, that, when you get as far south as Maryland, the
softest, and, perhaps, as pure an English, is spoken
as is any where heard. No rule on such a subject,
however, is without many exceptions in the United
States. The emigration alone would, as yet, prevent
perfect uniformity. The voices of the American fe
males are particularly soft and silvery; and I think
the language, a harsh one at the best, is made softer
by our women, especially of the middle and southern
states, than you often hear it in Europe. New York,
Philadelphia, and Baltimore, have each their peculiar
phrases. Some of the women have a habit of dwell
ing a little too long on the final syllables, but I think
it is rare among the higher classes of society. I do
not know that it exists at all as far south as Baltimore.
As you go further south, it is true, you get a slower
utterance, and other slight varieties of provincialism.
In Georgia, you find a positive drawl, among what
are called the ' crackers.' More or less of this drawl,
and of all the peculiar sounds, are found in the south
western and western states ; but they are all too new
to have any fixed habits of speech of their own. The
usual vulgar phrases which are put into the mouths
of Americans are commonly caricatured, though
always founded in truth. ' I guess,' is a phrase of
New England : it is used a great deal, though not as
often as ' you know,' by a cockney. It proceeds, I
Vol. II.— Nos. 59 & 60. 2 M

think, from the cautious and subdued habit of speak
ing, which is characteristic of these people. The
gentlemen rarely use it, though I confess I have
heard it interlarding the conversation of pretty lips
that derived none of their beauty from the puritans.
You see, therefore, that it has been partially introdu
ced by the emigrants into the middle states. Criti
cism is here so active, just now, that it is rapidly
getting into disuse. The New Yorker frequently
says, ' I suspect,' and the Virginian, ' I reckon.' But
the two last are often used in the best society in
the mother-country. The difference in pronuncia
tion and in the use of words, between the really good
society of this country and that of England, is not
very great. In America, we can only tell an Eng
lishman by what we are pleased to call his provincial
isms, and quite half the time the term is correct. I
was struck at the close resemblance between the lan
guage of the higher classes in the mother country,
and the higher classes of my own, especially if the
latter belong to the middle states. There are certain
ly points of difference, but they as often proceed from
affectation in individuals, as from the general habits
of the two countries. Cockneyisms are quite as fre
quent in the language of an English gentleman, as
provincialisms in the mouth of an American gentle
man of the* middle states."
We can readily conceive that the Americans must
often be strongly tempted to believe from the speci
mens imported by emigrants, that they speak better
English than the natives of Great Britain; for we
have found, to our cost, that, although not unac
quainted with most of the varieties of our native
tongue, the cottagers of some of the most romantic
parts of Lancashire and Yorkshire were as unable
either to receive or communicate ideas through the
medium of words known to us, as though they had
been inhabitants of the South Seas. Certainly we
found far more difficulty than we have ever done
among our Gallic neighbours.
The construction of the English language is a
topic which occupies much more frequently (we might
almost say, incessantly) the attention of the public
in the United States than in Great Britain. The
American linguists have been thought presumptuous
in supposing they could possibly understand the lan.-
guage better than Murray, or other English gramma
rians ; to an impartial examiner, however, there will
appear much force and truth in many of their obser
vations. The following extract from " Strictures on
Murray's Grammar,"* may be taken as a specimen :

* Journal of Education, vol. i. p. 425.

278

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

" ' An article,' says Mr. Murray, ' is a word prefixed
to substantives to point them out, and to show how
far their signification extends.' Again, ' There are
but two articles, a and the ; a becomes an before a
vowel or a silent /*.' It is not. difficult to find words
in English resembling the nouns, Verbs, adjectives,
&c. of the ancient languages ; but this was not
enough for the first Enghsh grammarians ; they must
find in English as many ' sorts of words' as were said
to exist elsewhere. Something called an article was
found in Greek, and suspected to exist in Latin. O,
the Greek article, is equivalent to hie in Latin, and
hie in Latin is this (in some dialects thic) in Eng
lish. But this, Murray calls a pronoun. The, his
article, is a contraction of this, once spelled thae, and,
afterwards, the. The has been pressed into the ser
vice, and made an article ; while this has been denied
the (or this or that) honour ; for two words that are
entitled to form a separate class are, certainly, highly
distinguished. Now, we venture to say, that, in every
important case, this, that, these, and those, may be
substituted for the, without altering the sense. Mr.
Murray says that the in the sentence, ' Nathan said
unto David, Thou art the man,' is peculiarly empha-
tical ; but thou art this or that man is equally so.
1 An article, (our author says,) is a word prefixed to
substantives,' this and that, these and those, one, two,
three, and every other numeral and ordinal adjective,
are prefixed to nouns in the same way, 'to point them
out,' and even, ' to show how far their signification
extends,' for they effectually limit the signification of
the noun. The man, this man, that man, forty men,
seventh man. The words in italic are all articles, if
Murray's definition be correct. Thus we have dis
posed of one article. Not satisfied with one (that is
an) article, our grammarian must have two. An is
a contraction of one. An is generally contracted
into a before words beginning with a consonant, and
a does not become an, as Mr. Murray asserts ; for at
no very remote period of our literature, an was used
before all words. One is sometimes spelled ane,
hence an. A book is one book. The article un,
which the French grammarians have impressed into
the list of articles, is also their numeral adjective.
How a numeral adjective can be called indefinite, is
hard to conceive. Is one or ten an indefinite num
ber ? The fact is, a, an, and the, are as good adjec
tives as any in our language ; and had there not been
an article in the Greek grammar, these words would
have been left among the adjectives in ours."
The subject of national education has engaged
much attention, overcome many difficulties, and made
considerable progress in Great Britain during the

last forty years. Previously to that time, the opinion
of the clerical, and perhaps of the lay aristocracy of
England, was decidedly adverse to the education of
the people at large ; but finding that the dissenters
would successfully conduct the great work of educa
ting the poorer classes, the clergy resolved, perhaps
wisely, not to suffer so powerful an engine to remain
in the hands of their opponents ; and from these con
trary, but co-operating causes, has elementary educa
tion become in a good degree general. In the United
States, however, the cause of the education of the
people has had no such difficulties to contend With,
and owes its successful progress to feelings far more
honourable. State has vied with state, as to the most
effective means of insuring the education of every
individual within its borders. In the new states,
large grants of land have been made by the general
government to constitute funds for the support of
public schools ; and a reservation of land is made
for that purpose, in the laying out of every new town
ship. In other states, enactments have been made
by the legislature, compelling every township to pro
vide, by assessment, instruction for its population,
and rendering each township subject to indictment
and fine if the regulation remains uncomplied with.
We do not deem ourselves competent judges as to
which of the states has made the best arrangements
to attain so desirable a result ; and our limits will
not permit us to enter on a general collection of the
details of the .number of public schools, and the
amount expended in their maintenance. In most of
the states education at the public expense is one of
the " rights" of " free-born Americans ;" and through
out the union there are very few whites who cannot
both read and write. In the state of Massachusetts,
by the returns from 131 towns presented to the legis
lature, it appears that the amount annually paid in
those towns for public schools is 177,206 dollars, and
the number of scholars receiving instruction is 70,599.
The number of pupils attending private schools in
the same towns is 12,393, at an expense of 170,342
dollars. The number of persons in those towns be
tween the ages of fourteen and twenty-one who are
unable to read or write, is fifty-eight. In the town
of Hancock, Berkshire county, there are only three
persons between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one,
who are unable to read or write, and those three are
mutes. Infant schools have been extensively established in
many of the states ; and the best mode of conducting
early instruction has occupied much attention. We
would add the testimony of our own experience to
the high importance of the training the human mind

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

279

is capable of receiving between the ages of three and
six, fully convinced as we are that the complexion of
future life is frequently determined by the treatment
received at that early age ; and would especially urge
on the consideration of religious parents, whether the
facts they are so ready to attribute to innate heredi
tary corruption, do not, in truth, to a great extent,
result from their own irrational and injudicious
treatment, or to that of those whom they employ.
Recently great attention has been bestowed on the
improvement of the public schools, and a variety of
means have been resorted to to render the teachers
themselves more competent for their important work.
Institutions for the improvement of schoolmasters are
established,* various associations for mutual improve
ment formed, lectures delivered, libraries accumula
ted, periodicals on education ably conducted, and the
systems of Europe investigated ; in fact, every pro
cess is in operation which can indicate intense inter
est — a patriotic persuasion that the stability of the
empire depends on the intelligence and information
of her people.
Where the elements of education are thus open to
all, it cannot be otherwise than that the more wealthy
should be desirous of acquiring a larger portion of
knowledge for their children than the public elemen
tary schools can be expected to afford. In the
principal towns there are private schools, in which
this desire may be fully gratified, and as good an
education may be obtained as in similar institutions
in England, though, perhaps, at an advance of thirty

* One benevolent gentleman, in New York, devotes 8001. per
annum to this important object.
t A statement of the course of instruction, expenses, tyc. in Yale
College.
Terms of Admission. — Candidates for admission to the freshman
class are examined in Cicero's Select Orations^ Virgil, Sallust, the
Greek Testament, Dalzel's Collectanea, Grseca Minora, Adam's
Latin Grammar, Goodrich's Greek Grammar, Latin Proscdy,
Writing Latin, Barnard's or Adams' Arithmetic, Murray's Eng
lish Grammar, and Morse's, Worcester's, or Woodbridge's Geogra
phy. Jacob's Greek Reader and the Four Gospels are admitted as
a substitute for Grseca Minora and the Greek Testament. — No one
can be admitted to the freshman class till he has completed his
fourteenth year ; nor to an advanced standing without a propor
tional increase of age. — Testimonials of good moral character are
in all cases required 5 and those who are admitted from other col
leges must produce certificates of dismission in good standing.
The students are not considered as regular members of the college
till, after a residence of at least six months, they have been ad
mitted to matriculation, on satisfactory evidence of an unblemished
moral character. Before this they are only students on probation.
Course of Instruction. — The faculty to whom is committed the
government and instruction of the students, consists of a president ;
a professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology; a professor of
the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages; a professor of mathe
matics, natural philosophy, and astronomy ; a professor of divinity;
a professor of rhetoric and oratory ; and eight tutors.
The whole course of instruction occupies four years. In each
year there are three terms pr sessions.
The three younger classes are divided, each into two or three

per cent, on the cost. In some instances, the public
schools have intrenched materially on private acade
mies ; while in others the case has been reversed.
In some ofthe female seminaries, classical attainments
are carried much farther than is deemed desirable in
England — Latin, Greek, algebra, and mathematics,
forming part of the routine, in addition to philosophy,
astronomy, geology, botany, and the usual accom
plishments : and a recent traveller complains parti
cularly of the young ladies of Cincinnati being very
"blue." It would appear to be characteristic of
American education, that a general acquaintance with
language and science should be imparted, without
pursuing any particular branch to its utmost limit.
Under such circumstances, there must be a liability
to superficial knowledge in many cases. There is,
however, a broad basis laid, on which the refinements
of literature will naturally rise, as they are called
forth by the increasing improvement of the national
taste ; and, indeed, the progress of the last few years
indicates that the time is not far distant, when " emi
nent scholars" will not be so rare as they are now
presumed to be.
The colleges in the republic are numerous, and
dispersed among the different states. Those which
have attained the greatest celebrity, are Harvard Uni
versity and Yale College. As it is our aim to afford
information rather than offer opinions of our own,
we have appended the systems of education pursued
in one of these institutions in a note ;t and a table,
containing the names of the various colleges through-

parts; and each of the divisions is committed to the particular
charge of a tutor, who, with the assistance of the professors, in
structs it. The senior class is instructed by the president and pro
fessors. Each of the four classes attends three recitations, or lec
tures, in a day, except on Wednesdays and Saturdays, when they
have only two. The following scheme gives a general view of the
authors recited each term : —
FRESHMAN CLASS.
{Folsom's Livy, from one half te two thirds.
Adam's Roman Antiquities.
Day's Algebra, begun.
Grasea Majorar Vol. I., begun.
{ Felsom's Livy, finished.
II. < Grseca Majera, ccntinued through the historical part.
( Day's Algebra, finished.
S Horace, begun:
Grseca Majera, VpI. II., begun.
Playfair's Euclid, five bcpks.
SPPHPMPRE CLASS.
( Hprace, ccntinued.
I. < Grseca Majera, ccntinued.
( Euclid, reviewed and finished.
f Horace, finished and reviewed.
j Grseca Majora, continued.
Day's Mathematics ; Plane Trigonometry, Nature and Use
of Logarithms, Mensuration of Superficies and Solids,
and Isoperimetry ; Mensuration of Heights and Distan
ces, and Navigation.

II.

280

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

in.

out the union, and many interesting particulars, ex
tracted from the American Almanac, is given at the
close of this chapter. It will be perceived, that the
C Grseca Majora, continued.
' Juvenal ; Leverett's Edition.
Cicero de Oratore, begun.
Day's Mathematics; Surveying.
Bridge's Conic Sections.
Spherical Geometry and Trigonometry.
.Jamieson's Rhetoric.

JUNIOR CLASS.
' Cicero de Oratore, finished.
Tacitus, begun.
Grseca Majora, ccntinued.
L Olmsted's Natural Philcspphy and Mechanics.
' Tacitus ; The Histery ; Manners pf the Germans ;
Agriccla.
Grseca Majora, continued.
.Natural Philospphy, finished and reviewed.
' Astronomy, Hedge's Logic.
Tyller's History.
Fluxiens. J
Hpmer's Iliad. v At the option of the student.
.Hebrew, French, er Spanish. )

and

II.

III.

II.

SENIPR CLASS.
(Blair's Rhetcric.
Stewart's Philosophy of the Mind.
Brown's do.
Paley's Moral Philosophy.
Greek and Latin.
Paley's Natural Theology.
Evidences of Christianity.
Greek and Latin.

III. Say's Political Economy.
In addition to the recitaticns in the books here specified, the
classes receive lectures and occasional instruction from the profes
sor of languages ; the junior class attends a course of experimental
lectures on natural philosophy; and the senior class the courses on
chemistry, mineralogy, geology, and select subjects of natural phi
losophy and astronomy. The members of the several classes at
tend also the private exercises and lectures of the professor of
rhetoric and oratory. A course of lectures on the Oration of De
mosthenes for the Crown, is delivered to members of the senior
class. Specimens of English composition are exhibited daily by
one or more of each of the divisions of the sophomore and junior
classes. Written translations from Latin authors are presented by
the freshman class. The lower classes are also instructed in
Latin composition. The senior and junior classes have forensic
disputations once or twice a week, before their instructors. There
are very frequent exercises in declamation before the tutors, before
the professor of oratory, and before the faculty and students in the
chapel. Gentlemen well qualified to teach the French and Spanish lan
guages are engaged by the faculty, to give instruction in these
branches to those students who desire it, at their own expense.
The object of the system of instruction to the undergraduates in
the college is not to give a partial education, consisting of a few
branches only ; nor, on the other hand, to give a superficial educa
tion, containing a little of almost every thing ; nor to finish the
details of either a professipnal pr practical educatipn ; but tu ccm-
mence a thorough course, and to carry it as far as the time of the
student's residence here will allow. It is intended to maintain
such a prppprtipn between the different branches pf literature and
science, as te fprm a prpper symmetry and balance pf character. In
laying the fcundatipn pf a thprough educalicn, it is necessary that
.all the impprtant faculties be brought into exercise. When certain

intention of these institutions is to give a thorough
education both in languages, mathematics, and the
sciences ; and there is no reason to doubt that any
mental endcwments receive a much higher culture than ethers,
there is a distprtion in the intellectual character. The powers of
the mind are not developed in their fairest proportions by studying
languages alone, pr. mathematics alene, pr natural or political sci
ence alone. The object, in the proper collegiate department, is not
to teach that which is peculiar to any one of the professions^; but
to lay the foundation which is common to them all. There are
separate schools of medicine, law, and theology, connected with
the college, as well as in various parts of the country, which are
open tp all who are prepared to enter on professional studies.
With these, the undergraduate course is not intended to interfere.
It contains those subjects only which ought to be understood by
every one who aims at a thorough education. The principles of
science and literature are the common foundation of all high in
tellectual attainments. They give that furniture, and discipline,
and elevation of the m,ind, which are the best preparation for the
study of a profession, or of the operations which are peculiar- to
the higher mercantile, manufacturing, or agricultural establish
ments, -
There are two public examinations of the classes in a year,—
one in May, the other in September,— which are continued from
four to six days each. The candidates for degrees are also ex
amined at the close of their course of study.
There are three vacations in a year ; one of six weeks, begin
ning at commencement, the second Wednesday in September; the
second, two weeks from the second Wednesday in January; and
the third, four weeks' from the first Wednesday in May. No stu
dent is allowed to be absent, without special leave, except in vaca
tions. The absence of a student in term time, even for a few
days, occasions a much greater injury to his education than is
commonly supposed by parents and guardians.
Public Worship. — Prayers are attended in the college chapel
every morning and evening, with the reading of the Scriptures,
when one of the faculty officiates, and all the students are required
to be present. They are also required to attend public worship in
the chapel on the Sabbath, except such as have permission to attend
the episcopal, or other congregations in town.
Expenses.^The college bills are made out by the treasurer and
steward three times a year, at the close of each term, and are pre
sented to the students, who are required to present them to their
parents, guardians, or patrons. If any student fails tp ccmplj
with this requisition, he is not permitted to recite till the bills are
paid. The annual charges in the treasurer's bill are, Dolls. Cts.
For instruction  33 00
ForTent of chamber in college, from 6 to 12 dollars —
average  9 00
For ordinary repairs and contingencies  2 40
For general damages, sweeping, &c, about .... 3 30
For wood, for recitation-rooms, about . . . . 1 30

Total

49 00

Besides this, the student may be charged for damages done by
himself, and a small sum for printing catalogues, and other occa
sional expenses.
Board is furnished in commons by the steward, at cost, about 1
dcllar 60 cents a week, or 64 dpllsus a year, net including vaca-
tipns. It varies, bewever, with the price ef prpvisipns. Wppd is
procured by the corppratipn, and distributed tp those students who
apply fpr it, at ccst and charges.
The students provide for themselves bed and bedding, furniture
for their ropms, candles, bepks, ^taticnery, and washing. There
are alse, in the several classes, taxes ef a small ampunt, fpr the
fuel in the recitatien-rppms, catalcgues, &c. If books and furniture
are sold, when the student has no further necessity for them, the
expense incurred by their use will not be great.
The following may be considered as a near estimate of the ne-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

281

students .who remain, and diligently apply themselves,
during the full term, may attain the object proposed.
It is admitted, nevertheless, that a large proportion
leave college for the busy and interesting concerns
of life, before they have allowed themselves sufficient
time to become thoroughly grounded. It may be
doubted, however, how many individuals in England
would condemn themselves to spend the fairest por
tion of their lives in celibacy, were they not amply
supplied, by means of endowments, with the luxu
ries of life, and beguiled by a prospect of liberty and
a good living at the, "death of some worthy consumer
of the tithe. Contrasting the university system of
Great Britain", under which many individuals are
justly said " to spend their lives in polishing a key,
without ever unlocking a door," with the less wealthy
colleges of America ; and keeping in view their
moral, as well as literary character, the superiority of
the former may be viewed without envy by a people,
who in their literary, as well as in their financial pur
suits, have as few beggars as they have monopolists.

cessary expenses, witheut including apparel, pocket-money, travel
ling, and board in vacations : Dollars.
Treasurer's bill, as abeve  49 49
Bpard in commons, 40 weeks, frem . ".  60 to 70
Fuel and light  8 16
Use of books recited, and stationery  5 15
Use of furniture, bed, and bedding  5 15
Washing .  8 18
Taxes in the classes, &c.  5 7
Total  140 to 190
No students are permitted to take lodgings in town, except when
the rcpms in cpllege are npt sufficient te acccmmpdate all.
Students whp wait in the hall are allewed their bpard ; and
thpse whp pccupy the recitaticn-rppms save their room-rent and
fuel in winter, and receive a small compensation in summer. A
cheap boarding-house is opened, under the directicn of the stew
ard, for those students who wish to board at a lower rate than it
is furnished in commons. The price of board here is about 1 dol
lar 25 cents.
By a resolve of the corporation, a sum not exceeding one thou
sand dollars a year is appropriated to the relief of indigent students,
and the encouragement of merit.
The Theological Department. — The instructors in the theological
department are a professor of didactic theology, a professpr pf sa
cred literature, and the prefessers of divinity- and of rhetoric in the
classical department of the college. — The whole course of instruc
tion occupies three years ; and the students are divided into junior,
middle, and senior classes. — The time of admission is at the com
mencement of the first collegiate term. The terms and vacations
are ithe same with those in the college. The conditions for en
trance are hopeful piety, and a liberal education at some college,
unless the candidate have otherwise qualified himself for pursuing
advantageously the prescribed course of studies. — No charges are
made for the tuition and lectures. — No funds have as yet been
granted to this department for defraying the expenses of indigent
students. — Board may be obtained in private families at from 1
dollar 25 cents to I dollar 75 cents per week.
The. Law School. — The Law School is under the direction of the
Hon. David Daggett, LL.D., a judge in the supreme court in Con
necticut,' and professor of law; and Samuel 3. Hitchcock, Esq., at-

Having thus briefly noticed the machinery of
education in the United States, we shall make a few
observations on its results, which will be found to
correspond with the character of their causes. We
commence with what, with few exceptions, may be
termed the lowest kind. Newspaper literature has
attained a universality unparalleled in the annals of
the art of printing, and leaving, in point of quantity
at least, the parent country far behind. There are
published in the United States nearly 1,000 news
papers : a large number of them daily, and some of
them of very extensive circulation : many of them
are entirely political ; and certainly we cannot com
mend their style of conducting their warfare — they
appear to mistake virulence for talent : others are
purely commercial, filled with advertisements, at the
rate of four insertions for a dollar. Some are devoted
chiefly to literary and scientific purposes ; many of
these are highly respectable. A considerable number,
some of them of a very large circulation, (the New
York Christian Advocate and Journal, and New York

torney and counsellor at law. — The students are required to peruse
the most important elementary treatises, and are daily examined
on the author they are reading, and receive at the same time ex
planations and illustrations of the subject they are studying. — A
course of lectures is delivered by the professor of law, on all the
titles and subjects of common and statute law. — A mout ccurt is
hplden once a week, pr oftener, which employs the students in
drawing pleadings and investigating and arguing questions of
law. — The students are called upon from time to time to draw de
clarations, pleadings, contracts, and other instruments connected
with the practice of law, and to do the most important duties of
an attorney's clerk. — They are occasionally required to write dis
quisitions on some topic of law, and collect the authorities to sup
port their opinions. — The students are furnished with the use of
the elementary books, and have access, at all times, tc the college
libraries, and to a law library, comprising every important work,
both ancient and modern. — The terms for tuition are 75 dollars per
annum. The course of study occupies two years, allowing eight
weeks' vacation each year. Students are, however, received for
a shorter peripd.- — The prefessor of law will also, for the present.
occasionally deliver lectures to the senior class in college, unti.
arrangements are made for a systematic course to be permanently
continued. The Medical Institution. — The instructors of the Medical Insti
tution are, a professor of surgery and obstetrics, a professor of
chemistry and pharmacy, a professor of the theory and practice of
physic, a professor of materia medica, botany, and therapeutics,
and a professor of anatomy and physiology. — The lectures com
mence the last week in October, and terminate the last week in
February. During the course, from fifty to one hundred lectures
are given by each professor. — The students have access to the
lectures on natural philosophy on paying the fees of the course,
and they may attend the lectures on mineralogy and geology with
out charge. The examination for licenses and degrees is held
immediately after the close of the lectures. — The institution is
furnished with a library and an anatomical museum. The stu
dents have access also to the library of the ccllege, and to the
cabinet pf minerals. — The fees, which are paid in advance, are
twelve dcllars and fifty cents fer each cpurse. The matriculation
fee and contingent bill are seven dollars and fifty cents. The en
tire expense pf a residence of four months, through the course, in
cluding fees and all expenses, except clothing, is from 120 to 1 50
dollars.

282

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Observer, for instance, the former having 30,000, and
the latter 14,000 subscribers,) are religious newspapers
— a class that has never yet maintained its ground in
England, although blessed with a "national religion."
There is also another class of newspapers, very dif
ferent from any in this country — weekly registers of
facts connected with trade, commerce, internal im
provements, mechanical inventions, as well as the
proceedings of congress and the state legislatures —
such are Niles's Register and Hazard's Pennsylvania
Register. We apprehend they cannot exist in this
country unless the stamp duty were abolished, as
they combine many of the features of a newspaper
with those of a mechanic and scientific magazine.
The present state of the monthly and quarterly
publications indicates a rapid improvement in the
taste of the American public. Several attempts were
made, some years since, to establish an American
Review ; but the North American has been the first
that has maintained its ground ; and from its pro
gressive improvement, it has well deserved the honour.
It is now become almost as well known in Europe as
the Edinburgh or Quarterly; and some of its articles
on European politics are read with a biting interest.
Two other American Reviews, the Quarterly and the
Southern, both very ably conducted, are also pub
lished quarterly. In the field of science, Silliman's
Journal, published quarterly at New Haven, is well
known, and deservedly esteemed. The American
Monthly Review, recently established, gives short
notices of all new works which issue from the press,
either in Europe or America. The New England
Magazine, though inferior, is somewhat in the style
of our New Monthly. Several other literary perio
dicals are published in Boston, New York, and
Philadelphia ; and even the new states in the west
are not wholly destitute of periodical literature.
Theological periodicals are very numerous ; and
some of them contain very able critical disquisitions
on biblical literature, as well as controversial pieces.
The Christian Examiner, and the Unitarian Advo
cate, published at Boston, are the organs of Unita
rianism. The Christian Spectator, published at New
Haven, is the advocate of orthodoxy. The Theological
and Critical Repository, published at Andover, con
ducted by Professor Robinson and Dr. Moses Stuart,
is perhaps one of the ablest critical works in biblical
literature that has ever appeared in the English lan
guage. The Baptists, Methodists, Episcopalians,
Swedenborgians, Universalists, and other sects, have
each one or more periodicals. It might seem impos
sible that such variety should exist without inducing
universal freedom of thought ; but this result may

be, and to a very large extent is, avoided, by-the very
simple process of each sect carefully excluding every
other publication but its own, for the very sufficient
reason that it is the only one which either does or can
contain the truth — a reason perfectly similar in its
principle to that which induced the Turk to order
the destruction ofthe Alexandrian library.
The principal annual works which issue from the
American press are the American Almanac, a most
admirable publication, and the Annual Register,
which improves every year, both as to matter and
arrangement. The pictorial annuals certainly exhibit
no advanced state of the arts either of painting or
engraving ; and, indeed, are more discreditable in the
former point than in the latter : for most of the de
signs are taken from English prints, and this (unless
the taste of the American people is founded upon the
principle that a painter is to have " no honour in his
own country") most unnecessarily, as the scenery of
the Hudson, the Potomac, and the Ohio, not to men
tion a thousand other streams, and the pencils of Cole
and other American artists, would produce as inte
resting an annual, at any rate, as borrowed prints,
which as invasions of copyright, render the works
not only unpalatable, but unsaleable in Great Britain.
With respect to Original works on general litera
ture, if America has less to boast than Europe,
she has still less to be ashamed of. If her genius has
not been employed to enliven the fancy, neither is it
devoted to the pollution of the heart. But the wri
tings of Irving and Cooper have forced their way
through the prejudice which exists against the pro
ductions of our former colonies, and are too well
known and too highly esteemed to permit any
encomium from our pen, without a violation of proprie
ty. It is true that their chief writers have sought the
richer reward which the European market affords ;
but the genius is no less American because exercised
on this side the Atlantic, nor must our readers
suppose that the claims of America to literary merit
rest on two or three names alone. If a lucid and
manly style is worthy of commendation, that of
Franklin, and of Wasnington, has rarely been surpass
ed ; if eloquence be a mark of genius, Henry Lee,
Patrick Henry, and others, may well lay claim to the
wreath of fame.
We are somewhat surprised to find the dramatic
writings of the Americans to be so numerous. The
editor of the American Quarterly states, that " he
has actually in his possession nearly sixty American
dramas, consisting of tragedies, comedies, operas,
melo-dramas, and farces ;" and he adds, that after a
duly diligent perusal of them, he can venture to affirm,

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283

that " they are quite equal to the productions of the
present race of London playwrights which are regu
larly brought out at our theatres, and to which the
certificate of having been performed a hundred
nights, with unbounded applause, gives all the effica
cy of a quack medicine." Nor have the Americans
been destitute of poetic efforts ; not to mention
living poets, Hopkins, Dwight, Barlow, Humphreys,
Hopkinson, Trumbull, Freneau, Sewell, Linn, La
throp, Paine, Prentiss, Boyd, Clifton, Isaac Story,
Allan, Osborn, Spense, Brainerd and Drake, have con
tributed many powerful and even refined effusions of
the poetic muse. It would, however, occupy a
volume to give a brief account of American writers ;
and it is a work which we hope will be taken up
by some able pen, that the ignorance which ex
ists on this subject may, at least, be left without
excuse. We shall close our remarks on American literature
with some very just observations by a recent Ameri
can writer,* which place in a correct point of view
the causes which have hitherto operated to retard the
progress of literary refinement in the United States,
while they at the same time vindicate the mental
elements of their national character. " The Ameri
can intellect possessing great compass, strength, and
flexibility, united to a clear perception of fitness, is
equal to any exigency in human affairs, and can
adapt its pursuits to every change that may occur,
and its measures to every new demand that may be
made on it. This is attested by the great improve
ments it has made in every branch of knowledge
that is called for in the country, and by which an
honourable independence can be gained. Our posi
tion to this effect might be confirmed by a reference
to the elevated condition of the liberal professions
among us, and the multitude of inventions in the
mechanical arts. Knowledge on these subjects, being
needed in the present state of society, can be render
ed profitable to its possessors, by an immediate appli
cation of it to practical purposes. It is therefore
eagerly sought after, and rapidly attained. And the
same will be true of every other branch of knowledge,
as soon as it shall be called for under the certainty
of a suitable reward. No matter whether it belongs
to science, arts, or letters ; let a market for it be
opened, and American genius will soon supply it.
But little has been hitherto done by the public to
encourage American literature. It has been even
discountenanced, by an unreasonable preference of
that from abroad. We call the preference unreasonable,
* New England Magazine, vol. i. p. 479.

because the foreign articles preferred have been often
inferior to the domestic ones that were undervalued.
The consequence has been what every one who re
flected on the subject anticipated. Polite literature
has been comparatively but little cultivated among
us, except as a matter of individual taste and amuse
ment. We have had but few writers by profession,
because neither honour nor riches awaited the pur
suit. Our mechanics became wealthy by labouring
in their vocations, while our scholars might have
starved in the midst of the most exquisite produc
tions of their pens. The reason is obvious. There
was a great demand for the implements of agricul
ture and some of the arts, but a very limited one for
poetry, or any other kind of fine writing. The
former was adapted to the state of society, while the
latter was out of time. Necessaries and comforts,
not luxuries or mere delicacies, were first to be pro
vided. But polite literature is a luxury, and will not
therefore be encouraged, because it cannot be in
dulged in, except as a concomitant of wealth and
leisure. During this condition of things, but few
literary productions appeared ; and even those that
did appear were not of the highest order, or in the
most finished style, because they had not been suffi
ciently elaborated : and to become a good writer is
the work of years, under close industry, and the
strictest attention to style and manner. Such was
the disheartening state of things : yet it has already
appeared that, notwithstanding its' power to blight
and wither, it did not render American genius un
productive. Beneath gloom and winter the blossoms
opened, and the fruit became mature and excellent,
far beyond what there was ground to expect. But
of late, the sentiments of society have changed, pub
lic taste and judgment are improved, and a new era
is evidently opening on American literature. Foreign
productions are not, as formerly, almost indiscrimi
nately approved, nor those of our own writers reject
ed, merely because they are not the growth of a dis
tant hemisphere. Readers examine and reflect,
before they feel themselves authorized to decide.
Their decision, therefore, is founded on principle,
and is usually correct. As the consequence of
this change in public feeling, American works are
sought for and purchased to a much greater extent
than in former years. Let this state of things con
tinue ; or rather, let it improve in the requisite . de
gree ; let fine specimens of American composition be
rewarded with honour and profit, and they will soon
be abundantly produced. Let prompt and liberal
purchasers be found, and the market, as in other
cases, will be well supplied. The Souvenirs, Tokens,

284

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

and novels of the day, with many other productions
of taste, give proof of this. We do not say that
Byrons, and Sir Walters, and Moores, will immedi
ately spring up among us. Authors of that class
appear but seldom. But we do say that we shall
soon have writers equal to any Europe contains, ex
cept, perhaps, such prodigies as we have named;
and in time we shall equal them. The same genius
that gave renown to our fathers, through all the
eventful periods of our history, is still the cherished
inheritance of their descendants."
The progress of the arts in the United States has
been in proportion to their bearing on the essential
comforts of life. Thus, in the mechanical arts they
are inferior to no nation of the globe, as their ships,
steamboats, and engines of all kinds, bridges, canals,
and rail-roads, abundantly testify. Architecture has
recently received a far greater portion of attention than
formerly ; those who devote their attention to this
subject generally making the tour of Europe, to
inform their minds and cultivate their taste. Many
of their recent state-houses and churches indicate the
improved condition of the art, and afford just ground
for pleasing anticipations of the future. We eannot
give our readers a better idea of the domestic archi
tecture of a respectable house in the cities of the
United States, than by quoting the description which
Mr. Cooper has given of a habitation of an American
in the very best society, who is in easy circumstances,
of extensive and high connexions. " The house in
question occupies, 1 should think, a front of about
thirty-four feet on the Broadway, and extends into
the rear between sixty and seventy more. There
are no additions, the building ascending from the
ground to its attics in the same proportions. The
exterior necessarily presents a narrow, ill-arranged
facade, that puts architectural beauty a good deal at
defiance. The most that can be done with such a
front, is to abstain from inappropriate ornament, and
to aim at such an effect as shall convey a proper idea
of the more substantial comforts and of the neatness
that predominate within. The building is of bricks,
painted and lined, and modestly ornamented, in a
very good taste, with caps, sills, cornices, &c. in the
dark red freestone of the country. The house is of
four stories ; the lower, or rez de chaussee, being
half sunk, as is very usual, below the surface of the
ground, and the three upper possessing elevations
well proportioned to the height of the edifice. The
door is at one of the corners of the front, and is
nearly on a level with the windows of the first floor,
which may commence at the distance of about a
dozen fSet abovfc the pavement of the street. To reach

this door, it is necessary to mount a flight of steep,
inconvenient steps, also in freestone, which compen
sate, in a slight degfee, for the pain of the ascent, by
their admirable neatness, and the perfect order of
their iron rails and glittering brass ornaments. The
entrance is into a little vestibule, which may be
some twelve feet long by eight in width. This
apartment is entirely unfurnished, and appears only
constructed to shelter visiters while the servant is
approaching to admit, them through the inner door.
From the vestibule, the entrance is into a long,
narrow, high, and handsome corridor, at the farther
extremity of which are the principal stairs. This
corridor, or passage, as it is called here, is carpeted,
lighted with a handsome lamp, has a table and a few
chairs ; and, in short, is just as unlike a French
corridor as any thing of the sort can very well be,
From this passage you enter the rooms on the first
floor ; you ascend to the upper, and descend to the
lower story, and you have egress from and ingress to
the house by its front and rear. The first floor is
occupied by two rooms that communicate by double
doors. These apartments are of nearly equal size,
and, subtracting the space occupied by the passage,
and two little china closets that partially separate
them, they cover the whole area of the house. Each
room is lighted by two windows ; is sufficiently high 4
has stuccoed ceiling, and cornices in white ; hangings
of light, airy, French paper; curtains in silk and in
muslin ; mantel-pieces of carved figures in white
marble ; Brussels carpets ; large mirrors ; chairs,
sofas, and tables, in mahogany ; chandeliers ; beau
tiful, neat, and highly-wrought grates in the fire
places, of home work ; candelabras, lustres, &c, much
as one sees them all over Europe. In one of the
rooms, however, is a spacious, heavy, ill looking side
board, in mahogany, groaning with plate, knife and
spoon cases, all handsome enough, I allow, but sadly
out of place where they are seen. You ascend, by
means of the stairs at the end of the passage, into
what is here called the second story, but which, from
the equivocal character of the basement, it. is difficult
to name correctly. This ascent is necessarily nar
row, crowded, and inconvenient. The beautiful
railings in mahogany and brass, and the admirable
neatness of every part of an American house of any
pretension, would serve to reconcile one to a thousand
defects. As respects this cardinal point, I think there
is little difference between the English and the Ameri
cans, at least, so far as I have yet seen the latter ;
but the glorious sun of this climate illumines every
thing to such a degree as to lend a quality of bright
ness that is rarely known in Britain. On the second

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

285

floor, (or perhaps you will get a better idea if I call
it the first) of the house of Mr.  , there is a spa
cious saloon, which occupies the whole width of the
btl'lding, and possesses a corresponding breadth.
This apartment, being exclusively that of the mistress
ofthe mansion, is furnished with rather more delicacy
than those below. The curtains are in blue India
damask, the chairs and sofa of the same coloured
silk, and other things are made to correspond. The
library of the husband is on the same floor, and be
tween the two is a room which is used as a bed
chamber. The third story is appropriated to the
sleeping-rooms of the family ; the attic to the same
purpose for the servants ; and the basement contains
a nursery and the usual offices. The whole build
ing is finished with great neatness, and with a solidity
and accuracy of workmanship that it is rare to meet
with in Europe, out of England. The doors of the
better rooms are of massive mahogany ; and wherever
wood is employed, it is used with great taste and
skill. All the mantel-pieces are marble, all the floors
are carpeted, and all the walls are finished in a firm,
smooth cement."*
Of the fine arts, the Americans have been less de
ficient in painting than any other ; and, we appre
hend, but few years comparatively will transpire be
fore they attain a high character in this respect.
Symbert, who went out with Dean Berkeley, in 1728,
was decidedly a man of genius, though a self taught
artist. He settled in Boston, where he was highly
esteemed. His head of Cardinal Bentivilio, and of
Dr. Mayhew, are among the first of fine portraits.
Copley, the father of Lord Lyndhurst, the late lord-
chancellor, appears to have been a pupil of Symbert,
and flourished at Boston after Symbert's death. At
the period of the revolution, after the battle of Lex
ington, he left America for England, where he had
the good fortune to be as acceptable as he had been
in his native country. Sir Benjamin West was a
native of America, and first discovered his genius
there. His talents are too well known to require
our comment. Among the most distinguished Ameri
can painters must be ranked Gilbert Stuart ; he was
a native of Rhode Island, and, after leaving college,
made up his mind to follow painting as a profession ;
and not being able to find a proper master in America,
Copley being then gone to England, he embarked for
this country, in 1775, and put himself under the in
struction of Mr. West, who was then in the zenith of
his fame. Stuart soon became a favourite pupil of his
master, and graduated from his school with a high
•—  ;  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  _____
* Nptipns ofthe Americans, vel. i. p. 194 — 199.
Vol. II.— Nos. 59 & 60 2 N

reputation as a portrait painter : he ranked second to
no one in London, but Sir Joshua Reynolds. While
in the metropolis, he had the good fortune to become
acquainted with Burke, Fox, Sheridan, and many of
their associates. These men were not only patrons
of the arts, but the friends of artists. He painted
several of them in a fine style, which spread his fame
far and wide. They were anxious to possess and to
give to the world a correct likeness of Washington, and
they induced Stuart to visit the United States for that
purpose. When he arrived at the city of Washington,
the great man had retired from all office, and was in
private life at Mount Vernon. When he sat to Stuart,
as the latter has often stated, an apathy seemed to
seize him, and a vacuity spread over his countenance,
most appalling to the painter. Stuart was, however,
not easily overcome ; he made several fruitless attempts
to awaken the heroic spirit in him, by talking of bat
tles, but in vain. He next tried to warm up the pa
triot and sage, by turning the conversation to the
republican ages of antiquity ;— this was equally un
successful. At length the painter struck qn the
master-key, and opened a way to his mind, which he
has so. happily transferred to the canvass with the
features of his face. In the whole of this picture, in
every limb, as well as feature, the martial air of the
warrior chief is admirably mingled with the dignity
and majesty of the statesman and sage. Stuart tar
ried a year or two in the city of Washington, and,
during that time, painted John Adams, Thomas Jef
ferson, Mr. Madison, and many other distinguished
men of America. He removed from Washington to
Philadelphia, which was then greatly in advance of
the other cities and great towns in the United States,
in every branch of the fine arts. Here, too, he was a
favourite in society, as well as in his profession. His
next remove was to Boston, where he resided during
the remainder of his life. For several years after
his coming to Boston, he was overwhelmed with
business : many had to wait months for an opportu
nity of sitting to him ; and, even in his latter years,
he frequently had more calls than he could answer.
Colonel John Trumbull, who is now living, was
the contemporary of Stuart and Johnson, an acquaint
ance of Copley's, and a student with West. His life
has been more full of incident than those of his
brother artists, for he has been soldier, politician, and
traveller, as well as painter. In him the love of his
art was early developed ; it began in the nursery :
before he was prepared to enter college, he had
painted several pictures ; and while at Cambridge,
in his leisure moments, he indulged himself in paint
ing. Some of these efforts, before he had received a

286

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

single lesson, were seen by Copley, who bestowed
upon them a cordial smile of approbation. He then
had but a faint expectation of making the art his
main pursuit, and he subsequently entered on a mili
tary career ; and, in the fall of 1776, he was appointed
adjutant-general of- the northern army. While in
this office,, he thought himself superseded, which his
pride could not brook ; and he resigned his commis
sion, and returned to his native state. Having de
termined to become an artist, he made his way to
England, to place himself under the guidance and
instruction of his countryman,- Mr. West, then at
the head of painters in England. He had sheathed
his sword, and shut his ears to all political strife,
and was advancing his knowledge in the bosom of
the arts, when, on the British ministry learning the
fate of the unfortunate Andre, in 1780, he was seized
and imprisoned in the tower, on the ground of being
an American officer ofthe same rank as" Andre ; and,
for some time, his life was considered in danger.
During his imprisonment, Fox, Burke, and the
leaders of the opposition, often visited him. At length
Trumbull was released on bail ; but an order in
stantly followed for his departure forthwith. He
went to France, and from thence returned to America.
During this difficulty, West was the warm and un
shaken friend of his pupil, and proved to, him that
his virtues were as exalted as his talents, that his
heart was as true and steady as. his hand. Colonel
Trumbull returned to England after the peace of
1783, and was most warmly received by his old
friends, and patronized by them in his profession.
During this visit he painted the Sortie of Gibraltar —
a production which Horace Walpole pronounced the
best that had ever been executed on this side the
Alps. After his return to America, he was employed
in painting the four historical pieces which adorn
the capitol : the subjects are— The Declaration of
Independence, the Surrender of Burgoyne, the
Taking of Cornwallis, and Washington resigning
his Commission. It is much to be regretted, that
the pencil of this veteran has not been employed to
perpetuate other signal events of the illustrious
struggle of the Americans for Independence.*
Several institutions have been formed for the
encouragement of the arts. One of them, the Na
tional Academy of Design, in New York, has fur
nished opportunity for some very judicious remarks
in the North American Review. - The editor resents
the charge brought by one of the advocates of the
institution, Mr. Morse, that the Americans are ne-

+ Knapp's Lectures en American Literature.

glectful of their own artists, and observes, that the
only way in which a correct taste can be formed is,
by placing- a due value on the productions ofthe old
masters, as well as on the productions of other coun
tries. The writer adds, " That our country will
equal the contemporaneous wdrks of others, we are
well inclined to believe, though we cannot but see in
our peculiar situation peculiar disadvantages. But
we can hardly hope that the masterpieces of ancient
art are ever to be surpassed, here or in Europe.
The forms and occupations of society are growing
every day less favourable to the highest efforts of the
imagination. We live in an age of utility. Every
thing which - tends directly to improve the physical
condition of man, and to develop his reasoning and
active powers, is cultivated with zeal and success.
The most stubborn obstacles of nature are yielding
to new and tremendous enginery. What were her
impassable barriers, have become highways ; and the
fabled works of the giants are surpassed by the
power of knowledge. Education is sent abroad into
all classes of men, to make them feel their strength
and use their reason. All this renders the world
populous, prosperous, and happy; but it is at the
expense of much that we love, and much that ele
vates and refines the feelings. In this cultivation of
'the reason, the imagination loses its power. Elo
quence, poetry, painting-, and sculpture, do not belong
to such an age ; they are already declining, and they
must give way before the progress of popular educa
tion, science, and the useful arts. It may be, that
when the great work about which the world is now
occupied is accomplished, a new school of art, of
proportionate grandeur, may arise ; but we fear that
its best days are past. We cannot but rejoice at this
progress of society ; still we must wish that the good
it brings might be purchased without so great a
sacrifice. We would not withhold the light of
knowledge for fear it should dissipate the most poeti
cal phantoms of tbe imagination ; but we may be
allowed to look back on their old haunts, laid open
to the vulgar day, with some feelings of regret."!
An addition of ¦ some extent would embrace but a
partial notice of a few of the more prominent works
which Americans have produced, on the respective
branches of law, physic, and divinity. The reputa
tion which the United States enjoy for their success
ful efforts in establishing a republican form of go
vernment, embracing the inestimable privileges of civil
and religious rights, independently of that derived from
the valour of arms, has not been effected without the
t North American Review, vol. xxvi. p. 218.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

287

principles of legislation having been investigated with
much talents and acumen, and by the publication of
numerous-works, many of them of standard value, for
the benefit of the present and after ages. The mere
enumeration of the intellectual products of American
minds, on the science of government and legislation,
would occupy a considerable space : and a remark
of a like import might be made in relation to the va
rious evidences which have been given by indigenous
writers on morals and religion, as well as on the sci
ence of the healing art. The editor is induced to
transfer to these pages a portion of his observations
made on a former occasion, on the subject of Ameri
can literature, with such additions as he deems suf
ficiently appropriate at this time.*
" American literature seems to be but imperfectly
understood abroad — but when the subject is fully
examined it will be found that there have been many
excellent writers in this country on many subjects
of deep interest to the community. Literature had
been cherished in England for the best part of a
century before the American colonies were planted,
or before they arrived to any consideration, and the
planters had no small share of it, especially that part
of learning which related to theology and biblical
criticism. — The puritan divines were deeply read in
the humanities, and when the yoke of Rome was
thrown off, they prepared themselves to defend their
opinions with all the learning of the East. When
these men, and those under their clerical guidance,
came to this country, they brought all the books
necessary to defend themselves, and the faith they
professed, and instruct succeeding generations.
Those who did come to this new world for con
science's sake, were among the most enterprising
men of the mother country. In 1606, the Virginia
settlement began. The next was commenced by the
Dutch, on Hudson's river. Smith, the leader of the
Virginian colony, was a man of high acquirements
and accomplishments. . He wrote a minute account
of all he saw and examined, and of course must be
considered as having commenced the literature ofthe
country. He published, in 1608, his sixth voyage to
Virginia; six years afterwards, his first voyage to
New England ; and the next year, his second voyage
to the same place ; and in 1617, a description of the
country. These were in addition to works he had
previously published of his adventures in other
countries. "Among the pilgrims who came to Plymouth in
1620, there were many men of literary information.
* See Volume II. Part V. Treasury of Knowledge, published by
Conner & Cooke, New York.

The venerable Brewster, and his friend Carver, were
both well educated, and the political compact drawn
up before these pilgrims landed, is sufficient proof of
their intelligence ; and the correspondence this little
band had with the settlers of New Amsterdam, only
seven years after they had taken possession of New
England, is corroborative of the fact. The letters
from Governor Winslow to the Governor of New
Amsterdam are written with acuteness and elegance.
Several of his productions have come down to us
and are much esteemed at the present time. One of
his works is called Good News from New England.
"The colony established by Winthrop, and others,
in Massachusetts, in 1630, contained several very
learned men, both in law and divinity. — Winthrop
was an intelligent lawyer. He kept a journal of his
proceedings, and noted all the remarkable events as
they happened. This work, after a variety of for
tunes, has been given to the public, nearly or quite,
complete. Parts of the manuscript had been .lost,
which a few years since were accidentally found.
" Harvard college was established in 1636, and
soon afterwards a printing press was set up in Cam
bridge. From this press issued many valuable
works. The first book printed was the Freeman's
Call ; soon after this, an almanac ; and the first
political pamphlet was ' The Christian Common
wealth,' written. by Elliot, the apostle to the Indians,
who soon afterwards learned the language of the
aborigines, and translated the Bible into their ver
nacular tongue, with 'parcels of several other books
for religious instruction. This translation of the
Bible must have been a work of prodigious labour.—
There are a few copies of it now extant, and these
are indeed great curiosities, for the very race it was
meant to instruct have vanished from the face of the
earth. " Hooker, a divine who came to Boston, wrote
many sermons, and a. work on church discipline;
and at the same period, Thomas Parker, a learned
man, was engaged in the cause of literature, with
James Noyes, his friend ; they were publishers of
several works on divinity. Some of Parker's works
were on the controversial side.
"Mr. Thomas Shepherd, wrote on metaphysical
subjects ; such as ' the morality of the Sabbath ;'
'New England's lamentation for Old England's
Errors ;' and likewise, ' An explanation of the
parable of the ten virgins' This last work is said
to abound in the philosophy of the heart, and has
been the guide to many who have attempted an
analysis of the affections and the passions. When
Shepherd died, President Oakes delivered a eulogy,

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in Latin, on his character. Shepherd had two sons,
who were distinguished scholars.
" One of the best writers of that day was Nathaniel
Ward. He was not only a man of versatile genius,
but he had laboured in several professions, certainly
in law and divinity. He wielded the pen of an ac
complished satirist. He wrote ' the simple cobler
of Agawam.' This was a satire upon the enemies
of Charles I., and was full of causticity and wit.
He also wrote the ' Body of the Liberties.' This is
a singular work, and perhaps contains more germs
of the true and fundamental doctrines of liberty and
law, than any work of its size in the world. There
is not a feature of all our state and of bur federal
constitutions, but may be found in the ' Body of the
Liberties' " Peter Buckeley wrote Latin poetry ; some scraps
have been preserved. He wrote and published a
celebrated theological work, entitled, ' The Covenant
of Grace opened.'
" Ezekiel Rogers, a clergyman of Rowley, preached
the election sermon in 1643. This production was
a most direct promulgation of democracy, as he ad
vocated rotation in office, and urged the impropriety
of choosing a governor for a second term. T^e
people were then too wise to follow such advice ; but
it shows how much the whole mass were inclined to
democracy, that such a sermon should have been
tolerated. " One of the most voluminous writers of that day,
was John Cotton, mostly on subjects of divinity or
church government. A catalogue of his works are
given, merely to show how indefatigable the founders
of our republic were in all their duties of enlighten
ing. the minds of the people ; 'God's promise to his
Plantation, an election sermon, 1634; a Letter in
answer to objections made against the New England
Churches, with the questions proposed to such as are
admitted to Church Fellowship, 1641; The Way
of Life, 4to ; God's mercy mixed with his Justice ;
an Abstract of the Laws of New England, 1641, and
a second edition in 1655;' this abstract of such laws
of the Jews, as were supposed to • be of perpetual
obligation, was drawn up in 1636, when Vane was
governor, though it was never accepted ; it is pre
served in volume 5, of his historical collections of
Massachusetts : ' the Church's Resurrection, on the
fifth and sixth verses of Revelation xx. 1642, a
Modest and Clear answer to Mr. Ball's discourse on
set forms of Prayer ; Exposition of Revelation xvi. ;
the True Constitution of a particular visible church,
1643$ the Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven, and
power thereof, 1644 ; the Doctrine of the Church, to

which is committed the Keys of the Kingdom of
Heaven ; the Covenant of God's Free Grace most
sweetly unfolded, to which is added a profession of
faith, by Mr. Davenport, 1645— 3d edition, 1671 ;
the Way ofthe Churches of Christ in New England,
or the Way of the Churches walking in brotherly
equality, &c. ; the pouring out of the Seven Vials ;
the Controversy concerning liberty of Conscience
truly stated, 1646 ; a Treatise showing that the
Singing of Psalms is a good Gospel Ordinance, 1647;
the Grounds and Ends of the Baptism ofthe Children
of the Faithful, 1647 ; a Letter to Mr. Williams ;
the Bloody Tenet washed, and made white, by the
Blood of the Lamb, being discussed and discharged
of blood guiltiness by Just Defence, in • answer to
Mr. Williams, to which is added a reply to Mr.
Williams' answer to Mr. Cotton's letter, 1647 ; Ques
tions propounded to him by the teaching elders,
with his answer to each question ; the Way of Con
gregational Churches cleared, in two treatises against
Mr. Baylie and Mr. Rutherford, 1648 ; of the Holi
ness of Church Members, proving that visible saints
are tho matter of the church, 1650 ; Christ the foun
tain of Life, 1651; a brief exposition of Ecclesiastes,
1654; his censure of the way of Mr. Hambden of
Kent, 1656 ; Sermons on the first epistle of John, folio ;
a Discourse on things indifferent, proving that no
church governors have power to impose indifferent
things upon the consciences of men ; Exposition of
Canticles ; Milk for Babes ; a Catechism ; Meat for
Strong Men ; a Discourse about civil government in a
plantation, whose design is religion.' The foregoing
works were probably all printed at the Cambridge
press. We had made a catalogue of the works of this
distinguished early writer, but after considerable re
search, fourid one far better made at our hands, by that
learned, pious, and indefatigable biographer, Doctor
Allen. Every scholar in that age wrote poetry ; for
they called all their productions poetry, that had
been twisted out of the ordinary connexion of com
mon prose ; — but at this period, they had no good
models of English versification, but Spenser ; and they
did not relish his use of antiquated words : however,
there were some who had the soul of poetry in them.
Anne Bradstreet, who wrote a volume of poems,
which were printed as early as 1642, was formed by
nature for a poet. She was the wife and daughter of
a governor, and was well educated. Her works
were historical, metaphysical, and pious ; she was
as much praised in that day as any of the favourites
of the muses are in our times by kind friends ; and
she had no fear of critics, for all the satire was re
served for polemic divinity in that day.

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289

"Hooker, who came to this country with Cotton
and Stone, was a distinguished writer, whose works
made up a part of the literature of that age. He
wrote a work on church discipline, and published a
volume of sermons.
" John Norton was one of the great scholars of that
early time ; he wrote a Latin book in answer to cer
tain questions put to him by the divines of Zealand,
and many other works upon theological subjects,
taking rank with Cotton and others of his school.
" While literature was cultivated, mathematics
were not forgotten. — John Sherman delivered lec
tures on numbers, and on moral and political economy,
as far as the science was then understood. He taught
all who listened to him, how to make the best use of
the means heaven had given them, both spiritual and
temporal. " Winthrop, governor of Connecticut, was son of
the chief magistrate of Massachusetts, and a learned
man ; he was a philosopher.
" Roger Williams, who was the founder of Rhode
Island, possessed more learning than he had credit
for in those days, as his creed was objectionable to
many ; some of his poetry, and his vocabulary of
the Indian language, have come to light of late years,
¦which place him among the best bred scholars of that
age. — He is the father of toleration in this country,
which is praise enough for one man.
" Among the most gifted minds of early times was
that of Ann Hutchinson, the wife of a respectable
representative in the legislature from Boston. She
was metaphysical and eloquent— she admired Cotton,
and he had a great respect, as a man of intellect must
always have, for a woman of such commanding
talents. — She had meetings of women, and broached
what the lords of creation thought new doctrines.
There was a little touch of what is now called Swe-
denborgianism in her creed, for she asserted 'that
believers are personally united with the spirit of
God ;' and perhaps she assumed a deeper look into
futurity than most other women. All this was
harmless enough, but not so for the grave divines
of her time. They called a synod in 1637, the first
ever called in America. This convention condemned
eighty-two of her erroneous opinions ; and the poor
woman, for thinking deeper, and reasoning probably
better, than her judges, was banished from Massa
chusetts. She was a fine spirited woman, and ought
to have been made a teacher in the churches, instead
of receiving a decree of banishment. She went to
Rhode Island, ' the asylum of heretics,' the highest
eulogy that ever was pronounced on any state. She
lived there a few years, when her husband died, and

she removed to New York. In 1643, she, and the
the rest of her family, were slain by the Indians ;
this was considered by the superstitious as a just
punishment for her numerous errors in religion,
The Hon. James Savage, one of the first scholars of
this country, is descended from Ann Hutchinson ;
and prides himself, no doubt, on his ancestry, for
who would not be vain of having descended from
such a gifted woman ?
" Elliot had versified David's Psalms, which were
unpopular ; and Dunster, president, of Harvard Col
lege, a ripe oriental scholar, attempted to revise them :
it would have been better had he attempted to trans
late them altogether anew. This corrected version
was at length superseded by that of Tate and Brady ;
which was in the next generation superseded by the
fine version of Dr. Watts.
" The first tragedy written in America, was from
the pen of Benjamin Coleman, while he was a student
in Harvard College, entitled Gustavas Vasa, and was
enacted at Harvard College at a regular commence
ment. He studied divinity, and was settled at
Boston. He was eloquent and affectionate, and was
called upon to pronounce the eulogies of most of the
great men who died in his time. From his sermons,
more than a hundred in number, many facts have
been taken for the biographies of the 'illustrious
men who were his predecessors.'
" Others were also distinguished as scholars,
divines, and philosophers; but none more so than
the Mathers, father and son. Increase, the elder, was
president of Harvard College, was an agent for the
colony in England, and wrote a great many excellent
works. He was one of the chief labourers in the
literary vineyard ; and as such, was surpassed only
by his son Cotton, the greatest prodigy of learning,
of this, or of almost any other age or country.
Cotton Mather was born in 1663, at which time the
whole country was new, and the views even of the
statesman and divine extended but little beyond the
plantation, as a religious community, and before many
had looked forward to the growth and power of the
Colonies. Cotton Mather was the most voluminous
writer that ever appeared in this country. The
number of his works, according to one of his biogra
phers, amounted to 383 ; many of them of considera
ble size. The Magnalia is the one now most often
read. It contains a great portion of historical matter,
and often serves for data to those who most violently
abuse the author and his writings. A deep hatred
against him, was fixed in the minds of many, at the
course pursued in the affair of witchcraft in 1692, and
previous. Mather was deceived, for he could not

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have intended to do wrong, and has only the sin to
answer for which lies at the door of many now-a-days,
' °f forgetting, in their zeal to do good, the neces
sity of examining the means they use to effect their
purpose.' " To Robert Calef, we owe much ; he was opposed
to Mather's course, and came out boldly against it.
His facts are clearly stated, and his reasons fairly
given. The common sense of the people was
awakened, and the whole delusion vanished, but not
without a struggle on the part of the Mathers, and
their friends.
" Michael Wigglesworth, was contemporary with
Cotton Mather, but his senior. — He was an invalid
most of his days, and his mind naturally turned. on
solemn subjects. As was not uncommon at that
time, he acted in the double capacity of divine and
physician to his flock. He was, for many years,
confined to his house, and there he sought to do
good by his poetry. He published a poem, called
the Day of Doom ; it was a poetical description of
the great and awful day of judgment. He also pub
lished a discourse on eternity, and several other
short labours upon the solemn subjects of a change
of worlds. Wigglesworth was a poet of no ordinary
genius, and of extensive acquirements. His de
scendants, down to this day, have in every genera
tion, been distinguished for talents and learning-.
There is a deep feeling in his Day of Doom, which
only wants the skill of modern verse, to make greatly
effective. The same thoughts, wrought up by Scott
or Moore, would be admired.
" The first century of New England history was
closing as the Mathers went down to the tomb. The
scholars now in life had been educated at Harvard
College, and all the statesmen and literati seemed to
consider this their native land, which had not been
the case for a great part of the first century. Con
necticut now put in her claims for distinction. She
had commenced a college, and could already boast
of many intelligent men in every walk of life. Good
Dean Berkeley,, and others, had been roused by the
reputation the colonies had acquired, in their short
existence, and were desirous of having a share in
the literature of the country. — Berkeley foresaw the
coming glories of this country; and though it was
not in the nature of things for him to realize his
anticipations, yet his visions were prophetic. What
he waited for and expected in his day, came in due
time, even in less than a century. He is not less a
seer that foretels events, because he can not answer
for times ; things are often disclosed when the hour
of their advent is hidden : notwithstanding this, the

little poem by the Dean upon this country has been
and still is considered a sort of prophecy.
" To this imperfect sketch of American writers on
theology may be added a long list of divines who
have sustained no small share of consideration, and
exercised a wholesome and profitable influence by
their respective publications, at a comparatively late
day. The catalogue of sermon writers is indeed
immense : a few of the most conspicuous of them are
Provost Smith, of Pennsylvania ; Smith, of New
Jersey; Parsons, Tucker, Chauncey, Lathrop, Buck-
master, Channing, and Payson, of Massachusetts;
Seabury, Smalley, and Strong, of Connecticut; Morse,
Mason, Romayne, and Hobart, of New York ; Buist
and Dehon, of South Carolina, &c.
" The literature of the United States has received
several substantial contributions by G. C. Verplanck,
Esq. Of these, his work on Revealed Religion is
perhaps the first in importance. Polemical theology
has had many expositors ; Edwards, Strong, Hunt
ington, Linn, Mason, Miller, Whelpley, Howe, Bow-
den, M'Leod, and Spring. A Search after Truth, by
Dr. Beasley, must not be omitted.
" When William and Mary came to the throne of
Great Britain, a new charter was given to Massachu
setts, and war and conquest, in some measure, took
the place of religious discussions. Sir William
Phipps brought out lawyers with him, and some new
books, which bad an effect on the taste of the times.
Public schools were now cherished ; commerce was
engaged in; and the whole people began to believe
that they were destined for something more than a
mere plantation for religious purposes. The people
began to think that the press was intended for more
than an instrument to make numerous copies of a
book, and held it in the light of a security for the
liberties they possessed. — Book printing had been
known in Boston for many years before a newspaper
was established. In 1636, books were printed, but
it was not until 1704, that a newspaper was esta
blished. In 1686, there was a press set up in Phila
delphia, and in seven years afterwards in New York
— but pamphlet printing constituted the most of the
business. The clergy were the great patrons of the
press for the first century.
" The News Letter was published at Boston in
1704, and continued for the space of seventy-two
years, until after the commencement of the war of
the revolution. The Boston Gazette was next es
tablished, and the third was the New England Cou-
rant, by the elder brother of Benjamin Franklin, and
in which that great philosopher was engaged as an
apprentice. The first paper published in Philadel-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

291

phia was issued in 1719, and the first iii New York
in 1725. ,
" Among the most valuable writers of this country
was Thomas Prince, the chronologist ; he was a
fine scholar, deeply read in civil, military, and eccle
siastical history. He travelled, became an excellent
oriental scholar, and returned home fraught with all
the collected wisdom of the old world, and at once
set about doing something for the honour of his na
tive land. He was the first who gave an account of
the Aurora Borealis in this country. This pheno
menon was seen by most with superstitious dread ;
but he met it upon sound principles of natural philo
sophy, and calmed the fears of the public. His
productions are numerous, and are all marked with
great good sense ; but his chronology is the most es
teemed of all his works, for its profound research.
It is to be lamented that he did not bring his work
down to more modern times. He spent too much
time on the fabulous or doubtful parts of history to
finish a table of the minute events of his own times.
His labours should be continued by some of his coun
trymen, for there are ample materials for such a work ;
but perhaps whoever would undertake the task,
would find himself but ill-paid for his trouble, and
mortified as Prince was, at its slow sale ; for while
"the public were praising the work, the writer was
left to pay the printer. It is often to be regretted,
that the book which the learned admire and extol,
finds, perhaps, but few purchasers.
" Benjamin Franklin was born in 1706, and while
a youth, was distinguished for his talents. He mark
ed out a new path for himself. .. His essays were
plain, and so full of good sense, that he became at
once a popular writer. In 1732, he began his Poor
Richard's Almanac, which abounded in such aphor
isms and sayings as would attract all tastes and were
useful for all conditions. — He then became a political
writer, and was the first to gather a sufficient body
of statistics to. form correct opinions, and probably
was, the best informed man on general colonial sub
jects in the country. He next made many experi
ments in electricity, for the safety of human life. He
also suggested a plan of union and defence for the
colonies. His whole life was one long day of mental
efforts, and his writings have an influence on this
enlightened age.
" David Mason, a pupil of Franklin, in a few years
after" the philosopher's experiments in electricity, gave
lectures upon the science, and excited the wonder of
the people at the phenomena he exhibited by his ma
chine. He was also acquainted with the science of
chemistry, as it was then known in Europe ; and

was called by the legislature of Massachusetts to teach
the art of making gunpowder.
" From the first settlement of the country, the al
manacs had exhibited a sufficiency of science for
their general purposes, and oftentimes much more ;
and the literary information they contained was pro
fitable and widely diffused.
" Doctor William Douglas wrote a summary ac
count of the colonies, and something on botany,
statistics, and political economy.
" Paul Dudley was the first in this country who
turned his attention to natural history, and some of
his papers are specimens of fine writing.
" Mark Catesby's works at this time became known.
He travelled through Virginia and South Carolina;
both of which abounded in plants, animals, and emi
nent materials for a naturalist. He returned to
Europe, and procured assistance in getting out his
work ; a production which has much assisted our
botanists in later times.
" The science of mind had now begun to call
forth the attention of the ablest men in this country.
Polemic divinity had lost some of its popularity, and
new paths of learning were to be explored. Among
the most distinguished of these philosophers, was
Jonathan Edwards, who wrote on the " Freedom
of the Will." This work has received the highest
encomiums from those great men of Europe, who
have made metaphysics a study. — Sir James Mackin
tosh, in the last labour of his mind, spoke of Edwards
with profound respect. The works of our metaphy
sician have been published in eight octavo volumes,
of large size, and, to the credit of the country, sold
well. His son was quite as profound in the science
as his father, and his style more clear and attractive ;
but the second in any pathway, has generally less
fame than the leader.
" In 1763, the subject of introducing bishops into
America, brought forward some of its best writers,
among whom was Abthorp, rector of the episcopal
church in Cambridge. It was a harmless affair in
itself, but was made, from fears of the orthodox pu
ritans, a matter of moment. Seabury, Johnson,
Chauncey, and Mayhew, all engaged in the contro
versy, and displayed no ordinary talents. In Mayhew's
productions there was much energy and bold freedom
of political remark. He discovered no partiality for
Saint Charles I., and refused to put him upon the
calendar of the pious army of martyrs, although . it
was certain that he died after the manner of them.
Doctor Mayhew was one of those men who enter so
deeply into the affairs of their professional duties,
that they forget how much is justly due to their ani-

292

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mal nature — and wore himself fairly out, before he
had reached the best age of mental labour. He died
at the age of forty-six, of a nervous fever, brought on
hy excessive study.
" Several institutions of learning had been founded,
and were in a state of hopeful experirnent, besides
the college at Cambridge. Yale college was in a
thriving condition long before the period to which
we have brought down our cursory remarks upon
American literature ; — and the college at Providence,
(now Brown University, and under excellent auspices,)
had connected with it some fine scholars. Nassau
Hall had been founded, and a circle of learned men
were soon brought from its walls — the Burrs and the
Edwardses are among them. Columbia College,
(then King's College,), had gone into operation before
some of those we have mentioned ; as also Dartmouth
College, and all were doing well. There was now
something fixed and settled, as it regarded future
operations in the arts and sciences. At this juncture
the revolutionary troubles came on — but there were
mighty minds harnessed for the hour of battle. The
mental resources of the country had been collecting
for the crisis ; and all were fearless in the cause.
We pause a moment, to show who wrote on this sub
ject. The currents of Time will let these records last.
" Among the writers, whose works more immediately
assisted in bringing on the revolution, we may record
James Otis. In 1765, he wrote a pamphlet on the
stamp act. This, at the time, was considered an ex
cellent piece of fine writing, and was republished in
London by the fijie-ids of America. The works of
Mr. Otis were not numerous ; and there can be no
doubt, but that his fame as an orator, added much to
his reputation as a writer ; and more than this, the
nature of his subjects at that time were all-absorbing.
His writings, however, aside from their political cha
racter, had, it was agreed by friends and foes, great
merit. He wrote, ' A vindication of the conduct of
the House of Representatives of Massachusetts,' in
1762 ; the Rights of the British Colonies Asserted,
1764 ; and Considerations on behalf of the Colonists,
1765. These productions were scattered through
the country, and every copy was read at least by five
hundred persons, so popular was all he wrote at the
time ; and in the discussions upon the subject, more
anecdotes of the effects of his eloquence were told,
than ever Greek or Roman had in store for the fame
of Demosthenes or Tully : but abating much for all
the enthusiasm of the times, there can be no doubt
but he had a powerful pen, and a tongue of fire.
" Another of that band of patriots, whose writings
did much to awaken and cherish the flame of liberty,

was John Adams. He wrote several essays over the
signature of Novanglus, in answer to some papers
on the royal side, signed Massachutentis, written
by a lawyer of the name of Leonard. These were
papers creditable to both, as matters of argument, and
were admired and extolled, as people took sides.
Mr. Adams was on the popular side upon the great
questions then agitated in the country. During this
period, he had acted in the highest political capacities;
but here we have only to mention his writings. He
published ' A Defence ofthe American Constitution,' to
appease an opinion then prevalent among many patriots,
that a single assembly was the only true government.
This opinion was advocated both in England and
France, and it cannot be denied, was favoured by Frank
lin. Mr. Adams ransacked history to show that such a
government was defective, and the theory is now at
rest. In his old age and in retirement, Mr. Adams
poured out his opinions in a series of pieces, which af
ford the statesmen many early facts, and opinions which
are valuable to the historian. His style was bold and
characteristic, and evinced marks of deep reading, and
profound reflection.
" Samuel Cooper, a clergyman of Boston, was a con
stant writer in the cause of liberty. He wrote a po
litical discourse, as early as 1759, on the taking of
Quebec, which directed the attention of the politicians
of the day to him, as master of a fine pen in the
cause of rational liberty. All his writings, from that
time, had a bearing on the great question between
the mother country and the colonies. There was
an eloquence and grace in his productions, beyond
the style of the times, and he became a man of won
derful influence in all political controversies. Works
of this nature, in some measure, lose their charm in
an after age, — but Cooper's writings are tasteful at
this day.
"Josiah Quincy ranks among the writers of that
day as wielding an elegant pen. He was a man of
genius, and earnestly engaged in the cause of freedom:
and when the Boston Port Bill came to this country,
and was put in force, he wrote a pamphlet, entitled,
' Thoughts on the Boston Port Bill, &c, addressed
to the freeholders and yeomanry of Massachusetts.'
It was spirited, and in many parts highly eloquent.
He had much of the Grecian spirit, and not a small
share of Athenian eloquence. He fell a victim to his
vigils of patriotism in early life.
" One of the best writers of the age was John Dick
inson, who was born in Maryland, but was active in
Delaware and Pennsylvania. In 1767, he began to
publish tracts against the taxation of the colonies.
These were masterly productions, and deserve to rank

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293

among the best specimens of American genius. He
was a member of the Cpngress of 1774 ; and his pen
was frequently employed in drafting the most impor
tant state papers. The address -to the inhabitants of
Canada, the first petition- to the king,! the address to
the army, the second petition to the king, and the ad
dress to the several states, Were written by him.' One
of these petitions to the king, was the production
which called forth the memorable compliment from
Lord Chatham, in which he called him superior to any
classical. writer of antiquity. While president of
Delaware, he published a proclamation to his people,
full of lessons of wisdom. When the constitution of
the United States was under discussion, he wrote a
number of letters, signed Fabius, in order to forward
the adoption of it, which merit reading at the present
day._ Many other works came from his hand, all
tending to public good. His works have been col
lected and published in two volumes ; but are now
only to be found in public libraries, and with those
who are lovers ofthe curious and rare: they ought,
and will be reprinted, and placed along side of the
Federalist, and other standard works of American
literature. "South Carolina boasts, and with justice, of her
patriotic writers in the great cause of freedom, one
of whom was William Henry Drayton. He was a
prime scholar — enlightened and polished by foreign
travel. On coming home, he became at once a pa
triot, and took up his pen in the cause of his country.
He wrote a pamphlet, addressed to Congress, under
the signature of ' Freeman,' in which he expatiated
upon the grievances of America, and. then openly
stated their rights. He also published a charge to
the grand jury of his state, which is now incorporated
into the history of those times. He also wrote a
history of the American Revolution, but his materials
were not so extensive as those of Ramsay and others.
" William Livingston, of New Jersey, wrote many
things to rouse the people of his state to vigorous exer
tions in the cause of liberty, and was justly ranked among
the patriots and fine writers pf his time. He was not
confined to one department of literature, for his poetry
had as much spirit as his prose. He presented to
the New York Historical Society, or his son did,
from his library, the journal of the British House of
Commons for several years, comprising the period
commencing a year or more before the death of
Charles the First, and extending nearly to the time
of the restoration. They are proved to be genuine
and original' from the following indices, viz. : from
the water-marks of the paper on which they are writ
ten ; the first volumes have the royal stamp on the
Vol. IL— Nos. 61 & 62. 2 0

paper ; the next, the fools-cap and bills, ordered by
government in derision, to take the place of the royal
arms ; — this continues for some volumes, and then
appear the arms assumed by the commonwealth ; and
then, those of the lord protector, Oliver Cromwell.
These volumes unquestionably were brought over to
this country by the regicides, who wished to hide the
record of their proceedings, in order to prevent Charles
II. from finding out all that was done in his exile.
This was the safest place for them, and here they
will be preserved for future history. It is a singular
fact, that every English historian is silent upon their
loss, and no one has ever pretended to quote these
journals ; yet much useful matter may be. extracted
from them, and many things that English history
does not contain may be found there. Some one of
the Livingston family may give a minute history of
their being found in this country. It would be as
acceptable as curious.
" David Dulany, of Maryland, was one of the writers
upon political subjects, previous to the revolution.
He wrote several treatises on the great subjects of
taxes and other matters, which agitated the colonies
at that time ; but he did not live to see the end of
the contest, in which he had so heartily entered, and
with so much reputation. He was one of the num
ber who were early called to their account ; but it is
a remarkable fact, that those who entered into the
cause of freedom — heart and soul — lived longer than
most other men ; — whether it was because they were
animated with heroic sentiments, or from some other
reason, the fact is nevertheless certain, that the
signers of the declaration of independence, as a body
of men, arrived at a greater age, and died more quietly,
than any fifty-six that could ever be named, as act
ing together in any important national concern.
" Virginia had her share of good writers, who were
engaged in enlightening the American people during
the revolutionary contest. The Lees were among
the most distinguished. Richard Henry Lee, among
other works, wrote what has been called the ' Far
mer's Letters,' and the second address to the people
of Great Britain. These productions evinced patriotism
and scholarship. Arthur Lee, his brother, was also
a political writer of distinction. He wrote letters
Under the signature of Junius Americanus, which
held a high rank,, at tne time, among the literati of
America. Mr. Jefferson wrote the declaration of in
dependence, Notes on Virginia, and a Manual of Par
liamentary Practice for the use of the Senate of the
United States, which was an abridgment, with some
alterations, ; from Hatsell's great work on the same
subject. Hatsell was clerk of the House of Commons

294

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

from 1768 to 1797, and was thoroughly acquainted
with all the rules and order of parliamentary pro
ceedings, which is a science in itself, not thoroughly
understood by many politicians. Mr. Jefferson's acute
mind at once penetrated the arcana.
" It would be unjust to pass over General Joseph
Warren, who fell at Bunker Hill, in our notice of
those who had added to the stores of American litera
ture. He was a frequent writer in the periodical
journals of the day, where he poured forth all the
warmth of his soul. He delivered two orations on
the Boston massacre, one in 1772, and another in
1775 ; and perhaps no two orations since the days
of Demosthenes' orations against Philip, ever had
such an influence upon an audience, or such an effect.
upon the people generally. These productions have
been used for declamation by every schoolboy since
that time. The burst of indignation — the high toned
patriotism — the fundamental maxims of a free people,
all came in torrents of eloquence ; and its effects
were felt through the country. On the 17th of June,
1775, he sealed his course with his blood, being the
first martyr of the revolution. He was assisted in
defending the views of freemen and their rights, by
Hancock, Church, and others of note, who were zealous
in the cause of their country.
" The literature of the revolution was bold, direct,
and without any affectation. Any high exertions of
mind will produce new and ardent expressions ; and
these, after a while, will be moulded by taste. If
you take the orders and proclamations of Washington
— the letters written by him in the exigencies of the
moment, — there will be found that strength and feli
city of expression, that is supposed to be the offspring
of care and leisure. Some of the writings of Knox,
Schuyler, Brooks, Laurens, and others, during the
most gloomy parts of the contest, are marked with
excellent sense, and often are elegant compositions.
The commentaries of Cassar, were written in a camp.
— When the mind is under excitement, we often find
that it receives the best method of thought and ex
pression. In the intercourse of a camp, some minds
are always found, which give a direction and tone to
the rest. It was so in our army ; and even in a pri
son, instruction may be received.
"It is a singular fact, that the diplomatic correspond
ence of the revolution has not been surpassed ; nor
has modern times improved much upon the styles of
Adams, Washington, Lee, Jefferson, Hamilton, or
Dickinson. The poets of those days, had not the
models before them, that they now have ; but few
productions contain more elegant satire, than can be
found in M'Fingal, or more patriotism than Can be

discovered in the arousing songs of Freneau. When
one mind pervades all classes of men, improvement
is rapid ; every beam of light that is reflected, and
refracted in a community, acting in unison, increases
the force and power of the ray. If the whole nation
had gone to school, instead of going to fight, they
would not have learned as much as they did in the
eight years' war they waged for independence. Heaven
never intended that the choicest blessings should be
had without pains and labour.
" Since the revolution, we may fairly class the wri
ters that have been conspicuous in our country ; for,
notwithstanding our. habits and forms of society did
not allow any one to follow exclusively one course,
yet there has been a finer opportunity for men to dis
play their particular talents, than there was when every
one bent his whole soul to one great object, that of
gaining for his country the rank of an independent
nation. A nation, like an individual, must go through
a course of discipline, to forma character. It might
be impossible toform a nation that should bring all
their energies to' the best possible direction, without
going through a series of difficulties, teaching for
bearance, sacrifices of local prejudices, and making
each part acquainted with the characters ofthe whole,
The revolution contributed as much to the advance
ment of learning, as it was necessary to the formation
of national character.
"Before the revolution, it was difficult to place our
writers into classes, for almost all were miscellaneous
in their productions ; since that period, notwithstand
ing no man has exclusively followed any one branch
of learning, still the classification is more distinct than
in former times, and we shall give an account of our
authors and their works under distinct heads.
"History and Biography. — Ramsay's history of
the United States, ranks among the best works we
have in our libraries. He had ample materials for
his work, and particularly that part of it which relates
to the revolution, as he was a member of Congress, at '
one time president of that body, and consulted with
Washington upon all the important events of the
revolutionary war. He was a fair-minded historian.
He also wrote a compend of universal history, which
did him great credit.
" Holmes' Annals of America, from 1492 to 1826 —
the second edition in two large volumes, is one of the
most useful works ever printed in the United States.
It is pretty copious, very correct in dates, and in de
scription of events, and adorned with much accurate
and excellent biography. It is written by a scholar,
who had no prejudices, who is a great antiquarian, and
a lover of his country ; and if it now and then shows

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

295

a little more partiality to saints of his own creed than
to saints of another creed, it requires no small saga
city to find it out. Every future historian will plun
der him ; but it will be impossible for any one to
abuse him. A more unpretending, and a more valu
able work, was never published. — Minot's histories de
serve also special consideration. Smith's History of
New York : the edition in two volumes, published
by the New York Historical Society, which brings
down the records of the state to the administration of
Colden, in 1762 ; Williamson's North Carolina,
Gordon's Pennsylvania, and his New Jersey; Mills'
statistics of South Carolina, — also deserve notice.
Marshall's history of the Colonies, and his life of
Washington, are valuable works ; what they want in
the charm of fine writing is amply made up in accu
rate observation and impartial delineation.
" The histories of the several states have been
written with more or less ability. Belknap's history
of New Hampshire is a work of merit. He had ac
cess to the best, materials, and he wrote with honesty,
intelligence, and taste. In fact, it is one of the best
specimens of the style of our writers extant. It is a
remarkable fact, that no one has attempted the subject
since, except in the way of illustration or expla
nation. " Sullivan, a man of genius and learning, has
written the history of the District, now the state of
Maine, but his materials were scanty, and notwith
standing he did all that a man of talents at that time
could do, yet a more copious history of that growing
state is wanted.
" The history of Massachusetts has been more fully
Written out than that of any other state. In addition
to the works of Winthrop, Hubbard, and others of the
early settlers, we have many of modern times that are
worthy of notice ; such as Minott's and Bradford's
histories of Massachusetts, and Hannah Adams' His
tory of New England. This lady was one of the
most candid and accurate historians that ever wrote.
She set down no assertion that had not proof to sup
port it, nor one that had a particle of prejudice to be
abstracted from it. It may be said, without fear of
contradiction, that the historians of New England
have been more assiduous than those of any other por
tion of this extended country.
" Trumbull's history of Connecticut is a good
ground work for a future writer. He is explicit and ho
nest ; had nothing to disguise, nor did he ' set down
aught in malice.' The history was an eventful one,
and he handled it with great simplicity.
" Professor Williams has written a history of Ver
mont, but that state has so wonderfully increased in

population, wealth, and character, that it will be only
the ground-work of a more full history : but it is
fortunate that this ground-work is so philosophical.
The commencement of most histories is fable and
romance — this is otherwise, being fact and philosophy.
" Flint has written a history, and given some account
of the geography of the Western States. He is
shrewd, capable, literary, and eloquent. It is impossi
ble that he should have done entire justice to this new
world in so small a compass — but it is the first of all
considerations, that what is done, should be well
done, — this praise no one will deny him. It is to
be wished, that he may live to fill up his great
outlines. " In modern times, Yates and Moulton have written
most excellently upon the history of New York, and
these men are capable of giving a full history of this
state ; but this will not probably be done, until the
government of the state make some provision for
forwarding the work. To give a fair and correct
history of this state, requires more research and
labour, than to write the history of any other of the
states, as more than half a century of it is in Dutch
records. It is said that the materials are ample,
and there can be no doubt of it, as the Dutch were
the most minute, pains-taking, and accurate of the
nations of Europe, and they could not have been
wanting in making journals and observations on all
the passing events of the times in which they lived.
New York, the centre ofthe union, and the mart of
the wwld, should have minute and well written
accounts of all she has done, and all she is.
" Stoddard has made some judicious sketches of the
history of Louisiana, which deserve credit : but that
old territory, though new to the United States, de
serves a full history. It is already, and every day
becoming more important to the United States,
and should be fully known to all the members of this
great republic.
"M'Call has, with considerable talent, given us a
history of Georgia, but there is a more ample field
than he had at that moment means to explore. This
state is now a large one, although the last settled of
the old thirteen states. The character of Oglethorpe,
the founder, has not yet been fully written out.
" The histories of Ohio, Kentucky, Missouri, India
na, Mississippi, and other new states, have only been
partially written. The lovers of history should, at
this moment, set about making exertions to have all
the facts relating to those interesting sections of
the country gathered up, and put into proper form.
" Pitkin's Political and Civil History of the United
States is a valuable work. It covers a period from

296

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

1763 to 1798. This work shows, us more of the
labours of the statesmen of that period, than any
other production. Mill er's Retrospect of the Eighteenth
Century is a work of great research. It was printed
at the commencement ofthe nineteenth century, just
as American literature began to expand. Thomas'
History of Printing is a curious book. The writer
has done" much for learning, by establishing an anti
quarian society, and gathering a fine library for pub
lic use. He was a printer himsel f, and had treasured
up many important facts. Lyman's history of the
Diplomacy of the United States is valuable to every
statesman and historian. It required no small share
of perseverance to collect and arrange such a mass
of matter. " Mr. Sparks, an able scholar, who has the Wash
ington papers, amounting to sixty volumes of manu
scripts, and a mass of other matters from the Colonial
office in England, is now furnishing the country with
a view of these subjects, on a most extended scale.
It will be several years before his labours' can be
finished, for he does every thing thoroughly.
" In biography the country has been pretty well
supplied since the revolution. Besides the Biogra
phical Dictionaries of Elliot, Hardie, Allen, Rogers,
and others, we have many works on this subject,
containing only a few names, or, in many instances,
only one name. Ramsay, Marshall, Bancroft, and
Weems, have published lives of Washington in good
sized volumes ; and a hundred sketches of the Father
of his country may be found in the journals publish
ed since and before his death.
" One of the most elegant pieces of composition to
be found in our language of the kind, is Washington
Irving's life of Columbus. He went to the fountain
head for his materials, and spared no pains in work
ing them up.
" Tudor's life of Otis is a valuable work, not so
much for delineation of character, as accurate his
torical anecdote. He was an excellent scholar and a
great lover of his country.
" The Lees of Virginia, whom we have heretofore
named in this sketch of literary history, have found
an able historian in one of their descendants.
" Wirt's life of Patrick Henry has been one of the
most popular works ever printed in our country. It
has lately appeared in .a new edition, with the me
moir of the author, written in good taste.
"Judge Johnson's life of General Greene, is an
elaborate and a minute work, enriched by some of
Greene's correspondence, which shows the directness
and strength of his mind more than any thing could
do unsupported by such proof.

" A life of Governeur Morris has been given by Mr.
Sparks, in addition to his other labours, which is a
most interesting book, full of the events of the French
revolution, a most important period in the civilized
world. The same author has also given to the public
the life of the traveller Ledyard, whose sober his
tory, without a particle of embellishment, is a roman
tic tale.
" Sanderson's lives ofthe signers ofthe declaration,
is a clever work. A volume containing their lives
was printed at Hartford ; and brief sketches of these
distinguished men will be found in the first volume of
the Treasury op Knowledge, from another hand.
" Colden's life of Robert Fulton is a valuable
work. It proves how much can be done by genius
and perseverance. Every inventor should read this
book, when discouraged by untoward "events ; for
never was there a more persevering spirit than
Robert Fulton. Who has, in the end, done more
good? " Very recently the more important annals of the
revolution and events subsequent have found valua
ble historians in the life of John Jay, the eminent
statesman, by his son William Jay ; and in the life
of the illustrious Hamilton, by his son John Hamilton ;
the first volume only of this work has yet appeared :
it brings down events to the termination of the revo
lutionary struggle.
" Of works which will hereafter be deemed of
value to the historian, as illustrating the history of
the times, Theodore Dwight's Account of the Hart
ford Convention will claim special consideration.
" The life of Wm. Livingston, of New York, has
lately been written by a worthy descendant of his,
Theodore Sedgwick, Jr.
" Brown, the novelist, wrote the life of Dr. Linn.
It is a fine specimen of writing, and of warm and
affectionate colouring. The writer and subject were
poets and friends. There is a glow in this lit
tle work that would do honour to the pen of Burke.
" Dunlap, the painter and dramatist, several years
since published the life of Charles Brockden Brown,
It is a fair and faithful account of that distinguished
writer, who died before the public could fully appre
ciate his merits. In the minds of many it was
thought almost criminal to deal in fiction, and some
esteemed it a species of falsehood ; but since Brown's
death this prejudice has been scattered to the winds
by the magic wand of Sir Walter Scott, and many
admirable lessons of wisdom been given through the
medium of fiction.
" Dr. Hosack's memoir of De Witt Clinton was
written soon after that great statesman died. The

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES,

297

work contains many valuable facts for the future his
torian, expressed in a clear and perspicuous manner.
The obiturist seemed fearful of eulogy, and. of being
considered too partial to his excellent friend, and has
spoken of him in a subdued tone, when he might
have indulged in higher notes of praise.
" The lives of the late venerable pastor of sacred
theology, Dr. Livingston, by A. Gunn, D. D. and of
Dr. John Rogers, by Samuel Miller, D. D. will be
consulted by the historians of ecclesiastical affairs. A
similar remark may be made concerning Bishop
White's memoirs of the Protestant Episcopal church.
" The poetry of the United States, since
the declaration of independence. — The Conquest of
Cariaan, an epic poem, by Timothy Dwight, was not
published until 1785 ; this was hailed as a work of
high merit. It was written when the author was
quite young, and is full of poetry, certainly ; and a
hundred years hence, will rank higher than it now
does. He wrote Greenfield Hill, and several other
poems. Dwight was a man of genius, of acquire
ments, and virtue ; but he lived too much with the
pious and particular, to become sufficiently acquainted
with those incidents that mark the pathway of man
kind in general, a knowledge of which is so essen
tially necessary to the poet. He was a virtuous man
and a good scholar.
" Joel Barlow published his Vision of Columbus, in
1787, and dedicated it to Louis XVI. After the first
publication, he remodelled it, called it the Columbiad,
and made it quite another thing, in politics. This
has appeared in a most splendid edition in this coun
try, and in the opinion of many, stands at the head
of our poetry. He wrote other works, such as, Con
spiracy of Kings, Hasty Pudding, <fcc.
"General Humphrey also wrote poetry, and was
considered as one of the poetic trio of Connecticut
at that time. He, with Trumbull, Barlow, and Hop
kins, wrote the Anarchiad. In 1782 he published a
poetical address to the armies of the United States.
He wrote a poem on the happiness of .America ; on
the future glory of the United" States ; on the indus
try of the United States, &c. <fcc. He had more of
the polish of the. soldier than the spirit of the poet ;
but he has many admirers, and still holds a rank
among the best and most patriotic writers of this
country. " Richard Alsop was one of the Connecticut poets,
who wrote for the pleasure of the hour. He has the
credit of getting up the Echo, a work of great poeti
cal power, sometimes in burlesque and sometimes
slyly grave. This work contained some admirable
hits upon the reigning follies of the times, and now

and/ then drew a feather across a favourite's nose.
Alsop left several unpublished poems, and published
a good many things for amusement only. The Echo
is one of the best satires ever written in this country.
His coadjutors were Theodore Dwight, Trumbull,
Hopkins, and others, not so distinctly known.
" Mrs. Warren should have been named before
these bards. She wrote two tragedies, ' The Sack
of Rome,' and ' The Ladies of Castile.' These
were written during the war, and all for patriotic
purposes. Previous to them she wrote a play, call
ed ' The Group,' which contained some forcible
satire, and had a decided effect at the time. She
was a sister of the great patriot, James Otis, which
gave some eclat to her writings. She was a woman
of genius, and a good writer.
" Judge Dawes, at the close of the revolutionary
war, wrote some fine poetical pieces, among which
were • The Law given on Sinai,' and ' An Ode on
the Death of James Otis.'
" Dr. Joseph Brown Ladd, who died in Charleston
in 1786, in the twenty-second year of his age, was a
fine poet. He wrote many things worthy of being
preserved. His sister has lately gathered up all the
pieces she could find from his pen, and published
them in a neat volume. It does credit to her affec
tion and his genius. It contains a short but elegant
biographical notice of Ladd from the pen of William
Chittenden, Esq., a tasteful and spirited writer ofthe
city of New York. His prominent poems are, an
' Ode to the Sun,' and ' The Appeal of Almasi, the
wife of Almaz Ali Cawn, to Warren Hastings,
governor-general of India.' He wrote many other
pieces, particularly a series of poems under the signa
ture of Arnoret. These productions, and many of
prose, from his pen, bear marks of genius, and of
precocious acquirement.
" John Blair Linn wrote poetry of no ordinary
character. He was a lawyer, a dramatic writer, and
then a divine. He wrote a poem on ' the Death of
Washington,' ' The Powers of Genius,' and a play
called ' Bourville Castle.' He died young, much
respected. " Robert Treat Paine claims a high rank among
the poets of his time. He wrote ' The Invention of
Letters ;' ' Adams and Liberty ;' and ' The Ruling
Passion ;' with occasional sOngs and odes ; one, ' the
Steeds of Apollo,' was his last, and in better taste
than most of his other productions.
"John Lathrop was contemporary with Paine.
He was a poet of taste, but did not write much. His
longest poem was entitled ' Canonicus,' published
first in Calcutta, and reprinted in Boston.

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" Charles Prentiss was among the bards of that
time. He . had taste and versatility. His ' Will,'
a playful poem, written while at College, gave him a
high rank in the catalogue of wits and poets of the
age. " William Boyd wrote a poem ' on Woman,' re
markable for delicacy and smoothness. It has been
read by the fair ever since, if not with the highest
admiration, certainly with great pleasure.
" William Clifford, a young quaker of Philadelphia,
burst out into a most courteous address to Gifford,
praising him for his Baviad and M^eviad. He
wrote some patriotic songs, which were quite famous
in their time. What he wanted in the inspirations
of the muse, if any thing was wanted, he made up
in patriotism. " Paul Allen, Isaac Story, Captain Spence, and
Selleck Osborne, were all poets, and some of them
have been highly praised, and no doubt with pro
priety. " Some few who have written since, have gone to
their long account, and of course we can speak of
them as if they had not been our contemporaries.
Some of them wrote beautifully, and their works
should be preserved by the generations to come. It
is easy for the just to secure what the envious would
wish to destroy.
" John G. C. Brainerd, who died a few years since
in Connecticut, wa!s a man of talents and principle.
The columns of the Hartford Mirror bear testimony
to his acquirements and taste. A friend of the de
ceased has gathered up his fugitive poems, and
printed them with a delicate memoir of the poet.
His temperament was sensitive and melancholy. He
loved not the world, and was taken from it early,
being only thirty-two years of age.
" Robert C. Sands, who has lately descended to
the tomb, at the same age, was a fine scholar, of ex
quisite taste, and devoted to literary pursuits. He
was one of the authors of that fine poem, Yamoy-
den, which he wrote in company with young East-
burn, who died several years before Sands. His works
are now preparing for publication by his friends.
Some of his poetry, written when quite a boy,
is not inferior to the early productions of Henry
Kirke White. Sands was one of the best classical
scholars of our country, and his works will be read
with pleasure, as containing many flights of a vigor
ous and fastidious muse.
" The late Dr. Drake of New York, was the
author of several poetical effusions of rare merit.
Our only regret when perusing this writer's composi
tions is, that they are not more numerous.

" We pass over the living poets, still with pen in
hand, without comment, as the time has not come to
do them justice, or to speak of them with freedom.
Many of them have acquired an enviable fame in
the pursuits of literature— Bryant, Halleck, Dana,
Sprague, Pierpont, Nack, Wetmore, Mrs. Sigourney,
Miss Gould, Mrs. Ware, Mrs. Hale, Mrs. Child,
Woodworth, Willis, and hundreds of others, who occa
sionally cultivate poetry as an amusement, but few or
none of them as a profession. Our votaries of the muse
are often discouraged from venturing on the wing,
from watching the flights of the eagle geniuses across
the water, forgetting that most of these writers make
poetry the great business of their lives. Should
some of our most gifted writers devote themselves
assiduously to poetry, we might soon vie with England
in poets as we have in orators. Life is too short
for any one to attend to many things. Few Ameri
can poets keep their pieces ' nine years ;' their pro
ductions often reach an annual, or some periodical,
in as many hours ; being things thrown off as occa
sion demands, or as caprice may inspire.
"Divinity. — In 1793, Dr. Hopkins, a shrewd
and deep metaphysician, published a system of
divinity, which was the foundation of a new sect.
He differed from Calvin in some things, pushing his
doctrine even beyond the great reformer himself.
This system had a host of opposers, many of them
very learned men.
" Doctor Timothy Dwight's system of divinity,
published since his death, is the most voluminous in
the country ,_ is remarkable for clearness and fairness,
and seems to be the most popular of all the theologi-*
cal works ever printed in the United States. The
beauty of his life gave a charm to all matters from
his pen. His doctrines are distinctly Calvinistic.
" For several years, a spirited controversy was
carried on between the orthodox and the Unitarian
clergy, in which several gifted and learned men'took
part — Noah Worcester, Samuel Worcester, Mr. Stew
art, Doctor Wood, and others, on the side of Cal
vinism ; and Doctor Channing, Mr. Norton, Doctor
Ware, Mr. Whitman, and others, on the Unitarian
side. It was a ' war of the giants,' and they perhaps
now only rest from their labours, neither being van
quished. The reading public have derived much
instruction from this collision of mighty minds.
" Doctor Emmons has published several able dis
courses, which should be read by those who do not,
as well as by those who do, agree with him in senti
ment : Emmons belongs to the Edwards school of
metaphysicians. " Doctor Freeman has published a volume of ser-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

29*

mons. Those who do not follow his creed, must
admire his liberal views, and his pure and elegant
literature. " Joseph Buckminster's sermons, published since
his death, have more of the charm of fine writing,
than any that have ever been published among us.
If, as some have said, there is a want of evangelical
divinity in them, even these critics could not deny
the fact, that there is an Apostolic purity running
through them, which chains the heart to the memory
of such a man, and fixes the attention to so sweet a
writer. His Phi Beta Kappa oration is a splendid
specimen of writing. His friend Thatcher wrote a
memoir of his life. . It was a description of a bright,
particular star, that rose, culminated, and set for ever,
while the magi were gazing at it.
" Others have written volumes of sermons, and
almost every clergyman prints an occasional dis-
' course ; but as yet, few works ontheology, written in
the United States, have issued from the press. There
are several theological periodicals that discover great
learning and research. The Christian Examiner,
published at Boston, is much read and admired by
the Unitarians, and commands the respect of other
sects for its chaste literature, gentlemanly courtesy,
and high moral tone. .
" The Biblical Repository, published at Andover,
in Massachusetts, is a quarterly work. It is learned,
and every day rising in reputation. Andover Theo
logical Institution met with much opposition in get
ting a charter. One of its advocates said, at that
time, ' no matter what creed they avow, give them
an opportunity to become learned, and they will, in
the end, be right, whether it be your creed or mine,
or neither, they shall hereafter teach.' The Christian
Spectator, published quarterly at New Haven, is one
of the most acute and candid of all the reviews in
the whole country. We differ from many, in think
ing that the science of theology is yet in a crude
state among us. We believe that it has received
more attention than any other science, and is better
understood. It - is a science which can never be
brought to any degree of perfection. That part of it
which is founded on nature, is as well read as it
ever will be in regard to a reverence of the Creator ;
and that which is founded on the faith once delivered
to the saints, will, in a free country, for ever be con
strued by each one as he pleases. Between man
and his God, there is a communion that no philoso
phy can long interrupt, and no false glare long delude.
Man knows his responsibility ; he feels it every hour,
and if he is 'taught to stray' for a season, he comes
back with a due sense of his dependence, and of the

necessity of forgiveness and mercy. There are
several, it is said, who are deeply engaged in giving
us true versions of the scriptures ; we wish them suc
cess. It can not be doubted, that it is not only the
prerogative of man to be constantly reasoning upon
his Maker, as well as his own being; — his benevolent
God has so ordained it, and the creature should be
in the discharge of his duty. Toleration, which our
constitutions of government sanction and defend, can
alone advance the nation in the science of theology.
"Fiction- — As we have before remarked, the grave
character of the people of the British colonies in this
country, almost entirely precluded works of fiction.
But among the first who ventured indirectly to break
the spell, was a reverend divine, Doctor Belknap. He
wrote the Foresters, a story made up to divulge some
of his sentiments upon history, politics, and manners,
which he thought it was not prudent to express
directly. This work was extensively read in every
part of the United States, and much admired.
" At the head of American novelists, is Charles
Brockden Brown. He published several novels, viz.
Wieland, Ormond, Arthur Mervyn, Edgar Huntley,
Clara Howard, and Jane Talbot. They were ad
mired by a few men of feeling and taste, but he was
suffered to expire before they reached any prominent
eminence. Since his death, they have been reprinted
in this country and in England, and have received
no small share of praise from able critics. No one
who has read his works, will deny them the merit
of striking incident and vivid description.
" Mrs. Foster, soon after this, wrote 'the Boarding
School,' and ' the Coquette.' The latter caused con
siderable excitement, as some of the principal charac
ters were well known. These works had the merit
of being written in good English, and the Coquette
was a sad tale, too true to be called fiction.
" Mrs. Rawson, who for many years was at the
head of a school for young ladies, wrote, besides
school books used in her institution, several novels —
Charlotte Temple ; the Sorrows of the Heart ; Mon-
toria, or the Young Lady's Friend; Sarah, or the
Exemplary Wife ; Reuben and Rachel ; a sequel to
Charlotte Temple ; and several others. These were
all read with avidity, for it was well understood that
her English was good, and her motives pure.
Charlotte Temple went through nearly twenty
editions. " Since the novels of Walter Scott have been exten
sively known, several candidates for fame in this
path have started forth ; but no one has gained more
celebrity than James Fenimore-Cooper. His Spy,
Pioneers, Red Rover, Last of the Mohicans, the Wept

300

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of Wish ton- Wish, the Pilot, and others, have all been
extensively, read and much admired, not only in this
country, but in England, France,, and Germany.
"James K. Paulding has written several good
novels and works of satire. His John Bull in
America, made those for whom it was intended, feel
severely. His Dutchman's Fireside, and Westward-
Ho, have been very popular. He is a prompt
and rapid writer. Having been one of the authors
of the Salmagundi, placed him early on elevated
ground. " Timothy Flint, of ' the Western country, has
written a novel called Francis Berrian, that has been
much admired, not only at the West, but also on the
sea-board. He has devoted himself to literature,
and deserves the generous patronage of that growing
empire. " Miss Sedgwick is among the very best writers
in the United States ; always sensible, correct, and
moral. She sees clearly, and expresses forcibly what
she means. Like Miss Edgeworth's works, her
Redwood, Hope Leslie, and Clarence, will be read
in future days with as much interest as they are at
present. " Mrs. Child's Hobomok, Rebels, &c. have been
justly praised, and by those who have taste and
judgment. "Law. — For many years the press has teemed
with reprints of law books ; to many of them notes
have been appended. The twelve thousand practising
lawyers in the United States, are in general well pro
vided with law books. Not only the laws of every
state, but the reported decisions of most of their highest
courts, are readily found in every city, town, or vil
lage. Some of the best scholars of the country have
been engaged in multiplying books on the science of
law. Books of pleadings, and practice, have been
published in almost every state in the union, and
have afforded excellent guides to the practitioner.
It would exceed our limits to name a tithe of them.
A few who have engaged in great labours we will
mention. Mr. Adams wrote an essay on Canon and
Federal Law, which had a great reputation at the
time. Nathan Dane was engaged for forty years
in making an abridgment of the law, which he fin
ished eight or ten years since, and published it in six
large octavo volumes. He is considered one of the
profoundest lawyers of the country.
" Chancellor Kent's Commentaries on American law
is considered by competent judges, to be one of the
best works since Sir William Blackstone published
his commentaries.
" Judge Story's overflowing and excursive mind,

has been busy upon almost every part of the law, from
Constitutional Law to that of Bailments, Shipping,
Bills of Exchange, &c. &c. The bar and the bench
are deeply indebted to this indefatigable jurist, who
has brought the mind of a statesman to the detail and
principle of jurisprudence.
" Louisiana is indebted to the late secretary of
state for the United States, Edward Livingston, for ar
ranging the civil code which is now in force in that
state. By this code, every action is commenced by
short petition or statement. The whole of the com
plex machinery of the common law is dispensed with,
and the forms of special pleadings unknown in their
courts. Mr. Livingston has been employed for several
years in forming a code of criminal law. It is divided
into a code of crimes and their punishments, a code
of procedure,. and a code for regulating Penitentiaries.
The whole is a work of great labour, deep research,
clear views of human nature, with a current of benevo
lence running through it, that has made it the admi
ration of the enlightened in every country. If the
code is not in all its parts adopted, its spirit will, in
time, pervade the criminal code of all civilized coun
tries. " Medicine. — Since the peace of 1783, there has
been more activity in the profession of medicine and
surgery than in any other. This profession furnished
several brave officers in the revolution, and many
statesmen since ; among them were Brooks, Cobb
Mercer, St. Clair, Gadsden, Bricket, and many others.
The first martyr in the cause of the revolution was
Dr. Joseph Warren. His brother, Dr. John Warren,
was surgeon-general of the northern army, and left
the office to pursue his practice in Boston. The ,
Medical School at Cambridge was got up under him,
and a few others. Dexter, Waterhouse, and others,
were his coadjutors in the cause. This was the
second medical school established in the United States.
Dr. Rush had devised a medical school in Philadel
phia previous to this time, which may be considered
the first in point of time, as it regards its foundation,
and most assuredly has been second to none in its
success in forming the medical mind in this country.
In this school the eloquent Shippen taught anatomy.
The One in New York followed, and it has been
honoured by distinguished professors. The classical
Bard ; the learned Mitchill ; the tasteful, indefatigable,
and copious lecturers, and medical writers of a more
modern day, Romayne, Hosack, Miller, Francis, and
many others — have added to the science of the healing
art, besides exerting a fatherly care over science and
letters in general. The medical school at Dartmouth
College was the fourth in the country, has flourish-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

301

ed ever since its commencement, and with its seniors,
is every day enlarging its influence. Next followed the
University of Maryland, and then that of Kentucky.
Since that period many others have grown up, which
have produced many distinguished professors of sur
gery and medicine. It is now difficult to succeed as
a quack, except in some of the most ignorant parts of
the country, and there they are often ferreted out.
" The medical literature of the United States de
mands a passing notice. The momentous discus
sions which occupied a large share of the attention
of the faculty, have been connected chiefly with the
origin, nature, and characteristics of the several epi
demical fevers which have prevailed at different
times, more especially in the various maritime cities,
since 1793 ; discussions involving the contagious and
non-contagious quality of yellow fever : whether it
be of foreign or domestic origin ; and the law by
which its communicability is governed. Mr. Noah
Webster, the distinguished lexicographer, though not
a medical man, long ago favoured the public with a
rich repository of facts on pestilential disorders, in a
History of Pestilence, in two vols. 8vo. The writers
who have rendered themselves conspicuous on this
vexed topic, are, Rush, Miller, Smith, Mitchill,
Hosack, Caldwell, Brown, Bowen, Monson, Drysdale,
Griffiths, Ramsay, Moultrie, Pascalis, Townsend, &c.
" Besides these, many others have given their
facts and opinions on the subject, in the New York
Medical Repository, edited by Mitchill and Miller ;
the New York Medical and Physical Journal, edited
by Drs. Francis, Beck, and Dyckman ; Hosack and
Francis' American Medical and Philosophical Regis
ter ; Coxe's Philadelphia Museum ; American Medi
cal Recorder, &c. &c.
" The non-susceptibility of the constitution to a
second attack of yellow fever, or the greater chance
of exemption from its influence a second time, seems
to be pretty generally admitted by those most expe
rienced with the disease, as demonstrated by J. W.
Francis' Letter on Febrile Contagion, dated London,
1816. Besides the periodical works to which refer
ence has just been made, there are several others
deserving of consultation by the medical historian, as
the New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery ;
the Monthly Medical Magazine, published at Boston ;
the American Journal of the Medical and Physical
Sciences ; the North American Medical and Surgical
Journal, <fcc. Many distinct works or monographs
of acknowledged merit, might also pass in review,
even in this imperfect sketch. Among the earliest
publications in America on medical subjects, may
be enumerated, Boylston's Essay on Inoculation for
Vol. II.— Nos. 61 & 62. 2 P

the Small Pox, 1726 ; an Essay on Fevers, by Dr.
John Walton, Boston, 1732 ; Colden on the Yellow
Fever of New York, in 1742 ; Dr. Cadwallader's
Essay on the Iliac Passion, 1740 ; J. Bard's Essay
on the Malignant Pleurisy, 1749 ; Middleton and
Bayley on Croup ; Jones on Wounds and Fractures,
1775 ; Lining on the Yellow Fever, &c. &c. The
voluminous writings of Dr. Rush ; the medical works
of Miller; the Essays and Fragments of Barton ; Gal
lup on Epidemics ; Warren on the Diseases of the
Heart and on the Nervous System ; several tracts by
Drs. Hall and Ware, of Boston, by Cathrall, Mease, and
Currie, of Philadelphia, and Drake, of Cincinnati ; the
Therapeutics of Dr. Chapman ; the System of Mid
wifery, and the Treatise on the Diseases of Females
and of Children, by Professor Dewees ; the medical
writings of Nathan Smith, North, Tully, Minor, Eberle,
Jackson, Waterhouse, Cooke : Hosack's Essays on va
rious subjects — contain a great amount of information
on topics purely practical, and on the rise and progress
of medical education in the United States. The Sys
tems of Anatomy, by Wistar and by Horner ; the Sys
tems of Surgery, by Dorsey and by Gibson ; and the
surgical papers of Physic, Post, Mott, Parish, and
other eminent professors ofthe chirurgical art, will also
receive the tribute of regard by all who are solicitous of
the reputation of the adepts in the science of the heal
ing art. In juridical medicine, Professor T. R. Beck,
of Albany, has laid the profession under lasting obliga
tion, by his scientific and popular treatise on that sub
ject. A System of Chemistry was published by Dr.
Gorham, of Boston, in 1819. Dr. J. Bell, of Phila
delphia, has lately favoured the public with a work
on the Mineral Waters of the United States. Pro
fessor Silliman has recently issued a work on Chemis
try, and his periodical journal is a rich repository of
facts and opinions on the natural and physical de
partments of knowledge. In botanical investigations,
Torry's Flora, with Muhlenberg's performance, and
the productions of W. P. C. Barton, of Philadelphia,
Bigelow of New York, and Elliott of South Caroli
na, are all that can at present be cited here.— No one
perhaps would deem himself fully qualified to be
come the medical annalist of the United States, with
out an examination of the Medical Biography of the
venerable Dr. Thacher of Plymouth.
" Medical Journals are now before the public as
periodicals, which do honour to the talents and ac
quirements of their conductors and contributors ; and
it is not a little in favour of the profession, that the
faculty are among the best friends of learning in the
country. The fears that were once entertained, that
the study of medicine aiid surgery lead to materialism.

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are now done away with ; for it is now conceded that
the studies connected with this profession, when fully
carried out in the forms of physiology, pathology, and
mental phenomena, are all proofs of infinite wisdom,
and a divine superintendence. If fifty years ago
there were few believers in this profession, it may
now claim many of the most devout piety. It would
be an invidious task to name those who have been
distinguished, where all are so respectable.
" The Arts and Sciences.— That our country
abounds in inventive genius no one will question who
takes a glance at the patent office. In the course of
forty-three years, the length of time the patent office
has been established, there have been more than seven
thousand inventions recorded ; and if you would say
that there was much trash, it must, on the other hand,
be agreed, that many things there have a claim to a
high character in the Arts, Jacob Perkins invented
many things which have saved the labour of many —
his nail machine, and many others. Whitney's cot
ton gin, as was said by a learned judge, has doubled
the value of every acre of land in North Carolina and
Georgia. Whitemore's card-making machine was
one that received from the strange man of Roanoke,
an almost irreverent compliment, that it was " like
the love of God, which surpasses all understanding ."
The power looms of Stinson have been in use in every
part ofthe country, and have saved labour to an al
most incalculable extent. Look at the store-house
of these models, and one could not say the inventive
power of the nation has been idle.
" In Mathematical science we have not been defi
cient ; the American mind is naturally mathematical,
certainly arithmetical. Many of our countrymen
have been distinguished abroad for their advancement
in this science. Nathaniel Bowditch, LL. D., the
author of several works on navigation, comets, and
lastly, the translator and commentator of La Place,
is at the head of our mathematicians. Professor
Dean, Adrain, and many others, are conspicuous in
this department of science. A higher knowledge of
this science is now required at our colleges, and this
branch is certainly much mote attended to every
where than formerly. It is found advantageous in
the business of common life. No branch of know
ledge is so easily acquired, with proper instruction,
as this ; yet no one gi ves its possessor more celebrity.
Two years spent in acquiring the varieties of Greek
literature would hardly advance a well bred scholar
so as to be perceptible to his learned friend ; but two
years study in mathematics would be very perceptible.
" A slight view of our history will prove that we
have been prolific in painters, from Symbert down to

the present time. West was born in the United
States, but his faculties were developed in En-gland.—
, Copley was a native of this country, and reached a
degree of perfection in his art, before he left it, that
would have made him one of the first portrait painters
of any age. Hundreds of his portraits are preserved
among us. Stuart returned to this country in the
latter part of the last century, and for many years
stood at the head of his profession, as a portrait
painter. He has left numerous paintings to preserve
his fame, and to show the extent of the power of his
art in this line. Trumbull, the first historical painter
of our country, still lives, and probably like West
will die as it were with the pencil in his hand. He
is as lively as if in the noon-day of life. Vanderlyn,
who gained laurels abroad, is now engaged on a like
ness of Washington for the Hall of the House of
Representatives, in the federal city. Dunlap is en
gaged as usual in instructing those of the present
generation what those of a former one suffered. The
new generation of painters, Morse, Cole, Frothingham,
Inman, Leslie, and many others, are busy in their
calling.— There is no danger that this branch of the
Arts will deteriorate in their hands.
" Some few in sculpture are becoming known ;
Auger's Mercury, and Jephthah and his daughter, with
Greenough's chanting cherubs, have already gratifi
ed the tasteful in the art ; and other works are soon
expected from their hands. A taste for specimens of
sculpture has been awakened in this country, and we
trust patronage enough to support it will follow.
The fine arts are of slow growth among a people
who are engaged in building up their fortunes.
Monuments to departed greatness are becoming com
mon, and artists will find employment in this branch.
Frazee, (late of New Jersey, now of New York,) the
self-taught artist, has given reason to think he will
eminently excel, by his admirable busts of Jay, Web
ster, Bowditch, and N. Prime. The monuments lately
erected to Kosciusko, at West Point ; to Thomas
Addis Emmet, in the city of New York ; to Bishop
Hobart, in Trinity church ; are proofs that sculpture
is now held in estimation. What can be more de
lightful to a grateful people, than these memorials of
genius ? They are the tribute of the living, which
pass not suddenly away.
"Voyages and Travels. — In this department
we have some valuable works : Delano's Voyages,
Riley's Narrative, Lewis and Clark's expedition to
the sources of the Missouri, Pike's expedition to the
sources of the Mississippi, Major Long's expedition
to the Rocky Mountains, Keating's account of Long's
travels : Doctor Dwight's travels in the United States,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

303

abounding in incident, and elegant description, and
containing much valuable historical knowledge : Pro
fessor Silliman has published travels both at home
and abroad ; he is a chaste and careful writer, who
sees all things with the eye of a philosopher. Flint
has given us a good account of the western country,
its manners, habits, and customs. Captain Benja
min Morrell has just published an account of four
voyages to various parts of the world. His book
abounds in incidents, contains much nautical informa
tion, and more poetical feeling than often falls to
the lot of a hardy sailor. Mrs. Abby Jane Morrell,
wife of the above named Captain Morrell, was with
him in his last voyage to the Southern Pacific, and
has published her narrative. It is a curious work,
and shows with what intensity a woman views every
novelty : She is the first female voyager from the
United States who has published a journal. Bigelow
has given us a volume of travels in Europe, of deep
interest : he saw things as a scholar should view
them, and describes with great faithfulness.
" Dr. Griscom's travels are full of instruction ; he
went out to see and describe, and all is done in puri
ty and honesty. His principles were too firm to be
led astray by false lights of philosophy, and he had
no prejudices to indulge.
" The Letters from Europe, comprising the Journal
of a Tour through Ireland, England, Scotland, France,
Italy, and Sicily, in the years 1825, 1 826, and 1827,
by N. H. Carter, obtained for their author a most fa
vourable consideration among the literati ; and he
stands prominent in the list of Americans, who have
visited with a generous spirit foreign countries.
" Miscellaneous. — Under this head we might
make a large volume without enumerating one half
of those works, more or less valuable ; many of them
of a high character. In philology, Noah Webster
stands without a rival. He has spent a great part
of a long, life upon the subject, and if he is not with
out some errors and inconsistencies, they are more
attributable to' the nature of the science, than to the
want of care, industry, or learning, in him.
¦" We are well stocked with school books, geogra
phies, gazetteers, grammars of all sorts, and arithme
tics of all plans. In statistical works we are becom
ing rich. Several are labouring with assiduity in
this department. The Gazetteer, by Edwin Williams,
abounds in tabular information, as in other valuable
matter. " In Rhetoric we have several elementary treatises,
.but no great work, except John Quincy Adams' Lec
tures on Rhetoric and Oratory, which is a work of
genius and of bold opinions. He has been too much

engaged in politics these twenty years past to give
them a finishing touch.
" The Conversations Lexicon, printed in Philadel
phia, and edited by Lieber, Wigglesworth, and Brad
ford, assisted, it is said, in some parts, by Robert
Walsh, has added much to the facilities of giving
information on general topics. Some of its biography,
however short, is happy, and the articles in regard to
the United States are written in a spirit of candour,
and the information is generally drawn from good
sources. This book will be extensively read, and
find a prominent place in every village library. The
plan is a good one, that of adding information re
specting our own country to that brought from abroad,
and giving, at a glance, a panoramic view of a subject."
Of the various subjects which present themselves
in taking a view of the state of society of any coun
try, we deem the manners of its inhabitants to be
the most difficult ; and of all the countries of which
an Englishman could undertake to form an impartial
opinion, the North American republic is the most
embarrassing. We are fully aware that this doctrine
is far from according with that of some of the first
critics of the day, who never feel more at home than
when indulging in flippant and ignorant, but to them,
and as they suppose to their readers, agreeable ani
madversions on the " barbarous manners" which
" blighting democracy" has spread over the whole
surface of society in the United States. If, however,
they would reflect for a moment, that no one nation
can be an authorized judge of another on such points,
since no international standard has been yet agreed
upon — that what is viewed by the polished and re
fined of one country as barbarous, is received in a
very opposite light by the same class, (with regard
to that appellation,) in another — they might be indu
ced to hesitate before they assumed a superiority,
which, however gratifying it may be to themselves,
can carry no conviction, and may justly inspire, not
only resentment, but contempt. Not professing to
have a knowledge of this subject by personal expe
rience, we have felt it our duty (and an irksome one
it has .proved) to become acquainted with, we be
lieve, nearly all the statements of travellers in the
United States for the last thirty years ; and the im
pression it has left on our minds is that of astonish
ment, that such a mass of contradiction and absurdity
could have been produced on any given subject ; nor
do we think it would have been possible, had not
one of the leading periodicals of the day encouraged
such publications, to their, too great honour and its
own disgrace, by affording the most contemptible of
them a prominence it awards to no other publications

304

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of such a character in any other department of lite
rature.* In one principal aspect, manners may be said to
consist in the external mode in which the several
duties and relations of social life are discharged.
We shall speak, therefore, first of that which exists
between parent and child. It has been affirmed by
several travellers, that the effect of republican notions
on this relation has been to destroy the authority on
the part of the parent, and respect and obedience on
that of the child. Mr. Bristed, Mr. Janson, and
others, affirm this to be their opinion. We believe,
however, if there are some families in England where
more authority is exercised than in America, there
are many others where there is less ; and that the
average of obedience is equal while it is more uni
form and rational.
The relation of husband and wife appears to be
sustained with a fidelity unknown (as a national
characteristic) in European states. Married females,
it is admitted by all, even by Mrs. Trollope, are either
engaged in their domestic duties, or in works of bene
volence. We shall present our readers with her
description of the life of a lady of " a senator and
lawyer of the highest repute ;" only premising that
some of the points at which she aims her sarcasm
meet with our admiration and approval : — " She has
a very handsome house, with white marble steps and
door-posts, and a delicate silver knocker, and door
handle ; she has very handsome drawing-rooms, very
handsomely furnished, — there is a sideboard in one
of them, but it is very handsome and has very hand-

* These remarks are especially justified by the eagerness
which the periodical referred to has recently manifested in conde
scending to accept the favour of the proof-sheets of two 12mo. vo
lumes on the " Domestic Manners of the Americans," by a Mrs.
Trollope. The " whipper-in" of the Quarterly has usually been
very unfortunate in committing the review of works on the United
States' to persons as ignorant of facts, as they have been bold in
assertion ; a circumstance perhaps arising from the contempt in
which " our late colonies" are still held, so that they are commit
ted to the charge of the most inferior members of the conclave ;
or possibly the articles may have been written by an underling at
half-price, while the principal has been in attendance at " Charles-
street." However this may be, in one of their late reviews, while
attempting to enlighten the public on the subject of the American
navy, they are pleased to inform them, that, for some sinister pur-
1-ise of deception, " the order of congress for building their ships
limited their size to that of seventy-fours ;" whereas the law, or or
der, as he pleases to term it, was just the contrary — " that the presi
dent of the United States is hereby authorized to cause to be built
nine ships, to rate not less than seventy-four guns each :" — and in
the number just published, in the prefatory remarks to the review
of the work which contains " exactly the title-page they have long
wished to see," we are gravely informed, as a most important fact,
that " in folly four fifths of the settled portion of the United States,
the labouring population consists of slaves," which is just as true
as that "fully four fifths" of the talent of England is connected
with the Quarterly Review. Lest we should by possibility mis
take, in a few lines we are again informed, that it is " an undoubl-

some decanters and cut-glass water-jugs upon it ; she
has a very handsome carriage, and a very handsome
free black coachman ; she is always very handsomely
dressed ; and, moreover, she is very handsome her
self. She rises, and her first hour is spent in the
scrupulously nice arrangement of her dress ; she de
scends to her parlour, neat, stiff, and silent ; her
breakfast is brought in by her free black footman;
she eats her fried ham and her salt fish, and drinks
her coffee in silence, while her husband reads one
newspaper and puts another under his elbow ; and
then, perhaps, she washes the cups and saucers. Her
carriage is ordered at eleven ; till that hour she is
employed in the pastry-room, her. snow-white apron
protecting her mouse-coloured silk. Twenty minutes
before her carriage should appear, she retires to her
chamber, as she calls it, shakes and folds up her still
snow white apron, smooths her rich dress, and with
nice care, sets on her elegant bonnet, and all the
handsome et cetera ; then walks down stairs, just at
the moment that her free black coachman announces
to her free black footman that the carriage waits.
She steps into it, and gives the word, ' Drive to the
Dorcas Society.' Her footman stays at home to clean
the knives, but her coachman can trust his horses
while he opens the carriage door, and his lady, not
being accustomed to a hand or an arm, gets out very
safely without, though one of her own is occupied by
a work basket, and the other by a large roll of all
those indescribable matters which ladies take as of
ferings to Dorcas societies. She enters the parlour
appropriated for the meeting, and finds seven other

ed fact, that over the most fertile, and, in other respects, the most
wealthy portion of the union, the working population consists of
negro slaves !" — Quarterly Review, for March, p. 41. Now, as out
of thirteen millions of inhabitants, there happen to be about two
millions of slaves, it will follow that, if four fifths of the working
classes are slaves, at least ten millions out of thirteen do not work
in America ! and that, with the exception of the unfortunate blacks,
there are little more than half a million of persons only who can
be numbered among the " working population ;" consequently,
lhat the remaining nearly ten and a half millions have that special
feature of aristocracy and gentility — that they do not work for
their living. "We can readily conceive how such a writer may
conscientiously affirm, that he has read Mrs. Trollope's book with
" instruction," and lhat he could bestow upon it " high praise."
We trust we shall be deemed to have established the grave charge
of ignorance, and of boldness too. Of the latter quality (tinged,
indeed, with the former also) we must give one more example: —
" the total absence of a national debt" (which is not a fact) is af
firmed to be an evil ! See Quarterly Review, p. 44, which asserts,
lhat " Many persons consider that, as to this point of dissimilarity,
the advantages lie entirely with the Americans. We are not of
that opinion." We apprehend, that after these specimens, and
more might be added, the opinions of the writer in the Quarterly
will not add much weight to Mrs. Trollope's book : we shall there
fore leave the enamoured reviewer, and this "lady of sense and
acuteness," except so far as their observations may illustrate some
portions of the subject under consideration.

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305

ladies, very like herself,- and takes her place among
them ; she presents her contribution, which is accepted
with a gentle circular smile, and her parings of broad
cloth, her ends of ribbon, her gilt paper, and her
minikin pins, are added to the parings of broad cloth,
the ends of ribbon, the gilt paper, and the minikin
pins, with which the table is already covered ; she
also, produces from her basket three ready-made pin
cushions, four ink-wipers, seven paper matches, and
a pasteboard watch-case ; these are welcomed with
acclamations, and the youngest lady present deposits
them carefully on the shelves, amid a prodigious
quantity of similar articles. She then produces her
thimble, and asks for work ; it is presented to her,
and the eight ladies all stitch together for some hours.
Their talk is of priests and of missions ; of the profits
of their last sale, of their hopes from the next ; of
their doubt whether young Mr. This, or young Mr.
That, should receive the fruits of it to fit him out for
Liberia ; of the very ugly bonnet seen at church on
Sabbath morning, of the very handsome preacher
who performed on Sabbath afternoon, and of the very
large collection made on Sabbath evening. This
lasts till three, when the carriage again appears, and
the lady and her basket return home : she mounts
to her chamber, carefully sets aside her bonnet and
its appurtenances, puts on her scolloped black silk
apron, walks into the kitchen to see that all is right,
then into the parlour, where, having cast a careful
glance over the table prepared for dinner, she sits
down, work in hand, to await her spouse. He comes,
shakes hands with her, spits, and dines. The con-
versation is not much, and ten minutes suffices for the
dinner ; fruit and toddy, the newspaper and the work-
bag, succeed. In the evening the gentleman, being
a savant, goes to the Wister society, and afterwards
plays a snug rubber at a neighbour's. The lady re
ceives at tea a young missionary and three members
ofthe Dorcas Society, and so ends her day."* And
who, we say, is most happy — this lady at Philadel
phia, or, one in Marylebone, who, be the morning
ever so beautiful, dares not be so vulgar as to order
her carriage before two in the afternoon, then drives
in Hyde Park, to be quizzed by all the dandy rakes
that infest the place, and in the evening goes to Drury
Lane, weeps at a tragedy, instead of compassionating
real distress, and then remains till midnight to witness
performances which nine American children out of
ten would be ashamed to waste their time in ? Let
Mrs. Trollope, and her pious friend the Quarterly
Review, who is so overwhelmed with the " disgusting

* Domestic Manners ofthe Americans, vol. ii. pp. 72 — 7"5.

and mischievous exhibition" of an American revival
of religion, solve the question. — If domestic duties,
and the claims of benevolence, are thus attended to
by those of high repute, we need not say that in the
less wealthy class they are equally so. In all coun
tries, they are allowed to be so unfashionable as to
be virtuous. " It should be remembered," says the
author of Notions of the Americans, " that when an
American girl marries, she no longer entertains the
desire to interest any but her husband. There is
perhaps something in the security of matrimony that
is not very propitious to female blandishments, and
one ought to express no surprise that the wife who
is content with the affections of her husband should
grow a little indifferent to the admiration of the rest
of the world. One rarely sees married women fore
most in the gay scenes. They attend, as observant
and influencing members of society, but not as the
principal actors. It is thought that the amusements
of the world are more appropriate to the young, who
are neither burdened nor sobered with matrimonial
duties, and who possess an inherent right to look
about them in the morning of life, in quest of the
partner who is to be their companion to its close."
One of the differences between European and
American manners which strikes the traveller, espe
cially the English, most forcibly, relates to the inde
pendence of servants of all kinds. We believe that
antipathy to domestic service is carried to an unjus
tifiable excess ; and for once the Quarterly speaks
the truth, with but little exaggeration, when it says,
" One ofthe greatest drawbacks to comfort in America
appears to consist in the difficulty — almost impossibility
— of getting good servants. There exists throughout
the country such an inveterate prejudice against
menial service, that nothing short of absolute want,
or the strong desire of procuring some favourite ob
ject for which the funds are not forthcoming, will in
duce man, woman, or even child, to condescend to
this sort of occupation." It is perfectly amusing,
however, to perceive how the writer exhibits the su
perior condition of servants in this country — he surely
must suppose that his readers are ignorant of them
selves and of each other, as well as of the affairs of
the United States, when he thus writes : " It is in
vain to reason with an American on this subject, or
to endeavour to show him that if a servant makes his
bargain, and does his duty, he is, to all intents and
purposes, as independent as his master. It is true
that this holds good, in its fullest extent, only in a
country like England, where, happily for the poorer
classes, the society is divided into ranks, of each of
which the rights and privileges are distinctly known,

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and resolutely maintained. We say, decidedly, that
this classification is fortunate for those who are less —
aye, or least wealthy, as it affords by far the best se
curity they could have against the encroachments
of power. Let any gentleman in England treat his
servant unjustly or cruelly, and see what a storm he
will soon raise about his ears. If, on the other hand,
he forgets what is due to his own rank, and even,
with a kindly intention, takes any liberty with his
servant, he is instantly checked for what, though it
be not so called, is considered presumption. The
truth is, neither master nor man can venture, with
us, to quit his own proper line of duty ; and as for
obligation, that is strictly mutual, and finds its balance
most accurately adjusted by the payment of wages."
There are a few, but very few, masters in England
who tieat their domestic servants on these principles :
we should say from our own observation, that servants
in England are treated much more haughtily than they
are in France, and, from competent testimony, we may
add, than in any other nation in Europe, except in the
dominions of the autocrat of the north. For our own
parts, we can see no reason why a domestic servant
should not as civilly be asked to perform what may
be required, as any tradesman who may be employed ;
nor why he should not be'thanked when he has done
his duty willingly. It appears to us, that the dis
agreeable feelings of the English in the United States,
arise, in great measure, from the fact, that each class
of English society from the duke to the dustman, is
infected with a most contemptible infusion of aristo
cratic feeling : none so much so, perhaps, as the do
mestic servants in high life themselves : and from
whence they derive the infection is sufficiently mani
fest. At the same time, we willingly admit that there
are more exceptions to this observation among the
old nobility than among any other class, and, we may
add, fewer among the uneducated, who, by success
ful traffic, have raised themselves to civic honours,
Friendly and social intercourse, both of a private
and" public character, exists in the United States in a
far higher degree than the present state of Great
Britain will now permit to its inhabitants ; and the
habit of rising early in the morning, and leaving off
business early in the evening, tends very much to
promote social intercourse, without infringing on
other engagements. It is true, in that intercourse,
some practical good is generally kept in view ; there
is often more introduced of mutual improvement
in literature or sciences than would please the
genteel youth of England, who leave such matters
to mechanics' institutions : and, perhaps, there is
more of religion in many of their social meetings

than would be agreeable to many of the members of
our churches, who, whatever their profession may
be, practically appear to consider religion a species
of hebdomadal lunacy, the fit asylum for which is
a church or chapel : on one day it is all-important —
of eternal moment — (the orthodox Quarterly admits
this ;) but on all other days, to think — to feel— to
speak or read about it, especially in company, is
" disgusting," " mischievous," " profane," not to say,
" blasphemous," with the Quarterly ; and " impru
dent," " unseasonable," " injudicious," in the esti
mation, or, at any rate, inconsistent with the practice,
of a large proportion of professing christians.
With respect to " the freedom of intercourse which
is admitted between the young of the two sexes in
America, and which undeniably is admitted with
impunity, " it is to me," says Mr. Cooper, " perfectly
amazing. That the confidence of parents is some
times abused in America, is, probably, just as true as
it is that their watchfulness is sometimes deceived in
Europe ; but the intelligence, the high spirit, and the
sensitiveness of the American, (who must necessarily
be a party to any transgressions of the sort,) on the
subject of female reputation, is, in itself, sufficient
proof that the custom is attended with no general
inconvenience. The chief reason why the present
customs can exist without abuse, is no doubt owing
to the fact that there is no army, nor any class of
idlers, to waste their time in dissolute amusements.
Something is, also, due to the deep moral feeling
which pervades the community, and which influences
the exhibition of vice in a thousand different ways.
The language of gallantry is never tolerated: a
married woman would conceive it an insult, and a
girl would be exceedingly apt to laugh in her adorer's
face. I do not mean to say that idle pleasantries,
such as are mutually understood to be no more than
pleasantries, are not sometimes tolerated ; but an
American female is exceedingly apt to assume a
chilling gravity at the slightest trespass on what
she believes, and, between ourselves, rightly believes,
to be the dignity of her sex. Here, you will perceive,
is a saving custom, and one, too, that it is exceed
ingly hazardous to infringe, which diminishes one
half of the ordinary dangers of the free communica
tion between the young of the two sexes. There is
another peculiarity in American manners that should
be mentioned : the women of America, of all classes,
are much more reserved and guarded in their dis
course, at least in presence of our sex, than even the
women of the country whence they derive their
origin. I think, at all events, no intelligent traveller,
can journey through this country without being

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307

Struck by the singular air of decency and self-respect
which belongs to all its women, and no honest
foreigner can deny the kindness and respect they
receive from the men. There is something repug
nant to the delicacy of American ideas in permitting a
lady to come, in any manner, in contact with the
world. A woman of almost any rank above the
labouring classes is averse to expose herself to the
usual collisions, bargainings, <fcc, of ordinary travel
ling. Thus, the first thing that an American woman
requires to commence a journey, is a suitable male
escort ; the very thing that with us would be ex
ceptionable. " Marriages in the United States," says Mr. Bris-
ted, " are earlier than in Europe, there being no
constraint by statute, and no fear of not being able
to maintain a family in so young a country, whose
extensive territory offers an abundant provision to
every species of industry, when regulated by discre
tion. Any clergyman of any sect, or any justice of
the peace, may marry any couple without asking
any questions. For all the purposes of connubial
happiness, early marriages are best fitted, because
the youthful pair have time, and opportunity, and
power, gradually to mould themselves to each other's
temper and disposition and habits and manners ;
whereas, later marriages require much good temper,
good sense, and, above all, confirmed domestic habits
on both sides, to render the union happy ; because
the character of both parties is already fixed, and
not capable of that flexile adaptation to the circum
stances of life, so characteristic of ardent and ingenu
ous youth. Marriages in the United States are not
only contracted at an early age, but, in general, from
disinterested motives. Indeed, owing to our social
institutions and habits, individual fortunes are seldom
sufficiently large, compared with the overgrown family
opulence of Europe, to induce mere money matches,
where the estates, not the parties, are united. There
is no fear with Us of the proverb, so commonly
levelled in England against sentimental affection,
that ' love in a cottage generally ends in a cottage
without love;' because any man, in any calling, if
he be industrious, honest, and careful, may make
ample provision for his wife and children."
The Americans are not without opportunities of
exercising their social feelings upon an extended
scale. Their religious associations are certainly the
chief scene in which these affections find objects on
which to fix themselves. Indeed, in the west,
Especially at Cincinnati, the people are, according to
Mrs. Trollope, completely without amusement. Bil
liards and cards are forbidden by law — they have no

public balls, except a few at Christmas ; and, in fact,
it would appear that the only chance of social enjoy
ment for the good lady was at a prayer-meeting,
which she appears to view with as much horror as
she would a select party of convicts. The follow
ing is her mode of giving the testimony of an enemy
to a most pleasing fact : " It is in the churches and
chapels of the town that the ladies are to be seen in
full costume ; and I am tempted to believe that a
stranger from the continent of Europe would be in
clined, on first reconnoitring the city, to suppose that
the places of worship were the theatres and cafes of
the place. No evening in the week but brings
throngs of the young and beautiful to the chapels
and meeting-houses, all dressed with care, and some
times with great pretension : it is there that all dis
play is made, and all fashionable distinction sought.
The proportion of gentlemen attending these evening
meetings is very small, but often, as might be expect
ed, a sprinkling of smart young clerks makes this
sedulous display of ribands and ringlets intelligible
and natural. Were it not for the churches, indeed,
I think there might be a general bonfire of best bon
nets, for I never could discover any other use for
them. The ladies are too actively employed in the
interior of their houses to permit much parading in
full dress for morning visits. There are no public
gardens or lounging-shops of M.shionable resort ; and
were it not for public worship, and private tea-drink-
ings, all the ladies in Cincinnati would be in danger
of becoming perfect recluses." Notwithstanding these
observations of Mrs. T. it is a fact that the theatres
in the eastern cities are well attended ; but it is also
a fact, that they are very differently conducted from
the theatres of London, and that certain parties who
are here admitted free, as attractions to the theatre,
would, even in New York, if known, not be suffered
to enter the house : and yet we believe the finances
of American theatres are generally tolerably prosper
ous, while those of the great theatres of London are
in utter ruin.
Respecting dress, Mr. Cooper says, " I think the
secondary classes in this country dress more, and
those of the upper less, than the corresponding castes
in Europe. The Americans are not an economical
people in one sense, though instances of dissolute pro
digality are exceedingly rare among them. A young
woman of the middling classes, for instance, seldom
gives much of her thoughts towards the accumula
tion of a little dowry ; for the question of what a
wife will bring to the common stock is agitated much
less frequently here than in countries more sophisti
cated. The facility with which the fabrics of every

308

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country in the world are obtained, the absence of
care on the subject of the future, and the inherent
elevation of character which is a natural consequence
of education, and a consciousness of equal rights,
cause all the secondary classes of this country to
assume more of the exterior of the higher, than it is
common to see with us. 'The exceptions must be
sought among the very poorest and most depressed
members of the community. The men, who are no
where so apt at imitation as the other sex, are com
monly content with garments that shall denote the
comfort and ease of their several conditions in life ;
but the females are remarkable for a more aspiring
ambition. Even in the country, though rusticity
and a more awkward exterior were as usual to be
seen, I looked in vain for those marked and peculiar
characteristics of dress and air that we meet in every
part of Europe. In but one instance do I remember
to have seen any number either of men or women
whose habiliments conveyed an idea of provincial
costume. The exception was among the inhabitants
of a little Dutch village, in plain view of this city,
who are said to retain no small portion of the preju
dices and ignorance of the seventeneth century, and
whom the merry author of the burlesque history of
New York accuses of believing they are still subject
to the power of the United Provinces. As respects
the whole of New England, I saw some attempt at
imitating the fashion of the day, in even the humblest
individual, though the essay was frequently made
on a material no more promising than tbe homely
product of a household manufacture. In the towns,
the efforts were, of course, far more successful ; and
I should cite the union of individuality of air with
conformance to custom as a distinguishing feature of
the women of the lower classes here. As I stood
regarding the mixed assembly before me, I had the
best possible illustration of the truth of what I will
not call the levelling, for elevating is a far better word,
effects of the state of society, which has been engen
dered by the institutions and the great abundance of
this country. Of some three thousand females present,
not a sixth of the whole number, perhaps, belonged
to those classes, that, in Europe, are thought to have
any claims to compose the elite of society ; and yet
so far as air, attire, grace, or even deportment, Were
concerned, it must have been a sickly and narrow
taste indeed that could have taken exceptions."
The manners of the Americans, in the lighter
sense of the term, may be truly stated to be a medi
um between the vulgarity of the lower orders, and
the refinement of the highest class of European so
ciety ; and there are some features of the latter as

desirable to be omitted as of the former. The blus
tering scion of an aristocratic house maybe excused for
terming the manly independence of the Americans im
pertinence ; and for dying of a broken heart, because,
after swearing at a Yankee, as the southern democrats
do at their negroes, he is left to carry his trunk a
mile through the broiling sun himself. We know of
no obligation that rests on a porter to carry a mar
quess's trunk, if it does not suit his convenience ; but
perhaps a majority of the house of lords would be of
opinion, that a month at the tread-mill would be a fit
compensation to the porter for such an exercise of the
freedom of the locomotive faculty. We make these
observations not from the slightest disrespect to the
aristocracy of England, but only to exhibit plainly
some points in which the ideas of the English and
Americans corne in rather violent contact — doubtless
materially to the disadvantage of the latter. There
are some points, however, which do not admit of so
ready a solution as that of the spirit of independence.
One circumstance peculiarly felt by most travellers,
especially in the eastern states, is a coldness of man
ner, which, to a European, appears like indifference
or apathy. We have felt the unpleasantness of it
ourselves, with one or two exceptions only, in the
American gentlemen to whom we have had the
pleasure of being introduced : we have, however, in
variably found it to be mere manner ; and conse
quently, by being accustomed to it, all unpleasant
feelings cease to be excited. There is, however, one
custom among the Americans, to which we apprer
hend English travellers, or emigrants, must feel an
insuperable repugnance — the habit of chewing to
bacco and spitting, which, though diminishing, still
prevails to a considerable extent through the middle
class of society. We must join in the unqualified
condemnation of a custom so revolting, notwith
standing the plea that it is very improving to the
quality of Turkey carpets. To the practice of lolling
in chairs as though they were rocking-chairs, we see
not so much objection, provided due skill be always
exercised to keep clear of the legs of neighbouring
parties. The influence of republican institutions on the
general appearance of society is observable, not only
in the spirit of individual independence and energy
it communicates, but also in the absence of many of
the titles and gorgeous equipages which are common
in Europe. Still a great number of carriages are
kept, and a great number of titles are acquired by
holding office. The use of esquire to gentlemen,
honourable to members of congress and public offi
cers, excellency to governors, causes every public

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309

meeting to be crowded with titles. Others, which
are despised or declined in Europe, are closely ad
hered to in America. The shopkeeper, or mechanic,
who has combined with his trade a commission in
the militia, continues to be styled major or colonel,
not only during its tenure, but for the rest of his life.
The same is the case with the civil functions' of
judge and magistrate, and even with the ecclesiasti
cal one of deacon. In regard to the titles of Mr.
and Mrs. equality is maintained, not by their disuse,
but by applying them equally to all, even labourers
and beggars : they cease thus to form any distinc
tion. The negroes " Sir" and " Madam" each other
continually ; and know no other order amongst
themselves than that of " gentlemen" and " ladies."
If ready resentment, and willingness to fight, is to
be taken as the most decisive mark of a man of ho
nour and a gentleman, the Americans, notwithstand
ing tobacco, <fcc, bear the palm from the best shots
in Europe ; for not only are their duels more nu
merous, but much more indicative of perfect sinceri
ty by their result : while, of late especially, the ren
counters of Europe have been of so friendly a cha
racter, as to reduce the transaction from a tragedy to
a farce — giving; hope that such proceedings will soon
be left to children, with their sixpenny guns and
broken tobacco pipes. The practice is, we believe
from a very different cause — the moral force of public
opinion, on the decline in the United States ; and it
would be well if a nation, who can justly boast, of its
efforts to prevent privateering, could triumph in the
abolition of the no less dishonourable practice of du
elling. As to the stories of Kentucky drinking and
gorging, the combined effects of knowledge and civili
zation have left them only to the page of history, from
which the hand of charity will willingly blot them out.
It remains for us to notice some sectional distinc
tions of character which may be perceived. The
northeastern states, from Maine to Pennsylvania,
and the northwestern, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois,
that are free from slavery, (the one fifth of the Quar
terly,) have, in consequence, a characteristic peculiar
to themselves. But the subject of slavery, as well as
the Indians, we propose to notice in the next chapter ;
and we shall here refer to the three divisions of the
country into northeastern, northwestern, and south
ern, as it respects their general manners. The first
section contains the chief seats of learning, of com
merce, and of arts ; and is esteemed the most money-
getting and most enterprising portion of the union,
although some of the states in the others are vying
with the eastern. The manners of this section are
more cold and reserved than those of the south and
Vol. IL— Nos. 61 & 62. 2 Q

west. The planters of the south are represented as
a liberal, almost prodigal, race of men, but as being
by no means in such princely circumstances as
formerly. It is one of the wise allotments of the
Ruler of the world, that what is wrongfully taken
from the labourer should not long remain a benefit
to the oppressor ; and the slave-master, be he in
dividually ever so benevolent, stands in the relation
of an oppressor to the slave. The splendid and
princely fortunes which some of the planters pos
sessed are reduced within much narrower limits ;
indications of which, Basil Hall informs us, were
very manifest in the race-course at Charleston, where
these noble supporters of the turf were no longer to
be found. While speaking of the southern section;
it is necessary to observe, that the states of Missis
sippi, Louisiana, and Florida, having been of French
or Spanish origin, differ materially from the other
states ; but that distinction is being rapidly oblitera
ted by the tide of emigration which incessantly flows
into the new states.' The western states, from their
recent settlement, are, of course, behind the eastern
in literature and the arts ; but they press rapidly on
ward, and are daily increasing in physical, intellectu
al, and moral power. The abundance of provision
for all animal wants encourages a degree of hospi
tality, and ensures a security, unknown to modern
Europe. Mrs. Trollope found herself in danger of
giving offence by fastening her door, as it might be
construed to indicate some suspicion of the honesty
of her neighbours.
We shall now mention one characteristic of Ame
rican society, which, to a benevolent mind, will com
pensate for many trivial privations — there are no beg
gars. What can be more appalling and depressing
to the mind, than the sight of hundreds of miserable
objects sweeping pathways across the streets, to afford
a pretext for soliciting alms ; besides hundreds of va
grants committed to prison every month to clear the
streets, many of whom gladly accept the shelter of
the jail ; and this in a country where, according to
the Quarterly, " happily for the poorer classes, so
ciety is divided into ranks, of each of which the rights
and privileges are distinctly known and resolutely
maintained 1" Noble right ! — inalienable privilege —
of being'sent to bridewell for one month,- — liberated
for one day, — and then returned there for a second
period ! But what is this hopeless wretchedness, —
this perpetual memento of the miserable condition of
human beings, in comparison with the calamity of
meeting hogs in the streets and vicinity of Cincin
nati 1 Poor Mrs. Trollope! " Immense droves of
them were continually arriving from the country, by

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the road that led to most of our favourite walks ;
they were often fed and lodged in the prettiest val
leys, and, worse still, were slaughtered beside the
prettiest streams. Another evil threatened us from
the same quarter, that was yet heavier : our cottage
had an ample piazza, (a luxury almost universal in
the country houses of America,) which, shaded by a
group of acacias, made a delightful sitting-room.
From this favourite spot Ave one day perceived
symptoms of building in a field close to it ; with
much anxiety we hastened to the spot, and asked
what building was to be erected there. ' 'Tis to be
a slaughter-house for hogs,' was the dreadful reply.
As there were several gentlemen's houses in the
neighbourhood, I asked if such an erection might not
be indicted as a nuisance. 'A what?' 'A nuisance,'
I repeated, and explained what I meant. ' No, no,'
was the reply ; ' that may do very well for your ty
rannical country, where a rich man's nose is more
thought of than a poor man's mouth ; but hogs be
profitable produce here, and we be too free for such
a law as that, 1 guess.' " How delighted would
thousands of Mrs. Trollope's fellow-subjects have
been, to have come in contact with such a " nui
sance" as plenty of good bacon, at twopence per
pound, and plenty of labour to earn the cents to pur
chase it wherewithal !
Before we close this chapter, we shall notice one
more point in tbe characteristics of American society,
because it will confute, we believe, one of the gross
est and most calumnious falsehoods that even the
Quarterly, with the " long-wished-to-see" help of Mrs.
Trollope, could possibly concoct. In connexion with
the awful calamity of the hogs, Mrs. T. remarks : —
" The well-disposed, those who own the feeling of
justice would prevent their annoying others, will
never complain of the restraints of the law. All the
freedom enjoyed in America, beyond ivhat is enjoy
ed in England, is enjoyed solely by the disorderly
at the expense of the orderly." " We have taken
the liberty," says the writer in the Quarterly, " of
putting the concluding remark of the above para
graph in italics, for we desire greatly to call the at
tention of our readers to a truth which has not be
fore been so distinctly pointed out, but which every
page of these interesting volumes, and, indeed, of
every other book which we have read respecting
America, tends to confirm. We conceive that the
inevitable consequence of extending the democratical
principle beyond what used to be considered its due
limits, must be to degrade the cause of genuine free
dom, and even essentially to diminish the amount of
personal liberty in any country. In America there

is ample license, with all sorts of liberty of action
and speech — but only for one class of society — the
democrats ; scarcely a particle, it would seem, for
any of the rest. It is true, the democrats form the
majority, and a very large majority indeed, not only
counted numerically, but reckoned by the scale of
influence and intelligence, wealth, talents, or any
other element of recognised power elsewhere. Then
why find fault with it ? we may be asked ; why, if
the system is such as the great body of the people,
including the richest, wisest, and best, choose to pre
fer, why should we quarrel with them for persevering
in what they approve of? To this we reply, that
we have no quarrel with them about it at all. We
are in no way disposed to begrudge them their uni
versal suffrage— their general dram-drinking— their
occasional camp-meetings — their republican institu
tions — their eternal electioneering, or any thing else
which may to them seem fit and proper. But we
must take the liberty to point out to our country
men, that, although this may be all Very well for the
Americans, (since they like it,) nothing can be more
utterly repugnant to the feelings and habits of Eng
lishmen, or more completely unsuited to the geo
graphical, statistical, and moral situation in which
this country is placed." A very grand superstruc
ture, truly, to be raised on the foundation of Mrs.
Trollope's reflections on a slaughter house for hogs !
— when, in fact, it so happens, that the civic order of
American cities, so far as the permission of the dis
orderly to enjoy themselves at the expense of the or
derly is concerned, is as far superior to that of Eng
lish towns, as are the means of existence of the bulk
of their population. If the editor of the Quarterly
doubts this in sober seriousness, let him send a few
of his titled " Tom and Jerry" friends, and see whether
they will be allowed to ring at the doors of the " or
derly," knock down the charleys, and play up their
pranks as they do in this land, where, "happily,"- all
classes so well know and so resolutely maintain their
rights. How, with the recently disordered state of
the lower classes of the principal towns of Great Bri
tain, and the notoriously orderly state of the Ameri
can cities, any person capable of writing at all could
be hired to write such falsehoods, would be beyond
comprehension, if it were not evident that the dan
gerous " absurdity of comparing the two countries
together,"* rendered at the present moment a bold
game necessary, even at the risk' of being inextrica
bly placed in the condition of propounding a notori
ous and barefaced calumny.
* See Quarterly Review, vol. xlvii. p. 41.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

311

CHAPTER IV.

INDIANS.

There are two very important circumstances
connected with, and bearing forcibly on, the state of
society in the United States— the practical effect of
which it is by no means easy for a European correctly
to appreciate. We refer to the presence, in most of
the States, of some remains of the aboriginal race —
the Indians ; and in others, to the existence of, per
haps, a still more unfortunate race— the African negro,
whether, in a state of freedom, or of slavery. To a
brief account of these two branches of the human
family, as existing in the United States, and their in
fluence in American society, political, and civil, we
propose to devote the present chapter.
The fact of the aboriginal Indians still retaining
possession of large portions of the soil in some of the
states, in circumstances the most peculiar perhaps
that ever occurred to any portion of the human race,
has recently given rise to some of the most interest
ing discoveries which can possibly be presented to
the view of the philosopher, the philanthropist, the
civilian, or the statesman. In order that the subject
may be adequately appreciated, it will be desirable to
present a very brief outline of the physical, mental,
and moral characteristics ofthe race ; in doing which,
we avail ourselves of what ought to be, and we be
lieve is justly considered, standard authority on this
and similar subjects, — the Encyclopasdia Americana.
With the exception, perhaps, of the Esquimaux, all
the Indians have the same physical characteristics.
The bronze or copper colour, the straight, coarse,
black hair, the hazel eyes, the high cheek-bones and
erect form, are common to them all. There is, in-
* Many writers, from Father La Hontan down to the present
time, have -discoursed more or less eloquently on the character of
the Iroquois, or Five Nations. They have been emphatically
called the Romans of the western world. Governor De Witt Clin
ton, in his admirable Address before the New York Historical So
ciety, in 1811, thus speaks of the Confederates: an extract must
suffice. ".A distinguished feature in the character of the Confederates,
was an exalted spirit of liberty, which revolted with equal indig
nation at domestic or foreign control. ' We are born free, (said
Garangula, in his admirable speech to the governor general of Ca
nada,) we neither depend on Ononthio or Corlear,' on France, or
on England. Baron La Hontan, who openly avowed his utter
detestation and abhorrence of them, is candid enough to acknow
ledge, that'' they laugh at the menaces of kings and governors, for
they have no idea of dependence ; nay, the very word is to them
insupportable. They look upon themselves as sovereigns, ac
countable to none but God alone, whom they call the Great Spirit.'
They admitted of no hereditary distinctions. The office of sachem
was the reward of personal merit; of great wisdom, or command
ing eloquence ; of distinguished services in the cabinet or in the
field. It was conferred by silent and general consent, as the spon
taneous tribute due to eminent worth ; arid it could only be main-
ained by the steady and faithful cultivation of the virtues and ac-

deed, some difference in the stature of different tribes.
The Osages are very tall, and the Shoshonees are be
low the middle stature. Each race, and, indeed, each
tribe, has its peculiar physiognomy. To a European
or Anglo-American, all Indians look alike ; but one
accustomed to them can distinguish the tribes with
almost unerring certainty. Thus a Dahcotah is as
readily distinguished from a Chippeway or a Winne
bago by his' features, as his dress. Yet the differ
ence is not so great as to induce a belief that all the
tribes are not descended from the same stock. The
Esquimaux of Greenland and the eastern part of the
continent differ from the red Indians in complexion,
stature, and in the position of the eyes, which are set
obliquely in their orbits. The Indians in the northern
part of North America are divided into several great
families. The Algonquin or Chippeway race is one
of the two most numerous now in existence. All
the tribes of New England were Algonquins, if we
may take identity of language, manners, and customs,
as a proof of the fact. The vocabulary of the Nar-
raganset tongue, recorded by Roger Williams, proves
them to h.ave been a branch of the Algonquin stock.
The Mohegans, considered the progenitors of the
other tribes in New England, spoke the same tongue.
The tribes in Maine claimed the same origin. The
Delaware, or Lenni Lenape, were of the same family.
and their language has been pronounced, by compe
tent judges, the most perfect existing. The Iroquois,
or Six Nations, once dreaded from the Atlantic to the
Mississippi, are Algonquins. This tribe did and still
does extend from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to
the Mississippi, and thence northward to Great Slave
Lake ; for so far do the Nayheeowawk or Knisteneaux
extend their rambles.* On the western side of the
complishments which procured it. No personal slavery was per
mitted : their captives were either killed or adopted as a portion
of the nation. The children of the chiefs were encouraged to
emulate the virtues of their sires, and were frequently elevated to
the dignities occupied by their progenitors. From this source has
arisen an important error with respect to the establishment of pri
vileged orders among the Confederates.
" There is a striking similitude between the Romans and the
Confederates, not only in their martial spirit and rage f* con
quest, but in their treatment of the conquered. Like the Romans,
they not only adopted individuals, but incorporated the remnant
of their vanquished enemies into their nation, by which they con
tinually recruited their population, exhausted by endless and
wasting wars, and were enabled to continue their career of victory
and desolation ; if their unhappy victims hesitated or refused, they
were compelled to accept of the honours of adoption. The Hu
rons of the Island of Orleans, in 1656, knowing no other way to
save themselves from destruction, solicited admission into the can-,
ton of the Mohawks, and were accepted ; but, at the instance of
the French, they declined their own proposal. On this occasion
the Mohawks continued their ravages, and compelled acquiescence:
they sent thirty of their warriors to Quebec, who took them awayj
with the consent of the governor general ; he, in fact, not daring
to refuse, after having addressed him in the following terms of

312

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Mississippi is another- great Indian family, viz. the
Sioux or Dahcotah. The Dahcotah proper inhabit
the country on the west side of the Mississippi, north
of the Wisconsin, to the sources of the Mississippi.
Their territory extends westward to the Missouri.
This tribe speak a language radically distinct from
that of the Algonquin race. Their origin is unknown,
and their own traditions are at variance oh this point
one with another. One account, and the most pro
bable, represents them as having been driven from the
confines of Mexico by the Spaniards. The branches
of this tribe are the Winnebagoes, the Otoes, the
loways, the Missouries, the Assinniboins, the Oma-
haws, the Kansas, and the Osages. All these tribes
speak dialects of the Dahcotah tongue. The Assin
niboins are known also by the names of Ossinneboins,
Ossinnepoilles, Stone Indians, and Hohays. This
last is the name they give themselves. The Otoes
and Missouries, now united, are renowned among
the tribes of the Missouries for their bravery. They
can muster about 300 men. The loways still dwell
on the Mississippi. They have from 100 to 200
men. The Osages are divided into three tribes, and
can boast more than 1,000 warriors. The Kansas
inhabit the plains about the heads of the Arkansas
and Red rivers. Their number is unknown. The
Omahaws live high up the Missouri. Besides these

proud defiance ; which can not but bring to our recollection simi
lar instances of Roman spirit, when Rome was free. ' Lift up thy
arm, Oncjnthio, and allow thy children, whom thou holdest pressed
to thy bosom, to depart ; for if they are guilty of any imprudence,
have reason to dread, lest in coming to chastise them, my blows
fall on thy head.' Like the Romans, also, they treated their vas
sal nations with extreme rigour. If there were any delay in the
render of the annual tribute, military execution followed, and the
wretched delinquents frequently took refuge in the houses of the
English, to escape from destruction. On all public occasions they
took care to demonstrate their superiority and dominion, and at
all times they called their vassals to an awful account, if guilty of
violating the injunctions of the great council. At a treaty held on
•the forks of the Delaware, in 1758, by the governors of Pennsyl
vania and New Jersey, with the Six Nations, several claims of
the Munseys, Wappings, and other Delaware Indians, for lands in
the latter province, were adjusted and satisfied under the cogni
zance of the Confederates, who ordered them to deliver up their
prisoners, and to be at peace with the English, and who assumed
a dictatorial tone, and appeared to exercise absolute authority
over the other Indians. At a former conference on this sub
ject, a Munsey, or Minisink Indian, had spoken sitting, not being
allowed to stand, until a Cayuga chief had spoken ; when the
latter thus expressed himself: ' I, who am the Mingoian, am by
this belt to inform you, that the Munseys are women, and can not
hold treaties for themselves ; therefore I am sent to inform you,
that the invitation you gave the Munseys is agreeable to us, the
Six Nations.'
" War was the favourite pursuit of this martial people, and
military glory their ruling passion. Agriculture, and the labori
ous drudgery of domestic life, were left to the women. The edu
cation of the savage was solely directed to hunting and war.
From his early infancy, he was taught to bend the bow, to point
the arrow, to hurl the tomahawk, and to wield the club. He was
instructed to pursue the footsteps of his enemies through the path-

tribes, there dwell on the Mississippi, between the
river Des Moins, the Wisconsin and the Missouri,
the Sacs and Foxes, a branch of the Chippeway
tribe. They speak the Chippeway -tongue, and
number above 1,000 men. On .the Missouri are the
Pawnees, divided into three tribes, of which the Ari-
karees are a branch. They live by hunting the buf
falo, and are said to have a language of their own.
The Mintarees or Bigbellies, the Mandans, the Crows,
and the Blackfeet, also live on the Missouri, and each
j is said to have a language of its own. Their num
bers are unknown. The Shoshonees live between
the head waters of the Missouri and Columbia rivers.
They are almost constantly on horseback, and are at
war with the lower tribes of the Missouri. On the
Columbia river are the Cohunnish, the Skilloots,
Echeloots, Multnomahs, Clatrops, and other tribes.
Their haunts and numbers are unknown. They
live by fishing as well as hunting, and differ in man
ners and customs from the tribes east of the Rocky
Mountains. They are neither, so well fed nor clad.
Most of these tribes have the practice of flattening
the heads of infants between boards, whence the ge
neral name of Flat-heads. They have some com
merce with ships on the northwest coast. Nothing
is known of the languages of any of these people.
In the south of the United States, there are four

less and unexplored forest ; to mark the most distant indications
of danger ; to trace his way by the appearances of the trees, and
by the stars of heaven, and to endure fatigue, and cold, and fa
mine, and every privation. He. commenced his career of blood by
hunting the wild beasts of the woods,-and after learning the dex
terous use of the weapons of destruction, he lifted his sanguinary
arm against his fellow creatures. The profession of a warrior
was considered the most illustrious pursuit ; their youth looked
forward to the time, when they could march against an enemy,"
with all the avidity of an epicure for the sumptuous dainties of a
Heliogabalus. And this martial ardour was continually thwart
ing the pacific counsels of the elders, and enthralling them in, per
petual and devastating wars. With savages in general, this fero
cious propensity was impelled by a blind fury, and was but little
regulated by the dictates of skill and judgment ; on the contrary,
with the Iroquois, war was an art. All their military movements
were governed by system and policy. They never attacked a
hostile country, until they had sent out spies to explore and to de
signate its vulnerable points, and whenever they encamped, they
observed the greatest circumspection to guard against surprise;,
whereas the other savages only sent out scouts to reconnoitre ;
but they never went far from the camp, and if they returned
without perceiving any signs of an enemy, the whole band went
quietly to sleep, and were often the victims of their rash confi
dence. " Whatever superiority of force .the Iroquois might have, they
never neglected the use of stratagems ; they employed all the
crafty wiles of the Carthaginians. The cunning of the fox, the
ferocity ofthe tiger, and the power of the lion, were united in their
conduct. They preferred to vanquish their enemy by taking him
off his guard ; by involving him in an ambuscade ; by falling upon
him in the hour of sleep : but when emergencies rendered it ne
cessary for them to face him in the open field of battle, they ex
hibited a courage and contempt of death which have never been
surpassed."

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

313

tribes, viz. the Chickasaws, Choctaws, Cherokees,
and Creeks. All these have made some progress in
civilization. The Cherokees have a written and
printed language, said to be radically different from
all others. They number about 15,000 souls. The
Choctaws and Chickasaws are each more numerous.
The Indians have hitherto uniformly resisted all
attempts to civilize them, where they could support
themselves by the chase. Some few tribes, such as
the Southern Indians, and the remnants of the Six
Nations, having been hemmed in by the whites, and
circumscribed in their limits so as to be unable to live
by hunting, have turned to agriculture for subsist
ence ; but such a departure from the habits of savage
life is not to be found where there has been a possi
bility of supporting life by other means. The hospi
tality of Indians is among their most striking quali
ties. In any of the tribes, a stranger is received with
the utmost respect and attention. On his arrival he
is served with the best in the wigwam, seated on the
best seat, and treated with the utmost respect and
attention. His person and property are considered
sacred. He may remain as long as he pleases in a
wigwam without any questions being asked, and
retire unopposed. Feasts are made for him, and
though his appetite may be satisfied, to refuse any
thing set before him gives great offence. With all,
or almost all, the Indian tribes, the sole care of the
men is to provide food ; the labour is the exclusive
lot of the women. The use of the axe or hoe is
considered beneath the dignity of the male sex. It
belongs to the females to plant corn, to make and
mend garments and moccasins, to build, to pitch
tents, to cut wood, to bring water, to tend horses and
dogs, and, on a march, to carry the baggage. The
women do not murmur at this, but consider it a
natural and equitable - distribution of family cares.
But they are regarded as an inferior race, and often
transferred as property. Polygamy is general.
Every man has as many wives as he can support,
and, in marriages, the will of the bride is seldom or
never consulted ; a man addresses himself directly to
the parents of his intended wife, and her fate depends
on their will. The custom of dowry is reversed
among the Indians ; the man makes certain presents
to the parents of his wife, instead of receiving a por
tion with her. The marriage ceremony is always
very simple, and, in most tribes, there is none at all.
Adultery is punished by cutting off the nose, or
otherwise mutilating the offending female; some
times, though rarely, with death : in some tribes, this
crime is regarded as a venial fault, and in many the
husband lends his wife to a friend without opposition

on her part. Divorces are frequent, and at the plea
sure of the contracting parties : in such cases, the wife
is usually left to provide for the children as she may.
It is no uncommon thing to see an Indian woman
who has been five or six times repudiated before she
finally settles in life. In some tribes, especially those
of Dahcotah origin, it is held the duty of each man
to marry all the sisters of a family, and to have as
many wives as he can support. In most tribes, and
we believe in all, incest is held in abhorrence ; and
instances of devoted attachment are not uncommon. —
Every Indian submits in youth to a process of severe
mental and corporeal discipline ; during the course
of which, frequent intervals of long and rigid absti
nence are enjoined, by which the system is reduced,
and the imagination rendered more susceptible.
Dreams are then encouraged : by these the novice
is taught both his duty and his destiny ; and in them
his guardian manitou, who is to protect him in life
and attend him in death, appears in the shape of
some familiar animal, thenceforth to be the object of
his adoration. He is taught to despise death, and
during his whole life he regards it with indifference.
An Indian seldom commits suicide ; not because the
grave does not offer him a refuge, but because pa
tience and fortitude are the first duties of a warrior,
and none but a coward can yield to pain or misfor
tune. This sternness of purpose is another lesson
early taught. He learns also to despise labour, to
become a warrior, and a hunter, to associate the idea
of disgrace with any other employment, and to leave
to the women all the ordinary duties of life: He is
a stern and unbending fatalist : whatever of good or
of evil may happen, he receives it with imperturbable
calmness. If misfortunes press upon him which he
cannot resist, he can die; and he dies without a
murmur. The opinions, traditions, and institutions
of his own tribe, are endeared to him by habit, feel
ing, and authority; and from early infancy he is
taught that the Great Spirit will be offended by any
change in the customs of his red children, which have
all been established by him. Reckless of conse
quences, he is the child of impulse ; unrestrained by
moral considerations, whatever his passions prompt
he does. Believing all the wild and debasing super
stitions which have come down to him, he has no
practical views of a moral superintendence, to protect
or to punish him. Government is unknown among
them ; certainly, that government which prescribes
general rules, and enforces or vindicates them. The
utter nakedness of their society can be known only
by personal observation. The tribes seem to be
held together by a kind of family ligament ; by the

314

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

ties of blood, which, in the infancy of society, are
stronger, as other associations are weaker. They
have no criminal code, no courts, no officers, no pu
nishments. They have no relative duties to enforce,
no debts to collect, no property to restore. They are
in a state of nature, as much as it is possible for any
people to be. Injuries are redressed by revenge, and
strength is the security for right.
All Indians of whom we have any knowledge, be
lieve in one Supreme God. and the immortality of
the soul. They attribute all good and all power to
the Supreme Being. Many tribes also believe in the
existence of an intelligent evil principle, whose ill of
fices they endeavour to avert by prayer, and sacrifice.
They never ask the Supreme for any thing, but
merely return thanks for benefits received, saying,
that he is the best judge of what is for their advan
tage. They believe in many subordinate deities, two
of whom reside in the sun and moon. They attri
bute supernatural powers to all serpents, especially
rattle-snakes, and will kill no animal of the genus.
Even the eel escapes on account of its resemblance.
They pay religious honours to rocks and venerable
objects. They believe that brutes have immortal
souls as well as men, and, in short, that all animated
nature teems with spirits. In their belief sorcery is
blended with the healing art, and their priests are
also physicians and jugglers. These priests practise
feats of sleight of hand with all their religious cere
monies ; but, with a few exceptions, they have no
power or influence over the multitude. The future
state of the Indians is a material paradise, where they
will follow the same occupations, and enjoy the same
delights, they have experienced in this world. They
have also a vague idea of future punishment for sins
committed in the body. Among the superstitions of
the Algonquin and Dahcotah tribes, is a very singu
lar one: a man is sometimes devoted, by his parents
or himself, to a life of ignominy. In this case, he
dresses like a woman, and performs all female avoca
tions ; he associates with women only, and sometimes
takes a husband ; and he is held in utter contempt
by all, though his condition be not of his own choice.
This condition is frequently owing to a dream of
his parents while he is yet unborn. In many tribes
men have what they call their medicine-bags, which
are filled with bones, feathers, and other rubbish ;
and to the preservation of their medicine-bags they
attach much importance. Besides this, each holds
some particular animal in reverence, which he calls
his medicine, and can by no means be induced to
kill, or to eat it when killed, for fear of some terrible
misfortune. Moreover, the Indians nleave tobacco,

worn-out clothing, and other articles, on rocks, as
sacrifices to invisible spirits.
We believe it is impossible to estimate the number
of the North American Indians with any degree of
accuracy. It is, however, very small throughout, in
proportion to the extent of their territory; for a
hunting people can not be very numerous. Their
wars, of which we have heard so much, do not ma
terially affect them. They are carried on in detail
by small parties, and, consequently, are not very de
structive. They very seldom give quarter ; but.
when a prisoner is spared, he is sure of being adopt
ed by the conquering tribe. The tribes who inhabit
the prairies go to war on horseback, and their weapons
are spears and bows and arrows. Those who inhabit
the forests are generally armed with guns. Their
courage is moral and passive, rather than active.
They think it cowardice to be affected by calamity,
or to give way to passion or emotion. Though they
have no laws, there are customs, which every indi
vidual scrupulously observes. In cases of murder,
for instance, the rule is blood for blood, and the ho
micide rarely shuns the penalty of his deed. They
have chiefs, but the power of these is limited to per
suasion, and they can command no one. Sometimes
a chief becomes such in virtue of his achievements
in war, or his wisdom ; in some tribes, there is some
thing like hereditary rank ; but even this authority
does not descend in a dhect line, the son of a chief
being often set aside to make room for one mofe wor
thy. But in war, implicit obedience is given to the
commands of a leader. The tribes that inhabit the
prairies all live by hunting the buffalo, mostly on
horseback ; those who dwell in wooded countries
hunt deer and smaller animals. The more primitive
savages are the poorest, but at the same time the least
dependent, for they have few wants, and can supply
those few without assistance. Those who live nearer
the whites have more of the comforts of life, but are
no whit more civilized or more happy. We may
say, that if the Indian trade of the Mississippi were
interrupted for five years, all the aborigines of that
quarter would be in danger of perishing, as they de
pend on the whites for clothing and weapons. The
Indians can never be dangerous, as there is no union
among them. On the whole, we may speak of them
as a brave, reckless, generous, and unfortunate people.
Such is the race of human beings, who, from a
remote period, occupied — we were going to say, but
the term is inapplicable, and has occasioned serious
misunderstandings on the subject, — ranged over the
northern portion of this vast continent undisturbed,
till mercantile adventure, or religious persecution,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

315

brought to their shores the civilized inhabitants of
Europe. The right of Europeans to take possession
of the soil which formed the vast hunting province
of these tribes, has given rise to much discussion.
Had they, in any sense, fulfilled the purpose for
which the earth was given to the children of men,
it would have been difficult to establish a title to any
kind of possession contrary to their consent. But to
maintain that the fact of a tribe of 1,000 men passing
and repassing through as many square miles of coun
try, and destroying as many of its irrational occupants
as might be deemed needful for their support, could
give them just claim to have such territory consider
ed exclusively, their own, is more than we think the
most zealous philanthropist will be willing delibe
rately to contend for. At the utmost, the only
right they could have was to have a sufficiency of
land to support them in their own way; and even
this, perhaps, could scarcely be maintained in its
fullest extent. Nearly this view ofthe subject, how
ever, was taken by the English colonists ; and con
sequently, with very few exceptions, full compen
sation to the Indians, for their foregoing the right of
scouring the country when they thought fit, was
made upon terms settled with them as parties to a
voluntary treaty. We do not intend to maintain
that, in some instances, the aborigines were not un
justly or cruelly treated, but that the principle gene
rally acted on was not unsound. The testimony of
Vattel is, — " We cannot help praising the moderation
of the English puritans, who first settled in New
England," (and he might have added, the first set
tlers of the other, colonies,) " who, notwithstanding
their being furnished with a charter from their
sovereign, purchased of the Indians the lands they
resolved to cultivate."*
Whether, however, the space which the Indians
had been accustomed to roam over in search of food
was diminished by feud, fraud, or equitable agree
ment, the result to the native tribes was ultimately
the same : it tended to limit the only means of sub
sistence of which they chose to avail themselves, and,
consequently, to add to the wretchedness of their
condition, and to diminish their numbers. " It is
obvious," says the writer of. a long and able article on
this subject in the North American Review, to which
we shall have occasion to make frequent reference,
" that the reduction or disappearance of the game,
consequent upon the conversion of forests into fields,
and the gradual advance of a civilized people, must
have soon begun to press upon the means of subsist-
* Vattel^ book 1, chap, xvii!,

ence on which the Indians mainly depended. Other
circumstances co-operated in the work of destruc
tion. Fire-arms were introduced, and greatly facili
tated the operations of ' the hunter. Articles of
European merchandise were offered to the Indians,
and they were taught the value of their furs, and en
couraged to procure them. New wants arose among
them : the rifle was found a more efficient instru
ment than the bow and arrow ; blankets were more
comfortable than buffalo robes ; and cloth, than
dressed skins. The exchange was altogether unfa
vourable to them : the goods they received were dear,
and the peltry they furnished was cheap ; a greater
number of animals was necessary for the support of
each family, and increased exertion was required to
procure them. We need not pursue this subject fur
ther. It is easy to see the consequences, both to the
Indians and their game. Herds of buffaloes were
once found upon the shore of Lake Erie, and at the
base of the Allegany mountains ; they have now re- •
ceded to the plains beyond the Mississippi, and are
every year migrating still farther west. A few years
since, they were' unknown in the Rocky Mountains ;
they have now passed that barrier, and will ere long
reach the Pacific. The beaver has nearly disappear
ed upon all our borders, and hunters and trappers
have followed them to the waters of the Columbia.
Even the common red deer, once so abundant, is
rarely found east of the Allegany ; and is becoming
scarce in the western regions. But a still more pow
erful cause has operated to produce this diminution
in the number of the Indians : — ardent spirits have
been the bane of their improvement, and one of the
principal agents in their declension and degradation.
In this proposition we include only those tribes in
immediate contact with our frontier settlements, or
who have remained upon reservations guarantied
to them. It has been found impracticable to prevent
the sale of spirituous liquors to those who are thus
situated : the most judicious laws are eluded or open
ly violated. The love of spirits and the love of gain
conspire to bring together the buyer and the seller.
As the penalties become heavier, and the probability
of detection and punishment stronger, the prohibited
article becomes dearer, and the sacrifice to obtain it
greater. We shall not attempt to investigate the
cause of the inordinate attachment displayed by the
Indians to ardent spirits ; it is probably without a
parallel in all the history of man, and is certainly so
with very few exceptions, in the whole range of their
own society. This predisposition was the subject of
observation and regret two centuries ago ; and the
earlier historians and travellers, while they furnish

316

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

the record of its existence, furnish also the evidence
of its overpowering influence and destructive conse
quences. To the operation of the physical causes
which we have described, must be added the moral
causes connected with their mode of life and their
peculiar opinions. Distress could not teach them
providence, nor want industry. As animal food de
creased, their vegetable productions were not increas
ed. Their habits were stationary and unbending,
never changing with the change of circumstances.
There is a principle of repulsion in ceaseless activity,
operating through all their institutions, which prevents
them from appreciating or adopting any other modes of
life, or any other habits of thought or action, but those
which have descended to them from their ancestors."*
That the aboriginal population should decrease
under the operation of these causes, can excite no
surprise. Whether the tribes upon this continent
had attained the maximum of their population before
its discovery by Europeans, we have not now the
means of ascertaining ; it is certain, however, as well
from a consideration of their mode of life by Euro
peans, as from a careful examination of the earlier
narratives, that greatly as they exceeded their pre
sent numbers, they were yet thinly scattered over
the country. The ratio of diminution may have
been greater or less ; but there is no just reason to
believe, that any of the tribes has been increasing in
numbers at any period since they became known to
Europeans. This opinion is expressed by the super
intendents of Indian affairs, in the report submitted
to Congress, at its last session, by the war depart
ment ; and, from the favourable opportunities pos
sessed by those officers of acquiring correct informa
tion upon this subject, their opinion must carry with it
considerable authority. The whole amount of In
dian population within the United States, east ofthe
Mississippi, is estimated in this report at 105,060, and
is divided as follows :

Within the states of Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
Connecticut, and Virginia 
The state of New York 
Pennsylvania . 
North Carolina 
South Carolina 
Georgia  ¦
Tennessee 
Ohio 

Mississippi ....
Alabama ....
Indiana .....
Illinois .....
Territory of Michigan
Florida 

2,5734,820 300
3,100 300
5,000 1,000
1,877
23,400 19,200 4,050 5,900
29,450 4,000
105,060

* North American Review, vol. xxx. pp. 65 — 67.

It will be seen that, in the original states, the
primitive stock has been reduced to 16,093 indivi
duals, and that three fourths of the number now
surviving in the whole ofthe vast country east of the
river Mississippi, are found in the states of Alabama
and Mississippi, and in the territory of Michigan, where
the pressure upon them is now beginning to be felt,
and will bring with it the usual process of diminu
tion. In the same report, the number of Indians
west of the Mississippi is thus estimated :
Between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains . . 1 08,070
Within the ranges of the Rocky Mountains .... 20,000
West of the Rocky Mountains  80,000
Making a general aggregate of 313,130, within the Uni
ted States, extending over twenty-four degrees of lati
tude and fifty-eight degrees of longitude. And these
are the remnants of the primitive people, who, only
two centuries ago, possessed this vast country,
and who found in the sea, the lakes, the rivers,
and the forests, means of subsistence sufficient for
their wants.
From an early period, their rapid declension and ul
timate extinction were foreseen and lamented, and va
rious plans for their preservation and improvement
were projected and pursued. Many of them were
carefully taught at our seminaries of education, in the
hope that principles of morality and habits of indus
try would be acquired, and that they might stimulate
their countrymen by precept and example to a better
course of life. Missionary stations were established
among various tribes, where zealous and pious men
devoted themselves, with generous ardour, to the
task of instruction, as well in agriculture and the
mechanical arts, as in the principles of morality and
religion. The Roman Catholic church preceded
the Protestant in this labour of charity ; and the
Lettres Edifiantes are monuments of her zeal and
liberality. Unfortunately, they are monuments also
of unsuccessful and unproductive efforts. What
tribe has been civilized by all this expenditure of
treasure, and labour, and care? From the martyr
dom of Le Pere Brebeuf, in 1649, upon the shore of
Lake Huron, to the death of the last missionary, who
sacrificed himself in a cause as holy as it has proved
hopeless, what permanent effect has been produced 1
Year after year sanguine anticipations have been
formed, to be succeeded by disappointment and de
spondency. We are flattered with accounts of suc
cess, with explanations for the past, and hopes for the
future ; and this without the slightest intention to
deceive. But the subject itself is calculated to ex
cite these expectations. There are always indivi
duals attending these establishments who give fair

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

317

promise of permanent improvement and usefulness.
And as these prospects are blighted, others succeed
to excite the same hopes, and to end in the same
disappointment. The cause of this total failure
can not.be attributed to the nature ofthe experiment,
nor to the character, qualifications, or conduct, of
those who have directed it. The process and the
persons have varied, as experience suggested altera
tions in the one, and a spirit of generous self-devo
tion supplied the changes in the other. But there
seems to be some insurmountable obstacle in the
habits or temperament of the Indians, which has
heretofore prevented, and yet prevents, the success
of these labours. Whatever this may be, it appears
to be confined to the tribes occupying this part of the
continent. In Mexico and South America, a large
portion of the aboriginal race has accommodated it
self to new circumstances, and forms a constituent
part of the same society with their conquerors. Un
der the Spanish regime they existed as a degraded
cast ; but still they were sedentary, living under the
protection of the laws, and providing by labour for
their comfortable subsistence. In other parts of the
continent, particularly in California and Paraguay,
where the Spanish sway had but a nominal existence,
the' Jesuits succeeded in collecting the Indians into
regular societies, in improving their morals and con
dition, and in controlling and directing their conduct.
In the usual progress of conquest, where permanent
possession is retained, the victors and vanquished be
come connected together, and if they do not form one
people, they yet acknowledge obedience to the same
laws, and look to them for protection. But from the
St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico, under the French,
or British, or Spanish, or American rule, where is the
tribe of Indians, who have changed their manners,
who have become incorporated with their conquerors,
or who have exhibited any just estimate of the im
provements around them, or any wish to participate
in them?
* The Indians are becoming philologists and grammarians, and
exciting the wonder of the world, by the invention of letters. The
invention of the Cherokee alphabet has excited the astonishment
of the philosopher in this country and in Europe ; but as I have
not as yet seen any satisfactory account of the progress and histo
ry of this greatest effort of genius of the present day, I will state
what I know of it, from the lips of the inventor himself.
In the winter of 1828, a delegation ofthe Cherokees visited the
city of Washington, in order to make a treaty with the United
States, and among them was See-quah-yah, the inventor of the
Cherokee alphabet. His English name was George Guess; he
was a half-blood ; but had never, from his own account, spoken a
single word of English up to the time of his invention, nor since.
Prompted, by my own curiosity, and urged by several literary
friends, I applied to See-quah-yah, through the medium of two in
terpreters, one a half-blood, Capt. Rogers, and the other a full-blood
chief, whose assumed English name was John Maw, to relate to
Vol. II.— Nos. 63 & 64 2 S

The following statement from Sherwood's Ga
zetteer of Georgia, published in 1827, gives a more
favourable representation of the state of the Chero
kees, than the writer in the North American Review
will admit. " Within the last twenty years, the
Cherokees have rapidly advanced towards civiliza
tion. They now live in comfortable houses, chiefly
in villages, and cultivate large farms. They raise
large herds of cattle, which they sell for beef to the
inhabitants of neighbouring states. Many mechani
cal arts have been introduced among them. They
have carpenters and blacksmiths, and many of the
women spin and weave, and make butter and cheese.
The population, instead of decreasing, as is the case
generally with the tribes surrounded by the whites,
increases very rapidly. There are now 13,563 na
tives in the nation ; 147 white men and 73 white
women have intermarried with them. They own
1277 slaves. Total, 15,060 souls. Increase in the
last six years, 3,563. Their government is republi
can, and power is vested in a committee and council,
answering to our senate and house of representatives.
The members are elected once in two years. New
town is the seat of government. Their judges act
with authority, and prevent entirely the use of ardent
spirits during the sessions of their courts. The mis
sion at Spring Place was established in 1801. , Since
that time, nearly a dozen have been brought into
operation in various parts of the nation. The num
ber of children in the several missionary schools is
nearly 500, all learning the English language."
In reference to this and similar statements, the
Reviewer observes, " We are as unwilling to under
rate, as we should be to overrate, the progress made
by these Indians in civilization and improvement.
We are well aware, that the constitution of the Che
rokees, their press,, and newspaper, and alphabet,*
their schools, and police, have sent through all our
borders the glad tidings, that the long night of abo
riginal ignorance was ended, and that the day of
me, as minutely as possible, the mental operations and all the facts
in his discovery. He cheerfully complied with my request, and
gave very deliberate and satisfactory answers to every question ;
and was at the same time careful to know from the interpreters if
I distinctly understood his answers. No stoic could have been
more grave in his demeanour, than was See-quah-yah ; he pon
dered, according to the Indian custom, for a considerable time after
each question was put, before he made his reply, and often took a
whiff of his calumet, while reflecting on an answer. The details
of the examination are too long for insertion ; but the substance of
it was this : That he, See-quah-yah, was now about sixty-five years
old, but could not precisely say ; that in early life he was gay and
talkative ; and although he never attempted to speak in council
but once, yet was often, from the strength of his memory, his easy
colloquial powers, and ready command of his vernacular, story
teller of the convivial parly. His reputation for talents of every
kind gave him some distinction when he was quite young, so long

318

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

knowledge had dawned. Would that it were so.
None would rejoice more sincerely than we should.
But this great cause can derive no aid from exagge-
ago as St. Clair's defeat. In triis campaign, or some one that soon
followed it, a letter was found on the person of a prisoner, which
was wrongly read by him to the Indians. In some of their delibe
rations on this subject, the question arose among them, whether this
mysterious power of the talking leaf, was the gift of the Great
Spirit to the white man, or a discovery of the white man himself?
Most of his companions were of the former opinion, while he as
strenuously maintained the latter. ' This frequently became a sub
ject of contemplation with him afterwards, as well as many other
things which he knew, or had heard, that the white man could do ;
but he never sat down seriously to reflect on the subject, until a
swelling on his knee confined him to his cabin, and which at
length made him a cripple for life, by shortening the diseased leg.
Deprived of the excitements of war, and the pleasures of the
chase, in the long nights of his confinement, his mind was again
directed to the mystery of the power of speaking by letters ; the
very name of which, of course, was not to be found in his lan
guage. From the cries of wild beasts, from the talents of the
mocking-bird, from the voices of his children and his companions,
he knew that feelings and passions were conveyed by different
sounds, from one intelligent being to another. The thought struck
him to try to ascertain all the sounds in the Cherokee language.
His own ear was not remarkably discriminating, and he called to
his aid the more acute ears of his wife and children. He found
great assistance from them. When he thought that he had distin
guished all the different sounds in their language, he attempted to
use pictorial signs, images of birds and beasts, to convey these
sounds to others, or to mark them in his own mind. He soon
dropped this method, as difficult or impossible, and tried arbitrary
signs, without any regard to appearances, except such as might
assist him in recollecting them, and distinguishing them from each
other. At first, these signs were -very numerous ; and when he
got so far as to think his invention was nearly accomplished, he
had about two hundred characters in his alphabet. By the aid of
his daughter, who seemed to enter into the genius of his labours,
he reduced them, at last, to eighty-six, the number he now uses.
He then set to work to make these characters more comely to the
eye, and succeeded. As yet he had not the knowledge of the pen
as an instrument, but made his characters on a piece of bark, with
a knife or nail. At this time he sent to the Indian agent, or some
trader in the nation, for paper and pen. His ink was easily made
from some ofthe bark ofthe forest trees, whose colouring proper
ties he had previously known ; and after seeing the construction
of the pen, he soon learnt to make one ; but at first he made it
without a siit ; this inconvenience was, however, quickly removed
by his sagacity. His next difficulty was to make his invention
known to his countrymen ; for by this time he had become so ab
stracted from his tribe and their usual pursuits, that he was viewed
with an eye of suspicion. His former companions passed his wig
wam without entering it, and mentioned his name as one who was
practising improper spells, for notoriety or mischievous purposes ;
and he seems to think that he should have been hardly dealt with,
if his docile and unambitious disposition, had not been so generally
acknowledged by his tribe. At length he summoned some of the
most distinguished of his nation, in order to make his communica
tion to them ; and after giving them the best explanation of his
discovery that he could, stripping it of all supernatural influence,
he proceeded to demonstrate to them, in good earnest, that he had
made a discovery. His daughter, who was now his only pupil,
was ordered to go out of hearing, while he requested his friends
10 name a word or sentiment which he put down, and then she
was called in and read it to them ; then the father retired, and the
daughter wrote ; the Indians were wonder struck; but not entirely
satisfied. See-quah-yah then proposed, that the tribe should select
several youths from among their brightest young men, that he
might communicate the mystery to them. This was at length
agreed to, although there was some lurking suspicion of necro
mancy in the whole business. John Maw, (his Indian name I
have forgotten,) a full-blood, with several others, were selected for

rated representations ; from promises never to be
kept, and from expectations never to be realized.
The truth must finally come, and it will come with
this purpose. The tribes watched the youths for several months
with anxiety ; and when they offered themselves for examination,
the feelings of all were wrought up to the highest pitch. The
youths were separated from their master, and from each other,
and watched with great care. The uninitiated directed what the
master and pupil should write to each other, and these tests were
varied in such a manner, as not only to destroy their infidelity,
but most firmly to fix their faith. The Indians, on this, ordered a
great feast, and made See-quah-yah conspicuous at it. How
nearly is man alike in every age ! Pythagoras did the same on
the discovery of an important principle in geometry. See-quah-
yah became at once school-master, professor, philosopher, and a
chief. His countrymen were proud of his talents, and held him
in reverence as one favoured by the Great Spirit. The inventions
of early times were shrouded in mystery. See-quah-yah disdain
ed all quackery. He did not stop here, but carried his discoveries
to numbers. He of course knew nothing of the Arabic digits, nor
of the power of Roman letters in the science. The Cherokees had
mental numerals to one hundred, and had words for all numbers
up to that ; but they had no signs or characters to assist them in
enumerating, adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing. He
reflected upon this until he had created their elementary principle
in his mind ; but he was at first obliged to make words to express
his meaning, and then signs to explain it. By this process he soon
had a clear conception of numbers up to a million. His great dif
ficulty was at the threshold, to fix the powers of his signs accord
ing to their places. When this was overcome, his next step was
in adding up his different numbers in order to put down the frac
tion of the decimal, and give the whole number to his next place.
But when I knew him, he had overcome all these difficulties, and
was quite a ready arithmetician in the fundamental rules. This
was the result of my interview; and I can safely say, that I have
seldom met a man of more shrewdness than See-quah-yah, He
adhered to all the customs of his. country ; and when his associate
chiefs on tbe mission assumed our costume, he was dressed in all
respects like an Indian. See-quah-yah is a man of diversified
talents; he passes from metaphysical and philosophical investiga
tion to mechanical occupations, "with the greatest ease. The only
practical mechanics he was acquainted with, were a few bungling
blacksmiths, who could make a rough tomahawk, or tinker the
lock of a rifle; yet he became a white and silver smith, without
any instruction, and made spurs and silver spoons with neatness
and skill', to the great admiration of people of the Cherokee na
tion. See-quah-yah has also a great taste for painting. He mixes
his colours with skill ; taking all the art and science of his tribe
upon the subject, he added to it many chemical experiments of his
own, and some of them were very successful, and would be worth
being known to our painters. For his drawings he had no model
but what nature furnished, and he often copied them with astonish
ing faithfulness. His resemblances of the human form, it is true,
are coarse, but often spirited and correct ; and he gave .action, and
sometimes grace, to his representations of animals. He had never
seen a camel hair pencil, when he made use of the hair of wild
animals for his brushes. Some of his productions discover a con
siderable, practical knowledge of perspective ; but he could not
have formed rules for this. The painters in the early ages were
many years coming to a knowledge of this part of their art; and
even now they are more successful iD the art than perfect in the
rules of it. The manners of the American Cadmus are the most
easy, and his habits those of the most assiduous scholar, and his
disposition, is more lively than that of any Indian I eveV saw. He
understood and felt the advantages the white man had long enjoy
ed, of having the accumulations of every branch of knowledge,
from generation to generation, by means of a written language,
while the red man could only commit, his thoughts to uncertain
tradition. He reasoned correctly, when he urged this to his
friends as the cause why the red man had made so few advances
in knowledge in comparison with us,; and to remedy this was one
of his great aims, and one which he has accomplished beyond that

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

319

a powerful reaction. We hope that our opinion upon
this subject may be erroneous. But we have melan
choly forebodings. That a few principal men, who
can secure favourable cotton lands, and cultivate
them with slaves, will be comfortable and satisfied,
we may well believe. And so long as the large an
nuities received from the United States are applied
to the support of a newspaper, and to other objects,
more important to the rich than the poor, erroneous
impressions upon these subjects may prevail. But
.to form just conceptions of the spirit and objects of
these efforts, we must look at their practical opera
tion upon the community. It is here, if the facts
which have been stated to us are correct, and of
which we have no doubt, that they will be found
wanting. "The relative condition of the two races of men,
who yet divide this portion of the continent between
them, is a moral problem involved in much obscurity.
The physical causes we have described, exasperated
by the moral evils introduced by them, are sufficient
to account for the diminution and deterioration of
the Indians. But why were not these causes coun
teracted by the operation of other circumstances ? As
civilization shed her light upon them, why were they
blind to its beams 1 Hungry or naked, why did
they disregard, or regarding, why did they neglect,
those arts by which food and clothing could be pro
cured ? Existing for two centuries in contact with
a civilized people, they have resisted, and success
fully too, every effort to meliorate their situation, or
to introduce among them the most common arts of
life. Their moral and their intellectual condition
have been equally stationary. And in the whole
circle of their existence, it would be difficult to point
to a single advantage which they have derived from
their acquaintance with the Europeans. All this is
without a parallel in the history of the world. That
it is not to be attributed to the indifference or neglect
of the whites, we have already shown. There must
then be an inherent difficulty, arising from the insti
tutions, character, and condition of the Indians them
selves. It is easy, in contemplating the situation of
such a people; to perceive the difficulties to be en
countered in any effort to produce a radical change
in their condition. The fulcrum is wanting upon

of any other man living, or perhaps any other who ever existed in
a rude state of nature.
It perhaps may not be known that the government of the United
States had a fount of types cast for his alphabet ; and that a news
paper, printed partly in the Cherokee language, and partly in the
English, has been established at New Echota, and is characterized
Dy decency and good sense ; and thus many of the Cherokees are
able to Tead both languages. After putting these remarks to pa-

which the lever must be placed. They are content
ed as they are ; not contented merely, but clinging
with a death-grasp to their own institutions. This
feeling, inculcated in youth, strengthened in man
hood, and nourished in age, renders them inaccessi
ble to argument or remonstrance. To roam the
forests at will, to pursue their game, to attack their
enemies, to spend the rest of their lives in listless in
dolence, to eat inordinately when they have food, to
suffer patiently when they have none, and to be
ready at all times to die, — these are the principal oc
cupations of an Indian. But little knowledge of hu
man nature is necessary, to be sensible how unwilling
a savage would be to exchange such a life for the
stationary and laborious duties of civilized society.
Experience has shown, that the Indians are steadily
and rapidly diminishing. And the causes of this di
minution are yet in constant and active operation.
It has also been shown, that our efforts to stand be
tween the living and the dead," continues the writer
before mentioned, " to stay this tide which is spread
ing around them and over them, have long been.
fruitless, and are now hopeless. And equally fruit
less and hopeless are the attempts to impart to them,
in their present situations, the blessings of religion,
the benefits of science and the arts, and the advanta
ges of an efficient and stable government. The time
seems to have arrived, when a change in our princi
ples and practice is necessary ; when some new ef
fort must be made to meliorate the condition of the
Indians, if we would not be left without a living monu
ment of their misfortunes, or a living evidence of our
desire to repair them."
We hope, we may say we believe, from all we have
read on both sides of this controversy, that the North
American Review does, in fact, take too unfavourable
a view of the improvement which has taken place
among the Cherokees ; and that Christianity and ci
vilization have produced extensively beneficial re
sults, though, probably, not equal to the sincere but
sanguine representations of some of the advocates of
the Cherokee character.
The attention Of the people of the United States,
and, in some measure, of Europe, has been attracted
to this interesting subject with peculiar force at the
present time, in consequence of the controversy car

per, I had the pleasure of seeing the head chief of the Cherokees,
who confirmed the statement of See-quah-yah, and added, that he
was an Indian of the strictest veracity and sobriety. The western
wilderness is not only to blossom like the rose; but there, man
has started up, and proved that he has not degenerated since the
primitive days of Cecrops, and the romantic ages of wonderful ef
fort and god-like renown. — Knapp's Lectures on American Litera
ture.

320

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES'.

ried on between the state of Georgia and the Cherokee
nation residing within its limits. We have already
observed, that the civil and political relations exist
ing between the aborigines and the white inhabitants,
are such as the world affords no example of. In
other cases, the less civilized inhabitants have either
become the subjects of their conquerors, or have been
amalgamated with them ; but the North American
Indians have never intermingled with the whites,
and have been permitted by them to exist in a state
of almost independence, in the very heart of some of
their states. The Cherokees have retained possession
of the northwestern portion of the state of Georgia,
and not only decline to relinquish their title to it,
but have formed a constitutional government, as al
ready stated, among themselves, and claiming an en
tire exemption from the control of the laws and go
vernment ofthe state, have assumed all the essential
attributes of sovereignty, and appealed to the general
government to support them in that claim. The es
tablishment of this government, thus claiming to be
independent, and the probability that a similar policy
will be adopted by the other southern tribes, by
which means they may become permanently esta
blished in their present possessions, necessarily pre
sents to the states within whose limits they reside, a
serious question for consideration. It is evident, that
if this pretension be not resisted now, resistance here
after will be vain. It is one of those questions,
eminently practical, which a few years' acquiescence
would settle. What might now be the assertion of
a just and proper jurisdiction by the civilized com
munities, might then be an unjust claim, to be en
forced only by war and conquest. The following is
the argument of the writers already referred to on
this point : — " This demand is now made for the first
time, since the discovery of the continent. Writers
upon natural law, courts of high character and ju
risdiction, the practice of other nations, are all adverse
to it. We can discern no advantages which either
party can reasonably anticipate from such a measure.
There can be none to the Indians ; for if they are
anxious and prepared for a stable government, which
shall protect and encourage all, such governments
they will find in the states where they reside. What
has a Cherokee to fear from the operation of the laws
of Georgia 7 If he has advanced in knowledge and
improvement, as many sanguine persons believe and
represent, he will find these laws more just, better
administered, and far more equal in their operation,
than the regulations which the chiefs have establish
ed, and are enforcing. What Indian has ever been
injured by the laws of any state? We ask the

question without any fear of the answer. If these
Indians are too ignorant and barbarous to submit to
the state laws, or duly to estimate their value, they
are too ignorant and barbarous to establish and main
tain a government which shall protect its own citi
zens, and preserve the necessary relations and inter
course with its neighbours. And if there are any
serious practical objections to the operation of these
laws, growing out of the state of society among the
Indians, it would be easy for the state authorities to
make such changes and interpose such securities as
would protect them noAV, and lead them hereafter, if
any thing can lead them, to a full participation in
political rights. New York has acted upon this
principle, in authorizing the Brothertown Indians to
hold town meetings and elect town officers. No
doubt can exist of the disposition of the state legisla
tures thus to accommodate their laws to the actual
condition of the Indians. And in fact it is the crimi
nal, and not the civil code, from which they have
any thing to fear. The former extends to them all,
and at all times, and in its process, its prohibitions,
and its punishments, introduces regulations utterly at
variance with all they have seen, or heard, or be
lieved. The rights and remedies secured and pro
vided by the civil code would affect them less, as they
have little for them to operate upon, and the obliga
tion of a promise is not wholly unknown to them.
But the experiment has already been made, in many
of the states, of extending over them the action of
the criminal laws ; and, as we have seen, the gene
ral government has done the same, through the
whole vast extent of the Indian country, however
rude or barbarous may be the tribes inhabiting it, in
all cases where an injury has been committed against
a white man. We have yet to learn, that any in
justice has resulted from this legislation. But, if it
is difficult to perceive the advantages which the In
dian tribes would derive from these independent go
vernments, it is not difficult to foresee the mischiefs
they would produce to the states and people within
whose limits they might be formed. The progress
of improvement would be checked. Extensive tracts
of land would be held by the Indians in a state of na
ture. The continuity of settlements, and the com
munication between them, would be . interrupted.
Fugitives from labour and justice would seek shelter,
and sometimes find it, in these little sovereignties.
Questions of conflicting jurisdiction would frequent
ly occur, not easy to be determined ; for in vain
might we search for principle, analogy, or precedent,
by which to adjust them. There is already enough
of the imperium in imperio in our government.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

321

Another wheel is not wanted to render the machine
ry still more complicated. In the whole extent of
Christendom can a single instance be produced, where
a state has voluntarily permitted, within its acknow
ledged boundaries, the establishment of a government
independent of, and unconnected with its own 1"
While the Cherokees are endeavouring to carry
their point with a high hand, making it death for
any individual, or number of individuals, to agree to
sell or exchange any portion of their land without
consent of their new government, the legislature of
Georgia has intimated its intention not only to extend
its laws* over the Indian tribes, but ultimately to
compel their removal by force. The president of
the United States, however, assures them, that this
will not be permitted ; while he informs them also,
that, if they remain in the state of Georgia, they must
submit to its laws. " This is the course," says the
North American Review, " we had a right to expect,
and to which there can be no just objection. Let the
whole subject be fully explained to the Indians. Let
them know that the establishment of an independent
government is a hopeless project, which can not be
permitted, and which, if it could be permitted, would
lead to their inevitable ruin. Let the offer of a new
country be made to them, with ample means to reach
it and to subsist in it, with ample security for its
peaceful and perpetual possession, and with a pledge,
in the words of the secretary of war, ' that the most
enlarged and generous efforts, by the government,
will be made to improve their minds, better their
condition, and aid them in their efforts of self-govern
ment.' Let them distinctly understand, that those
who are not disposed to remove, but wish to remain
and submit to our laws, will, as the president has
told the Creeks, ' have land laid off for them and
their families, in fee.' When all this is done, no
consequences can affect the character of the govern
ment, or occasion regret to the nation. The Indians
would go, and go speedily, and with satisfaction. A
few perhaps might linger around the site of their
* In January, 1828, proceedings were had by the legislature
with regard to the course pursued by the United States, on ,the In
dian question, and a report on the subject of the Cherokee lands
was made to the legislature, and the committee recommended the
adoption of the following resolutions, among others: —
" Resolved, That the United States, in. failing to procure the
lands in controversy, as ' early' as the same could be done upon
' peaceable' and ' reasonable terms,' have palpably violated their
contract with Georgia, and are now bound, at all hazards, and
without regard to terms, to procure the said lands for the use of
Georgia. " Resolved, That the policy which has been pursued by the
United States towards the Cherokee Indians, has not been in good
faith towards Georgia ; and that as all the difficulties which now
exist to an extinguishment of the Indian title, have resulted alone

council-fires ; but almost as soon as the patents could
be issued to redeem the pledge made to them, they
would dispose of their possessions and rejoin their
countrymen. And even should these prefer ancient
associations to future prospects, and finally melt
away before our people and institutions, the result
must be attributed to causes which we can neither
stay nor control. If a paternal authority is exercised
over the aboriginal colonies, and just principles of
communication with them, and of intercommunica
tion among them, are established and enforced, we
may hope to see that improvement in their condition,
for which we have so long and so vainly looked.
" Impressed with the conviction, that a removal
from their present position, and from the vicinity of
the settlements to the regions beyond the Mississippi,
can alone preserve from final extinction the remnant
of the aboriginal population, a number of benevolent
men have associated themselves, and established a
society, under the appellation of ' The Indian Board,
for the Emigration, Preservation, and Improvement
of the Aborigines of America,' the objects of which
are distinctly indicated by this title. The society
avows its intention to afford to the emigrant Indians
all the necessary instruction in the arts of life and the
duties of religion,' and pledges itself to ' co-operate
with the federal government of the United States in
its operations on Indian affairs, and at no time to con
travene its laws.' The plan for their removal, esta
blishment, and gradual improvement, sketched by
Colonel M'Kenny, is just to ourselves, and liberal to
them ; offering a fair exchange of property, ensuring
present subsistence and future support, and holding
out rational prospects of melioration in their external
circumstances and their moral relations. 'It is pro
posed in the first place to give them a country, and to
secure it to them by the most ample and solemn
sanctions, suitable in all respects, in exchange for
theirs ; to pay them for all their improvements, and
see them, free of cost to their new homes ; to aid
them after their arrival, and protect them ; to put
from the acts and policy of the United States, it would be unjust
and dishonourable in them to take shelter behind those difficulties!
" Resolved, That all the lands appropriated and unappropriated,
which lie within the conventional limits of Georgia, belong to her
absolutely ; that the title is in her ; that the Indians are tenants at
her will, and that she may, at any time she pleases, determine that
tenancy by taking possession of the premises ; and that Georgia
has the right to extend her authority, and to coerce obedience to
them, from all descriptions of people, be they white, red, or Diack,
who may reside within her limits.
" Resolved, That Georgia entertains for the general government
so high a regard, and is so solicitous to do no act that can disturb
the public tranquillity, that she will not attempt to enforce her rights
by violence, until all other means of redress fail."

322

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

over them at once the framework of a government, and
to fill this up, as their advancement in civilization
may require it ; to establish schools over their country
for the enlightening of the rising generation, and to
give them the gospel. In fine, it is proposed to place
them in a territorial relation to us in all respects, and
in the enjoyment of all the privileges consequent upon
such a relation, civil, political, and religious. Thus
will they attain an elevation to which, in their pre
sent relations, they can never aspire. And then would
new influences be created, ennobling in their tenden
cies, and animating in their effects. Under these
the Indian would rise to the distinction to which he
has always been a stranger, and live and act with
reference to the corresponding honours and benefits
of such a state.' "
It appears that there is still an extensive and de
cided difference of opinion on this subject among the
patriotic and benevolent in the United States. On
this point, Colonel M'Kenney very candidly observes,
"That men, and good men, should differ in their
views of what ought to be done for the preservation
and improvement of our Indians, is natural. We
know there are men, and good men, who are opposed
to the emigration of the Indians. We respect them
and their motives. They seek to save and civilize
these people. We profess to aim at the accomplish
ment of the same end, and differ only as to the mode.
We once entertained similar views of this question
with them, and thought it practicable to preserve and
elevate the character of our Indians, even in their
present anomalous relations to the states, but it was
' distance that lent enchantment to the view.' We
have since seen for ourselves, and that which before
looked like flying clouds, we found, on a nearer ap
proach, to be impassable mountains. We believe, if
the Indians do not emigrate, and fly the causes which
are fixed in themselves, and which have proved so
destructive in the past, they must perish. We might
distrust our conclusions, though derived from personal
investigation, did not experience confirm them. But,
alas ! it is the admonition of experience, more than
any thing else, that claims and urges us to employ all
honourable means to persuade these hapless people to
acquiesce in the policy which is proposed to them."
" We cannot enter," says the reviewer, " into a full
* Although the following passages from the interesting pamphlet
of Mr. Onley give a very afflicting view of the present state of the
Indian tribes in the United States, we apprehend them to be calcu
lated to correct notions which have been taken up onj too slight
grounds, while they are of a character too descriptive to be
omitted : —
" You have your missionaries atGayhead, Stockbridge, Brother-
town, Oneida, among the Tuscaroras, Tonnewantas, Senecas,
Wyandots, Ottawas, Potawatamies, Miamies, &c. ; but the most

examination of the effect of planting colonies of In
dians in the western regions. From the retrospective
view furnished by their history, it is evidently the
only means in our power, or in theirs, which offers
any probability of preserving them from utter extinc
tion. As a dernier resort therefore, apart from the
intrinsic merits of the scheme itself, it has every claim
to a fair experiment. But when viewed in connexion
with the peculiar notions and mode of life of the In
dians, the prospect it offers is consolatory to every
reflecting person. Upon this subject we shall adduce
the opinion of an able and dispassionate labourer in
the great field of aboriginal improvement. The Rev.
Mr. M'Coy has for many years devoted himself, with
an industry equalled only by his zeal and disinterest
edness, to the life and labour of a missionary. Ten
years since, he commenced a school for the instruc
tion of youth, at Fort Wayne, in Indiana, but the
progress of the settlements soon compelled him to re
tire, and he removed his establishment to the St. Jo
seph of Lake Michigan. He here founded an insti
tution for the benefit of the Indians, and adopted a
course of procedure well calculated to be permanently
beneficial to them. The youths were taught reading,
writing, and arithmetic, and also agriculture, the me
chanical arts, and domestic duties. Their mental
discipline, moral advancement, and progress in the
business and occupations of life, went on together.
The principal and his coadjutors were indefatigable
in their application, and sanguine in their expectations,
and for a time every thing promised success. And
we ourselves, from a personal examination of the es
tablishment, augured favourably of its permanence
and usefulness. We have never seen a similar insti
tution managed with more purity or judgment. But
the novelty soon wore off, the Indians became dissa
tisfied,, the institution has declined, and Mr. M'Coy is
convinced, that nothing but removal, and speedy and
entire removal, can save from utter ruin those who
have been taught, or those who are untaught. Du
ring the year 1828, he repaired to the country west
of the Mississippi, to examine its adaptation to the pur
poses of the Indians, and has returned, satisfied with
the prospect it offers, and he is now directing his efforts
to procure their emigration.* Mr. M'Coy, from per
sonal observation, describes the country west of Mis-

they can do in the present posture of affairs is to soften, as it were,
the pillow of the dying. They have been instrumental in benefit
ing a few ; nevertheless, in a national point of view, all these
tribes, as well as others near at hand, west of Lake Michigan and
west of the Mississippi river, continue to dwindle, — they are posi
tively perishing, and perishing rapidly.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

323

souri and Arkansas, as suitable for the colonization and
permanent residence of the Indians. 'This country,'
he says, ' is generally high, healthy, rich, its extent ade
quate to the purposes under consideration, and the climate
desirable.' He approves the general plan originally
submitted by Mr. Monroe and Mr. Calhoun, and recom
mended anew by the present executive and the secretary
of war, of removing, with their own consent, the various
tribes to that region, and establishing over them such a
government as will protect, and restrain, and improve
them. If the conviction of its importance should lead
to its adoption, and to the voluntary acquiescence of the
Indians, it would be easy to regulate hereafter the practi
cal details of the subject, and to accommodate them to
the progress and prospects of the migrating colonists and
of the permanent settlements formed by them."
Had the English historian of the United States con
fined himself to the manners, customs, history and char
acter of the Indians, instead of discussing their treatment,
and the policy of it, the whole article would have been
more acceptable to his readers on this side of the water.
These things are concerns of our own, and should not be
interfered with by foreigners. . In future ages, the anti
quarian may be allowed to call them up, but not while
the subjects are agitated among ourselves., We shall
call the attention of the reader to a few characteristics of
the sons of the forest, and advert to a few passages of
their history.
" Prior to their intercourse with Europeans, the weap
ons of the Indians were bows and arrows, clubs, toma
hawks, and spears of wood, curiously wrought with stones,
shells, or other sharply-pointed implements. The toma
hawks, spears, and arrows, were generally edged with
stones, bones, or other materials that could be shaped
to an acute point. For the defence of their persons,
they had targets, fabricated of the bark of trees and other
flexile substances. The bark of the small shrub called
moose wood, which was plentifully found in the woods,
furnished excellent cordage, and a sort of wild hemp was
used for the same purpose. After they began to traffic
with the Europeans, their rude weapons were laid aside
for those of iron or other metals ; and before the com
mencement of the war with Philip, though the trade was
strictly restrained by the government of the provinces,
the Indians had obtained many fire-arms, and used them
with dexterity.
" In the construction of their canoes, which were of the
highest importance in many of their expeditions, as well
as their ordinary business, they were singularly curious :
these were fabricated from the bark of certain trees, gen
erally of the white birch, or hollowed out of the trunks
of soft timber, by burning and scraping with their rude

implements. The former, though they required skill in
the workman, were not so difficult in their construction
as the log canoe ; they were ingeniously shaped and cu
riously sewed together with roots, and besmeared with
gums of various trees to render them tight, and strength
ened within with ribs, or transverse pieces. A bark of
this kind, sufficient for the transportation of five or six
Indians, was portable on the back of a single man ; and
in this manner they were carried with facility over the
portages between rivers and lakes.
" The construction of the log canoe required much la
bour, as well as patience and perseverance. A large tree
was to be felled and hollowed out by fire, or by their im
perfect tools, or with both united. Roger Williams, who
had many opportunities of observing their modes of con
struction, says, ' I have seen a native go into the woods
with bis hatchet, carrying only a basket of corn, and
stones to strike fire ; when he had felled his tree, and
made a little house or shed of bark, he puts fire and
follows the burning in many places ; his porn he boils,
and hath his brook by him, and sometimes angles for
a little fish ; but so he continues his burning and hew
ing, until he hath, within ten or twelve days, finished his
boat.' " The food of the natives was principally obtained from
the game and fish with which the country abounded.
But they cultivated in the intervals considerable quanti
ties of corn, beans, pumpkins, and squashes ; the forest
furnished a great variety of nuts and other fruits, which,
in the sale of their lands to the English, they generally
reserved for their own use. Indian corn was an impor
tant article ; this, after being parched and pounded to a
coarse meal, and moistened with water, was called noke-
hick, and eaten on all occasions, when animal food could
not be procured, or expedition forbid the time necessary
for more protracted cookery. On all excursions, parched
corn was carried in small baskets, or sacks, and was a
sure preservative against famine.
" Various were their devices for taking their large game.
One was the constructing of slight fences of brush, in
two lines, wide at one extremity, and converging at a point
at the other, where was a narrow opening. Here the
huntsman placed himself, under some cover, and shot the
game as it passed through. Sometimes a curious kind of
trap was contrived at the opening, by bending down a
flexible staddle, to which was attached a snare for seizing
the animal. When caught in this trap, his struggles dis
engaged the staddle, and suspended him in the air. A
mare belonging to one of the early settlers, straying in the
woods, was caught in one of these traps and raised into
tbe air ; the Indians discovered her, and observing the
shoes upon her feet, at once concluded that she belonged

324

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

to the English, and running with great rapidity, told them
their squaw horse was hanging to a tree.
"Fish were an important article of food, and were taken
with nets, hooks, and long spears. With the latter they
supplied themselves with shad and salmon in abundance,
as they ascended the cataracts of the rivers, in the spring
season. The contrivance was the following: The ex
tremity of the horn of a deer, or other animal, having a
cavity at one end, and sharply pointed at the other, was
loosely placed upon the end of the spear ; a cord attached
to the horn was stretched along the shaft, and held in the
hand that directed the stroke. On plunging the point into
the fish, the spear was drawn a little back, and the horn,
slipping off, turned across the perforation, and the fish was
drawn from the water.
" The skill with which the Indians directed their course
in the pathless forests, as well as their perseverance and
rapidity, were astonishing. 'I have,' says Roger Wil
liams, ' known many of them run between four-score and
a hundred miles, in a summer's day, and back within
two.' In travelling, ' I have been guided by them twen
ty, thirty, and forty miles, through the woods, on a straight
course, out of any path. When the English first came to
this country,' adds he, ' it was admirable to see what
paths their naked feet had made in the wilderness, in the
most stony and rocky places.'
" For their apparel, the Indians were indebted to the
moose, deer, bear, beaver, otter, fox, raccoon, and some
other animals. The skin of the deer was an important
material: these, when dressed, furnished a pliable cover,
and were much worn. But their clothing was but imper
fectly fitted to their bodies, and some parts were left un
covered. After the arrival of the English, the natives
very readily exchanged their fur dresses for woollen
blankets, and other clothes of European manufacture, and
in this change the English found a profitable trade.
"For travelling in cold seasons, they wore a rude kind
of shoe, called a mockason, which was fabricated from
moose and deer skins, gathered to shape the feet, by
sinews of animals; but they were a poor defence for the
feet in wet weather. In travelling in deep snows, they
had recourse to snow-shoes or rackets. A light, flexible
piece of walnut, or other wood, was bent into an elliptical
form, terminating in a point behind ; two light pieces of
wood extended across the shoe, for the purpose of
strengthening the bow, affording also a rest for the foot,
and the whole space included within the bow, was inter
laced with thongs of deer or moose hide, in a reticulated
manner. The foot, resting upon the cross-bars, was lash
ed so as to confine it to the shoe. Owing to its elasticity,
the strides of the traveller were much greater than those
usually made on a firm surface without them. Habitu

ated from their youth to this mode of travelling, the In
dians were dexterous in the use of the snow-shoe, and, in
the depth of winter, performed marches truly astonishing.
"In their winter expeditions, their bivouac, or night
camp, was in a swamp, or other thick wood, where they
were shielded from the winds and storms. Usually the snow
was cleared away, and their fires kindled upon the earth,
around which, boughs of evergreens, such as hemlock
and fir, were spread upon the sloping sides of the exca
vation. Upon these boughs, wrapped in their skins, or
blankets, they passed the coldest nights, without suffering
any inconvenience. In many cases, they dispensed with
their fires, and lay upon the snow with no covering ex
cept their furred robes, and not unfrequently, in the morn
ing, found themselves covered with a new supply, fallen
in the night ; and in this manner it is said they reposed
very comfortably."
The eloquence of the Indians is a subject more often
talked of than understood. The Indian orators of the
wilds of this country have had a wonderful influence on
peace and war, and in every thing relating to the welfare
of their tribes. I have taken great pains to examine
those who have appeared in our cities as the orators of
the deputations of different Indian nations, and the supe
riority of these over others of their tribes was distinctly
visible. Seldom was there one among the Indian orators
under forty or fifty years of age, and many much older.
In general, they were well-made men, of a powerful
voice, and of ready delivery. The accounts given by
themselves, and by others, of their education, were very
similar in the different tribes. Each young warrior, when
he had returned from a battle or an embassy, had a right,
and in fact was expected, to give a minute account of
every thing he had seen or done. From these specimens
of speaking, the sagacious sons of the forest judge with
great shrewdness of the respective merits of the aspirants
for distinction. The best speakers are encouraged, and
selected for other enterprises. To improve their minds,
they listen hours together to the historical legends of the
aged warrior and patriot, and treasure up the events he
relates, and the sentiments he utters. The student in
oratory is careful to remember the best figures of rhetoric
which are used by the aged in illustrating their senti
ments ; hence a set of phrases have descended among
them for ages, such as to bury the hatchet, to smoke the
calumet of peace. These and many other phrases have
become fixtures in their language, and have no doubtful
meaning. In times of peace, these orators, or rather
those preparing to take that high office, travel and visit
other tribes. The most intelligent of them were selected
for this purpose. The Lenni-Lenapes were, in former
times, considered the Athenians of North American In-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

325

dians, and many youths of other tribes were found among
them, learning their language, and making themselves
masters of their traditions. The Foxes are now visited
as the Lenni-Lenapes were in past ages, as possessing a
language of a more general character than that of other
nations. American history furnishes us with many instances of
eloquence among Indian orators. There is a lofty tone
in the eloquence of the red man, that surpasses the self-
possession and confidence of an orator in the civilized
world. Like Logan, they would not turn on their heels
to save themselves from martyrdom. Instances of noble
bearing are found in every history of their wars. Philip,
the king of the Wampanoags, was not only a great war
rior, but a great orator. He was the Demosthenes of the
woods, who struggled with all his might for his country,
and was equally unsuccessful. Philip was surrounded by
great men. Nanunthenoo, the head sachem of the Nar
ragansetts, was taken by Captain Dinsmore in the war of
1676. He was son to the patriotic Miantonomoh, and
inherited the pride and eloquence of his father. He
Would not accept his life, when it was offered on the con
dition that he should make peace with the English. When
he was informed that they were determined to put him to
death, he said, " I like it well. I shall die before my
heart is soft, or shall have spoken any thing unworthy of
myself." The speeches of the Indians of our day are equal to
any which have been recorded by our fathers. Speci
mens of rare eloquence have been witnessed in our times.
The Winnebagoes and Minomines have been distinguish
ed by their speeches to the president of the United States.
The interview between the Winnebagoes and Mr. Adams
(then president) was impressive. The Indians had en
tertained the president and his cabinet, the day previous
to their introduction, with a war dance, which was ex
pressive of the changes and passions of war. The In
dians, fifteen or sixteen in number, were led into the hall
of audience at the president's house, and introduced to
him, and gravely took their seats^ After a silence of
some time, the aged chief, almost entirely bald, said to
have seen ninety winters, rose, and took his stand in front
of the president, and made a few remarks respecting his
age, and his happiness in seeing his great father, and con
cluded by observing that the orator of the tribe would ad
dress him more largely., and then retired. The orator ap
proached to within thirty feet of the president, threw off
his blanket from his shoulders, and took it on his left arm,
exhibiting a manly chest and sinewy arms. After look
ing around for a moment, he began : — " Great father, I
was not born a chief, but was made one hy my tribe for
my abilities. I never was drunk, or ever told a false-
Vol. II.— Nos. 63 & 64. 2 T

hood. Give me your ear; I will not deceive you. We
have come a long journey to say to you that bad men
have told lies about the' Winnebagoes, and 'to show you
our hearts ; look into them ; we know you are wise," &.c.
The whole interview was conducted with great ceremony,
each Indian keeping his place with the exactness of the
same number of courtiers at a presentation to the king.
After the interview, presents of pistols, swords, and rifles,
were made to the delegation by the president ; and all of
them went to their lodgings, and became intoxicated in a
carousal, the orator alone excepted ; he remained perfect
ly sober, and assisted the keeper to prevent the Indians
from doing themselves any harm. Their ferocity of
character is fully developed in their moments of intoxica
tion. I once heard Red Jacket, after rising from a fit of
inebriation, curse, with most sincere and passionate con
trition, the use of ardent spirits. He portrayed the whole
race of red men as sinking under it faster than the arms
of their enemies could destroy them.
" Few Indians' names have been oftener repeated than
that of Logan, and yet of scarcely any individual of his
race is the history which has reached us less complete.
He was a chief of the Six Nations-^a Cayuga — but re
sided during most of his life in a western settlement,
either at Sandusky or upon a branch of the Scioto — there
being at the former location, a few years before the revo
lution, about three hundred warriors, and about sixty at
the latter.
" Logan was the second son of Shikellimus ; and this is
the same person whom Heckewelder describes as ' a re
spectable chief of the Six Nations, who resided at Sha-
mokin (Pennsylvania), as an agent, to transact business be
tween them and the government of the state.' In 1747,
at a time when the Moravian missionaries were the object
of much groundless hatred and accusation, Shikellimus in
vited some of them to settle at Shamokin, and they did
so. When Count Zinzendorff and Conrad Weiser visit
ed that place, several years before, they were very hospi
tably entertained by the chief, who came out to meet
them (says Loskiel) with a large, fine melon, for which
the count politely gave him his fur cap in exchange ; and
thus commenced an intimate acquaintance. He was a
shrewd and sober man, — not addicted to drinking, like
most of his countrymen, because ' he never wished to be
come a fool.' Indeed, he built his house on pillars, for
security against the drunken Indians, and used to ensconce
himself within it on all occasions of riot and outrage. He
died in 1749, attended in his last moments by the good
Moravian bishop Zeisberger, in whose presence, says Los
kiel, ' he fell happily asleep in the Lord.'
" Logan inherited the talents of his father, but not his
prosperity. Nor was this altogether his own fault. He

326

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took no part, except that of peace-making, in the French
and English war of 1760, and was ever before and after
wards looked upon as emphatically the friend of the white
man.^ But never was kindness rewarded like his.
" In the spring of 1774, a robbery and murder occur
red in some of the white settlements on the Ohio, which
were charged to the Indians, though perhaps not justly, for
it is well known that a large number of civilized adven
turers were traversing the frontiers at this time, who some
times disguised themselves as Indians, and who thought
little more of killing one of that people than of shooting
a buffalo. A party of these men, land-jobbers and
others, undertook to punish the outrage in this case, ac
cording to their custom, as Mr. Jefferson expresses it, in a
summary way.
- " Colonel Cresap, a man infamous for the many mur
ders he had committed on those much injured people, col
lected a party, and proceeded down the Kenhawa in quest
of vengeance. Unfortunately, a canoe of women and
children, with one man only, was seen coming from the
opposite shore, unarmed, and not at all suspecting an at
tack from the whites. Cresap and his party concealed
themselves on the bank of the river, and the moment the
canoe reached the shore, singled out their objects, and, at
one fire, killed every person in it. This happened to be
tlie family of Logan.
" It was not long after this that another massacre took
place, under still more aggravated circumstances, not far
from the present site of Wheeling, Virginia, — a consider
able party of the Indians being decoyed by the whites,
and all murdered, with the exception of a little girl.
Among these, too, was both a brother of Logan, and a
sister, and the delicate situation of the latter increased a
thousand fold both the barbarity ofthe crime and the rage
of the survivors of the family.
"The vengeance of the chieftain was indeed provoked
beyond endurance ; and he accordingly distinguished him
self by his daring and bloody exploits in the war which
new ensued, between the Virginians on the one side, and
a combination mainly of Shawanees, Mingoes, and Dela
wares, on the other. The fqrmer of these tribes were par
ticularly exasperated by the unprovoked murder of one of
their favourite chiefs, Silver-heels, who had in the kindest
manner undertaken to escort several white traders across
the woods from the Ohio to Albany, a distance of nearly
two hundred miles.
¦" The civilized party prevailed, as usual. A decisive
battle was fought upon the 10th of October, of the year
last 'named, on Point Pleasant, at the mouth of the Great
Kenhawa in West-Virginia, between the confederates,
commanded by Logan, and one thousand Virginian rifle
men, constituting the left wing of an army led by Gov

ernor Dunmore against the Indians of the North-West.,
This engagement has, by some annalists, — who, however,
have rarely given the particulars of it, — been called the
most obstinate ever contested with the natives ; and we
therefore annex an ofiicial account of it, which has fortu
nately been brought to light within a few years.
"'Monday morning, [the 10th,] about half an hour be
fore sunrise, two of Capt. Russell's company discovered
a large party of Indians about a mile from camp ; one of
which was shot down by the Indians. The other made
his escape, and brought in the intelligence ; two or three
minutes after, two of Capt. Shelby's men came in and
confirmed the account.
" 'Col. Andrew Lewis, being informed thereof, immediate
ly ordered out Col. Charles Lewis to take the command
of one hundred and fifty men, of the Augusta troops ;
and with him went Capt. Dickinson, Capt. Harrison, Capt.
Wilson, Capt. John Lewis of Augusta, and Capt. Lock-
ridge, which made the first division. Col. Fleming was
ordered to take command of one hundred and fifty more,
consisting of Botetrout, Bedford and Fincastle troops —
viz. Capt. Bufort of Bedford, Capt. Love of Botetrout,
and Capt. Shelby and Capt. Russell of Fincastle, — which
made the second division. Col. Charles Lewis's division
marched to the right, some distance from the Ohio ; Col.
Fleming, with his division, up the bank of the Ohio, to
the left. Col. Lewis's division had not marched quite
half a mile from camp, when, about sunrise, an attack
was made on the front of his division, in a most vigorous
manner, by the united tribes of Indians, Shawanees, Del
awares, Mingoes, Iaways, and of several other nations, in
number not less than eight hundred, and by many thought
to be a thousand. In this heavy attack Col. Lewis re
ceived a wound which in a few hours occasioned his
death, and several of his men fell on the spot ; in fact,
the Augusta division was forced to give way to the heavy
fire of the enemy. In about a minute after the attack on
Col. Lewis's division, the enemy engaged the front of
Col. Fleming's division, on the Ohio ; and in a short time
the colonel received two balls through his left arm, and
one through his breast, and after animating the officers
and soldiers, in a spirited manner, to the pursuit of victo
ry, retired to camp.
" ' The loss of the brave colonels from the field was
sensibly felt by the officers in particular ; but, the Augusta
troops being shortly after reinforced from camp by Col.
Field, with his company, together with Capt. M'Dowel,
Capt. Mathews and Capt. Stuart, from Augusta, and
Capt. Arbuckle and Capt. M'Clenahan, from Botetrout,
the enemy, no longer able to maintain their ground, was
fdrced to give way till they were in a line with the troops
of Col. Fleming, left in action on the bank of Ohio. In

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327

this precipitate retreat Col. Field was killed. Capt. Shel
by was then ordered to take the command. During this
time, it being now twelve o'clock, the action continued
extremely hot. The close underwood, and many steep
banks and logs, greatly favoured their retreat, and the bra
vest of their men made the best use of them, whilst
others were throwing their dead into the Ohio and carry
ing off their wounded.
" ' After twelve o'clock, the action, in a small degree,
abated ; but continued, except at short intervals, sharp
enough till after one o'clock. Their long retreat gave
them a most advantageous spot of ground, from whence
it appeared to the officers so difficult to dislodge them,
that it was thought most advisable to stand as the line was
then formed, which Was about a mile and a quarter in
length, and had till then sustained a constant and equal
weight of the action, from wing to wing. It was till
about half an hour of sunset they continued firing on us
scattering shots, which we returned to their disadvantage ;
at length, night coming" on, they found a safe retreat.
They had not the satisfaction of carrying off any of our
men's scalps, save one or two stragglers, whom they kill
ed before the engagement. Many of their dead they
scalped, rather than we should have them ; but our troops
scalped upwards pf twenty of those who were first killed.
It is beyond a doubt their loss in number far exceeds ours,
which is considerable.'
" The Virginians lost in this action two of their colo
nels, four captains, many subordinate officers, and about
fifty privates killed, besides a much larger number wound
ed. The governor himself was not engaged in the bat
tle, being at the head of the right wing of the same
army, a force of fifteen hundred men, who were at this
time on their expedition against the towns of some of the
hostile tribes in the North- West.
" It was at the treaty ensuing upon this battle that the
following speech was delivered, — sufficient to render the
name of Logan famous for many a century. It came by
the hand of a messenger, sent (as Mr. Jefferson states)
that the sincerity of the negotiation might not be distrust
ed on account of the absence of so distinguished a war
rior as himself.
" ' I appeal to any white man to say, if he ever entered
Logan's cabin hungry, and he gave him not meat ; if he
ever came cold and naked, and he clothed him not. Dur
ing the course of the last long and bloody war, Logan re
mained idle in his cabin, an advocate for peace. Such
was my love for the whites, that my countrymen pointed
as they passed and said, ' Logan is the friend of white
men.' I had even thought to have lived with you, but
for the injuries of one man. Colonel Cresap, the last
spring, in cold blood, and unprovoked, murdered all the

relations of Logan, not sparing even my women and
children. There runs not a drop of my blood in the
veins of any living creature. This called on me for re
venge. I have sought it : I have killed many : I have
fully glutted my vengeance. For my country, I rejoice
at the beams of peace. But do not harbour a thought that
mine is the joy of fear. Logan never felt fear. He will
not turn on his heel to save his life. Who is there to
mourn for Logan ? — Not one ! '
THE ELOQUENCE OF THE PROPHET.
" Father ! — Jt is three years since I first began with
that system of religion which I now practise. The
white people and some of the Indians were against me ;
but I had no other intention but to introduce among the
Indians those good principles of religion which the white
people profess. I was spoken badly of by the white
people, who reproached me with misleading the In
dians ; but I defy them to say that I did any thing
amiss. " Father ! — I was told that you intended to hang me.
When I heard this, I intended to remember it, and tell
my father, when I went to see him, and relate to him the
truth. "I heard, when I settled on the Wabash, that my
father, the governor, had declared that all the land be
tween Vincennes and Fort Wayne was the property of
the Seventeen Fires.
" I also heard that you wanted to know, my father,
whether I was God or man ; and that you said, if I was
the former, I should not steal horses. I heard this from
Mr. Wells, but I believe it originated with himself.
" The Great Spirit told me to tell the Indians, that he
had made them and made the world — that he had placed
them on it to do good, and not evil.
" I told all the red-skins that the way they were in
was not good, and that they ought to abandon it. I said
that we ought to consider ourselves as one man, but to
live agreeable to our several customs, the red people after
their mode, and the white people after theirs. Particu
larly that they should not drink whisky ; that it was not
made for them, but the white people, who alone knew
how to use it ; that it is the cause of all the mischiefs
which the Indians suffer ; and that they must always fol
low the directions of the Great Spirit, and we must listen
to him, as it was he that has made us.
" Brothers ! — Listen to nothing that is bad. Do not
take up the tomahawk, should it be offered by the British,
or by the Long-Knives. Do not meddle with any thing
that does not belong to you, but mind your own business,
and cultivate the ground, that your women and your
children may have enough to live on. I now inform you

328

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that it is our intention to live in peace with our father and
his people forever.
, " My father ! — I have informed you what we mean to
do, and I call the Great Spirit to witness the truth of my
declaration. The religion which I have established for
the last three years, has been attended to by the different
tribes of Indians in this part of the world. Those In
dians were- once different people : they are now but one :
they are all determined to practise what I have communi
cated to them, that has come immediately from the Great
Spirit through me.
" Brother ! — I speak to you as a warrior. You are
one. But let us lay aside this character, and attend to
the care of our children, that they may live in comfort
and peace. We desire that you will join us for the pres
ervation of both red and white people. Formerly, when
we lived in ignorance, we were foolish ; but now, since,
we listen to the voice of the Great Spirit, we are happy.
" I have listened to what you have said to us. You
have promised to assist us. I now request you, in behalf
of all the red people, to use your exertions to prevent the
sale of liquor to us. We are all well pleased to hear you
say that you will endeavour to promote our happiness.
We give you every assurance that we will follow the- dic
tates of the Great Spirit.
" We are all well pleased with the attention that you
have showed us ; also with the good intentions of our
father, the president. If you give us- a few articles, such
as needles, flints, hoes, powder, and other things, we shall
be able to take the animals that afford us meat with pow
der and ball. "
SOME PASSAGES IN THE HISTORY OP THE INDIANS.
Philip's War.
" Depredations were made on the eastern towns in Mas
sachusetts, and the war was carried to the interior towns.
Philip had roused all the tribes within many hundred
miles of his kingdom. Early in the spring of 1676, the
Indians were scouring the settlements on Connecticut
River. Those tribes that did not come into the views ofi
Philip, were considered by him as enemies, the Mo
hawks among others. Philip and his men were at first
successful, but he soon began to meet with reverses ; his
troops were repulsed at Hadley. Talcot, Turner, and
other brave officers, with small forces, cut up the Indians
in all directions, and gave Philip no rest. Still the great
chieftain was unsubdued.
" Thus hunted and attacked in every direction, and
straitened for provisions, the Indians became disheartened ;
large parties continued to return to Narraganset and the
adjacent country, and many came in and surrendered to

the English. But the war continued to rage in the Plym
outh quarter, where the veteran Capt. Church now per
formed the most gallant services. He penetrated the In
dian country, destroyed their lodges, captured their women
and children, killed their warriors, and spread desolation
and terror, far and wide.
"Philip, though unable to find a place of safety, still
kept up his haughty spirit, and, disdaining submission,
continued his hostilities with persevering energy. His
allies, who held out at the northward, were less active^ and
began to. flee in various directions; and the people on
Connecticut River now found some respite from blood
and carnage. 
" Major Talcot, after his return from his expedition up
the Connecticut, having recruited his force, was ordered
to take a station at Westfield, in Massachusetts, and seize
any opportunity, that- might offer, for attacking the fugi
tives. Not long after his arrival at that place, the trail
of about two hundred Indians was discovered in the vi
cinity shaping towards the Hudson. Talcot immediately
took the trail, and pressed on to overtake the Indians, and,
on the third day, discovered them encamped on the west
bank of Housatonic River, in the most perfect securi
ty. Being late in the day, he resolved to postpone an
attack until next morning, and, drawing back, lay upon
his arms in the most;: profound silence. Towards the
dawn of day, he formed his troops into two divisions, one
to pass the river below the Indians, make a detour, and
attack them in their rear, while the other was to approach
by a direct route opposite to their camp, and open a fire
across the river the moment the attack commenced on
the opposite side. The plan was partially frustrated.
One of the Indians left the camp in the night, and pro
ceeded down the river for the purpose of taking fish, and
as the troops who had crossed the river, as had been or
dered, were advancing to the attack, he discovered them,
and gave the usual cry, Awanux ! Awanux! on which
he was instantly shot. Talcot, now opposite to the In
dian camp, hearing) the report, instantly poured in a vol
ley, as the i Indians were rising from, their slumbers. A
complete panic ensued, and they fled in confusion into
the woods, followed by Talcot ; and most who escaped the
first fire made good their retreat. The division below
was too far distant to share in the victory. Twenty-five
Indians were left on the ground, and twenty were made
prisoners ; and among the former was the sachem of Qua-
boag. Talcot lost but one, and be a Mohegan.
" Soon after this affair, most of the remaining Nipmuck,
Nashaway, Hadley, Springfield, and Pocumtuck Indians
fled from their stations, either to the Mohekannucks, on
the Hudson, the Pennacooks on the Merrimack, or
to Canada ; and a few joined the Schaghticokes, at the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

329

mouth of Hoosack River, in the province of New
York. " Meanwhile the war continued in the south-east quarter
of New England, under' the desperate Philip ; but the
gallant Church and other officers gave him little rest.
He was hunted and1 driven fronr his covert places, his
chief men, wife, and children, killed or captured; but he
still continued firm,1 and, secreting himself with a small
force in the recesses of deep swamps, refused to submit.
At length an Indian, whose brother had been shot by
Philip for urging him to make peace, brought intelligence
to Capt. Church, who was in Rhode Island, that the
chief Was in a swamp in Mount Hope Neck, and Church
immediately resolved to try his skill upon him. With a
small company of English, and a number of friendly In
dians, accompanied by several volunteer officers, he p'ass^-
ed over to the main, and, conducted by the Indian' who
brought the intelligence, soon reached the swamp, in
which Philip was posted, with a considerable force; but
darkness had now commenced. Perfectly acquainted with
the ground, Church formed his men in extended order,
placing an Englishman and an' Iisdian together, with or
ders to fire upon any who should attempt to escape from
the swamp. Captain Golding, with a party, was to pen
etrate the swamp, and rouse Philip at the dawn of day.
Having made this disposition of his troops, Church was
giving further orders, when a shot whistled over his head,
followed immediately after by a whole volley from Gold-
ing's party, on an advanced guard of the enemy, posted
in the margin of the swamp. Day had now dawned, and
Philip, on the report of the guns, seized his petunk, pow
der-horn, and gun, left the swamp, and ran towards two
of Church's enclosing chain of men ; an Englishman lev
elled his piece against him, but it missed fire ; his accom
panying Indian', more fortunate, with a quick sight, sent
two balls through the body of the chief, one piercing his
heart, which laid him dead1 upon1 the spot. The im
portant 'intelligence was irtimediately communicated to
Church, but he kept it to himself, intending to make it
known after the remaining enemy were driven from their
cover. A terrific voice immediately thundered from the
swamp, Iootash ! lootash! It was from Annawon, Philip's
chief captain, calling to his men to maintain their ground.
The English then rushed into the swamp, and, charging
closely, threw the Indians into confusion. Annawon,
with about sixty of his followers, made his escape, but
one hundred and thirty were killed and captured. After
the affair was over, Church communicated to his troops
the death of Philip, and repaired to the spot where he
lay. He had fallen upon his face, in a muddy spot of
ground, from which he was drnwri; the head taken off,
and the body left to be devoured by wild beasts. Thus

fell this great chief, in a' struggle* which, had it been in
favour of a civilized people, by a civilized commander,
and attended with success, would have immortalized his
name. "Remarking upon the fate of this chief, a historian
says — 'The death of Philip, in retrospect, makes different
impressions from what were made at the time of the
event. It was then considered as the extinction of a vir
ulent and implacable enemy ; it is now viewed as the
fall of a great warrior, a penetrating statesman, and a
mighty prince. It then excited universal joy and congrat
ulation, as a prelude to'the close of a merciless war; it
now awakens sober reflections on the instability of empire,
the peculiar destiny Of the aboriginal race, and the in
scrutable de6rees of Heaven. The patriotism of the
man was then overlooked in the cruelty of the savage ;
a; little allowance was made for the natural jealousy of
the sovereign ' on account ofthe barbarities ofthe war
rior. Philip, in the progress of the English settlements,
foresaw the loss of his territory, and the extinction of his
tribe, and made a mighty effort to prevent those calami
ties. Our pity for his 'misfortunes would be still height
ened, if we could rely on the tradition — that Philip and
his old men were averse to the war ; that Philip wept
with grief, at the news of the first English who were kill
ed ; and that he was pressed into his measures by the ir
resistible importunity of his young warriors.'
"Annawon, Philip's chief captain and counsellor, was
now at the head ofthe hostile Indians. He was an art
ful and long-experienced warrior, and had often declared
that the English should not take him while alive. After
the defeat at the swamp where his commander was killed,
he, with fifty or sixty of his best men, took post in Squan-
naconk Swamp, in the south-east part of Rehoboth. Sev
eral Indians from his camp were soon after captured,
among whom was an Indian with his daughter. By these
Church was ' informed of the situation of Annawon's
camp, and by a stratagem, which none but the most dar
ing would have adopted, succeeded in capturing the
whole without resistance- At the head of a small party,
conducted by the captured Indian and his daughter, who,
it appears, readily engaged in the attempt, Church, by a
cautious approach in' the evening, reached the edge of a
rocky precipice, under which Annawon was encamped,
and made a critical examination of the position. A tree
had been felled close under the precipice, and boughs
placed against it, to form a sort of hut ; fires were burning
near, pots and kettles boiling, and spits turning, loaded
with meat ; the fire-arms stood near the foot of the rock,
resting upon a pole, supported with crotches, and covered
with a mat, to keep them dry ; the Indiirs were separa
ted into three parties at small distances, surrounded by a

330

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

rude abatis ; and Annawon with his son lay reposing very
near the arms.
" Having viewed the camp sufficiently, Church and his
party withdrew, and formed his plan for the surprise. In
formed by his guide, that no one was allowed to go out,
or enter the camp, except by the precipice, he determined
to make his effort in that direction. The guide and his
daughter, with baskets upon their backs, as if bringing in
provisions, were directed to precede Church and his men,
while the 'latter, close in the rear, and covered by the
shadows of the guides, were to descend the rocks. The
descent was found to be difficult ; but by letting themselves
down by the bushes, growing in the fissures of the rock,
the party reached the bottom without alarming the In
dians. Church, with a hatchet in his hand, seized the
arms at the feet of Annawon, who, starting up on end,
cried out, Howah ! and, despairing of an escape, fell back
in his couch. After the arms were secured, parties went
to the other Indians, informing them their chief was
a prisoner, and that if they would submit, their lives should
be spared ; the whole readily complied with the terms,
and all appeared cheerful. Church now inquired of An
nawon what he had for supper; for said he, 'I have
come to sup with you.' The chief in a loud voice or
dered his women to prepare one, and inquired of his con
queror whether he would choose cow, or horse beef;
Church replied, cow beef, and the supper was soon pre
pared, and all ate heartily. After suitable guards were
posted, the Indians lay down, and Church attempted a
short repose, near his captured chief; but neither slept:
some time had elapsed in silence, when Annawon rose
from his couch, and slowly retired into the woods.
Church, apprehensive of some hostile design, drew near
to Annawon's son, and prepared for the worst. At length
the chief returned with a pack, placed it on the ground,
and, falling on his knees, said — ' Great captain, you have
killed Philip, and conquered his country ; I believe that I
and my company are the last who war against the Eng
lish ; I suppose the war is ended by your means.' Then,
opening the pack, he drew out a belt, curiously wrought
with wampum in various figures, of flowers, birds, and
beasts, which, when hung upon the captain's shoulders,
reached to his feet. Another belt of wampum was next
taken out, wrought in the same manner, which was worn
on the head of the warrior, hanging down the back, to
which two flags appended, waving behind. A third,
with a star, and edged with red hair, was taken out, which,
when hung upon the neck, descended to the breast. These,
with two horns of glazed powder, and a red cloth blanket,
constituting the royal dress of Philip, were presented to
Capt. Church, who, Annawon said, bad ' won them, and
he was happy in having an opportunity of delivering.'

" The remainder of the night was spent in free conver
sation, in which the captured chief recounted his various
exploits in the present, as well as former wars under Phil
ip's father. The next day Church marched his prisoners
to Taunton, where he joined those that had been cap
tured when Philip was killed, and had been ordered to
that town. Annawon, with another chief, was perfid
iously put to death at Boston, not long after. A few
more exploits of Capt. Church, in which a number of the
Indians were captured, and the few remaining tribes sub
mitted, ended the war in this quarter.
" In this predatory war, it is estimated that about six
hundred of the inhabitants of New England were either
killed in battle, or otherwise cut off by the enemy ; twelve
or thirteen towns entirely destroyed, and about six hun
dred buildings, chiefly dwelling-houses, consumed by fire.
Rarely was a family to be found, who had not lost some
of its members or relations. Dr. Trumbull estimates the
loss much greater. ' The histories of those times,' he
observes, ' rarely mention the barns, stores and out-houses
burned ; and sometimes there is notice of the burning of
part of a town, and of the buildings in such a tract, with
out a specification of the number. All the buildings in
Narraganset, from Providence to Stonington, a tract of
about fifty miles, were burned, or otherwise destroyed by
the enemy ; but the number is not mentioned. The loss
of buildings must therefore have been much greater than
has been mentioned.' And he concludes that about one
fencible man in eleven was killed, and every eleventh
family burnt out ; or that an eleventh part of the whole
militia, and of all the buildings of the United Colonies,
were swept off by the war.
"The war, though attended with great loss on the part
of the English, was not less disastrous to the Indians ; for
they not only lost great numbers, but their lodges were
destroyed, and, in short, their country conquered. Wheth
er the contest might have been avoided by the English
remains a question of doubtful solution. That they were
averse to it, and had avoided any new cause of complaint
on the part of the Indians, is obvious from a view of the
history of prior events. The opinion, therefore, of many
of the people of the present day, ' that the lands in New
England were taken from the natives by force, and that
the war on the part of Philip was just,' is to be embraced
with some limitation. In most cases, the first settled
towns were purchased of the sachems residing at the places
selected by the English. In many old towns, deeds giv
en by them are now extant, containing considerations for
the lands sold, though generally of little value. To pre
vent injustice, the purchasers were restricted by govern
ment. In Massachusetts, none were allowed to take deeds
of the Indians, excepting under certain conditions ; and

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

331

Plymouth colony put similar checks upon their people.
Governor Winslow, in a letter dated Marshfield, May 1st,
1676, makes the following statement: 'I think I can
clearly say, that before the present troubles broke out, the
English did not possess one foot of land, in this colony,
but what was fairly obtained by honest purchase of the
Indian proprietors : Nay, because some of our people are
of a covetous disposition, and the Indians are in straits,
easily prevailed with to part with their lands, we first
made a law that none should purchase, or receive of gift,
any lands of the Indians without the knowledge and al
lowance of our Court ; and a penalty of a fine of five
pounds per acre, for all that should be so bought or ob
tained. And lest yet they should be streightened, we or
dered that Mount Hope, Pocasset, and several other necks
of land in the colony, because most suitable and conve
nient fqr them, should never be bought out of their hands.
And our neighbours, at Rehoboth and Swanzy, although
they bought their lands fairly of this Philip and his father
and brother, yet because of their vicinity, that they might
not trespass upon the Indians, did at their own cost set
up a very substantial fence quite across that great neck
between the English and Indians, and paid due damage,
if at any time any unruly horse or other beast broke in
and trespassed. And for divers years last past, (that all
occasion of offence in that respect might be prevented,)
the English agreed with Philip and his, for a certain sum
" yearly, to maintain the said fence, and secure themselves.
And if at any time they brought complaints before us,
they had justice impartial and speedily, so that our own
people have frequently complained, that we erred on the
other hand in showing them our favour.' One question
only relating to the titles remains, and this is, whether the
sachems who executed the deeds, possessed full power to
transfer the lands? But this seems not to have been
doubted at that time."
Lovewell's Fight. — 1725.
"In the eastern quarter, scouts were also vigilant. Capt.
John Lovewell, of Dunstable, raised a volunteer corps, in
the early part of the winter 1724, to penetrate the woods
in search of the enemy. With a small party he had kill
ed one and captured another, to the northward of Win-
nipiseogee Lake, and received the bounty from govern
ment. The same winter, he made a second expedition
into the northern wilderness, surprised and killed ten In
dians, as they were sleeping at a fire by the margin of a
dozen pond, since known by his name, ins the town of
Wakefield, in New Hampshire. Lovewell and his party
received out of Massachusetts treasury one thousand
pounds for the ten scalps.

" Elated with his success, on the twenty-sixth of April,
1725, he marched on his third expedition, with a design
of surprising the villages of Pigwacket, on the upper part
of the River Saco, in what is now the town of Frye-
burg, in the western part of Maine ; having Under his
command forty-six men, including a chaplain, surgeon,
and four commissioned officers. On the march, two men,
falling sick or lame, were dismissed, with one man to ac
company them. Arriving at Ossipee Pond, another man
becoming sick, Lovewell built a small stockade fort, and
left his surgeon, a sergeant, and seven men, with a quan
tity of provisions. Reduced now to thirty-four men,
Lovewell continued his march for Pigwacket, and en
camped on the east side of a pond, not far from his place
of destination, on the evening of the seventh of May.
Uncommon noises in the night induced a belief that the
Indians were about the camp, and in the morning, the re
port of a gun, and discovery of an Indian on a jutting
point of land, convinced Lovewell that his conjecture was
not without foundation. Suspecting that the Indian on
the point had been placed as a decoy, and that a body of
the enemy might be in the front, the men deposited their
packs in an open pine wood, near the N. E. angle of the
pond, and advanced towards the Indian, distant between
one and two miles. Immediately after their departure,
forty-one Indians, who were returning from an expedi
tion down the Saco, under two noted leaders, Pagus and
Waha, discovered Lovewell's trail, and, following it, found
and seized the packs, and, upon counting them, ascer
tained that his force was numerically inferior to their own ;
they then planted an ambuscade on the spot, ready for
an attack. Lovewell, in the mean time', pressing on tow
ards the Indian, met him returning, who immediately dis
charged his gun, and wounded Lovewell, and Samuel
Whitney, with beaver shot ; on which Ensign Wyman
fired, killed him, and took his scalp. No other enemy
being discovered, Lovewell retraced his march to the
place where the packs had been left, and found they were
missing ; a search was commenced, on which the Indians
rose, and with a horrid yell, rushed on and gave their fire ;
the English met them, and fired nearly at the same time,
and a severe conflict ensued, but the Indians were driven
a little back. Capt. Lovewell, Ensign Harwood, Sergeant
Fulham, John Jeffs, Jonathan Kitridge, Daniel Woods,
Icbabod Johnson, Thomas Woods, and Jonah Davis, were
killed. Lieut. Farwell, Lieut. Robbins, and Robert
Usher, were wounded. The survivors, with the wound
ed, then fell back to the pond, and took a position where
a point of rocks secured the left, and an unfordable brook
the right, a morass stretching along part of the front ; and
covering themselves behind trees, they renewed the attack
on the enemy, who had now pressed closely on, and open-

332

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

ed their fire with great spirit. Ensign Seth Wyman,
who now commanded, resolving to maintain his position to
the last extremity, continued his fire with great spirit,
and several of his men were soon badly wounded. Eve
ry art was essayed by the enemy to induce the English to
surrender; but disregarding them, they continued their
fire with destructive effect. . Towards night, the yells and
fire of the Indians became less frequent, from which it was
concluded they were about to draw off, and the conjecture
proved correct; for, after collecting their killed and
wounded, they disappeared about sunset, leaving the
bodies of Lovewell and. others, who fell in the first at
tack, uhscalped. The loss of the Indians was supposed
to be severe ; among' which, it was afterwards ascer
tained, was the chief, Pagus.
" On collecting his shattered remnant, Wyman found
Lieut. Robbins, Jacob Farrar, and Robert Usher, so bad
ly wounded that they could not be removed. Lieut.
Robbins, conscious of his fate, requested his companions
to load his gun, that he might despatch another of the
enemy, should they return to the spot. Among those who
were less severely wounded, were Lieut. Farwell, Mr.
Frie, the chaplain, Sergeant Johnson, Josiah Johnson,
Timothy Richardson, Samuel Whiting, Elias Baron, John
Chamberlain, Isaac Lakin, Eleazer Davis, and Josiah
Jones. Solomon Kies had fortunately escaped, though
badly wounded. At the rising of the moon^ about mid
night, the wounded men, conducted by nine Others, viz.
Ensign Wyman, Edward Lingfield, Thomas Richardson,-
Eleazer Melvin, David Melvin, Ebenezer Ayer, Abiel
Asten, Joseph Farrar, and Joseph 'Gelson, began their
march for Ossipee Pond. After travelling about a mile,
Mr. Frie, Lieut. Farwell, Davis and Jones of the wound
ed, unable to proceed, were left in the woods. The re
mainder pursued their march. Before arriving at the fort
at Ossipee Pond, three Indians were seen, which1 produc
ed an alarm and some disorder; and Elias Baron, one of
the wounded, straggling from his party, was lost in the
woods. On arriving at the fort, it was found to be abari-
-doned by the guard; but a small quantity of provisions
was fortunately left. It afterwards appeared that one
man, at the commencement of the action, had deserted,
and, on reaching the fort, informed the garrison that Love
well and his company had been cut off; on which the
guard made a precipitate retreat. Wyman, after refresh
ing his men, marched for home, but was compelled to
leave several others of his wounded. Lieut. EarWell,

and the chaplain, Mr. Frie, perished in the woods ; the
others arrived home in scattered parties, after enduring the
severest sufferings,-, and several of the wounded afterwards
came in. Col. Tyng, of Dunstable, soon after, collecting
a party of volunteers, proceeded to the scene of action ;
found and buried ; the bodies of the slain, and left their
names carved upon trees. A generous provision was made
by government for the widows and children of the slain.
" In this desperate affair, Solomon Kies, of Billerica, in
Massachusetts, having fought until he had received three
wounds, and lost much blood, crept to Ensign Wyman,
arid stating his situation, told him he was inevitably a
dead man ; but having strength left to creep along the
side of the pond, where he intended to secure himself
from the scalping-knife, he fortunately found an Indian
canoe, and with much difficulty rolled himself into it, and
pushing it off, the wind wafted him several miles towards
the fort. He then crept to land, and finding his strength
increased, continued his route, and reached the fort, and
at last got home and was cured of his wounds.
" Mr. Jonathan Frie, the chaplain, was from Andover,
only son of Capt. Frie of that place ; he had but re
cently received his degree of bachelor of arts at Cam
bridge. Not long after being left by Ensign Wyman, in
company with Lieut. Farwell, Davis and Jones, he found
himself about to expire, and, unwilling to retard the march
of his companions, requested them to leave him to his
fate; with which they reluctantly complied. He had
kept a journal of the march of Lovewell's company,
which was lost with him. Capt. Lovewell, Lieutenants
Farwell and Robbins, and Ensign Harwood, belonged to
Dunstable; Ensign Wyman toWoburn. Ofthe seven
from Dunstable, all were killed or wounded."

AMERICAN HISTORIANS WHO HAVE TREATED OF THE
INDIANS.
Hubbard's History of Indian Wars. Church's History
of Philip's War. Penhallow's Indian Wars. Symmes'
Sermon on Lovewell's Fight. Colden's History of the
Five Nations. De Witt Clinton's papers. Hoyt's His
tory of the Indian Wars. Thatcher's Indian Biography.
The histories of the several states of the Union abound in
notices of the Indians. As objects of philosophical curi
osity, they have engaged the pens of many able writers,
among whom may be named, with distinction, Duponceau,
Pickering, Schoolcraft, M'Kenney, Catlin, and Cass.

BOOK V.

TOPOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I.
NEW ENGLAND :  NEW HAMPSHIRE  VERMONT —
MASSACHUSETTS  RHODE ISLAND  CONNECTICUT.
It is our design in this, the closing department of
our work, to give a concise but clear account of the
situation, extent, natural and physical geography,
internal improvements, manufactures and commerce,
education, religion, civil divisions, and population of
each state. We trust the former portions of this
volume have conveyed a correct idea of the state of
t^e republic generally, and would enable an inquirer
to determine on the propriety of a removal thither ;
alike correcting unjust prejudices and unreasonable
expectations, and preventing disappointment on his
arrival in the transatlantic world. The remaining
pages will afford, to a considerable extent, such an
outline of the local peculiarities ofthe several states of
which the Union is composed, as may in some degree
enable the emigrant to select that section of the coun
try most suited to his circumstances and pursuits.
We shall commence with the most northern state,
deeming a geographical preferable to an alphabetical
arrangement. We have not attempted, however, any
classification ; as we agree with Mr. Darby, when he
says, " Many arbitrary subdivisions have been attempt
ed, with a view to simplify the engrouping ofthe United
States, but they have appeared to me in every instance
productive of confusion. The artificial lines of the
political subdivisions are drawn with so little regard
to natural features, that all relative classification into
eastern, western, southern, or central states, superin
duces so many exceptions as to render the rule worse
than dubious." MAINE.
The State of Maine, is situated between 43° 5' and
48° 3' north latitude, and extends from 66° 49' to
70° 55' west longitude. It is bounded by Lower
Canada on the north, New Brunswick on the east,
the Atlantic on the south, and New Hampshire on
the west. The map exhibits the positions in con
troversy between the governments of the United
2U

States and Great Britain, respecting the extension of
Maine beyond the sources of the St. Croix river.
The decision by his Dutch majesty is generally con
sidered to be unsatisfactory. The greatest length
of Maine is, from south-west to north-east, 350 ; mean
breadth, 92 ; and area, by the rhombs, 32,194 square
miles. The surface of this state differs essentially from
any other part of the United States. The coast be
tween Casco Bay and Passamaquoddy is excessively
indented by long projecting points, and by innume)
rable islands, between which are discharged the fine
streams of Kennebeck and Penobscot, with many
others of less volume, affording an unequalled variety
of harbours. Upon this very broken coast is poUred
a tide of from 20 to 40 feet. So powerful is the
ocean swell, as to break the winter ice to fragments,
and to preserve open the harbours of Maine, whilst
those several degrees more southward are closed. The
interior of the state is a congeries of hills of great va
riety of form, without any mountain ridges of much
elevation or mass, with intervening lakes and streams.
With Maine, indeed, commences that lake section of
North America, which extends to the utmost known
northern regions of the continent. Though not very
elevated, the interior of Maine rises so rapidly from
the sea-coast, as to preclude the flow of the tide far
inland, though few other states of the Union are more
completely traversed by navigable rivers.
Extending over 5° of latitude, and differing in level
at least 800 feet, Maine presents at its extremes great
diversity of climate : the air, however, in all parts of
the country, is pure and salubrious. The summers in
most parts are favourable to the growth of all the
vegetable productions of the northern states. In
some places, however, Indian corn, and some other
plants of a more tender kind, are frequently injured,
and sometimes destroyed, by frosts late in the spring
and early in the autumn. The cold of winter is se
vere, yet the serenity of the sky, and the invigorating in
fluence ofthe atmosphere, during the same season, make
amends in some degree for the severity of the weather.
The tract of country along the sea-coast, from ten

334

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

to twenty miles wide, embraces all the varieties of
sandy, gravelly, clayey, and loamy soils, frequently
interspersed at short distances ; seldom very rich, in
many places tolerably fertile, but generally poor.
Of this section, Indian corn, rye, barley, grass, <fcc, are
the principal productions. In the tract lying north
of this, and extending fifty miles from the sea in the
western, eighty in the central, and ninety in the east
ern part, the same kinds of soil are found, but they
are less frequently diversified, and generally more
fertile. The surface rises into large swells of ge
nerally good soil, between which, on the margin of the
streams, are frequently rich intervals, and in other
places sandy or gravelly pine plains, or spruce and
cedar swamps. Of this section also the principal pro
ductions are grass, Indian corn, wheat, barley, rye,
flax, &c. The country beyond the limits above spe
cified is but little settled. It exhibits great diversi
ties in the appearance of its soil, in the growth of
timber, and in climate. The land on the Kennebeck,
and between this river and the Penobscot, is accounted
the best in the state. It is well adapted to the va
rious purposes of agriculture, and as a grazing coun
try it is one of the finest in New England.
Maine enjoys great facilities for commerce. All
the settled parts of the country lie near a market, and
the produce of the farmer is readily exchanged for
money at a good price. The principal article of ex
port is timber. Vast quantities of boards, shingles,
clapboards, masts, spars, &c, are transported to the
neighbouring states, to the West Indies, and to Europe.
Much of the firewood consumed in Boston, Salem, &c,
is brought from Maine. Dried fish and pickled sal
mon are considerable articles of export. Beef, pork,
butter, pot and pearl ashes, and some grain, are also
among the exports. Great quantities of lime are an

nually exported from Thomaston. Limestone and
bog-iron ore abound in many places. The principal
manufactures consist of cotton and woollen cloths, hats,
shoes, boots, leather, iron, nails, distilled spirits, and
cordage. Bowdoin College, in Brunswick, was incorporated
in 1794. It has four professors, two tutors, about 120
students, a complete philosophical apparatus, and a
library of nearly 5,000 volumes. The college is en
dowed with five townships of land. The Maine
charity school at Bangor, was incorporated in 1814.
Its design is to educate young men for the ministry
in a shorter time than is usual at other seminaries.
It is under the direction of two professors and a pre
ceptor ; and in 1818, had nineteen students. There
is a Literary and Theological Institution under the
direction of the Baptist denomination, at Waterville.
It was opened in 1818, with twelve or fifteen theo
logical students. Free schools are kept in every
town. By a permanent law, each town is compelled
to raise for this object a sum equal to forty cents for
each individual, annually. The sum raised and ex
pended is about 120,000 dollars.
The Baptists have 210 churches, 136 ministers, 22
licentiates, and 12,936 communicants ; the Congre
gationalists, 156 churches, 107 pastors, and 9,626
communicants ; the Methodists, 56 ministers, and
12,182 communicants ; the Free-will Baptists, about
50 congregations ; the Friends, about 30 societies ;
the Unitarians 12 societies, and 8 ministers ; the
Episcopalians, 4 ministers ; the Roman Catholics, 4
churches ; the New Jerusalem Church, 3 societies ;
and there are some Universalists.
Maine has recently turned great attention to science,
literature, and the arts, since her incorporation as a
distinct state of the union.

POPULATION OP THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Cumberland, s. w.t . .
Hancock, s 
Kennebeck, m 
Lincoln, s. ....
Oxford, w 
Penobscot, n 
Somerset, n. w 
Waldo, s 
Washington, e 
York, s. w  Total . . .

Population, Population,
1820. 1830.

49,445 17,856
40,150
46,843

298,335

60,113
24,34752,491 57,181

27,104 13,870
21,78722,253 12,744

35,21731,53035,78829,79021,295

46,283

51,710

399,462

County Towns.
Portlands . '. '. . '. '. 7~
Castine 
Augusta 
( Wiscasset 
< Topsham 
( Warren 
Paris 
Bangor 
Norridgewock 
Belfast 
Machias .......
< York 
j Alfred 

t>™.,i„.,-„„ Distance.
Population. A„ w +

12,601 1,155
3,9802,443 1,564
2,030 2,3372,868 1,710
3,077 1,0213,485 1,453

53 78
24 314442 662840
143 99
86

542676595 589
569 617581661
623
' 641 745
500
513

* Prom Augusta. t Prom Washington.
t The small capital letters annexed to the counties indicate their situation in the several states ; as, e., w., n., s., n. e., n. m., e. m., &c, east, west,
north, south, northeast, north of middle, east of middle, &c. The seats of government of the different states are also-printed in small capitals.
L § Portland has heretofore been the seat of government ; bat Augusta becomes the political metropolis this year, 1 832.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

335

Portland, the capital of the state, and much the
argest town, is situated on a peninsula in Casco Bay.
It is well located for commerce, having an extensive
and thriving back country, and one of the finest
harbours on the continent, being deep, safe, capacious,
, easy of access, and seldom frozen over. The amount
of shipping in 1818, was 27,770 tons. Brunswickis
thirty miles north-east of Portland, on the Andro
scoggin, at the falls ; population in 1820, 2,954. Bath
is on the west side of Kennebeck river, at the head
of winter navigation, sixteen miles from the sea, and
thirty-five north-east of Portland. It owns more ship
ping than any town in the state, except Portland.
Wiscasset is on the Sheepscot, eight miles north-east
of Bath. The river is navigable to this place for the
largest vessels, and the harbour is generally open
throughout the winter. Waldoborough, twenty-two
miles east of Wiscasset, has a large amount of ship
ping, employed principally in the coasting trade.
Castine is on a promontory, on the east side of Pe
nobscot Bay. It has an excellent harbour for any
number of ships of the largest size, and is accessible
at all seasons of the year. It has great strength from
its natural situation, and, if proper batteries were
erected, might almost bid defiance to attack. These
circumstances, together with its favourable, situation
for the entry of prizes, and, above all, its geographical
position, enabling it to communicate by a few days'
sail with Halifax, and, by a short route up the Penob
scot, with Quebec, giving a command of all the in
termediate country from the Penobscot to the St.
Croix, render it of the highest consequence as a mili
tary station. Bangor is a flourishing town, thirty-
five miles north of Castine, on the west side of the
Penobscot. It is finely situated for commerce, being
at the head of the navigation on the largest riper in
the state. Machias is near the south-east corner of
the state, on Machias Bay, at the mouth of the Ma
chias river. It is a thriving town, and exports large
quantities of boards, shingles, spars, <fcc. There are
twenty-six saw-mills in the town, which cut on an
average upwards of 10,000,000 feet of boards annually.
Lubeck, or Eastport, is a new and flourishing town,
on a peninsula at the southern extremity of Passama
quoddy Bay. York is an ancient town on the coast,
near the south-west extremity of the state. Hallowell
is a flourishing town on Kennebeck river, more than
forty miles from its mouth. Vessels of 150 tons
ascend to this place. Augusta is two miles above
Hallowell. The most flourishing towns on the Ken
nebeck, above Augusta, are Vassalborough, Waterville,
and Norridgewock.
Sullivan has written a work on the District of

Maine, and Williamson's history of Maine may be
consulted with profit. NEW HAMPSHIRE.
New Hampshire has Canada for its northern boun
dary, Maine for its eastern, Massachusetts on the south,
and Vermont on the west ;* the Atlantic washes its
south-eastern coast for a distance of twenty-nine
miles. The mean length of New Hampshire is very
nearly that of its difference of latitude, two and a
half degrees, or about 174 statute miles ; area, 8,700
square miles ; and mean breadth, fifty miles.
This state, for its narrow extent, differs more in
relative elevation than any other state of the Union,
and, of course, the extremes of temperatue are in cor
respondent excess. The Atlantic border is generally
a sandy beach, but followed by so rapid a rise in the
surface of the interior country as to arrest the tides
within twenty miles from the ocean. The mountains
ofthe state are central, with a zone of finely diversified
hill and dale country around. Grand Monadnoc rises
to an elevation of 3,254 feet ; Moosehillock to 4,636
feet ; but some of the summits of the White Moun
tains attain to 7,300 feet, and are considerably the
most elevated masses of the Apalachian system. As
a whole, the physiognomy of New Hampshire is bold,
prominent, and often sublime. The White Moun
tains are frequently visited by travellers. Mount
Washington is usually ascended from the south-east.
After climbing the side of the mountain for some dis
tance, the forest trees begin to diminish in height, till,
at the elevation of about 4,000 feet, you come to a
region of dwarfish evergreens, about the height of a
man's head, which put forth numerous branches, and
surround the mountain with a formidable hedge a
quarter of a mile in thickness. On emerging from
this thicket, you are above all woods, at the foot of
what is called the bald part of the mountain, which
is very steep, and consists of a huge pile of naked
rocks. After attaining the summit, the traveller is
recompensed for his toil, if the sky be serene, by a
most noble and extensive prospect : on the south-east
there is a view of the Atlantic ocean, the nearest part
of which is sixty-five miles distant, in a right line :
on the south, Winnipiseogee Lake lies in full view ;
on the south-west is the lofty summit of Moosehillock ;
and far away in the horizon, is the Grand Monadnoc.
The barren rocks which extend a great distance in
every direction from the summit add a melancholy
cast to the grandeur of the scene. The Notch, or
Gap, in the White Mountains, is also frequently
* Longitude, 70° 40' to 72° 28'; latitude, 42° 41' to 45° 11'.

336

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

visited as a curiosity. It is on the west side of the
mountains, near the source of Saco River. It is a
deep and narrow defile, in one part only twenty-two
feet wide. The mountain appears as if cloven quite
to its base, perpendicularly on one side, and on the
other at an angle of forty-five degrees. The road
which has been made through this pass is crossed
by the river Saco, which rushes rapidly down the
sides of the mountain, and gives a picturesque effect
to the scenery. Bellow's Falls are in Connecticut
River, at Walpole. The whole descent of the river,
in the space of 100 rods, is forty-four feet : there are
several pitches, one above another, at the highest of
which a large rock divides the stream into two chan
nels, each about ninety feet wide. When the water
is low, the eastern channel is dry, being crossed by a
bar of solid rock ; and the whole stream falls into
the western channel, where it is contracted to the
breadth of sixteen feet, and flows with astonishing
force and rapidity. A bridge is built over these falls,
under which the highest floods pass without detri
ment to the structure.
The state of New Hampshire is subject to the ex
tremes of heat and cold, but the air is generally pure
and salubrious. Morning and evening fires become
necessary from about the middle of September ; cat
tle are housed from the middle of November ; and,
in the course of this month, the earth and rivers
generally become thoroughly frozen, and covered
with snow. The open country is usually cleared of
snow in April ; but, in the woods, it very often lies
in the northern part of the state till May.
There is a great variety of soil in this state ; a
considerable proportion is fertile, and it is generally
better adapted to grazing than tillage. The interval
lands on the large rivers are esteemed the most valu
able ; these produce various kinds of grain in great
abundance ; but the uplands of an uneven surface,
and of a rocky, warm, moist soil, are accounted the
best for grazing. The principal articles of produce
are beef, pork, mutton, butter, cheese, wheat, rye,
Indian corn, oats, barley, pulse, and flax. The
number of neat cattle, in 1812, was calculated at
211,534 ; horses, 32,161 ; sheep, 364,892. Apples
are abundant, and no good husbandman thinks his
farm complete without an orchard ; other kinds of
fruit are not extensively cultivated.
The principal articles of export are lumber, fish,

beef, pork, horses, neat cattle, sheep, flax seed, and
pot and pearl ashes. The manufactures of New
Hampshire have of late greatly increased. There
are now upwards of thirty cotton and woollen
manufactories, and nine or ten paper-mills ; there is
a glass manufactory in Keene, incorporated in 1814 ;
there are establishments for the manufacture of iron
in Franconia ; there are, also, several furnaces for
casting iron, hollow ware, <fcc. Among the towns
where the most considerable manufacturing es
tablishments are situated, are Exeter, Dover, Pe
terborough, Franconia, Pembroke, New Ipswich,
Keene, &c.
Dartmouth College, at Hanover, was founded in
1769. Its officers are a president, seven professors,
a lecturer on chemistry, a lecturer on anatomy, and
two tutors. It has a good chemical apparatus, a
philosophical apparatus, a valuable anatomical mu
seum, and a library of about 4,000 volumes, besides
two large society libraries belonging to the students.
The funds of the college yield about 1,600 dollars a
year, which, with the tuition, makes an annual
income of about 4,000 dollars. The number of stu
dents is usually about 150, besides more than sixty
medical students. The college takes its name from
the earl of Dartmouth, one of its earliest and most
generous benefactors. Phillip's Exeter Academy, at
Exeter, was founded by the Hon. John Phillips, LL. D.,
in 1781. It is one of the oldest and most flou
rishing academies in New England. It has funds
amounting to about 80,000 dollars ; a library of about
700 volumes, and a handsome philosophical apparatus.
Its officers are a principal, a professor of mathema
tics and natural philosophy, and an assistant. The
funds are appropriated, in part, to the support of indi
gent students.
The Congregationalists have 146 churches, 116
ministers, and 12,867 , communicants ; Baptists, 75
churches, 61 ministers, and 5,279 communicants ;
Free-will Baptists, 67 churches, 51 ministers, and 4
or 5,000 communicants ; Methodists, 30 ministers,
and 3,180 communicants ; Presbyterians, 11 churches,
9 ministers, and 1,499 communicants ; Christians,
17 ministers; Friends, 13 societies; Universalists,
about 20 congregations ; Unitarians, 10 ministers ;
Episcopalians, 8 ministers ; Catholics, 2 churches ;
Shakers, 2 societies ; and the Sandemanians, 1
society.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.
POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

337

Counties.
Rockingham, s. b. . . .
Strafford, e. . . . . .
Merrimack, m 
Hillsborough, a 
Cheshire, s. w 
Sullivan, w 
Grafton, w 
COOS, N.  Total . . .

Population. 1820.

40,526

51,415
32,74335,78126,753 18,628
32,989 5,151

244,161

Population, 1830.

44,452 58,91634,61937,762
27,016 19,687
38,691 8,390

269,535

County Towns.
{Portsmouth 
Exeter 
Dover 
Gilmanton 
Gilford 
Rochester 
Concord 
Amherst 
Keene 
Newport 
( Haverhill 
\ Plymouth 
Lancaster 

Population.

8,0822,759
5,449 3,816 1,872
2,1553,727 1,657
2,374 1,913
2,153 1,175 1,187

Distance.
C* | W.t

45 39
4020
30403055
40 67
40
116

491474
490 500
504
500474
448431
467 509515
558

POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

Population.

Population.

Increase.

Slaves

1701, 10,000

Iu 1790, 141,885

158

1730, 12,000

1800, 183,858

From 1790 to 1800,

41,973

8

1749, 30,000

1810, 214,460

1800 1810,

30,602

0

1767, 52,700

1820, 244,161

1810 1820,

39,701

0

1775, 80,038

1830, 269,533

1820 1830,

25,372

0

Portsmouth, the largest town in the state, is on the
sea-coast, near the mouth of the Piscataqua. The
harbour is one of the best on the continent, having
sufficient depth of water for vessels of any size, being
easy of access, protected from every wind, and, owing
to the rapidity of the tide, never frozen. It is so
well fortified by nature, that only a small expense is
necessary to render it perfectly secure from attack.
On an island in the Piscataqua, opposite the town,
a United States navy-yard has been established.
Concord, the capital of the state, is a flourishing town
on the Merrimack, at the head of navigation, and
well situated for trade. Much ofthe produce of the
upper country is brought here, and carried down the
Merrimack and the Middlesex Canal, to Boston.
Dover is a flourishing town, at the head ofthe tide on
the Cocheco, twelve miles north-west of Portsmouth.
Exeter is a manufacturing town, at the head of the
tide on Exeter River, fourteen miles south-west of
Portsmouth. Keene is a pleasant town, in the south
west part of the state on the Ashuelot. The principal
towns on Connecticut River, are Walpole, thirteen
miles north-west of Keene ; Charlestown, twelve
miles north of Walpole ; Hanover, the 'seat of Dart
mouth College ; Haverhill, twenty-seven miles north
of Hanover, and Bath, adjoining Haverhill, at the
head of boat navigation.
A valuable history of New Hampshire was written
by the excellent Dr. Belknap.

VERMONT.

Like the two preceding states, Vermont is bounded
on the north by Lower Canada. Its eastern bound

ary is the Connecticut River, which divides it from
New Hampshire. It has the state of Massachusetts
on the south, and of New York on the west.t Its
length is 157 statute miles, mean width fifty-nine
miles, area 9380 square miles.
Vermont is composed of two not very unequally
inclined planes, with a chain of comparatively high
mountains, extending the whole length of the state,
in a direction north-north-east and south-south-west.
Onion, La Moelle, and Massisque rivers, all rise to
the east of the high grounds, and pierce the Green
Mountains in their western course into Lake Cham
plain : Otter River, on the contrary, rises west of the
main chain, near the south-west angle of the state,
and flows north-north-west into Lake Champlain.
The water-courses of the eastern slope of Vermont
enter the Connecticut River, and have a brief course.
Lake Champlain is only ninety feet, elevated above
the Atlantic tides. It is probable that many cultiva
ted parts of Vermont are at least 1,000 feet ; giving
a difference in temperature of between two and
three degrees of Fahrenheit, from change of level.
The climate is healthy, but subject to great ex
tremes of heat and cold. Winter in its severity
commences about the first of December, and continues
till about the middle of March. During this season
the weather is generally fair, and the cold more
uniform and steady than in the other New England
states. A large proportion of the soil in this state is
fertile, and fitted to the various purposes of agricul
ture. It is generally deep, of a dark colour, rich,

* From Concord. t From Washington.
t Longitude, 71° 33' to 73° 26'; latitude, 42° 44' to 45°.

338

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES!

moist, warm, loamy, and seldom parched with drought.
The low lands on the intervals are thought the best :
bordering on these is usually a strip one or two miles
wide, comparatively poor ; beyond which the land
recovers a fertility nearly equal to that on the rivers.
Much ofthe land among the Green Mountains is excel
lent for grazing, and here are found many fine farms.
Iron ore of good quality is found in several places.
There are quarries of marble at Middlebury, Benning
ton, Arlington, Shaftsbury, Pittsford, and Swanton.
There are also some lead and copperas mines. Wheat
is extensively cultivated, particularly on the west side
of the mountains. Barley, rye, oats, peas, and flax,
flourish in all parts of the state. Corn thrives best
on the intervals, but is also raised in abundance on
the uplands. Large quantities of maple sugar are
made in Vermont for home consumption, and some
for exportation.
The exports of Vermont consist of pot and pearl
ashes, beef, pork, butter, cheese, flax, live cattle, &c.
The trade is chiefly with Boston, Hartford, New
York, and Montreal. There are twelve paper-mills
in the state. Among the most considerable manu
facturing towns, are Middlebury, Bennington, Brat-
tleborough, Burlington, and Montpelier. A company
has been recently incorporated, and the stock taken up,
for constructing a rail-road from Bennington in this
state, to Troy in New York. — Manufactures have
greatly increased in Vermont. In 1825 there was

said to be upwards of 100 manufacturing companies :
800 tons of copperas were manufactured at the mines
in Stafford, in 1826.
There are two colleges, one at Burlington,, the
other at Middlebury. The University of Vermont,
at Burlington, was incorporated in 1791, arid has
been liberally patronised by the state. It has a
library of about 1,000 volumes, and a philosophical
apparatus which is tolerably complete. The funds
consist principally of lands, amounting to about
40,000 acres, and yielding at present an income of
about 1,200 dollars. . On the 27th of May, 1824, the
buildings of the college at Burlington were unfor
tunately destroyed by fire : but the library and part
of the philosophical apparatus were saved. — Middle
bury College was incorporated in 1800, and has been
supported entirely by private bounty. It has a pre
sident, five professors, and two tutors, a library of
more than 1,200 volumes, a valuable philosophical
apparatus, and more than 100 students.
The Congregationalists have 13 associations, 203
churches, 110 pastors, 35 unsettled ministers, 10 li
centiates, and 17,236 communicants ; the Baptists,
105 churches, 56 pastors, 8 licentiates, and 8,478 com
municants ; the Methodists, 44 ministers and 8,577
communicants ; the Episcopalians, 15 ministers ; the
Unitarians, 3 societies and 1 minister ; and there are
some Free-will Baptists, Christians, and Universal-
ists.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Addison, w 
Bennington, s. w. . . .
Caledonia, n. e 
Chittenden, w 
Essex, n. e 
Franklin, n. w. . . .
Grand Isle, k. w.
Orange, e 
Orleans, n 
Rutland, w 
Washington, m 
Windham, s. e 
Windsor, e  Total . . .

Population,

Population,

1820.

1830.

20,469

24,940

16,125

17,470

16,669

20,967

16,055

21,775

3,284

3,981

17,192

24,525

3,527

3,696

24,681

27,285

6,976

13,980

29,983

31,295

14,113

21,394

28,659

28,758

38,233

40,623

225,764

280,679

County Towns.
Middlebury 
J Bennington 
( Manchester 
Danville 
Burlington 
Guildhall 
St. Albans 
North Hero . . . . . .
Chelsea 
Irasburgh . . . . . .
Rutland .......
Montpelier 
Newfanet 
{Windsor 
Woodstock 

Population.

3,4683,419 1,525
2,6313,526 481
2,375 638
1,958 860
2,753 1,1931,441
3,134 3,044

Distance.
M.* | W.t

56
119 98 30387864 6823
4967
108 5948

483414434 538 515564541545506568
462524436469 476

POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

Population.

Increase.

Slave

In 1790, 85,539

16

1800, 154,465

From 1790 to 1800,

68,826

0

1810, 217,895

1800 1810,

63,430

0

1820, 235,764

1810 1820,

17,869

0

1830, 280,679

1820 1830,

44,915

0

* From Montpelier. t From Washington.
t The name of the village in which the county buildings are situated is Fayetteville.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

339

Montpelier, the capital, stands in a most picturesque
valley on Onion River, near the centre of the state,
at the point of intersection of several principal roads.
Newbury is a pleasant town on Connecticut River,
opposite Haverhill in New Hampshire, and thirty-four
miles east-south-east of Montpelier. Windsor is on
Connecticut River, sixty miles south of Montpelier. It
is a place of considerable business, and contains the
state prison. Brattleborough is on Connecticut River,
forty-three miles below Windsor, and near the south
ern boundary of the state. Bennington is near the
south- west. corner of the state : it is one of the oldest
towns in Vermont, and is famous for the battle of
August, 1777. Rutland is on Otter Creek, fifty-seven
miles north of Bennington, and forty-five west of
Windsor. Middlebury, the seat of Middlebury Col
lege, is pleasantly situated on Otter Creek, at the
falls, twenty miles from the mouth of the river. In
the vicinity of the falls are numerous mills and manu
facturing establishments. An extensive quarry of
fine marble was discovered in 1804, on the bank of
the creek, near the centre ofthe village. It is now
wrought into tombstones, mantel-pieces, sideboards,
&c, and transported to various parts ofthe country,
to the amount of seven or eight thousand dollars an
nually. Vergennes is on Otter Creek, at the Lower
Falls, six miles from the mouth of the river, and thir
teen below Middlebury. It is at the head of naviga
tion, and has several mills and manufactories, and
considerable trade. Burlington, the seat of Vermont
University, stands on a most beautiful harbour on
Lake Champlain, near the mouth of Onion River.
It is on elevated ground, commanding a noble view
of the lake and the adjacent country. It carries on
considerable trade on Lake Champlain. Almost all
the vessels which navigate the lake are owned here.
St. Albans is a flourishing town on Lake Champlain,
near the north-west corner ofthe state.
See Letters on Vermont, by John L. Graham,
LL. D. An admirable history of Vermont, in two vo
lumes, 8vo. was published by Dr. Willliams. Go
vernor Chittenden, of this state, has also published a
Commentary on the Principles of the Constitution of
the United States, &c.
MASSACHUSETTS.
This state is bounded by New Hampshire and Ver
mont on the north ; by the Atlantic from the north-east
to the south-east ; by Connecticut and Rhode Island on
the south ; and by New York on the west.* From Ply
mouth harbour to the south-west angle is about 145

* Longitude, 69° 50' to 73° 10'; latitude, 41° 23' to 43° 52'.

miles ; area, 7,335 miles ; mean width, about fifty miles.
Massachusetts presents three distinct zones. The
first towards the Atlantic Ocean is a marine alluvion,
but little elevated above the ocean. This eastern
plain is quickly and abruptly followed by a fine hilly
tract, which crosses the state from north to south, and
from which the rivers are poured in every direction.
The second or middle zone includes part of the beau
tiful valley of Connecticut, and is followed by the '
mountainous but highly fertile county of Berkshire,
which comprises the whole western part of the state.
The eastern or sandy border is the least fertile, but
also the least extensive of the three sections. Within
the sandy tract the country rises by so abrupt an ac
clivity, as to prevent the tides penetrating in any
place more than a few miles. It has been already
noticed that the peninsula of Cape Cod, which forms
the eastern part of this state, is the great dividing
limit of the Atlantic tides, and that a very rapid in
crease of depth is found within the bay of Massachu
setts. ¦ Taken at one view, the surface of this state
swells from the Atlantic to the hills, then sinks into
the richly decorated valley of Connecticut, and again
rises into the mountain region of Berkshire.
The climate of Massachusetts, as affected by the
elevation of the ground, varies from east to west.
The cultivated parts of the county of Berkshire rising
to a height of from 500 to 1 ,000 feet, there is a mark
ed difference between the seasons here, and those on
the Hudson and Connecticut rivers in equal latitudes.
" I have seen," says Mr. Darby, " the spring opening
at Albany whilst snow covered the vales of Berkshire."
The soil is exceedingly various, comprising every
description, from the most fertile to the most unpro
ductive. In the south-eastern part it is mostly light
and sandy, interspersed, however, with numerous fer
tile tracts. In the middle and northern part, towards
the sea-coast, it is of a much better quality, though
not generally distinguished for natural fertility ; but,
by excellent cultivation, a great portion of it is ren
dered highly productive. The middle and western
parts have generally a strong, rich soil, excellent for
grazing, and suited to most of the purposes of agri
culture. The state is almost universally well watered,
and the streams of every description are remarkably
clear and beautiful. The farms generally consist of
from 100 to 300 acres, and are for the most part well
cultivated. In no part of the United States have
greater advances been made in agricultural improve
ment, than in Massachusetts. The country is in
tersected in every direction by roads, which are kept
in a good state of repair. The principal productions
are, Indian corn, rye, wheat, oats, barley, peas, beans,

340

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

buckwheat, potatoes, hops, flax, and hemp. Beef,
pork, butter, and cheese, are abundant in}most parts
of the state, and of excellent quality ; the county of
Berkshire, in particular, is distinguished for its ex
tensive dairies. The state abounds with orchards ; and
great quantities of cider are annually made, which is
the common beverage of the inhabitants. The prin
cipal cultivated fruits are apples, peaches, pears, quin
ces, plums, cherries, and currants. Gardening is an
object of attention throughout the state ; and all the
vegetables suited to the climate, together with a varie
ty of domestic fruits, are extensively cultivated.
The principal mines are tliose of iron, which is
found in various parts ; and there are numerous es
tablishments for manufacturing it. The counties of
Plymouth and Bristol afford great quantities of this
mineral, and there are several rich iron mines in
Berkshire. Lead is found at South Hadley, and at
some other places. Ochre, and other fossil productions
have been found in various places. Quarries of good
marble are wrought in Lanesborough, Stockbridge,
Pittsfield, Sheffield, and several other places in Berk
shire. There are quarries of slate at Lancaster, Har
vard, and Bernardston ; and of soapstone at Middle-
field. Limestone is found in great abundance in the
county of Berkshire, and freestone in all parts of the
state. Beautiful granite for building is obtained from
Chelmsford and Tyngsborough.
Massachusetts has a greater number of inhabitants
engaged in commerce than any other state in the
union. The greatest part of the fisheries in the Uni
ted States belong to this state.1 The principal arti
cles of export are fish, beef, pork, lumber, ardent spi
rits, flax seed, whale oil, spermaceti, and various
manufactures. This state also holds a high rank in
point of manufactures. The most considerable are
those of cotton cloths, boots and shoes, ardent spirits,
leather, cordage, wrought and cast iron, nails, wool
lens, straw bonnets, hats, cabinet work, paper, oil, and
muskets. There is an extensive national establish
ment for the manufacture of arms at Springfield.
Not having natural facilities of intercourse with
the interior country, the inhabitants of Massachusetts
Bay have long since turned their attention to the form
ation of artificial channels of communication ; one
of which, the Middlesex Canal, has been effected,
though very imperfectly constructed. The canal,
twenty-seven miles long, leaves the Merrimack River
above its lower falls, and terminates at Charlestown,
opposite Boston. The water in the canal is thirty
feet wide at the surface, twenty at the bottom, and
* A catalogue of the library of Harvard University has recently
been published by the overseers of that college, (in 3 vols. 8vo.,)

three feet deep. Concord River crosses the line of
the canal on the summit-level, twenty-two miles from
Charlestown, and five from the junction of the canal
with the Merrimack ; and thus an ample supply of
water is afforded for lockage in both directions.
Round the falls in Connecticut River, at South Had
ley, there is a canal cut through the solid rock, more
than forty feet deep, and 300 feet long. There are
other falls on the Connecticut, above and below South
Hadley, which have been overcome by canals, dams,
and other improvements, so that the river is now
navigable for boats through the whole of its course
in this state, and as high as Bath in New Hampshire.
A canal from Buzzard's Bay to Barnstable Bay,
through the isthmus of Cape Cod, has long been in
contemplation, and in 1818 a company was incorpora
ted to carry it into execution. It is intended that the ca
nal shall be of a suitable depth for vessels drawing ten
feet of water. Several companies have been recently
incorporated by the legislature of this state, for the pur
pose of constructing rail-roads. Most of these are pro
jected from Boston as a centre, and are to extend to
Worcester, to the river Hudson, to Connecticut River, to
Providence, by Pawtucket, to Taunton, to Lowell, and
to Lake Ontario, New York ; and one from West Stock-
bridge to the boundary line of the state of New York.
Harvard University, at Cambridge, three miles west
by north of Boston, is the most ancient and the most
wealthy literary institution in the United States. It
was founded in 1638, less than twenty years after the
first settlement of New England. Its officers, in 1825,
were a president, sixteen professors, a lecturer on
chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, a librarian and an
assistant, six tutors, an instructer in French and Span
ish, and two proctors. The library is one ofthe largest
in America, containing 26,000 volumes.* The philo
sophical and chemical apparatus are complete. There
is a large and valuable cabinet of minerals belonging
to the university, an excellent anatomical museum,
and a botanic garden, containing eight acres of land,
and furnished with an extensive collection of trees,
shrubs, and plants, both native and foreign. A law
school, a medical school, and a theological seminary,
form part of the university. The whole number of
students, in 1825, was 407, of whom thirty-five were
engaged <in the study of theology ; 127 in that of
medicine ; ten in that of law ; and 234 were under
graduates. The whole number educated here, from
the establishment of the institution to the year 1818,
was 4,442, a greater number than at any other col
lege in the country. Williams College, in Williams-

which presents the most extensive collection of works to be found
in any institution in America.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

341

town, in the north-west corner of the state, was in
corporated in 1793. It has a president, three pro
fessors, three tutors, a library of about 1,500 volumes,
a valuable philosophical and chemical apparatus, and
about ninety students. The Theological Seminary
at Andover, twenty miles north of Boston, was found
ed in 1808, and has been very richly endowed, en
tirely by private bounty. Within the first ten years
after its establishment, it received to the value of
300,000 dollars, in donations from seven individuals.
It has four professors, and more than 100 students.
The library contains about 5,000. volumes. Phillips's
Academy, also in Andover, is the best endowed and
most flourishing academy in the state. This acade
my and the theological seminary, are under the same
board of trustees. There are numerous other acade

mies in the state, and common schools are univer
sally established. In no part of the Union are lite
rary institutions more liberally patronised by indivi
duals, than in the eastern section of this state. At
Amherst, in Hampshire county, is a college, which
was incorporated in 1825. It has now a president,
six professors, one tutor, and 152 students.
The Congregationalists have 491 churches, and
423 ordained ministers, 118 of whom are Unitarians ;
the Baptists, 129 churches, 110 ministers, and 12,580
communicants ; the Methodists, 71 preachers, and
8,200 members ; the Universalists, 46 societies ; the
Episcopalians, 31 ministers ; the New Jerusalem
Church, 8 societies ; the Presbyterians, 9 ministers ;
the Roman Catholics, 4 churches ; and the Shakers,
4 societies.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.

Suffolk, e.
Essex, n. e.

Middlesex, m.
PlymouthfE. Norfolk, e. .

Bristol, s. . . .
Barnstable, s. E. .
Nantucket, s. e. .
Dukes, s. e. . .
Worcester, m. . ,
Hampshire,w. m. .
Hampden, s. w. ,
Franklin, n. w. .
Berkshire, w. . .
Total . .

Males.

28,586 39,43138,10720,90520,43623,366 13,997 3,339 1,702
41,545 14,99915,28814,447
18,310

294,449

Females.

31,69342,929 39,348-
21,67821,29625,178 14,363 3,5841,768
42,449 14,99516,00314,76518,510

308,559

Coloured.

1,883 527

7,006

Total
Population. 62,162 82,887

513

77,968

410

42,993

169

41,901

930

49,474

165

28,525

279

7,202

48

. 3,518

371

84,365

225

30,210

349

31,640

132

29,344

1,005

37,825

610,014

County Towns.
Boston .....
Salem .....
Newburyport . .
Ipswich . . . .
Cambridge . . .
Concord ... .
Plymouth ....
Dedham . . . . .
4 New Bedford . .
{ Taunton ....
Barnstable ....
Nantucket ....
Edgartown . .
Worcester ....
Northampton . . .
Springfield . . . .
Greenfield . . . .
Lenox . . . . .

Population.

61,392 13,886 6,3882,951 6,071
2,0174,7513,057 7,592
6,045 3,975
7,202 1,509
4,1723,613 6,784 1,540 1,355

Distance.

B.* |

W.t

432

14

446

37

466

27

452

3

431

17

427

36

439

10

422

52

458

32

431

68

466

100

531

97

495

39

394

91

376

87

363

95

396

133

363

POPULATION OF MASSACHUSETTS, BOSTON, AND SALEM, AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

Massachusetts.
In 1701, 70,000
1742, 164,000
1763, 241,024
1765, 227,926
1776, 348,094
1784, 357,510
1790, 378,787
1800, 422,845
1810, 472,040
1820, 523,287
1830, 610,014

Boston.
In 1700, 7,000
1722, 10,567
1742, 16,382
1752, 17,574
1765, 15,520
1790, 18,038
1800, 24,937
1810, 33,250
1820, 43,298
1825, 58,281
1830, 61,392

Salem.
In 1.754, 3,462
1765, 4,427
1785, 6,923
1790, 7,921
1800, 9,457
1810, 12,613
1820, 12,731
1830, 13,886

There are now no slaves in this state ; their num
ber was never considerable. For some years before
the declaration of independence, public opinion was
strongly against slavery. The first article in the
Declaratisn of Rights contained in the general con
stitution, is, , "AH men are born free and equal ;" and
this was decided by the supreme court of Massachu
setts, in 1783, to be an abolition of slavery.
* From Boston.
Yot. II.— Nos. 65 & 66 2 X

Boston, the capital of the state, and the largest
town in New England, is pleasantly situated at the
bottom of Massachusetts Bay, on a peninsula of an
irregular figure, two miles long, and in the widest
part about one broad. The harbour is excellent. It
has a sufficient depth of water fpr vessels of the lar
gest size at all times of the tide, and is accessible at
all seasons of the year. It is safe from every wind,
t From Washington.

342

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

and is so capacious that it will allow 500 vessels, to
ride at anchor ; yet the mouth is so narrow as scarcely
to admit two ships abreast. The entrance is defend
ed by two forts. Boston is very extensively engaged
in commerce. The amount of shipping owned here
in 1815, was 143,420 tons; a greater amount than
belonged to any other port in the United States, ex
cept New York. The country in the immediate vi
cinity is fertile and populous, and connected with
the capital by fine roads, while the Middlesex Canal
opens a communication with the interior of New
Hampshire. There are, probably, few cities in the
world where there is so much wealth, in propor
tion to the population, as in this town ; and the in
habitants have long been celebrated for the liberality
with which they support religious, literary, and hu
mane institutions. The appearance of Boston is
much admired by strangers, particularly when ap
proaching from the sea. Its streets do not exhibit so
great a regularity as those of some other cities ; but
its beautiful situation and elegant public and private
buildings, together with its richly ornamented prome
nades, render it altogether a delightful and attractive
place. In the south-western part of the city, and in
front of the state-house, is the celebrated Common,
presenting an area of more than forty-four acres,
containing the Mall, a very beautiful public walk.
adorned with rows of trees. . This is a delightful pro
menade during the summer months, and is a place
of general resort. In the centre of the Common is
an eminence still exhibiting marks of the fortification
erected by the British during the revolution. North
of it is the Crescent Pond, a beautiful sheet of water,
surrounded with trees. Near the Mall, in Mason
street, is the Medical College, an edifice belonging to
Harvard University.
The Boston Athens um is situated near the head
of Pearl-street, and is a very spacious building, con
taining appropriate rooms. The number of volumes
belonging to the institution is about 25,000, and is
constantly increasing by purchase and by donation.
It also contains nearly 14,000 medals and coins, some
of which are very rare and interesting. The rooms
are open from eight a. m. to nine p. m., and can be
visited by strangers introduced by subscribers. The
Gallery of Fine Arts is a handsome structure in the
rear of the Athenaeum, and is appropriated for scien
tific lectures, the Academy of Arts and Sciences, the
Massachusetts Medical Library, a philosophical ap
paratus of the Mechanics Institution, and for paint
ings, which are exhibited in the upper story, and are
generally very elegant. The Massachusetts Historical
Society have an extensive library in a spacious apart

ment over the arch in Franklin street. This society
has published many volumes of Historical Collec
tions, of indispensable importance to the American his
torian. The Boston Library Society have a collection
of 6,000 volumes, and- the Columbian Library con
tains about 4,500 volumes. There are numerous
other libraries of less note. The New England.Muse-
um, in Court street, is probably the best in the United
States, and should be visited by every stranger.
Among the benevolent institutions, are the House ot
Industry at South Boston,- 220 feet long, and forty-three
Wide; the Massachusetts General Hospital^founded in
1818, which has been, richly endowed, both by the
state and by private individuals; and an Hospital for
the Insane,- the. buildings of which are at Charlestown.
The first houses built in the city were plain, and
the streets narrow and crooked ; but a very few years
have wrought a striking and almost incredible change.
New streets have been laid out, old'ones ¦straightened
and improved, and neat brick and granite dwellings
have been substituted for ill-shapen and decaying
houses of wood. The private buildings, and many
of the stores recently erected, are more splendid than
in any other city in the United States. In 1817, there
was erected on each side of Market street, a line of
brick stores more than 400 feet in length, and four
stories high ; arid on Central Wharf another immense
pile of buildings was completed ihe same year, 1,240
feet long, containing fifty-four stores, four stories high,
and having a spacious hall in the centre, over which
is erected an elegant observatory. Other costly works
have been constructed, which do honour to the town ;
but the project which exceeded them all in boldness
of design, in promise of public benefit, and in ener
gy of execution, is that which within three or four
years has been accomplished in the vicinity of Fa-
nueil Hall Market. Extensive rows of granite stores,
four stories high, constructed after the best model, are
on either hand ; and between these two ranges of
stores stands, the new, market-house, at the distance
of 102 feet from those! on the south side, and sixty-
five feet from those on the north. The centre part
of the building is seventy-four by fifty-five feet,
having a hall in the second story. The wings are
each 231 feet long by fifty wide, and two stones high.
They have each a portico of four columns, twenty-
three feet high ; the shafts are of granite, and in a
single piece. The construction of the whole is of
hammered granite of a uniform colour.
Among the public buildings are the State-house,
which is built on elevated ground, commanding a
fine view of the surrounding country, and containing
an elegant statue pf Washington, which cost 15,000

t4l

®
t?<Is
c
C'2

H
t':

bi

G

a.

©

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

343

dollars ; the new county Court-house, built at an ex
pense of 92,000 dollars ; the municipal Court-house ;
a new Jail ; Fanueil Hall, where all public meet
ings of the citizens are held ; two theatres, one of
which (the Tremont) was erected in 1827, at a cost
of about 120,000 dollars, being 135 feet in length, and
about eighty in breadth,— the front of Hallowell and
Quincy granite, in imitation of the Ionic order, with
four pilasters supporting an entablature and pediment,
and elevated on a basement seventeen feet high ; the
Custom House, Merchants' Hall, Boylston Market and
Boylston Hall; United States Branch Bank; Con
cert, Julian, Corinthian, Pantheon, Washington, and
Chauncey Halls.
There are six bridges connecting Boston with the
adjacent towns. Charles River Bridge, which con
nects it with Charlestown on the north, 1,503 feet
long ; West Boston Bridge, connecting it with Cam
bridge Port on the west, 7,810 feet long ; Craigie's
or Canal Bridge, between these two, connecting it
with Lechmere Point, 2,796 feet long ; and two
bridges uniting it to South Boston. The other ave
nue is a mill-dam, nearly two miles long and fifty
feet wide, across the bay on the south-west side of the
city ; which not only furnishes a bridge, but puts in
operation extensive tide-mills and other water-works.
There are nearly fifty churches in Boston, many
of which have been built at a great expense, and are
very elegant. On one of the quoins at the south
west corner of Brattle-street church, of which Go
vernor Hancock was a benefactor, his name had been
inscribed ; but it was effaced by the British soldiery
during the revolution, and the stone has been per
mitted to remain as they left it. A shot from the
Americans on the night previous to the evacuation of
Boston by the British, still remains in the tower
which it originally struck. In St. Paul's Church, in
Common street, there is an elegant monument to the
memory of General Warren, who was slain on Bun
ker's Hill, and whose remains are entombed in the
cemetery beneath this church.
In the Chapel burial-ground, north of the stone
chapel, there are several ancient monuments; and
among them that of Governor Winthrop, who died
iii 1649. In the Cop's-hill ground similar monu
ments are found. In the Granary ground, the ceno
taph erected to the memory of Dr. Franklin stands
over his tomb, in which the remains of both his pa
rents also repose.
The number of stage-coaches which regularly
leave Boston, is much larger than at any other place
in the Union. There are between eighty and ninety
distinct lines of stages ; which, according to their

established arrangements, not including extras, make
about 125 departures, and as many arrivals, daily.
The country around Boston is much admired by
every traveller of taste. The view from the dome of
the State-house surpasses any thing of the kind in
England, and is said not to be excelled by that from
the castle-hill of Edinburgh, or that of the Bay of
Naples from the castle of St. Elmo. Here may be
seen at one view — the shipping ; the harbour, varie
gated with islands and alive with business ; Charles
River and its beautiful country, ornamented with
elegant private mansions ; and more than twenty flou
rishing towns. The hills are finely cultivated, and
rounded by the hand of Nature with singular felicity.
Charlestown is one mile north of Boston, and con
nected with it by a bridge over Charles River. Here
are the state-prison, an hospital for the insane, and
a United States navy yard. Lynn is on the coast,
nine miles north-east of Boston. It is famous for
the manufacture of ladies' shoes ; no less than a mil
lion pair were made here in 1811. Marblehead is on
a peninsula, sixteen miles north-east of Boston. It
is more extensively engaged in the fisheries than any
other town in the United States. In 1818, there
were eighty vessels employed from this port in the
cod fishery, manned by 760 men. The whole amount
of shipping, in 1815, was 15,555 tons. Salem is on
a peninsula, four miles north-west of Marblehead.
It is the second town in New England for commerce,
wealth, and population. The harbour has a good
anchorage ; but is so shallow, that vessels drawing
more than twelve or fourteen feet of water must load
and unload at a distance from the wharves. The East
India trade is carried on from this port with great
spirit : in 1818, there were employed in it; fifty-three
vessels, carrying 14,272 tons. The whole amount
of shipping belonging to this port in 1815, was
34,455 tons. Beverly lies about two miles north of Sa
lem, and is largely concerned in the fisheries. Glou
cester is on the peninsula of Cape Ann, sixteen miles
north-east of Salem. It is one of the most considera
ble fishing-towns in the commonwealth. Newbury-
port, the third commercial town in the state, is on
the Merrimack, three miles from its mouth, and thirty-
three north-north-east of Boston. The harbour is
deep, safe, and spacious, but difficult to enter. The
amount of shipping, in 1815, was 25,691 tons. Ply
mouth is on the coast, thirty-six miles south-south
east of Boston. It is remarkable as the place where
the first settlers of New England landed, on the 22d
of December, 1620. The harbour is spacious, but
shallow. The amount of shipping, in 1815, was
18,875 tons. New Bedford is fifty-two miles south of

344

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Boston, on the estuary of a small river which flows
into Buzzard's Bay. It has a safe and commodious har
bour, and is extensively engaged in the whale fishery.
The amount of shipping, in 1818, was 23,712 tons.
The principal towns in the interior, are, Worcester,
forty miles west of Boston ; and Northampton and
Springfield, on Connecticut River. There is an ar
moury belonging to the United States at Springfield,
which employs 250 men, who complete on an average
forty-five muskets daily : there are twenty-eight forges
and ten trip-hammers connected with the establish
ment. In Berkshire county, the chief towns are
Stockbridge and Lenox, on the Housatonic, and Pitts-
field, twelve miles north of Stockbridge.
RHODE ISLAND
Is bounded by Massachusetts on the west and north
east, by the Atlantic on the south-east and south, and
by Connecticut on the west.* . Exclusive of water,
the area is about 1,200 square miles, or 768,000 acres ;
length, fifty miles ; and mean width, twenty-four miles.
Compared with its limited extent, Rhode Island is
a very diversified state. The north-west part is hilly
and broken, but becomes gradually level towards the
Atlantic Ocean. The state is composed of three
natural sections ; four fifths of it constitute a gene
rally hilly parallelogram, lying west from Narragan
sett Bay ; the second section is composed of the truly
delightful Islands of Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island,
Prudence, and Conanicut, with a few still smaller ;
the third section is a small, irregular slip, lying along
Massachusetts, and east from Narragansett. Narra
gansett Bay is at once the ornament and nursing-
mother of Rhode Island. At its. mouth opens the
noble harbour of Newport, which, becoming narrower
and shallower for about twenty-five miles inland,
terminates, amidst highly attractive scenery, in the
convenient, though shallow, harbour of Providence.
The climate of this state is as healthy as that of
any part of America, and it is more temperate than
that of any of the other New England states, particu
larly on the islands, where the breezes from the sea
have the effect not only of mitigating the heat in
summer, but of moderating the cold in winter. The
summers are delightful, especially on the island of
Rhode Island.
The soil is generally better adapted to grazing than
tillage. A large proportion of the western and north
western part of the state has a thin and lean soil, but
the islands and the country bordering on Narragan
sett Bay are of great fertility, and are celebrated for
• Longitude, 71° 6' to 71° 3»; latitude, 41° 22' to 42° 3'.

their fine cattle, their numerous flocks of sheep-, and
the abundance and excellence of their butter and
cheese. Cider is made for exportation. Corn, rye,
barley, oats, and, in some places, wheat, are produced
in sufficient quantities for home consumption ; and
the various kinds of grasses, fruits, culinary roots and
plants, in great abundance and perfection. The
rivers and bays swarm with a variety of excellent fish.
Iron ore is found in large quantities in several parts,
and some copper ; there is, also, an abundance of
limestone, particularly in the county of Providence.
In no state in the Union is so large a proportion
of the population and capital employed in manufac
tures as in Rhode Island. The principal article is
cotton goods, which are made in large quantities in
Providence and its vicinity. There are now more
than 100 cotton-mills in the state, many of them ex
tensive establishments. The other manufactures are
woollen goods, iron, ardent spirits, &c. The value of
the manufactures, in 1 810, was 4,106,074 dollars. The
exports, in 1825, amounted to 678,467 dollars, of
which 158,873 dollars were foreign produce. The
amount of shipping, in 1823, was 39,000 tons.
There are no fewer than forty-three banks in this
state, of which the amount of stock paid in is 4,391,954
dollars. Brown University, in Providence, derives its name
from the liberal donation of Nicholas Brown, Esq.,
and is a flourishing and respectable literary institu
tion. It was originally established at Warren, in
1764, and was removed to Providence in 1770. It
has a president, eight professors, and two tutors, and
contains about 120 students. The library contains
more than 5,700 volumes, and the philosophical ap
paratus is extensive. There are two college edifices
of brick : University Hall, 150 feet by forty -six, and
four stories high, containing forty-eight rooms for
students, and eight large rooms for public uses ; and
Hope College, (the munificent gift of N. Brown, Esq.,)
nearly of the same dimensions, with the same number
of rooms for students. Its site is elevated, and it
commands a fine, prospect. The president and a
majority of the trustees are required to be of the
Baptist denomination. Common schools are not
supported by law in Rhode Island, as in the other
New England states, except in Providence and New
port ; academies, however, are established in all the
principal towns, and private schools are maintained
during the winter months in every town, and nearly
in every town throughout the year.
The Baptists in this state have 16 churches, 12 mi
nisters, and 2,600 communicants ; the Methodists, 10
preachers, and 1,100 members ; the Congregationalists.

n3

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

345

10 churches, 10 ministers, and 1,000 comniwnieanfs;
the Unitarians, 2 societies} and 2 ministers; the Sab
batarians, about 1,000 communicants ; the Six-princi
ple Baptists, about 8 churches, and about 800 com

municants ; the Friends are numerous ; and there
are some Universalists, and I Roman Catholic church.
There are at this present time (August, 1834) 14
Episcopal churches in the state.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Providence, n. . . : .
Newport, s. e. . . .. ,
Washington, s. w 
Kent, m  .
Bristol, e  ,. .
Total .

Population, 1820.

Population, 1430;'

35,786 15,77115,687 10,228 5,637

47,014 16,534
15,41412,784 5,466

83,059

97,212

County Towns.
Providence 
Newport 
South Kingston ....
East Greenwich ....
Bristol 

Population, 1830.

16,832 8,0103,663 1,591
3,054

Distance.
P.* I W.t

30
31 1515

394 403
389406
409

POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

Population. .

Population.

'

Increase.

Slaves

In 1701, 10,000

1730, 17,935
In 1790, 68,825
948
1748, 34,128
1800, 69,122 .
From 1790 to 1800,
297
380
1755, 46,636
1810, 76,931
1800 1810,
7,809
108
1774, 59,678
1820, 83,059
1810 1820,
6,128
48
1783, 51,809
1830, 97*212
1820 1830,
14,153
14
Providence, the largest town in the state, and the
third in New England in point of population; stands
on Providence River, just above the mouth of the
Seekhouk, thirty-five miles from the ocean. The
town is built on both sides of the river, and the two
parts are connected by a handsome bridge. Provi
dence is a wealthy and flourishing town. The prin
cipal source of its prosperity is the cotton manufacture,
which was introduced about fifteen years ago, and
has increased with astonishing rapidity. The com
merce ofthe town has grown with its manufactures :
the amount of shipping, in 1826, was 21,000 tons, of
which about 4,000 are employed in the East. India.
trade, and 10,000 in the coasting trade with the
southern states. About ten vessels are constantly.
employed in the exportation of cotton goods. Packets
ply regularly between Providence "and Newport,
Bristol, &c, and the southern ports. The population
is estimated at about 16,000 persons. Pawtueket vil
lage, finely situated on Pawtueket River, at the falls,
four miles north-east of Providence, is one of the
most flourishing manufacturing villages in the United
States. Bristol is on the east side of Narragansett
Bay, fifteen miles south-south-east of Providence, It
has a safe and commodious harbour, and is a place
of considerable trade. Warren is a pleasant town,
adjoining Bristol, on the north. Newport is near the
south-west extremity of the island of Rhode Island,
thirty miles south of Providence.. Its harbour is
one ofthe finest in the world,.being safe and easy of
access, sufficiently capacious to contain whole fleets,
¦ From Providence.
t From Washington:
and deep enough for vessels of the largest burden.
It is defended by Fort Wolcott, erected on Goat
Island, and two other forts, called Fort Adams and
Fort Green. The site of the town is a beautiful
declivity, which rises gradually from the harbour,
presenting a fine view on the approach from the
water. The beauty of its situation, and the salubrity
of its climate, have made it a place of fashionable
resort from the southern and middle states, during
the summer months. Newport was formerly more
flourishing than it is at present : previously to the
American revolution, it was the fourth commercial
town in the British colonies, and contained, at one
period, more than 9,000 inhabitants. During the
revolutionary contest, it was for a long time occupied
by the English, and suffered severely. At present it
maintains some trade with the East Indies, Europe,
and Cuba; but the moif important branch of its
commerce is the coasting trade with the middle and.
southern states. In 1819, the amount of shipping
owned here was 10,951 tons. The fisheries are very
valuable ; there is, probably, no fish-marxet in the
world which affords a greater variety.
CONNECTICUT.
The boundaries of this state are, — on the north,
Massachusetts ; on the east, Rhode Island ; on the
south, Long Island Sound ; and on the west, New
York.t The length from east to west, is eighty-five
miles; mean width, sixty miles ; and area, 5,050
square miles. 
* Longitude, 71° 20' to 73° 16<; latitude, 41° to 42° 2'.
346

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Though generally hilly, and in part mountainous,
no part of Connecticut rises to a great elevation above
the level of the ocean. . The greatest elevation is -a
range of small mountains on the west side of Con
necticut River, being a continuation of the Green
Mountains. The hills are generally of moderate
size, and occur in quick succession, presenting to the
traveller an ever-varying prospect.
Though exposed to the extremes of heat and cold,
and to sudden changes of temperature, the country
is very healthful. The north-west winds which pre
vail during the winter are keen ; but the serenity of
the sky during the same season makes amends, in
some degree, for the severity of the weather. In the
maritime towns the weather is particularly variable,
changing as the wind blows from sea or land : in
the inland country it is less so.
The soil is generally fertile, though intermixed
with portions that are comparatively thin and barren ;
and the whole is well- watered. It is generally in a
state of good cultivation, resembling, in many parts,
a well-cultivated garden. The principal productions
are Indian corn, rye, wheat in many parts, oats,
barley, buckwheat, flax in. large quantities, some
hemp, potatoes, pumpkins, turnips, peas, beans, &c.
Orchards are very numerous, and cider is made for
exportation. The state is, however, on the whole,
better adapted to grazing than tillage; and its fine
meadows and pastures enable the farmers to feed
great numbers of cattle, horses, and sheep. The
quantity of butter and cheese made annually is great,
and of well-known excellence. Beef and pork of
superior quality are also abundant. The state is for
the most part laid out in small farms, of from fifty
to 300 and 400 acres. It is intersected by numerous
roads, which are generally kept in good repair. Its
exports consist of beef, pork, cattle, horses, mules,
butter, cheese, maize, rye, flax-seed, fish, candles, and
soap. Almost all the produce of the western part of
the state is carried to New York.
The manufacturing industry of Connecticut is
greater in proportion to the population, than that of
any other state in the Union except Rhode Island.
The manufactures consist of cotton, and woollen
goods, tin ware, iron, gin, glass, paper, snuff, powder,
leather, shoes, clocks, buttons, fire-arms, carriages,
&c. Mines of different kinds have been opened in
this state ; but they have not been wrought to any
considerable extent, with the exception of those of
iron ore, which abounds in Salisbury and Kent, of
an excellent quality, and is also found in other places.
There is a lead mine on the Connecticut, two miles
from Middletown, which was wrought during the

revolutionary war. Copper mines have been dis
covered and opened in several places, but, having
proved unprofitable, they have been neglected.
Marble is found in Washington, Milford, Brookfield,
and New Milford ; porcelain clay in New Milford
and Cornwall ; black lead in New Milford and Marl
borough ; cobalt in Chatham ; and excellent free-
stone in Chatham, Haddam, and East Hartford,
There are several mineral springs, but none of much
note, except those of Stafford and Suffield; the one
at Stafford, is the most celebrated in New England.
Yale College, in New Haven, is one of the oldest
and most respectable colleges in the United States.
It was founded in 1701 : its officers, in 1825, were a
president, six professors, and eight tutors, besides four
medical professors. The college library contains
about 7,000 volumes ; and the students have libraries
amounting to 2,000 more. The philosophical and
chemical apparatus are complete, and the mineralogi
cal cabinet is probably superior to any other in the
United States. The medical institution, connected
with the college, has an anatomical museum and
medical library. The whole number of students, in
1825, was 468 ; of whom, seventy-five were medical
students, twenty-three theological, and sixteen law,
and 354 were under-graduates. The American
Asylum, for the education of the Deaf and Dumb,
established at Hartford in 1817, was the first institu
tion of the kind, in America. The number of pupils,
in 1819, was fifty. The Trumbull's Gallery, recently
established, is a rich collection of paintings, chiefly
illustrative of events memorable in the American
revolution, and by the pencil of the distinguished
artist whose name it bears. The congress of the
United States has made a generous grant to the
asylum, of 23,000 acres of land ; and the legislatures
of several of the states have made appropriations for
the support of pupils. A Foreign Mission School
was established at Cornwall, in 1817, by the Ameri
can board of commissioners for foreign missions, for
the purpose of educating heathen youth from various
parts of the world. After receiving their education
they are sent home to instruct their countrymen. In
1820, there were twenty-nine pupils, of whom nine
teen were American Indians, and six had come from
the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Several natives of
the Sandwich Islands, who were educated at this
school, have already returned to their native country,
well qualified for usefulness. A Law School was
established at Litchfield in 1784, which has had great
reputation. It has usually about thirty students,
and the whole number that have been educated here
is more than 600. Bacon Academy, in Colchester

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

347

was founded in 1801 ; it is well endowed and very
flourishing. The Episcopal Academy, in Cheshire,
is a flourishing institution. Washington College, at
Hartford, was incorporated in 1823. There are, also,
academies at Plainfield, Litchfield, and almost all the
principal towns in the state. Common schools are
universally established in Connecticut. The state has
a large school fund, which amounted, in 1824, to
1,756,233 dollars. The yearly income, together with
12,000 dollars from the public taxes, is annually de
voted to the maintenance of common schoolmasters, in
every town in the state. The whole amount paid to
the towns from this fund, in 1825, was 72,229 dollars,

and the amount of the state tax, in 1817, was only
48,362 dollars ; the income of the fund exceeding
the amount of the tax by 22,551 dollars. This, pro
bably, is the only government in the world which gives
to the people more than they pay to the treasury.
The Congregationalists have 236 ministers and 36
licentiates ; the Baptists 99 churches, 78 ministers,
14 licejitiates, and 9,732 communicants ; the Episco
palians, 59 ministers ; the Methodists, 40 ministers
and 7,000 communicants; there are, also, several
societies of Friends, several of Universalists, 2 of
Unitarians, 1 of Catholics, 1 of Shakers, some Free
will Baptists, and a few Sandemanians.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS,

Counties.
Fairfield, a. w 
Hartford, n. m. . . . .
Litchfield, n. w. . . . .
Middlesex, s. m. . . .
New Haven, s. M. . . .
New London, s. e. . . .
Tolland, n. m 
Windham, n. e 
Total . . .

Population, 1820.

Population, 1830.

42,739

46,950

47,26441,267

51,141
42,855

22,405

24,845

39,616

43,848

35,943

42,295

14,330
25,331

18,700
27,077

275,248

297,711

County Towns.
i Fairfield 
J Danbury ......
Hartford 
Litchfield 
J Middletown .....
\ Haddam 
New Haven 
( New London ....
\ Norwich 
Tolland 
Brooklyn 

Population.

4,226 4,3117,076
4,456 6,8923,025
10,180 4,356 3,144 1,6981,413

Distance.
H.* } W.1

556131 14
253442 38 17
41

289290335 324
325335301354362352 372

POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

Population.
In 1701, 30,000

1749,
1756, 1774,
1782,

100,000130,611
197,856
209,150

Population.
In 1790, 237,946

Increase. Slaves.

1800, 1810,1820,1830,

251,002 261,942
275,248 297,711

From 1790 to 1800,
1800 1810,
1810 1820,
1820 1830,

13,056
10,940
13,306
22,463

2,764 954
310 97

There are five incorporated cities in Connecticut,
viz. Hartford, New Haven, Middletown, New London,
and Norwich. Hartford and New Haven are the
capitals of the state, the sessions of the legislature
being held at them alternately. Hartford lies on the
west bank of the Connecticut River, fifty miles from
its mouth. It is advantageously situated for trade,
being at the head of the sloop navigation, and having
an extensive, rich, and industrious back country.
New Haven lies round the head of a bay, which
stretches inwards about four miles from Long Island
Sound. The city, is regularly laid out on a large
plain, which is bounded on the north-east and north
west by mountains. The harbour is well defended
from winds, but shallow, and is gradually filling up
with mud,— which difficulty has been remedied in
part, by the construction of a wharf, about a mile in
length, extending into the harbour. Middletown is
on the west bank of Connecticut River, thirty-one

* From Hartford.

miles from its mouth, fifteen miles south of Hartford,
and twenty-six north-east of New Haven. It is a plea
sant and flourishing town, and has considerable com
merce. The amount of shipping in 1815, was 19,499
tons, a greater amount than belonged to any other port
in the state. The river is navigable to this place
for vessels drawing ten feet of water. New London
is near the south-east corner of the state, on the west
bank of the Thames, three miles from its entrance
into the sound. It is one of the most considerable
commercial towns in the state. The harbour is
large, safe, and commodious, and has five fathoms
water. It is defended by two forts. Norwich is on
the Thames, fourteen miles north of New London,
and forty south-east of Hartford. It is favourably
situated for trade, being at the head of navigation on
the river, and having a productive back country.
There are falls within the town, which afford seats
for various mills and manufacturing establishments.

t From Washington.

348

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Litchfield is thirty miles west of Hartford, and thirty-
six north-north-west of New Haven. Its situation is
elevated and healthy. Wethersfield is on the west
bank of Connecticut River, between Hartford and
Middletown. It is famous for raising great quanti
ties of onions. Saybrook, one of the oldest towns in
the country, stands on the west bank of the Con
necticut River, at its mouth. Stafford, famous for
its mineral spring, is twenty-seven miles north-east
of Hartford. Cornwall, the seat of the Foreign Mis
sion School, is ten miles north-west of Litchfield.
Fairfield, the. chief town in Fairfield county, is
twenty-two miles west-south-West of New Haven.
Bridgeport, an incorporated borough, and a thriving
commercial place, is four miles north-east of Fair
field. The history of this state was written by the Rev.
Dr. Trumbull.

CHAPTER II.

NEW YORK  NEW JERSEY — PENNSYLVANIA.
NEW YORK.
This extensive, populous, and flourishing state,
extends from latitude 40" 30' to 45° ; and longitude
73° to 79° 55'. Length from Staten Island, the south
west point, 315 miles, and from the south-west angle
of Massachusetts along the line of north latitude 42°,
320 miles. The area is within a fraction of 46,500
square miles, and the mean breadth nearly 110 miles.
It is bounded on the north by Lower Canada, on the
east by Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, oh
the south-east by the- Atlantic Ocean, on the south
by New Jersey and Pennsylvania, on. the west by
Pennsylvania, Lake Erie, and the NiagaraRiver, and
on the north-west by Lake Ontario and the River St.
Lawrence. The south-eastern angle of the state, about forty
miles above New York, is mountainous,. being traversed
by several ridges from New Jersey, one of which
crosses the Hudson at the Highlands. The Catskill
mountains, in the counties of Ulster, Greene, Albany,
and Schoharie, are the highest in the state ; Round
Top, the principal summit, being 3,804 feet above the
level of the sea. The country on Lake Champlain

* It was our intention to have given a lengthened description of
ihis grand and magnificent scene from a manuscript with which
we have been presented by a recent traveller, but matter of a more
important, though not more interesting character, has left so little

is hilly, and becomes mountainous as you approach
the highlands which divide the waters of this lake
from those which fall into the St. Lawrence. West
of these highlands, a fine country, at first hilly, then
level and fertile, extends to the St. Lawrence and
Lake Ontario. The western part, lying between
Lake Ontario and Pennsylvania, is principally level,
except near the Pennsylvania boundary, where it
becomes hilly and mountainous. From Genesee
river, near its mouth, to Lewistown, on the Niagara
River, there is a remarkable ridge, running almost
the whole distance, which is seventy-eight miles,
and in a direction from east to west. Its general al
titude above the neighbouring land is thirty feet,
and its width, in some places, is not more than forty
yards. Its elevation is about 160 feet above the level
of Lake Ontario, to which it descend* by a gradual
slope, and its distance from that water is between six
and ten miles. There is every reason to believe that
this ridge was once the margin of Lake Ontario.
About twenty miles south of this ridge, and parallel
with it, there is another, which runs from Genesee
River to Black Rock. The country between the
ridges is called the Tonnewanta Valley, and there is
some reason to belieVe that it was once covered by
the waters of Lake Erie.
The falls of Niagara are, perhaps, the most won
derful natural object in the world.* They are in
Niagara River, about half way between Lake Erie
and Lake Ontario. This immense river here rushes
over a precipice, and falls perpendicularly to the depth
of 176 feet. The roar of the waters can sometimes
be heard at the distance of forty miles ; and the va
pour, which continually rises in clouds from below,
can be seen at the distance of seventy miles. — In
Mohawk River, about two miles, from its mouth, are
the falls called the Cahoos, or Cahoes, which have
been much admired for their beauty and sublimity.
The river, which is here between 300 and 400 yards
broad, descends, at high water, in one sheet, to the
depth of seventy feet. About three quarters of a mile
below, a bridge has been thrown across the Mohawk,
frbm which the view of the falls is inexpressibly
grand. The Saratoga and Ballston springs are the
most celebrated in America. Saratoga is thirty
miles north of Albany, and a few miles west of the
Hudson. Ballston is twelve miles south-west of Sa
ratoga. These springs, during the summer months,
are the resort of the gay and fashionable, as well as

room within the limits of our work, that the description of the
beautiful scenery of the lakes, the Hudson, &c., which would re
quire a volume to do it justice, must be omitted.

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TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

349

of invalids, from all parts of the United States. The
waters afford relief in many obstinate diseases. The
warm springs of New Lebanon, twenty-nine miles
south-east of Albany, are visited for bathing. Be
sides these springs may be mentioned the Avon mine
ral springs, in Livingston county. They have but.
very lately attracted attention. They are of a sul
phureous character, and highly valuable in many dis
eases of a chronic nature, affections of the skin, &c.
Their medicinal qualities have been noticed in a
former part of this work, from a medical report by
Professor Francis.
The eastern half of Long Island is sandy and
barren ; the western part is fertile, and in a state of
high cultivation. The country on the Hudson, below
the mouth of the Mohawk, has a good medium soil.
The counties of Westchester and Dutchess are under
very good cultivation. The alluvial flats of Coluhir
bia, and Rensselaer counties are Very extensive and
rich. A considerable district west of Albany con
sists of sandy plains, interspersed with marshes.
The alluvial flats on the Mohawk are extensive and
very fertile. The soil of the elevated plain of the
western region, occupied by the small lakes, is a rich
mould, equally well adapted to grain and grass!
The alluvial flats are here extensive; those oh the
( f Genesee river include about 60,000 acres. Wheat
is raised in this state in greater quantities than all
other grain. Indian corn, rye, oats, flax, hemp, &c,
are also extensively cultivated.
As New York stretches from north to south four
degrees and a half, passing by 'the states of Vermont,
Massachusetts, and Connecticut, the climate ofthe
eastern parts resembles that of these states respectively.
In the south-east, towards the sea, the climate is
temperate, but subject to Very sudden and' great
Changes. After passing the highlands, and- going
into the western country beyond UFtica, the: climate
becomes milder than it is to; the eastward, In the
western part,' contiguous to Lakes Ontario and Erie,
the temperature is moderated by these Waters, and
does not go to the same extremes as in the south-east.
The climate of the Whole state is in general healthy,
and favourable to cultivation. At Salina, in Onon
daga county, about thirty miles from Utica-, are the
celebrated salt springs and salt works, which yield
about 500,000 bushels of salt annually, and the manu
facture may be extended to any quantity!
'The turnpike roads are numerous: the most im
portant is the great western turnpike, leading from
Albany to Canandaigua, a distance of 196 miles: The
great canal connecting Lake Erie with - the Hudson
was completed in 1825, and is 360 miles long! :i The1
Vol. IL— Nos. 65 & 66. 2 Y

route is as follows : beginning at Albany on the Hud
son, it passes up the west bank of that river, nearly
to the mouth of the Mohawk ; then generally along
the south bank of the Mohawk, through the counties
of Albany, Schenectady, Montgomery, Herkimer, and
Oneida, to Rome. From Rome it proceeds in a south
west direction, and crosses Oneida creek into Madi
son county, where it turns to the west, and passes
through Onondaga county, approaching within a mile
and a half of Salina, at the south end of Onondaga
or Salt Lake. It crosses Seneca River at Montezu
ma,. and, passing by Lyons and Palmyra, strikes the
Genesee River at Rochester. West of the Genesee
River, it runs on the south side ofthe Ridge Road,
and parallel with it for sixty miles, and then, turning
to the. south, joins Tonnewanta Creek, eleven miles
from its mouth in Niagara River. The channel of
the Tonnewanta is made use of for these eleven miles,
and the canal then proceeds in a southerly direction
from the mouth of the Tonnewanta along the east
bank of Niagara River, to Buffalo, on Lake Erie.
This route is divided into three sections : the western
section extends from Buffalo to Montezuma, on Sene
ga River, 155 miles ; through this distance the level
ofthe canal uniformly descends from the lake, and
the whole descent is 194 feet, by twenty-one locks.
The middle section extends from Montezuma to Uti
ca, ninety-six miles ; through this distance the level
of the canal uniformly ascends, and the whole ascent
is forty-nine feet, by nine locks. The eastern section
extends from Utica to Albany, 109 miles ; through
this distance the level ofthe canal uniformly descends,
and the whole descent is 419 feet, by fifty-one locks.
The aggregate of rise and fall is, therefore, 662 feet,
and the difference. of levels between Lake Erie and
the Hudson, 564 feet. The canal is forty feet wide
on- the surface, twenty-eight at the bottom, and four
feet deep. It was estimated by the commissioners in
1817, that; the whole, expense would be 4,881,733
dollars. The canal was commenced on the 4th of
July, 1817, and on the 4th of November, 1825, the
first boat from Lake Erie arrived at New York. For
sixty-seven miles of the middle section, the canal pro
ceeds on the summit level without a. single: lock.
The northern Canal extends from Lake Champlain to
its junction with the western Canal, about eight miles
north of Albany, and its whole extent is about sixty-
four miles, estimating forty-eight miles and a half for
artificial navigation, and fifteen miles and a half for
natural navigation-improved. The actual cost of the *
Erie and Champlain canals Was 9,123,000 dollars.
The debt contractedfor them -is 7^771 J000 dollars.
Thd tolls in 1833, amounted 'to. :i-,'428,«95 dollars.

350

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Besides these, there are several other canals : Oswe
go Canal, completed ; length, thirty-eight miles, from
Salina to Oswego, connecting the Hudson and Erie
Canal with Lake Ontario. Seneca Canal, com
pleted ; its length twenty miles, connecting the Se
neca and Cayuga Lakes with the Hudson and Erie
Canal. Chemung Canal, from the head waters of Seneca
Lake to the Chemung or Tioga River, at the village
of Elmira, Tioga county. Crooked Lake Canal,
connecting the waters of Crooked and Seneca Lakes,
22 1-2 miles, through a beautiful and fertile country.
Delaware and Hudson Canal ; length, sixty-five miles,
from Delaware, in Orange county, to the Hudson, near
Kingston. The stupendous enterprise of the state of New
York, in the successful projection of her canal policy,
demands that something more than the present no
tice of the English editor should find a place in this
reprint. Many eminent individuals, at different times,
seem to have conceived some idea ofthe practicability
of forming additional communications by water with
the lakes and the Hudson river : but it was reserved
as a becoming object of the late De Witt Clinton,
amidst doubts, uncertainties, and opposition, to perse
vere in the magnificent measure of effecting a canal
navigation from the Hudson to lake Erie. " In this
great work of internal improvement, (to borrow the
language of Charles King, Esq. in an obituary no
tice of this illustrious patriot,) Clinton persevered
through good report and through evil report, with a
steadiness of purpose that no obstacle could divert;
and when all the elements were in commotion around
him, and even his chosen associates were appalled,
he alone, like Columbus, on the wide waste of
waters, in. his frail bark, with a disheartened and un
believing crew, remained firm, self-poised, and un
shaken." "Is it extravagant or unjust to say, that,
like Columbus, he was recompensed by opening new
worlds to our intercourse, — vast regions, which the
canals of New York must be the means of subduing,
civilizing, enriching."
A history of the canal policy of the state has been
drawn up with great minuteness and fidelity by a
fellow labourer in the great cause — the late Cadwal-
lader D. Colden. From that memoir, the following
copious extracts are made. A knowledge of the sub
ject is of too great importance not to receive the ad
ditional circulation which this work may give it.
Professor Hosack's memoir of De Witt Clinton may
also be consulted with peculiar advantage on the
subject of the respective merits of different claim
ants on the canal policy of New York.

Memoir prepared at the request of a Committee of
' the Common Council of the city of New Yark,
and presented to the Mayor of the city, at the
celebration of the completion of the New York
canals. By Cadwallader D. Colden,
The oceans and the Mediterranean seas of our
continent are united. Canals, extending more than
four hundred miles, have been completed in little
more than eight years, by the energies and resources
of a single state, within the territories of which no
white man had set his foot at the beginning of the
seventeenth century.
Vessels, waterborne from the shores of Lake Erie,
over the intervening hills and valleys, will meet ships
from the Atlantic, at a point which, two hundred
years ago, was surrounded by a wilderness, filled
with savage tribes, hostile to each other.
They, like other human beings in the same un
civilized state, seemed to consider war as their natural
condition, and had a proneness to treat every stranger
as an enemy. Their ignorance and superstition led
them to believe every thing supernatural, which was
extraordinary. When they discovered the first
European vessel approaching the land, apparently
growing out of the ocean, and finally saw that there
were human forms about it, they ^thought it their
great Manitto, with attending spirits, moving on their
waters. The meeting of the boats from the Lakes, and of
vessels from the sea, will be near the spot, where he
who discovered, and gives name to our magnificent
river, landed in the year sixteen hundred and nine.
The first ground within the territory of this state,
which Hudson touched, it is believed, was Coney
Island. How different is the scene now presented, and that
which he beheld !
We shall have around us the same great objects
of nature : The seas — the beautiful bays — and our
magnificent mountain river : But instead of the huts
of savages, we shall have the abodes of a civilized,
opulent, and a free people : — Instead of uncultivated
wilds, we shall be surrounded by a country yielding
all that is necessary to the comfort of man : — Instead
of savages in their canoes, yelling with amazement,
as when they first saw the vessel of Hudson, there
will be magnificent barques, gorgeously decorated,
bearing thousands of our fellow citizens, exulting in
the accomplishment of a work, which is an evidence,
how immeasurably civilized, transcends savage man.
To celebrate an event in which the citizens of this
state mav justly feel so much pride, and which is so

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

351

deeply connected with their interests, is to indulge
very natural feelings— But it is a higher sentiment,
Mr. Mayor, which has induced the honourable body
over which you preside, to engage in the proposed
celebration with so much zeal and liberality, and
which will induce many thousands of our fellow ci
tizens to unite with them on the occasion. The great
work of improving or creating inland navigation in
the United States has but commenced. In our own
state there are a hundred paths over which naviga
ble waters are yet to be led ; and within our national
territory, the field for such improvements is bound
less and almost uncultivated. We shall rejoice in
the completion of our canals, not only for our own
sakes, but with the hope that the acclamations of our
celebration will be heard by all who need encourage
ment to follow our example.
Nor do I think that we should be unwilling to
confess, that upon this occasion we are desirous to
attract the attention of foreign nations. — They have
told us that our government was unstable — That it
was too weak to unite so large a territory — That our
republic was incapable of works of great magnitude
' — That these could only be performed where corporal
labour might be commanded and enforced, not where
it must be voluntary. But we say to them, see this
great link in the chain of our union — in the great
bond which is to bind us together irrefragably and
for ever. — It has been devised, planned, and executed,
by the free citizens of this Republican State. A work
merely of pride and ostentation, it is true, could not
be executed here. It would be as impossible to build
the pyramids of Egypt on our soil, as it would be to
float them to our shores ; but works that are useful,
and connected with the public good, will only have
opponents, as we have seen in the progress of this
great enterprise, so long as there are doubts and fears
as to its character and practicability ; but let these
be determined, and the suggestions of patriotism
will be better stimulants than the sceptres of despots.
Before I proceed in the course which I propose to
pursue on this occasion, and which I will indicate,
when I shall have the honour to put into your hands
this Memoir, permit me to add a few words, in addi
tion to what I have already said, in relation to the
state of our country previously to, and at the time
the canals were commenced.
It is, comparatively, but a short time since, all here
was wild and savage. It is possible that the fourth
generation from the discovery of New York, is not
yet extinct ; — It is possible that the great-grand-child
of a man who saw Henry Hudson is yet living.
But short as the time is since there was any set

tlement of civilized man, on this part of the continent,
even in that short time, the progress of civilization
has been continually disturbed and retarded.
The Dutch claimed, and took possession of this
part of the country, in virtue of its having been dis
covered by Hudson, while he was in their employ.
The settlements made by the Netherlanders were
very insignificant ; but new and feeble as they were,
they were harassed by continual disputes, and some
times wars ; not so much with the savages, as with
their civilized neighbours.
The colony was involved in the contests between
its mother country and the English, which termina
ted in sixteen hundred and seventy-four, when the
New Netherlands were finally ceded to Great Britain.
From this time to the commencement of the Re
volution, the Province of New York was involved in
the wars in which England was almost uninterrupt
edly engaged, or its peace and prosperity was dis
turbed by intestine commotions.
The struggles between the French and English,
for advantages in the fur trade, kept the colonies
continually embroiled with the savages. In the
year sixteen hundred and ninety, these remorseless
beings sacked and burnt Schenectady, and murdered
most of the inhabitants.
At the commencement of the revolution, the popu
lation of the territory which now forms the state of
New York, amounted to no more than one hundred
and eighty thousand.
Notwithstanding the revolutionary war of eight-
years, the number of inhabitants increased, and at
the peace in seventeen hundred and eighty-three,
amounted to about two hundred thousand, not much
exceeding the present population of the city. Yet in
the year seventeen hundred arid eighty-eight, when
a treaty with the Indians was held at Fort Stanwix,
the now beautiful, populous, and cultivated country
through which the western canal runs thither, from"
the shores of Lake Erie, contained not a single white
inhabitant. The nature of the government, previously to out-
independence, was very unfavourable to the progress
of improvements. No great work has been accom
plished by colonists, at least in modern times. Per
haps the rule of Great Britain was as little oppressive
to those she called her children, as that of any other
parent state, yet the colonial restraints and imposi
tions then thought justifiable, were such, that the
wonder is not that we shook off our chains so soon,
but that we endured them so long. It was not the
mere right to tax her colonies without their consent,
which Great Britain claimed, that led to their revolt,

352

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

The restrictions she imposed for the sake of her com
merce were insupportable. The colonies were not
allowed to manufacture the produce of their own soil.
They were obliged to send raw materials to England,
that they might be returned by her manufacturers,
charged with whatever they pleased to exact for pro
fit. We can hardly believe at this day, that when
we were under the dominion of our mother country,
the noise of trip hammers and rolling mills, which are
now every where heard in our mountains, would
have been considered as treasonable sounds.
The vast and fertile regions of the west, with
which we have opened communication by our canals,
were doomed to be a perpetual wilderness. The
crown, and colonial governors, refused to make
grants at any distance from the sea-board, lest they
should become inhabited by a people who would feel
but little respect for laws so much at enmity with
their interest, and who would be out ofthe reach of
coercion. Ireland, though not a colony, is treated as a de
pendency of England. Her population, in propor
tion to her territory, is greater, and her natural ad
vantages are at least equal, to those of the Island of
Britain. Yet Ireland has only two or three canals,
of no great extent, while England has upwards of
one hundred, extending more than twenty-four hun
dred miles.
Florida was for a long time a colony of a Euro
pean nation, which owned the mines of Chili, Mexico,
and Peru. Had this province continued subject to
Spain, there is little reason to believe, that any part
of the treasures transmitted from the new to the old
world, or the resources which the genial climate and
fruitful soil of this beautiful country might have
afforded, would have been applied to opening a canal
through the Florida Peninsula. Within four years
from the cession of this territory to the United States,
a project for a canal through it, from the Atlantic, to
the Gulf of Mexico, is on foot, and on the point of
execution. • Spain had also under its government the Isthmus
which separates the Atlantic and the Pacific. Jealous
of her colonies, she did not encourage any attempt
to form a communication between the oceans.
The spirit of liberty has spread its influence to
every part of this continent. Independent govern
ments are hardly established to the south, before it
is proposed to unite the two great seas.
Do we not see in these expansions of the minds
of men the moment they are set free, how far despotic
governments confine the human faculties, and limit
he happiness of a people 1 To use and enjoy the

reason and power with which man is endowed by
his Creator, he must have liberty and independence.
There is as much difference between man, the
subject of a despotic government, and the citizens of
a free respresentative republic, as there is between .
waters diverted to some artificial channel, and the
deep current of Niagara, pouring through its natural
course, irresistible, but by the hand of the Almighty,
Let us suppose these objects accomplished. — Let
us suppose the two great oceans united through the
Isthmus of Darien — the Atlantic ancl the Gulf of
Mexico through the Peninsula of Florida. Let us
suppose the waters of the Lakes united with the Mis
sissippi, as those of the Lakes are now with the Hud
son. These will be the works of republican govern
ments. When they are completed, which probably
will be within a few years, we shall not fear to com
pare them with any thing that has been done in
the old world, for the happiness of mankind. We
may see in many countries works of the same na
ture, but their benefits are limited to the narrow
spaces which they occupy, or at most, to the territory
in which they exist ; but the canals we have accom
plished, and those on the point of being executed,
will affect the whole world. They will make an
important change in the arrangement of the lands
and waters of the earth, the effects of which will be
felt by the whole human species. We know how
much wealth is accumulated in Europe. We see
" the gorgeous palaces, the cloud cap't towers," which
are the pride and boast of its inhabitants. We turn
to the history of the ages ofthe existence of its govern
ments ; we read of their wars — of the many fields
covered with their slain, and of their contests which
have dyed the ocean with human blood, but we do
not admit that these have given to those who have
so long contemned our republican institutions, claims
as the benefactors of mankind. But we acknowledge
that the scientific institutions of the Europeans, the
progress they have made in the arts and sciences, their
cultivation of the human mind, deserve admiration.
We do not forget that our fathers were from the other
side of the great waters, and brought with them that
spirit of liberty which has been transmitted through
many generations, and has animated the Washingtons
and Bolivars of the North and of the South. The
historians, poets, men of learning and science, in the
old world, are not more admired and revered on the
soil which gave them birth, than they are in these
distant regions. Whenever we estimate our political
freedom and happiness, we remember how much of
it we owe to the lessons we have learnt from our
trans atlantic ancestors ; nor shall we ever refuse to

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

353

admit, that the great works of art, the completion of
which we are about to celebrate, and which seem so
much in advance of our age as a nation, could not
have been accomplished without the science and ex
amples we derived from abroad.
We date our independence from seventeen hundred
and seventy-six. But our existence as a nation must
be calculated from the conclusion of the revolutionary
war in seventeen hundred and eighty-three. From
that time the water communications between the
Hudson and the Lakes Champlain and Ontario, seem
to have attracted the attention of our citizens, with a
view to open and improve them ; though long pre
viously the streams of the north and west and of the
south, and the facility with which they might be
united, had been noticed.
Quebec was founded bythe French, the year before
the North River was discovered by Hudson. When
afterwards the English became possessed of the trading
establishments at Albany and Schenectady, the Wood
Creek of Lake Champlain, and the Wood Creek of
the Oneida Lake, were the routes by which, in peace,
there was intercourse between the establishments on
the Lakes and the Saint Lawrence, and those on the
Hudson River. In times of hostility these water
courses, and the intervening portages, were traversed
by the armaments of the hostile colonies, and were
the war paths of their savage allies. Consequently,
though the country between the Lakes, and the Saint
Lawrence and the Hudson, was all wilderness, its
topographical features were perfectly well known.
In seventeen hundred and twenty-four, the then
surveyor general of the province of New York, made
a report to the colonial governor, in which he de
scribes the water courses and carrying places between
Albany and Montreal, by way of Lake Champlain,
and between Albany and the Cataraqui Lake, which
is now called Ontario, by the Mohawk River, and
the river which runs into the Oneida Lake, with as
much accuracy as they could be described at this
moment. The carrying place between the Mohawk,
and the stream which we now call Wood Creek, he
describes as " a portage only three miles long, except,"
says he, " in very dry weather, when the goods must
be carried two miles further." He then describes the
passage down the Onondaga River, to the Cataraqui
Lake, and shows that goods might be carried from
Albany to that Lake by the Mohawk, Oneida, and
the Onondaga River, cheaper, and much more conve
niently, than as they were then transported, to the
mouth of the Oswego River by way of the Hudson,
Lake Champlain, Montreal, and the river Saint
Lawrence.

At the moment I am writing, I hear the cannon,
which, at the termination of a line of five hundred
and thirteen miles, repeats the signal, that the first
boat from Lake Erie has entered the Western Canal,
on her way to this city. Who that has American
blood in his veins can hear this sound without emo
tion 1 Who that has the privilege to do it, can re
frain from exclaiming, I, too, am an American citizen ;
and feel as much pride in being able to make the
declaration, as ever an inhabitant of the eternal city
felt, in proclaiming that he was a Roman.
This abrupt digression may be incompatible with
the sober character a written memoir ought to pre
serve ; but the excitement which so extraordinary
arid wonderful a circumstance occasions, I hope will
excuse it.
I resume the course I was pursuing, which was to
show that long before the subject was brought before
the Legislature of this State, and in very remote
times, the near connexion of the waters of the Hudson
and the Lakes was well understood.
The historian of the Five Indian Nations informs,
us, that Governor Burnet erected a Fort and trading
houses at the mouth of the Onondaga River, on ac
count, says he, "of its water communications with
the country of the Iroquois, and for the facility of
transportation between the Lakes and Schenectady,
there being but three portages in the whole route,
and two of them very short." These, no doubt, were
the carrying places, at the Little Falls, the Wood
Creek, and at the Oswego Rapids.
Kaim, a Swede, who travelled in this country in
the year seventeen hundred and forty-eight, speaks
of the near approach of the waters of the Hudson and
the Saint Lawrence. Indeed, he seems to have sup
posed that there was a perfect communication from
the former to the latter.
Carver, who traversed the Lake country in seven
teen hundred and sixty-six, represents that a water
passage between the Mohawk and Wood Creek was
at that time effected at Fort Stanwix, by sluices.
In seventeen hundred and sixty-eight, Sir Henry
Moore, in a Message to the Colonial Assembly, stated
that " the obstruction of the navigation in the Mo
hawk River, between Schenectady and Fort Stan
wix, occasioned by the falls of Canajoharie, had been
constantly complained of, and that it was obvious to
all who were conversant in matters of this kind, that
the difficulty could be easily remedied by sluices,
upon the plan of those in the great Canal of Lan-
guedoc in France, which was made to open a com
munication between the Atlantic ocean, and the Medi
terranean."

354

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

I have made these few references to show that at
a very early day, not only the Champlain route to
Montreal, but what we now call the Ontario route
to the Lakes, was perfectly well understood ; and
that it was well known that the water courses run
ning westwardly and northwardly, and those running
southwardly and eastwardly, were separated by low
lands of very little extent. Any one that had tra
versed those portages, or heard them described, and
knew that artificial water ways had been constructed
in other parts of the world, must have thought of
completing these water communications by Canals.
How much in vain, then, must it be to inquire
who first thought of connecting the western, and
northern, and southern waters ? We might as well
attempt to ascertain who had the first idea of making
a highway between New York and Albany, or be
tween any other important establishments in our
country. Many had opportunities of acquiring all
the knowledge connected with the subject, and it is
probable that the thought of water communications,
where they are now made by the Western Inland
Lock Navigation Company, was common to hundreds
at the same time.
Could we pursue this inquiry with any prospect
of success, it would be a futile labour. The discovery
would be of no benefit to the community, and but
little more credit would be due to one to whom the
original thought might be traced, if he did nothing
towards executing the idea he- had conceived, than
if it had been a dream.
The revolutionary war had scarcely been conclu
ded, when Washington saw in the improvement of
the internal communications of this country, that,
which, after her independence, most concerned her
prosperity and happiness. The subject had occupied
his mind before the revolution, we cannot ascertain
at how early a date, but it. is extremely probable that
he was among those who first thought of the advan
tages and practicability of navigable water communi
cations between the Lakes and the Atlantic. But no
sooner had he sheathed his triumphant sword, and
assumed the station of a private citizen, than he de
voted himself to this object. In seventeen hundred
and eighty-four he personally explored, not only what
is now the route of the Champlain Canal, but the
route which the Western Inland Lock Navigation
Company adopted for their improvements. That is
to say, the route bythe Mohawk, Wood Creek, Oneida
Lake, and Oswego River. This part of the life of
General Washington, as written by Chief Justice
Marshal, is so interesting, and so immediately con
nected with the subject which engages our attention,

that I am convinced the following extract will be
acceptable. " To a person looking beyond the present moment,
and taking the future in to view, it is only necessary
to glance over the map of the United States, to be
impressed with the incalculable importance of con
necting the western with the eastern territory, by
facilitating the means of intercourse between them.
To this subject the attention of General Washington
had been in some measure directed in the early part
of his life. While the American states were yet
British colonies, he had obtained the passage of a
bill, empowering those individuals who would en
gage in the work, to open the Potomac, so as to ren
der it navigable, from the tide water to Wills' Creek.
The River James had also been comprehended in his
plan ; and he had triumphed so far over the opposi
tion produced by local interest and prejudices, that
the business was in a train which promised success,
when the revolutionary war diverted the attention of
its patrons, and of all America, from internal improve
ments, to the great objects of liberty and indepen
dence. As that war approached its termination, sub
jects, which for a time had yielded their pretensions
to consideration, reclaimed that place to which their
real magnitude entitled them; and the internal navi
gation again attracted the attention of the wise and
thinking part of society. Accustomed to contemplate
America as his country, and to consider with solici
tude the interests of the whole, Washington now took
a more enlarged view of the advantages to be de
rived from opening both the eastern and western
waters : and for this, as well as for other purposes,
after peace had been proclaimed, he traversed the
western parts of New England and New York. ' I
have, lately,' said he, in a letter to the Marquis of
Chastellux, a foreigner, who was in pursuit of literary
as well as of military fame, 'made a tour through
the Lakes George and Champlain, as far as Crown
Point ; then returning to Schenectady, I proceeded up
the Mohawk River to Fort Schuyler, crossed over to
Wood Creek, which empties into the Oneida Lake,
and affords the water communication with Ontario ;
I then traversed the country to the head of the eastern
banks of the Susquehanna, and viewed the Lake
Otsego, and the portage between that Lake and the
Mohawk River at Canajoharie. Prompted by these
actual observations, I could not help taking a more
contemplative and extensive view of the vast inland
navigation of these United States, and could not but
be struck with the immense diffusion and importance
of it : and with the goodness of that Providence who
has dealt his favours to us with so profuse a hand.

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355

Would to God we may have wisdom enough to im
prove them ! I shall not rest contented until I have
explored the western country, and traversed those
lines (or great part of them,) which have given bounds
to a new empire.' "
Scarcely had he answered those spontaneous offer
ings of the heart, which, on retiring from the head
of the army, flowed in upon him from every part of
a grateful nation, when his views were once more
seriously turned to this truly interesting subject. Its
magnitude was also impressed on others ; and the
value of obtaining the aid which his influence and
active interference would afford to any exertions for
giving this direction to the public mind, and for
securing the happy execution of the plan which might
be devised, was perceived by all those who attached
to the great work a sufficient degree of importance,
and who were anxious for its success. In a letter
from a gentleman, (Mr. Jefferson,) who had taken an
expanded view of the subject, who felt an ardent
wish' for its accomplishment, and who relied on funds
to be advanced by the public for its execution, a de
tailed statement of his ideas was thus concluded :—
" But a most powerful objection always arises to
propositions of this kind. It is, that public under
takings are carelessly managed, and much money
spent to little purpose. To obviate this objection is
the purpose of my giving you the trouble of this
discussion. You have retired from public life. You
have weighed this determination, and it would be
impertinence in me to touch it. But would the su
perintendence of this work break in too much on the
sweets of retirement and repose ? If they would, I
stop here. Your future time and wishes are sacred
in my eye. If it would be only a dignified amuse
ment to you, what a monument of your retirement
would it be ! It is one that would follow that of
your public life, and bespeak it the work of the same
great hand. I am confident, that would you either
alone, or jointly with any persons you think proper,
be willing to direct this business, it would remove
the only objection, the weight of which I apprehend."
In the beginning of the autumn of seventeen hun
dred and eighty-four, General Washington made a
tour as far west as Pittsburgh ; after returning from
which, his first moments of leisure were devoted to
the task of engaging his countrymen in a work, which
appeared to him, to merit still more attention from
its political, than from its commercial influence on
the union. In a long and interesting letter to Mr.
Harrison, then governor of Virginia, he detailed the
advantages which might be derived from opening the
great rivers, the Potomac and the James, as high as

should be practicable. After stating with his accus
tomed exactness the distances, and the difficulties to
be surmounted in bringing the trade of the west to
different points on the Atlantic, he expressed unequi
vocally the opinion, that the rivers of Virginia
afforded a more convenient, and a more direct course
than could be found elsewhere, for that rich and in
creasing commerce. This was strongly urged as a
motive for immediately commencing the work. But
the rivers of the Atlantic constituted only a part of
the great plan he contemplated. He suggested the
appointment of Commissioners of integrity and abili
ties, exempt from the suspicion of prejudice, whose
duty it should be, after an accurate examination of
the James and the Potomac, to search out the nearest
and best portages, between those waters and the
streams capable of improvement, which- run into the
Ohio. Those streams were to be accurately survey
ed, the impediments to their navigation ascertained,
and their relative advantages examined. The navi
gable waters, west of the Ohio, towards the great Lakes,
were also to be traced to their sources, and those
which empty into the Lakes to be followed to their
mouths. " These things being done, and an accu
rate map of the whole presented to the public, he
was persuaded that reason would dictate what was
right and proper." For the execution of this latter
part of his plan he had also much reliance on Con
gress ; and in addition to the general advantages to
be drawn from the measure, he laboured, in his let
ters to the members of that body, to establish the
opinion, that the surveys he recommended would
add to the revenue, by enhancing the value of the
lands offered for sale. " Nature," he said, " had
made such an ample display of her bounties in those
regions, that the more the country was explored, the
more it would rise in estimation."
The assent and co-operation of Maryland being
indispensable to the improvement of the Potomac, he
was equally earnest in his endeavours to impress a
conviction of its superior advantages on influential
individuals in that state. In doing so, he detailed
the measures which would unquestionably be adopted
by New York and Pennsylvania, for acquiring the
monopoly of the western commerce, and the difficulty
which would be found in diverting it from the chan
nel it had once taken. " I am not," he added, " for
discouraging the exertions of any state to draw the
commerce of the western country to its sea-ports.
The more communications we open to it, the closer
we bind that rising world (for indeed it may be so
called,) to our interests, and the greater strength
shall we acquire by it. Those to whom nature af-

356

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

fords the best communications, will, if they are wise,
enjoy the greatest share of the trade. All I would
be understood to mean, therefore, is, that the gifts of
Providence may not be neglected."
But the light in which this subject would be
viewed with most interest, and which gave to it most
importance, was its political influence on the union.
"I need not remark to you, Sir," said he, in his let
ter to the governor of Virginia, " that the flanks and
rear of the United States are possessed by other
powers — and formidable ones too : nor need I press
the necessity of applying the cement of interest to
bind all parts of the Union together by indissoluble
bonds — especially of binding that part of it which
lies immediately west of us, to the middle states.
For what ties, let me ask, should we have upon those
people, how entirely unconnected with them shall we
be, and what troubles may we not apprehend, if the
Spaniards on their right, and Great Britain on their
left, instead of throwing impediments in their way,
as they now do, should hold out lures for their trade
and alliance 1 When they get strength, which will
be sooner than most people conceive, what will be
the consequence of their having formed close com
mercial connexions with both or either of those
powers ? It needs not, in my opinion, the gift of
prophecy to foretell. The western settlers (I speak
now from my own )bservations) stand, as it were,
upon a pivot. The touch of a feather would turn
them any way. Until the Spaniards (very unwisely
I think) threw difficulties in their way, they looked
down the Mississippi — and they looked that way for
no other reason than because they could glide gently
down the stream, without considering, perhaps, the
fatigues of the voyage back again, and the time ne
cessary for its performance ; and because they have
no other means of corning to us, but by a long land
transportation through unimproved roads." Letters
of the same import were also' addressed to the govern
or of Maryland, and to other gentlemen in that state.
To a member of the national legislature, he ob
served, "there is a matter which, though it does not
come before congress wholly, is, in my opinion, of
great political importance, and ought to be attended
to in time. It is to prevent the trade of the western
territory from settling in the hands either of the
Spaniards or British. If either of these happen, there
is a line of separation drawn between the eastern and
western country at once, the consequences of which
may be fatal. To tell any man of information how
fast the latter is settling, how much more rapidly it
will settle by means of foreign emigrants, who can
have no particular predilection for us, of the vast

fertility of the soil, of the population to which the
country is competent, would be unnecessary: and
equally unnecessary would it be to observe, that it
is by the cement of interest alone we can be held
together. If then the trade of that country should
flow through the Mississippi or the Saint Lawrence ;
if the inhabitants thereof should form commercial
connexions, which we know lead to intercourses of
other kinds, they would in a few years be as uncon
nected with us, as are those of South America. It
may be asked how are we to prevent this ? Happily
for us the way is plain. Our immediate interests, as
well as remote political advantages, point to it ;
whilst a combination of circumstances, render the
present time more favourable than any other to ac
complish it. Extend the inland navigation of the
eastern waters — communicate them as near as pos
sible with those which run westward ; — open these
to the Ohio ; — open also such as extend from the
Ohio towards Lake Erie, — and we shall not only
draw the produce of the western settlers, but the pel
try and fur trade of the Lakes, also to our ports — thus
adding an immense increase to our exports, and bind
ing those people to us by a chain which can never
be broken."
At about the time that General Washington was
exploring that part of our state, which was so well
calculated for the improvement of internal naviga
tion, the attention of the legislature was directed to
the same object. Christopher Colles, an inhabitant
of the city of New York, who had been previously
known for some important but unsuccessful enter
prises for the public good, and who had, in the year
seventeen hundred and seventy-two, given public
lectures in Philadelphia, on the subject of lock navi
gation, in seventeen hundred and eighty-four, pro
posed to the legislature to improve the navigation of
the Mohawk. His enterprise was thought too mighty
for the public resources, but the legislature gave Mr.
Colles some encouragement, by offering to secure to
him and his associates, for ever, the profits which
might arise from transportation on the river. The
next year, on the reiterated application of Mr.
Colles, the legislature granted him one hundred and
twenty-five dollars, to enable him to make an essay
towards the execution of his plan. This he seems
to have done ; and, in the same year, he published'
proposals for establishing a company to improve the
inland navigation between Oswego and Albany. In
this publication, Mr. Colles very forcibly anticipated
all the advantages which a water communication with
the lakes would afford. He evinces his knowledge
of the country, by representing that "the Allegany

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

357

mountains, which pass through all the states, seem to
die away as they approach the Mohawlc River ; and
the ground," says he, " between the upper part of
this river, and Wood Creek, is perfectly level."
Mr. Colles was again before the legislature with
his plan, in seventeen hundred and eighty-six, and
it seems to have met with their approbation ; but
nothing important or effectual was done by Mr.
Colles. He lived till within a few years. The
difficulties he met with seem to have subdued his
enterprise. Though his plan for connecting the
northern and southern, and eastern and western
Waters, was revived in seventeen hundred and ninety-
one, it does not appear that Mr. Colles had any con
nexion with it. We may all remember him as the
projector and attendant of the telegraph, erected
during the late war, on Castle Clinton. Genius and
talents, much above the sphere in which he seems to
have moved in the latter part of .his -life, could not
rescue him from obscurity and poverty ; but it would
be ungrateful to forget him at this time. No one can
say how far we owe this occasion, to the ability with
which he developed the great advantages that would
result from opening the communications with the
lakes ; to the clear views he presented of the facility
with which these communications might be made ;
and to the activity with Which he for some time
pursued his object. His contemporaries have not,
been insensible of his merits, and have preserved a
portrait of him, by Jarvis, in the Gallery ofthe His
torical Society.
Governor- George Clinton, in his speech to the
legislature, on opening the session of seventeen hun
dred and ninety-one, referred to the subject of inter
nal improvements in the following language. " Our
frontier settlements, freed from apprehensions of dan
ger, are rapidly increasing, and must soon yield ex
tensive resources for profitable commerce. This
consideration forcibly recommends the policy of con
tinuing to facilitate the means of communication with
them, as well to strengthen- the bonds of society,
as to prevent the produce of those fertile districts
from being diverted to other markets."
In the same session the legislature, passed " an act
concerning roads and inland navigation," by which
the commissioners of the land office were directed to
cause the grounds between the MohaWk River and
Wood Creek, In Herkimer- county, and between
Hudson River and Wood Creek, in Washington
county, to be explored and surveyed. The commis
sioners were also required by the act, to report an
estimate of the expense of making canals between
these points. In the same year, the surveys which
Vol. II.— Nos. 67 & 68. 2 Z

the act required were made ; and in January, seven
teen hundred and ninety-two, a report of the com
missioners was communicated by George Clinton,
the then Governor, by a message, in which he con
siders the practicability of effecting the object of the
legislature, at a very moderate expense, as ascertained.
He expresses a hope that a measure of such impor
tance, not only to the agriculture and commerce of
the state, but even to the influence of the laws, will
continue to demand due attention.
The members who appear to have taken the most
active part in these legislative transactions, were Mr.
Adgate, Mr. Williams, Mr. Livingston, and Mr.
Barker. There were, also, many citizens not in the legisla
ture, who had previously to this time greatly inte
rested themselves in promoting this iriiportant measure.
These ought to be named on this occasion, but I fear
I have not the . information which will enable me to
do justice to all. General Schuyler deserves to be
first mentioned. Distinguished by the force -and
energy of his character, for his abilities, acquirements,
and enterprise, he was one of the earliest, most strenu
ous, and most able supporters of improvements- in
our internal navigation. It has been justly said
that he was the master spirit which infused life and
vigour into the whole undertaking. Mr. Elkanah
Watson had, as early as the year seventeen hundred
and eighty-eight, attended an Indian treaty at - Fort
Stanwix. The view he at that time obtained of the
country, impressed him with the practicability and
advantages of the water communications which Mr.
Colles had, several years previously, explored and
described in his publication above noticed. Of Mr.
Colles's proceedings Mr. Watson appears to have had
no knowledge. Mr. Watson transcribed the ideas
he entertained on this subject, in a journal he kept
at the time, extracts from which he published in
eighteen hundred and twenty, in a work entitled,
" A History of the Rise, Progress, and existing con
dition of the Western Canals." This publication is
avowedly made by Mr. Watson, with a view to vin
dicate his claims " to the exclusive honour of 'project
ing the canal policy" of the state of New York.
In the same year that the act of the twenty-first
of March, seventeen hundred and ninety-one, was
passed, for surveying the contemplated routes, Mr.
Watson made a journey in the western part of the
state. All his views of the water communications
(which had been previously proposed by Mr. Colles)
were confirmed and strengthened, and he employed
his pen in writing and publishing essays, which, no
doubt, had ah important influence on public opinion

358

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

in favour of canals. He also published, in the work
last referred to, his journal of this. tour.
These private journals of Mr. Watson, by some
means unknown to him, as he states in the prelimi
nary remarks to his History of the Canals, were
obtained by the London booksellers, and published
by them, previously to seventeen hundred and ninety-
five ; and were, to the astonishment of Mr. Watson,
referred to by Mr. Phillips, in his History of Canals ;
the first edition of which was published about thirty
years ago.
In consequence of the favourable report of the
commissioners, appointed by the act of seventeen
hundred and ninety-one, and the recommendations
of the governor, the act of seventeen hundred and
ninety-two, by which the Western Inland Lock Na
vigation Company, and the Northern Inland Lock
Navigation Company were incorporated, was passed.
This act, it is said, was drawn by General Schuyler.
He, and about fifty others of the most respectable
and influential citizens, of the state, were members of
the company. Mr. Thomas Eddy, who was an early,
zealous, and active friend of internal navigation, was
not named in the act, but was elected a member and
director the year after the company was incorporated.
General Schuyler was chosen president, and he,
Messieurs Eddy, Jeremiah Van Rensselaer, Barent
Bleecker, Elkanah Watson, and Robert Bowne,
were among the most active members.
The object ofthe Western Inland Lock Navigation
Company was to improve the navigation, and to
open communications, by canals, to the Seneca Lake,
and Lake Ontario. The other company was em
powered to open a lock navigation between the
Hudson and Lake Champlain. This latter company
did something to improve the navigation of the
natural water-courses to the north, but was dissolved
without having made any canal, and without having
effected any thing of great importance.
So Herculean a task did it then appear to construct
a Canal, that the Western Company were allowed
fifteen years to accomplish their work ; though it
was known that the canalling which they would
have to perform would extend only a few miles.
But the company did not avail themselves of this
long indulgence. In the year seventeen hundred
and ninety-six, they completed the canal at the
Little Falls, of about two miles and three fourths in
length, with five locks ; and a canal of one mile and
a quarter at the German Flats ; and in seventeen
hundred and ninety-seven, a canal from the Mohawk
to Wood Creek, of one mile and three quarters : in
si' less than seven miles, with nine locks. Some

years afterwards they constructed several wooden
locks on Wood Creek. All tlie works which are
above enumerated, and which, at the time, were
thought very' great, and which were so many years
completing, might now be done in six weeks. Our
great canals, with all their locks, aqueducts, eulverts,
bridges, and every thing that belongs to them, have
been executed at the rate of more than a mile in a
week. The Western Company, after their principal works
had been constructed and once rebuilt, when it was
found that they must be again reconstructed, obtained
the assistance of Mr. Weston, an engineer, from
Europe, of eminence in his profession. He built the
existing locks of the Western Company. When
their improvements were so far completed as that a boat
might pass from Schenectady into the Oneida Lake,
they had expended more than four hundred thousand
dollars. This great expenditure obliged them to
charge such heavy tolls, that their canals were but
little used ; land carriage, and the natural rivers,
being generally preferred.
The old locks, at the Falls, now form part of a
communication from the Erie canal, into the Mohawk
River. When we stand on the lofty and magnificent
stone aqueduct which is thrown over the Falls, or on
the terrace which supports the western canal, — mid
way the precipitous rocks on the south side of the
river, we look down on the old canal, passing below
the new structure, creeping at our feet, through its
narrow channel and straitened locks.
At this point there is a combination of the beauties
of nature and of art, seldom to be met with. When
the latter excite the admiration of an American
citizen, he must find, blended with his feelings, some
thing of pride arising from the reflection that their
existence is owing entirely to the genius of his
countrymen. The prospect of a water communication from the
Hudson to Lake Ontario, suggested the advantages
of a like communication from that lake to Lake Erie.
With a view to the establishment of this desirable
object, an act was passed in seventeen hundred and
ninety-eight, incorporating the Niagara Company.
The design of those who formed this association,
was to make a canal, with locks, round the cataract
of Niagara. This project, in preference to that which has been
executed, has had its advocates till a very late day.
It is impossible to say, when we are looking for the
dawnings of the idea of an artificial water communi
cation between Lake Erie and the Hudson, whether
those who first anticipated such a connexion, and

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

359

have mentioned it in their writings, did not contem
plate this as the route by which the communication
would be effected, rather than that it would be made
On the line occupied by the canal which now exists.
But this act of seventeen hundred and ninety-eight,
and the project of locking round the Great Falls, to
which it was intended to give effect, seem very con
vincing proofs, that, up to this time, no person had
thought of an inland lock navigation, directly from
Lake Erie to the Hudson. Indeed, I may say, that
up to the time when this act was passed, I have not
found, in any thing written upon the subject, a single
syllable intimating that the idea of such a canal had
been conceived by any human being. It unquestion
ably had not entered into the minds of either of the
companies incorporated in seventeen hundred and
ninety-two. The views of the Western Inland Lock
Navigation Company, certainly, extended no further
than to improve the natural water-courses between
the mouth of the Onondaga River and the Mohawk,
and to connect them by the short cuts which were
necessary for that purpose. To use Mr. Watson's
own expressions, who was one of the Western Com
pany, " the utmost stretch of their views was to fol
low the track of nature's canal, and to remove natu
ral or artificial obstructions ; but they never enter
tained the most distant conception of a canal from
Lake Erie to the Hudson. They would not have
considered it," continues Mr. Watson, "much more
extravagant to have suggested the possibility of a
canal to the moon."
The efforts of this company, on the Mohawk, had
proved so expensive, and so little encouraging, that
they shrunk from an attempt to complete their origi
nal design, by extending their work to Lake Ontario.
In eighteen hundred and eight, they surrendered so
much of their grant as gave them any privileges
beyond the Oneida Lake. And, subsequently, when
the legislature had determined on executing the
northern and western canals, they ceded to the state,
for a sum much less than they had expended, all
their privileges and works.
But, although, those who were connected with
these navigation companies, and who encouraged and
promoted the objects of these associations, can not
justly claim, indeed never have claimed, the merit of
projecting the great canals,^ yet we should do them
great injustice did we not acknowledge that we owe
a great deal to their genius and enterprise. Their
ill success, it is true, for some time damped the
spirit of improvement, yet their efforts roused the
public attention, and induced inquiries and in
vestigations which have led to the great works, the

accomplishment of which we are about to cele
brate. The very peculiar character of the country about
our great Lakes was very early known. It was
seen that the Saint Lawrence, the Lakes, and the Mis
sissippi, lay in a great valley, extending from the
Bay of Labrador, to the Gulf of Mexico.
Monsieur de la Salle, who, in the year sixteen hun
dred and sixty-nine, first explored the Mississippi
from the Lakes, found that the waters of Lake Michi
gan, and of the rivers which run to the south, nearly
approximated. It was afterwards ascertained that at
certain seasons they were united, and that the inter
vening waters might be navigated by boats of consi
derable burden. . The near approach of the western
wafers of this state and of Lake Erie, was also con
jectured, if not known, at a very early day. In the
report before mentioned, made by the surveyor
general of the province of New York to Governor
Burnet, in seventeen hundred and twenty-four, after
having mentioned the communication into Lake
Ontario by the Onondaga River, he says : — "Besides
the passage by the Lakes, there is a river which
comes from the country of the Senecas, and falls
into the Onondaga River, by which we have an easy
carriage into the country, without going near the
Cataraqui Lake. The head of this river goes near
the Lake Erie, and probably may give a very near
passage into that Lake, and much more advantageous
than the way the French are obliged to take by the
great falls of Jagara."
It must be recollected that these, or similar passages,
are not cited to prove that there were in the minds
of the authors, ideas of a canal over the routes to
which they refer ; but the object in noticing these
speculations, is, to show that, when canals became
afterwards more known and practised, such descrip
tions of the country and its waters, may very natu^
Yally have suggested the possibility of making canals
in situations so well adapted to them. These ideas
might, and probably did, arise in the minds of many
contemporaneously ; and that, therefore, it would «be
vain to endeavour to discover who first suggested
the practicability of making the western canal -r upon
which so much is now said, only because it has here
tofore been a subject of such earnest inquiry and dis
cussion. We have seen, from the pamphlet published by
Christopher Colles, in seventeen hundred and eighty-
five, that as early as at that day, the extraordinary
adaptation of the country, on our western borders, for
water communications, had been perceived. His ex
pression that " the Allegany mountains died away,

360

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

as they approached the Mohawk," shows that he had
some idea of the path which nature has provided for
the great western canal. It was known too, long
before that project was undertaken, that the waters
of Lake Erie, lying above the Great Falls, must
be higher than the waters of the Hudson. In a com
munication from Mr. Charles Thompson, who was so
long secretary of the continental congress, to Mr.
Jefferson, which the latter has appended to his Notes
on Virginia, published in seventeen hundred and
eighty-seven, Mr. Thompson supposes, that if the
barriers of the Niagara River were, by any convul
sion of nature, to be torn asunder, the country below
would be deluged.
It must have been seen, also, that many of the
interior lakes were so high, that their outlets traversed
the path which the canal now occupies.
It is worth while to stop here to remark, that the loca
tion of several of these minor lakes, gives a character
to our western canal, which is very peculiar. Gene
rally, canals have been made to form connexions over
ridges, dividing seas, or natural navigable channels,
and commonly pass near the sources of the water
courses by which the canals are to be supplied, and,
therefore, one of the greatest difficulties in their con
struction, and one that frequently leads to enormous
expenses, is to obtain a sufficient supply of water,
and ' to economize that element. But our western
canal passes through a valley, and intercepts, near
their points of discharge into the great lakes, water
courses, supplied by inexhaustible sources, and owing
to the supplies being drawn from natural reservoirs,
of great magnitude, it has not been necessary to con
struct an artificial one, for either of the canals,
through their whole extent of more than four hun
dred miles.
These very extraordinary features of our country,
would very probably suggest to any person acquainted
with them, the idea of making water communications
over the grounds which are now occupied by the
canals. As the country was cleared of forests, and
became inhabited, its topography was better known,
and very probably from a suggestion that a continued
canal from Lake Erie to the Hudson, (in which the
person who made it may have had no confidence,) the
subject has been revolved in the minds of many, till
it was found deserving consideration, and finally, to
be worthy of serious examination ; the favourable
result of which led to the determination to execute
the project.
No one seems to have had an earlier or a more vivid
conception of the features of the country, between the
Hudson and the western lakes, which fitted it so pecu

liarly for canal navigation, than the late Mr. Gouver
neur Morris. The lakes, the rivers, the valleys in
which they lie ; the advantages and profit to be derived
from extensive inland water communications, and
their political influence, were subjects suited to the
great mind of Mr. Morris, and inspired those enthu
siastic anticipations which his pen has left us.
Previously to the year eighteen hundred, he does
not appear to have had any definite idea of a canal
extending beyond Lake Ontario. In a letter of that
time, to Mr. Lee, he^ seems to fix that as the point to
which he thought it was practicable to open a canal.
But at about the same period, in a letter tp a Euro
pean correspondent, he expresses his belief in the
practicability of enabling ships to sail from London,
through the Hudson, into Lake Erie.
In eighteen hundred and three, in a conversation
with Simeon De Witt, Esquire, the present surveyor
general, who deserves to be ranked among the early
and zealous friends of the canals, Mr. Morris spoke
of the possibility of " tapping Lake Erie." But yet
it is very uncertain whether Mr. Morris's idea was,
at these times, that a canal might be made directly
from the Hudson to that Lake. He might have con
ceived, that a ship from- London would sail into Onta
rio by the canal, which had then been so long thought
of; and from thence, into Erie by the locks round the
falls, which were contemplated by the act of seven
teen hundred and ninety-four : and he might have
conceived the possibility of tapping Lake Erie, by
leading its waters in the same course. But, subse
quently, and particularly at about the time the pro
ject of making a canal from Lake Erie to the Hud
son first attracted the attention of the legislature,
Mr. Morris became one of its most active and able
advocates. In eighteen hundred and, seven, Mr. Jefferson, then
President of the United States, proposed to congress
to devote so much of the national revenue, as the
exigencies of the government did not require, which
he calculated would be very large, to making roads
and canals. That part of the message of the Presi
dent, which related to these subjects, was referred to
the secretary of the treasury, Mr. Gallatin, who, in
eighteen hundred and eight, made a very able report ;
but the possibility of a canal, from Lake Erie to the
Hudson, had not occurred to him ;. or, if it had, he
did not perceive its advantages so far as to be induced
to mention it among those which he recommended,
as deserving the consideration of the government.
This message of the President was well calculated
to awaken the attention of the respective states, to
the advantages they possessed for internal navigation.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

361

Mr. Jesse Hawley, in the fall of eighteen hundred
and seven, published a number of pieces under the
signature of "Hercules," in which he advocated, with
great ability and force, the construction of a canal
from Buffalo to Utica, and proposed very nearly the
same route which is now occupied by the western
canal. We can not doubt but that these able essays
had a great influence on the public mind.
Mr. Geddes, who, from the beginning, has had so
large and active a part in planning and executing the
canals, in the year eighteen hundred and eight, inti
mated, that it was the opinion of many, that a canal
might be made from Erie to Rome. Mr. Elliot, who
was afterwards one of the commissioners, in a letter
to the surveyor general, written in July, eighteen
hundred and eighty very strongly recommends a com
munication to Lake Erie, in preference to the Ontario
route. In the session of eighteen hundred and eight, Mr.
Joshua Forman, a member of the assembly from
Onondaga county, proposed, in that body, a concur
rent resolution to direct a survey to be made, " of the
most eligible and direct route of a canal, to open a
communication betweeu the tide waters of the Hud
son River and Lake Erie." This is the first legis
lative proceeding, of which there is any trace, that
had reference to a canal from the Hudson to Lake
Erie. This resolution was adopted, and subsequently,
by a joint resolution proposed by Mr. Goold, in the
senate, the surveyor general was directed to cause
the survey, contemplated by Mr. Forman's resolution,
to be made ; but so limited were the views the legis
lature, at this time, had of the great work in which
they were about to engage, that they appropriated
for the object of the resolution, no more than the
sum of six hundred dollars.
The surveyor general employed Mr. Geddes,
who has been before mentioned, to make this survey.
He performed the duty with great intelligence ; and,
in January, eighteen hundred and nine, made a re
port in favour of the practicability of a route, directly
from Lake Erie, which evinces how fortunately the
agent had been selected.
Mr. Geddes conceived the possibility of running
the canal on the tops of the ridges which occupy the
Irbndequot valley ; a project which would not have
occurred to any but an engineer of great boldness
and comprehension.
Mr. Geddes's report was made to the surveyor
* The editors of this journal seem to have embarked with no
inconsiderable zeal in furtherance of the canal policy of this state,
by their publication, with comments, of various reports and docu-

general, and was by him communicated to the legis
lature. But nothing appears to have been done, till
in March, eighteen hundred and ten, when Jonas
Piatt, Esquire, then a member of the senate, who has
been among the foremost, on so many occasions, to
encourage and support this great enterprise, proposed,
in that body, a resolution which was unanimously
adopted by the senate, and concurred in by the
assembly, to appoint Gouverneur Morris, Stephen Van
Rensselaer, William North, Thomas Eddy, and
Peter B. Porter, " commissioners to explore the
whole route for inland navigation, from the Hudson
River to Lake Ontario, and to Lake Erie."
The legislature had before them, at that session,
memorials from many citizens in different parts of
the state, representing that Canada was attracting the
greatest part of our internal commerce, in consequence
of the facilities which were afforded by water com
munications, to transport commodities to her markets.
These representations, no doubt, had their influence,
but the abOve resolution, it appears, was brought for
ward by Judge Piatt, at this time, on the -suggestion
of Mr. Thomas Eddy, the gentleman before men
tioned, who had taken so active and leading a part
in the concerns of the Inland Lock Navigation Com
panies, and who was so long the zealous and active
friend of the canals. Judge Piatt and Mr. Eddy
engaged our present governor, De Witt Clinton,
who was then also a member of the senate, to sup
port Mr. Piatt's proposition. From that time, Mr.
Clinton has been the able, constant, indefatigable,
and undaunted advocate and supporter of these
great, works.
They also found, at about this time, an able ad
vocate in the late Doctor Hugh Williamson.
The memory of this distinguished citizen will be
preserved, not only by his History of North Carolina,
and other works which he published, but by a Bio
graphical Memoir, written by Doctor David Hosack.
Doctor Williamson, in eighteen hundred and ten,
wrote an essay, entitled, " Observations on Navigable
Canals ;" also, " Observations on the means of pre
serving the Commerce of New York ;" and, " Addi
tional Observations on Navigable Canals ;" all of
which had reference to the canals of New York, and
are preserved in Hosack and Francis's American
Medical and Philosophical Register.* In his Biogra
phy, Doctor Hosack remarks, that " Doctor William
son was among tlie first of our citizens who enter
tained correct views as to the practicability of forming

ments in behalf of the measure, at this early period of the under
taking, in a work nominally limited to discussions of a medical
and physical character.

362

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

a canal to connect the waters of Lake Erie with
Hudson River ; and the importance of this great
work so engaged his feelings, that besides the papers
already mentioned on canal navigation, he published
a series, on the same subject, under the signature of
Atticus. These papers were so well received, that
many thousand copies have been circulated through
the medium of newspapers, and the pamphlet has
itself been several times reprinted."
In the summer of eighteen hundred and ten, the
above named commissioners explored the whole
route, from the Hudson to Lake Erie ; and,, at the
session of eighteen hundred and eleven, they made
their first report, which was drawn up by Mr. Morris,
who acted as president of the board.
It proposed a project, which, although the report
was signed by all the commissioners, it is understood
was entirely his own. It was to bring the waters of
the Lake on one continued uninterrupted plane, with
an inclination of six inches in every mile, to a basin,
to be formed near the margin of the Hudson, from
whence there was to be a descent by a great number
of locks. This project was thought by many to be
impracticable ; and its having been presented as a plan,
which the commissioners recommended, was calcula
ted to retard the enterprise ; but the report bears tes
timony to the genius and the eloquence of the writer.
Immediately on the receipt of this report, Mr.
Clinton brought in a bill, which was passed on the
eighth of April, eighteen hundred and eleven. This
was the first law passed on the subject of the great
canals. It added Robert R. Livingston, and Robert
Fulton, to the former commissioners, and charged
the Board with the consideration of all matters rela
ting to the navigation between the Hudson and the
Lakes. It authorized them to apply to other states,
and to congress, for co-operation and aid ; to ascer
tain if loans could be procured ; and to treat with
the Inland Lock Navigation Companies, for a sur
render of their rights and interests.
The legislature was induced to give the commis
sioners power to apply to congress, because reliance
was placed on receiving the assistance which the
message of Mr. Jefferson, of eighteen hundred and
seven, and the report of Mr. Gallatin, a| though he
had not mentioned the Erie Canal, seemed to pro
mise to enterprises of this nature.
The commissioners, pursuant to the powers given
them by the last mentioned act, applied, in the ensu
ing year, to the general government, to afford some
aid to a project, no less interesting to the nation, than
to the state in which it was to be executed. Two
of the commissioners, Mr. Morris and Mr. Clinton,

attended at the seat of the national government, to
promote the success of this application. It was not
rejected, but it met with no great favour. It was
thought that nothing could be done for New York,
that was not done for the other states, and the nego
tiation of the commissioners ended in a proposition
brought before the house of representatives, by a
committee of that body, to appropriate to each state
certain portions of the public lands, to be applied by
the respective states, to the improvements of their
internal communications. But the bill reported by
the committee, was never acted upon in the house.
There was at that time, however, no question but
that congress had power to afford assistance, if it
were their pleasure to do so ; and there was no little
disappointment when, in eighteen hundred and
seventeen, it was understood that Mr. Madison con
ceived that the constitution would not permit an
appropriation of any part of the national funds or
means to these purposes.
This disappointment was the greater, because no
objection had been made by the executive, to several
acts of congress, appropriating very large sums of
money, for making a road through parts of Maryland,
Virginia, and Pennsylvania, and for similar objects
elsewhere. It was not Very well understood how
the constitution could allow an appropriation for
roads, and not permit it for a water highway.
But most happily for us, this objection prevailed
so long as the state of New York needed the aid of
the general government ; and most happily for
every other state in the union, these scruples have
since entirely subsided. We have been so fortunate
as to complete our canals without any extraneous aid,
and we are gratified that the other states, in enter
prises similar to ours, will be aided by funds from
the national treasury, and will have the assistance
of the distinguished foreigners and natives, who are
employed in the engineering departments of the
general government.
But we have yet one humble petition to make to
congress. That having made our canals without
their -interference, they will be pleased to leave us
to enjoy them : and that they will not sanction any
such pretension, as was of late made by some of their
revenue officers, that our canal boats, traversing our
hills and valleys, in an artificial channel made by
ourselves, entirely within our own territory, hundreds
of miles from the sea, and six or seven hundred feet
above its level, were engaged in the coasting trade
of the United States ; that they must therefore take
custom-house licenses, and pay a tax to the general
government.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

363

An act of congress has been passed, exempting
boats employed wholly on the canals from the ne
cessity of paying this tax, yet the claim of a right
to impose it seems to be reserved. But so long as
any respect for state sovereignties remains ; so long
as the confederacy is considered of any value, and
so long as there is any regard for the peace of the
union, it. is hoped there will be no attempt to enforce
this, or any similar claim.
The canal commissioners, pursuant to the authority
given to them by the Act of eighteen hundred and
eleven, made application to other states, and among
them to our younger sisters, Vermont, Kentucky, and
Ohio, proposing to them that, as they would enjoy
the benefits of the contemplated improvements in the
means of internal communication, they would also
participate in the expense ? We are not aware that
any answer to this invitation of the commissioners
was returned by any state but Ohio. She made a
very kind and complimentary answer, in the form
of a resolution of her legislature. The substance of
which was, that we had her best wishes ; that she
knew very well she would be greatly benefited if our
enterprise should be executed, but that she was well
assured we could do it ourselves ; that she was very
young and not rich ; she, however, testified her dis
position to serve us so far as her resources would"
justify, if she approved, when made known to her,
the plan we proposed to adopt.
Fortunately we have had no occasion to remind
Ohio of this engagement, and every friend of internal
improvements, must rejoice that no part of her re
sources have been diverted from the great work in
whieh she is now so nobly engaged. When it is ac
complished; as undoubtedly it will be, in a very
short time, she need not fear to compare it with any
thing of the same nature which has been achieved in
this or any other part of the world. When it is
considered that the population of her territory in
seventeen hundred and ninety, did not exceed three
thousand souls, her canal, when it is completed, will
be a stronger evidence, than the world has yet
afforded, of what can be done by the moral energies
of a free people, guided by wise, enterprising, and
magnanimous counsellors.
By opening a channel between Lake Erie and the
trans-Allegany navigable waters, Ohio will render
us infinitely a greater service than she could have
done by any contribution to our funds. She will
not lay 'out a dollar on her canal, that will not be
nearly of as much advantage to us as to herself. It
would be to our interest to open the communication
on which Ohio is now engaged, at our' own expense,

and to let it be a free passage, rather than it* should
not be done. We could not employ the large surplus
funds, which our canals will afford, more to our own
advantage, than by anticipating them, and making
loans to Ohio, if she should need such assistance.
When there is a canal communication between
the waters of the Ohio and the Lakes, a person may
travel in a vessel from New Orleans to New York,
and pass the Allegany mountains by water.
Had this been predicted only ten years ago, and
the prediction been credited, we should have looked
for some great convulsion of nature, by which the
lands and the waters on the face of the earth would
be displaced. It would never have been believed that
the hands of man could effect so mighty a change.
It is not only Ohio that our example has stimulated
and our success encouraged, but every state in the
union is projecting artificial water communications.
Our interest, as well as our feelings, are united in our
wishes for their success. We do not forget that the
state of New York is but a member of the great politi
cal family, and that our welfare is intimately connected
with the prosperity of the whole. But as respects
our own particular interest, we must wish to promote
the improvement of inland navigation in every part of
the union ; for it is certain that no canal can be opened
in the United States, which will not be a benefit to
us. However remote, it will be a channel through
which commerce will be attracted by our great
emporium, the local situation of which precludes a
rival. If any part of the produce of our own state
should be drawn from us, it will be because else
where it will find a more profitable market. The
object of all our improvements is the advantage of
our citizens, and if some should find the greatest
profit in trading to places without our territory, yet
it must be for the general good of the state ; the
prosperity of which depends on the welfare of its
inhabitants. If communities can be so connected as
that no jealousies or separate interests can arise be
tween them, the Ohio and New York canals are
bonds that will unite these two states in perpetual
amity. In eighteen hundred and twelve, a second report
was made by the board of commissioners, to the
legislature. And at that session an act was passed,
authorizing the commissioners to borrow, on the
credit of the state, five millions of dollars, to be ap
plied to the execution ofthe canals.
From this time, till the conclusion of the late war
with Great Britain, little appears to ha\>e been done
towards carrying into effect the then existing canal
laws. But in the mean time, that is, in March.

364

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

eighteen hundred and fourteen,- the commissioners
presented another report, in which they reiterated
their opinion that the canals were practicable ; that
the state could command competent resources, and
warmly urged the execution of the project. The
attention of the legislature, however, was engrossed
by the then existing, war. In consequence of the
disarrangement of the national finances, the state of
New York was obliged to employ its funds on objects
which properly belonged to the general government ;
and besides, a very considerable opposition had
arisen to the improvement of our inland navigation,
upon the great scale which the commissioners had
proposed. Many believed in the impracticability of
the project ; others, who admitted that it might be
accomplished, thought the work too mighty for the
power and resources of the state.
It was also unpropitious to the adoption ofthe
great design, that the friends of improvements in in
ternal navigation differed in opinion as to the course
which ought to be pursued ; some thinking that the
Ontario route, which has been before explained,
should be preferred to carrying the canal directly to
Lake Erie. Under the influence of these feelings and
Opinions, the legislature, in the session of eighteen
hundred and fourteen, repealed that part of the then
existing law, which empowered the commissioners to
borrow five millions of dollars.
However dissatisfied the friends of the canals were
with this repeal, it has turned out to be one of those
measures which though they appeared unpropitious at
the time, we now see were most fortunate. The war
prevented the employment of a foreign engineer, and
the repeal in question, prevented our making loans
abroad. The consequence of this last measure has
been, that every cent borrowed on account of the
canals was obtained of our own citizens, and the
interest is paid to them, or to foreigners who have
purchased the stock at an advance.
Perhaps the war itself, discouraging as were its
immediate effects, may be set down as one of those
events which finally had a tendency to promote the
commencement and execution of the canals. The
want of a practicable communication, for the con
veyance of materiel of war, from the sea-board to the
western frontier, was grievously felt. It has been
said that the expense of transporting cannon from
Albany to the' lakes, was at one time, more than
double what the pieces cost. The postponement of
the project for a few years was also fortunate, inas
much as it brought the commencement and execution
of it to a time when money could be more easily ob
tained, and on better terms, than it could have been

at, perhaps, any prior, or hitherto, subsequent pe-
riod. The retraction of the power to make loans, for a
time abated the zeal for improvements in inland
navigation. The commissioners made no report in
eighteen hundred and fifteen.
But the spirit which had been hushed by the
clamours of war, was again heard when peace was
restored. At the instigation of Mr. Eddy, Judge
Piatt, Mr. Clinton, Mr. John Pintard, and some others,
a few respectable and influential citizens were con
vened, in New York, in the latter part of the year
eighteen hundred and fifteen.
This meeting appointed a committee to draw a
memorial to the legislature in favour of the projected
inland navigation.
The duty assigned to this committee was performed
by their chairman, Mr. Clinton, who prepared what
has been distinguished, and will always be remem
bered, in the history ofthe canals, as the New York
memorial. Its presentation formed an epocha in the
progress of these works, from which their earnest and
active pursuit may be dated. Their practicability,
usefulness, and advantages, were stated with so much
clearness, ability, force, and eloquence, that, from
that time, all opposition was unavailing. Petitions
of the same character, from different parts of the
state, and signed by many thousand citizens, were
presented at the ensuing session of the legislature.
Governor Tompkins, in his opening speech, recom
mended the subject to the attention of the two houses.
The commissioners made a report in favour of an
immediate commencement ofthe work. While they
adverted to the great western canal, as an undertaking
which combined the honour, interest, and political
eminence of the state, they expressed their conviction
of the expediency of adopting measures to connect
the waters of Champlain with the Hudson.
It appears, that previously to this time, there had
been no thought that our own country could furnish
engineers of sufficient ability, science, and experience,
to execute a work which, in this state, was entirely
new. The ill success of the first Inland Lock Na
vigation Companies was calculated to give us very
humble opinions as to the requisite talents of our
citizens. But it has been the good fortune of this
country, whether in war or in peace, to find men
rising from her soil adequate to every emergency. Of
this, the execution of these canals, surpassed in no
respect by, any on earth, is a striking example.
When we see them, or read their history, the reflec
tion, that none but native American citizens have
had any share in devising, planning, or superintend-

TOPUUKAP.il OF THE UNITED STATES.

365

ing, any part of the work, must add to our gratifi
cation. We may hope that in time it will be ques
tioned whether the opinion be correct, which has
been promulgated by some European philosophers,
and seems yet to be entertained by some trans-atlan-
tic statesmen and reviewers, that the human species,
by transportation to the new world, has degenerated
in mental faculties and physical powers.
The commissioners, under the common impression
that they would be obliged to look abroad for assist
ance, sought - in Europe a civil engineer. Had it
not been for the intervention of the war, one they
had engaged would have shared the credit which is
due to Wright, Geddes, White, Thomas, Roberts, and
Briggs. Indeed, it seems that the acting commission
ers, Messieurs Holley, Young, Seymour, and Bouck,
discharged, in a great degree, duties which would
properly belong to engineers ; while, at the same time,
they were united with the other commissioners, in the
general direction and superintendence of the works.
In one of their former reports the commissioners
mentioned that an English engineer had been enga
ged, but they now stated that their inquiries, and the
intercourse they had had with many of our citizens
in exploring the routes of the canals, and making
surveys, had induced them to believe, that it was not
necessary to go from home to seek the requisite
talents and qualifications ; and in their report of this
-year (eighteen hundred and sixteen,) they express
their dispositon, in giving their employments, to pre
fer our own citizens. This report was signed by
Mr. Van Rensselaer, Mr. Clinton, Mr. De Witt, Mr.
North, Mr. Eddy, Mr. Porter, and by Mr. Charles D.
Cooper, who had been appointed by Governor Tomp
kins, to fill a vacancy in the board, occasioned by
the death of Robert R. Livingston, Esquire. Mr.
Morris did not sign the report, because, it has been
said, he was dissatisfied that his idea of an inclined
plane was in a great measure abandoned. The
signature of one other commissioner was wanting —
that of Robert Fulton, who died in the rhonth of Feb
ruary, in the preceding year.
It is impossible to refer to the deaths of Mr. Liv
ingston, and Mr. Fulton, without wishing to pay
some tribute to their memories. It is particularly
due to them upon this occasion, because they were
zealous promoters of the great enterprises, the com
pletion of which we are about to celebrate. Mr.
Fulton's opinions had the more weight, as it was
well known that he was professedly a civil engineer,
and had published a valuable work on internal navi
gation. His great success in the application of steam
to propel vessels, which has given him immortality,
Vol. IL— Nos. 67 & 68. 3 A

added to the influence of his character, — his plain,
unpretending, Franklin-like style of writing, was
well suited to the occasion, — his correspondence
with Mr. Morris, published on the incipiency of
the project, had as much influence in disposing
the public mind to favour the great national work,
which, to use his own expressions, " is to secure
wealth, ease, and happiness to millions," as any thing
that has been written on the subject. So much was
he in favour of canals, that, in a letter to Mr. Morris,
he enters into Calculations, which appear to demon
strate that the merchandise, transported in sloops on
the Hudson, might be conveyed on a canal between
New York and Albany for less than they can be
carried on the river, including in the estimate the
cost of the canal.
But it does not always please Providence that the
benefactors of mankind shall live to share the fruits
of theirlabours. Their rewardis in the contemplation
of the happiness they will be the means of transmit
ting to posterity, or, perhaps, it is, in being permitted
to look down upon the enjoyments of the beings
whom they have benefited. If so, we may believe that
the spirits of Morris, of Schuyler, of Livingston, and
of Fulton, will be with us. when we celebrate an event
which they contributed so much to produce.
The same incredulity as to the practicability of the
western canal, and the same apprehensions as to the .
capacity of the state, continued to raise an opposition
in the legislature. Many attempts were made to
arrest, or at least to curtail and postpone the project ;
but the opposition was unavailing. The act of eigh
teen hundred and sixteen, to provide for the improve
ment of the internal navigation of the state, was pass
ed in the assembly, by a majority of seventy-three ;
and in the senate, by a majority of thirteen.
By this act, Mr. Van Rensselaer, Mr. Clinton, Mr.
Young, Mr. Ellicot, and Mr. Holley, were appointed
commissioners. They were empowered to devise
and adopt measures to effect communications, by
canals, between the Hudson and Lake Erie, and
Lake Champlain, and to appoint engineers. Twenty
thousand dollars were appropriated for the necessary
expenses of executing the act ; but no power was
given to the commissioners to begin the work. On
the contrary, a clause, which was in the bill to that
effect when it was first reported, was stricken out.
The commissioners met in the city of New York,
in May, eighteen hundred and sixteen. They ap
pointed Mr. Clinton, President ; Mr. Young, secre
tary of the board, and Mr. Holley, their treasurer.
They divided the Erie Canal line into the western,
middle, and eastern sections. The first, extending

366

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

from the lake to Seneca River ; the middle, from
thence to Rome ; and the eastern, from Rome to
Albany; and appointed . engineers to each section.
An engineer was also appointed to survey a route,
which had been proposed for the canals on the south
side of. the mountain ridge. This route had many
advocates, but was finally relinquished.
Previously to the commencement of the session of
eighteen hundred and seventeen, the commissioners,
or some of them, with the assistance of the respective
engineers, had explored the routes of both the canals,
and had caused them to be surveyed and marked.
When the legislature met, a report was presented,
of great length and minuteness, with profiles and
maps. The report also submitted estimates ; those
for the western canal amounted nearly to five mil
lions, of dollars, and those for the northern canal to
about nine hundred thousand. These estimates have
been exceeded, but it is owing to the canals having
been enlarged ; to the substitution of stone, in many
instances, where wood . was contemplated; and to
some unforeseen difficulties ; particularly at the moun
tain ridge, in the hardness and extent of the rock,
which it was found necessary to excavate.
Notwithstanding the general government had dis
covered that the constitution of the United States
would not allow it to give any countenance to an
enterprise, for internal improvement, in the state of
New York, and notwithstanding there was no reason
to hope for any aid from our neighbours, the friends of
the canals were not disheartened. In April, eighteen
hundred and seventeen, the act, " respecting the na
vigable communications between the great northern
and western lakes, and the Atlantic ocean," was
passed by large majorities, both in the senate and as
sembly. _ It continued the former commissioners, and
contained the important fiat, which authorized the
commencement of the canals.
By this act, the commissioners were empowered to
open the communication between the Hudson and
Lake Champlain, but as to the west, they were only
authorized to connect, by canals and locks, the Mo
hawk and Seneca Rivers.
The draft of this bill was prepared by Mr. Clinton,
and the act was passed nearly as he drew it. In it
was incorporated a financial system, which, at the
request of a committee of the legislature, he had di
gested. Part of this system was the establishment
of the board of commissioners of the canal fund, con
sisting of the lieutenant governor, the comptroller,
the attorney and surveyor generals, the treasurer, and
the secretary of state. This Board was charged with
every thing that concerned financial operations in re

lation to the canals. The bill provided ways and
means to pay the interest on loans which might be
made, and the debts that would be created. These
were donations of lands, which had been promised or
made by individuals or companies, who would be
particularly benefited by the canals ; a small tax on
salt manufactured at the salt springs, belonging to
the state, and in the western country ; a tax on steam
boat passengers ; a portion of the duties arising on
sales at auction ; proceeds from certain lotteries ; and
a tax of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, to be
levied, at some future time, on lands lying within
twenty-five miles of the canals.
The last mentioned tax never has been, and proba
bly never will be, collected. Nor is it very certain
that in justice and equity it ought to be. This par
tial tax was imposed, upon the- supposition that the
land holders along the lines of the canal would be
particularly benefited by them ; but in truth, every
part of the state derives advantages from these works,
which may, with great propriety, be said to be incal
culable. The inhabitants of the city of New York,
will derive as much profit from the opening of these
water communications, as any other portion of our
citizens ; and if the expenses of the canals are to be
paid in proportion to the local benefits which will
be derived from them, New York ought to pay at
least as large a share as any part of the state.
Since the supreme court ofthe United States has
decided that the grant to Livingston and Fulton, of
an exclusive right to navigate the waters of the state,
by steam, was invalid, there has been no attempt
to collect the tax on steam-boat passengers. The
lotteries have produced nothing ; so that the only re
maining ways and means are the donations, the salt
tax. the auction duties, and the canal tolls. These
have afforded all the funds it has been requisite for
the state to provide ; and these great works will be
paid for, in probably less time than it required to
construct them, without the imposition of any general
tax, and without their cost having been felt by the
people in the slightest degree. But, on the contrary,
the construction of the canals has been the means of
putting in circulation about a million of dollars a
year, for the last eight years, in parts of the country,
where every thing was stagnant for want of money
and a market.
On the fourth of July, eighteen hundred and seven
teen, the canal was commenced at Rome — that is,
eight years and four months, prior to the day when
the first boat, which entered the canal from Lake Erie,
will reach the ocean.
This important act, the commencement of the Erie

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367

canal, was performed with some ceremony. Mr.
Clinton, the president of the . board, who had been
chosen governor at the previous election, in eighteen
hundred and seventeen, attended with the other canal
commissioners and engineers. The anniversary of
our independence, since the declaration of which only
forty-one years had elapsed, was selected as an aus
picious day to begin this great work. The first
earth was removed from the canal path, amidst the
acclamations of a large concourse of people, exulting
in the past, enjoying the present, and anticipating the
future. Governor Clinton opened the session of eighteen
hundred and eighteen, with a speech, congratulating
the legislature on the auspicious commencement and
successful progress of the water communications
between the great western and northern lakes, and
the Atlantic ocean. He expatiated on the advantages
which agriculture, manufactures, and commerce,
would derive from the canals, and on the influence
which they would have on our political institutions.
He assured the legislature that the resources of the
state were adequate to the work, and that extraneous
aid was unnecessary.
But notwithstanding the encouragement which
this speech was calculated to afford, and the eloquent
appeal with which it concluded, the project (for what
was called by its friends " the great canal," and by its
opponents the "big ditch") met with considerable
and very able opposition. The strength of its friends
and adversaries was tried in the assembly, on an an
swer reported by a committee, to the governor's speech.
Fears were yet entertained that the anticipations of
the execution of so great an enterprise, in any reason
able time, and with means which the state could pro
vide, were enthusiastic and visionary. Many adopted
an opinion, which one of our greatest statesmen,
whose zeal for internal improvements could not be
questioned, was known to have expressed, that we
had undertaken this great enterprise a hundred years
too soon, and that till the lapse of, another century,
the strength of our population, and our resources,
would be inadequate to such a work.
But the part of the Answer which related to this
subject, was adopted, without alteration, by a major
ity of nearly two to one. The Answer expressed, in
a few words, the views which were at that time en
tertained by the friends of the canals. I therefore
beg leave to extract some passages from it. I do it
the more willingly, because the last paragraph is but
an echo of the words in which the governor made
the eloquent appeal with which that part of his speech,
which related to this subject, concluded.

" The advantages which must result, not only to
this state, but to the world, from the completion of
the contemplated communications between the in
land seas, on our borders, and the Atlantic ocean, are
so manifest, that we can not but express the great
satisfaction with which we learn, from your Excel
lency, that they have been auspiciously commenced,
and are in successful progress. This satisfaction is
greatly increased by the information you have given
us, that this stupendous work may be performed at
an expense not exceeding, in the aggregate, the esti
mates of the commissioners, and that our resources
are fully adequate to them, without extraneous aid.
We believe that no part of the world affords so many
natural advantages for the execution of such an un
dertaking. Inexhaustible reservoirs lying above the
level of the canal in every part of its course ; a
country, not intercepted by ridges or mountains,
which commonly separate the heads of water courses,
are in themselves advantages, that no work of the
same kind has, as we believe, ever before enjoyed. The
great causes of expense in the execution of similar
projects have been the necessity of passing near the
summits, on which were situated the fountains which
supplied the water, and the works, on that account
necessary, to economize the use of that element.
There is reason to believe that the ingenuity and in
dustry of our countrymen, will enable us to do more
work of this kind, than has been done elsewhere for
the same money, notwithstanding the price of labour
is, probably, greater than has been paid to those who
have executed similar enterprises.
" The effects of opening these communications can,
as yet, be but indistinctly seen in their extent. They
will reach every member of the community ; — they
must be felt by every citizen of the United States;
and, indeed, so important an alteration in the natural
disposition of the lands and waters ofthe earth can not
but have an influence on the condition of mankind.
It will afford the means of easy intercourse with an
internal sea-co^st, connected with immeasurable tracts
of fruitful soil, not inferior in extent to the shores of
the Mediterranean. When these works are accom
plished, a water communication between the Lakes
and the Mississippi, and forty or fifty thousand miles
of navigable streams, may be made without difficulty,
and at inconsiderable expense. The commerce of
an immense space will be led to the Hudson.. If
this should be the result of the great enterprise in
which we are engaged, New York will have advan
tages infinitely greater than any city has ever had,
and she must for ever enjoy them without a rival.
The commerce of the Mediterranean is the support

368

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

of many great commercial cities, but New York will
Stand alone at the entrance of this extensive channel,
and must be a greater emporium than ever called
herself the mistress of commerce.
" Besides the advantages which your Excellency
has enumerated, and which it is so obvious, will be
the result of the accomplishment of this stupendous
work, there is certainly a national glory connected
with the enterprise, calculated to excite the pride of
every patriot. When we consider that every portion
of the nation will feel the animating spirit and vivi
fying influence of these great works, that they will
receive the benedictions of posterity, and command
the approbation of the civilized world, we are requir
ed to persevere, so far as a prudent regard to the
resources of the state will permit, by every considera
tion which ought to influence the consciences, and
govern the conduct of a free, enlightened, and mag
nanimous people."
The commissioners, Mr. Van Rensselaer, Mr. Clin
ton, Mr. Young, and Mr. Holley, made a very minute,
elaborate, and encouraging report. Among other
matters which were very satisfactory, they stated that
they had engaged, on the section that they had com
menced, Mr. Isaac Briggs, an eminent mathematician,
who has rendered important services in the progress
of the canals.
The commissioners also stated, that they had begun
by dividing the middle section of the canal line into
small sections, and procuring the work to be done on
¦ these by contract. Perhaps nothing has contributed
more to the successful accomplishment of the work
than that the commissioners have so generally perse
vered in this plan. It was gratifying also, to learn
from the commissioners' report, that the engineers,
and the young men they had employed as assistants,
had evinced capacity and talents, which left no room
to fear that v/e should be -obliged to seek abroad
mental or scientific aid.
The session of eighteen hundred and nineteen,
was opened by a speech of Governor Clinton, no less
satisfactory than that of the last year. He was enabled
to reiterate his congratulations on the progress of the
work, as well on the northern as on the western
canal, and to give assurances that the experience
which that progress had afforded, left not a doubt of
the feasibility of the work, or of the ability of the
state, without any taxes, or any other means than
those which had been already provided, to meet the
necessary expenditure. He therefore warmly re
commended that a law should be passed, authorizing
the completion of both canals, as soon as was practi
cable.

After a very favourable report from the canal com
missioners, in which they represented that the works
on the middle section, under the superintendence -of
Benjamin Wright, Esquire, as principal engineer,
had been conducted with great success ; and after a
report from a committee of the assembly, reciproca- -
ting the governor's sentiments on the subject, the act
of eighteen hundred and nineteen, " concerning the
great western and northern canals," was passed.
This law authorized the commissioners to complete
both the eastern and western, as well as the middle
section of the Erie Canal, and empowered the com
missioners of the canal fund to make the necessary
loans. A law was also passed at this session for construct
ing a harbour at Buffalo Creek.
Mr. Hart, who signed the report as one of the
commissioners, had been appointed in the room of
Mr. Ellicott, who had resigned. Afterwards Henry
Seymour was appointed to fill his place.
Mr. Canvas White, and Mr. Nathan S. Roberts,
who had acted as assistant engineers, the commis- ,
sioners stated, had evinced so much talent and use
fulness, that they had assigned them more important.
duties. The report is also interesting on account of its
announcing the discovery, near the canal line, of
what the commissioners call meagre lime. It is that
material which, when made into mortar, indurates
under water, and has been so essential to the con
struction of the hydraulic works ofthe canals. This
important discovery was made by Mr. Canvas White,
who has obtained a patent for its use. Nature seems
not only to have laid out the path for the great,
western canal, but to have made the most bountiful
provision near it, of all the materials necessary for
its construction. The massive stones of which the
locks are composed, have been obtained without
difficulty, wherever they have been requisite. This
water lime has already become an article of commerce
within the United States, and is said to be so
superior to the Roman cement, and the English
limes, that no doubt it will soon be exported.
In the report now adverted to, the commissioners
gave a description of several labour-saving machines,;
employed on the canals ; among others, they men
tioned a machine for prostrating the forest trees, that
grew on the canal lines ; another, with which the
stumps of trees, that had been cut down, were eradi
cated ; and a third, for cutting up roots. These
were all the inventions of our own countrymen, and
though they may not seem of sufficient consequence
to be mentioned on this occasion, yet these, and other

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

369

ingenious machines which were contrived for the
occasion, were of very great importance in the com
pletion of these works. Indeed, to see a forest tree,
which had withstood the elements till it attained
maturity, torn up by its roots, and bending itself to
the earth, in obedience to the command of man, is a
spectacle that must awaken feelings of gratitude to
that Being, who has bestowed on his creatures so
much power and wisdom.
At the opening of the session of eighteen hundred
and twenty, Governor Clinton had the gratification of
announcing, in his speech to the legislature, "that the
middle section of the western canal, including a lateral
cut to Salina, and comprising a distance of nearly
ninety-six miles, had been completed. That on the
twenty-third day of the preceding October, the com
missioners navigated it from Utica to Rome, and
found their most sanguine expectations realized in
the celerity, economy, and excellence of its execution.
That, on the twenty-fourth day of the previous No
vember, the whole Champlain canal was also in a
navigable state. That thus, in less than two years
and five months, one hundred and twenty miles of
artificial navigation had been finished."
The governor was enabled to say, that these works,
in their then unfinished state, had given to our in
ternal trade an animation, which could not be duly
appreciated, without the advantages of personal ob
servation. The report of the canal commissioners was equally
satisfactory. It contained very long and minute
details of what had been done, as well as views and
estimates of the work that remained to be exe
cuted. The report was accompanied by surveys, made by
Mr. Thomas, of the harbour at Buffalo. Mr. Thomas
submitted propositions which he had received, for
harbours at Black Rock, and at some other points
near what was supposed would be the termination of
the Erie Canal.
At this session, a law was passed allowing the
canal commissioners a salary of two thousand dollars
a year, but it contained a clause that this provision
should only extend to three of the commissioners
who should be actually engaged in the superintend
ence of the works. This was intended to meet the
arrangement which the commissioners had previously
made as to themselves. Mr. Young, Mr. Seymour,
and Mr. Holley, had been active and immediate su
perintendents of the execution of the canals for which
they had received a compensation or salary, while
Mr. Clinton and Mr. Van Rensselaer's duties were
confined to the meetings of the board. Neither of

these gentlemen have ever taken the least compensa
tion for their services.
Hence arose the designation of acting commis
sioners, which was applied to Mr. Young, Mr. Sey
mour, and Mr. Holley, and afterwards to Mr. W. E.
Bouck, when he was the next year appointed one of
the board. These gentlemen have devoted them
selves to the management and superintendence of
the works, with a zeal and ability to which the speed,
efficacy, and economy with which it has been exe
cuted, bears the best evidence. When it is considered
that the commissioners and engineers could have
had no experience in canalling ; that the science
they acquired must have been in a great measure the
result of mental application, while they were con
stantly employed in the active and anxious duties of
their station, they deserve a commendation to which
any thing I could say on this occasion, would be
very inadequate.
From the time the navigation to Lake Champlain,
and between Rome and Montezuma, was opened, all
opposition to the completion of the western canal to
Lake Erie and the Hudson ceased, or was very
feeble. Those who had entertained honest doubts as to the
practicability of the great work, yielded to this evi
dence of the feasibility of executing the whole of the
original plan. Experiments on so largea scale gave
confidence in the estimates which had been made
before the work was commenced; these estimates
were somewhat exceeded by the actual expenditure.
owing to circumstances before noticed, and to some
other adventitious causes, which the commissioners,
in their report, satisfactorily explained.
The advantages, as well as the profit, of these
water communications, were immediately felt. The
canal from Champlain, and the middle section
of the western canal, were covered with boats
the moment they were opened ; and although no
tolls were taken till July, eighteen hundred and
twenty, the amount received in the course of the
season, gave earnest of what the canals would pro
duce when they were finished. No doubt was
longer entertained but that the resources and credit
of the state were competent to furnish all the funds
that would be required.
From this time the communications from the ex
ecutive, and the reports of the commissioners, to the
legislature, were details of the uninterrupted and for
tunate progress of the great work, and the congratu
lations on the rapidity with which the period was
approaching when the state, and the nation, would
be in possession of the incalculable advantages which

370

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

must result from the completion of the New York
canals. These communications and reports are documents
of the most interesting and useful character. They
are important, not only as furnishing a detailed and
very circumstantial history of these works, in their
daily progress, but as affording minute information,
which must be of the greatest use to those who may
be engaged in similar enterprises. It would not be
consistent with the character of this memoir, to swell
it with these details ; it is not in a production of this
nature that .practical information will be sought.
The state has established an additional claim as the
munificent benefactors of mankind, in authorizing,
by a law passed iii February, of the present year, a
collection and publication of " all the laws, reports,
and documents relative to the canals, requisite for a
complete official history of those works, with correct
maps, delineating the routes of, the Erie and Cham
plain canals, and designating the lands through
which they pass."
In compliance with this law, two splendid octavo
volumes, with plates and charts, and a large atlas,
have just been published. They have been comple
ted under the superintendence of a committee of the
legislature; but justice would not be done Were it
not acknowledged that the state owes, to the indefa
tigable industry and ability of John Van Ness Yates,
Esquire, the secretary of state, this splendid history
of works which will be for ever connected with her
glory. While these volumes contain much that mere men
of letters will not read, he who seeks for minute in-
formation as to the origin and progress of the New
York canals, would have been satisfied with no ab
breviation of the matter the ycontain ; and the prac
tical engineer, who desires instruction, will find
nothing which he will think ought to have been
omitted. The routes that have been proposed and
abandoned ; the plans which have been suggested,
or tried and relinquished ; the experiments which
have been made, and proved unsuccessful, will all
have their use, and " The Official History" of these
works would have beeri incomplete had: any of these
things' been unnoticed.
By the first of October, eighteen hundred and
twenty-three, the eastern section ofthe canal, was
completed. In the mean time the western section
had progressed from Montezuma towards Erie, so
that when the lock 'which forms the communication
between the canals, and the artificial basin in the
Hudson River, at Albany, was opened on the eighth
of October, eighteen hundred and twenty-three, there

was a continuous canal navigation from the Genesee
River, and from White Hall, at the head of Lake
Champlain, to Albany.
Such an auspicious event as the passage of the
first boats from the west and the north into the tide
waters, was celebrated with some ceremony. Large
committees from New York, and from other places
on the canal route, attended at Albany. The New
York Committee was headed by Mr. William Bayard.
He had; presided at the meeting at which the New
York memorial, before: mentioned, originated. Mr.
James was the chairman of the Albany committee of
citizens. These gentlerpen had on all occasions
given the full weight of their long established and
respectable characters in favour of the execution of
the canals. When the extent of the proposed artifi
cial water-ways, the hills, and valleys, and rivers, over
which ; they were to pass, were contemplated, and the
resources of the state were considered, many thought
the pjan perfectly visionary. By some, the' sincerity
of its advocates was doubted ; they were suspected
.of sinister designs, or they were regarded as infatua
ted enthusiasts ; but the countenance of many such
men as Mr. 'Van Rensselaer,- Mr. Bayard, and Mr.
James, whose age and experience, and-- rank in so
ciety, commanded respect, tended, to induce a belief
that the project was founded on mature reflection and
sober calculation, and to give confidence that, not
withstanding its magnitude and difficulties, it might
be accomplished.
The pencil could not do justice to the scene pre
sented on the fine autumnal morning when the Al-'
bany lock was first opened. : Numerous steam boats
and river vessels, splendidly dressed, decorated the
beautiful amphitheatre ' formed by the hills which
border the valley of the Hudson, at this place ; the
river winding its bright' stream far from the north,
and losing itself in the distance to the south ; — the
islands it embraced ;— the woods, variegated bythe
approach of winter, a beauty peculiar to our climate ;
¦— the' wreathed arches, and other embellishments,
which riad been erected for the occasion, were all
objects of admiration. A line Of canal boats, with
colours flying, bands of music, : and crowded with
people; were seen coming from the north/and seemed
to glide over the level grounds, which hid the waters
of the canal for some distance, as if they were moved
by enchantment.
The first boat which entered the lock was the De
Witt Clinton, having on board Governor Yates, the
mayor and corporation of Albany, the canal commis
sioners and engineers, the committees, and other citi
zens. Several other boats succeeded. One, (not the

N's4

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TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

371

least interesting object in the scene,) was filled with
ladies. The cap-stone of the lock was laid with ma
sonic ceremonies, by the fraternity, who appeared in
great numbers and in grand costume.
The waters of the west, and of the ocean, were
then mingled by Doctor Mitchell, who pronounced
an epithalamium upon the union of the river and the
lakes, after which the lock gates were opened, and the
De Witt Clinton majestically sunk upon the bosom
ofthe Hudson.
She was then towed by a long line of barges, past
the steam boats and other vessels to a wharf at the
upper end of the city, where those gentlemen, who
were embarked on board the canal boats, landed and
joined a military and civic procession, which was
conducted by a large stage, fancifully decorated,
erected for the occasion in front of the capitol. Here
the canal commissioners received a congratulary ad
dress from Charles E. Dudley, Esquire, Mayor of
Albany, which was answered by Mr. Clinton, as
president of the board of commissioners. The Al
bany committee was addressed by Mr. Bayard, which
was returned by Mr. James, and the day concluded
with a banquet, at which it may be said with as much
propriety as it could be said in relation to any other fes
tive board, that there was " the feast of reason and
the flow of soul."
The completion of the eastern section was a matter
of great gratification to the friends of the canals, indeed
it may be said to every citizen, for, at the time we
are speaking of, the canals had ceased to have any
opponents ; but the difficulties which presented them
selves on this section, appeared more formidable than
any that were to be met with elsewhere on the
route. The cataract of the Cohoes was to be sur
mounted ; a path for the canal was to be found along
the abrupt rocky shores, rising generally to a great
elevation, and in many places divided only by the
narrow bed of the Mohawk ; the upper falls of that
river were to be overcome. To accomplish this, and
preserve a due level, it was necessary to carry the
canal upon a ledge twenty and thirty feet above the
base of perpendicular rocks. The ingenuity of our
countrymen found, by what they called sand blasts,
means of blowing off such masses of rock, that a
road was made for the canals with much less labour
than had been anticipated. In eighty days a work
was accomplished, which, before it was commenced,
it was calculated would require several years. The
canal between Schenectady and Albany, twice crosses
the Mohawk River in aqueducts of more than eigh
teen hundred feet in extent.
In speaking of this section, the canal commissioners,

in their report of eighteen hundred and twenty-four
say, " none but those who had examined the line
previous to the commencement of the work, — who
had seen the rude and undulating surface which is
traversed, — the rocks which were to be blasted, — the
irregular ledges, filled with chasms and fissures, which
were to form the basis of a water-tight canal, — the
spongy swamps and gravel beds, and quick sands
which were to be made impervious to water, — and, in
short, the huge masses of rough materials which,
with uncommon labour, were to be reduced to sym
metry and form, can duly appreciate the efforts
which it has required to surmount these serious ob
stacles." The canal commissioners do not hesitate to admit,
that had this section been commenced originally,
while their information as to constructing canals was
merely theoretical, probably the attempt to complete it
would either have been entirely abortive, or so im
perfectly executed, as to have defeated, or perhaps
postponed for a century, the accomplishment of the
great work of internal improvements.
In the course of the season of eighteen hundred
and twenty-three, the Gleaner, and afterwards several
other canal boats, from Vermont, arrived in the city
of New York, bearing to our market the produce of
the forests, the fields, and the mines, of the shores of
Lake Champlain.
In November, of the same year, the Sally and Mary,
a boat of sixty or seventy tons, from Hector, in Tomp
kins county, at the head of the Seneca Lake, seventy
miles south of the Erie canal, and three hundred and
fifty miles from New. York, had passed into the canal,
by the locks at Waterloo and the Seneca River. She
arrived at New York, freighted with the rich produc
tions of the west. So happy an illustration of the
advantages of the canals was not suffered to pass un
noticed by our citizens. They gave Messrs. Osborn
and Sealy, two farmers of Tompkins county, who
were her owners and navigators, a public entertain
ment. This vessel was not only received as the precursor
of a commerce, which will be unlimited in its extent .
and importance, but as an interesting evidence of the
ingenuity and enterprise of our countrymen. Her
timbers grew near where she was built ; her proprie
tors were her architects ; her cargo was the produce
of the fields from whence she sprung, and she was
navigated by those who cultivated them ; her sails
and rigging even, were emphatically domestic manu
factures, for they were grown, and made, at the homes
of her owners.
When we look at a map, and see rnarked out the

372

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

many lakes and sheets of navigable water which oc
cupy the centre of our state, and reflect that 'every
place on their shores is, for all purposes of commerce,
converted by the canals into a sea-port, and that the
trade of all of them must centre in this metropolis,
we may have some idea of the advantages which the
city and the country will derive from the opening of
these water communications.': -. -:
The completion of the western section, and of
course of the whole Erie canal, was announced- to us
by the sound of cannon, on the twenty-sixth of last
month, and to-morrow we shall- witness the arrival
of a canal boat, from Buffalo, after an internal navi
gation of five hundred and thirteen miles ; she will
have passed three hundred and sixty-three miles on
one continued uninterrupted artificial canal, forty feet
wide on the surface, twenty-eight at the bottom, with
four feet depth of Water : she will have passed through
eighty-three locks, built of massive stone, the cham
bers of wliich are ninety by fifteen feet, capable of
containing boats. Of more than a hundred tons burden ;
and she will, when she arrives at Albany, have de
scended five hundred and fifty-five feet ; but her
ascent and descent in the course of her voyage, will
have been six hundred and sixty-two feet.
The great embankment across the Irondiquot, over
which the western section ofthe canal passes, is one
of the greatest works on the canals. This aerial
water-course extends more than a quarter of a mile,
on a mound of earth, seventy feet in height, from a
stream, flowing through a culvert, at its base. The
passenger looks down from the narrow eminence, on
the tops of aged forest trees, rooted in the bottom of
the valley. There are works upon the canals, which
are, undoubtedly, of a more artificial character, and
may appear to some more magnificent, but when the
length, and height, and magnitude of this embank
ment is considered, and when, above the tops ofthe
trees, boats are seen passing on its summit, which is
but little wider than is necessary for the canal and
towing path, it must excite great admiration.
The aqueduct over the Genesee River, at Roches
ter, is another magnificent object on this section.
which deserves notice. It is a structure of ten
arches of hewn stone, extending two hundred and two
feet. The deep cutting towards the western extremity
of this section has cost more money, and required
more labour, than any other work on the canals. To
pass the mountain ridge, there has been a necessity
for excavating seven miles, to an average depth of
twenty-five feet, three miles of which is through hard
rock. The combined locks', at the brow of the moun

tain, the commissioners describe as a work of the first
magnitude on the line, and as one of the greatest of
the kind in the world.
Upon the middle section there is an uninterrupted
level of sixty-nine miles and a half, from Salina to
Frankfort ; and on the western section, there is ano
ther level from Lockport to Rochester, uninterrupted
by any lock, of sixty-three miles. The extraordinary
length of these levels, evince the correctness of Mr.
. Colles' -idea, which has been before mentioned, that
'¦'- the Allegany mountains died away as they approached
the Mohawk."
There are very maiiy objects on this, western section,
as well as on other parts of the canals, which deserve
attention, .but to- notice' them, Avould require details
which this occasion will nOt admit. Those who
wish information as to these and other particulars,
must refer to the volumes before mentioned, published
by authority of the- state ; ,; or to a volume, published
in eighteen hundred and twenty, under the direction
of ihe New York Corresponding Association for the
promotion of Internal Improvements. It contains a
collection of publie documents relating to the canals,
up to the time of its publication ; but it is now more
valuable for an introduction, which was written by
the late Mr. Charles G. Haines^ one of the. association,
in whose death the cause of internal improvements
lost a very warm, able, and active advocate. In the
prime of Hfe, he fell a sacrifice to the ardour and un
remitting industry, with which he devoted himself to
the acquirement of knowledge, the practice of his
profession, and to the promotion of almost every plan
that was on foot for the public good. His frame was
too slender, and his constitution too weak to bear the
excitement of his ardent mind. He died just as he
had commenced a career, which, had he lived to pur
sue it, must have led to eminence ; but, though his
friends regret that he did not live to reap the fruits
of his talents and industry, they more deeply regret
that, by his death, they have been deprived of one
who had gained all that esteem and respect which
gen jus,. acquirements, zeal, industry, honour, and be
nevolence deserve.
At Albany the canal terminates in a basin, formed
from the Hudson, by extending a pier, or mole, into
the river, and running it parallel to the shore, nearly"
three quarters of a mile. The communication with
the river is at the southern extremity of the mole,
by a sloop lock which admits the passage of rivei
vessels, as well as of canal boats, in and out of the
basin. Stores are building on the pier, which is
seventy-six feet in width, on the top. From one end
of the^e stores, canal boats in the basin may be laden

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

373

or unladen ; and at the other end, sloops in the river
may be loaded or discharged.
This spacious harbour, which will have a superfi
cies of about thirty-two acres, has been made by a
a private company, incorporated for the purpose, by
a law of the state. They are permitted to have the
benefit of certain tolls, but it is presumed the state
has reserved the right to control the corporation, so
far as to oblige it to exercise its powers entirely in
subservience to the interests of the public.
The Erie Canal, at its western extremity, at pre
sent discharges into an artificial basin, made from
the Niagara River, at Black Rock, by connecting the
main shore with Squaw Island. In the dam from
Squaw Island to the main, there is a sloop lock, which
communicates with the river below. If the bridge,
which has been thrown over the Niagara River,
from the main to Goat Island, at the very brink of
the Great Falls, by Judge Porter, did not show us
what might be done by great boldness, ingenuity,
and enterprise, and convince us that works may be
constructed in the river, of sufficient strength to resist
its current, where it is most impetuous, we might
doubt whether it would be possible to make the "mole
or piers of the Black Rock harbour stable ; if, con
trary to predictions, it should stand, — if still water
should be produced within the harbour, — and if it
should not be injured or obstructed by ice or sands,
it cannot be questioned but that it will be of great
importance. It will be the more valuable, because
without it, there is no harbour in that quarter, except
at Buffalo ; to which, if the harbour at Black Rock
should not be found to answer, the canal will be con
tinued along the margin of the Niagara River, to
join what is considered a part of the Erie Canal,
extending from the town of Buffalo to the lake.
The rival interests of Buffalo and Black Rock,
have created much excitement as to the termination
of the canal to the west. There has been a differ
ence of opinion among the canal commissioners, and
among the engineers, as to the plan which ought to
be adopted. The legislature seems to have pursued a
discreet and impartial course, by reserving the grounds
for, and the right to make, the canal along the mar
gin of the Niagara River, if, after the works at Black
Rock are completed and tested, the public good re
quires the canal to be uninterruptedly continued to
Buffalo harbour.
To mention all who have been concerned in the
immediate execution of these great works, as they
deserve, would require a list, which, if an attempt were
now made to present it, there is reason to fear would
not be perfect. It would also require information
Vol. IL— Nos. 67 & 68. 3 B

which I do not possess, and which no time is allowed
to acquire. All the commissioners have been men
tioned ; those who have been designated as the
acting commissioners, and who in some measure
performed the duties of engineers, as well as of
advisers and superintendents, are Mr. Holley, Mr.
Young, Mr. Seymour, and Mr. Bouck. The princi
pal engineers are Mr. Wright, Mr. Geddes, Mr. White,
and Mr. Thomas. In one of their reports the com
missioners say, " in looking back to the numerous
difficulties and responsibilities, some of them of an
aspect the most disheartening, which surrounded
the canals, especially on their commencement, we
feel compelled, by common justice, to commend
the aid which has, at all times, been afforded by our
engineers. In the selection of all the persons who
are now employed by us under this character, we
have been eminently fortunate. But to the Honoura
ble Benjamin Wright and James Geddes, the state is
mostly indebted. Possessing much local information,
competent science, long experience in many kinds of
business, bearing some analogy to canal operations,
and well established characters for industry and
fidelity, these gentlemen have rendered the most
essential services in all the duties of their department.
They were first appointed engineers. They have
unceasingly, and with improving fitness, devoted
their best faculties to the great cause in which they
were engaged ; and they have hitherto been found
equal to the high trusts confided to them."
But no eulogy could do so much justice to the
commissioners and engineers as an appeal to their
works. It has been said, and it is believed truly,
that they have completed, in the shortest time, and
at the least expense, the longest uninterrupted canal
in the world.
The official reports of the canal commissioners,
of the commissioners of the canal fund and the engi
neers, are calculated to do them infinite credit: but
it is impossible to take any particular view of the
merits of these documents on this occasion : nor is it
now so necessary, as they are before the public in
the volumes before mentioned, published by authorit}
of the state.
From the time that the great canal project wa^
brought before the legislature, by Judge Piatt, ii
eighteen hundred and ten, Mr. Clinton has bestower
his time and talents to promote the commencement
progress, and completion of these great works, witt
an entire devotedness. The constancy with whic
he met all opposition ;\— the extent of the informatio
he Communicated, — his encouragement as to tl
resources and capacity of the state, although she w;

374

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

left alone to perform so great a work ; the unrivalled
eloquence with which, in his speeches to the legisla
ture, as well as in those canal reports which he drew,
he appealed to the honour, the pride, and the patriot
ism of his native state, it must be admitted contribu
ted greatly to the accomplishment ofthe great works, in
celebrating the completion of which all hearts now join.
Many of those who thought the canals impractica
ble, till a large portion of them were finished, and
who supposed that their failure would overwhelm
with disgrace all who were connected with their
execution, did not hesitate to charge Mr. Clinton
with being answerable for engaging the state in so
great and so expensive an undertaking. Surely
they who would have censured him so severely if
the canals had failed, will not, in justice, refuse to
give him due credit now that they have succeeded.
His exertions .were not confined to his official
duties, as president of the board of canal commission
ers, and as governor ; his able pen was constantly
employed in promoting an enterprise which, as he
said, was identified not only with the prosperity,
happiness, and honour, of his own state, but with that
of his country. He had so large a share in the ac
complishment of these great works, that his name
will always be intimately connected with them, and
will not be forgotten while they endure.
The history of the canals is one of the proudest
monuments that the present age will transmit to pos
terity : but now, when the agitations of the times are
past, when no passion is mixed with our feelings,
there is one page which many will wish blotted out.
It is that which records the legislative vote by which
Mr. Clinton, on the last day of the session, of the
year eighteen hundred and twenty-four, when the
canals were on the point of being finished, was re
moved as a canal commissioner.
But these great canals will not be regarded as the
work of individuals. They will be attributed to the
state of New York ; every citizen deserves a share
of the credit connected with them. In the language
of the commissioners it will be said, " their labours
could not have been perfected without the support
of a wise foresight, and just liberality, in several suc
cessive legislatures. To us, it appears, that these
legislatures have afforded a spectacle, most animating,
encouraging, and delightful, in reference to the sagacity
of the people to understand, and their wisdom to pro
vide for their most substantial interests. They exhibit
the most impressive example which the United States
have yet produced, since the adoption of the Federal
Constitution, of the beneficent effects of a free go
vernment, upon the character of a community. They

are intimately connected with the best hopes of the
republic. Rising above all fugitive and partial inter
ests, and with a full detail of the costs of these works
before them, the immediate representatives of the
people have so clearly discerned the benefits which
they would introduce, as to apply to them from year
to year a greater portion of their funds than was suf
ficient to defray the expenses ofthe state government."
The well-meaning opposition which the, canals for
a certain time encountered, as well in as out of the
legislature, was not without its good effects. It in
duced a circumspection, economy, and system of rigid
accountability, which might not have been observed,
if all had been as unanimously and zealously in
favour of canals, as they are at the present moment.
It has been said, in this memoir, that the Erie
Canal is the longest in the world. It is believed that
it is so ; but it must be recollected that we speak of
it as one continuous uninterrupted artificial canal,
for upwards of three hundred and sixty miles.
As has been mentioned, England has more than a
hundred canals ; but she has no one, which, inde
pendent of branches, extends a hundred miles.
The largest canal in France is the Canal of Lan-
guedoc, which is one hundred and fifteen miles.
The inland navigation of Russia is so extensive,
that it is said to be possible to convey goods by
water near four thousand five hundred miles, but
this is by using her lakes, and natural water-courses,
which are connected by canals, no one of which is
more than half as lpng as the Erie canal.
Besides innumerable canals spread over the whole
surface of China, she has an inland navigation, ex
tending from Canton to Pekin, a distance of eight
hundred and twenty-five miles, but this navigation
is not formed by an uninterrupted canal. On the
contrary, the artificial works are connected by lakes
and natural water-courses. But it is extraordinary
that the Chinese do not use locks, at least not gene
rally. They pass from one level to another by
means of sluices. This renders the descent danger
ous, and the ascent so difficult and laborious, that it
requires the united exertions of many men to drag a
vessel from a lower to a higher level.
But if we consider the extent of the internal navi
gation which is opened by the formation of the New
York canals, we shall find it greatly beyond that
which any other country in the world affords. With
in our own state we have a navigation into the minor
lakes, and upon several navigable streams, that can
not be less than a thousand miles.
From the embouchure of the canal at Lake Erie,
to the head of Lake Superior, is more than one thou-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

375

sand miles, but with slight interruption the water
communications extend to the Arctic Sea.
Had Captain Franklin, and his party, who are
now exploring those regions for a north-west passage,
commenced his expedition, so as to have arrived
here a few months later than he did, he would have
found that he could have been transported from
London five thousand miles towards his destination,
without being obliged to set his foot on land.
By the Erie canal, and the Oswego River, there
is a communication with the Lower Saint Lawrence,
and thus an inland navigation is opened through the
whole extent of that river, which, added to the lakes,
gives a line of navigable waters extending not less
than two thousand miles.
The lake coast, including Lake Michigan and
Green Bay, extends nearly four thousand miles, be
sides there are many navigable rivers falling into the
lakes and the Saint Lawrence, with which a perfect
water communication from the city of New York is
formed by opening the Erie and Champlain canals.
It is curious to observe, that by these artificial
water-ways, the continent of America will be divided
into great islands.
One, bounded by the Champlain Canal, the Sorel,
the Saint Lawrence, the Atlantic, and the Hudson.
Another, by the Champlain Canal, Lake Champlain,
the Sorel, the Saint Lawrence, Ontario, the Niagara,
Lake Erie, and the western canal. And a third, is
bounded by the Hudson, the Erie Canal, the lakes,
the water communication which exists between them
at certain seasons, and the waters of the Mississippi,
the , Mississippi, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic.
A canal, of not more than one mile and three quar
ters, between the Ouisconsin, which falls into the
Mississippi, and the Fox River, which empties into
Lake Michigan,,streams that are now constantly navi
gated, will form another immense island, that will
have Lake Superior for its northern, and the Missis
sippi for its western boundary.
Indeed, every canal that may be opened, and make a
communication between the waters of the lakes, and
of the Mississippi, will form a new subdivision of
the continent into islands, with the immeasurable
shores of which the city of New York may have
commercial intercourse, with more certainty, facility,
and advantage, than if they were washed by the
sea. But, supposing no other communication to be com
pleted than that with the Mississippi, which will be
formed by the canal that Ohio is now executing, we
shall then have a perfect line of internal navigation,
from the city of New York, by the Hudson, the Erie

Canal, Lake Erie, the Ohio Canal, the Ohio, Missis
sippi, Missouri, and Jefferson Rivers, to the foot of
the Rocky Mountains, a distance of nearly five thou
sand miles ; and with less interruption than there is
in the great China canals. By Lewis River and the
Oregon, we shall have an internal navigation from
the Atlantic to the Pacific.
From Astoria at the mouth of the Oregon, to China,
would, in a steamboat, on the Pacific Ocean, be a
passage of some fifteen or twenty days. And thus,
will be formed a northwest passage to India, for
which Hudson was searching when he discovered
the river which bears his name.
It is possible that the route above indicated may
be that which will hereafter be pursued by travellers
between the western shores of the European and the
eastern shores of the Asiatic continents. New York,
Albany, Utica, Buffalo, Cleveland, and St. Louis,
may become post towns on the common high road
to India. This route would hardly be half as long
as that which is now pursued by sea ; and though
a journey to China, through our canals, lakes, and
rivers, and over the North Pacific, would be longer
than the route over the European and Asiatic conti
nents, yet the former could be accomplished with
much the greater ease. A person embarking on the
Thames, by pursuing always a westerly course, with
some deviations to follow the sinuosities of the rivers
and canals, might arrive at China, without setting
his foot on land, except to cross the Rocky Mountains,
over which we shall in time, if a canal be imprac
ticable, have a turnpike road.
The principal navigable rivers, west of the Alle
gany Mountains, which are tributary to the Ohio,
Mississippi, and Missouri, with which, (supposing the
Ohio canal to be opened,) we shall have an internal
water communication, extend more than six thousand
miles ; and thus, if we take the northern rivers, the
shores of the lakes, the Ohio, the Mississippi, the
Missouri, and the other principal tributary rivers
above mentioned, we shall have an internal naviga
tion, connected with the city of New York, by the
canals of this state, of more than fifteen thousand
miles. If we take into the account the innumerable
minor navigable streams, which are branches of the
great water-courses above enumerated, and the rivers
discharging themselves into the Gulf of Mexico,
independently of the Mississippi, such as the Apala-
chicola, the Alabama, the Tombeckbee, Pearl River,
and others, the estimate made, by the assembly, in
their answer to the governor's speech, in eighteen
hundred and eighteen, that the internal navigation
which would be. connected with the Hudson, by the

376

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

canals, would amount to forty or fifty thousand miles,
will not appear exaggerated.
The canals of New York and Ohio will make a
change in the. course of waters on the American
continent, which it could hardly have been believed
the power of man could have effected. From the
summit level of the Champlain Canal, waters, which
used to find their way to the Atlantic through the
Hudson, will be turned back, and will now mix
with the sea in the Straits of Belleisle. Streams on
the summit level of the Ohio Canal, which now swell
the cataract of Niagara, will be conducted to the
Gulf of Mexico, by the channels of the great
river. When we consider that the immense regions sur
rounding the lakes, and bounded by the great rivers,
water-courses, and canals, to which we have adverted,
are all within the temperate zone, — that they are
all capable of sustaining man ;— that they are popu
lating with astonishing rapidity, — that the greatest
part of the soil is fruitful, and much of it as rich and
productive as any on earth, we must be impressed
with ideas of the importance of the great works we
have accomplished.
Though New York can not expect to attract more
than a part of the commerce of these vast countries,
yet till other communications are opened between the
West and the east, a large portion of it will be drawn
to her great market. New channels may divert some
of the trade of the west from New York, but her
position on the confines of the sea, at a point nearer
to the lakes than any other on the whole American
coast ; — her beautiful, spacious, and secure harbour, —
her constantly uninterruped navigation to the ocean,- —
and her healthful climate, are advantages which are
combined at no other spot in the United States. New
York must largely share in the fur trade of the north,
for which so much human blood has been shed.
The water communications between Hudson's Bay
and the Mississippi, and Lake Superior, are almost
perfect. The inhabitants of the shores of all the
great lakes will find their natural market at the
mouth of the Hudson : the upper Mississippi, the
Ohio, and all their tributary streams, will Send produce,
and receive returns from this mercantile emporium.
When the boundless regions of the Missouri are
populated, and the fruits of their cultivation are de
posited at St. Louis, there are many circumstances
which will induce a transportation of a part of them,
at least, to this metropolis, through the Ohio and
New York canals.
Although all - these anticipations should not be
realized, yet we may be sure that, before the close of

the present century, New York, which, at the con
clusion of the revolutionary war, contained less than
twenty-five thousand inhabitants, and «ow has one
hundred and- seventy thousand, will be one of the
greatest commercial cities in the world.
I am aware that these estimates of the effects
of our canals will appear to be exaggerated or enthu
siastic. Possibly they may be so. The occasion
does not require accurate measurements and precise
calculations of distances. If there be error in any
of those which have been presented, they may be
corrected by reference to a map of the United States,
from a view of which they are made. As to the
future advantages of the water communications, the
opening of which we are about to celebrate, we may
be permitted to mix our hopes and wishes and the
feelings of the moment with our speculations. Were
this a work that would ever be resorted to for practical
information, it would be necessary to employ time,
not now allowed, for mature reflection, and it would
be proper to subdue the excitement which success in
so great an enterprise must, for a time, create in any
breast not preternaturally cold.
It has been said that we Americans, not content
with the consideration to which our actual condition
entitles us, indulge a boastful disposition in antici
pations of future greatness. If this be so, it is at
least as pardonable as the Weakness of those who
pride themselves on the greatness of their ancestors.
Our former predictions, however extravagant they
may have appeared, have been more than realized.
Around us every object is new, youthful, and vigor
ous : it is natural that we should indulge and ex
press hopes of continued prosperity, and of a rich
and powerful maturity. Did we live amidst ruins,
which mark former greatness ; — were we always pre
sented with scenes indicating present decay, and
foreboding constant deterioration, we might be as
little inclined as others, to look forward. But we
delight in the promised sunshine of the future, and
leave those who are conscious that they have passed
their grand climacteric, to console themselves with
the splendour of the past.
After the views we have taken of the advantages
which will result from the canals, it seems almost
unnecessary to descend to estimates of their costs,
and of what will be tlieir money produce to the
treasury of the state. But something on this topic
will be expected.
The canals not having been completed when the
commissioners made their last report, there are not
now documents before the public which will show
precisely what has been the cost of these works.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

377

There are, however, data which enable us to ascer
tain the amount very nearly.
In the annual report of the commissioners of the
canal fund, made in eighteen hundred and twenty-
five, they state that all the moneys paid for the canals,
up to the first of January; of that year, after deduct
ing the tolls received, amounted to eight millions
eight hundred and twenty-nine thousand and fifty
dollars. We find that the tolls received to the last
mentioned date amounted to four hundred and ninety-
one thousand four hundred and fifteen dollars ; and,
according to the last report of the canal commis
sioners, it then required to complete the canals, and
to satisfy all claims for damages, eight hundred thou
sand dollars. These sums added together amount
to ten millions one hundred and twenty thousand
four hundred and sixty-five dollars, which may be
taken as the whole amount which has been disbursed
on account of the canals.
The Erie canal is three hundred and sixty-three
miles in length, and on the Champlain route there
are eighteen miles of canal. The extent, therefore,
of canalling is three hundred and eighty-one miles,
which gives an average of twenty-six thousand two
hundred and forty-one dollars a mile.
But there are, connected with the Champlain canal,
forty-six miles of improved navigation in the Hudson,
and in Wood Creek. The expense of these improve
ments has been very great : so that, in estimating
the cOst of the canals per mile, these forty-six miles
Ought to be taken into the calculation. This makes
the whole length four hundred and twenty-seven
miles, and the cost, per mile, twenty-three thousand
four hundred and twenty dollars.
But, it must be recollected, that when the ques
tion is; how much the canals have actually cost the
state, they must have credit for the amount of the
tolls they have yielded.
The last mentioned report of the canal commis
sioners states, that from the opening of the naviga
tion in the spring of eighteen hundred and twenty-
four, till it was closed by the winter, rate in December,
of the same year, although only two hundred and
eighty miles of the Erie Canal were navigable, and
" although the regions west of Buffalo, had hardly
begun to pay their contribution to the western
canal," amounted to three hundred and fifty thousand,
seven hundred and sixty-one dollars. The commis
sioners calculate that the tolls for the present year,
will amount to five hufldred thousand dollars ;' and
that for fhe nine years succeeding January eighteen
hundred and twenty-six, they will increase at an
average of seventy-five thousand dollars a year.

That the tolls, with the revenue pledged by the con
stitution of the state, adopted in eighteen hundred
and twenty-two, to the canal fund, till the canal
debt be extinguished, will in ten years, besides
meeting all necessary expenses for repairs and super
intendence pay off the whole of the canal debt which,
it is estimated, will on the first of January next,
when the canals will be entirely completed, amount
to. seven millions. six hundred and ninety-three thou
sand seven hundred dollars ; and will, at the expira
tion of the period last mentioned, leave the state in
the receipt of a clear, unincumbered revenue, from
the canal fund, of more than a million and a half of
dollars. But when the canal debt is paid, the salt tax, and
the state duties on sales at auction may be, and the
former probably will be, repealed. The steam-boat
tax, it is presumed, can not, or will not, be collected.
If, then, we deduct, after January, eighteen hundred
and thirty-six, from the proceeds of the canal fund,
four hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars, for
these objects (they now amount only to three hundred
and fifty thousand dollars,) and make a further de
duction of one hundred thousand dollars for repairs,
collection, and superintendence ; the state will then
have a net revenue, arising from the canals, free of
all charges, of one million of dollars, which is more
than equal to four times the ordinary annual expenses
of heT government.
So that if the expectations of the canal commis-
missioners, as to the tolls, be realized, and the financial
scheme they have proposed, or any other as effectual
be adopted, and firmly and faithfully pursued, this
state will, after the expiration of ten years, exhibit to
the world the novel spectacle of a community of be
tween two and three millions of people, (for our popu
lation will be at least as extensive in ten years,) not
only maintaining their government without taxes,
but deriving a large surplus revenue from property
of the state.
We shall, it is true, be still liable to pay the im
posts which the general government, may think pro
per to impose, on such foreign goods as we may
choose to consume ; but the independent farmer, who
raises on his own lands, and manufactures all that
he eats, drinks, wears, and uses, may live, without
paying to the state or to the national government,
any kind of tax, either direct or indirect.
It is worthy of remark, that in the eight years,
during which the state of New York has been ex
pending between nine and ten millions in the con
struction of her canals, there have been collected,
for duties of impost and tonnage, at the custom-house,

378

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

in the city of New York, and paid into the treasury
of the United States, more than sixty-four millions
of dollars ; besides other moneys collected at the
custom-houses of the United States in other parts of
the state, the amount of which there is now no
opportunity to ascertain.
Within the period just mentioned, more than nine
millions of dollars have been raised in the state, and
applied to the support of common schools; besides,
very large sums have been bestowed on colleges, and
for the promotion of science and literature.
The commissioners say, that their calculations, as
to the receipt of tolls for the time to come, have been
estimated so much within the probable proceeds, that
they presume no contigency can take place, which
will reduce the aggregate amount of the canal fund,
at the end of ten years, below the sum specified.
There is the more confidence due to their estimates,
because, it is certainly true, as they remark, that
hitherto their anticipations, in reference to the receipt
of tolls, have uniformly fallen short of the reality.
They add, that they have no doubt but that the same
fate awaits the calculations which are presented in
the report to which we now refer, and they express
a confidence that the canal tolls are destined to a
much more rapid increase than the commissioners
have made the basis of their calculations as to the
extinguishment of the debt. They suppose, that
there is now within the sphere of the operation of
the Erie canal alone, a population of one million of
inhabitants ; and that that population will continue
to increase at a ratio, which will double it in ten
years ; that the tolls will be annually augmented in
proportion to the increase of the population. Then,
in the year eighteen hundred and forty-six, the Erie
canal will, of itself, produce a revenue of two millions
of dollars ; and in the year eighteen hundred and
fifty-six, four millions of dollars.
The anticipations of the canal commissioners, as to
the time in which the canal debt may be paid off,
are supported by the report of the commissioners
of the canal fund, and by a report of a joint commit
tee of the senate and assembly on canals, to which
the reports of both these boards were referred.
The committee, in their report, say, " that the pro
ductiveness of the canals is established, and the in
come derivable from them far beyond the anticipa
tions of the most sanguine. The canals will pay
for themselves, as the committee believe, in a shorter
period of time than estimated by the commissioners
of the canal fund, in their highly interesting and
valuable report made to the legislature, at the pre
sent session."

What will be the augmentation of revenue from
the Erie canal, now that it is entirely opened, and
becomes the high road for the commerce of the
shores of the Lakes, and of the rivers of the north
and west, it is impossible to predict.
Hitherto, persons using the western canal have
been almost entirely inhabitants 'of our own state,
living near it. But, no doubt, as the commissioners
say, the time will arrive, within fifty years, when the
number of the people of this state, who will use the
canal, will form but an inconsiderable fraction of the
whole number whose property will float upon it j
when nine tenths of the produce and merchandise
transported upon the western canal, will pay toll for
the whole length of the line.
It seems certain that, in a short time, the receipts
of toll will be limited by nothing but the capacity
of the canals to admit the passage of boats. Ten
thousand boats passed at the junction locks the last
season, which is at the rate of about forty a day, for
two hundred and fifty days, during which time we
may calculate that the canal, in ordinary seasons, will
be free from ice.
One hundred and twenty boats are probably as
many as can be passed through the locks in twenty-
four hours. Though a single boat may be passed in
less than twelve minutes, yet there would be so many
circumstances to create delay, when boats come to
be continually passing, night and day, that ten or
twelve minutes is as little as should be allowed for
the passage of each boat.
In the course of a few years after the Ohio canal
is opened, more boats will be struggling for a passage
than can get through without great delay. Double
locks, at least at the junction, and a canal on the north
side of the Mohawk river, which is already in con
templation, must be made.
These anticipations, as to the condition of the state,
in eighteen hundred and thirty-six, — in regard to the
debt, — and as to the revenue the canals will produce, .
are founded on the supposition that no new debts are
created for similar or other purposes.
The faith of the state as to the revenue pledged by
the constitution to the canal fund., and as to the tolls ofthe
canals now completed, should, and no doubt will, be held
sacred to the extinguishment of the debt created for
the construction of these canals ; but it does not fol
low that the large surplus revenue the state will re
ceive, after the present canal debt is paid, may not be
regarded as the basis of a new credit, on which to
raise moneys to be applied to further internal im
provements, which, though they may not yield as
large a revenue as the existing canals, will be of great

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379

advantage to large portions of our population, who,
till other communications be opened, will feel no'other
benefit from what has been done, than that they share
in the general prosperity.
It is the duty of a government to distribute its fa
vours as equally as possible. Canals should be made
"to pass through every vale, and wind round every
hilt," if it can be done with a due regard to the present
and future resources of the state.
No maxim in political economy is so dangerous as
thaC a public debt is a public blessing. When we
reflect that the debts of the European governments,
which doom most of them to an eternal bankruptcy,
have been created to support wars, that determined
nothing but who should be the people's masters, and
impose upon them new burdens, it is not wonderful
that such a precept should be odious. It could only
have been adopted where governments require other
support than the affections of their subjects.
But, if it would not be as pernicious, it would, at
least, be unwise and unjust to maintain that govern
ment should contract no debt, -however beneficial the
object may be for the present, or in relation to the
future. Had this state been, and were she always to be,
governed by such a determination, the great works
from which we, and our most remote descendants
will derive such incalculable advantages, would not
have been, and could never be, executed. In truth,
there seems no reason of policy or justice that ought
to restrain a government from referring to posterity
the payment of some portion of a debt, created more
for their benefit than for that of the existing genera
tion ; particularly when those of future times will
have augmented means, arising not only from the ob
ject itself, for which the debt was incurred, but from
increased population. For example : to pay the ca
nal debt, at this moment, would require from each
citizen of the state, about five dollars. Supposing
our population to double, in eighteen years, it would
require, from each citizen, a contribution of only two
dollars and a half, to pay the debt at the expiration
of that time. This is supposing that, the canals will
yield only enough to pay the interest of the money
borrowed on their account. But we have seen that
they will do a great deal more.
These reflections are not made so much in reference
to the canals already completed, as with a view to
the great number of internal improvements which we
see, by the public papers, are contemplated.
We have yet to consider the canals in more interest
ing and important relations. They are intimately
connected with our social and political institutions.

The important act of eighteen hundred and seven
teen which established the canal fund, constituted a
board of commissioners to manage it, and authorized
the canal commissioners to commence the canals, is
prefaced by a declaration ofthe legislature, which is
an evidence that they did not engage in these impor
tant works, without correct and enlarged views of the
advantages that would result from their completion.
In the preamble to the above mentioned act, it is said
that "navigable communications between lakes Erie
and Uhamplain, by means of canals connected with
the Hudson, will promote agriculture and commerce,
mitigate the calamities of war, and enhance the bless
ings of peace, — consolidate the union, advance the
prosperity and elevate the character of the United
States." Already have these anticipations been realized.
The money spent in the construction of the canals
has enriched the inhabitants of the great portions of
the state through which they pass.
But their permanent influence on agriculture is
much more important. The difference between what
would have been the price of transporting a ton of
wheat to the New York market before the canals were
made and what it now costs, all goes to the profit ofthe
agriculturist. The farmer of Le Roy, in Genesee
county, who, in eighteen hundred and nineteen, sold
his wheat at thirty cents a bushel, now obtains a dol
lar, there, for the same quantity.
There are, too, many products of the soil, which,
unless they can be cheaply transported, are of no
value ; but now, that the canals are open, the distance
from market may be almost computed bythe distance
from the canal, or the distance from the water com
munications with it : so that the farmer at Cleveland,
or Detroit, as to all beneficial purposes, is as near to
the city of New York as an inhabitant of Otsego
county was four years ago.
It is for this reason that farms near the canal lines
have not as yet increased in price, as it was expected
they would do. Owners of these lands have been
selling them for less than it was thought they would
at this time have commanded, because they found that
for what they could obtain for an acre on the canal,
they could purchase five or six acres equally good.in
Ohio, the Michigan territory, or further west ; _and
that the price at Home of the produce of the one,
would be nearly equal to the price of the produce
of the other, because the difference of the cost of
transportation to market would be inconsiderable.
There is no fact that can more forcibly illustrate
the advantages of canal navigation to the agriculture
of a country, than that which is related of the effects

380

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

of the canals in Ireland, although they are on so
limited a scale. To ensure a competent supply of
corn for the consumption of the city of Dublin, the
government, paid, before the inland navigation "to
that city was opened, a bounty of one hundred thou
sand pounds Irish, for the transportation of corn to
that capital ; " but, in place of this being the case,
that city has now become one of the first corn ports
of Europe ; and Ireland, in general, which half a
century ago imported corn to half a million per an
num, has now a surplus produce in that article to the
value of four millions of pounds sterling per an

num.

The author ofthe article on inland navigation, in
the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, seems to impute this
astonishing change in the condition of Ireland, to the
improvement of her internal water communications.
Possibly it is owing to the same cause that Ireland
has of late been able to supply us with cargoes of po
tatoes. Probably we shall soon have it in our power
to return the favour by sending her some from- the
county of Niagara or Green Bay. A cargo of bricks
for building, from Antwerp, which is now landing on
our wharves, we hope is among the last that will be
brought to us across the Atlantic. Our supply of
this article will undoubtedly be increased from the
canal countries, where, on account of the abundance
of fuel, it can be manufactured at, comparatively,
little cost. Besides, the use of bricks will, in some
measure, be superseded by marble, of which there
are such quantities and varieties on the canals, and
of which, already, so many private as well as public
buildings are erected in our city.
As an additional evidence of the advantages that
canals will be to agriculture, and at the same time
to show that their produce will be beyond any thing
that was anticipated in their origin, because they
will be used for purposes not then contemplated,
the commissioners mention, in one of their reports,
that leached ashes, for manure, were transported
from Fort Edward, on the Champlain Canal, to Long
Island. The distance is near two hundred miles.
As a further evidence that the Canals are used for
purposes which, it is probable, never entered the
minds of their projectors, it may be mentioned here,
though somewhat out of the course we were pursuing,
that there are floating stores and taverns on the Erie
Canal. Among other things the traveller will unex
pectedly meet, are a book store and circulating library,
and a museum of living, as well as of inanimate natu
ral curiosities. These floating establishments remove
from place to place on the canal, as the owners think
may be most to their advantage.

The public papers apprize us, that there will ar
rive to-morrow, with the first canal boat, a vessel
called Noah's Ark, from the yet unbuilt city of Ararat,
which is to arise on an island, near the western
termination of the canal. She will bring, it is said,
to our metropolis, to gratify the curiosity of its inha
bitants, specimens of all manner of living things, to be
found in the forests that surround the falls of
Niagara. The canals have been more used, by travellers,
than was anticipated. There are upon the western
canal, a great number of boats, elegantly fitted up,
which are entirely employed in carrying passengers.
They travel at the rate of four miles an hour, a speed
which the law, to prevent injury to the banks of the
canals, does not allow them to exceed.
The fare is four cents a mile, for which excellent
provisions and comfortable lodgings are provided
on board the boats. The price of a passage from
New York to Albany, one hundred and fifty miles,
in the best steam packets, is four dollars : in other
steam-boats it is less, and in the steam tow-boats, as
low as one dollar. So that a person may travel from
New York to Buffalo, with the utmost comfort, and
without fatigue, for about eighteen dollars. Indeed,
for much less, if he chooses to take the inferior steam
boats on the river, and the freight boats, on the canal,
which carry passengers at a lower rate than the pas
sage boats. This journey, of five hundred and thir
teen miles, maybe accomplished, by steam-boats and
canal boats, in six days.
Great complaints are made of the lowness of the
bridges which cross the canal, and which, to accommo
date the inhabitants whose farms are frequently
divided by it, are very numerous, and oblige passen
gers to leave the deck as often as they occur. But,
it must be recollected, that the object of these canals
was not to accommodate passengers : they were not
necessary for this purpose, when we have turnpike
roads over which a person may travel, with much
greater speed, than can be permitted on the canals.
They were intended for the transportation of produce
and merchandise. The bridges could not be made
higher without much further expense, and great in
convenience to the farmers, for whose accommodation
they were designed. On the other hand, bridges,
not permanent, would subject the boats to great in
terruption and delay. When the canals are as much
occupied by freight boats as unquestionably they
will be in a very short time, they must be abandoned
by all travellers, except those of mere curiosity.
The interruptions in passing the locks, when the
canals are full of boats, will be so great, that those

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381

who wish to travel with any expedition, will prefer
another mode of conveyance.
The inexhaustible sources of living waters, from
which the canals are supplied, afford, in almost every
part of their lines, a surplus, which, wherever they
are raised above the level of the country, can be ap
plied to move machinery. The privilege of using
this water power is leased or sold by the state, and so
will materially augment the revenue from the canals.
But this is an inferior consideration compared to the
advantages which agriculturists and manufacturers
must derive from being furnished with these means
of moving their mills and machinery. Manufactu
ring establishments, of great importance, are starting
up throughout the extent ofthe canals.
There are some manufactures which the traveller
may observe near the canals, which, though appa
rently of no great consequence, yet are so new and
ingenious, as not to be undeserving of notice.
The city of New York, and indeed most parts of
the state, are now supplied with pails and tubs, and
wooden ware of that description, made by turning
lathes, and other machinery moved by water. In
our neighbouring county of West Chester, there are
fields, enclosed by fences curiously put together, in
panels, on the borders of our artificial rivers, and,
after being transported several hundred miles, were
purchased for much less than any other fence, equally
good, could be made for, near where they are used.
Those who apprehended that the canals would be
injurious to the farmers living near the city, and
making no use of them, and who supposed that the
value of the produce of the southern counties would
be depreciated by supplies which would, by means
ofthe canals, be brought cheaply to the market from
a distance, find that their fears, in these respects,
were groundless. The increase ofthe population of
the city, keeps pace with the increase of supplies.
There is already another New York grown up from
that which existed before the canals were commenced,
and the demand for the provisions of the southern
farmers is as great as it was when they had the mo
nopoly of the market. At the same time the money
«they receive is increased in value by the diminution
of the price of labour and of commodities. The
wives and daughters of Delaware county, will sell
their butter and cheese for as much as they could
haVe obtained if there were no canals, and will buy
American cottons, their ribands, and gowns, at a
less price ; while their husbands and fathers will
find the expenses of cultivation diminished.
The vast quarries of marble, and beds of gypsum,
— the inexhaustible mines of iron ore, and the im-
Vol. II.— Nos. 69 & 70. 3 C

measurable forests, which are contiguous to the
canals, indicate how advantageous they would be,
even if their effects were confined to our own
state : but when we see the connexions they will
form with boundless fields producing raw materials,
and with markets, the human mind is hardly ca
pable of comprehending the extent to which they
will promote agriculture, manufactures, and com
merce. We see with astonishment, the progress already
made in populating regions which only yesterday, it
may be said, were uninhabited. Already the whole
canal line is occupied. Almost at every turn in its
course the traveller will find a village presented to
his view, about which every thing indicates, by the
newness of its appearance, that it is but the growth
of a few months. He will frequently see,, on the
borders of the canal, a large excavation for a basin,
intended for the port of a town, which he will per
ceive by the scale on which the streets are laid out,
by the preparations for public buildings, and private
stores and warehouses, is considered as the founda
tion of a great city, the founders of which may fancy
that they, or their posterity, will date " ab urbi con-
dita," though the site is still overshadowed by the
forests, which there has not beem time to clear from
the back grounds. It is indeed curious to observe.
in some places, houses of no mean appearance, erect
ing and marking the lines of spacious streets, from
which the stumps of the trees, on which the timber
employed in the buildings may have grown, are not
eradicated. The founders of each of these nascent cities, anti
cipate that the spot they have selected, has advan
tages which will ensure it a growth and prosperity
equal to other places whose origin is similar : Utica,
Rochester, and Buffalo, now of importance, and com
manding a great trade, were but a few years ago as
new as any of those which are starting with a hope
to rival the elder offspring of the canals.
The effects that facilitating communications will
have on the social habits and feelings of our citizens,
is not one of the least advantages we shall derive
from these works. Formerly the inhabitants of our
seaboard, and of our northern and western territory,
were almost strangers to each other. We thought
and spoke of the borders of the lakes as of some dis
tant territory, a journey to which was not so often
made as a voyage across the Atlantic. But the great
commercial relations, which at present exist between
every part of the state, oblige our citizens to have fre
quent personal intercourse ; and, out of this, grow
kindly sentimentSj that never can exist between those

382

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

who have no common interest, and have no intimacy.
Now, a citizen of New York thinks much less of a
journey to Buffalo, than he did formerly of going to
Albany ; and persons who never would have known
each other, daily mix in our familiar circles, with
mutual good feelings.
All the great and wise men who have been con
cerned in projecting and executing these works, and
others, of a similar nature, have made the important
effects, which the improvement of the means of in
ternal intercourse would have on our political insti
tutions, a theme of their writings. We have seen
with what zeal Washington devoted himself to form
ing water communications between the west and the
south, with a view to their political effects : — the ter
ritory we now possess, extending from the Atlantic
to1 the Pacific : from Key West to the Saint Croix,
more than twenty-six degrees of latitude, and em
bracing two millions of square miles, could not have
been retained under one government, if we had no
other means of water communication than existed
twenty years ago. Natural barriers must have
divided us into as many distinct governments, as there
would have been distinct interests. Why should the
trans-Allegany states have remained united with those
on the Atlantic, when the mountains rendered all
profitable intercourse between them impracticable ?
Nay ! the different sections of our own state were
becoming estranged from each other : we may all
remember when a division of this state was the sub
ject of familiar conversation. The Saint Lawrence
was the high road to the only market the inhabitants
of our western territory could reach ; and Montreal,
if not under her present form of government, under
some other, would soon have been to them, what
New York now is.
But the establishment of steam navigation, and the
opening of canals, have not only consolidated the in
terests of our own state, but indissolubly united every
part of the union. It is impossible to dwell on this
part of the subject, without repeating language
which has been used by those who have been the
advocates of the canals. Governor Clinton, in his
speech, at the opening of the session, in eighteen
hundred and nineteen, presents the subject to the
legislature in the following eloquent words. "In
the United States our liberty and our union are inse
parably connected ; a dismemberment of the republic
into separate confederacies would necessarily pro
duce the jealous circumspection, and hostile prepara
tions, of bordering states : large standing armies
would be immediately raised, — increasing and vin
dictive wars would follow, — and a military despotism

would feign triumphant on the ruins of civil liberty;
a dissolution of the union may, therefore, be consi
dered as the natural death of our free government,
and to avert this awful calamity, all local prejudices
and geographical distinctions should be discarded.
The people should be habituated to frequent inter
course and beneficial intercommunication, and the
whole republic ought to be bound together by the
golden ties of commerce,, and the adamantine chains
of interest.
" When the western canal is finished, and a com
munication is formed between Lake Michigan and
Illinois River, or between the Ohio and the waters
of Lake Erie, the greater part of the United States
will form one vast island, susceptible of circumnavi
gation, to the extent of riiany thousand miles. The
most distant parts of the confederacy will then be in
a state of approximation, and the distinction of eastern
and western, and southern and northern interests,
will be entirely prostrated. To be instrumental in
producing so much good, by increasing the stock of
human happiness— by establishing the perpetuity of
free government, — and by extending the empire of
improvement, of knowledge, of refinement, and of re
ligion, is an ambition worthy of a free people. The
most exalted reputation is that which arises from the
dispensation of happiness to our fellow-creatures ;
and that conduct is most acceptable to God, which is
most beneficial to man. Character is as important to
states, as to individuals, and the glory of a republic,
founded on the promotion of the general good, is the
common property of all its citizens."
Among those who have written on this subject, no
one appears more clearly to have seen, or more forci
bly to have urged the advantages of navigable com
munications in relation to our government and union,
than the late Robert Fulton.
When Mr. Gallatin was about forming the report
before mentioned, which he made to congress, in
eighteen hundred and eight, he addressed one of the
circulars, by which he sought information, to Mi\
Fulton, who, after having enumerated, in his answer,
the economical advantages of roads and canals, says,
"numerous have been the speculations on the dura
tion of our union, and intrigues have been practised
to sever the western from the eastern states. The
opinion endeavoured to be inculcated was, that the
inhabitants beyond the mountains were cut off from
the market of the Atlantic states ; that, consequently,
they had a separate interest, and should use their re
sources to open a communication of their own ; that
remote from the seat of government, they could not
enjoy their portion of advantages arising from the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

383

Union, and that sooner or later they must separate, and
govern for themselves.
" Others, by drawing their examples from European
governments, and the monarchies which have grown
out of the feudal habits of nations of warriors, whose
minds were bent to the absolute power of the few, and
the servile obedience of the many, have conceived
these states of too great an extent to continue united
under a republican form of government ; and that
the time is not distant when they will divide into
" little kingdoms, retrograding from common sense to
ignorance, adopting all the follies and barbarities which
are every day practised in the kingdoms and petty
states of Europe.
" But those who have reasoned in this way, have
not reflected that men are the creatures of habit,
and that their habits, as well as their interests, may
be so combined as to make it impossible to sepa
rate them Without falling back into a state of bar
barism. " Although, in ancient times, some specks of civili
zation have been effaced by hordes of uncultivated
men, yet it is remarkable, that since the invention of
printing and the general diffusion of knowledge, no
nation has retrograded in science or improvements ;
nor is it reasonable to suppose that the Americans,
who have as much, if not more information in general,
than any other people, will ever abandon an advantage
which they have once gained.
" England, which was at one time seven petty king
doms, has by long habit been united into one. Scot
land, by succession, became united to England, and is
now bound to her by habit, by turnpike roads, canals,
and reciprocal interests.
"In like manner, all the counties of England, or
departments of France are bound to each other ; and
when the United States shall be bound together by
canals, by cheap and easy access to a market in all
directions, by a sense of mutual interests arising from
mutual intercourse and mingled commerce, it will be
no more possible to split them into independent and
separate governments, each lining its frontiers with
fortifications and troops, to shackle their own exports
and imports to and from the neighbouring states, than
it is now possible for the government of England to
divide, and form again into seven kingdoms. But it
is, necessary to bind the states together by the people's
interests, one of which is to enable every man to sell
the produce of his labour at the best market, and pur
chase at the cheapest. This accords with the idea
of Hume, ' that the government of a wise people
would be little more than a. system of civil police :'
for the best interest of man is industry and a free ex

change. of the produce of his labour, for the things
which he may require.
" On this humane principle, what stronger bonds
of union can be invented, than those which enable
each individual to transport the produce of his indus
try, twelve hundred miles, for sixty cents the hun
dred weight 1 Here, then, is a certain method of se*
curing the union of the states, and of rendering it as
lasting as the continent we inhabit."
At the conclusion of a work on canals, which Mr.
Fulton published in England, in seventeen hundred
and ninety-six, he subjoins a letter addressed by him,
at that time, to the governor of Pennsylvania, (Thomas
Mifflin, Esq.) in which he urges that state to open
canal communications from the lakes to the Atlantic
waters. In this, he says, " I hope I shall see the
time when canals will pass through every vale, wind
round each hill, and bind the whole country together
in bonds of social intercourse."
Had this philanthropic, patriotic, and enlightened
citizen been spared but a few years, his anticipations,
in part, at least, would have been realized. The Erie,
Champlain, and Ohio canals, are but the commence
ment of a system, the progress of which nothing can
arrest. In our own state the Lackawaxen Canal, from
the head waters of the Delaware to the Hudson, is
nearly completed : a canal from Oswego, on Lake On
tario, to the Erie Canal, and a canal to make more
perfect communications between the Cayuga and
Seneca lakes, and the Erie Canal, are in great for
wardness. At the last session of the legislature, a law was
passed, authorizing surveys for seventeen canals, in
different parts of the state.
The legislature had a just estimate of the work in
which they were about to engage, when, in the pre
amble to their act of eighteen hundred and seventeen,
they said the completion of these enterprises will ele
vate the character of the United States. It must do
so, when it is considered, that the New York canals
have been executed by a single member of the union,
which, less than fifty years ago, was a colony, with a
population not exceeding two hundred thousand;
that of that time eight years have been passed in
struggles for independence, and three years in a war
to which she was a party with the most powerful na
tion on earth.
But, whatever may be thought abroad, we can not
but have a just pride in the execution of works, which
are not surpassed. Posterity wOl look back to those
who transmitted these blessings, with admiration and
veneration. The fourth of November, eighteen hun
dred and twenty-five, when we shall for the first time,

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TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

have in our harbour boats from Lake Erie, will ever
live in the memories of a grateful people ; and the
splendour with which that event will be celebrated by
the city of New York, will be remembered, as an evi
dence of the patriotism and liberality of her citizens
and magistrates.*
New York takes the lead of all- the states in com
merce, and perhaps now in manufactures, as it does
in population ; but the quantity or value of manufac
tures in any state is very difficult to ascertain. The
exports consist of wheat, Indian corn, rye, beef, pork,
lumber, pot and pearl ashes, and various manufactures.
The value of exports, in 1816, was 19,690,031 dol-
*. Note. — The learned writer of the preceding memoir has, pro
bably through delicacy, made two omissions, which the committee
deem it their duty to supply.
In a former part of the memoir, reference is made to a report,
submitted as early as the year 1724, to the colonial governor, by
the then Surveyor General ofthe province of New York; and imme
diately afterwards, the author of the report to Governor Burnet,
is designated as the Historian of the Five Indian Nations. And
again, in a few pages following, he is referred to as the Surveyor
General of the province, &c. His name, however, is nowhere men
tioned in the memoir.
The report alluded to is a most able document. It is entitled,
" A Memorial concerning the Fur trade of the Province of New
York, presented to his Excellency William Burnet, Esq., Captain
General' and Governor, &c, by Cadwallader Colden, Surveyor
General of the said Province, the' tenth of November, seventeen
hundred and twenty-four."
In this report the author not only describes the water-courses
and portages between this and Canada, and those between us and
the great western Lakes, with wonderful accuracy, but presents,
in the clearest manner, the immense facilities which these water
communications are susceptible of affording to our internal trade.
He also carries his views beyond the Lakes to the Mississippi, and
after stating that " many of the branches of that river come so
near to the branches of the rivers which empty themselves into
the great Lakes, that in several places there is but a short land
carriage from the one to the other;" he concludes with theTollow-
ing emphatic observation : — "If one considers the length of this
river, (the Mississippi,) and its numerous branches, he must say,
that by means of this river and the Lakes, there is opened to his view
such a scene of inland navigation, as can not be paralleled in any
other part of the world."
The report will be found at length in his History of the Five
Indian Nations, printed in London, in 1747. A map is attached
to the work, showing the Lakes, the proximity of many of the im
portant wafer-streams to them, and the portages or carrying places.
Mr. Colden was the lieutenant-governor of the province of New
York for many years, and the administration of the government
repeatedly devolved upon him, by the death- or absence of several
governors in chief. He was a man of great ability and probity,
and maintained a literary-and philosophical correspondence with
Linnaeus, Dr. Franklin, Gronovius, Dr. Pottersfield, Dr. Whittle,
of Edinburgh, Mr. Peter Col-lison, F. R. S., of London, and other
distinguished men of the age'. His life will be found in Dr. Rees'
Cyclopaedia, Philadelphia edition, vol. ix.
The writer, of the memoir, who is the grandson .of Governor
Colden, has, perhaps with propriety, omitted to introduce his own
name. The work, however, which he has prepared at tne request
of the committee of the corporation, shows his high estimate of the
canal policy.
It is, nevertheless, due to him to state, that he was one of a
committee who, in eighteen hundred and fifteen, was appointed by a
meeting, of citizens, in the city of New York, to draw a-memorial
to the legislature in favour of the contemplated western and north
ern canals. In 1818, Mr. Colden was elected one of the vice-

lars.; in 1817, 18,707,433; in 1825, 35,259,261, of
which 14,607,703 was foreign produce ; and a great
portion of the domestic produce was from other states.
The tonnage in 1821 was 281,148. The duties paid
or secured at the custom-house in New York, in 1831,
was about 18,000,000 dollars, or two thirds of the
whole revenue of the United States.
The number of whale ships owned in this state,
is 41 ; tonnage over 12,000 tons; employing a capital
of upwards of $ 1,000,000 and about IjOOO men.
There are also above 100 steam-boats navigating its
waters.t The following statistical account, from Williams's
presidents of the " New York Corresponding Association for the
Promotion of Internal Improvements."
In the same year, 181 8, he represented the city of New York in
the assembly of the state, and drafted the answer to the speech of
Governor Clinton ; a part of that' answer is contained in -the me
moir, pages 367, 368, and -shows • the then views of Mr. Colden
on the great work, the completion of which we have lately cele
brated. In 1824, Mr. Colden was elected a member of the senate, from
the first senatorial district, and in tha,t public station, which he yet
fills, he has lost no opportunity to advance the cause of internal
improvements. In 1 825, he was chosen one of a joint committee
of the senate and assembly, and assisted to compile that invaluable
collection of ofiicial documents, consisting of two octavo volumes,
entitled, " Laws of the State of New York in relation to the Erie
and Champlain Canals, together with the Annual Reports of the
Canal Commissioners, and other Documents requisite for a Com
plete Ofiicial History of those Works ; also correct Maps, delinea
ting the Routes of the Erie and Champlain Canals, and designating
the lands through which they pass." This' collection is referred to
in the memoir, page 370. The, committee conclude by remarking,
that Mr. Colden, as a private citizen, and in his official station ,
has, throughout, shown himself the zealous and constant friend of
every measure which was calculated to open to us that vast " inland
navigation," which his grandfather, more. than a century ago, so
ably described. (Signed,) '
R. Riker, Asa Mann, Wm..A, Davis,
Thos. Bolton, John Agnew,
Committee ofthe Corporation of tlie City of New York.
t To this state belongs the horionf, notwithstanding the many
rival claims set up by foreigners, of originating the first successful
steam-boat. We extract from the Encyclopaedia Americana the
following remarks on the first rise and subsequent improvements
in steam navigation; —
" John Stevens, of Hoboken, commenced his experiments on
steam navigation in 1791. He invented the first tubular boiler.
His first.attempts were made with a. rotary engine, for which, how
ever, he speedily substituted one of Watt's. With variojjs' forms
of vessels, and different modifications of propelling apparatus, he
impelled- boats a't the rate of five or six miles per hour. In the
year 1797, Chancellor Livingston buijt ai; steam-boat on the Hud
son river. In the full confidence of success, Livingston applied to
the legislature of New York for an exclusive privilege, which was
granted on condition that he should,' Within ayear, produce, a ves
sel impelled by steam at the rate of three miles per hour. This
he was unable to effect, and the project was dropped for the time.
In the year 1800, however, Livingston and Stevens united their
efforts, and were aided by Mr- Nicholas Roosevelt., Their, appa
ratus was a system of paddles resembling a horizontal chain-
pump, and set in motion by an engine of Watt's construction.
The joint proceedings of, these persons were interrupted by the ap
pointment of Chancellor Livingston (o. represent the American
government in France; but. neither he nor Stevens was yet dis
couraged: the latter r-nniinued to pursue his experiments at Ho'

N

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

385

New York Register, (quoted in the American Alma
nac,) furnishes r many -interesting particulars of the
state of New York in 1825. Since that time the num
ber of factories have much increased.
Whole number of souls  . 1,616,458
Males,  822,897
Females .  793,561
Aliens  ' 40,430
Population, excluding aliens, paupers, and persons of
colour not i taxed  1,531,648
Paupers   . 5,61 0
Pefsons of colour not taxed  38,770
Do. taxed  931
Do. qualified to vote  298
Persons. subject to militia duty  180,645
Do. qualified to vote  296,132
Deaf and Dumb persons  645
Of which 141 are supported by charity.
Idiots . . . . :  1421
Of which 442 are supported by charity.
Lunatics  t  819
Of which 184 are supported by charity
Married females, under 45 years .... . . 200,481
Unmarried ditto, Jjetween 16 and 45  135,391
* Do. (under 16 years  361,624
Marriages the year preceding  11,553
boken, while the former carried to Europe high-raised expecta
tions of success. About this time, an attempt was made at steam
navigation under the patronage of Lord Dundas, of Kerse. The
attempt was made by Symington as engineer, who limited himself
to the drawing of boats upon a canal. The experiment was made
upon the Forth and Clyde canal ; but the boats were drawn at the
rite of no more than three and a half miles per hour; which not
answering the expectations of his patron, the attempt was aban
doned. During this enterprise, Symington asserts that he was
visited by Fulton, who stated to him the great value such an inven
tion would have in America, and, by his account, took full and
ample notes. In the attempt he thus makes to claim for himself
the merit of Fulton's subsequent success, he is defeated,by the clear
and conclusive evidence, that Fulton exhibited in a court of law,
of his having submitted apian analogous to that he afterwards
carried into effect, to Lord Stanhope, in 1795, six years prior to
the experiment of Symington. Fulton, after having occupied
himself at, Paris, along with Livingston, in the investigation of
the capabilities of different apparatus for propulsion, was finally
led to the conviction, that, of all methods proposed, the paddle-
wheels possessed the greatest advantages. He next planned a
mode of attaching wheels to the engine of Watt, ingenious in
itself, but complicated, and which he afterwards simplified ex
tremely. Up to, this time, the relation of the force ofthe engine
to the velocity of the wheels, and the resistance of the water to the
motion of the vessel, had never been made a matter, of prelimina
ry calculation. Aware, however, that upon a proper combination
of these elements all positive hopes of success must depend, he had
recourse to the recorded experiments of the society of arts, and,
limiting his proposed speed to four miles per hour, planned; his
machinery and boat in conformity. The vessel was then con
structed at Paris, and, being launched upon the Seine, performed
its task in exact conformity to his anticipations. This experi-
mentwas performed in 1803. The trial having proved successful,
it was resolved to take immediate measures to have a boat of large
size construeted in the United States ; but as, at that time, the
workshops in America were incapable of furnishing a steam en
gine, it became necessary to order one from Watt and Bolton.
This was done, and Fulton proceeded to England to superintend
its construction. In the mean time, Livingston was sufficiently
fortunate to obtain a renewal ofthe exclusive grant from the slate
of New York. The engine reached New York towards the close
of the year 1806, and the vessel built to receive it was set in mo
tion in the summer of 1807. The success that attended it is weU
known. In the mean time, Livingston's former associate, the

Births, male 31,514, female 29,689  60,383
Deaths, male 12,525, female 10,019  22,544
Acres of improved land  7,160,9"67
Neat cattle  1,513,421
Horses  . 349,628
Sheep .... -..- .,:...  . 3,496,539
Hogs  ''  1,467,-57-3
Yards of fulled cloth, domestic manufacture, preceding
year  2,918,233
Ditto flannel and other woollen cloths, not fulled . . 3,468,001
Ditto linen, cotton, and other cloths  8,079,992
Gristmills .  2,274
Sawmills  5^195
Oil mills  121
Fulling mills  ... 1,222
Carding machines  1 ,584
Cotton factories  76
Woollen factories  189
Cotton and woollen factories  28
Iron works  170
Trip-hammers  164
Distilleries  1,129
Asheries . . . . .  . 2,105
A large fund in money and lands has , been appro
priated to the support of common schools. ' In 1823,
there were 7,382 common schools; 400,534 children

elder Stevens, had persevered in his attempts to construct steam
boats. In his enterprise he now received the aid of his son ; and
his prospects of success had become so flattering, that he refused
to renew his partnership with Livingston, and resolved to trust to
his own exertions. Fulton's boat, however, was first ready, and
secured the grant of the exclusive privilege of the state of New
York. The Stevenses were hut a few days later in moving a boat
with the required velocity, and, as their experiments were conduct
ed separately, have an equal right to the honour of invention with
Fulton. Being shut out of the waters of the state of New York,
by the monopoly, of- Livingston and Fulton, Stevens conceived the
bold design of conveying his boat to the Delaware by sea; and
this boat, which was so near reaping the honour of first success,
was the first to navigate the ocean by the power of steam. From
that time until the death of Fulton, the steam-boats of the Atlantie
coast were gradually improved, until their speed amounted to
eight or nine miles per hour. When the exclusive grant of the
state of New York to Livingston and Fulton was set aside, the
younger Stevens prepared a boat for the navigation of the Hud
son, which performed its voyages at the rate of thirteen and a hall
miles per hour. Steam-boats were not introduced into Great Bri
tain until 1812, five years later than the successfuLvoyage of Ful
ton. Bell built the first boat upon the river Clyde, at Glasgow.
In March, 1816, the first steam-boat crossed the British channel
from Brighton to Havre. Since that period, their use has been
much extended, and their structure improved ; but no European
steam-boat is at present known to possess a speed above nine miles
per hour. In 1815, steam-boats, previously constructed by Fulton
for the purpose, commenced to run as packets between New York
and Providence, a part of which passage is- performed' in the open
sea. Two steam-packets now run between New York and.Charles-
ton. In the steam-boats of the Ohio and Mississippi, high pres
sure engines are now in the most general use : the boilers are ge
nerally cylindrical,! with internal flues, and the position of the cy
linder is horizontal. In France, steam navigation has been of
more recent introduction than in, England. Five- years elapsed
from the time of Fulton's successful voyage until Bell navigated
the Clyde ; four more passed .before a boat built in England cross
ed the channel, and: proceeded up the Seine to Paris. :
M As steam navigation took its rise on the Hudson, so the steam
boats navigating thatriver have uniformly been before all others
in point 'of speed. Two vessels on this river have a speed of
thirteen and a half miles per hour ; and many others have ap
proached this so nearly that the difference of passage has not been
many minutes in the distance of 1 50 miles."

386

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

were educated during eight months, and 182,802
dollars expended from the public funds for this pur
pose. There is a fund for academies amounting to
150,000 dollars. The colleges also are well endowed :
they .are Columbia College, in New York ; Union
College, in Schenectady ; Hamilton College, in Clin
ton ; and two medical colleges, one in New York,
the other in Fairfield, Herkimer county.
The Presbyterians have 5 synods, 29 presbyteries,
587 churches, 486 rninisters, 124 licentiates, and
54,093 communicants ; the Dutch Reformed, 148

churches, 111 ministers, 7 licentiates, and 8,672
communicants ; the Associate Synod of North Ame
rica, 15 congregations, 13 ministers,- and 1,668
communicants ; the Methodists, 73,174 members ;
the Baptists, 549 churches, 387 ministers, and 43,565
communicants ; the Episcopalians, 129 ministers ;
the Lutherans, 27 ministers, and 2,973 communicants ;
the Roman Catholics,-, Friends, and Universalists are
considerably numerous ; the Unitarians have 5 socie
ties and 2 ministers, ' and there are some Shakers,
and some United- Brethren. . .

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.

Albany, k. m. . .
Allegany, w. m. .
Broome, s. m. . .
Cattaraugus, w. M.
Cayuga, M. . .
Chatauque, w. .
Chenango, s. M. .
Clinton, n. e. . . '
Cortland, m. . .
Delaware, s. m. .
Erie, w. ...
Essex, n. e. . .
Franklin, n. . .
Genesee, w. . .
Hamilton, m. . .
Herkimer, m.
Jefferson, n. w. .
Lewis, n. m. . .
Livingston, w. m.
Madison, m. . .
Monroe, w. M. .
Montgomery, e. m.
Niagara, w. , .

Oneida, m.

Onondaga, M.
Ontario, w. M.
Orleans, w. m.

Oswego, w. M. . . .
Otsego, m 
Rensselaer, e. . .
Saratoga, e. m. . .
St. Lawrence,. N. w.
Schenectady, E. M. .
Schoharie, ii. . .
Seneca, w. m.
Steuben, s. w. M. .
Tioga, s. w. M. . . ..
Tompkins, e. w. M.
Warren, e. m. ... . .
Washington, e. . .

Wayne, w. M. ...
Yates, w. m. . . . .
Total . .
Total of New York ,

NORTH DISTRICT.

Population, 1820.

33,116 9,330
11,100 4,090
38,897 12,568
31,215 12,07016,507
26,587 15,66812,811 4,439
39;835 1,251
31,01732,952 9,227
19,196
32,208
26,52927,569 '7*322
50,99741,461 35,312 7,625
12,374
44,85640,153 36,052 16,073
13;081
23,154 17,773
21,989 14,716
26,178 9,^53
38,83120,319 11,025

944,262

Population 1830.

53,560
26,218 17,582
16,726
47,947 34,05737,404 19,344
23,69332,93335,710 19,387 11,321
51,992 1,324
55,86948,515 14,958
27,71939,03749,862
43,595 18,485
71,326
58,97440,167 18;485-
27,10451,37249,47236,61636,351 12,334
27,91021,031 33,97527,70436,545 U,?95
42,615
33,555 19,019

1,366,467,

County Towns.

Albany . . .
Angelica . . .
BinghamptonEllicottsville . .
Auburn ....
Mayville . . .
Norwich . . .
Plattsburgh . .
Cortlandville Delhi ....
Buffalo. . . .
Elizabethtown .
Malohe . . . .
Batavia . . .
Wells ....
Herkimer . . ;
Watertown . .
Martinsburgh ,. .
Geneseo .-.-.,
rCazenpvia ;. i
.'( Morrisville ' .
Rochester . . .
Johnstown . .
Lpbkpprt . . .
( Utica ... .
< Rome ...
( Whitesborough
Syracuse ... .
Canandaigua . .
Albion ' . . . .
i Oswego . . .
\ Richland . .
Cooperstown . .
Troy ....
Ballston . . .
fotsdamSchenectady . ;
Schoharie*.. •. .
j.O,vid ... .
( Waterloo . ' .
Bath . .; . .
$ Elmira . . .
( Owego . . .
Ithaca . ...
Caldwell . . .
1 Salem . . .
.Sandy Hill .
Lyons . . .
{Palmyra . . ; ¦
P«flif Yann . '."',

Population,! Distance.
1830. . f.A.* | W.t

l,913,508',^bf':\yhom 46 are slaves.

24,238 998
1,203 626
4,486
•3,-774 4,9133,S73
2,114.8,653
VM
%207
4,271 340
2,486
4,768 2,382
2,675

9,2697,700
2,022
8,3234,360-

5,1622,7032,733 1,115
11,405 2,113 3,650
4,258
AW
S.756
::tm.
3,3872,962 3,080
5,270 797
2,972 3,6033,434

145
292 166
336 110162142 77
284 126
212244 72
80
160
129
226 113 101
219 45
288 96
107100133
195
257 167153 66 6
29
216 15
32
171
173
216 198 167163 624650
181196185

376
327
291328340349
332539
Sll 341376
503523
370
451
392412431
345 349
353361
415 403
383
401 387
342336289 379
397 372383
406484391 381
317 336
299 273274 290439423427345349314

* From Albany.

t From Washington.

<4

IS

ft

H

"'-I
<-]

o
f--i

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

387

SOUTH DISTRICT.

Counties.

Columbia, e. . .
Dutchess, s. e.
Greene, e. m. . .
Kings, s. . . .
New York, s. . .
Orange, s. . . ,
Putnam, s. e.
Clueens, s. . .
Richmond, s. . .
Rockland, s. . .
Suffolk, s. e. . .
Sullivan, s. . .
Ulster, s. M. . .
Westchester, s. e.

Population, 1820.

Population, 1830.

38,330
46,615 22,996 11,187
123,706

39,95250,92629,525 20,537
202,589

41,213

45,372

11,268

,12,701

21,519 -

22,276

6,135

7,084

-8,837 -

- 9,388

24,272

26,980

8,900

12,372

30,934

36,551

32,638

36,456

County Towns.

Total

428,550 I 536,623

Hudson . .
Poughkeepsie Catskill . .
Platbush . .
New York .
! GoshenNewburgh
Carmel . .
N. Hempstead
RichmondClarkstown .
Suffolk, C. H.
Monticello .
Kingston . .
Bedford . .

Popclation, 1830.

5,395 7,222
4,861 1,143
202,589 3,361 6,4242,379

2,298

4,170 2,750

Distance.
A.* | W.t

29 75
34
156151105 96
106 174167122
225 113 58
135

335301337230225266282 306
248221251299 278 313
268

POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
Population. Population. Increase. Slaves.
In 1701, 30,000 In 1800, 586,050 21,324
1731, 50,395 1810, 959,349 From 1790 to 1800, 245,930 20,613
1749, 100,000 1820, 1,372,812 1800 1810, 372,999 15,017
1771, 163,338 1825, 1,616,458 1810 1820, 413,763 10,088
1790,, 340,120 1830, 1,913,508 1820 1830, 540,696 46
GROWTH OF THE CITIES OF NEW YORK, ALBANY, TROY, BROOKLYN, ROCHESTER, BUFFALO, UTICA,
SCHENECTADY, AND HUDSON.

In 1696,

4,302

1731,

8,622

1756,

10,381

1773,

21,876

1786,

23,614

1790,

33,131

Rochester.

In 1820,

1,502

1825,

5,271

1826,

7,669

1830,

9,269

New York. In 1800,1810,
1820, 1825, 1830,

60,48996,373
123,706 167,086
202,589

Albany:
In 1790, 3,
1800,
1810, 1820,
1825,1830,

5,349
9,356
12,630
15,974
24,238

Buffalo.
In 1810, 1,508
1820, 2,095
1825, 5,140
1830, 8,653

Utica.
Ia 1810, 1,700
1820, 2;972
.1825, 5,040
1830, 8,323

Troy.
In 1810, 3,885
1820, 5,264
. 1825, 7,859
1830, 11,405

Schenectady.
In 1820, 3,939
1825, 4,058
1830, 4,268

Brooklyn.
In 1800, 3,278
1810, 4,402
1820, 7,175
1830, 12,043

Hudson.
In 1820, 5,310
1825, 5,004
1830, 5,392

The preceding table indicates how great a number
of important towns have arisen in this state. The
capital of the state is Albany ; ,but the only one, re
specting which our limits will permit us to enter oh
any details, is the great commercial city of New York.
, This city is situated on the point of York Island,
at the mouth of the Hudson, in north latitude 40°.
It was founded by the Dutch, in 1615, under the
name of New- Amsterdam, and was appropriated by
the British in 1696. The island on which it stands
is fifteen miles long, and from one to three miles
broad. The city is situated on the south part of the
island, and extends along the Hudson about two
miles, and from the Battery along the East River,
properly a branch of the Hudson, nearly four miles.
The early settlements were commenced at and near
the Battery, from which streets were extended with
out order or regularity ; and this accounts for the

seeming want of taste in laying out the streets towards
the docks and harbour.
The Battery is situated at the south-west point of.
the city,' opposite to Governor's Island. It possesses
attractions unsurpassed perhaps by any other similar
place of resort "in the world, justly commanding the
admiration of every visiter. It is handsomely laid
out into gravel-walks, and tastefully decorated with
shrubs and trees. It is much frequented by the
citizens in the warm season, as well for the purpose
of partaking of the refreshing sea-breeze, as for enjoy
ing the prospect, which includes the harbour with
its various shipping, Governor's Island, Bedlow's
Island, and Ellis's Island, on each of which are mili
tary stations ; the shores of New Jersey and Long
Island, with, the flourishing town of Brooklyn, and
the numerous country-seats in its vicinity. Castle
Garden, connected with the battery by a bridge, is

* From Albany.

t From Washington.

388

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

much frequented during the summer evenings. It
has a fine promenade, and is often rendered attractive
by a display of fire-works from its enclosure, and
other amusements.
Broadway, the most splendid street in the city,
runs through the centre, and extends three miles in
length and about eighty feet in width. It is the
great and fashionable resort for citizens and strangers,
and is much crowded during pleasant weather. In
this avenue are Grace, Trinity,, and St. PauPs
Churches, the Adelphi Hotel, City Hotel, National
Hotel, Franklin House, American Hotel, Washington
Hall, Masonic Hall, and a variety of shops, with
elegant and extensive assortments of merchandise of
every description. Opposite Trinity Church Wall
street opens, which contains the Exchange, and
most of the banks, together with the principal part
of the brokers' and insurance offices. At the ter
mination of Wall street, is the Tontine coffee-house,
an extensive and handsome establishment. On pass
ing up Broadway still farther, are Cedar and Court
landt streets, both of which lead to the Hudson River,
where the steam-boats start for Albany, At tbe foot
of Courtlandt street is the ferry to .Jersey city. A
little further up. is Fulton street, at; the corner of
which stands St. Paul's Churcri. ; Fultdn street leads
to the East River ; along the,dqckssof which are the
steam-boats for the New England ports. A little
below are the boats for Newport' and, Providence ;
above,, for Bridgeport, Saybrook, Hartford,, New Lon
don, and Norwich. The New Haven boats lie at
Fly Market' Dock, still farther below. Above St.
Paul's Church are the Park and the City Hall, situa
ted in the centre of the city; the- former containing
about eleven acres, which are ornamented with much.
taste, and enclosed, by a substantial iron railing. < It
furnishes a cool and • fashionable resort for men of
business and pleasure; after the fatigue and heat of a
summers day, 'On the right is ; the Park theatre,
and on, the left Park;place,onthe west-side of which
is Columbia College. The -next street above Park
place is Murray street, wriich leads- to Hoboken
Ferry; s • ; /
Of the public buildings, the most prominent and
impprtaftt is; the City. Hall, the front of which is
built pf ; white. marble. It is;216 feet long, 105 feet
broad-,, and, including the attic story, sixty feet high.
The rooms for holding the different courts of law are
fitted up;in a[ rich and expensive style. The room
for holding the mayor's' court contains portraits pf
Washington, of the different governors of the state,
and of many 0f the most celebrated commanders of
the army and navy of the United States. The foun

dation stone of this building was laid in 1803, and
the whole finished in 1812, at an expense of 500,000
dollars. It is one of the most elegant edifices in Ame
rica, and reflects great credit on the inhabitants for their
munificence and taste.-^The Merchants' Exchange
in Wall street is also a superb structure of white
marble. Its front in Wall street is 114 feet, and its
jdepth, extending to Garden street, 150 feet. The
main body of the building is two stories high, besides
the basement and an attic story. About two thirds of
the basement is occupied for the post office, including
a spacious corridor fox the convenience of persons
visiting the office, with entrances from Wall and
Exchange streets. The portico of the building, to
which a flight of marble steps ascends, is ornamented
with Ionic columns twenty-seven feet high. In the
centre is the Exchange, of an oval form, eighty-five
feet long, fifty-five feet wide, and forty-five feet high,
surmounted with a dome, from which light is reflect
ed. The whole is imposing, and affords a.delight-
ful promenade. From the Exchange are doors and
passages leading to a commercial reading room, and
numerous newspaper and other offices within the
edifice. From the attic story, a flight of stairs leads
to a room in the cupola where telegraphic signals
are made, which are returned from the telegraph at
the Narrows, seven and a half miles distant. The
height of the cupola above the attic story is sixty
feet. The cost of this building, including the ground,
was 230,000 dollars. It was commenced in 1824,
and completed in three years. — The United States
Branch Bank, hi Wall street is an elegant white
marble building, sixty feet in front. The ground
on which it was. erected cost 40,000 dollars.
Trinity church in Broadway, at the head of Wall-
street, from its antique- appearance generally attracts
the notice; of strangers. The first church on this spot
was erected in 1696. Originally small, it was enlarged
in 1737 ; but during the fire which destroyed the
western part of the city in 1776, while the British
troops were in possession, it was destroyed, and was
not rebuilt till 1788. The present building is of stone,
in the Gothic style, much like the old one, except its
diminished size, and has a steeple 198 feet high. It
contains a chime of bells, the only set in the city, and
an excellent organ. — St. Paul's chapel is a superb
structure further up the Broadway, near the Park.
It contains a portico of the Ionic order, consisting of
four fluted pillars of brown stone, supporting a pedi
ment, with a niche in the centre containing a statue
of St. Paul. Under the portico is a handsome monu
ment erected by order of congress to the memory of
General Montgomery, who fell at the .storming of

S? IPAWmS , M&'toMiMMFr, mi,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

389

Quebec in 1775, and whose remains were brought to
New York, and interred beneath the monument, in
1820. The spire of this church is 234 feet high ;
and the whole building is esteemed one of the best
specimens of architecture in the city. In the church
yard adjoining is an elegant monument, recently
erected to the memory of Thomas Addis Emmet, an
eminent counsellor at law. and brother of the unfor
tunate Irish orator, Robert Emmet. The plinth of
the monument is one entire block, seven feet square
and twelve inches thick. The Egyptian obelisk
standing on this base is also in a single piece, and is
about thirty-two feet high. The face towards Broad
way is embellished with the American eagle shelter
ing a harp unstrung, with a medallion likeness of
Emmet, and with two clasped hands, having stars
around one wrist, and shamrocks around the other,
with an English inscription. On the north side is a
Latin, and on the south, an Irish inscription. There
are 132 churches in the city, many of which were
erected at a very considerable expense, and are orna
ments to the sections of the '".ity in which they stand.
Columbia College, above the City Hall, was char
tered in 1750, under the name of King's College.
The edifice and grounds attached are extensive, and
are advantageously and handsomely situated. The
college contains a chapel, lecture-rooms, hall, library,
museum, and an extensive philosophical and astro
nomical apparatus.
The New York Society Library, in Nassau-street,
was commenced in 1740, and at the commencement
of the revolution contained 3,000 volumes, which
were destroyed or taken away by the British troops.
It was re-established in 1789, and now consists of
about 20,000 volumes, many of which are rare and
valuable. The Athenaeum, corner of Broadway and
Pine street, contains a reading-room, which is open
daily, except Sundays. The Historical Society has a
library of 10,000 volumes, embracing many valuable
* The commercial metropolis of the American confederacy,
from which nearly three quarters of the public revenue is
derived, seems to demand a more extended accoant than is em
braced in the English edition of this work. Rather than make
any material alterations with the author's text, it was deemed pre
ferable to allow it to stand as originally published, and to make
such further additions, in a note, as were considered best fitted to
convey more ample and precise information, even if liable to the
imputation of occasional repetition. What follows, therefore, it
may be proper to state, is a description of the city of New York,
drawn up by Dr. John W. Francis, and printed in the American
edition of Dr. Brewster's Encyclopaedia, with such additions and
alterations by Dr. F. as the ever fluctuating, though ever improving,
condition of that city requires. The editor has the writer's per
mission thus freely to avail himself of this article, largely derived
from original materials, and which can hardly be thought too ex
tensive, or too circumstantial, for this revised edition of Mr. Hin
ton's work.
New York is the chief city of the state of New York, and the
Vol. IL— Nos. 69 & 70. 3D

works. Near the institution are the Savings' Bank
and Panorama Rotunda ; and a little further up Broad
way, the New York Hospital. The annual expendi
ture in this institution is about 40,000 dollars, and the
annual number of patients from 140 to 180.
The Park Theatre is a spacious edifice. It was
built in 1798, at an expense of 179,000 dollars, was
destroyed by fire in 1820, and rebuilt the following
year. It is eighty feet long, 165 deep, and fifty-five
high, and has generally been more liberally patron
ised than any other theatre in the city. The New
York Theatre, in the Bowery, displays much archi
tectural beauty, and, among the modern ornaments
of the city, stands pre-eminent. It has a front of
seventy-five feet, is 175 feet deep, and fifty feet high.
It enjoys a handsome patronage.
Brooklyn, (on Long Island,) directly opposite New
York, from which it is separated by the East River,
is usually reached by steam-boats, which arc constantly
plying between the foot of Fulton-street and that city.
It has a population of about 15,000, and within a few
years has risen to some importance. Its contiguity
to New York, and the facilities afforded for commu
nication between the two places, have induced many
merchants and men of business to select it as a place
of residence in preference to the upper parts of the
city. It also contains several elegant country-seats
and public gardens. Those on the bank contiguous
to the East River, from their elevated situation, over
looking the bay of New York, and commanding a
view of a great part of the city, are peculiarly at
tractive and romantic. North-east of the city, on a
tract of land called the Wallabout, is a United States
navy- yard, where are erected a house for the command
ant, several spacious warehouses, and immense edifices
of wood, under which the largest ships of war are built.
The steam-frigate Fulton, which lay near the navy-
yard, and was an object of attraction, was blown up at
this place in 1829, occasioning the loss of several lives*

most populous and commercial town in the United States. It is
situate on York Island, at the confluence of Hudson and East
rivers, in lat. 40° 42' 45" N.-and 74° 4' W. Ion. from Greenwich;
or 3° 14' 15" E. from the city of Washington.
The island is essentially primitive, and consists mainly of one
formation, gneiss. It is. about fourteen and a half miles long from
N. to S., and varying in breadth from half a mile to nearly two
miles, comprehending about twenty-one and a half square miles.
The limits of the city and county are the same, and the only legal
sub-divisions are the wards, at present fifteen in number. It is
separated on the north from the continental part of the state by
Harlem river ; from New Jersey on the west by the river Hud
son; from Staten Island on the south by the bay or harbour; and
by the East river from Long Island.
The city of New York was originally settled by the Dutch, in
1614, and its progress has been, since the revolutionary war, rapid
beyond precedent, in numbers, wealth, commerce, and improve
ments. According to the researches of a writer on American antiqui-

390

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Smith's History of New York is well known ; a
second Volume of that work, from the original MSS.
of the author, has been lately published by the New

ties,* Henry Hudson arrived at the island of Manhattan, (York
Island,) called by the natives Manhadoes, on the 4th of September,
1609, then occupied by a ferocious tribe of Indians ; he navigated
as high as Albany, and on his return to Holland transferred his
right of discovery to the Dutch, who afterwards granted it to their
West India Company. The latter, the next year, sent ships to
Manhattan, to trade with the natives. In 1614, a fort was built
bythe Dutch at the southwest extremity of the island, and another,
called Port Aurania, at Orange, where Albany now stands, which
was settled before the city of New Amsterdam, (New York ;) the
latter was most probably not permanently occupied until the year
1 619. From this period it remained in possession of the Dutch
until the conquest of the colony by the English, in 1664. A few
years after, it was granted by Charles II. to his brother James,
Duke of York and Albany; and the two principal, indeed the only
cities at that time in the colony, were called after his title.
Richard Blome, in his book entitled " The Present State of his
Majesties Isles and Territories in America," printed at London,
in 1687, in discoursing on these occurrences, thus expresses him
self: — " New York was first discovered by Mr. Hudson, and sold
presently by him to the Dutch, without authority from his sove
reign, the king of England, in 1608. The Hollanders, in 1614,
began to plant there, and called it New Netherland ; but Sir
Samuel Argal, governor of Virginia, routed them ; after which,
they got leave of King James to put in there for fresh water, in
their passage to Brazil, and did not offer to plant till a good while
after the English were settled in the country. In 1664, his late
majesty, King Charles the Second, sent over four commissioners
to reduce the colonyinto bounds, that had been encroached by each
other, who marched with three hundred red coats to Manhadees,
and took from the Dutch the chief town, then called New Amster
dam, now New York, and August 29, turned out their governor,
with a silver leg, and all the rest but those who acknowledged
subjection to the king of England ; suffering them to enjoy their
houses and estates as before. Thirteen days after, Sir Robert Car
took the fort and town of Aurania, now called Albany ; and twelve
days after that, the fort and town of Arasapha, then Delaware
Castle, manned with Dutch and Swedes ; so that now the English
are masters of three handsome towns, three strong forts, and a
castle, without the loss of one man. The first governor of these
parts for the king of England was Col. Nicols, one of the commis
sioners." Herman Moll, geographer, who published in London, in 1708,
the British Empire in America, 2 vols. 8vo., in his account of the
city of New York, states it to have at that time contained one
thousand houses, most of them " very well built." The great
church [Trinity] was built in 1695. A library, he states, was
erected in 1700 ; and the Dutch built mills to saw timber, " one of
which would do more in an hour than fifty men in two days."t
Tradition reports, that the first white child was a female, of the
parentage of Isaac Bedlow, who arrived in New York in 1639, as
secretary of the Dutch West India Company ; but records in the
New York Historical Society affirm, that the first child of Euro
pean parentage in New Netherlands, was a Sarah Rapaelje, daugh
ter of Jan Joris Rapaelje, born June 9, 1625. The limited extent
of settlements, the age, single condition, and peculiar pursuits, of
those who had arrived previously to 1625, may, as Moulton re
marks, be justly inferred from this fact.
The earliest authentic record extant of the population of this
city is of the date of 1656, when several new streets were laid out,
and a plan of the town sent to the city of Amsterdam, for the ex
amination and approval of the directors of the West India Trading
Company. At that, time the village by the name of New Amster-

* John Pintard, LL. D.
t Neither of these authorities, Blome or Moll, are mentioned by Holmes,
(Annals,) copious and accurate as is that excellent author. The Old-
mixon cited by Holmes, is the edition of 1741; the work of Moll and
Oldmixon has the imprint of 1708.

York Historical Society : this cotitinuation of Smith's,
brings down the history of the state, to the adminis
tration of Colden in 1762. Moulton has also lately
dam contained only one hundred and twenty houses, of the hum
blest description, and one thousand inhabitants, including the gar
rison. Several rough engravings of the city, illustrative of its ap
pearance at about this time, and for one hundred years after, are
preserved among the records of the New York Historical So
ciety. In 1686 the first charter was granted, which was renewed
in 1730, with new privileges.
POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. «

1696, 4,302
1731, 6,628
1756, 10,381
1773, 21,876
1786, 23,614
1790, 33,131

1800, 60,489
1810, 96,373
1820, 123,706
1825, 167,059
1830, 203,007
1832, 213,500

Averaging somewhat more than a tenth part of the entire popula
tion of the state.
The most compact part of the city is at its southern extremity,
whence it extends on the north side along the course of the Hud
son river, about two and three quarters of a mile, and along the
East river, from the southwest angle of the battery, three miles;
its circuit about eight and a half miles. The ancient irregularity
ofthe city has been materially corrected by recent improvements;
the upper, or northern parts, have been laid out with systematic
regularity. Many of the streets are spacious, running in right
lines, and intersected by others at right angles ; in short, the whole
of the upper portion of the city is laid out in this manner, and
though the spirit of improvement has been active, and at a tre
mendous expense here, to reduce the site of New York to an entire
level, there is a gentle ascent from Hudson and East rivers, and a
commanding view of the city is afforded. The most distinguished
streets are Broadway, commencing at the Battery, and running
north by east nearly three miles, Greenwich street, Wall street,
Pearl street, South street, Canal street, Grand street, the Bowery,
East Broadway, &c. &c. Besides the Battery, a delightful prome
nade at the lowest or southern portion of the city, there are seve
ral open squares, which serve the important purposes of ventilla-
tion and health, as the Park, Hudson square, Washington square,
Hamilton square, Lafayette Place, Union Place, Clinton square.
The approach towards the city on the north, has also been made
more advantageous by several new roads, denominated avenues,
agreeably to a plan of the late Gouverneur Morris and De Witt
Clinton. The materials of which the earlier buildings of the city were
constructed were wood, and bricks imported from Holland. The
style of architecture was steep roofs, tiied gables to the streets and
alleys between the houses. " Speaking of New York, in 1681,
Blome remarks, the town is large, containing about five hundred
well built houses, built with Dutch, brick, and the meanest not
valued under 1 00 pounds. Of this latter construction not an edi
fice now remains ; the last of this character, situate in Broad
street, and bearing date, according to the Dutch fashion, 1698,
having been torn down for modern architecture in the spring of
1831 . The wooden edifices are comparatively few in number, and
are chiefly located in the suburbs. The modern taste in building
is almost exclusively confined to brick, though a few houses in
different places are constructed either of granite, free-stone, or of
marble, obtained within the neighbourhood. The principal streets
and public buildings and stores are lighted by gas, under the
management ofthe Gas Light Company, which went into success
ful operation in 1825.
Bay and Harbour. — The bay and harbour of New York may be
classed among the most convenient and beautiful in the world ;
the banks are bold, and the bay interspersed with many handsome
islands ; the city and surrounding land, when viewed on the bay
in approaching the city, presents a scene truly charming and pic
turesque, and excites general admiration. The bay may be esti
mated at nine miles long and five broad, without including the

TOPOGRAPHY Ot '.
published a part of his historical work : it is curious
in early details. NEW JERSEY
Is bounded on the north and northeast by New
York ; on the east and southeast by the Atlantic ;
branches of the rivers each side of the city. From the ocean,
Sandy Hook, to the city at the head of the bay, is about twenty
miles. The water is of sufficient depth to float the largest vessels,
and ships of 110 guns have anchored opposite the city. On the
bar at Sandy Hook, the depth of water at high tide is twenty-seven
feet, and at low water twenty-one feet ; from thence to the city the
channel has a depth of from forty to fifty feet.
In describing the bay of New York, a late English traveller
thus writes : — " I have never seen the bay of Naples. I can there
fore make no comparison ; but my imagination is incapable of
conceiving any thing more beautiful than the harbour of New
York. Various and lovely are the objects which meet the eye on
every side ; but the naming of them would only be to give a list
of words, without giving the faintest idea of the scene. I doubt if
ever the pencil of Turner could do it justice, bright and glorious
as it rose upon us. We seemed to enter the harbour of New York
upon waves of liquid gold; and as we dashed past the green isles
which rise from its bosom like guardian sentinels of the fair city,
the setting sun stretched his horizontal beams further and further,
at each moment, as if to point out to us some new glory in the
landscape." It has been repeatedly observed, that the cold of winter has less
effect upon the waters of New York harbour, than in several places
further south. The usual tides are about six feet, and this, with
the greater rapidity of the currents, may be looked upon as the
prominent cause why so rarely inconvenience is experienced from
the formation of ice. During the severe winter of 1780-1, the
harbour, however, was covered by a bridge of compact ice ; and
again, in the memorable winter of 1820-1, the harbour and the
branches of the two rivers were obstructed by the same cause for
many days. At this time the intensity of the cold was manifested
bythe thermometer ranging several degrees below 0 of Fahrenheit.
According to the reports made by the ward assessors of the
amount of real and personal estate of the city of New York, it has
been stated in 1828, as personal, thirty-.-six millions eight hundred
and seventy-nine thousand six hundred and fifty-three dollars -, as
real, seventy-seven millions of dollars. In 1829, as personal and
real, somewhat less: but these estimates must be deemed as entire
ly too low. According to the details furnished in a valuable sta
tistical work, ( The New York Register,) the assessed valuation of
the real and personal estate in the several counties in the state of
New York, for the year 1833, amounted to four hundred and six
teen millions four hundred and eighty-one thousand one hundred
" and thirteen dollars ; whereof the eounty of New York embraced
as real, one hundred and fourteen millions one hundred and twen
ty-nine thousand five hundred and sixty-one dollars ; as personal,
fifty-two millions three hundred and sixty-five thousand six hun
dred and twenty-six :. total, one hundred and sixty-six millions
four hundred and ninety-five thousand one hundred and eighty-
seven dollars. The whole of the bank capital in the city of New
York is about twenty millions of dollars. The aggregate capital
of the marine fire insurance and other incorporated companies,
may be put down at thirteen millions of dollars. According to a
late statement made by Alderman Stevens to the corporation, when
on the discussion of the report in favour of introducing pure and
wholesome water into the city of New York, the number of dwell
ing-houses, stores, manufactories, and churches, was valued at
seventy-five millions of dollars; the merchandise in the city at
fifty millions; hence, the total value of buildings and merchandise
is one hundred and twenty-five millions of dollars. But this esti
mate may be safely doubled.
' Commerce.— The city of New York is justly considered the com
mercial emporium of the United States, and the revenue which it
pays to the general government exceeds that of all the other states
of the union.

MThll) STATES.

591

on the southwest by Delaware Bay ; and on the west,
by Pennsylvania. Longitude, 74° to 75° 29'; lati
tude, 39° to 41° 24'. The extreme length is directly
from south to north, 170 miles; area, 7,870 square
miles ; mean breadth, forty-six miles.
New Jersey presents three very marked divisions ;
The following table of exports and customs, during the respect
ive years, will show the increase of commerce since the year 1814,
at which period the country was involved in war with Great
Britain: —

Year.

1815 1816 1817
1818 18191820
1821 1822
1823 182418251826

Exports.

4,189,951
10,475,98512,639,197 11,873,934 6,542,742
7,034,322 8,102,5129,228,631
11,526,632 11,657,312 19,257,749
10,743,846

Foreign.

746,558
8,470,6134,384,817 5,720,237
4,318,9234,735,199
4,022,123 6,177,0639,563,064
10,652,090
14,774,530 8,693,383

Total Amount
of Exports.

4,936,509
13,946,598
17,024,014 17,594,171
10,861,66511,769,511 12,124,645
15,405,694
21,089,696 22,309,362 34,032,279 19,437,229

Custom duties.

14,554,645
10,785,354 6,329,1238,259,0116,480,6385,487,3747,243,542 9,941,702
9,022,435
11,178,139 15,752,10011,525,862

A more satisfactory view of the commercial character of the
city of New York, may be obtained from the official records of the
custom-house of that district.
Exports from the District of New York in 1830 and 1831.
1830. First Quarter.
Domestic, in American vessels .... 2,234,992
do. in Foreign  366,375
Foreign, in do  144,212
do. in American  848,215 = 3,593,794
Second Quarter.
Domestic, in American vessels
do. in Foreign . . .
Foreign, in

do.

do.
in American

3,427,645 315,973 265,147
1,612,234 = 5,620,999

Third Quarter.

2,283,474

Domestic, in American vessels . .
do. in Foreign  360,421
Foreign, in do  273,499
do in American  1,198,731 = 4,116,325
Fourth Quarter.
Domestic, in American vessels .... 2,600,352
do. in Foreign  269,631
Foreign, in do  *. 184,504
do in American  1,329,156 = 4,383,643-
Total exports in 1830  . $17,714,561'
1831. First Quarter.
Domestic, in American vessels .... 3,038,395
do. in Foreign  308,963
Foreign, in do  170,305
do in American  1,282,528 = 4,800,191
Second Quarter.
Domestic, in American vessels .... 3,239,656
do. in Foreign  695,258
Foreign, in do  336,252
do in American  2 658.830 = 6,949,996

392

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

first, a marine or sandy section ; secondly, a hilly or
middle section ; and, thirdly, a mountainous section.
The first occupies nearly one half the area of the
state. A line from the mouth of Shrewsbury River to
Third Quarter.
Domestic, in American vessels .... 3,109,94
do. in Foreign  491,547
Foreign, in do  459,010
do. in American  3,385,423 = 7,445,927
Total for three quarters of 1831 . . . $19,196,114
The total invoice value of imports, including dutiable charges,
in 1830, was, American. Foreign.
1st quarter, 6,900,229 339,900
2d do. 8,716,599 417,672
3d do. 12,090,705 719,826
4th do. 10,608,623 266,166
The total amount of duties rising from imports at the port of
New York, the first three quarters of the year 1831, amounted to
about $15,500,000, an excess over the year 1830, of three millions
of dollars. The total amount of duties for 1831 may be stated at
rising twenty millions.
The sales of domestic manufactures at the ware-houses in the
city of New York, in the year 1830, being principally of wool,
cotton, and iron, are estimated to amount to twenty-five millions
of dollars, exclusive of large amounts of articles made and sold by
the mechanics ofthe city.
The imports and exports of foreign merchandise to and from the
district of New York, during the year ending 30th of September,
1832, amounted to fifty-two millions eight hundred and fifty-five
thousand nine hundred and seventy-nine dollars ; of which, forty-
one millions nine hundred and fourteen thousand four hundred
and ninety-one dollars, were imports; and ten millions nine hun
dred and forty-one: thousand four hundred and eighty-eight dollars,
were exports.
As matters of reference, the following facts are worthy of inser
tion here : — The imports of the colony of New York to Great Bri
tain in 1701, were valued at eighteen thousand five hundred and
forty-seven pounds : the exports at thirty-one thousand nine hun
dred and ten pounds.
From the statement published of the commerce and navigation
of the United States for the year 1833, and comparisons of some
of the items with those of preceding years, the following statis
tical items are made : — The whole amount of exports for the year
was $90,140,433, of which $70,317,698 were of domestic, and
$19,882,735 of foreign articles. The total for 1832 was $87,176,443,
Of which $63,137,470 were domestic, and $24,039,473 foreign. For
1831, the total was $81,310,583, of which $61,277,057 were do
mestic, and $20,033,526 foreign.
The exportation of flour for the three years was, in 1831,
1,806,529 barrels; 1832,864,919 barrels; 1833,955,788 barrels.
Of cotton, Sea Island, for 1831, 8,3 11, 7 62 pounds; 1832,8,743,373
pounds; 1833, 11,142,987 pounds. Of other cottons, the exports
were respectively 268,668,122 pounds; 313,471,749 pounds, and
313,555,617 pounds.
The aggregate value of all the importations into the United States
was, for the three years severally, $103,191,124; $101,029,266;
and $108,118,311.
The navigation tables furnish the following as the total of the
tonnage of the United States, registered, enrolled, and licensed for
those years; 1,181,176 tons ; 1,267,846 tons ; 1,439,450 tons. In
1833, there arrived 1,111,441 tons of American shipping, and de
parted 1,142,160 tons. Of foreign shipping, there arrived 496,705
tons, and departed 497,039 tons.
Among the items bf importation in 1833, are, 15,698,050 gal
lons of molasses ; 14,634,822 pounds of tea; 99,955,020 pounds of
coffee; 85,689,944 pounds of brown sugar ; and 11 ,999,089 pounds
White sugar.

Bordentown, will very nearly separate the alluvial
from the hilly tract. Between this natural limit and
the continuation of the Blue Ridge, New Jersey is
delightfully variegated by rich and bold scenery.

Amount of specie exported from New York, from 1 st October,
1830, to September 30th, 1831.
Fourth Quarter, 1830, October, November, and December.
Gold and silver coin, American  267,785
Gold specie, foreign  38,360
Silver do. do  81,331
 :  387,476
First Quarter, 1831, January, February, and March.
Gold and silver coin, American  14,000
Gold specie, foreign  43,416
Silver do. do  183,344
 240,760
Second Quarter, 1831, April, May, and June.
Gold and silver coin, American  96,262
Gold specie, foreign  58,825
Silver do. do  1,275,366
 1,430,453
Third Quarter, 1831, July, August, and September.
Gold and silver coin, American  686,108
Gold specie, foreign  . . 170,871
Silver do. do  . . 2,392,697
 3,249,676
Total exported . ,  $5,308,365
Since the completion of the Erie canal the commerce of the city
has been greatly augmented by the numerous canal boats which
ply between Buffalo and Albany, bringing ultimately to the com
mercial emporium, the rich products of the great western country
and the lakes, and sending in return the fine manufactures and
luxuries of Europe. Numerous steam-boats, about nine months in
the year, navigate the Hudson and East rivers, several of them su
perior in speed and architectural beauty to those on any other
waters. In these waters Robert Fulton, in 1807, made the first
successful navigation by steam : the speed of his first boat was
about five miles per hour: the most rapid speed yet attained by
the progress of improvement, has been seventeen miles per hour,
by steam-boats on the Hudson.
Banks. — -There are nineteen city banks in New York, besides a
branch of the United States bank. Some of these edifices are neat
and commodious, of architectural beauty and proportion, particu
larly the Branch bank, the bank of New York, the City bank, and
the Phcenix bank. Besides these banks, for the purposes of dis
count and deposit and other mercantile transactions, there is a
bank for Savings, incorporated in 1819,. and a Seamen's bank for a
like purpose, incorporated in 1829. According to the report of
the trustees of the former of these institutions for the year 1830,
the number of depositors from the 1st of January to the 31st of De
cember, 1830, was fourteen thousand two hundred, and the total
amount of deposits for that period was seven hundred and forty-
one thousand five hundred and eighty-three dollars ninety-five
cents. The results which have arisen from the bank of Savings,
have been invaluably advantageous, and when it is considered that
the total receipts of this corporation, from its commencement in
1819, to December, 1833, have been nearly seven millions of dol
lars, the founders of this institution, among whom John Pintard,
LL. D. deserves a particular notice, can not but feel the highest
satisfaction. The Seamen's bank for savings is also in successful
operation for the benefit of that meritorious class of men.
In an enumeration of the moneyed institutions of the city, the
Custom-house, which renders the greater portion of the entire re
venue ofthe United States, deserves to be mentioned. It is situate
in Wall street, at the head of Broad street. It is sufficiently to ba

TOPOGRAPHY OP THE UNITED STATES.

393

This hilly region contains the counties of Middle
sex, Hunterdon, Somerset, Essex, Morris, and Bergen.
It is also decorated by several mountain ridges, but
lamented, that an appropriate edifice has not yet been erected by
the government of the union.
This remark of 1832 is not applicable in 1834. A new Custom
house is now erecting at the corner of Wall and Nassau streets,
and extending to Pine street. The building is reported to be, ac
cording to Williams, 177 feet long, and 89 feet wide; and the
form and order of the building to be similar to that of the Par
thenon at Athens. It is to stand on a basement story, ascended
by nineteen steps from Wall street, and six steps on Pine street.
There are to be eight Grecian Doric columns at each front, and
fifteen columns and antae on each side attached to the walls.
There is also to be a second row of six smaller columns back of
and parallel with those of the main front, leaving a space of ten
feet between the two rows, and nine feet between the inner row
and the front Wall of the building. Back of the two extreme co
lumns of the inner row there are to be twb anta?, and six antse at
tached to ther walls of the rear front, leaving a space of eight feet
and a half between the columns and antae. There will thus be
twenty-four outside columns, five feet eight inches diameter at the
bottom, and thirty-two feet high, including the capital, and eight
een anta? on the two sides, of the same height, five feet wide, and
three feet nine inches, projection from the walls. The six inner
columns of the main front will be four feet eight inches diameter
at bottom, arid the antae to correspond. The building is to be two
stories high, except the great business hall, part of whieh is to be
vaulted as high as the roof will permit, and its centre finished
with a dome sixty-two feet in diameter. This hall will occupy
the centre of tbe -building, and will be one hundred and fifteen feet
long, leaving a small vestibule at each end to enter from. It is to
be seventy-seven feet wide in the centre part, which is a circle of
seventy feet diameter, with the length and breadth of the room
extending beyond its circumference to these dimensions; and the
four- parts so extended beyond the circle are thirty-three and a
half feet wide, leaving six rooms and three circular staircases in
the four corners, the two largest rooms to be twenty-four by twen
ty-One feet each, besides a square staircase in the rear, and three
vaults for papers, at the two ends of each vestibule. The same
division of the room is made in the second story. Nearly the
same number,' shape, and sizes of rooms, are had 'in the basement,
as above in the other stories, leaving all the area of the same shape
and size as the great hall immediately about it; with the addition
of sixteen fluted Doric columns to support the vaulting and the
pavement under the dome of the great hall.
Manufactures. — The free and open access of the port of New
York to the commerce of the whole world, has been attended with
a necessary disadvantage to the amount of her manufactories.
Nevertheless, there is a number of extensive establishments for
manufacturing purposes, and in a thriving condition. Among
these are several iron foundries) a steel manufactory, type and
stereotype foundries, sugar works, refineries, and distilleries, hat,
whip, fur, shoe, andboot manufactories, locks, brass nails, cast iron
stoves, glass houses, breweries, printing ink manufactories, card
ing machines, very extensive manufactories of saddlery, cabjnet
furniture, piano-forte and -musical instrument manufactories, coach
makers' establishments, manufactories for tobacco, &c. &c. Copper
plate engraving, wood engraving, and the printing of books, are also
on an extensive scale : ' and the first work on stereotype plates, from
an American press, issued from New York. If rightly remembered,
itwas the Assembly of Divines' Catechism: John Watts, 1813. The
stereotype establishments of Conner & Cooke, Chandler, J. S. Red-
field, and others; are on an enlarged scale. It is supposed more
than five hundred hands are employed in this business, and manu
facture annuallyto the amount of three hundred and twenty thou
sand dollars. ¦ The "manufactory of printing presses as a branch of
industry, occupies many persons; and it deserves to be remarked,
that material- improvements in this important machine have been
made by several • individuals of proficiency in mechanical inven
tion : by S. Rust; P: Smith, andR.Hoe ; the last named individual
has contributed some' improvements on the Napier press. The

the true mountain portion of New Jersey, is the ex
treme northern part of the state, composed of the
counties of Warren and Sussex. The descent from

New York chemical manufactory is an extensive institution, and
annually sends out a large supply of sulphuric, nitric, and muri
atic acids, alum, borax, and other chemicals. Many of the mineral
articles of the materia medica are also made here on a large seale.
There is also a steam sugar refining company. The shot toweT
of Youle, on the banks of the East river, near Kip's bay, deserves
special mention, as well as the card manufactory of the ingenious
Whittemore, and the steam engine manufactories and foundries of
Allaire, M'Glueen, Youle, and Bliss. The West Point foundry com
pany also carry on an extensive manufactory for steam-engines and
rail road carriages. The manufacture of leather is very extensively
prosecuted by persons resident in the city: the tanneries are situa^
ted in various parts of the state — but principally in Greene and
Delaware counties, where bark is abundant, and water privileges
abound. The number of hats furnished in the city of New York is esti
mated at not less than one and a half millions of dollars, at three
dollars per hat. The American Institute, incorporated by the le
gislature of New York, in 1828, for the promotion of manufac
turing interests, and who hold their annual fair in the city in Oc
tober, at their anniversary in 1830 awarded premiums on the fol
lowing, among other articles, manufactured in the city. Colton
goods, printed silk handkerchiefs, sewing silk, made of American
silk, hardware, locks, files, and cutlery, mathematical instruments,
brass nails, cast-iron stoves, silver and plated wares, clocks, cut
glass, chemicals, japanned leather, upholstery, &c. As long ago
as in 1820, the returns made to congress with the census, of the
capital invested in manufactories in the city, amounted to nearly
two millions, of which three hundred thousand dollars were in
vested in the manufacture of steam-engines and castings of every
description. The Dry Dock railways, an important method of repairing ships,
and vessels of other descriptions, is how practised with great ad
vantage by a company vested with banking privileges. The Screw
Dock, an invention of singular importance and great simplicity for
raising vessels with ease and rapidity out of the water, for repairs,
is also in use in New York. Ample notice deserves to be taken
of the extensive and elevated rank to which ship-building and sleam-
boals'ha.ve attained at this port. Vessels in the service of almost
every nation are built by her ingenious shipwrights.
Public Buildings. — New York is distinguished more by the ex
cellence than by the number of her public buildings. Her churches
collectively are entitled to considerable commendation.
The City Hall— This conspicuous edifice, superior in splendour
and extent' to any other in the United States, excepting the capitol
in Washington, is situate in that noble public walk, the Park. Its
foundation was laid in May, 1803. and the entire structure com
pleted in May, 1812, at. the most of five hundred and fifty thousand
dollars. The building is two hundred and sixteen feet in front,
by one hundred and five on the east and west fronts, and is adorn
ed with two orders of architecture,' the Ionic and Corinthian,
raised on a rustic basement of nine feet in height, crowned with a
balustrade, and the roof covered with copper. The centre part of
the south front is finished with an attic story. On the blocking
course above the attic cornice it is intended to place the arms of
the city, agreeably to a design and model of tbe architect. The
cupola is surmounted by the figure of justice. The basement
story is rusticated and partly sunk ; it is raised nine feet above
the surface of the Park, and contains accommodations for the city
watch, house-keeper, and a number of different offices. In front a
terrace walk is raised three steps above the Park, from which you
ascend by eleven steps to the colonnade of eight Ionic columns in
front, covered with an entablature, and finished with a balustrade
which forms a spacious balcony in front. You then enter into
the vestibule ; a corridore running longitudinally communicates
with the mayor's offices, two private stairs, and with various offi
ces' in which, the city business -is transacted. Opposite the vesti
bule is a large circular marble staircase of thirty-one steps, leading
to the second floor -r on the wall surrounding these stairs, on the

394

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

the mountain to the hilly region is not by a gentle
declivity, but abruptly, as bythe sieps of a stair.
The elevation of the different sections has not been
second floor, stands a circular range of marble columns of the Co
rinthian order, the entablature of which supports the dome and
sky-light. Very recently a clock has been fitted up in the cupola,
whichisintendedtobe lighted at night with gas. Acircular corridore
communicating with one running lengthwise of the building leads
to the room for the governor of the state, the common council
chambers, three court rooms, and with several offices and jury
rooms. The whole plan is so arranged as to be easy of access.
The south, east, and west elevations are composed of handsome
white marble, brought from the quarries in Berkshire county,
Massachusetts. The north part is built with brown stone, from a
parsimonious fear the building committee entertained that the
white stone might be too expensive. The architect was John
M'Comb, Esq., but it may be added, that the sculpture and carved
work were executed by and under the direction of Mr. John Le-
maire. The governor's room and the room of the city council
are enriched with many superior paintings, of the several govern
ors of the state, the mayors of the city, and other public characters,
executed by the pencil of Trumbull, Vandeilyn, Jarvis, &c.
The Merchants' Exchange was commenced on the 1st of April,
1825, and opened for business in May, 1827. It stands on Wall
street, and runs through to Exchange place, a distance of about
150 feet. The principal front, which is on Wall street, is 115
feet wide,- aud that on Exchange place, 114 feet. The general
divisions of the plan are a building of parallelogramic form on
both streets, connected by one of similar form, with circular ends,
which form the exchange room, and which is thus rendered acces
sible from both streets. Since the erection of the building, how
ever, a street has been opened on the lower side, which, not having
been foreseen at the time of designing the plan, the architect was
unable to avail himself of, to present a more finished appearance
on that side than at present. The front on Wall street is built
entirely of white marble, from the quarries in West Chester, and
is three stories high, exclusive of a basement, which is half out of
ground. The front has been designed in the Ionic order, from!
the temple of Minerva Polias, at Priene, and an elliptical recessed
portico has been introduced with great advantage, both as regards
effeet and convenience. A screen of four large columns and two
antae on the corners of the wings, extends across the front of the
recess in a line with the front of the building. These columns
are thirty feet in height, and three feet four inches in diameter at
the base, and the stay of each is composed of a single block of
marble. The columns support an entablature which runs across
the whole front, on which rests an attic story, making a height of
about sixty feet from the ground. The entrance on Wall street
is by a flight of broad marble steps, flanked on each end by a pe
destal. From the portico three dooTS open into the vestibule, and
one on each hand into insurance offices. The vestibule is nearly
square, and is finished in the chaste and elegant style of the little
Ionic temple on the banks of the Ilissus, in Athens. From the
vestibule an elliptical staircase rises on the right hand, to lead to
the different stories ofthe front building. Advancing through the
vestibule you enter the grand saloon, or exchange room, which is
a magnificent apartment, eighty-five feet long, fifty-five wide, and
forty-five feet high, finished in the Ionic order, after the temple of
Minerva. Polias, at Athens. The spacious and lofty apartment
has two parallel sides, with semicircular ends, at the intersections
of which are antaa and columns supporting a full entablature, with
an arch resting on the columns at each end. The arches support
a screen, which forms a separation between the arched ceiling of
the centre and the Ionic ceilings of the alcoves, and divides the
whole into three compartments, producing a pleasing variety.
The whole of the ceiling is divided into panels ; those of the
centre being of an oblong rectangle, and those of the ends radia
ting from a centre. Passing through the exchange, we enter an
apartment, or rather vestibule, appropriated for sales by auction of
ships and real estate, &c. On both sides of this vestibule are
rooms occupied as offices, and a stairway leads to the basement
below, and to the second story. Here is a spacious room appro-

very accurately determined, but the higher valleys of
Sussex county must be from 800 to 1,000 feet above
the tide.

priated to the Board of Brokers, and to the Chamber of Commerce.
On the right of this vestibule is the spacious reading room, which
is furnished with the periodicals and daily journals, foreign and
domestic, for the use of strangers and citizens. From the third
story we ascend to the observatory on the upper section of the cu
pola. The cupola is 24 feet in diameter. ' The basement has su
perior accommodations for the post-office establishment, and offices
occupied by brokers, newspapers, &c. For the plan and execution
of this admirable building, the city is indebted to Martin E. Thomp
son, architect.
Masonic Hall.— This recently erected building is situate in
Broadway, and nearly opposite the city hospital. It is fifty-seven
feet front, ninety feet in depth, and three stories high. The front
is faced with granite, and the interior, which is divided into se
veral convenient apartments, possesses on the second floor one
spacious hall the full size of the edifice, and finished after the rich,
florid style of Henry VII.'s chapel. It is the largest hall in the
city. Architect, Hugh Reinagle.
Clinton Hall. — This edifice also deserves notice on account of
its size, great convenience, and the important objects to which it is
appropriated. It was built in 1829. It is located in Beekman
street, near the Park. It is 50 feet broad by 100 feet deep, and
three stories high, independent of the basement. Clinton Hotel,
erected in conjunction with it, presents Clinton Hall as a building
nearly 100 feet square. The basement is let for stores. The se
cond story contains a spacious lecture room, and accommodations
for the mercantile library, and a reading room. The third story
is appropriated to the occasional use of different public bodies.
The fourth story is occupied by the National Academy of Design,
and Exhibition Gallery of Painting, under the direction of Mr.
Dunlap, painter.
The Record Office, situate on the left side of the City Hall, de
serves notice. This building was originally the jail, but has within
the last two years been altered by M. E. Thompson, architect.
The style is Grecian, and after the Ionic temple on the Ilissus.
It has a full portico at each end, having six columns, and two
antaa on the ends of the building. The interior is finished with
brick ceilings, in groined arches ; and is the only specimen of fire
proof building in the city. The whole structure is large and com
modious, and well adapted for the purpose intended.
Churches and Places of Public Worship. — By an enumeration re
cently made, it appears that there are in New York 145 places for
public worship, many of which are very neat and commodious,
and several of them present edifices that are favourable specimens
of architectural taste and beauty. The most remarkable of these
is the venerable pile, Trinity Church; St. Paul's, St. Thomas', St.
John's, the Church of the Ascension, French du St. Esprit, and
St. Patrick's Cathedral. The following is believed to be an accu
rate account of the various denominations of professing christians^
with the number of places of worship belonging to each.
_ ... No. of churches or
Denominations. , J , , .
places of worship.
Episcopalian  24
Presbyterian  30
Presbyterian, not connected with the General Assembly 3
Reformed Dutch  15
Do. not connected with Synod .... 1
Society of Friends  4
Baptists  18
Methodist Episcopal church  ...13
Protestant and Reformed Methodist  6
Roman Catholics  6
Lutherans  2
Jews' Synagogues  3
Independents  4
Universalists  3
Unitarian . . . t  2
Moravian  I

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

395

As it declines from north to south, difference of
latitude and of level co-operate in New Jersey, and
• in a space less than two and a half degrees of latitude
Denominations. Nv- °f lurches or
places of worship.
German Reformed  1
United Brethren  1
Mariner's church  . . 1
New Jerusalem chapel  1
City Mission church of the Holy Evangelists . . . .' 1
Second City Mission  1
Of no regular denomination-  4
" The clergy are highly esteemed," says the Rev. Dr. Dwight,
( Travels') " and are treated with respect. Every thing of a reli
gious character is regarded with becoming reverence by a great
proportion. of the citizens; and few, even of the licentious, think
it proper to behave disrespectfully towards persons or things, to
which a religious character is attached. The sale of religious
books is probably the most profitable branch of business to book
sellers. In proportion to its size," adds Dr. Dwight, " New York
is not improbably a more religious city than any other in the
world." Not to dwell upsn the particular character of the present
order of clergy, who in their lives and doctrines adorn the sacred
desk, Livingston, Provost, Rodgers, Mason, Moore, Romayne, and
Hobart. will long enjoy a distinguished place in the ecclesiasti
cal annals of the state.
The New York City Marble Cemetery is situated in the block of
ground between Second and Third street, the Bowery, and Second
Avenue. It is 250 feet in length, 83 feet in breadth, and sur
rounded by a wall of solid marble, 2 feet thick, 22 feet in height,
10 feet under and 12 feet above the surface of the ground, and the
top covered with broken glass bottles. Within these walls are
placed 156 vaults, in 4 ranges, 2 single and 2 double, and these
also are built of solid marble. There is also within these walls a
dead house, built of solid marble, and placed on the surface of the
ground. _ Opposite to this cemetery is the New York Marble Cemetery,
situated in the adjoining block of ground, between Second and
Third street, and First and Second Avenue. It is 450 feet in
length, 92 feet in width, and surrounded by a wall of solid marble,
2 feet thick, 22 feet in height, 10 under and 12 above the surface
of the earth. Within these walls are placed 288 vaults, in 6
ranges, the- same as in the first cemetery, with all the improve
ments capable of being made. Each vault has a silver gray stone
door, composition hinges and locks, flagged, shelved, and coped
with the same kind of stone. Every vault has a tablet of white
marble' placed on the wall opposite, giving the name of the owner.
, Both of these cemeteries are incorporated by the state legislature,
for the burying the dead for ever, and for no other purpose ; free
of taxation, judgment, and execution ; made personal property, and
transferable by stock, the same as bank stock. They are placed
on a bed of dry sand, 35 feet above any spring of water, forming
a complete dry cispool, free from mould and dampness, which is
so usual in vaults built of brick, red, or blue stone.
The diversified forms which the decay of the human body after
death assumes, seem to be no less numerous than the immense
variety of causes by which life becomes extinct. The evidence of
this assertion may be witnessed by any one who will enter a vault
containing many bodies deposited therein at different periods,
more or less remote, and observe the materials with which he is
surrounded: season, age, the character of disease, protracted ill
ness, sudden death, &c, will all exercise a greater or less influ
ence in facilitating or in retarding decomposition. The deceased
subject by marasmus will longer retain its constituents than one
occasioned by dropsy, for " water is a sore decayer of the dead
body." If these positions be correct, we may account for the ex
traordinary preservation of bodies in these cemeteries, by advert
ing to the dry soil they occupy, their structure of limestone, &c,
and the admirable manner in which they are built. Hence they
possess advantages which are denied to vaults in the structure ot
which similar precautions have not been observed. In reflecting
upon the manner in which the marble cemetery seems to cherish

a very remarkable change of climate is perceptible.
The level sandy plains of the southern extreme ap
proximate to the temperatue of eastern Virginia, and

the lineaments of our mortal remains, one feels inclined to adopt
the language of old Jeremy Taylor : " after all, our vaults are our
longest and sincerest mourners." The marble cemeteries were
projected through the enterprise of Perkins Nicols,
American Bible Society.— This institution was founded in May,
1816, and has most assiduously directed its energies to the objects
of its formation. It has a board of thirty-six managers, all lay
men, from several religious denominations. The society has up
wards of six hundred auxiliaries scattered through every state and
territory in the union, and the number is continually increasing.
The number of Bibles and Testaments issued from its formation
to the anniversary in May, 1834, was 1,644,500. In May, 1829,
the society resolved, in case means were furnished in season, to
supply every destitute family in the United States with a copy of
the Bible within two years. According to a report made to the
society in 1834, there had been printed 149,375 copies- of Bibles
and Testaments during the past year, the larger part being Testa
ments in English and modern Greek. The Bible has been issued
by this society in various languages: as the English, French,
Spanish, German, Welsh, Irish, and Gaelic. The Testament, in
the foregoing languages, and in the modern Greek, and Dutch:
the Gospels and Epistles, in the Indian language. The receipts of
this association for the year ending May, 1 834, were upwards of
eighty-eight thousand dollars : the expenditures nearly to a frac
tion the same.
American Trad Society. — Next in importance, the Tract Society
is to be recorded. It is a recent foundation most liberally sus
tained. It is estimated that the average issue of tracts is about
one hundred thousand, or one million of pages weekly. It has nu
merous auxiliary societies. The whole number of the society's
distinct publications is about eight hundred, many of them volumes
of considerable size. The number of tracts published by this as
sociation during the year 1830-1, on the subject of temperance, was
five hundred and sixteen thousand.
As connected with moral and religious instruction, many other
institutions for the benefit of the rising generation flourish in this
city. The names only of a part can be here enumerated. The
American Sunday School Union ; the New York Sunday School
Union; the Bible and Common Prayer Book Society; the New
York Protestant Episcopal Tract Society ; the Colonization Society
of the city of New York ; the American Home Missionary Society ;
the General Protestant Episcopal Sunday School Union Society;
the New York Protestant Episcopal Press ; the New York Protes
tant Episcopal Missionary Society; the New York- Manumission
Society; Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents, and
several Temperance Societies.
During the past year, an association of much promise has been
organized under the presidency ofthe Hon. Gideon Lee, Mayor of
the city, called the Society for the Promotion of Knowledge and
Industry. The Book-Concern of the Methodist Episcopal Church is located in
the city of New York, with a branch at Cincinnati, Ohio. The
business is conducted in a commodious building lately erected in
Mulberry street, on a plan designed for extensive additions here
after, which, when completed, will probably be the largest publish
ing establishment in the United States, as it how is in the city of
its location. There are at present (1832) thirty presses in full
operation, one of which being a power-press is equal to five Gom-
mon presses; and constant employment is furnished to above two
hundred persons in the various departments of printing, binding,
folding, &c.
In connexion with this book-concern, is transacted the business
of the Bible, Tract and Sunday School Union Societies of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, auxiliaries and branches of which are
numerous throughout the United States and territories, and all sup
plied with books from this source, or from the branch at Cincinnati.
From this press is issued weekly " the Christian Advocate and
Journal, and Zion's Herald," a religious paper, having upwards ot
twenty-seven thousand subscribers.

396

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

admit the cultivation of cotton, whilst the seasons of
Warren and Sussex counties resemble those of Ver
mont and New Hampshire. This state has the two

Of the numerous Works here issued, a large proportion are
stereotyped, and the profits of the establishment, after defraying the
expenses of its management, are wholly devoted to religious and
charitable uses.
Literary Institutions. — The literary institutions of New York are
numerous, but for the most part in their infancy. By far the most
venerable and important is Columbia College, founded by charter
in 1754, under the name of King's College, partly by the munifi
cence of the corporation of Trinity Church, and partly by the
British Society for the Promotion of the Gospel in foreign parts.
During the interval which elapsed between the years 1776 and 1784,
thebusiness of instruction was necessarily suspended in consequence
of the trials of the revolutionary contest, and the college edifice
appropriated to the purpose of a military hospital. Upon the resto
ration of public tranquillity, certain individuals were appointed by
an act ofthe legislature, dated May 1, 1784, to superintend the ge
neral interests of education throughout the state, under the title of
Regents of the University, whose number was subsequently increased
by an act passed 26th November in the same year. By this body
the duties of trustees of the college were also discharged, until the
year 1787. On the 13th of April, 1787, an act was passed by
which the original charter of the college was confirmed, the name of
the institution altered to Columbia College, and its direction confided
to certain persons mentioned in said act, who were authorized by the
provisions of the same to discharge the duties of trustees of the
college, and were empowered, for the time to come, to fill all va
cancies which might occur in this number by death, resignation or
otherwise, after it should be diminished to twenty-four. The govern
ment of the college has continued to be exercised in conformity
With this act since that time.
Columbia College is liberally endowed, possessing property to
the amount of nearly half a million of dollars. It was formerly
composed of a Faculty of Arts and a Faculty of Physic. The lat
ter was abolished in 1 813. The Faculty of Arts consists at pre
sent of a professorship of Moral and Intellectual Philosophy, Rhe
toric, Belles Letters and Political Economy ; a professorship of
Greek and Latin Languages, a Jay professorship of the same, a
professorship of Natural and Experimental Philosophy and Chemis
try, a professorship of Mathematics, Analytical Mechanics, and
Physical Astronomy. Certain branches of instruction and the ge
neral superintendence of the college are committed to the charge
of the president of the college, who is chosen by the trustees. The
number of students is generally about one hundred and thirty.
There are two literary societies connected with the college, com
posed of under grad uates, the Philolexian and Peithologian societies,
and a grammar school recently organized, containing upwards of
two hundred students, subject to the government ofthe trustees of
the college.
The number of graduates of Columbia College since its founda
tion is about eleven hundred ; many' of whom have been eminent
in the service of the church and state. In no other college in the
union, are the requisites of candidates for admission as students of
the respective classes so high, and in none are the several courses
of studies more extensively or critically taught, particularly in the
classical and mathematical departments. While reflecting on the
capabilities and doings of this college, one may equally marvel that
the number of its students has for so many years remained station
ary, as at the unmerited success of some greatly inferior institutions.
Columbia College possesses an excellent library of about four
thousand five hundred volumes, and which has been recently en
riched by a large donation of philosophical works, the gift of Dr.
Hosack. This institution enjoys an admirable location in a com
manding part of the city : it is one of the finest specimens of ar
chitecture in New York.
University of the City of New York. — This is the name of a col
lege recently projected by a number of gentlemen of New York,
and designed to embrace a more extensive system of literature and
science than any heretofore established. A literary convention was
held in the city in October, 1829, with a view to its formation;

large and increasing cities of New York and Phila
delphia on its borders ; and, taken in every respect,
it may be doubted whether it is not the most ad van-
subscriptions to a considerable amount have been already obtained
among the citizens for this object ; a board of council has been
chosen, by whom the Rev. James Matthews, D. D. has been chosen
chancellor of the institution. It is declared as a distinctive cha
racter of this establishment to enjoy an entire exclusion of all secta
rian influence. At this present writing, an edifice of great beauty,
and of" very considerable extent, is now erecting on the east side of
the Washington Parade Ground. It is two hundred feet long, and
one hundred feet deep ; it is in the castellated Gothic style, four
stories on the wings — two in the centre, one of which forms the
chapel. It is built of the white marble of Sing Sing. The plan
was originally suggested by Major Douglas, of West Point : its
architectural disposition by Town, Davis, and Dayton. The whole
business of the institution seems to be in a train of successful pro
gress. The several faculties are divided into a Faculty of Let
ters, a Faculty of Science and the Arts, a Faculty of Law, and a
Faculty of Medicine.
The General Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal
Church of the United Stales. — This institution is situated about two
miles from the City Hall, on the eastern bank of Hudson river.
The block of land on which the seminary is located is an oblong
square of eight hundred by one hundred and eighty feet ; the pre
sent value of which is sixty thousand dollars, and was presented to
the seminary by Clement Moore, son of the late Right Rev. Benja
min Moore, D.D.
The present building is one wing of those contemplated, whenever
the funds of the institution will enable the trustees to complete the
design, and is a spacious stone edifice of Gothic architecture, one
hundred and ten feet in length, sixty feet wide, and three stories
high. At this seminary (instituted in 1819, partly by the funds of
the Episcopal church and partly by a liberal bequest of the late
Jacob Sherrerd of this city) about one hundred and forty candidates
have been prepared for the ministry. The late Mr. John Kohn
of Philadelphia has recently bequeathed to this institution one
hundred thousand dollars, on the demise of his widow ; at present
it relies for support in a great measure on the liberality of the
friends of the church. The faculty consists of a Professor of Bib
lical Learning and the Interpretation of the Scriptures, a Profes
sor of Systematic Divinity, of Oriental and Greek Literature, and
also a Professorship of the Nature, Ministry, and Polity of the
church. The condition of the institution is most flattering to the
interests of theology ; and the number of students is rapidly on the
increase. Mercantile Library Association. — This institution was organized
in 1821, and occupies appropriate apartments in that substantia.
and superior edifice denominated Clinton Hall. An elegant lec
ture room is provided, in which lectures are delivered en severa.
branches of the physical and ethical sciences. The present num
ber of subscribers is fifteen hundred and twenty^five ; the library
consists of about nine thousand volumes. The annual income de
rived from various sources, is near three thousand dollars. Active
zfal and rigorous enterprise characterize this institution, and no
small share of its present flattering condition is owing to the libe
rality of Philip Hone, late mayor of New York.
General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen. — This society was
incorporated in 1792, and was originally designed for the purpose
of affording aid to the widows and children of deceased members,
which it has effectually done, to a large amount annually. Meet
ing with flattering support, it established a school for the educa
tion of the children of deceased members whose circumstances re
quired their assistance, and subsequently the school was enlarged,
so as to accommodate many of the children, both male and female,
of the more wealthy members, whose attention was attracted to
the school by the high character it maintains, and which it yet
fully sustains ; by this arrangement the tuition fees of those who
pay, defray the whole expenses of the establishment. The children
are all alike educated, and the distinction, always odious, between
those who do and those who do npt pay, is unknown in this valua
ble school. Some years ago the society enlarged the sphere of its

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

397

tageously situated of any political subdivision of the
republic. A connexion between the Hudson and Delaware
usefulness, by the establishment of a library, for the exclusive and
gratuitous use of the apprentices of mechanics; The library is
open every evening, (excepting on Sundays,) and contains about
twelve thousand volumes: the number of readers now amount to
fifteen hundred. A more spacious building has recently been pur
chased, which will enable the society to enlarge the school and li
brary, and add thereto reading rooms, for the apprentices of me
chanics. The society is conspicuous among the many valuable in
stitutions of New York, and has exercised a large and salutary
influence on those for whose immediate benefit it was specially
designed. The amount of its property is estimated at ssventy-fiye
thousand dollars, and its annual revenue at four thousand five
hundred dollars.
Medical. — The nature of the medical profession is such, that
its cultivation as a science becomes a duty of vital importance to
society; and whenever individuals aie congregated to any consi
derable amount, measures, the offspring of individual efforts or of
municipal authority, are adopted to aid in the advancement ofthe
healing art. A careful examination into the lives and services of
those who exercised the abilities of the medical profession in this
city even at an early date, will show lhat New York has at all
times been favoured with some few in this profession, whose career
was a blessing to the state. Long before the establishment of any
thing like a medical school, some pupil of Boerhaave, or a well
educated physician of a foreign university, might be found among
us ; and Dubois, Beekman, Dupuy, Magrath, and Farquhar, are
often mentioned as conspicuous in their day and generation.
Within our time, the faculty has had just reason to boast of no
inconsiderable number of individuals, who, by their professional
zeal, character, and attainments, have largely contributed to the re
lief of suffering humanity, or enlarged the resources of the healing
art : among these, now deceased, may be enumerated Bayley, Miller,
Post, Mitchill, Moore, Rodgers, Borrowe, Stringham, andKissam.
As quackery, however, is always found to prevail, wherever there
are knaves and fools to dupe and to be duped, the historian of New
York, Smith, has given an early evidence of this species of dis
honourable livelihood. As far back as 1753, speaking of this
city, he observes, " Quacks abound like locusts in Egypt, and too
many have recommended themselves to a full and profitable sub
sistence ;"and notwithstanding numerous and salutary as many of
the statutory regulations of this state since that period have been,
it can not be denied that there is much room for further legisla
tion, to place the profession of the healing art on a sure and ho
nourable foundation, and to guard against the pernicious encroach
ments which are still found to prevail on this subject in this me
tropolis. The establishment of schools of medical learning, on a
broad and liberal principle, the avoidance of monopoly in the sys
tem of instruction, and the generous cultivation of the profession,
as the first of the liberal sciences, are the only means which a
wise legislature will countenance and support, in order to secure
to the mediSal character its proper dignity.
The first essay in the United States for the purpose of impart
ing anatomical knowledge by means of dissection, was made in
this city in 1750, by Drs. John Bard and Peter Middleton. The
first attempt towards the promotion of a medical school was made
in 1768, during the administration of Sir Henry Moore and Lieu
tenant-Governor Colden ; and in the following year it was or
ganized, under the direction of King's College, and Jones, Mid
dletown, Smith, Clossy, Tennent, and Bard, appointed its respective
professors. Eminent as several of these individuals were, the
prospects of this school were early destroyed by the revolutionary
war. In 1783, the regents endeavoured to re-establish this or-

* Subsequent to the re-organization of the college, in 1811, the business
of instruction was performed by the following professors : — Anatomy, by
Professors Smith and Post ; Chemistry, by Professors Dewitt and Mac-
neven ; Obstetrics, by Professors Macneven, Osborn, Hosack, and Fran
cis ;' Natural Philosophy, by Professor Dewitt; Natural History, by Pro
fessors Dewitt and Mitchill j Mineralogy, by Professor Bruce ; Legal
Vol. IL— Nos. 69 & 70. 3 E

basins is now in progress, by the Morris Canal. The
line of it leaves the Delaware at Phillipsburgh, oppo
site Eastbn, in Pennsylvania, and is carried over
ganization; but this attempt proved abortive. In 1792 the trustees
of Columbia College created another medical faculty in their in
stitution, and appointed distinguished individuals to lecture on the
several branches of medical and chirurgical knowledge. This
organization lasted until 1813, when it was dissolved by an act of
the trustees.
College of Physicians and Surgeons of the University of the State
of New York. — In conformity to an act ofthe legislature passed as
early as 179L, the regents of the university exercised the power of
establishing this institution, which was chartered on the 12th of
March, 18u7. In November following, the business of instruction
commenced under the most flattering indications of suacess. In
1810, the rapid progress of the college in its importance and use
fulness, received a temporary cheek, owing to certain difficulties
having taken place between the existing president, Dr. Romayne,
and the professors, which induced the regents to reorganize the in
stitution in 1811, under the venerable Dr. Bard, as president, to
creaie other professors, and modify the internal government ofthe
school. On the 15th of. May, the first medical commencement was
held, and the degree of doctor of medicine conferred on eight
candidates, a greater number than had at any one time previously
received that honour in New York. In September, 1813, the con
solidation of the two medical schools of New York took place ; i. e.
the union of the late Medical Faculty of Columbia College, with
the College of Physicians and Surgeons. From this period till
1825, this establishment proceeded successfully with an annual in
crease in the number of its students,and in its career of utility and
reputation. For several years it enumerated above two hundred
students, from different and distant parts of the union, in attend
ance at its winter session of lectures.* An anomalous and ill de
vised form of government, however, the clashing interests of the
trustees and professors, and charges of Serious import urged
against the teachers, induced the regents to examine into the
grounds of accusation ; an elaborate report was published by the
regents, who declared, after the minutest inquiry, the charges
against the faculty groundless, and to have arisen from jealousy
and professional rivalry. A motion was made by the honourable
the regents to remove the whole board of trustees, but the assump
tion of vested rights caused' them to abandon this wholesome
measure. Some modifications in the government of the college,
nevertheless, were carried into effect. Broils and contention,
however, continued, when, in April, 1826, the professors, wearied
with unavailing attempts to silence this opposition, came to the
conclusion, that " it would best consist with their own self-re
spect," to withdraw altogether from the institution, and accordingly
they tendered the resignation of their professorships and offices.
The board of regents accepted their resignations, April 17th,
1826, and presented them their thanks, "for the faithful and able
manner in which they had filled their respective chairs as instruct-
ers and lecturers in said college."
On the 7th of July, 1826, at a special meeting of the regents of
the university, held at the capitol in Albany, the vacancies caused
by the resignation of the late professors, were filled up in the se
veral departments, and John Watts, M. D. appointed president:
upon his demise, the regents appointed John Augustine Smith,
M. D., &c.
The number of students attending the school, since that period,
has varied from one hundred and thirty to one hundred and fifty.
Rutgers Medical College. — This institution was created by the
former professors of the College of Physicians .and Surgepns, and
a commodious and neat edifice erected for the purpose, at an entiret
cost of upwards of twenty thousand dollars, by the faculty, at their'

Medicine, by Professors Stringham and Francis; Practice of Physic,
by Professors Miller and Hosack ; Surgery, by Professors Smith and
Mott ; Materia Medica, by Professors Bruce, Dewitt, Francis, Macneven,
and Mitchill; Institutes, by Professors Dewitt, Francis, and Hosack;
Clinical Medicine, byProfessers Miller, Hamersley, and Hosack; Bota
ny, by Professor Mitchill.

398

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Warren county, New Jersey, to its extreme north
east angle about thirty miles ; thence eastward, through
Morris and Essex counties, to the Passaic River, and
own expense. It is located in Duane street, near the New York
Hospital. The lecture rooms are three in number, one for che
mistry, a large hall for the practice of medicine, obstetrics, and
materia medica, on the second floor,; and the surgical and ana
tomical theatre on the third floor. The saloon of practical anato
my, on the fourth floor, "is of superior construction, and convenient
in its arrangement.. The whole building is provided with gas
lights, and warmed by a single fire, burned in the basement, from
which heated air is conveyed by flues to all parts of the house.
This institution was opened for . instruction in November, 1826,
and honoured by the attendance of one hundred and fifty medicai
hearers. At four successive sessions Of the .college, the number of
its students continued about the same, and the courses of instruc
tion, v.'ith the means of illustration afforded by the chemical labo
ratory, the anatomical museum, and the cabinet of the professors,
secured to its patrons their entire approbation. In consequence,
however, of legislative enactments, the labours of this school are
at present suspended. It would thus appear that what promised
to become a most salutary and efficient means to improve and ex
tend medical learning, has been necessarily abandoned by men
who had displayed zeal and abilities adequate to the importance
of the occasion, and a liberality in pecuniary appropriations, as
rare as it was honourable. Since 1829, the business of medical
instruction, has been confined exclusively lo the state institution,
under the direction and patronage of the regents of the university :
but this restrictive teaching has done little to advance medical
learning ; the number of students resorting to New York for in
struction in medicine having diminished full half of what it
formerly was. The self-gratulatory reflections of the honourable
the regents, relative to the high destinies of the College of Physi
cians and Surgeons, which are contained in the following quotation
from their annual report to the legislature, upon the restrictive
measures which had just been adopted to extinguish the Rutgers
College, are perhaps at this day not unmingled with disappointment
to that enlightened and avowedly impartial body : — "To such a
result it can not be considered as presumptuous to look. with con
fidence, especially since the act lately passed by the legislature,
relative to the degree of Doctor of Medicine conferred by colleges
without this state, has removed the last remaining obstacle to its-
march to that eminence to which the state of New York, in con
sideration of her pre-eminent rank among the other -states, ought
to elevate her public institutions." — The monopoly of instruction,
like other monopolies, seems to be incompatible with the genius
of our free institutions.
New York Hospital. — This is one of the noblest and most admi
rable institutions of this city. The ground upon which it stands
is bounded in front by Broadway, in the rear by Church street,
Anthony street on the north, and Duane street on the south. The
building or buildings occupy an area of about 450 feet in length,
and 440 in breadth. Fart of this area in front, is at present owned
and occupied by individuals, leaving an avenue of about 90 feet,
leading from Broadway, which is planted with a* double row of
lofty trees. The site of the hospital is elevated, and about six
hundred. yards from the Hudson river. The principal edifice, de
nominated the hospital, is of gray stone. It extends 1 36 feet in
front, 52 feet in height, 50 feet deep in the centre, and 86 feet deep
in the wings, which project on each side. It was originally only
two stories high; it is now three abo,ve the basement. Its wards
accommodate three hundred patients ; besides which, there are a
theatre for surgical operations, and other apartments for the con
venience of the superintendent, apothecacy, library, &c.
The charter for this institution was granted by Lord Dunmofe,
then governor of the province, in 1771, at the instance of Peter
Middleton, John Jones, and Samuel Bard, three eminent physicians
of this city. Dr. Bard, in particular, may be considered its pro
jector. In 1775, the hospital was burnt down by. accident. In
1791, it was reopened for the sick and disabled, and afterwards
extended to infirm and friendless seamen. The. money arising
from private subscriptions having proved inadequate, the legisla-

along the valley of the latter to Newark ; leaving that
city, it crosses Passaic and Hackensack, and winds
through the Bergen Marshes to Jersey city, opposite

lure was induced at various periods to confer grants upon it of the
public money. These were increased from time to time, until
March, 1$06, when an act was passed, authorizing 12,500 dollars
per annum to be paid to the institution out of the duties on public
executions, till the year 1857. The funds of the institution are
also augmented by a tax on seamen's wages, and the members of
the corporation pay on their admission forty dollars each.
The government of the hospital is under a Board, consisting of
a president, a vice-president, a treasurer, secretary, and twenty-five
other members. The. Board appoint a visiting committee, and
elect the physicians and' surgeons annually. Of these, there are
foiir physicians and four surgeons. There is also a house physi
cian, house surgeon, apothecary, &c. There is a large and excel
lent medical library connected with this institution, embracing
nearly four thousand volumes on medicine, surgery," and the aux
iliary branches of science ; besides a well chosen" botanical library,
purchased by the Board from Dr. David Hosack. '
Asylum' for the Insane. — This institution is at Manhattanville,
about seven miles from the city ; it was built by the government
of the New York City Hospital, and is under their immediate care
and'coritrol. As early as 1808, a building for the accommodation
of lunatics was erected on the grounds of the city hospital, capable
of accommodating sixty patients. But the inadequacy of this
establishment being too clearly evident, the governors of the hos
pital applied for legislative aid, to enable them to erect the present
asylum; and through the instrumentality of the- late Thomas
Eddy, De Witt Clinton, arid others, the liberal appropriation of
10,000 dollars per annum for forty-four years was made in behalf
of this benevolent undertaking. The Bloomingdale Asylum is
admirably situated, and commands one of the most extensive and
interesting. views in the United States. The plan of the building
is the design pf Thomas C. Taylor, Esq. The front view is 415
-feet by 180, which includes the wings; the whole is three stories
high, exclusive of the basement story, and is intended to contain
250 rooms. The central part is 211 feet jn frqnt, by-60 feet deep;
it, is built o'f brown hewn stone of excellent appearance, and of
the most durable nature. It is. not too much to say, that this in
stitution is the first of the kind in the United States, and that New
^York has worthily displayed her resources in the ample provision
she has made for the" afflicted inmates of the asylum.
Literary and Scientific Societies'. —There are several associa
tions in New York, whose prominent 'object is -the promotion of
general and scientific knowledge. The following axe the most
important. New York Historical Society.— This association originated from
the example of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Its com
mencement was in 1 804, and an act of incorporation was obtained
in 1809. Its professed object is to collect and preserve whatever
is best calculated to illustrate the natural, civil, political, and ec
clesiastical history of the United States, and the state of New York
in particular. ¦' That the society has not been unmindful of this
high .trust, its extensive and unique library of ten thousand
volumes, embracing materials : for the American historian, its
cabinet of medals, maps,- engravings, and valuable MSS., abun
dantly evince. It has published several volumes of Collections,
illustrative chiefly of facts and circumstances in American history.
Its most efficient founder was John Pintard. This society has re
cently^ obtained an admirable location in Broadway.
Literary and Philosophical Society: — -This association originated
in 1814, and was incorporated by an act of the legislature the
same year. It has published one volume of Transactions, quarto,
which contains among other matters the inaugural discourse of its
first president, De Witt Clinton, LL. D. The second volume,
part first, is enriched with the results of Capt. Sabine's late ex
periments. ; Lyceum of Natural History. — This society was incorporated it
1818. It possesses a valuable cabinet of minerals, an herbarium
of great extent, a rich cabinet of zoology, ichthyology, &c. &e.
No institution in the state has so ably and so zealously devoted it-

ea&

is|

gf

PP

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

399'

New York. The Delaware and Raritan Canal, ex
tends from Lamberton on the Delaware, below Tren
ton, to New Brunswick on the Raritan, a distance of

self to the important object of its formation, and its printed trans
actions, in several volumes, are extensively known and commend
ed. Its most distinguished patron was the late Samuel L. Mitch
ill, M. D., LL. D., who long held the office of president.
Horticultural Society. — Incorporated in March, 1 822. This as
sociation has effectively directed its energies to the best means of
improving the cultivation of our vegetable productions, and to the
acclimation of exotics of an esculent nature. It has acquired a
substantial reputation for the services it has rendered horticultural
science. A periodical journal under its auspices is published in
the city/ The society, besides ordinary members, has honorary
and corresponding members.
Academy of Arts. — This is the oldest institution of its kind in
the United States. It was commenced in 1801. Among those
who suggested the plan of the undertaking, and who have zealously
patronised it, might be enumerated the names of several gentlemen
of the first importance in the state. The property of this associa
tion consists of a large collection of fine paintings, among which
are a portrait of their former president, Chancellor Livingston,
and a full length portrait of Benjamin West, painted by Lawrence,
a large collection of antiques, statues, busts, bass-reliefs and a
library of books on the fine arts. Besides these treasures, the
society possesses a copy of the engravings and views of Pira-
nesi, in twenty-four superb volumes, presented to the Academy
by Napoleon. The accommodations of the institution are well
calculated for the purposes of its exhibition, and are situate in
Barclay street, near the Park. The members are divided into
academicians and associates: the former must be artists by pro
fession. The venerable historical painter, John Trumbull, Esq.
is the present president.
National Academy of ihe Arts of Design. — The enterprise of a
number of young gentlemen, artists and amateurs, gave origin to
this association. It was organized in 1826, and opened its first
exhibition in a private room in Broadway. They have recently
Deen accommodated with suitable apartments in Clinton Hall. None
but the productions of living artists are admitted for exhibition.
The objects of the society, as announced by them, are the mutual
improvement of its members, and the instruction of all others who
wish to become students of the arts of design. To secure these
intentions, lectures are delivered, and apparatus and models fur
nished to the pupil.
New York Society Library. — The beginning of this society may
be dated back as far as 1729 ; it is the oldest and most valuable
library in the state, and contains upwards of twenty-five thousand
volumes on the various subjects of general literature, theology,
history, law, medicine, political economy, &c. &c. The building
which it occupies is situate in Nassau street, opposite the middle
Reformed Dutch Church. It is supported by the annual subscrip
tion of its members.
The Athenarum.— This is a recent establishment, which was
formed in 1824. Its objects are to sustain a library and reading
room, to maintain lectures on various branches of general literature
and science, &c.
Medical Society of the City and County of New York. — This is an
institution created in conformity to a law ofthe legislature, passed
in 1806, organizing medical societies throughout the different
counties ofthe state.
Charities.— No city in the union, perhaps none of its size in the
world, can claim a greater number of efficient charitable institu
tions than the city of New York. Her paupers, embracing a
large body of emigrants from the shores of Europe, find the hand of
christian beneficence liberally opened to them, both in poverty and
sickness. To notice at length these numerous institutions, would
far exceed the limits assigned to this article. The following enu
meration of the principal ones must suffice. The establishment,
on a broad and liberal scale, founded and supported by the corpo
ration of the city, denominated the Alms House and Fever Hospi
tal a,* Bellevue, is delightfully situated on the bank of the East
rivet. The New York Dispensary, incorporated in 1795. The

forty-three miles. It is seven feet deep throughout,
and seventy-five feet wide at the water line, and will
admit vessels of 100 tons. The water to supply this

Northern Dispensary, incorporated in 1830. The House of Re
fuge, which combines together the advantages of aprison, a manu
factory, and a school on the Lancasterian plan. Two Lying-in
Hospitals. The Eye Infirmary. Several Orphan Asylums. The
Humane Society, for the resuscitation of persons from suspended
animation, and for the aid of imprisoned debtors. The Society
for Aged and Indigent Females. The Deaf and Dumb Institution,
a noble establishment, incorporated in 1817. The Medical Man
sion, built by the munificence of Jacob Lorrillard, Esq., though
not strictly a charity, deserves also to be noticed. It is designed
for the accommodation of invalids generally, and particularly for
those who visit the city for the purpose of obtaining the benefit of
the advice of the distinguished members of the medical profession,
and who can here be accommodated (wilh or without their families)
with suits of furnished rooms, in a spacious building, which is situ
ated in a retired and pleasant part of the city, surrounded by fine
pleasure grounds, and in full view of the Hudson river : the in
conveniences ofttimes incident to the sick in boarding-houses, led
to the establishment Of the Medical Mansion, where invalids have
the advice and attendance of any physician they may prefer, and
are accommodated witb apartments and attendance in accordance
with their means or wishes. Besides these, there are many Assist
ance Societies of mechanics and tradesmen, for the relief of poor
widows, &c. &c.
School Fund and Common Schools. — The city of New York par
ticipates in the munificent fund of the state, appropriated to the
advancement of common education. There were, in 1829, eleven
public schools ; nineteen charity schools ; three incorporated
schools ; and four hundred and thirty-six private schools, at which
were educated twenty-two thousand nine hundred and forty-three
pupils. Since that time the number has been greatly augmented.
At the Sunday schools upwards of twelve thousand children are
educated. Besides these, there are a number of infant schools, at
which probably from two to three thousand children under the age
of four years are instructed. At the Roman Catholic free schools
about thirteen hundred children are educated.
Penitentiary System. — The penitentiary, formerly at Bellevue, is
now removed to Blackwell's Island, on which are being erected
edifices of great extent. The penitentiary system of. New York
embraces details far too extensive to allow of adequate notice in
this place.
Municipal Government. — This is in the hands of a mayor and
two separate councils, the one consisting of the aldermen, the
other of the assistant aldermen of the fifteen wards into which the
city is divided. The total expense ofthe city, in 1833, amounted
to $933,829 76 cents.
The following statistical view may with propriety be here given :
it is taken from the first report of the Society for Promoting Know
ledge and Industry, dated May, 1834.
Paupers, Patients, dpc. in New York.
Penitentiary  593
Alms House (adults)  1355
Do. (children) .  75,2
Bellevue Hospital (sick)  • • 238
Do. (maniacs)  17?'
City Hospital (end of 1833)  1983
Do. (at present)  • 2034
House of Refuge (end of 1833)  121
Do. (at present)  . ¦ 174
Patients in the City Dispensary : male in door patients . 1120
Female in door patients  • • 1620
Male out door do  • ' • - 5555
Female do. do.  7875
Arrivals of emigrants in the port of New York, in 1 828, 19,023 ;
1829,16,164; 1830,30,224; 1831,31,739; 1832, 48,589; 1833,
41,752. From the successive reports ofthe secretary of state, the- follow
ing facts are derived : — The number ef paupers supported in the

400

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

canal is conducted by a navigable feeder five feet
deep, and fifty feet wide at the water line, extending
from Eagle Islands on the Delaware, to its junction
with the main canal at Trenton, twenty-four miles.
state, both in door and out door, were, in 1830, 15,506; 1831,
15,564 ; 1832, 34,094; 1833, 35,777. In the city of New York,
in 1831, 9,627 ; 1832, 22,909 ; 1833, 22,584. This great increase
is probably owing to the different manner of calculating — in one
the number of families is stated — in the other, the number of in-.
dividuals. The expense to the state, was, in 1830, $216,535 ; 1831,
$245,433; 1832, $267,767 ; 1833, $295,239. The expense to the
city was, in 1831, $86,597 ; 1832, $98,223 ; 1833, $92,040.
The estimated value of buildings, &c. in 1833, in the state,
was $865,770; in the city, $550,000. Adding to expense in the
state, in 1833, $295,239, six per cent, on the value of buildings,
&c. $52,046, it makes the actual expense to the state amount
to $346,285. Adding to expense in the city, in 1833, $92,040,
six per cent, on the value of buildings, &c. $33,000, it makes the
actual expense to the city amount to $125,040.
Courts, — In the city of New York, are holden the sittings of the-
United States Circuit Court, for the southern district of New York,
in April and September. The United States District. Court, for
the southern district of New York, on the first Tuesday of No
vember. The May term of the New York Supreme Court ; and
at stated intervals, the sittings of the New York State Court for
the county ; the- Court of Chancery ; the Vice Chancellor's Court;
the Court of Oyer and Terminer ; the New York Superior Court ;
the Court of Common Pleas; the Court of Sessions; the Marine
Court ; the public court, and the several justices' courts.
" The police of New York," says Dr. Dwight, " has become, I sus
pect, superior to that of any other city in the American union.
The order maintained here is in a sense absolute. Law reigns
with an entire contiol ; and resistance to it is unthought of." It
has been justly observed, that the ancient government of the city,
while it was the metropolis of a province, was energetic and exact,
and the original inhabitants, as well those who returned after the
revolutionary war as those who, during its continuance, resided
here, were, says Dwight, so habituated to such a government, " that
most of them, particularly men of extensive influence, were un
willing to see any other substituted in its place." Samuel Jones
is universally called the father of the New York bar, and the le
gal profession, ever since his time, has enjoyed a pre-eminent rank
and importance. Among the most distinguished, now deceased,
who have ennobled juridical science, at1 the New York courts,
are, Hamilton, Harrison, Livingston, Wells, and Emmet. The
municipal courts have also well sustained ^their early reputation.
The mayors, Varick, Clinton, and Colden, were, in their day and
generation, " a terror to evil doers."
Public Amusements. — There are three theatres iii the city, the
Park theatre, the American theatre, and- the Richmond Hill
theatre. The two former are large and magnificent buildings.
At an early period, theatricals seem to have met with great en
couragement in New York, but the reader is referred to the
History of the American Stage, by William Dunlap, Esq., for
minute details. There are two museums ; the American Muse
um, founded by the late John Scudder, in 1809, and Peale's Mu
seum, of a recent establishment. Several public gardens are places
of great resort during -the heat of summer. The introduction
of the Italian opera in the city in 1825-6, under the direction of
the Garcia troupe, constitutes an important era in the public re
creations of New York ; since which period, a correct taste for
music has rapidly spread, and the pretensions of the English song
have yielded to the claims of the sublime strains of Mozart and
Rossini. An Italian Opera House has lately been built at the
corner of Leonard and Church streets. This is an elegant build
ing, and covers a space of 99 feet front and real-, by 150 feet deep..
Periodical Literature. — The following detail exhibits a laudable
zeal in this species of literature. There are twelve daily news
papers ; nine semi- weekly ; and about thirty weekly papers. Of
ftese, one is in the French language,, two in the Spanish,, and, one

Charters for four rail-roads have been granted by
the legislature within two years, the state having re
served the right to levy a transit duty upon the goods,
&c, transported upon them, which is expected to

is in the Spanish, French, and Italian. It is estimated that ten
millions of sheets are annually issued by the news presses. About
twenty monthly periodicals are published, some of extensive cir
culation. The New York Mirror, a weekly publication, issues
nine thousand.
Many periodical journals of a monthly character, devoted either
to literature or science, or theology, have at different periods been
published in New York. The following list embraces the more
conspicuous of them. The New York Magazine. The New-
York Medical Repository. The United States Magazine and
Review. The New York Medical and Physical Journal. The
American Review. The American Medical and Philosophical
Register. The Literary and Scientific Repository. The Church
man's Magazine. The New York Medical Journal. The New
York Recorder, &c.
The Boston News-Letter, in 1704, is~ familiarly known to have
been the first newspaper published in America. William Brad
ford, the government printer, established a printing press in New
York in 1693. Moll (or Oldmixon, edition of 1708) observes,
there is a printing press in this town : and Thomas (History of
Printing,) remarks, that no press was established under the Dutch
government. Bradford's first book from his press, was a small
folio volume of the laws of 'the colony, bearing the date of 1693.
A file of Bradford's paper, for many years under the name of the
New York Weekly Gazette, 1720, &c. is in the possession of the
New York Historical Society. Zenger, not many years after,
17 34, published his Weekly Journal.
It has been tauntingly observed, that our national literature is
newspapers: there may be some ground for the remark: the news
paper press is endeared to the feelings of Americans by the strong
est considerations of patriotism. Franklin, the Apostle of liberty,
more than a century ago, while in the humble occupation of a
journeyman printer, at Boston, wrote and published animadver
sions on the legislative enactments of Great Britain relative to the
colonies, which, though they appeared in the unassuming 'columns
of a weekly paper, awakened the attention of British statesmen.
The free strictures on the administration of Governor Crosby and
his council, printed in the Weekly Journal of the city of New
York, by John Peter Zenger, roused the energies of a whole peo
ple; and, to use the language of the late Gouverneur Morris,
adopted in a conversation with the writer of this article, " the trial
of Zenger, in 1735, was the germ of American freedom — the
morning star of that liberty, which subsequently revolutionized
America." The " Common Sense" of Paine first appeared in the
columns of a newspaper, during the days of peril " that tried mens'
souls :" and the philosophical exposition and defence of the consti
tution and the union, which Hamilton, Jay, and Madison, publish
ed, under the title of the Federalist, was first submitted to. the peo
ple through the pages of a gazette. The literary capabilities
evinced in this species of periodical writing, is honourable to the
city of New York.
Mortality. — The city of New York may be classed among the
most healthy of its size in the world. As no register of births,
however, is preserved, one important item is wanting in estimating
its comparative salubrity. Its apparent average mortality, greater
than that of some of its sister cities, is to be referred to- the number
of emigrants who resort to this great emporium. The character
istic feature of a large proportion of the most prevalant disorders
is inflammatory; hence, the immense outlet of human life by pulmo- .
nary consumption : and the number of still-born cases is supposed ?
to have much increased of late years by the injudicious use of the;
secale cornutum, or ergot. The deaths from the drinking of cold ;
water in some summers of great solar heat,. serves to enlarge the.,
bills of mortality. This was particularly the case in the ardent .
season of 1 825, and in that of 1834. The yellow fever has been lesa
frequent in its recurrence than formerly. This, by some, is attri-
I buled to the improved stale of our domestic policy, and by others.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES;

401

yield a large revenue when the works shall be com
pleted. The most important of these enterprises is
the Camden and Amboy rail-road, the charter of which
was granted in 1829, and which is to extend from
Amboy to Camden, a distance of sixty-one miles. The
part of this rail-road which extends from Amboy to
Bordentown,. thirty-four miles in length, with a devia
tion of only three quarters of a mile in the whole
distance from a right line, was expected to be com
pleted in November, 1831 ; and the other part, from
Bordentown to Camden, a distance of twenty-seven
miles, to be finished early in the summer of 1832. —
This will render it practicable to go from New York
to Philadelphia, (100 miles,) and return the same day.
The- Paterson and Hudson River rail-road extends
from Paterson to Jersey city, a distance of fourteen
miles. The other two rail-roads for which charters
have been granted, are the Elizabethtown and Somer-
ville rail-road, and the West Jersey rail-road ; but the
to a more judicious system of quarantine regulations. The first
record of this formidable disorder is that of its appearance in New
York in 1702, under the name ofthe great mortality : it was con-
sidered.by Smith, the historian, as having been brought from the
Westlndies: it appeared again in 1742, according to Colden, and
some notice was given by Adorns of its ravages in this city, again in
1791. The visitations of this disease have been, since 1795, in
the years 1797, 1798, 1801, 1803, 1805, 1819, and 1822. The
controversy involving the specific character and contagious and
- non-contagious nature of this disease, has elicited much talentfrom
the faculty on both sides of the question,, though not without occa
sionally betraying too much asperity. The most ample accounts
of this fever are those by Bayley, Miller, and Hosack, and that of
the disease of 1822 by P. S. Townsend, M. D.— In 1832 the
cholera asphyxia, or Asiatic cholera, appeared in the city of New
York. The disorder exhibited a train of formidable symptoms
novel to nearly all who encountered it; and was regarded as a
nova pestis by the most experienced and enlightened prescribers.
Nearly five thousand of the inhabitants fell victims to it, notwith
standing the intrepidity with which it was combatted. And now,
at this present writing, (August, 1834,) the same pestilence, charac
terized by the same venom, is again prevalent. The number of
its cases, is however, few, compared with that of the season of
1832. The average temperature of New York throughout the year is
stated at 55° of Fahrenheit. In -winter the thermometer is rarely
lower than 15° or 20° below the freezing point; sometimes the
mercury falls to zero, and it has been observed at two, three, four,
or six degrees below it. Most unquestionably the nearness of the
Atlantic and the gulf stream, conduce to abate the severity of the
winter. Snow is not of frequent occurrence, and rarely continues
on the ground more than ten or twelve days at a time. The win
ter closes about the 10th or 15th of March. The temperature of
the summer is rarely higher than 80° or 84° ; there are a few
days in which the thermometer ranges between 90° and 96°, but this
heat-is. tfr short continuance, as the evening sea breezes cause a
great abatement of it at night. There are not a few sudden
qhanges in temperature, both in summer and winter. The greatest
change yet noticed in New York took place in August, 1809, when
bythe sudden coming on of a north west, storm of rain, the thermo
meter evinced a difference of forty degrees within the course of
fifty-six minutes. But this is no fair sample of the general cha
racter of the sudden vicissitudes of the weather. The prevailing
winds in summer are from the south and southwest, in winter
from the noith and northeast and northwest.
The annual average of deaths is stated, by Villerme, at Paris,

construction of them has not yet been begun. A
rail-road has been commenced, and we believe is
nearly completed to Trenton.
New Jersey abounds in staples, composed of every
product of its fields, woods, mines, fisheries, and
manufactories. Its manufactures are extensive and
thriving. Iron is one of the principal. In July,
1825, there, were at Paterson twelve cotton mills in
operation, moving 22,000 spindles ; three woollen
factories, two duck factories, &c. In Trenton, also,
there are manufactories of cotton and woollen goods.
In Trenton, Newark, and Elizabethtown, are many
valuable tanneries. Shoes are made in great num
bers at Newark. Almost all the foreign goods con
sumed in this state are imported at New York and
Philadelphia, and the produce of the state is princi
pally carried to those cities for exportation.
The College of New Jersey, at Princeton, was
founded in 1738, and has always been one of the

as 1 to 32 6-20ths In London it has been put down as 1 to 38
or 40. In Glasgow, as 1 to 44. The annual mortality at Naples
is reported as 1 to 28 1-4. In the whole Uniied States it has been
published as I to 40. In the healthiest districts of the United
States, as 1 to 56 ; and in the most unhealthy, as 1 to 35. This
calculation is not probably so favourable as a more accurate ex
amination of facts would authorize. In New York, it may be set
down as 1 to 39 1 -2. Notwithstanding the speculations of many
ingenious writers, as Williamson, Volney, Niest, &c. there is not
much reason to suppose, that our seasons have become much
milder, or are in any particular manner ameliorated ; and the re
cent elaborate investigation of Arago seems to render such a flat
tering speculation altogether hypothetical.
This assertion seems corroborated by the various accounts that
have been published of the weather during the winter of 1831-2,
in various parts of the United States. According to- some, this
winter has been colder than ever before within the memory of
man. In Georgia and Tennessee the mercury was at zero; in
Washington, 5 or 6° below ; and in Augusta, Maine, 26° below
zero. The city of New York also furnished repeated examples of
severe cold during the same season. Similar observations are jus
tifiable ofthe season of 1833 — 4.
The number of deaths in New York, as reported by the city in
spector, was as follows :— in 1826,4,973; in 1827,5,181 ; in 1828,
5,181 ; in 1829, 5,094 : in 1830, 5,537 ; in 1831, 6,363 ; in 1832,
10,359;* in 1833, 5,746.
Character.— The multitudinous population of this city presents
an endless variety in manners and character. A liberality of
feeling and unaffected hospitality have been the result. Active
industry and enterprise (often bordering on rashness) are the pre
vailing characteristics of all classes. Amidst a strong devotion to
wealth, it is gratifying to perceive that an attention to higher ob
jects has not been overlooked. Her public school system, her
Lancasterian, Sunday, and infant schools, her temperance societies,
her innumerable charities, all promise a net reward to their
benevolent founders. The respective liberal professions may
boast many members of the highest attainments, who tend to dif
fuse through the various classes of society a proper respect for
literature, science, and the elegant arts. This commercial empo
rium is not unworthy the name by which she is recognised, and
may, above all, claim that, whether the avenues to her trade have
been closed by legislative restrictions, or during the unprofitable
contest of arms, her fidelity to the union has never for a moment
been questioned. J- "W. F.
* Augmented by the prevalence of the Cholera Asphyxia.

402

TOPOGRAPHY OP THE UNITED STATES.

most respectable and flourishing literary institutions
in the country. In 1820, it had a president, who
also instructed in the holy scriptures, the evidences
of divine revelation, moral philosophy, and logic ; a
vice-president, who was also professor of languages
and belles lettres ; a professor of mathematics and
mechanical philosophy ; a professor of chemistry,
experimental philosophy, and natural history ; three
tutors, and 121 students. The college library con
tains about 8,000 volumes ; the philosophical appa
ratus is complete ; and the cabinet of mineralogy and
natural history is valuable. The college edifice is
styled Nassau Hall, in honour of the Prince of Orange..
The whole number of alumni of the college, in 1815,
was 1,425, of whom 1,023 were then living. — A
Theological Seminary was established at Princeton,
in 1821, under the direction of the general assembly
of the Presbyterian church. It has two professors,
— one of didactic and polemic theology, the other
of ecclesiastical history. The edifice for the accom
modation of the institution, is an elegant stone build
ing, 150 feet by fifty, four stories high, and contains
"rooms for 100 students. The term of study is three
years. The number of students, in 1821, was seventy-
three; — Q,ueen's College was established in New
Brunswick by the ministers of the Dutch reformed
church, for the education of their clergy, and incor
porated in 1770. In 1810, a Theological Seminary
was established in the city by the general synod of
the reformed Dutch churches, and, to a certain ex
tent, connected with the college. The exercises of
Queen's College, which had been suspended for
several years, were revived in the autumn of 1825,

under very favourable auspices. This state possesses
a school fund which yields an annual income of about
22,000 dollars, and, by a law passed in 1829, the sum
of 20,000 dollars was appropriated to be annually
distributed in small sums to such towns as would
voluntarily raise an equal sum for the support of
schools. At a public meeting of the friends of edu
cation, in 1828, a committee was appointed to procure
and publish information relating to the condition of
schools. From the statements published by this com
mittee, it appears that, in the whole state, 11,742 chil
dren were entirely destitute of instruction, and that
about 15,000 adults were unable to read. In many
towns, more than half of the children never attended
school. In Sussex and "Warren counties, forty-nine
districts were destitute of schools ; and in the rich
and flourishing county of Essex, 1,200 children were
destitute of instruction. Among the families visited
by the agent of the bible society, eighteen were found
in which none of the members could read. The sys
tem of instruction in the schools which are supported,
is stated to be very defective, owing in many instances,
to the want of well qualified teachers. It is gratify
ing to see that the friends of education are engaged
in efforts to change this .state of things.
The Presbyterians have 85 churches, 88 ministers,
20 licentiates, and 12,519 communicants ; the Metho
dists, 10,730 members ; the Dutch Reformed, 28
churches and 28 ministers ; the Baptists, 34 churches,
21 ministers, and 2,324 communicants ; the Episco
palians, 20 ministers ; the Friends are numerous,
and there are some Congregationalists.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Bergen, n. e 
Burlington, H 
Cape May, s. e 
Cumberland, s  ,
Essex, n. m  ,
Gloucester, s. m. . . . .
Hunterdon, w. M. . . . .
Middlesex, m 
Monmouth, e 
Morris, n. m 
Salem, s. w  ,
Somerset, m. ......
Sussex, n. w 
Warren n. w. ..... .
Total . . . .

Population,

Population,

1830.

1830.

18,178

22,414

28,822

31,066

4,265

4,945

12,668

14,091

30,793

41,928

23,039

28,431

28,604

31,066

21,470

23,157

25,038

29,233

21,368

23,580

14,022

14,155

16,506

17,689

32,752

20,349

i8,634

277,575

320,779, of

County Towns.

Hackensack
Mount Holly ,
Cape May, C. H.
Bridgetown . .
Newark . . .
Woodbury . .
( Trenton . .
^Flemington .
New Brunswick
Freehold . . .
Morristown . .
Salem ....
Somerville . .
Newton . . .
Belvidere . .

Distance.

T.* |

W.t

63

229

21

156

102

204

69

175

49

215

39

145

166

23

182

27

193

36

201

55

221

65

171

33

199

70

228

54

210

* From Trenton.

t From Washington.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.
POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
Population. Increase. Slaves.
In 1790, 184,139 11,423
1800, 211,149 From 1790 to 1800, 27,010 12,422
1810, 245,562 1800 1810, 34,413 10,851
1820, 277,575 1810 1820, 32,013 7,557
1830, 320,779 1820 1830, 42,204 2,246
Population of East and West Jersey in 1701, 15,000; in 1749 60,000.
POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS IN 1830.

403

Newark  10,953 Paterson  7,731
New Brunswick . . . 7,831 Trenton  3,925

Elizabethtown  3,451

Trenton, the seat of government, is on Delaware
River, at the falls, thirty miles northeast of Philadel
phia, and sixty southwest of New York. At the
foot of the falls, there is an elegant bridge over the
Delware, 1,100 feet long and thirty-six wide. Steam
boats ply regularly between Trenton and Philadel
phia. New Brunswick is on the Raritan, thirty-three
miles southwest of New York. Half the inhabitants are
of Dutch origin. Steam-boats ply regularly between
this city and New York. Princeton is a pleasant
village, eleven miles northeast of Trenton, and six
teen southwest of New Brunswick. Newark is plea
santly situated near the west bank of the Passaic
River, two or three miles from its mouth. In this
and the adjoining town of Orange, there are valuable
quarries of stone for building, and numerous tanneries.
Elizabethtown is pleasantly situated on Elizabeth-
town Creek, which empties itself into Staten Island
Sound. Vessels of twenty or thirty tons Come up to
the town, and those of 200 or 300 tons come as far
as Elizabethtown Point, at the mouth of the creek,
two miles distant. A steam-boat plies between the
city of New York and Elizabethtown Point. Bur
lington is on Delaware River, opposite Bristol,
eleven miles below Trenton. Perth Amboy is on a
point of land, at the union of Raritan River with
Arthur Kull Sound. It has one of the best harbours
on the continent.
The history of this state was written by Smith ;
and a late and valuable work, embracing a concise
history, with an extensive gazetteer, by Mr. Gordon.
PENNSYLVANIA.
This important state occupies from the 74° of west
longitude, to more than half the 81°, and from
39" 43' of north latitude, to 42°: which gives a
length of 307 miles, and a breadth of 190. Mr.
Darby states the square miles to be 47,000, or
29,935,200 acres.
It may. be doubted whether a more widely diver
sified region exists on the face of the earth than
Pennsylvania, or one of similar area on which the

vegetable and mineral productions are more nu
merous. In a state of nature, the streams of this
state flowed through a dense forest. No part of
Pennsylvania is level, and in respect to surface it is
divisible into three natural sections : first, a small
but important hilly tract between the marine allu
vium and the lower ridges of the Apalachian system ;
second, the mountainous, or middle section ; and
third, the western hilly. The subjoined tabular view
presents the respective area of these sections, and
their population according to the census of 1820.
_ ... _ .,., Aggregate Population to
Sections. Square Miles. p^J^ ils square mi!e.
Eastern  7,869 569,355 77
Middle or mountainous 25,189 260,506 10
Western  13,942 219,597 16 1-2

47,000

1,048,458

22

From political causes the great body of the popu
lation has spread over the eastern, southern, and
western borders, and left the central and northern a
comparative wilderness.
The difference of level in Pennsylvania, if the
mountain plateaus are included, is about 1200 feet,
or an equivalent to three degrees of latitude ; so that
extremes of temperature over the state extend to
about 5°. Pennsylvania is emphatically a country
congenial to wheat, meadow grass, and the apple ;
but it admits a wide diversity of other vegetable pro
ductions. Except rice, it embraces the whole list of
cerealia cultivated in the United States ; and amongst
fruits, besides the apple, peaches, pears, and plums
abound. Of indigenous forest trees this state yields
as great a variety as is to be found on the globe in a
zone two degrees and one third wide, and not quite
six deo-rees in length. The terebinthine forests are
in great part confined to the mountains, and the
deciduous trees to the eastern and western sections.
In the latter the sugar maple becomes plentiful.
The productive soil is in a remarkable manner
equally distributed, and some of the most fertile
bottoms in the state are included in the mountain
section.

404

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

This state affords marble of a beautiful variety
and excellent texture, which has contributed to
adorn the eastern towns, aiid even the farm houses
of the state. Iron and anthracite coal follow marble,
and exist in quantities which defy exhaustion. Iron
abounds over the whole state ; and where the anthra
cite coal ceases the bituminous commences, and seems
to underlie great part of the western, and some of
the central portions of it. In the region of bitumin
ous coal, wherever the earth has been penetrated to
any great depth, salt water has been found ; and salt
works, on a large scale, exist on the Conemaugh, and
in some other parts of the western section.
Pennsylvania is advantageously situated in respect
of navigable rivers. Of these the Delaware on the
east, the Susquehanna in the centre, and the Ohio
on the west, claim the precedence. Few states in
the union have undertaken and executed more in tbe
way of internal navigation ; and no other state has
such extensive works in actual progress. The Le
high River, above Easton, to Mauch Chunk or Le
high coal mines, has been rendered navigable by dams
and falling locks. A canal is now in progress from
Easton down the Delaware to Bristol ; in length
about fifty miles. The Sehuylkill River has been
completely canalled, from tide water at the city ot
Philadelphia to the extensive coal mines on its
sources, upwards of 110 miles. To unite the Schuyl
kill navigation to that of the Susquehanna, the Union
Canal has been constructed, following the valleys of
Tulpehocken and Swatara Creeks, from Reading in
Berks to Middletown in Dauphin county. The
Union is a link in a chain now in progress, for
uniting the Susquehanna, Juniata, and Allegany
rivers to the city of Pittsburgh. Beside these ex
tended lines, there exists a small but important canal,
to pass the rapids or Conewago Falls at York
Haven oh the Susquehanna ; the Conestogo Canal of
eighteen miles opens by that creek a navigable chan
nel from the city of Lancaster to the Susquehanna
River ; and preparations are making to extend a rail
road from the city of Philadelphia, by Lancaster, to
Columbia, on the Susquehanna.
Pennsylvania ranks high in the variety and extent
of her manufactures, some of which are of superior
excellence. In 1810, there were sixty-four cotton
manufactories, forty-four blast furnaces, six air fur
naces, four bloomeries, seventy-eight forges, fifty trip
hammers, eighteen rolling and slitting mills, 175
naileries, sixty-four paper mills, eight glass works,
thirty-five rope walks, and 108 printing offices. The
total amount of the manufactures, embracing 220 ar
ticles, was 44,194,740 dollars. Most of the foreign

goods consumed in this state,, in Delaware, and the
western part of New Jersey, are imported at Philadel
phia. Goods to the amount of many millions of dol
lars are annually transported from Philadelphia to
Pittsburgh, and thence distributed through the western
country. In 1815, the amount of revenue paid by
this state into the national treasury, was 7,142,333
dollars, an amount greater than that of any state ex
cept New York. The value of exports from this
state, in 1825, was 11,269,981 dollars, of which,
7,333,848 dollars was foreign produce. The imports
in the same year, were 15,041,977 dollars.
The University of Pennsylvania, established in
Philadelphia, is a very respectable institution, em
bracing the four departments of arts, medicine, natu
ral science, and law, in each of which lectures are
given. There are four professors in the department
of arts, five in that of natural science, one in the law
department, and seven in the medical department.
The latter is one of the most flourishing institutions
of the kind in the world, and usually affords instruc
tion to about 500 students from various parts of the
United Stales. This medical institution enjoys a
reputation superior to that of any other medical esta
blishment in the United States. Its original projectors
were Morgan and Shippen ; it soon had the eminent
talents of Dr. Rush enlisted in its behalf. This dis
tinguished character long held the most conspicuous
place therein as professor of medicine, and imparted
instruction to numerous hearers, for a long series of
years. Besides Rush, Wistar, Shippen, Dorsey, Physic,
Chapman, and B. S. Barton, deserve to be recorded as
powerful contributors to the renown which this school
possesses. Dickinson College, at Carlisle, is now a
very respectable-institution. In 1826, the legislature
made a grant of 3,000 dollars per annum to aid its
funds. Washington College, at Washington, twenty-
six miles southwest of Pittsburgh, had, in -lS'17j a
president, two professors, a library, and a philosophical
apparatus. Allegany College, at Meadville, was
founded in 1815. Jefferson College is situated at
Oanonsburg, in Washington county ; it possesses a
medical faculty in the city of Philadelphia. A uni
versity has recently been established near Pittsburgh,
and endowed by the legislature.
Though Pennsylvania has many literary and
benevolent institutions, yet the progress of general
education in the state has been slow, and it is still
very limited. In the report of the Pennsylvania So
ciety for the Promotion of Public Schools, dated April
28, 1831, it is said, " There is reason to believe that
the attention of the citizens is so awakened to the im
portance of establishing public schools, that the at-

TOPOGRAPHY OP THE UNITED STATES.

405

tempt will not hereafter fail to be encouraged. The
society will recollect, that at their last meeting, [Oct.
11, 1830,] there was read a memorial, proposed to
be presented to the legislature, which contained
statements relative to the great deficiency in the
means of education in various parts of the state, and
urged the importance of speedily applying a remedy
to this evil." From the memorial alluded to the fol-
lowingextract is made ; " There are at least 400,000
children in Pennsylvania between the ages of five
and fifteen. Of these, during the past year, there
were not 150,000 in all the schools in the state.
Many counties, townships, and villages, have been
taken indiscriminately from all parts of the state, and
been examined by your memorialists, and the average
proportion of children educated, in any one year, com
pared with the entire number of children between
the above specified ages, appears to be but one out
of three. It is probable that this proportion prevails
generally through Pennsylvania, and justifies the as
sertion, that more than 250,000 children capable of
instruction were not within a school during the past

year. Many of these children never go to school at
all." In the city and county of Philadelphia, there
are ample means for the education of every child, and
many thousands have been benefited by them. In
that district, and we believe the case is the same in
the city of Lancaster, no one need be uneducated, ex
cept from choice.
The Presbyterians have 429 churches, 209 minis
ters, 39 licentiates, and 38,873 communicants ; the
Methodists, 140 preachers, and 46,390 members ;
the Baptists, 144 churches, 96 ministers, and 7,561
communicants; the German Reformed Church, 282
churches, and 73 ministers ; the Episcopalians, 60
ministers ; the Associate Presbyterians, 39 congrega
tions, 18 ministers, and 4,180 communicants; the
Evangelical Lutherans, 2 synods ; the Dutch Re
formed Church, 6 churches and 6 ministers; the
Friends are numerous; the United Brethren have
about 15 congregations ; the Unitarians, 5 congrega
tions and 3 ministers ; and there is a considerable
number of Roman Catholics, some Universalists,
Jews, &c.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

EASTERN DISTRICT.

Counties.

Adams, s.
Berks, s. e.

Bucks, s. e. . .
Chester, s. e. . .
Cumberland, s. M.
Delaware, s. e. .
Dauphin, s. e. m.
Franklin, s. . .
Lehigh, e. . . .
Lancaster, s. E. .
Lebanon, s. e. m.
Montgomery, b. .
Northampton, e.
Perry, m. . . .
Philadelphia, s. e.
Philadelphia, city
Pike, e. ...
Schuylkill, e. m. .
Wayne, n. e. . .
York, s. ...

Allegany, w.
Pittsburgh, city
Armstrong, w.
Beaver, w.
Bedford, s.
Bradford, n. .
Butler, w. . .
Cambria, m. .
Centre, m.
Clearfield, M.
Columbia, e. m.
Crawford, n. w.
Erie, n. w.  .

Population,

Population,

1820.

1830.

19,370

21,379

46,275

53,357

37,842

45,740

44,451

50,908

23,606

29,218

14,810

17,361

21,653

25,303

31,892

35,103

18,895

22,266

68,:36

76,558

16,988

20,546

35,793

39,404

31,765

39,267

11,342

14,257

73,295

108,503

63,802

80,458

2,894

4,843

11,339

20,783

4,127

7,663

38,759

42,658

County Towns.

Gettysburgh ' .
Reading . . .
SDoyleston Bristol . . .
West Chester .
Carlisle . . .
Chester . . .
Harrisecrgh
Chambersburg .
Allentown . .
Lancaster . .
Lebanon . . .
Norristown . .
Easton . . .
New Bloomfield
> Philadelphia
Milford . . .
Orwigsburgh .
Bethany . . .
York ....

WESTERN DISTRICT.

27,673

37,964

7,248

12,542

10,324

17,625

15,340

24,206

20,248

24,536

11,554

19,669

10,193

14.683

2,287

7,079

13,796

18,765

2,342

4,803

17,621

20,049

9,397

16,005

8,o53

16,906

{ Pittsburgh

KittaningBeaver . .
Bedford .
Towanda
Butler . .
Ebensburgh BellefonteClearfield .
Danville .
MeadvilleErie . .

Vol. IL— Nos.

* From Harrisburgh,
71 & 72. 3 F

t From Washington.

Population,

1,473
5,859 1,262
1,258
2,523 848
4,311£,794

7,704 1,8261,089
3,529
80,458 773
327
4,216

Distance.
H.* | W.t

3452
107
122 75 18
95
4885352488
101 3698
157 59
162 24

76
143163159
115104121
110 90
178109
134143190122136
249 167
265 87

12,542

201

1,620

183

914

229

870

105

128

580

203

270

131

699

85

129

65

1,070

236

1,329

272

223215 151126
239 236 178192
201 175
297 333

406

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Counties.

Fayette, s. e. . . .
Greene, s. e. . . .
Huntingdon, M. . .
Indiana, w. m. . .
Jefferson, w. m. . .
Luzerne, e. m. . .
Lycoming, m. . .
M'Kean, n. ....
Mercer, w. ...
Mifflin, m. . . . .
Northumberland, M.
Potter, n. . . '.-¦.' .
Somerset, s. .
Susquehanna, n. e.
Tioga, n. . ....
Union, m. . ... .
Venango, w. . . .
Warren, n. w. . '.
Washington, s. w. .
Westmoreland, b. w.

Population, Population.
1820. 1830.

27,285 15,554
20,144 8,882 561
20,027 13,517 728
11,68116,61815,424
I 186
13,974
' 9,6604,021
l8,6l9
• 1,976
40,038 .4,915
30,540

29,237 18,028
27,159 14,251 2,225
27,304 17,637 1,439
19,731
21,529 18,168 1,265
17,44116,777' 9,062
20,749 4,706
42,860
' 9,128
38,400

County Towns.
Uniontown 
Waynesburg 
Huntingdon 
Indiana . , 
Brookville 
Wilkesbafre 
Williamsport .- . . ¦...."¦
Smithpoft  ". .
Mercer . . ..:'.-. I ':.
Lewistown . . ...... .
Sunbury . . ... . -.
Cowderspprt . <;,_' . ; .. ¦ .
Somerset . . - . . .
Montrose . . '-.'.. !- .--.'¦
Wellsborough ; ;. . : .
New Berlin . . . ..-.'...
Warren . . -. .-.•;' .
Washington . ¦ . . . ¦ . .'-,
Franklin  ''.-..
Greensburg . .... .

. -H ¦

Distance.

Population.

H..

W.t

1,341

184

193

222

229

90

148

433

157

189

165

236

2,233

114

222

87
196
200
273
656
1235
267
1,479
. 55
162
1,057
52
162
174
283
. .649
143
165
415
163
271
147
253
60
168
240
313
1,816
212
229
409
212
279
810
170
192
POPULATION OF PENNSYLVANIA!: AND PHILADELPHIA AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
Penn.
In 1701,
1763, 1790,1800,
1810,1820,1830,
Pop. . .
20,000
Increase.
280,000
From 1701 to 1763,
260,090
434,373
! " 1763 1790,'
154,373
602,545 '
1790 1800,
168,172
810,091
1800 1810,
207,546
1,049,313
1810 1820,-
239;222
1,347,672
1820 1830,
298,659
Pittsburgh.
In 1800, 1,565
1810, 4,768
1820, 7,248
1830, 12,542
Lancaster.
In 1800, 4,292
1810,' 5,405
1820, 6,663
• • 1830, ¦ 7,704
Philadelphia stands on- the west bank of the river
Delaware, five miles from! its confluence with the
Schuylkill, which forms the- western- boundary Of the
city. It was founded in. 1.682,. and incorporated in
1701. The charter being- abrogated at the revolution,
it remained under a provincial government till 1789,
when it was incorporated a second time. Its present
population is upwards of -167,000.. The city is built
in streets of from fifty to 100 feet in width, running
parallel and at right angles to each other; They are
handsomely paved, and are kept' remarkably clean.
The houses exhibit an appearance of neatness, uni
formity, and commodiousness, and many of them are
ornamented with white marble. The Delaware is
about a mile wide, and is navigable for ships of a
large size. The 'most conspicuous buildings are 'the
Churches, the' State house, the United States and
Pennsylvania. Banks, and the Institution fot the Deaf
and Dumb. The bank of the United States was -esta-
* From Harrisburgh. t From Washington: •
t The population, of, Pennsylvania, including Delaware, in 1749,
Is stated in Holmes's Annals,' vol. ii. p. 538, and in the American
Almanac for 1830, at 250,000; and Martin's London Magazine
for 1755-6, states it, at that time, at 250,000'. The records of
Pennsvlvania, for the year 1757, contain- the following remark :—
Slaves.
Philadel.
Pop.
Dwellings.
In 1731,
12,000
1700,
700
1753,
18,000 .
1749,
2,076
3,737
1790,
42,520
1763,
2,909
1,706
1800,
70,287
.1776,
5,460
. 795
1810,
96,664
1790,
6,651
211 •
1820,
119,325
1801,
11,200
386
1830,
167,811
1810,
'15,814
J, AND HARRISBURGH, AT DIFFERENT.]
PERIOl
Reading.
Harrisburgh.
In 1800
2,385
In 1800, 1,472
1810
3,463
1810, -2,289
1820
4,332
1820, 2,990
1830
5,859
• 1830, 4,311 •
Wished in the year 1816, with a capital of 35,000,000
dollars. The banking house] is a splendid struc
ture, built on tbe plan of the Parthenon at Athens,
and is situated :in.: a north and south direction, front
ing Chestnut and Library streets; having eight fluted
columns, four feet six inches, in diameter,. embracing
the whole front. On each of the fronts-is a portico",
projecting ten feet six inches. . The whole length of
the edifice, including the portico; is J61 feet, and its
breadth eighty-seven feet,. -The main ' entrance is
from Chestnut-street, by'a-flight of six'rnarble steps,
extending along the whole ¦frent of the portico. The
banking room occupies the centre of the building,
being forty-eight feet wide, and eighty-one feet long.
The whole' body of the building is arched in a bomb
proof manner, from the -cellar- to the roof, which is
covered with copper. . There are in this city eighty-
eight houses for public worship, ten banks, thirteen
insurance companies, of which -eight are marine, four
"The inhabitants' have never been numbered, but it is believed by
good judges, tjiat tfley amount to 200,000 in theprovince and coun-
iies."-rHdzard's Penn. Register, Vol; v: p: 3S9.
§ The population of Piftsburgh-jjere.given is >hat ofthe city only,
Its population, including the suburbs, or contiguous villages, is up
wards of 17,000. ' ' •--:¦'! - ' -
TtTJUHTdnr^rni'TOTIEdl

V.

«3I

=3

n

-a

k

<!

b

7_>>

3

TOPOGRAPHY OP THE UNITED STATES.

407

for fire, and one for lives and annuities, a custom
house, an exchange, and a chamber of commerce.
The State house in which the continental congress
Sat, and from whence the declaration of independence
issued, is still standing. It is in Chestnut-street, built
of brick, comprising a centre and two wings, and
has undergone no material alteration since its erec
tion. It has a venerable appearance. It is surmount
ed by a cupola, having a clock, the dial of which is
glass, and which is illuminated at night until ten or
eleven o'clock, showing the hour and minutes until
that time. The front is a considerable distance back
from the street,' the approach being payed to the curb
stone with brick, and two elegant rows of trees ex
tending its whole length. East of the main entrance,
in the front room, the sessions of the congress Were
held, and the question of independence was decided.
The arcade in Philadelphia, like that at New York,
has proved a bad speculation : the former is twice
the size of the,latter, and appears to be more deserted.
It contains Peale's Museum, one of the best in the
United States, and comprising the most complete
skeleton of -the Mammoth perhaps in the world. It
is perfect, with the exception of a few bones, which
have been supplied by imitation. The- Academy of
Arts, in Chestnut-street, contains a large number of
paintings, several of which are the property of Joseph
Bonaparte. Among these is one executed by David,
representing Napoleon crossing the Alps. Another
is a full-length -portrait of Joseph- himself, as. king of
Spain. Of the public works of Philadelphia, there are
none of which its inhabitants are more justly proud
than those at Fair Mount, rby which the city is sup
plied' with water of the best quality, and in the great
est plenty. Fair Mount is in the rear of the city,
upon the bank of the Schuylkill, the neighbourhood
of which affords some romantic scenery. The re
servoirs are situated on. the top of* a hill rising from
the river, a part of it perpendicular rock,-to the height
of 100 feet. The ascent from the river to the reser
voirs is by a flight of substantiarwobden steps, with
resting places, over one of which is a temple. The
reservoirs, which are surrounded. with paling, outside
of which is a gravelled walk, contain upwards, of
twelve millions of gallons, supplying the city through
between fifteen and twenty .'.miles of pipes. The
water was formerly forced' to the reservoirs bysteam,
which is no longer used ; it is now raised by machi
nery propelled by the; Schuylkill. The machinery
is simple, and is turned by large water ' wheels, of
which there are five, one of them of iron, and twen
ty-four tons ih weight. If all are in motion, ¦ they

will raise seven millions of gallons in twenty-four
hours. To turn them, the Schuylkill has been
dammed its whole breadth, by which the water is
thrown back into a reservoir lock, whence it is ad
mitted as required to operate upon the wheels, and is
discharged into the river below the dam. The whole
expense of these works, including the cost of works
abandoned, was 1,783,000 dollars. The water thus
circulated through the city, is not only sufficient for
every family, but is used to wash the streets. It is
of immense service in case of fire, as it is only ne
cessary to screw the hose to hydrants, which are
placed at convenient distances, to secure a constant
stream of sufficient force to reach any ordinary
height. — There is a navy yard on the Delaware.
- The New Penitentiary, situated on elevated ground
near the city, and nearly completed, is designed to
carry the principle of solitary confinement completely
into effect. Ten acres of land are occupied for the
purpose, forming a square of 650 feet each way, and
enclosed by massive walls-, of granite thirty- five feet
high, with towers and battlements. The prison is
in the centre ofthe square, and is admirably calculated
for the purposes for which it was designed. The
expense already incurred in its erection is 300,000
dollars. The banks of the Schuylkill hear Philadelphia
contain many elegant country seats, and several
public buildings. Among the private residences, none
are perhaps more justly admired- than that of Henry
Pratt, Esq. on Lemmon Hill. The ! mansion-house
is sftuated on the eastern bank of the river, and
directly above the Fair Mount Water Works, about
a mile from the city. Connected with the mansion
are gardens of an extensive, kind, laid out- in a style
of much elegance and taste, to which respectable
citizens and strangers have free access, and a ride to
them is among the various pleasant excursions in
the vicinity of the city;
Pittsburgh, in the western part of the state, is very
advantageously situated, on a plain between the Alle
gany and Monongahela rivers, at the point where
they Jinite. to form the Ohio. By. means of the Alle-'
gahy river and its branches, Pittsburgh has a water
communication with the western part of New York ;
by the Monongahela and a good turnpike-road, it is
connected with Baltimore.; and by the Ohio it has an
easy intercourse with the western states. It is also
connected with Philadelphia by an excellent turnpike
road. These advantages -have made Pittsburgh the
centre of a great trade, and:it is. estimated that mer
chandise to the/value of 2Q,0OO,OO'0 dollars annually
•passes through the city! The' immense supply of

408

TOPOGRAPHY OF 'THE UNITED STATES.

coal in the neighbouring country ha® given rise to
numerous and extensive manufacturing establish
ments. The population in 1820 was 7248. Harris-
burgh, the seat of government, is regularly laid out
on the east bank of the Susquehanna, ninety-seven
miles west-north-west of Philadelphia. Lancaster,
sixty-two miles west of Philadelphia, is advantage
ously situated in the midst of a fertile and highly
cultivated country. Easton is pleasantly situated on
the Delaware, at the mouth of ' the Lehigh, fifty-
six miles north of Philadelphia. Reading is a
flourishing town on the Schuylkill, fifty-one miles
northwest of Philadelphia, inhabited chiefly by Ger
mans, and famous for the manufacture of hats.
Wilkesbarre is on the southeast side of the Susque
hanna, 119 miles northwest of Philadelphia. Can-
onsburg, the seat of Jefferson College, is eighteen
miles south west of Pittsburgh, Meadville, the seat
of Allegany College, enriched with the great library
of the antiquarian, the late Dr. Bentley, is in the
northwest part of the state, on French Creek, about
forty miles from Lake Erie. Carlisle is sixteen miles
west of Harrisburgh. Bethlehem, a Moravian settle
ment, is on the Lehigh, twelve miles southwest of
Easton, and fifty-three north of Philadelphia.

CHAPTER III.
OHIO — INDIANA  ILLINOIS — MISSOURI.
OHIO.
This interesting and important state is. bounded
by Lake Erie and Michigan territory on the north ;
by Pennsylvania and by the Ohio on the south ; and a
line separates it from Virginia and Kentucky on the
southeast, and from Indiana on the west. Extend
ing from north latitude 38° 30' to 42°, and from
longitude 38" 35' to 84° 47' west, its area is 40,000
square miles. The greatest breadth of Ohio is
within a fraction of 220 miles ; mean breadth about
182 miles.
This state occupies about one third of the plane
which declines from Pennsylvania to the Mississippi.
Except along the deep vales of the Ohio, and those of
other streams near their efflux into that recipient, the
climate is as uniform as the surface, and considerably
more severe in the winter season than in correspond
ing latitudes on the Atlantic.
) "In a state of nature," says Darby, " Ohio was,
with the exception of some central prairies, covered
iWith a dense forest, to which the fertility of the soil

gave a stupendous development. The size, majesty,.
and generic and specific variety of the trees of the
Ohio basin has been a just theme of admiration, but
I am inclined to consider the picture over-coloured.
I spent my early years in the Ohio valley and Mis
sissippi basin alternately, and could never observe
any single species of tree common to both, say. to
Ohio and Louisiana as extremes, which did not
reach a height and mass greater in the lower climate
of Louisiana." In cultivated vegetables, Ohio is
peculiarly productive. Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats,
barley, tobacco, and orchard fruits, are staples.
Meadows and gardens, where due attention is paid
to their improvement, yield abundantly. Of metals,
iron is the only ore found in great quantity, Coal
of the bituminous species exists in extensive strata
along the Ohio and some of its confluent streams,
and no doubt underlies other parts of the state, though
in a manner too level to be detected, except by artifi
cial means.
The state of Ohio has undertaken the construction
of canals, as public works, on a very liberal scale.
One of these is the Ohio State Canal, from Cleave-
land, on Lake Erie, to the Ohio, at the mouth of the
Scioto ; lockage, 1,185 feet ; length of the main line,
306 miles ; feeders, fifteen miles ; total, 322 miles.
Estimated expense, 2,801,000 dollars. The route is
from Portsmouth, on the Ohio, (where it is 474 feet
above tide level, and ninety-four below Lake Erie,)
up the valley of the Scioto, to Pikestown ; thence
crossing the river to near Chilicothe ; thence again
crossing the river, it continues along the eastern bank
to Big Belly Creek, where it receives a feeder, tea
miles long, from the Scioto at Columbus ; it then
passes up the valley of Walnut Creek to the Licking
and Walnut Creek summit, between the head waters
of those streams. From the summit it continues
down the valley of Licking Creek to Rocky Fork,
and thence across the valley to the Tomaka, and
down that stream to near its junction with the Mus
kingum. From this point an ascent commences,
and the line passes up the Muskingum Valley to
White Woman's Creek ; crossing this, it proceeds up
the valley of Tuscarawas Fork, first on the western,
then on the eastern bank, to a point where its two
head waters unite, near the southwest angle of Port
age county. This is the centre of the Portage
summit, extending ten miles. From the north of the
Portage or Akron summit (499 feet above the Ohio at
Portsmouth, 973 feet above, the Atlantic, 405 above
Lake Erie,) it passes down the Cuyahoga Valley, first
on the west, afterward on the east side of the river, to
within six miles of its mouth at Cleaveland, for which

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

409

six miles the river channel with a towing-path is to
be used. — Miami Canal, forty feet wide at the surface,
and four feet in depth, from Cincinnati,, on the Ohio,
to the Maumee, near the head of Lake Erie, Was
commenced in 1825. Length of main line,. 265 miles ;
feeders, twenty-five miles ; total, 290 ; lockage, 889
feet ; estimated expense, 2,929,957 dollars. The line
from Cincinnati to Dayton was completed in 1831.
This division embraces twenty-two locks, and length
of canal sixty-five miles. The summit level, com
mencing eighteen miles north of Dayton, extends
sixty miles within a single lock. To aid the state
in extending this canal to Lake Erie, there is assigned
by congress, of the public lands which the same shall
pass through, a quantity equal to one half of five
sections in width, on each side of the canal between
Dayton and the Maumee River at the mouth of the
Auglaise, the United States reserving each alternate
section ; provided this extension be commenced
within five years from May, 1828, and finished
within twenty ; the canal to be a highway for the
United States, free from toll.
The principal manufactures are flour and spirits,
and woollen and cotton cloth, with: family manufac
tures to a great amount. The number of steam-boats
built is great. About 200 are now plying in the
western valley. The principal exports are flou r, pork.
and tobacco ; which are carried down the Ohio and
Mississippi to New Orleans. Foreign goods are re
ceived from the same place by the steam-bOats, and
from Philadelphia and Baltimore, across the Allegany
Mountains. Education is pretty generally extended through
this state. There is a university at Athens, called
the Ohio University ; and another at Oxford, called
the Miami University. One section, or the thirty-
sixth part of every township, has been granted by
the government of the United States for the support
of schools. Kenyon College, recently founded by the
instrumentality of Bishop Chase, has now connect
ed with it a Theological Seminary; the whole

under the charge of the Right Rev. Bishop M'llvaine,
President. It is a flourishing institution, and promi
ses largely to contribute the light of science and
useful knowledge over a vast extent of country.
The studies of Kenyon College are thus stated :—
FRESHMAN CLASS.

Livy, Horace,
Septuagint, Herodotus,
Greek and Roman Antiquities,

Geography and History, (An
cient and Modern.)

SOPHOMORE CLASS.

Cicero, Tusc. Q,ua?s.,
Uuintilian, Iliad,
Xenophon, Memorabilia,

Algebra, Mathematics,
Jamiescn's Grammar of Rhe:-
• oric.

JUNIOR CLASS.

Tacitus,
Plato, Thucydides, Demos, pro
Coron.,
Mathematics,

Political Economy,
Rhetoric and Logic, ( Whateley,)
Natural Theology,
Chemistry.

SENIOR CLASS,
Natural Philosophy,
Intellectual and Moral Philoso
phy,
Constitution of the United States,
Butler's Analogy,

Evidences of Christianity,
Mineralogy. and Geology,
Cicero de Officiis,
Sophocles Oedip. Tyran. Euri
pides, Medea.

During the whole college course, a portion ofthe Greek Testa
ment will be critically read every week.
There are many incorporated academies in different
parts of the state, and a college established at Cin
cinnati. The Presbyterians in this state have 346 churches,
192 ministers, 11 licentiates, and 22,150 communi
cants ; the Baptists, 14 associations, 240 churches,
140 ministers, and 8,801 communicants ; the Method-
dists, 91 preachers, and 36,064 members ; the Luther
ans, 37 ministers, and 8,706 communicants ; the
Associate Presbyterians, 65 congregations, 20 minis
ters, and 4,225 communicants ; the German Reformed,
82 congregations, and 3,750 communicants ; the
Episcopalians, 16 ministers ; the New Jerusalem
Church, 4 societies ; there are also a considerable
number of Friends and Roman Catholics, and some
Universalists, Unitarians, and Shakers.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Adams, s 
Allen, w. m. 
Ashtabula, n. e 
Athens, s. e. . . ... .
Belmont, e 
Brown, s 
Butler, s. w 
Champaign, w. M. . . .
Clark, s. w. M 
Clermont, s. w 

Population,

Square

1830.

Miles.

12,278

550

578

542

14,584

705

9,763

744

28,412

536

17,867

492

27,044

486

12,130

417

13,074

412

20,466

515

County Towns.
West Union 
Wapaghkonetta ....
Jefferson 
Athens 
St. Clairsville 
Georgetown 
Hamilton 
Urbana 
Springfield 
Batavia 

Population.

429 270729 789
325
1,097
1,102 1,080 426

Distance.
C* | W.t

101110 191 73
124104101 5043
109

460507325 344275480488447 437476

* From Columbus.

t From Washington.

410

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

¦' Counties.

Population, 1830.

Square Miles.

County Towns.

Population.

Distance.
C* | W.t

12,292
35,508 11,162 4,778 -
10,360 6,203
1 1,523
24,788 8,180
14,766 9,733
15,81315,08418,036
52,321 813
20,920 260
16,347 4,0089,133
13,345 5,974
22,489 17,124 5,366
20,864 5,6966,4426,1906,5587,5606,159 1,110
12,806 8,770
24,252 11,796
29,325 160
14,01815,935 6,024
18,82716,255 230
24,00724,053 2,8518,7305,148 3,671
26,78426,154 14,298 3,192 49
21,493 11,731
23,344 377
1,095

400865 562
584475660
610540
415520495 600416621500 400
575450
474 555432400840492400 610
426 666555
425448527473405 570444563
450 500664432
402495 414752432576 900672656581546418 780
875 654430 432 400
670660 600744

607
1,138 333298
1,076 160
532
1,530 300
2,437 755
881919
518
24,831 52
820564 97
319 310329
2,937 1,021 149
999
- 668 266249287622 164 92
504 157
2,965 267
3,094 576
1,136 271806511840
2,846 351
1,064 248240
1,257 510410 142
1,157 1,207 977 52
182

67
152 84 69
138103 2328-45
108 157 5783
66
112114124161 74
4780
113 74
149 45
135 34
130 62
2747
111 94
111 78
140 6670
59
46 2665
127 92
148 71
45
103 9185 86
116157 107 37
146 83
106 86
175135

444282 336409 354 501
419 372 422396
362332453314436497502
278485
441 370
341399387
260 375
405 362 377
458 423416 357343508
474294
462 340
336 354 394
409320
488538380404428421431 482 ¦:
319 297 314433533
468 304347511460

Steubenville 
Mount Vernon 
Burlington 
London 
St. Mary's . . .
Troy 
Tiffin 
Total 
937,679
40,150
POPULATION OF OHIO AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
CINCINNATI.
Population.
Increase.
In 1790, about 3,000
1800, 45,365
From 1790 to 1800,
1810, 230,760
1800 1810,
1820, 581,434
1810 1820,
1830, 937,637
1820 1830,
43,365
195,395350,674
356,203
Population.
In 1800, 1810, -.
1820, 1826,
1830,1831,
750
2,5409,642-
16,230
24,831
28,014
* From Columbus.
t From Washington.
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

411

Cincinnati, the largest town, is near the southwest
corner of the state, on the Ohio, twenty miles above
the mouth of the Great Miami. This town was
first laid out in 1789, and began to flourish after the
year 1794, since which time its growth in population,
wealth, and trade, has been exceedingly rapid. It is
the emporium of the western country, and, next
to New Orleans, much the largest town in the United
States west of the Allegany Mountains. It is advan
tageously and pleasantly situated. It stands partly
on the first and partly on the second bank of the river,
the upper part being elevated fifty or sixty feet above
the lower. The central part of the town is very
compact, and a great proportion of the houses are
handsomely built of brick. The principal public
buildings and institutions in 1829 were a court-house,
a jail, the medical college, the Cincinnati College, an
hospital, a museum, a city library, the apprentices'
library, three market-houses, five insurance companies,
twenty-three places of public worship, five classical
schools, and forty-seven common schools. There
were published, at the same period, two daily news
papers, two semi-weekly, and five weekly, besides
other periodicals. In 1826, there belonged to the
city twenty-eight clergymen, thirty-four attorneys,
and thirty-five physicians. The number of students
in the medical college, in 1825, was eighty-two.
The Cincinnati College was incorporated in 1819.
Cincinnati is a place of great trade and extensive
manufactures. The exports, of which the most con
siderable articles are flour and pork, amounted, in
1826, to 1,063,560 dollars ; and the imports, in the
same year, to 2,528,590 dollars, a considerable por
tion ol the imports being brought here for re-exporta
tion. There are between thirty and forty manufac
turing establishments, some of which are on a very
extensive scale ; and their works are, to a great
extent, moved by steam-power. The whole value of
the manufactures, in all the departments, was estima
ted, in 1828, at 1,850,000 dollars. The markets of
Cincinnati are abundantly supplied with various kinds
of provisions, at a low price.
Chilicothe is on the west bank of the Scioto, forty-
five miles, in a direct line, from its mouth. It has
many valuable mills and manufactories, and is the
second town in the state. Columbus, the seat of
government, is regularly laid out on a pleasant rising
ground on the east bank of the Scioto, just below the
confluence of Whetstone, forty-five miles north of
Chilicothe. Marietta, the oldest town in the state,
is on the Ohio, at the mouth of the Muskingum.
Its situation is unfortunate, parts of the town being
liable to an annual inundation, an inconvenience

which has much retarded its growth. Zanesville is
on the Muskingum, sixty miles north of Marietta.
Steubenville is on the Ohio, near the Pennsylvania
boundary. Athens is on the Hockhocking, about
fifty miles east of Chilicothe. Cleaveland is on Lake
Erie, at the mouth of the Cayahogo.
INDIANA
Is bounded by the Lake and territory of Michigan
on the north ; by Ohio on the east ; by Kentucky,
from which it is separated by the River Ohio, on the
south ; and by Illinois on the west. It extends from
latitude 37° 48' to 41° 36'; and longitude 41° 42' to
87° 49'. Indiana is in length 264 miles ; in mean
width 124 ; and its area is 34,000 square miles.
There are no mountains in Indiana ; the country,
however, is more hilly than the state of Illinois, par
ticularly towards the Ohio. A range of hills called
the Knobs, extends from the falls of the Ohio to the
Wabash, in a southwest direction, in many places
producing a broken and uneven surface. North of
these hills lie the flat woods, seventy miles wide.
Bordering on all the principal streams, except the
Ohio, there are stripes of bottom and prairie land,
both together from three to six miles in width.
Between the Wabash and Lake Michigan the coun
try is mostly champaign, abounding alternately with
woodlands, prairies, lakes, and swamps. A range of
hills runs parallel with the Ohio, from the mouth of
the great Miami to Blue River, alternately approach
ing to within a few rods of the river, and receding
to the distance of two miles. Immediately below
Blue River the hills disappear, and there is presented
to the view an immense tract of level land, covered
with a heavy growth of timber. North of the Wa
bash, between Tippecanoe and Ouitanan, the banks of
the streams are high, abrupt, and broken, and the land,
except the prairies, is well timbered. Between the
Plein and Theakiki the country is flat, wet, and
swampy, and interspersed with prairies of an inferior
quality. The sources of rivers are generally in
swamps or lakes, and the country around them is
low, and too wet for cultivation. The soil of the
prairies is often as deep and fertile as the best bot
toms. Those bordering on the Wabash are particu
larly rich. Wells have been dug in them, where
the vegetable soil was twenty-two feet deep, under
which was a stratum of fine white sand. The or
dinary depth is from two to fivr, feet.
The climate is generally healthy and pleasant,
resembling that of Ohio. The Wabash is frozen
over in the winter, so that it may be safely crossed

412

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

on the ice. More than half the land in this state
remains in the possession of the Indians. Its prin
cipal productions are wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats,
barley, buckwheat, potatoes, pulse, beef, pork, butter,
whiskey, and peach brandy. Not far from Big Blue
River there is a large cave, the entrance of which is
on the side of a hill, about 400 feet high. Here are
found great quantities of sulphate of magnesia, or
Epsom salt, of nitre, &c. The earth most strongly
impregnated yields twenty or twenty-five pounds of
salt to a bushel.
When Indiana was admitted into the union, in
1816, congress granted one section, or one thirty-
sixth part of each township, for the support of schools.
One entire township, or 23,040 acres, said to be
worth, on an average, ten dollars an acre, was also
given for the support of a college. The college is
situated at Vincennes, and a large brick building is
already erected for its use. The constitution of In

diana contains the following important provision
respecting general education : " It shall be the duty
of the general assembly, as soon as circumstances
will permit, to provide by law for a general system
of education, ascending in a regular gradation from
township schools to a state university, wherein tui
tion shall be gratis, and equally open to all." The
cause of popular education has not, however, as yet,
received that attention which this provision of the
constitution would seem to warrant, or which its
importance demands ; it is, nevertheless, advancing,
and excites increased interest. Several respectable
public and private seminaries are supported in differ
ent parts of the state.
The Baptists in this state have 11 associations,
181 churches, 127 ministers, and 6,513 communi
cants ; the Methodists, 34 preachers, and 13,794
members ; the Presbyterians, about 50 churches, and
20 ministers.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Allen, n. e 
Bartholomew, m 
Boon, s. w. m. . . . , . .
Carroll 
Cass 
Clark, s. . . . 
Clay, w. 
Clinton 
Crawford, s 
Daviess, s. w. M 
Dearborn, s. e 
Decatur, s. e. m. 
Delaware, e. m 
Dubois, s. w. M 
Elkhart 
Fayette, e. m 
Floyd, s. e 
Fountain, w 
Franklin, s. f. 
Gibson, s. w 
Greene, s. w. n 
Hamilton, M 
Hancock, m 
Harrison, s. e 
Hendricks, M 
Henry, e. m. .......
Jackson, s. M 
Jefferson, s. e 
Jennings, s. e. m 
Johnson, m 
Knox, w 
Lawrence, s. m. 
Madison, m. 
Marion, m 
Martin, s. m 
Monroe, s. M. 
Montgomery, w. M. . . . .
Morgan, m 
Orange, a. m 
Owen, w. m 
Parke, w 
Perry, s 
Pike, s. w. 

Population.

1,000
5,480 622
1,6141,154
10,719 1,6161,423
3,184
4,512
14,573 5,8542,372 1,774 935
9,112 6,3637,644
10,199 5,417 4,253 1,750 1,569
10,288 3,9676,4984,894
11,465 3,950
4,139 6,557
9,237 2,4427,1812,0106,578 7,386 5,5797,909
4,060 7,534
3,378 2,464

County Towns,

Distance.
Ind.* | W.t

Fort Wayne
Columbus . .
Thorntown . .
Delphi . . .
Logansport . .
Charlestown Bowling-Green
Frankfort . .,
Fredonia . . .
WashingtonLawrenceburghGreensburgh .
Muncytown Portersville . .
Pulaski . . .
ConnersvilleNew Albany .
Covington . .
Brookville . .
Princetown . .
Bloomfield . .
Noblesville . .
Greenfield . .
Corydon . . .
Danville . . .
New Castle . .
Brownstown
Madison . . .
Vernon . . .
Franklin . .
Vincennes . .
Bedford . . .
Anderson town
Indianapolis Mount Pleasant
Bloomington .
CrawfordsvilleMartinsvillePaoli ....
Spencer . . .
Rockvil.e . .
Rome ....
Petersburgh

141 41 62 88
113
105

122 106 9855
59
124 68
121 81 70
141 762221
124 204969
85 64
20
126 7341
121 5144 30945268
143 119

561598620661642
583641632 673523559546662
527594 654524 702648580 552614593536603
576565593 693633 561573 659627617603636624640 655

From Indianapolis.

t From Washington.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UMTKI) STATES.

413

Counties.
Posey, s. w 
Putnam, w. M 
Randolph, e 
Ripley, s. e. m. . . , . . . .
Rush, e. m 
St. Joseph, n., 
Scott, S. E  . . .
Shelby, m 
Spencer, s 
Sullivan, w  ,
Switzerland, s 
Tippecanoe, n. w. m 
Union, e  ,
Vanderburgh, s. w 
Vermillion, w 
Vigo, w 
Wabash, n. w. m 
Warren, w 
Warrick, s. w 
Washington, s. M 
Wayne, e  Total 

Population

6,883
8,195 3,9123,9579,918 287
3,097 6,294
3,187
4,696 7,111
7,1677,957
2,6105,706
5,7372,854 2,937
13,072 18,587

341,582

County Towns.
Mount Vernon 
Green Castle 
Winchester 
Versailles- 
Rushville 
Tarecoopy 
New Lexington 
Shelbyville 
Rockport 
Merom 
Vevay 
Lafayette 
Liberty 
Evansville . .' 
Newport 
Terre Haute 
Elk Heart Plain 
Williamsport , 
Boonville 
Salem 
Centreville 

Distance.
Ind.* I W.t

187 429779
4089
30
167
115 105 70
77
170 86
83
196187 9163

748
614
523551553
594
575692688556643
650 728
658655616712
613
510

POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

Population.

Increase.

Slaves

1800, 5,641

133

1810, 24,520

From 1800 to 1810, 18,879

237

1820, 147,178

1810 1820, 122,658

190

1830, 341,582

1820 1830, 194,404

0

Indiana was admitted into the union in 1816, and
contained, in 1815, by enumeration, 68,780 in
habitants. This state has had a rapid increase of
inhabitants ; yet the greater part of the, land within
its limits still belongs to the United States. It con
tains no large towns.
Vincennes, the largest town in the state, is on the
east bank of the Wabash, sixty-five miles from its
junction with the Ohio in a direct line, but nearly
120 by the course of the river. It was settled about
a century ago by the French from Lower Canada,
many of whom intermarried with the Indians, and
gradually approximated to the savage state ; but
within a few years American emigrants have flocked
thither, and the society is rapidly improving. Cory-
don, in Harrison county, on Indian Creek, and about
twenty -five miles west of Louisville, was, until lately,
the seat of government. This settlement commenced
in 1809, and is rapidly increasing. Vevay, in Swit
zerland county, is pleasantly situated on the second
bank of the Ohio, twenty-five feet above high-water
mark. The inhabitants are emigrants from the
Pays de Vaud, in Switzerland. In 1814, the site of
the town was a forest, but it is now a flourishing
settlement. The country in the rear is broken and
fertile ; and, half a mile below the village are the
-Swiss vineyards, where the culture of the vine has
been successfully introduced. Brookville, pleasantly

Vol. IL-

* From Indianapolis.
-Nos. 71 cfc 72. 3 G

situated in the forks of Whitewater River, is a flour
ishing town, and will probably be the centre of trade
for an extensive and fertile portion of the state.
Jeffersonville, on the Ohio, a little above the falls,
and nearly opposite Louisville, promises to become
a place of considerable business. Princeton, Har
mony, Evansville, Troy, Terre Haute, Madison,
Lawrenceburgh, and Fort Wayne, are all thriving
settlements. The seat of government has been lately
fixed at Indianapolis, near the centre of the state.
ILLINOIS.
This state has the Trans-Michigan territory for
its northern boundary; Lake Michigan, Indiana,
and Kentucky on the southeast ; and the Mississippi
on the west and southwest. Length from the junction
of the Mississippi and Ohio, north latitude 37°, to
the northern boundary of the state, north latitude
42° 30, 382 miles ; mean breadth, 154 miles ; area,
58,900 square miles, equal to 35,696,000 statute
acres. Illinois is, after Virginia, Georgia, and_ Missouri,
the largest in point of extent, and in general fertility
the first state of the union. Extending over a zone
of 5£° of latitude, it embraces the greatest extent north
and south ; Georgia and New York only embracing
each 42°. Illinois is, comparatively speaking, a very
gently inclined plane. It is a country of so very

t From Washington.

414

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

little difference of level, that it may be doubted
whether the general level varies 600 feet. The sur
face of it is singular, and very picturesque. It is
nearly all prairie, with a few groves of timber widely
separated from each other, and deeply indented with
ravines, whose sides slope off into low round hills,
as if an exact plain had been divided into an infinite
number of globular eminences. With all its uni
formity of surface, the climate at the extremes differs
very materially.
Illinois, in regard to soil, resembles Ohio and
Indiana, but with less of flat and irreclaimable land
than either, and more generally of rich plain than
both the latter taken together. The surface is roll
ing on the south and west, and level on the north
and east. The staple productions of Illinois are
Indian corn, wheat, potatoes, beef, pork, horses,
tobacco, and lead. The castor bean is raised, and
oil is manufactured from it, but not in large quanti
ties. Good cotton is produced for home consump
tion, and is manufactured extensively in the families
of the farmers, into coarse fabrics, for domestic uses.
Hemp, flax, and silk-worms, succeed well. Apples,
peaches, pears, plums, cherries, grapes, gooseberries,
and currants, arrive at great perfection. The wild
fruits are grapes, plums, cherries, gooseberries, mul
berries, crab-apples, persimmons, blackberries, rasp
berries, and strawberries. In the timbered parts of
the country the trees exhibit a luxuriant growth, and
are often seen of an enormous size.
The whole of this country abounds in coal. Salt
is manufactured extensively in the neighbourhood of
Shawneetown, in Gallatin county ; salt springs have
been discovered in other places, but salt has not yet
been manufactured from them. Sulphur springs,
chalybeate springs, and very strong impregnations
of pure sulphate of magnesia, abound in different
parts. In the southern part of the state a number
of sections of land have been reserved on account of
the silver ore which they are supDosed to contain.

The lead mines in the vicinity of Galena, are very
extensive and valuable. The mineral has been
found in every portion of a tract of more than fifty
miles in extent in every direction, and is supposed
to occupy a territory of more than twice that size.
The ore lies in beds, or horizontal strata, varying in
thickness from one inch to several feet. It yields
seventy-five per cent, of pure lead.
A canal has been projected, though not yet com
menced, to unite Lake Michigan with the river Illi
nois, and the general government has made a dona
tion of land in aid of the design. The length will
be about seventy miles ; and the cost is estimated at
800,000 dollars. Labourers are now employed in
the construction of that part of the national road
which extends from the town of Vandalia to the
eastern boundary of Indiana, near Terre Haute.
The length of this part is ninety miles, and the road
is so straight that its length is not so much as a
mile greater than the distance by a right line be
tween the two extreme points.
Land to the amount of 998,374 acres has been
given for the support of schools ; but no system of
general education has yet been organized. The
following particulars are extracted from an "Appeal
in behalf of the Illinois College." " It appears that
in the fifty-one counties, containing a population of
157,575 souls, there are 550 common schools, and
fifty-one Sunday schools. From the new census it
appears that the number of children in the state is
47,895 ; an examination shows that the whole num
ber of children in tbe schools, at one season or other,
is 12,290. Large numbers of the men and women
throughout the state, and a great proportion of the
children, are wholly unable to read."
The Baptists in this state have 6 associations, 80
churches, 69 ministers, and 2,432 communicants;
the Methodists, 45 preachers and 8,859 members ;
the Presbyterians, 24 churches, 13 ministers, and
492 communicants.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Adams, w. 
Alexander, s. 
Bond, w. m 
Calhoun, w.  . .
Clark, e 
Clay, e. m 
Clinton, s. m. ............ .
Crawford, £. 
Edgar, e. 
Edwards, e. ..... 
Fayette, m 
Franklin, a.  * From Vandalia.

Population.

2,186 1,390
3,124 1,090
3,940 755
2,3303,1134,071 1,649
2,7044,081

County Towns.
duincy 
America 
Greenville 
Gilead  ,
Clark, CH 
Maysville  ,
Carlyle  ,
Palestine  '.
Paris  ,
Albion 
'Vandalia  ,
Frankfort 
t From Washington.

Distance.

V.* |

W.t

193

974

181

860

20

801

126

907

86

696

46

' 740-

30

802

118

718

106

675

92

733

781

102

c

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE I.mI'ED STATLS.

415

1  1 ¦ — —  . 
Counties.

Population.

County Towns.

Distance.
v.* j W.t'

Fulton, n. m. )
Henry, n. > 

2,156
f7,407 7,6642,620 484
1,827
2,5552,111 1,596
3,661 1,9891J122
6,229
2,021 26
2,1192,950
12,709 2,050 1,309 1,215
2,3933,3234,436 7,092
12,960 2,9734,716 3,239
5,836 2,709 307
1,674
2,5626,091

133188137 106 93
133127 65
326 167 8495 70
55269928
115172 43
129148160 95 71
79
40
149 154
150 109 6994

854 877773
887 773
914833801990817 702
861771830 777
890809837 894807
842929791 '
867
843801 741790830 683716 756748

Knox, n. m. )

Knox, C. H 

Brownsville 
Mount Vernon ....
Galena 
Carlinville  .
Macdonough, w. m. )
Peoria, n. m. )
Atlas 
157,575, of whom 746 are slaves.
POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
Population.
Increase.
Slaves
1810, 12,282
168
1820, 55,211
From 1810 to 1820, 42,929
917
1830, 157,575
1820 1830, 102,364
746
Illinois was admitted into the union in 1818, and
contained that year, by enumeration, 35,220 in
habitants. Kaskaskia, lately the seat of government, is on the
right bank of the Kaskaskia river, eleven miles from
its mouth. It contains a land office, a printing
office, and about 160 houses, scattered over an ex
tensive plain. The town was settled upwards of
100 years ago by emigrants from Lower Canada,
and about one half of the inhabitants are French.
The surrounding country is under good cultivation.
Cahokia is a French settlement, on the Mississippi,
fifty-two miles north-north-west of Kaskaskia, and
five miles below St. Louis. Shawneetown is on the
north bank of the Ohio, twelve miles below the
mouth of the Wabash, and twelve miles east of the salt
* From Vandalia.
works belonging to the state on Saline creek. The in
habitants are supported principally by the profits ofthe
salt trade. Edwardsville is a flourishing town on
Cahokia river, twenty-two miles northeast of St.
Louis. Vandalia, fifty miles northeast of Edwards
ville, is now the seat of government.
MISSOURI.
This was the last state admitted into the union. It
is bounded on the west and north by the unappropri
ated territory of the United States ; on the east by the
Mississippi, which divides it from Illinois and Ten
nessee ; and on the south by the Arkansas territory.
It extends from longitude 89° to 94° 10', and from
latitude 36° to 40° 36'. Mean length from north to
south 280 miles ; area rather exceeding 63,000
t From Washington.
416

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

square miles, or 40,320,000 acres ; the mean width
is 225 miles.
Though, with the exception of the alluvial bot
toms, Missouri is rolling or hilly, yet no part rises to
an elevation deserving the name of a mountain.
A chain of hills commences southeast • from the
mouth of Osage river, and stretching southwest, is
the beginning of the Ozark or Maserne chain ; but
it remains humble until far within Arkansas. No
other state of the union, however, is so greatly di
versified in respect to soil and external features.
The prairie region, commencing in Ohio and In
diana, spreading into immense plains in Illinois,
expands still more in western Missouri. To a civil
ized and commercial people, rivers are of primary
importance. The far greater part of fertile and
easily cultivated soil is on the banks of rivers ;
where also rise the most extensive and wealthy
cities. In this respect there is perhaps no equal
section ofthe earth to compare with Missouri. The
Mississippi sweeps along its eastern border 550
miles, receiving in its course the still mightier
Missouri. The latter entering the western boundary
traverses the state, receiving from each side tribu
taries which, if not contrasted with the stream
into which they are poured, would deserve the
title of fine rivers. The Osage, rising in the an
gle between Arkansas and Kansas rivers, on the vast
plains west from the state of Missouri, carries its
very serpentine but navigable volume into Missouri
river near the centre of the state. The Illinois
and Ohio, though . not within the state, are in a
commercial point of view rivers of Missouri. The
White river and the St. Francis rise in this state,
and flowing southward, connect it with the Ar
kansas. The soil is as varied as is the surface ; every
quality is found, from the most productive and ex-
haustless alluvion, to sterile clay or silicious sand.
On the eastern border, and near the streams gene
rally, a dense forest covered Missouri • although in
some places naked prairie encroaches upon the streams.
In general terms the southeast section is alluvial,
and liable to a partial annual inundation ; the south
western is mixed prairie and "Flint Hill" land.
The northern section, west from the Mississippi, and
north from the Missouri, says Mr. Flint, " is no
where mountainous. It contains great tracts of
alluvial and hilly prairies. It is for the most part
a surface delightfully rolling and variegated. There
is no part of the globe where greater extents of
country can be traversed more easily, and in any
direction, by carriages of any description, where

there are no roads, and thaf is yet in a state of
nature." These three portions- have each their ap
propriate features, but are interspersed with minor
tracts partaking of the general character of the others.
According to Mr. Flint there is a specific difference
between the alluvium of the two rivers Mississippi
and Missouri; the bottoms of the Missouri being
more loamy and sandy, and those of its rival more
clayey, and yet more substantial. The whole state
will, with no very great exceptions, support a dense
population. Its geographical extent, and its very
great diversity of soil, will admit a correspondent
variety of vegetable production. Wheat and Indian
corn have been from the first the staples, though in
the southeast section cotton is produced. Agricul
ture in all its forms, either as an art Or a science, is in
its infancy in Missouri, as it may be considered to
be in any newly settled country where nature has
done too much. — Three winters in five the Missis
sippi becomes passable on the ice at St. Louis. In
1818, it was so for upwards of two months. Rece
ding from the Atlantic, it is in this state that the
frigid winds of the northwest are first experienced
in all their force. The climate is, in brief, Cold and
windy, as well as dry and bracing. The successive
years also vary exceedingly ; and uncertain as are
the revolutions in meteorology elsewhere, they are
proverbially variable in the state of Missouri and th«
adjacent regions.
This state has become celebrated for immense
deposits of lead ore, chiefly of galena. The princi
pal lead region is in Washington county and the
parts adjacent, extending about 30 by 15 miles. The
centre of the district is about 70 miles southwest
from St. Louis. The ore is found in imbedded
masses, and evidently a deposit. None has yet been
found in situ, though some of the diggings have
reached to 80 feet. Coal in immense strata also exists
in Missouri, and at some future period must greatly
exceed in value the lead mines ; as in a country of
intense winter and scarcity of wood, coalmines must
be a resource of primary importance. Iron ore forms
no inconsiderable part of many of the hills of Mis
souri ; but as this invaluable mineral is found almost
every where, its existence here, though highly ad -
vantageous, gives but little local preference.
The principal exports are lead and furs. A large
capital is employed in the fur-trade with the Indians
up the Missouri and Mississippi. St. Louis is the cen
tre of this commerce. Boats are continually passing
between St. Louis and New Orleans. Since the in
dependence of Mexico, a considerable trade has been
carried on with the interior provinces of that repub-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

417

lie. In 1825, commissioners of "the United States
laid out a road through the wilderness, from Mis
souri to Mexico; and the Osages by treaty, in con
sideration of 800 dollars, granted the right of making
and using the road through their lands.
St. Louis-College, and another seminary, at a place
called Bois Brule Bottom, in the southern part of the
state, both Catholic institutions, are the most consi
derable literary seminaries in Missouri. St. Louis
College, pleasantly situated on the outside of the city
of St. Louis, was founded in 1829. The building
is of brick, fifty feet by forty, four stories high, in
cluding the basement ; and the library contains

about 1,200 volumes. There are five professors,
and 125 pupils, partly from Catholic and partly from
Protestant families, attending to different branches of
English education, and the elementary parts of classi
cal learning. There are several convents in the
state, to which young females are sent for education.
The Baptists in this state have nine associations,
111 churches, 67 ministers, and 3,955 communicants ;
the Methodists, 23 preachers, and 3,403 members ;
the Presbyterians, 17 churches, 10 ministers, and
605 communicants ; the Roman Catholics, a consi
derable number of churches and priests ; the Episco
palians, 3 ministers.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Boone, m 
Callaway, m 
Cape Girardeau, s. e. ...
Chariton, n. m 
Clay, n. w 
Cole, m 
Cooper, m 
Crawford 
Franklin, e. m 
Gasconade, m 
Howard, m 
Jackson, w 
Jefferson, e 
Lafayette, w. ..... .
Lincoln, e 
Madison 
Marion, n. e  .-
Monroe ........
Montgomery, e. m. .....
New Madrid, s. e. ....
Perry, e 
Pike, n. e. ...... .
Ralls, n. e 
Randolph, n. m 
Ray, n 
St. Charles, e 
St. FranpDJse, s. E. M. . . .
SuGenevieve, e 
St. Louis,* e 
Saline, n. m 
Scott, s. e 
Washington, E. M 
Wayne  Total ....

Population.

8,8896,102 7,430 1,776
5,342 3,0066,019 1,709
3,484 1,548 "
10,844 2,822
2,586 2,9214,0602,3714,839 3,900
2,351 3,3776,1224,3462,9622,657
4,322 2,3862,182
14,907 2,893 2,136 6,797 3,254

County Towns.

Columbia . .
Fulton . . .
Jackson . . .
Chariton . . .
Liberty . . .
Jefferson Citt
Booneville . .
Little Piney
Union ....
Gasconade . .
Fayette . . .
Independence .
Herculaneum .
Lexington . .
Troy . . . .
Fredericktown .
Palmyra . . .
Monroe, C H.
Lewistown . .
New Madrid .
Perryville . .
Bowling-GreenNew London .
Randolph . .
Richmond . .
St. Charles . .
Farmington St. Genevieve .
St. Louis . .
Walnut Farm .
Benton . . .
PotOsi . . . .
Greenville . .

140,074, of whom 24,990 are slaves.

Distance.
J.* I W.t

5632
208 79
190 5198 79
47 65
1771G4138 97
170190129 67
278 187132167 96
149
123152 168
134 85
236 127
200

891
967856
1031
1142 980
1023 989 901939
10171129 886
1090 913894 984998
932 892 882
948961
1042
1101 876 912874856
1038 861 915
908

POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

Popul

ition.

Increase.

Slaves.

1810,

19,833

3,011

1820,

66,586

1824,

80,677

From 1800 to 1820, 46,753

10,222

1830,

140,074

1820 1830, 73,488

24,990 w

The situation of
and healthy. The
gradually from the
Mississippi. Three
and are intersected

St. Louis is elevated, pleasant,
ground on which it stands rises
first to the second bank of the
streets run parallel with the river,
by others at right angles. The

* From Jefferson City.
t From Washington.

town extends along the river about two miles. The
second bank of the river is about forty feet higher
than the spot on which the town is chiefly built, and
affords a fine view of the town and river. On this
bank stand the fortifications, erected in early times
t Population of St. Louis, the largest town, in 1820, 4,598 ; and
in 1830, 5,852.

418

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

for the defence of the place. They consist of several
circular towers, twenty feet in diameter and fifteen
in height, a small stockaded fort, and a stone breast
work. The courts are held in one of the buildings
of the fort, and another is used for a prison. The
town contains three houses of public worships land
office, a brewery, two water-mills, one steam-mill, a
museum, two banks, a theatre, and two printing-
offices, from each of which is issued a weekly news
paper. The houses are mostly of wood, but many
are built of stone and are white-washed; very few
of them are handsome. Most of the houses are fur
nished with a large garden. St. Louis was settled
in 1764. It is at present in a state of rapid improve
ment, fast increasing in population and trade. Its
situation is advantageous and interesting, being more
central with regard to the whole territory belonging
to the United States, than any other considerable
town. Uniting the advantages of the three great
rivers, Mississippi, Missouri, and Illinois, with their
numerous branches, and possessing unrivalled facili
ties for an extensive trade, it will probably become a
large city, and be the centre of an extensive commerce.
The country around and west of St. Louis, for the
distance of fifteen miles, is an extended prairie of
very luxuriant soil.*
The other chief towns in Missouri are, Hercula
neum, on the Mississippi, thirty miles below St. Louis ;
St. Genevieve, on the same river, sixty-four miles
below St. Louis ; St. Charles, on the Missouri, twenty-
five miles north of St. Louis ; Cape Girardeau, on
the Mississippi, sixty miles above the mouth of the
Ohio ; and New Madrid, on the Mississippi, sixty-
five miles below the mouth of the Ohio. Jefferson,
on the south side of the Missouri, near the mouth of
Osage River, has recently been laid out as the
seat of government. Franklin, in Boone's Lick
settlement, about seventy-five miles above Jefferson,
is- a thriving town.

CHAPTER IV.
DELAWARE — MARYLAND — DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
 VIRGINIA — KENTUCKY — NORTH CAROLINA —
TENNESSEE. DELAWARE.
With the exception of Rhode Island, this is the
smallest state in the union. It is bounded on the

* Steam-boat Navigation from St.Louis.St. Louis is 1,200 miles,
by the course of the river, above New Orleans. In the summer of
1831, there were six steam-boats regularly employed between St.
~.ouis and New Orleans. A trip from one place to the other and
baek again usually occupies twenty-four days; the shortest time

north by Pennsylvania ; on the east by Delaware Bay
and the Atlantic ; and on the south and west by
Maryland. Longitude, 74° 56! to 75° 40'; latitude,
38° 29' to 39' 47°. Length 100 miles ; mean width,
twenty-one miles ; and area 2,100 square miles.
Delaware is the least diversified in surface of any
of the states. The more northern part is hilly and
waving, but it becomes monotonous towards the
Atlantic Ocean. The actual dividing line between
the waters of the Delaware and the Chesapeake Bay
is in Delaware : but so far from being a ridge, it is
mostly an extended flat, from which the Pocomoke,
Nanticoke, Choptank, Chester, and Sassafras Rivers,
ooze, rather than flow, into Chesapeake Bay, and
a number of unimportant creeks flow into the Dela
ware. The soil, in some places excellent, is generally
thin, and in many places marshy. The climate is
more distinctly different, at the extremes, than could
be expected from a difference of latitude of only 1°
23' and no considerable difference of level. Fruits
are abundant, and grain and meadow-grass are the
general objects of agricultural pursuit. Wheat is
the staple commodity, and Delaware is noted for its
excellent flour. From the mean annual temperature
of Baltimore, it is evident that cotton might be made
a staple crop in Delaware, and on the eastern shore
of Maryland. Little metallic wealth can be expected
in a region so approaching to recent alluvium as
Delaware. The Delaware and Chesapeake Canal, which com
pletes a water communication by sloops and steam
boats between Philadelphia and Baltimore, commen
ces on the Delaware, about forty miles below Phila
delphia, crosses the peninsula in a direction nearly
west, and enters the tide waters of the Elk River, a
tributary of the Chesapeake. It is about fourteen miles
in length, sixty feet broad, and ten feet deep, with a
rise of eight feet only above the tide to its summit level.
The ample dimensions adapt it to the passage of the
largest schooners of the Chesapeake and Delaware
Bays, and the work is worthy of Philadelphia, in which
the design was conceived and matured. It presents
the greatest excavation ever attempted in any coun
try ; and the drains constructed for the passage o^
the waste water are nearly equal in magnitude to the
largest canal of New York. At its entrance into
the Delaware has been constructed a spacious har
bour, twenty feet deep at low water, capable of con
taining 200 vessels of a large class, and affording
in which one was ever made was eighteen days. The usual fare
for cabin passengers, descending, 20 dollars ; ascending, 25 dol
lars ; for deck passengers, 5 dollars either way. Freight per 100
lbs., descending, 37 1-2 cents; ascending, 62 1-2 cents. From' St,
Louis to Louisville, 630 miles: six boats regularly running, in

ft a
S3

.- ft

K] 1-1

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

419

shelter against the dangers of the bay at every sea
son of the year. The cost of the work is estimated
at about 1,200,000 dollars. In its session of 1824-5,
congress made a liberal subscription of 300,000 dollars
to this truly national undertaking.

The Methodists in this state have 15 preachers
and 12,304 members ; the Presbyterians, 8 churches,
9 ministers, 1 licentiate, and 1,300 communicants ;
the Baptists, 9 churches, 9 ministers, and 520 com
municants ; the Episcopalians, 6 ministers.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.

Kent, m. .;'. . . .
New Castle, N. . .
Sussex, s.[ , :.....
Total

Population, 1820.

20,793
¦27,899 24,057

72,749

Population, 183b: '

19,911
29,71027,118

County Towns.

Dover . .
^Newcastle (Wilmington
Georgetown

76,739, of whom 3,305 are slaves.

Distance.
D.* | W.t

114103
108122

Dover, & small town near the centre of the state,
is the seat of government. Wilmington, the largest
town, is situated between the Brandy wine and. Chris
tiana creeks, two miles from the Delaware, and is
celebrated for the number and importance of the
manufactories in its vicinity, particularly the flour
mills, w-hich are the finest in the United States.
Newcastle and Smyrna have some trade ; and Lewis-
town is noted for salt works.

MARYLAND.

The ground plan (if we may be permitted the ex
pression) of this state presents a very singular appear
ance, being completely, though irregularly, divided
in its whole length by perhaps the most noble estuary
in the world, Chesapeake Bay. The state is bounded
on the north by Pennsylvania ; on the east by Dela
ware and a portion of Virginia ; on the south by the
confluence of Chesapeake Bay with the Atlantic ;
and on the west by the Potomac, which separates it
from Virginia. It extends from longitude 75° 1 0' to
79° 20'; latitude 38° 03', and 39° 42'. "The area
of Maryland," says Mr. Darby, "is generally and
greatly overrated. This exaggeration has arisen
from its very irregular- form, and from including the
surface of Chesapeake Bay. I have taken some
extra trouble to- obtain the true area, and find that
the land superficies is within an inconsiderable frac
tion of 10,000 square miles."
All those parts of Maryland east from Chesapeake,
and west from that bay to the head of tides, may be

1831 : usual time of a trip, eleven days; the passage one way be
ing somewhat more than three days. Fare of cabin passengers,
about ten or jfifteen dollars either way ; deck passengers, four dol
lars; freights about 25 cents per lOOlbs. .One boat, also, ran
regularly to Cincinnati, 150 miles above Louisville. From St.
Louis to Fever River, about 480 miles: three steam-boats regu
larly employed in 1831 : time occupied by:a trip, about ten days.
Fare for passengers, ascending, 15 dollars; descending, 9 dollars.
The route of one of the boats occasionally extended to St. Peter's

considered as recent alluvium. Above tide water,
the surface rises, though not very rapidly, into hills,
which reach the foot of the mountains. The third or
mountainous section constitutes the Avestern part of
the state. Much highly productive soil exists in
each zone, but in general the intermediate valleys ot
the mountainous part contain the most fertile. The
limestone tracts of Frederick and Washington exhibit
a fertility not surpassed in the United States. The
hilly or middle zone is very variable ; and in a very
limited -extent are frequently found the extremes of
sterility and fertility. Tbe marine and river alluvial
section though not. affording any surface equally pro-
ductive'with the calcareous parts of the western, is
more uniform than the middle zone. The surface of the
alluvial region, though not rising into hills of any con
siderable elevation, is far from being a dead plain. In
a state of nature, Maryland was, with little exception,
covered with a dense forest. The diversity of soil and
elevation induces in Maryland an extended facility
of vegetable production, by which the staples have
been greatly multiplied. The whole arable surface
of Frederick, Washington, and Allegany counties,
may be regarded as lying more than 500 feet above
the ocean. The Apalachian- system of mountains
forms the western part of Maryland, and gives origin
to its most considerable river, the Potomac. The
ridges rise into a barrier in no place less than 2,486
feet in height, and in many places exceeding 3,000
feet. This mountain chain raises a very formidable
impediment to canal construction. An elevation
of 2,486 feet in winter gives to the mountain ridges
River, 400 miles further up. In 1831, two boats were employed
in running from St. Louis up the Missouri to Franklin, 200 miles,
and to Fort Leavenworth, 200 miles further. Freight to Franklin,
75 cents. perl 00 lbs., and to Forl Leaven.worth, from. 1 dollar 25
cents, to' 1 dollar 50 cents ; from Fraiiklin, down, 25 cents per 100
lbs. From St. Louis to Pekin, on Illinois River, 180 miles: two
or-three boats, regularly employed in 1831. Steam-boats come oc
casionally to St'. Louis from Pittsburgh and other places.
* From Dover. t From Washington.

420

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

of Maryland a temperature similar to that on the
Atlantic Ocean in latitude 45p.
The soil is generally a red clay or loam, and
much of it is excellent, producing good crops of
wheat, Indian corn, hemp, and flax. Here are also
fine orchards, and apples, pears, peaches, plums, and
cherries, are abundant. Of peaches, the inhabitants
make large quantities of peach brandy ; and of apples,
apple brandy and cider. The forests abound in nut-
bearing trees, which feed great numbers of swine.
These run wild, and, when fattened, are killed, bar
relled, and exported in great quantities. Beef and
mutton are also plentiful. Some cotton for domestic
use is raised in this state, but it is of inferior quality.
The most considerable export from this state is
that of flour ; and next to this is tobacco. The
other exports are iron, lumber, Indian corn, pork,
flaxseed, beans, &c. Its trade is principally carried
on from Baltimore. This state abounds with mines of
excellent iron ore, and has also some coal. Furnaces
have been erected in various parts for the manufac
ture of pig and bar iron, hollow ware, cannon, stoves,
&c. There are a number of glass works, paper mills,
&c. Large quantities of rye are distilled into whis
key ; but the most considerable manufacture is that
of flour.A turnpike has been completed from Baltimore
to Cumberland, on the Potomac, a distance of 135
miles. From Cumberland to Brownsville on the
Monongahela, in Pennsylvania, there is now completed
by the United States a free road of a most excellent
construction. The distance is seventy-two miles,
making the whole distance from Baltimore to Browns
ville 207 miles. A turnpike extends from Baltimore
in a north west direction sixteen miles, to Reister town,
and there divides ; one branch turning more to the
north, meets the Pennsylvania line in nineteen miles ;
the other in a west-northwest direction runs twenty
nine miles in Maryland. A turnpike road has been
made from Baltimore by York and Pennsylvania, to
the Susquehanna, by which large quantities of the
produce of Pennsylvania are brought to that city.
The Havre de Grace turnpike, leading to Philadelphia,
and the Belle Air turnpike, have both been commen
ced, and are advancing to their completion.
Port Deposit Canal is a public work of Maryland,
of ten miles in length, from Port Deposit, on the
east bank ofthe Susquehanna, along a line of rapids
northward to the boundary line of Maryland and
Pennsylvania. At Little or Lower Falls, on the Po
tomac, three miles above Washington, is a canal two
miles and a half long ; difference of level thirty-seven
feet one inch, overcome by four sets of locks of solid

masonry, eighty feet long and twelve wide. At
Great Falls, nine miles above, is a canal 1,200 yards
long, lined with walls of stone; difference of level
seventy-six feet nine inches, surmounted by five sets
of locks of solid masonry, 100 feet long, and from ten
to fourteen wide ; lifts from ten to eighteen feet.
Both here and at Little Falls, the canal dimensions
are twenty-five feet wide at surface, twenty at bottom,
four feet deep. Canals on a smaller scale are con
structed at Seneca Falls, Shenandoah Falls, and
House's Falls. These works were executed by the
Potomac company, incorporated in 1784 by Mary
land and Virginia ; but they are to be surrendered
to the Chesapeake and Ohio canal company. The
most important undertaking, however, is the Balti
more and Ohio Rail-road, which is to extend from
the city of Baltimore to the river Ohio, about 350
miles ; it is now in progress, and is the greatest en
terprise ofthe kind in America.
In 1696 funds were appropriated by the province
for the support of a college and free schools, the for
mer of which had made considerable progress before
1776. Washington College, at Chestertown, was
established in 1782. St. John's College was esta
blished in 1784, at Annapolis, and these two were
united into a university. After the peace of 1783,
a fund was again appropriated for the, college. This
was withdrawn in 1804 ; but the state appropriated
12,000 dollars per annum, and in 1813 laid a tax
upon bank stock, which yields about 10,000 dollars*
the whole of which is appropriated to the support of
free and charity schools. In addition to "this, the
personal estate of any person who dies intestate, and
leaves no relations within the fifth degree, is appro
priated to this object, with the exception of' the pro
perty of seamen who die in the port of Baltimore,
which devolves to the Charitable Marine Society.
The money received from the tax on bank stock is
equally divided among all the counties in the state,
although the population of some is much greater than
that of others. Sunday schools are very numerous.
— In 1807 the legislature founded, in the city of Bal
timore, a college for the instruction of students in the
different branches of medical knowledge, and, in 1812,
the faculty of medicine was authorized to annex the
faculties of divinity, law, and arts and sciences, the
whole of which were incorporated under the name
of the University of Maryland. The institution is
governed by twenty-eight regents and a provost.
The professor of theology and six ordained ministers
constitute the faculty of divinity ; the professor of
law and six qualified members of the bar, that of law ;
that of medicine is composed of the professors of sur-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

421

gery, anatomy, the theory and practice of physic,
chemistry and mineralogy, institutes of medicine,
obstetrics, and materia medica ; that of arts and
sciences is constituted of four professors and the
principals of any three academies or colleges in the
state. Each faculty organizes itself, chooses its own
dean, fills its own vacancies, and makes such rules
for its government as are not inconsistent with those
enacted by the regents. The medical school offers
great facilities for the acquisition of information in
that department of science, as much pains has been
bestowed in rendering it complete. The philosophical
and chemical apparatus is extensive, and the museum
contains a very valuable collection of anatomical pre
parations. The mineralogical collection is also very
respectable. The state has recently granted 30,000
dollars to this rapidly growing institution.
Baltimore College, a chartered and respectable
seminary, is in a very flourishing state. St. Mary's
College belongs to the Roman Catholics, and is a very
flourishing institution. It was incorporated in 1805

as a university, and has an extensive library, and
philosophical and chemical apparatus. Its officers are
a president, vice-president, and nine professors. In
addition to the above there are extensive academies
at Somerset, Elkton, Washington, Talbot, Charlotte
Hall, Frederick County, Garrison Forest, Franklin,
(Allegany County,) Centreville, Rockville, Hagers-
town, Cambridge, Hillsborough, West Nottingham,
and Harford County. The arrangements for the
promotion of knowledge in this state are highly
liberal, and bid fair to produce the best effect.
The Roman Catholics in this state have one arch
bishop, the metropolitan of the United States, and 30
or 40 churches ; the Methodists are numerous ; the
Episcopalians have 57 ministers ; the Presbyterians,
11 ministers, 6 licentiates, and 1,058 communicants;
tbe Baptists, 15 churches, 12 ministers, and 680 com
municants ; the German Reformed, 9 ministers ; the
Friends are numerous, and there are some Mennon-
ites, one congregation of Unitarians, and one of the
New Jerusalem Church.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

WESTERN SHORE.

Counties.
Allegany, n. w 
Anne Arundel, m. . .
Baltimore, n 
Baltimore, city 
Calvert, s 
Charles, s 
Frederick, n  , .
Harford, n. e 
Montgomery, w. m 
Prince George's, s. m. . . .
St. Mary's, s 
Washington, n. w. m. . . .
Caroline, E 
Cecil, n. e 
Dorchester, s. E 
Kent, e 
Glueen Anne's, E 
Somerset, s. e 
Talbot, e. M. ..... .
Worcester, s. e. . . . . .
Total . . .

Population,

Population,

1820.

1830.

8,654

10,602

27,165

28,295

33,663

40,251

62,738

80,625

8,073

8,899

16,500

17,666

40,459

45,793

15,924

16,315

16,400

19,816

20,216

20,473

12,974

13,455

23,075

25,265

Chief Towns.

Cumberland Annapolis .
! Baltimore

Prince Fredericktown
Port Tobacco . . .
Frederick 
Belair ......
Rockville 
Upper Marlborough .
Leonardtown . . . .
Hagerstown . . ,

Distance.
A.* W.t

165 3063
6976
5352
23 72
101

132 37385632
4361 1518
6363

EASTERN SHORE.

10,018

9,070

10,048

15,432

17,759

.18,685

11,453

10,502

14,952

14,396

19,579

20,155

14,387

12,9i7

17,421

18,271

407,350

446,913

Denton . . .
Elkton . . .
CambridgeChestertown .
CentrevillePrincess Anne
Easton . . .
Snowhill . .

44

81

80

- 88

62

99

47

82

32

69

107

144

47

84

127

164

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF POPULATION IN 1830.

Whites.
Males  147,315
Females  143,778

Total . . . 291,093
* From Annapolis.
Vol. II.— Nos. 71 & 72 3 H

Slaves. 53,429 49,449
102,878

Free coloured persons.
34,920
28,022

t From Washington.

62,942

422

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Baltimore, in population the third city in the
United States, is built round a bay which sets up
from the north side of the Patapsco river, and affords
a spacious and convenient harbour. Annapolis, the
seat of government, is on the south bank of the Severn,
two miles from its mouth ; population about 2000.
Fredericktown, is a flourishing town on a branch
of Monocosy creek, forty-two miles west of Balti
more, and has about 5000 inhabitants. It is in the
midst of a fertile country, and sends great quantities
of wheat and flour to Baltimore. Hagerstown is
situated in the fertile valley of Conecocheague, on
the west bank of the Antietam Creek, twenty-seven
miles northwest of Fredericktown. Cumberland is
at the head of boat navigation on the Potomac. The
ports of entry, besides Baltimore and Annapolis, are
St. Mary's, on the Potomac;. Nottingham, on the
Patuxent ; Havre de Grace, at the mouth of the
Susquehanna ; Chestertown, on Chester River ; Ox
ford, on Treadhaven Creek, which falls into the Chop-
tank near its mouth; Vienna, on the Nanticoke; and
SnoWhill, on the Pocomoke. At each of the three last
mentioned places a considerable amount of shipping
is owned. THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
Is a tract of ten miles square, about equally divided
by the Potomac, ceded by the states of Maryland and
Virginia to the general government. [The Potomac
had been considered the centre of the British provin
ces in North America long before the organization
of a federal government was ever thought of by the
north or the south. A few of the wise men of Vir
ginia had, in their political forecasts, drawn upon
their imaginations so far as to think it within the
limits of conjecture, that through the Potomac the
great western lakes would find a highway to the
ocean, and the immense interior bordering on them
would be opened to the advantages of commerce with
foreign nations. When, or how, this was to be brought
about, was not distinctly understood. The subject
was one of those great matters of feeling and reason
ing commingled, that are often the precursors of in
vestigation and effort, and for many years remain as
impressions and presentiments, before the event gives
to vague conjecture the character of prophecy or
foreknowledge. These opinions were gaining ground
in Virginia, from age to age, and fastened themselves
on the mind of Washington, from his earliest years ;
and so deep, that when his reputation had reached
the acme of human glory, he was willing to risk
some portion of his fame in making every exertion to
direct his countrymen to this great national object.

connected with the government of the United States,
and the future welfare of his country ; but no place
was now precisely designated.
In March, 1791, the President of the United States
was authorized to appoint commissioners to lay out
this city, and prepare suitable buildings for the go
vernment before the year 1800. By an act of May,
1796, the commissioners were authorized to borrow
money for the advancement of the buildings, and to
pledge the lots that had been given to the United
States, as well as the faith of the government, to refund
the loan. In 1798, there was an act passed, supple
mentary to the aforesaid, to hasten the progress of
the public improvements. So far were the public
buildings finished, that, in April, 1800, an act was
passed authorizing the President to remove, with all
the departments, from Philadelphia to the Federal
City, which had been previously named the City of
Washington, in honour of the President ; and in
pursuance of this act the government was removed
and commenced operations in the city of Washington
the first day of December, 1800. It cannot be denied
but that the character, wishes, and influence of
Washington, had no small share in fixing the seat of
government. Like all other of his acts it has proved
to have been dictated by wisdom, justice, and fore
cast ; for the site is one of the finest in the world for
a city. From the hill oa which stands the capitol,
the most noble view presents itself to the eye of the
beholder that the imagination could paint. From the
north, round to the south, a circular line of high
grounds is seen, making within them the interior of
an immense amphitheatre ; which, it is said, resem
bles the appearance of Rome from some of the eleva
tions in or near the Eternal City. The east view
is extensive, but not bounded by high lands ; the
horizon sinks with the power of vision. On the
south, the broad and peaceful Potomac is seen for
many miles, extending to Alexandria, and even to
Mount Vernon. The whole panorama is bold, mag
nificent, picturesque, and yet soft and beautiful; it
only requires the moral consecration of long past
events, the massy piles of ancient grandeur, the deep
and solemn recollections of the mighty dead, to make
the impression, at this view from the capitol, such as
crowds on the mind when one views the Vatican
or domes of St. Peter. It was laid out on a noble
plan, but it will require the lapse of half a century
to fully de vel ope all its beauties. The eye of prac
tical utility is long in discovering the harmonious
proportions that philosophical forecast designs for
the completion of distant ages. The colossal figures
of Praxiteles were the subject of derision among mi-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

423

n-or artists, who did not foresee the elevation for which
they were made ; but when placed in the lofty niches
of the temple, his master designs found their exact
situations, and breathed harmony and sweetness on
every beholder. The city of Washington struggled
with every difficulty in its commencement. The
great founder did not live to see it the seat of govern
ment ; he died a year before the consummation of his
wishes. We had at the time of the beginning but few na
tive artists to assist him, and the foreigners he em
ployed had many preconceived opinions at war with
his great plans. Economy was the order of the day,
and it was hard to make frugal statesmen understand,
that judicious expenditure, on a broad scale, would,
in the end, be the most prudent course. They con
sidered the necessities of a session ; he, the requisi
tions of ages. The country was straitened in her
finances, and the great mass of the legislature mistook
the expansion of republican simplicity and grandeur
in building a city, for regal munificence and aristo
cratic calculations ; and of course every broad plan
was narrowed down, and every detail cramped by the
wants of the treasury. Other causes transpired to
increase these difficulties. When the site of the fe
deral city was fixed upon, speculators from every
quarter of this country, and also from abroad, flocked
in, to share in the chances of gain. Instead of for
warding the enterprise, they did much to retard it,
by giving the lands a fictitious value and by keeping
up nominal prices until there were no real ones. It
was a fair subject of speculation, but it was managed
badly. The agriculture of the surrounding country
was not prepared to give a ready and an abundant
supply to the calls of the newly congregated popula
tion, and the whole concern went sadly on, year after
year : at this period the market for provisions was
scanty, fluctuating, and often exorbitant ; and some
times it was hardly possible to procure wholesome
provisions, at any rate. The dwelling houses in
general were small and inconvenient ; and not only
the citizens, but public functionaries, and political
dignitaries, were crowded into narrow lodgings ;
and amidst the most anxious struggles for appear
ances among the leaders of fashion, the nakedness of
the land was often seen by the sojourners as well as
felt by the inhabitants. The great mass of the popu
lation suffered in some way or other, and but few of
the comforts of life, then, as well as at present, so
fully enjoyed in the cities of the United States gene
rally, were known in Washington.
"In summer the streets were in a good measure de
serted, and in winter all was bustle and confusion.

The streets were without sidewalks or pavements,
and in this naturally humid climate and soft loamy
soil, the mud was frequently deep and troublesome.
The greater part of the visiters, and many of the
members of congress, boarded in Georgetown. The
English goods shops were there also, and many of the
best wine and grocery stores. These daily inconve
niences were annoying to the members of congress,
and they were in ill-humour when any call for money
was made for the city ; and it was evident that the
dislike to Washington, as a permanent seat of govern
ment, was fast advancing to a determination to remove
it. The goodly streets and comfortable rooms in the
dwelling houses in Philadelphia were remembered,
and nothing but reverence for the name of Washing
ton kept those feelings from breaking out into acts of
legislation. This was the state of things up to 1814, when the
calamity which at first was supposed to have given a
finishing stroke to all the hopes of the city fell upon
it. In August, of that year, it was taken by the Bri
tish without much bloodshed. The troops brought
to defend it were well enough, and might have been
made good soldiers, if there had been union, concert,
and energy among the leaders. Civil and military
authority and influence were jumbled together, and
confusion, defeat, and disgrace, followed. The blame
was shifted from one to the other, and has not as yet
settled precisely any where ; but error, and gross er-.
ror, must rest somewhere.
The whole, country was mortified at such an event,
although it reflected no great honour on the enemy.
The capitol, as far as it was finished was burnt ; the
President's house, the public offices, and the public
property ofthe navy yard. The whole city resembled
" the skin of an immolated victim;" and every ap
peal to the sympathies and pride of the country was
made. When congress next assembled, after a few
struggles for the removal of the seat of government,
the most vigorous steps were taken to restore the city
to tranquillity, and to repair the public losses. It be
ing once settled that pride and justice would not suf
fer the removal of the seat of government, private
enterprise followed public spirit. The corporation
of the city seemed to be animated with a new soul,
and individuals, relieved from the fear of change,
risked all they could command in real estate. Landed
property arose in value, and hope, energy, and active
business, took the place of despair, listlessness, and
wasting, repining indolence. New streets were
opened, dwelling houses and stores were then erected.
The trade came to the city, the boarders left George
town and came to Washington, and a new face was

424

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

put on every thing in the city ; churches were built,
institutions of learning arose, and large, if not ample
provision, was made for other necessary improvements
on the face of nature. This work has been going
on ever since the close of the war ; but it must be
pleasant to the citizens of Washington to reflect, that
when all things are taken into consideration^ that
they are not indebted to the government, in equity,
for one dollar for all their grants and favours ; but
that, in truth, the government is indebted to the city
for more than a million of dollars, putting a fair value
on the property now owned by the United States
within the city which cost them nothing. Blessings
are said to come in clusters ; for as soon as the city
began to flourish, it became healthy. The low grounds
were drained, and the fever and ague, once preva
lent, are now rarely known among the evils of
Washington ; and at present the city is decidedly the
most healthy of any in the United States, or perhaps
in the world. The water of Washington is of the
best quality, and can be brought to every door in the
greatest abundance, at a very moderate expense.
This was provided for in the charter given to the
city under the administration of Mr. Jefferson.
The schools in Washington are respectable, and
instructors very well supported. The spirit of reli
gious freedom is as manifest here, as in older cities.
Toleration, in general, is a growth of long experience
#nd sound information ; here intolerance had neither
precedents or law. The restraints on the exercise of
liberty are fewer here than in any other city known
to civilized man ; and yet the morals of the people
are good, and every year growing better. The whole
population of the city have been misrepresented as
to manners, morals, habits, and dispositions. No peo
ple are more kind, or more hospitable, or have better
feelings than the Washingtonians. The bland Mary-
lander, the lofty Virginian, and intelligent, shrewd
Eastern inhabitant, coalesce, commingle, and amal
gamate, until the virtues of all are seen united in the
most. As they become less dependent on congress,
the more elevated is their standard of mind and
morals. When they looked to the members of con
gress as superior beings, who might annihilate the
city by a vote, the very vices of the legislators were
copied, and the effect was bad. Taken as a whole,
the members of congress were not of the highest
order for imitation. Men are seldom virtuous in
bodies, in which, in most cases, but little individual
responsibility is felt or acknowledged. The corpo
ration are assuming an energy of character worthy
of freemen, and are looking at the true interests of
the city, and the. citizens are uniting their efforts

for the prosperity of themselves and neighbours.
The patronage of congress,;the attention ofthe cor
poration of the city, and the efforts of individuals, are
now beginning to be seen and felt. In former years,
their exertions were not properly appreciated, because
they could not be seen in their effects ; they were
actually laying the corner-stone deep in the mire and
water, where it was difficult for the nicest observer
to fairly calculate the value of means used to produce
ends ; now all things are seen most fully ; and effeets
are in proportion to labours ; and whatever is done
is visible in the improvements of the city. The city
is indeed an emblem of our nation in its growth and
character, if not at first, certainly in the later periods.
It was most assuredly afflicted in its commencement,
had no great seasons of prosperity in its early day,
and in the end, owed its glory and stability to the
outrage done upon it. The streets are now provided
with ample sidewalks ; new squares are opened, the
streets are graduated, and put in a proper state to be
ornamented with trees and fountains. The Ohio
and Chesapeake canal, which has been begun, and
will be put in operation by the enterprise of indi
viduals, the spirit of the corporation, and the liberality
of congress, is one day to be the pride, the convenience,
and the source of prosperity to the city. The trade
will increase, which will increase the number of in
habitants, and afford them many advantages, by bring
ing fuel and provisions to tbe city, and reduce the
prices of all the necessaries of life, to as low a scale
as that ofthe most favoured cities ofthe United States.
The Washington market, with a little alteration,
might be made as good as any we know of. The
glades of Virginia furnish beef, pork, and butter, of
the best kinds ; and the immediate neighbourhood,
with a little care and attention, would be sufficient,
and more than sufficient, for all the demands of vege
tables and poultry. The soil and climate are well
suited for all the fruits of the temperate zone.
Peaches, plums, apples, and almost every other fruit,
are, or may be raised, of the first order. Washington
is the happiest region of flowers. A garden here
might be made to yield something for the basket of
Flora for nearly three quarters of the year. With a
small expense a fountain might be made in every
garden, to refresh the vegetation in the warmest
seasons of the year. After the most prominent sites
for business are filled up in the city, a better taste
will prevail in erecting domicils, and those dwellings
a little removed from the bustle will not be complete
or satisfactory without a garden of flowers.
To pass from the dulce to the utile, there are fine
building materials, in abundance, in or near the city,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

425

or can easily be brought to it. The city abounds in
the best of clay ; and bricks can be furnished to any
extent, at a few weeks notice ; and fuel can easily
be procured to burn the greatest number of kilns
that may be set up. Ornamental trees for the high
way or malls would be of rapid growth, much more
rapid, take the whole number and variety of orna
mental trees together, than that of any climate more
southerly or northerly in this country. It is seldom
that the winter is severe enough to injure them, and
droughts in the summer are not common. Showers
are frequent ; the clouds following along the She
nandoah and the Potomac, in the highlands, spread
over the country where the Potomac assumes a
broader surface, and gives a freshness to the vegeta-
tation along its banks. The soil is porous and
quickly imbibes the rain, so that no stagnant waters
are found to originate diseases in the hottest weather.
There is none of that spongy, humid state of the at
mosphere here, so common at the north in August,
generally denominated dog-days. The heat of Wash
ington is not greater at any season than at Boston or
Montreal ; but is more oppressive by its long conti
nuance, and the trifling change in the atmosphere
from noon to midnight. This maybe, and indeed is,
exhausting ; but in this season there are but few pre
valent diseases ; and the deaths that happen are often
among those who have not been the most prudent,
or whose constitutions have been broken and decay
ing in previous years. Man is subject to the first
great denunciation of his Maker every where, dust
thou art, and to dust shalt thou return ; but he is
as much privileged here, as any where, to escape it
as long as possible. In fact, nature has done enough
for the city to make it one of the most delightful
abodes in the world ; art now must do her share.
Capital, industry, and business, are now only wanted,
to give interest, beauty, yea, more, splendour, to all in
and about Washington ; commerce is wanted to ob
tain this capital and to secure prosperity to the city,
but it can never be so great and all-absorbing as to
endanger the welfare of the city by those fearful fluc
tuations that large commercial cities are liable to.
None of those sudden changes in the markets can
effect the great mass of the citizens, when but a small
part of then are engaged in commerce, nor is it so
near the sea as to fear that its usual supplies can be
cu t off by war or blockade. The back country is suf
ficient for all exigencies, and permanent requisitions
for the main articles of life, and it will have easy
communication with the eastern and southern cities
by steam-boats and rail roads. If a real and not a
fictitious value is given to property in the city of

Washington, it can not fail to advance most rapidly.
The general temperature of the climate, the certainty
of wholesome supplies of provisions, the chances of
good schools, which will be found here if they are
not common now ; numerous and well organized
associations, united to the easy access to genteel so
ciety, on those terms which can not be common in
other cities, will induce many respectable families,
with but moderate means, to make this a place of
residence. It is a question, with many, if this golden
age will ever come ; but who can doubt it ? Look
at the changes of the last ten years, and say if these
have in them no promising augury 7 If the citizens
do not abandon real for imaginary right — if the con
gress of the United States do their duty, as we trust
they will — the prosperity of the city of Washington
is certain. Some of the citizens of the District of
Columbia are anxious to be represented in congress ;
but it would be a miserable policy to change the
hold they have on the general government for legis
lative protection, for the honour of having a single
representative in congress. The government is
growing rich, and the fostering hand of power will be,
hereafter, extended more liberally to the district than
it has been.
With industry, enterprise, prudence, and harmony,
the city of Washington may be made a place of trade,
manufactures, and learning. The trade will be very
considerable when the canal is opened*, and the sur^
rounding country catches the spirit of the age. Ma
nufactures will of course go pari passu with the de
mand of those articles that can be made here cheaper
than elsewhere. In addition to the water power in
the neighbourhood, fuel can be afforded cheap, by
way of the river and canal, either in wood or coal
for steam-engines. A well balanced business extend
ing to all the common branches of industry might
be carried on here for the prosperity of the city.
Taste, and the arts, must grow up where there is no
sudden influx of wealth, no deep commercial specu
lation, whose success gives no settled plans for men
tal improvement, and whose reverses damp the ardour
and dry up the aliments of learning. Those cities
whose income have been the most regular, not those
which at seasons have been the most wealthy, have
given the most encouragement to the arts. It is true
the Medici, the great Florentine merchants, were pa
trons of the arts ; yet not from the success of any par
ticular enterprise, but from a settled plan to spend so
much of their income as they could spare for this
purpose, and they made as regular appropriations
for letters and the arts as for household expenses.
It is not with the excess of wealth that learning

426

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

flourishes, but with the judicious use of it. Pericles
ornamented his native Athens to the delight of his
own, and to the wonder and admiration of succeeding
ages, and yet his revenues were not large ; but who
ever heard of the artists, or of the men of letters
patronised by Croesus. A national University to be
established in this city, was contemplated by that
great father of his country, Washington. His views
were expanded and noble. The University was not
only to be one in name, but in truth a place of letters
and sciences, with the arts, both useful and ornamen
tal in their train ; a place where all that is known
should be taught. Such a University, besides diffu
sing pure knowledge, would do much towards break
ing down the prejudices that exist between the dif
ferent sections of our country. Educated together,
the youths of the north and the south, the east and
the west, would scan each others' merits in their early
days, and find out each others' mental powers. Such
an education would give them opportunities of know
ing each, too, when they came into active life, and
assist them to form accurate opinions of each others'
powers and capacities, and fitness for particular
offices. Such a university would be a resort for men
of taste and leisure, who with their families would
come to attend the lectures of the professors of the
university ; as none but distinguished men could
hold these offices. In truth, whatever way we look
into our country's welfare, or however bold and sa
gacious our reach may be, on close inspection we
shall find that the mind of Washington had been
there before us, arranged our anticipations, and mar-
' shalled all our array of thoughts ; and he with equal
clearness saw all the difficulties we had to encounter,
and the virtues it would require to overcome them.
He prayed the nation might possess them ; he be
lieved it did, or would, so that his beloved republic
would escape the fate of all former republics, whose
histories are satires on the stability of governments
and the virtue of the human race.
We are now, in fact, the only republic on earth ;
those so called in South America, and hailed with
such enthusiasm by the lovers of liberty, are at pre
sent only mock-suns on the clouds formed by our
rising brightness. The temples of South American
liberty have not as yet been purified from the stains
of the idols which inhabited them. Superstition
ind ignorance, and the sounds of strife and blood
shed, as yet drown the bustle of the comitia. They
have ample means in their hands, and they have the
wishes of the better part of mankind for their success.
We have believed, and still fondly hope, that the
American republic is not to be joined to those of

former ages, over which the plough-share of desola
tion has been driven, and on many of whose brightest
deeds the pall of oblivion has fallen. That the
fears of the timid may prove idle, that the anticipa
tions of the wise may be realized, and the hopes of
the most sanguine be fulfilled, should be every pa-;
triot's prayer ; but neither prayers, or wishes, or
hopes will avail, without enterprise, energy, learning,
virtue and perseverance ; ail these are in the people,
and if they be true to themselves they will perpetuate
their liberties. Their destinies are in their own
hands. The responsibility of this age is tremendous,
and it will be increased with every succeeding one.
The pillars of the temple are knowledge and virtue,
and as long as these remain unbroken the edifice
will stand ; but faction, like the strong man, may
break them down and strew destruction around ; but
this evil may God avert.
The capitol of the congress of the United States
is a very noble building. The order is called Corin
thian ; but, in truth, it is a medley of all orders.
The whole edifice is now completed. It covers an
acre and a half and 1820 feet of ground. It has
been an expensive building, having cost the United
States nearly three millions of dollars. The square
on which the capitol stands contains more than
twenty acres, and is laid out in a very handsome
style, and is filled up with trees and shrubbery in a
flourishing state. The dome of this building is the
third in point of size in the world ; next to St. Paul's,
and before St. Sophia's ; but this building has been
so often described, that I shall not attempt it ; but
give you a few remarks upon the ornaments of the
building, which have not been so particularly men
tioned. Several artists of note have, from time to time,
been employed on the capitol, and it bears marks of
their taste and talents. They have ornamented, the
inside of the dome and other parts of the building
with the labours of their art. Over the western door
of the dome is a group in bass-relief, representing the
preservation of Capt. John Smith from the wrath of
Powhatan, by the kind interference of his daughter,
Pocahontas. This is the work of Capelano, an artist
of considerable talent ; but he had seen more Italians
thari Indians, and his savages are Italian banditti,
and his intended child of the forest an Italian queen.
In this picture, however, notwithstanding all its de
fects, there is more variety of expression in the coun
tenances of the group, than is generally found in stone.
This work attracts much attention, and elicits many
criticisms ; but it will continue to be admired, in
spite of its faults. Smith was a hero whose name

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

427

is imperishable ; his life has more of romance in it
than that of any other man in the annals of history.
Over the east door is a representation of the landing
of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, 1620. The Indians
on the rocks, the boat, the shore, the sea, are all well
executed ; but the artist mistook the character of the
comers to the new world ; he has given the religious
adventurers the hat of the ancient Pilgrim, and the
dress also ; when nothing would be farther from the
truth. They were puritanical adventurers, and not
crusading pilgrims. The subject is one much better
for the pencil than the chisel ; but it was given to
illustrate a portion of American history, and the
artist was told the story by those who, probably, did
not precisely understand the capacities of his art,
and he set about it as it was, a subject dictated to
him, and which some body else would have been
engaged to execute, if he had remonstrated against
it. The Pilgrims of that day never thought of their
glory in stone. The pen and the pencil have secured
their immortality long since. The sculptor was
Causici. Over the north door is sculptured Willian Penn,
making his treaty with the Indians, in 1680. He
is holding the parley, in the fearlessness of innocence,
with the savages, who seemed to have caught the
same spirit and to be governed by the same peaceful
principles. This treaty is worthy of all praise, for
it was kept inviolate for seventy years ; but the moral
sublimity of the subject must be fully understood
before you can relish the design. There is neither
beauty or attraction in it, taken by itself. The ca
pacities of the art do not reach such a subject. The
painter would do better here also. " Gods, not men,
should breathe in stone." They are only seen in
naked majesty. The modern succinct dress in mar
ble may be made by skill so as to be endured, but
never to be admired. Phidias could not have given
immortality to a modern martinet, in dress, with all
his frogs and taggery. The sculptor would have pre
ferred the Winnebago, in his war dance, almost in
native nakedness, to one so bedizened.
On the panels between the doors, looking above
them, are several fine heads in bass-relief. One of
Columbus is so near a resemblance to some fine pic
tures of him, that it is probable the sculptor had hit
upon something near a true likeness. The head of
Sir Walter Raleigh is also a fine one, resembling the
best prints of him. They are richly deserving a
place here. This talented but unfortunate English
man, deserves to be remembered in a country on
whose shores he made a vigorous struggle to plant a
colony. It was not his fault if he did not succeed.

The heads of la Salle, and Sebastian Cabot, are
rough statuary, but have considerable expression
and life in them. They, too, merit a place in this
pantheon, if enterprise and success are subjects of
reward in this way. These are strong, and severe
pieces of physiognomy, but not without talent and
character. They could not be recommended as
models, nor are they so recommended ; but they are
worthy of attention and notice.
Over the great eastern door, outside of the dome,
there is a head of Washington, taken from a picture,
or bust, of an earlier age in Washington's life, than
is seen in Stuart's great picture. The bust has a
striking likeness to the head of the late Judge Wash
ington. It is a laboured production of Capelano's
chisel. It is supported, to speak in the language of
heraldry, by Fame, with her clarion on one side,
and by the genius of Immortality, ready to place the
wreath on his brow, on the other. It is admired by
many, and is certainly a specimen of very good pro
ficiency in the art. But it is beyond the art, and
skill, and genius of Canova, to give us a just idea of
Washington. , The image in our minds was all per
fect ; the eye could not be satisfied with any effort,
however mighty, to give it body and tangibility.
It was reserved for Lugi Persico to produce by
patient labour, and unquestionable skill, united to the
soul of genius, a work that will immortalize the
sculptor, and do honour to our country. It is an
ornament for the tympanum of the east front of the
capitol. The figures are colossal ; the design is full
of meaning, and yet is marked with great simplicity.
On the right of the spectator is seen Hope, leaning
on her anchor, and extending her right hand to the
skies, directing her looks to the Genius of America, a
still loftier figure, in partial armour. Hope is de
scribing to the Genius some of those visions of glory
which are crowding on her soul ; some of those un
born ages of her beloved republic; while the Genius
of the Nation, with dignified mien and placid coun
tenance, points over a third figure, which is Justice,
of a size in keeping with the others, and seems to
say, we ask nothing that we are not entitled to by the
sternest, decisions of the goddess. The eyes of Jus
tice are not, as usual, blinded, but are opened on the
day, that she may see and judge all that passes under
the sun. Between Hope and the Genius of America,
there is an American eagle, a noble piece of statuary;
the talons grasp the emblematical weapons of defence,
with characteristic power. The breast, the wings,
the tail, are full of life and strength, as is the head
and beak of majesty. The head of the eagle is
turned to the Genius, and " with eye retortive looks

428

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

creation through." The easy, elegant, and natural
flow of the drapery, the fine finish of the'hands and
arms, and the graceful attitudes of these figures, take
away, even when you are close to them, all those
impressions of coarseness which susceptibility and
taste have felt at a near inspection of colossal figure's.
It is not in nature to love the person of a giant. It
was only through the medium of his deeds of genero
sity and valour that Hercules won the-hearts of those
that praised him. Between the overgrown and the
diminutive exist the forms of symmetry, grace, and
beauty. That art must be exquisite that gives us
those huge dimensions, as it were, directly in our
eye-shot, and still contrives to take off the general
impression of coarseness. Mr. Persico's work is now
to be examined from the ground only ; the proper
line of vision being extended more than a hundred
feet from the object. At this distance the figures
appear about the size of human beings, full grown.
I have no hesitation in saying, that they are far supe
rior to any thing ofthe kind in this country, entirely
free from that hoyden air, or that prominence of parts,
often made in works of this sort, to catch the gaze
of the tasteless spectator. This group appears all
life, celestial life ; spirits communing with spirits, in
the dignity and calm repose of upper natures, without
a single throe of mortal thought-bearing.
After having said so much of the work, it is pro
per that I should say something of the artist. Mr.
Persico is a Neapolitan, of about thirty years of age,
or perhaps he is a little older, and full of the inspira
tion of his art. The clash of parties does not interest
him, or the animated debate detain him but for a
moment. The gayeties of the saloon, or the festive
board, have but few charms for him, notwithstanding
he possesses the mercurial temperament of his nation.
Distinction in his art is the predominant passion of
his soul ; and if he looks at a fair one ever so ear
nestly, it is only to And some line of beauty, or some
grace of form or motion, to transfer to stone ; or, if
he listens to an orator in the glow of his genius, and
when the light of his mind is beaming on all around
him, it is only that he may catch all this to give it to
¦ after ages, when the image of the speaker has faded
from the memories of living men.
The ornaments of the Superior Court Room are
not numerous. The only one worthy of particular
attention is a group opposite the bench of justice.
On the left, as seen from the bench, is a figure too
lank and lean for a cupid, or an angel ; but is pro
bably intended for one or the other of these super- '
natural beings, or perhaps for the Genius of the con
stitution The figure has wings, and holds the con

stitution of the United States in its hand. On the
head of the figure, whatever it may be, is a glory, or
a shekina. This is in bad taste. It is attempting
too much, and therefore produces a failure. All the
other parts of the design are classical. This is from
sacred history. The middle figure is Justice sitting
in a chair, (Phidias or Praxiteles knew nothing of
such a seat for the goddess,) with her right arm
leaning on her sword, and holding the equal scales
in her left. The face of this figure is excellent, and
the drapery flowing and easy. Her proportions are
rather more delicate than those in which the ancients
exhibited the inflexible goddess. Before her sits the
bird of wisdom, perched near some volumes of law ;
but the owl is formed in the modern school ; and the
capitol to a groat, Minerva would not know her bird
if she should see him so beaked, so feathered, so trim
and dove-like, unless she should guess it out by re
cognising her sister Justice in the form of this belle,
or resort to her divinity to discover the whole group
in their transformation. This room is one of deep
interest to every lover of his country. To see seven
quiet, good looking men, covered with a slight robe
of black, without enough of the insignia of office to
tell them from so many pall bearers, sitting together,
listening to the arguments of men from every state
in the Union, on great and important questions, of
municipal, civil, and international law ; and thus
without any emotion or excitement, settling all the
numerous conflicting opinions that have grown up in
this republic since its formation, is a specimen of the
moral sublime, unequalled in the annals of civil or
ecclesiastical history. These oracles of the Delphic
cave have as yet been free from the corruption or fear
of executive power, and uninfluenced by party strife
in the halls of legislation. As long as this sanctuary
is unassailed, and talents and integrity are selected
and maintained in this branch of government, so long
will it be the palladium of American liberties ; but
wo betide the hour when political rancour shall come
within these walls, to poison the fountains of justice,
or to weaken her arm. The bickerings above them
in the senate chamber, may pass away, and the many
boisterous and idle speeches be forgotten, while the
country is safe ; but once pollute this hall, and the
guardian Genius of the liberties of this country will
leave it for ever.
The president's house is a magnificent man
sion. It stands near the centre of one of the largest
squares of the city, on an eminence, nearly a mile
and a half west from the capitol. - The building is
of the Ionic order, with a southern and a northern
front. It is one hundred and seventy-five feet long,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

429

and eighty-five in width ; it has two lofty stories
above the basement. There are thirty-one rooms of
considerable size within the walls. As you enter the
north door there is a fine large hall, called the en
trance hall. At the left of this is the eastern room,
whose, length is the. width of the house, making a
room in the clear eighty feet in length, forty feet in
width, and twenty-eight feet in height, with four fire
places, two of them of elegant marble jams, mantel
pieces, <fec. From the south of the Hall you enter the
elliptical room, which is the general audience room
on levee nights. The east room was intended for
a general audience room ; and the elliptical room to
receive foreign ambassadors, and public functionaries,
on occasions of ceremony ; but the east room not
having been furnished, until lately, the elliptical
•room has been used for all public ceremonies. East
of the elliptical room is the Green Drawing Room ;
this is of a medium size for such an edifice. On
the west of the elliptical room is the Yellow Drawing
Room; on the west from this is the large Dining
Room, of a fine size, and farther west still is the
small Dining Room, and beyond this is the Porter's
room. The north front of the upper story contains six
rooms for various purposes. The south front has
seven rooms ; the ante-chambers, the audience cham
ber, and Lady's parlour ; this is directly over the ellip
tical room, and of the same size of that. The base
ment story contains eleven rooms, kitchen, pantry,
butler's room, &c. These are cool and convenient
in the summer, and warm in the winter from the
massy walls of the edifice.
Some ofthe furniture of the house is elegant, but
in general it looks much abused from the crowds of
careless visiters. The Lady's parlour may be said
to be superbly furnished, but this remark does not
extend to many other rooms. Within twelve years
past congress have expended eighty thousand dollars
in furnishing this mansion, and there was some old
furniture of the former stocks. Some portion of the
plate is elegant, and is now worth twenty thousand
dollars, or more.
The ornaments are sparse and not of high order.
In the second southeast room there is a map of Vir
ginia ; a portrait of Bolivar ; a bust of Washington,
and one of Americus Vespucius. These latter orna
ments are very good specimens of the arts. In the
third room, the ante-chamber, there is an engraving
of the declaration of independence in a gilt frame.
In the yellow drawing room there is a portrait of
Washington from the pencil of Stuart. In this room
there is a French piano, which it is said can not be
Vol. II.— Nos. 73 & 74. 3 1

kept in tune. In the days of omens, when Memnon's
harp responded to the ray of the sun, or JEolus
first breathed among the reeds, this might be thought
to have a mysterious bearing on the jars of the cabi
net councils ; or at least, a Greek Poet would have
said that the genius of the place was not always
happy and tuneful. This palace belongs to the peo
ple, and should be adorned with the best specimens
of the fine arts the country can produce. The
works of the great painters should hang upon the
walls, and those of their sculptors fill every niche.
To the tenants of this house it can not be of much'
importance, for to them it is only a caravansary, where
they throw down their wallets to cast a horoscope
to lay spirits and raise spells, and their hour comes,
and they take up their march without restoration to
health, or a forgiveness of their sins. Such is the
omnipotence of the public mind in a free government.
Tbe whole square, except a few spaces for iron gates,
is surrounded by a substantial stone wall of excel
lent masonry. The four public offices of the secre
taries are within these walls. The view from the
north front is extensive and beautiful, but from the
south front it is more extensive and still more resplen
dent, embracing in its range a lovely prospect of the
Potomac. The site of the house is elevated about sixty feet
above the river, and the descent is quite gradual to it.
On the south eastern side of the wall there is a stone
arch for a gateway : it looks, from the antiquity of the
style and the colour of the material of which it is
made, as if it had stood centuries defying the climate.
Two large ancient weeping willows, one on each
side of the arch, add much to its venerable appear
ance. These trees have not grown up since the
date of the federal constitution. They are older
than the city's charter. They were provincial seed
lings, now national monuments. It is said that an
accomplished lady of the Great House in former
days, when congratulated upon her elevation, remark
ed with a smile, " I don't know that there is much
cause for congratulation ; the President of the United
States generally comes in at the iron gate, and goes
out at the weeping willows."
Meridian hill, as seen from the president's house,
is situated about three quarters of a mile west of
Columbia college, is a handsome seat, built by Com
modore Porter at great expense, which has been the
temporary residence of Mr. Adams, the late president
of the United States. It probably derives its name
from the expectation that an observatory would be
erected there by the government of the United States.
Toward such an object there were some steps taken.

430

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

In the year 1821, the president of the United States
authorized, under a resolve of congress, William
Lambert, Esq. a distinguished mathematician, to take
proper measures for ascertaining with precision and
accuracy the longitude of the Capital from Green
wich or Paris. He was assisted in taking his obser
vations by William Elliot, Esq. who had an extensive ,
astronomical knowledge and experience in the use
of instruments. This commission was executed to
the satisfaction of the president. The government
also sent an experienced mathematician, Mr. Hasler,
to Europe, to purchase, or cause to be made, all such
instruments as might in his opinion be necessary for
an observatory. A most costly and admirable set of
instruments was procured, probably equal, or supe
rior to any set in Europe ; but the observatory was
not erected, and when it was recommended by the
next president, the whole was ridiculed and lost.
The costly materials are nearly ruined by rust and
neglect. It is not made the duty of any department
to take care of them. If this plan of erecting an ob
servatory had betm carried into effect, we stiould now
make all our calculations of longitude from Washing
ton, instead of Greenwich, which might have been call
ed an era of scientific independence, which it behooves
this country to declare as soon as possible. They
have scarcely a map or chart of their own, out of
their own territories. They have in the midst of
every boast been guided more by the light of other
minds than their own, a mortifying fact to those of
their countrymen who are willing to make every ex
ertion to wipe away this stain from their " proudly
emblazoned escutcheon," and to make this equal with
other nations in contributions to the common stock
of knowledge. Individuals have done much, go
vernment but little, in the cause of science. The go
vernment have done nothing of a public nature in
the city to assist in measuring space or time. There
is not even a public clock to regulate the hours of
business or pleasure, or to tell the weary and restless
applicant for office how pass his long and tedious
days of heats and chills, in waiting for a definite an
swer from a department of the government. Indeed,
I had almost forgotten to state that there is a sun-dial
on the front of the department of state. This was
probably put there as the device of some philosopher,
to teach the passing generations of politicians a so
lemn moral ; the design was a happy one, for it has
often marked the hours of a great man's fame, and
seen them pass away as a shadow on its face.
The Library op Congress. — Congress had pro
vided but few books for the general reader, until Mr.
Jefferson offered his library to them as nucleus for a

future national library ; the journals, laws, and state
papers were about all the representatives of the
United States could- have access to in their public
reading room, until the Jefferson library was purcha
sed. It was a cheap one for the United States, con
sidering how many excellent papers in the form of
speeches, tracts, pamphlets, and books, it contains,
upon revolutionary history. The arguments urged
to bring on the contest, the reasoning required to
keep the spirit of patriotism alive, to induce the peo
ple to form and accept a form of government, to se
cure the liberty they had achieved, are found in this
library in greater abundance, than perhaps in any
library belonging to an individual in this country. In
forming this library, Mr. Jefferson had exercised his
judgment, no doubt ; but much of the most valuable
part of it was the growth of the times of struggle
and determination, and if they had not been gathered
then, would have been lost by neglect, and they
could not now be called back by any conjuration.
The collections in this library of history, general poli
tics, statistics, and scientific, works and classical litera
ture, is considerable ; the deficiencies of Mr. Jefferson's
library, have been supplied by the appropriations of
congress for the library department ; the library com
mittee are members of congress of a high literary and
scientific reputation, and what they recommend sel
dom meets with any obstacle. They have with great
taste and judgment purchased many rare works of
great value to scholars, as also many of high taste
and fashion for those who have only time to indulge the
eye upon wire-wove or vellum paper, or imperial
bindings, or exquisite engravings. The expenditure
of about five or six thousand dollars a year is a trifle
for the government, and yet, by this appropriation,
in twenty years this will be one of the first libraries
in the world ; as it now is, it probably stands the
fourth in this country ; but there are several of the
minor class that are at present nearly equal to it, in
point of numbers
There is a very respectable library belonging to a
company in the city. It contains between five and
six thousand volumes, and these are very well se
lected. ¦ It is as rich in American literature as any
miscellaneous library of its size in the United States.
This library is increasing under judicious manage
ment, and promises to be in a few years an extensive
concern. Each branch of the government has an accumu
lating library. That of the state department is of
considerable magnitude ; but is of very little value
at present to any one, but those in its immediate
neighbourhood. This is not as it should be j the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

431

library of the state department ought to be kept in a
spacious room, fitted with every convenience for
taking notes and making extracts, &c. It should
contain all the American works to be found in the
book market, in proper order for the .inspection of
every visiter properly introduced. The sums now
expended on European works are next to useless
here ; which under proper direction would, in the
course of a few years, make up a very fine collection
of American books. Of the current publications
there are a considerable number of volumes deposited
in that office by the laws of copy-right, and in addi
tion to this supply, a few thousand of dollars annually
would tell well in increasing the stock. The secre
taries of state have generally been scholars, and it is
therefore surprising that this library should not be
found in a better state, one we mean more conducive
to general convenience and the diffusion of inform
ation relating to our own country. It is but jus
tice to say that these remarks apply to the library as
it was before Mr. Van Buren came into office. It
is to be hoped that he has made some reform in the
premises. The Columbian Institute was incorporated in 1819 ;
it had existed for some time before this period as a
literary and scientific society. It was founded upon
a noble basis, to promote learning in all the various
branches of arts, sciences, and letters. Its members
are resident, corresponding, or honorary. Contri
butions are exacted of the resident members, of papers
upon such subjects as each member chooses to write
upon ; and there has, from time to time, been a good
deal of talent exhibited. These papers are kept on
file, and will be useful to the society hereafter. Con
gress has granted to this institution the use of several
aeresof land for a botanic garden and other purposes.
By the liberality and exertions of some of its mem
bers, this garden has been well laid out, and many
of the trees and shrubs of other countries have been
transplanted and nurtured there. This, with a little
of that liberality that congress has shown to some
other institutions or other projects, would flourish ;
for there are several literary and scientific men who
would spend many of their leisure hours in the bo
tanic department of the society, if they could do it to
advantage. Congress has furnished the society with a conve
nient room under the library of congress, where the
collections of books, minerals, and curiosities, are de
posited. Resident members are, it is said, receiving
encouragement from corresponding members, by way
of donations, books, and minerals, and works from
their own pens ; and after the bustle of politics is over,

it is to be hoped that the watchful eye of the scien
tific and literary part of congress will see the wants
of the society, and that the liberal part will be dis
posed to aid in giving it something annually, to carry
on their useful labours. The members are most cer
tainly labouring for the good of the community at
large, not for themselves ; and therefore deserve en
couragement, lt has talent sufficient among its
members to do honour to the reputation ofthe coun
try in the literary and scientific world ; as yet, their
publications have been but few, but those are of a
high order, and have been well received everywhere.
The first was a Eulogy on Mr. Jefferson, by Mr.
Harrison Smith. This is not only valuable as a
composition, but it is more so as arising from a par
ticular acquaintance of Mr. Jefferson, who knew him
in the ease and freedom of domestic life. The second
was an ample memoir of John Adams, by a relation,
friend, and familiar acquaintance, Judge Cranch.
This is a chaste, plain, sensible discourse upon the
merits of the great patriot of the east. It abounds
in facts and judicious reflections, and will be a valu
able document for the future historian. The next
was of a more general character, from Mr. Southard,
the secretary of the navy. The general strain of the
orator was to show that it was the duty of govern
ment to patronise the arts and sciences in this coun
try. His doctrines were sound and most manfully
enforced, and should have made a deeper impression
on the national legislature than we fear they have.
The last was from Mr. Everett, and, as might have
been expected, was a splendid performance. Line
upon line, and precept upon precept, are still wanted
to rouse our government to become the patron of let
ters, the arts and sciences, and the friend to the learned
men of the country.
The society, in the summer of 1827, met with a
great loss in the death of Robert Little, who had been
a most active member. He was a thorough scholar,
a zealous promoter of letters and sciences, and deeply
engaged in the welfare of the Columbian Institute.
The death of a man of virtue and good sense is a
calamity at all times, but the loss of an active, intel
lectual member, of an infant society, is inealulable.
Mr. Little was an ardent, but practical man, and
had the faculty of infusing his enthusiasm into others
less apt to kindle than himself. He was devising liberal
things for the Institute, which would soon have been
carried into effect if he had been spared a short time
only, to have matured his plans, and made a commu
nication of them. Foreigners have as yet a right to
smile at this government for their neglect of learning,
but we trust that the groves of the academy are

432

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

growing up ; that the Pierian springs are gushing
from the hills ; and that the muses will not for ever be
frightened away by the spasms of party, or neglected
for petty electioneering debates.
Men in office in Washington, have been, and are,
too busy to make books ; they hardly read them.
Some of the different documents from the several
Presidents, and members of the successive cabinets,
are works of great merit, of their kind. Among the
most conspicuous of these is the Report of Mr. Adams,
when he was secretary of state, on weights and
measures. This is a most learned report, and is
creditable to the nation, as well as to the author.
The first book, giving any account of the District of
Columbia, was written by Col. Lear, who was an aid
to Washington, and afterward consul to Algiers, &c.
This book is now out of print. Since that time,
several descriptions of the District and city have
been given by residents, travellers, and all sorts of
people — some of them full of errors and absurdities.
The best accounts were from the pen of the librarian
of congress, G. Watterson, Esq. ; and much careful
detail may be found in Elliot's Washington Guide.
Samuel Harrison Smith, Esq., formerly editor and
proprietor of the National Intelligencer, published
a history of a session of congress. It was the ses
sion of 1801. The volume contained 190 pages, and
gives a condensed view ofthe proceedings of that year.
S. Blodget, finding how scanty the statistical in
formation was in the country, wrote a work upon
that subject, and brought his calculations, conjec
tures, data, and results, down to 1806. Although not
a perfectly accurate book, it was a good one, and
gave a good deal of information to the people of the
United States, on subjects they did not know much
about, or had reasoned too little upon. Mr. Blodget
was among the first settlers in Washington, and, like
many other sensible men, was romantic in his calcu
lations on the probable yearly increase of the popula
tion of the city.
B. Woodward published a work in Washington,
on the substance of the sun, which made some noise
in its day.
Mr. Watterson, we have before mentioned, has
written several popular and useful books — " Letters
from Washington ;" " Course of Study ;" " L. Fami
ly ;" " Tabular Statistics of the United States," &c.
The public are much indebted to him for much use
ful information, conveyed in a good style. Some of
the sketches of the great men in and about Wash
ington, which are to be found in his works, are
splendid and original, and give a very fair view of
their character.

The public are much indebted to a lady of Wash
ington, Mrs. Harrison Smith, for two very clever
novels, one called "A Winter in Washington," the
other, "What is Gentility?" The peculiar habits and
manners of the fashionables, and of those who would
be fashionables, are hit off with admirable tact, and the
prevailing follies of the society of the District exposed
and satirized with no little neatness. The latter of
these books, particularly, should be read by those who
are in the chrysalis state, and whose wings and co
lours are growing.
Dr. Thomas Ewell, of Georgetown, published a
volume of Chemical Discourses, which were well
received ; and Dr. J. Ewell has published in Wash
ington an improved edition of his work, the Medical
Companion. Thomas Law, Esq. has, although now nearly an
octogenarian, lately published a book upon currency.
He is a man of no ordinary powers of mind. His
life has been an eventful one. In England, his na
tive country, he was considered a man of mind. In
India he was distinguished for his financial talents,
and was a great benefactor to the natives, by his ju
dicious plans for their relief. He was the companion
of Teignmouth, and the friend of Sir William Jones.
Active and enterprising, he saw the accounts of the
establishment of our federal city, and he hastened to
this country to identify himself with its growth, from
the corner stone to the setting up the gates thereof.
He purchased largely of the soil, built on an extensive
scale, suggested ten thousand plans for the improve
ment of the city, and for the prosperity of the nation ;
but the slow, doubtful, and often strange course of
congress, came not only in his way, but in the way
of all those deeply interested in the v/elfare of the
city ; and he has spent the days of his maturity and
wisdom in unavailing efforts for the improvement of
it. It is happy for him, however, that he has lived
to see the dawn of a better day for Washington ; and
if he can not stay here long to enjoy it, as a good man
he will rejoice in the hopes of his friends and descen
dants. Tf his disappointments have been numerous,
yet it can not be said that they have soured his tem
per or hardened his heart, or that- his tenants have
felt his resentment, because he was deceived by. those
who could have favoured his plans. In this world,
the insults received from those above us, are often
repeated by those below us, in pitiful and aggravated
forms. One of the most useful books printed in Washing
ton, is the National Calendar, by Peter Force. It
contains, among other things, much useful informa
tion. The first number of this work contains some

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

433

excellent historical remarks upon the District of
Columbia and of the city of Washington, which have
furnished authentic matter for most of those who have
written any thing upon the subject since.
Gales and Seaton have, at great expense and trou
ble, printed three ponderous volumes of congressional
debates. They have not, as yet, been paid for their
trouble. This is truly a national work ; and for the
fame of the present race of politicians, and the bene
fit of those who come after them, should be continued.
Individuals, however enterprising, can not afford
such expenditures on works that are in fact rather
printed for other ages than our own. Gales and
Seaton are well qualified, in all respects, to give these
debates to the public, freed from party biasses, and
propprly pruned, and brought down to a reasonable
length ; and also capable of separating the chaff from
the wheat, and freeing the reader from the labour of
getting rid, by his own mental process, of all the cru
dities of legislation.
There are several bookstores in Washington, in
the hands of business men, who publish many cur
rent works, and are usefully engaged ; but the most
important establishment in the city is P. Thompson's.
His store is not so large, perhaps, as some in New
York, Boston, or Philadelphia ; but, for rare editions
of valuable works, in many languages, is not surpassed
in the United States. It contains most of the best
editions of classical works to be found in Europe,
and also many works of great taste in the printing
and binding, &c. To the visiter, this bookstore is
what bookstores were in the days of Johnson and
Burke, and others, a reading room for classical gen
tlemen, who were desirous of seeing more than they
were able to buy. The proprietor is himself a gen
tleman of education, and is often an index, and learned
commentator, on his most profound volumes, when
the examiner wishes for, and needs a guide, which is
often the case in this country, where scholarship is
not a profession, except with a few. The writer, for
one among many, has to acknowledge his polite at
tention and valuable assistance in frequent exami
nations of matters out of the common path of literary
intelligence. The city has not been wanting in newspapers
since its first establishment. The National Intelli
gencer was commenced in 1800, when the city was
actually made the seat of government. For thirteen
years it was published three times a week, and since
that time it has been a daily paper. During the first
of its years, there wasa weekly paper connected with
it, and growing out of it, called the United States
Gazette. Since it has been published daily, there has

been a tri-weekly paper for the country, bearing the
same name, and containing all the best matter ofthe
daily, without the advertisements or other mere city
concerns. It has a most extensive circulation through
every part of the union.
The Weekly Register was first published in 1807,
and in 1808 changed its name to the Washington
Monitor. It was edited by Mr. John Colvin, whose
life was passed mostly in literary labours in Wash
ington. He was a man of abilities, and some of his
writings show superior acquirements.
In 1809, Dinmore and Cooper published the Wash
ington Expositor.
At the commencement of the war, in 1812, the
Washington City Gazette was published by William
Elliot. The Hive by Mr. Lewis.
The Senator by Mr. Cummings.
In 1823 the National Journal was got up and
published twice a week. The next it was a tri
weekly paper ; but in a short time became a daily
print. From 1822 to 1824 the Washington Republican
was in existence. This was ably conducted, but it
was at length absorbed in the Journal.
In 1824 the Telegraph was established, and
within a few years was purchased by Duff Green,
who conducts it now. This is an extensively circu
lated paper.
A short time since there was a religious paper
coming out once a week, called the Columbian Star,
which has since been transferred to Philadelphia. It
was rather a religious than a political paper, and was
edited with a brisk religious spirit, but had no offen
sive sectarian cast.
John Colvin, in the latter part of his life, com
menced his Weekly Messenger, which publica
tion his wife conducted for several years after his
death. A periodical called the Theological Repository
was kept up a while by the contributions of the
clergy. The Columbian Register -is a religious paper, has
been published in this city for nearly two years, and
is still continued. It is a religious paper of a very
tolerant spirit.
A literary paper has lately been got up here,
called the Washington City Chronicle which
promises fair to be a valuable repository of useful
knowledge. The Globe, a paper devoted to politics, has been es
tablished in Washington, which is edited with ability. It
is the government journal.

434

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

To no one is Washington more indebted than to Mr.
Jefferson. He, with the assistance of a French engineer,
laid out the city of Washington on a novel plan ; and
many of the regulations of the corporation proceeded
from him.
Thomas Jefferson was born on the 13th day of April,
1743, at Shadwell, in Albemarle county, not far from
the seat where he died. He was educated at William
and Mary's College, and graduated with distinction, when
quite young. He was a great lover of learning, and
particularly of natural philosophy. With the celebrated
George Wythe he commenced the study of the law, and
became a favourite pupil. Mr. Jefferson was never dis
tinguished as an advocate, but was considered as a good
lawyer. Soon after he came to the bar, he was elected
a member of the house of burgesses, and in that body
was duly appreciated for his learning and aptitude for
business. He at once took fire at British oppression ; and
in 1774, he employed his pen in discussing the whole
course of the British ministry. The work was admired,
and made a text-book by his countrymen. In June,
1775, he took his seat in the Continental Congress, from
Virginia. In this body he soon became conspicuous, and
was considered a firm friend to American liberty. In
1776, he was chosen chairman of the committee that draft
ed the Declaration of Independence. This instrument is
nearly all his own, and was sanctioned by his coadjutors
with few alterations. In 1778, Mr. Jefferson was ap
pointed ambassador to France, to form a treaty with that
government, but ill health prevented his accepting of this
office. He succeeded Patrick Henry in 1779, as gover
nor of Virginia, and continued in that station two years.
In 1781, he composed his Notes on Virginia. In 1783,
he was sent to France to join the ministers of our coun
try, Mr. Adams and Dr. Franklin. He joined them in
August of that year. In 1785, he succeeded Dr. Frank
lin as ambassador, and continued performing the duties of
that office two years, when he retired, and returned home.
In 1789, he was made secretary of state, under Wash
ington, in which situation he was highly distinguished for
his talents. This station he resigned in 1793, and retired
to private life. In 1797, he was elected vice-president
of the United States, and took his seat as president of
the senate on the following 4th of March. In 1801, he
was elected president of the United States, which office
he held for eight years. After completing this term, he
retired to private life, in which he spent his days in philo
sophical pursuits, until the 4th of July, 1826, when he
expired, just fifty years after penning the Declaration of
Independence. His course was one of his own. Never
lived there a politician who did more than Thomas Jef
ferson to bring his fellow-citizens to his own opinions.

Time will settle the amount of his merits. They were
considerable ; but of the course of his policy, his country
men have had, and for a long time will have, different
opinions. There are some fine seats in Washington, several miles
from the heart of the city — two of great beauty ; one built
by Commodore Porter, the other by Joel Barlow, who
was a philosopher and a poet, was born at Reading, in
Connecticut, in 1758, and received his education at Yale
College. While quite young, he was distinguished for his
taste in polite literature, and took at once a rank with
Dwight, Hopkins, Humphrey, and other poets, who
had struck their youthful lyres in College Hall. ' He
was an ardent patriot, and, before the close of the war,
was a volunteer soldigr, and chaplain in the Ameri
can army. He wrote many orations and essays, in
times when the hearts of his countrymen required to be
warmed, or their minds to be enlightened. Soon as he
saw our constitution in operation, he hastened to France,
and became an active patriot in that country. He had,
for some time, contemplated his great poem, and he final
ly published it in France, with the tide of " The Vision
of Columbus,"' and dedicated the work to Louis 16th; but
in the progress of the revolution in that country, he grew
more and more liberal in his principles, and, changing the
name of his epic to that of Columbiad, he enlarged it,
and dedicated it to the times. It is truly a work of geni
us, but it is much questioned whether he made it better
by his emendations. While in France he wrote some
essays that had a great reputation at the time, particularly
some addressed to privileged orders, which the nobility of
any country would do well to read, at the present day.
His prose is written in a chaste, neat style, and bears no
mark of that vitiation of taste which is sometimes found
in his poetry. BarloW was a favourite with Mr. Jefferson,
who, when he came into power, appointed him consul to
Algiers, and afterwards a minister to France. Before he
went out to France, Mr. Barlow had resided for some
years in Washington, at which place, about three miles
from the capitol, he built himself an elegant house, on a
picturesque spot, which he named Kalorama, and which
is so called at the present time. Barlow died on his way
to Wilna, to meet Napoleon, in 1812. His works were
severely handled by the critics of his day, both in Eng
land and in this country. He had offended many by his
avowal of skepticism in regard to the Christian religion,
after he had once been a minister at the altar ; and his de
mocracy was too thorough-going for his old friends in Amer
ica : but the future historian will say, that Barlow was
a man of talents, of extensive acquirements, of an amia
ble disposition ; and the critics of another age will forgive
many things in his poem, that his contemporaries con-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

435

demned. Several beautiful, and one superb edition of
the Columbiad have been published in this country. The
parts of this work on the great principles of imagination
or the general doctrines of liberty, will never perish, but
will give thrills of pleasure to freemen yet unborn ; but
those portions of his work written to catch the gaze of
the passing hour, will secure no other immortality, but
that which arises from their associations.
The major-general of the armies of the United States
holds his head-quarters at Washington, from whence he is
sues his orders to all forts and fortresses extended through-
out this immense country. Since the war, the office has
been kept with great regularity and efficiency ; first un- "
der General Jacob Brown, and now under Major-General
Alexander Macomb. The efficiency of the army of the
United States is not to be found in the number of its sol
diers, but in the learning and abilities of the officers in the
service. Most of the officers are well-informed young men,
who, emanating from every part of the United States, re
ceived their education, scientific and military, at the school
at West Point, where they imbibed high notions of disci
pline and honor, which give them prime advantages in
their profession. Intelligence is the soul of an army.
Men may be found any where, and can be disciplined in
a short time ; but it requires years to make engineers, tac
ticians, and disciplinarians.
Clergy. — The religious denominations are as
numerous in Washington, according to the number
of inhabitants, as in any other place in our country;
but if there is no great harmony among them, there
is no discord. Each pursues his own course, and
preaches his own doctrines, unmolested by contro
versy or opponents. Congress protects all, and che
rishes none. They have a fair field for the -display
of their talents, in any form of Christian doctrine.
There is, or rather has been, some opposition to the
Unitarians ;, but that is nearly over ; and the other
denominations are learning a lesson from the Rev.
Dr. Matthews, of the Catholic faith, to do good, walk
humbly, and love mercy, and live in unity with all
mankind. The clergymen of Washington, as a body,
have as good a share of talents as those of other cities,
and the religious character of the people stands as
high. Considering that the city is a thoroughfare,
it is astonishing that there is no more fanaticism pre
valent here. A learned, pious, evangelical body of
divines, is the greatest blessing to any place, in a
free country, that can be imagined. The pulpit
with them is a High School, in which, in addition
to a common code of ethics, the great doctrines of
divinity are taught, the precepts of salvation are ex
plained, and heaven brought down to earth. What
ever ;there is deep, in philosophy, beautiful in morals,

charming in literature, or sweet in affection, are made
familiar to man by the zeal and learning of the pul
pit. It brings man to a familiarity with his Maker,
and takes away his enmities to his fellow meu ; it
gives a high zest to life in the hopes of futurity, and
takes away the darkness and horror from the grave,
and the sting from death, by the light it gathers and
sheds from the gospel. This country has been
advanced half a century in its intelligence by the
pulpit, notwithstanding that much time and breath
has been wasted in idle disputes, and frivolous dis
tinctions, in points that were nugatory, or in com
mentaries that were absurd.
The bar of the District of Columbia is numerous,
for the population and business ; but it is certainly
respectable in point of talents and learning : but there
does not appear to be that esprit du corps among
them, as exists in some parts of our country, among
the gentlemen of the bar ; but they are gentlemanly
and courteous towards each other. Men, similarly
educated, are alike in every part of the world. If
law be a science, it is only the science of bringing
particular cases under fixed and settled rules. Morals
change with every age, and opinions fluctuate with
every hour, and old enactments give place to new ;
but that sagacity which brings all the powers of the
mind to the standard set up, whatever it may be,
makes the good lawyer, whether the possessor be in
Turkey or in the United States.
Congress has made a very good judiciary system
for the District of Columbia. A District Court has
been established here, upon the same principles as
those-of other districts in the United States. This
bench is filled by Judge Cranch, whose talents,
learning, patience, and integrity, are well known to
all who have the honour to know him.
There is also a Circuit Court for the District of
Columbia, which is held four times a year. Judge
Cranch is Chief Justice of this court ; Judges Thurs
ton and Morsell, are assistant justices. This court finds
some little inconvenience, at times, from the singular
fact, that what is law in one part of their jurisdiction,
is not law in another ; the statutes of Virginia, and
in like manner those of Maryland, being still in force
in' those parts of the district which formerly belonged
to those states ; and in the growth of these states,
there is no proof that, they were ever so kind as to
copy much from each other.
The professors of the healing art are numerous
and highly respectable in Washington. Most of
them are men of good education, and not a few of
them have seen considerable practice before they
came to this city. Some of thein have served in the

436

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

army or navy, and others were educated abroad, or
in the first schools in this country. They deserve
much credit for getting up a medical school, which
has been in operation but a few years only ; but the
lectures delivered here, in the different departments,
are of a high order, and have been delivered without
any of that quackery, that struggles for effect ; and
that produced, thinks of nothing else. The gradu
ates are well instructed ; and if, as yet, they are not
numerous, have been respectable for acquirements. It
is connected with Columbia College, and is com
posed of a Dean and Faculty, made up of professors o
in such branches as are generally taught in such an
institution. The Washington City Orphan Asylum was got
up by certain charitable ladies of distinction and
worth in this city. With indefatigable labour and
persevering exertion, they have laid the foundation
of an excellent seminary, as well as an asylum for
those helpless infants that have been deprived of their
parents. It is not confined to one sex, but is iutended
to exercise charity on a broad scale. A lady of pro
perty, Mrs. Van Ness, gave the corporation a lot of
ground, in a pleasant and central situation, in Tenth
Street ; and on it the association have erected a
suitable building, for their kind purposes. The corner
stone of this edifice was laid in the summer of 1828,
with solemn and impressive ceremonies, accompanied
¦with the orphan's prayer, and the good man's benison.
These asylums have, after the fashion of this hospi
table and industrious age, taxed the ladies of this
city with making articles of taste and fancy, which,
when mingled with other articles purchased for the
occasion, are exposed at a Fair, and the sums real
ized from the sales are directed to the benefit of the
institution. The Sisters of Charity have their fairs
also. Every age has something or other, for good or
evil, to mark its existence. The brightest constella
tion of this age of improvement is its charities. They
grow up in every society, they extend to every climate,
and thus reach all mankind.
There has been established, by the Catholics in
this city, for several years past, an institution of charity
for orphan females ; and connected with it a pri
mary school for day scholars. This is a most excel
lent institution, under the care of intelligent Sisters,
whose vows extend to a devotion of their time, that
can be spared from their religious exercises, to the
educating of the infant female mind in religious
duties and useful knowledge. This delightful, but
onerous task, is performed with true zeal, and un
tiring constancy, by those Sisters whose sole busi

ness is to do good, and wish well to mankind. The
school is an admirable one ; each Sister has her
branch of studies, to attend to in these schools, and is
not directed to others, but pursues that until teaching
in it is easy and familiar. Their buildings are con
venient, their grounds are laid out with taste, and
every arrangement unites judgment, economy, clean
liness, and industry ; and, in fact, all the household
virtues are constant handmaids of religion with the
Sisters of Charity. These schools are every day
becoming more justly appreciated, and the knowledge
of their merits more fully developed. It would be
agreeable to the writer to enter into some of the
minute facts relating to this institution, in which
there are no pecuniary views, no particle of worldly
ambition, none of the pride that seeks for praise only.
They are ambitious only as far as their fame may
benefit the houseless child of want, whose yearnings
have elicited their pity, and whose cries have gone
up to heaven for succour. The charities of this age
are not confined to males or females ; they belong
to the warrior in the day of his glory, and to the
female in the hour of her beauty and dominion ; they
preserve the peaceful walks in the feuds of party
strife, and in the change of political power. Secta
rians and oppositionists are all active in extending
the influences of charity ; and if she is made, by
those of limited knowledge, and of narrow views of
man, accessory to bigoted notions, and persecuting
zeal, this is only accidental and short-lived, or occa
sional, while the great acts she is called to perform,
in every country, are, as a whole,, pure, lofty, and
noble. I can not pass over the Tyber without saying one
word of that pleasant little stream.
"And what was Goose Creek once, is Tyber
now," was wittily said, and ought not to excite the in
dignation of our countrymen as much as it has done
against the English Anacreon ; for our part we will
forgive him this splenetic remark, and all the other
vituperations he was guilty of, save and except his at
tack on Washington himself, for the pleasure he has
afforded us in his exquisite poetry since ; and we can
easily believe that he who wrote Sacred Melodies to
atone for writing amorous ditties, has, in his heart,
repented for his sins, in attacking the greatest patriot
of all times. It falls out that if there is a satire in
the line, there was not much truth in it. The name
of the stream was not changed by way of making
great things out of little, from Goose Creek to Tyber;
Goose Creek belongs to the vulgate of the boys, who
sailed boats, and shot ducks in the stream ; but the
old deeds of more than a century ago, call it by the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

437

name of Tyber Creek. It is said that a landholder who
lived on what is now called Capitol Hill, finding the
strong resemblance in the natural panorama of the
surrounding country, named his little territory Rome,
and the brook at the foot of the hill Tyber ; but this
little brook may be of more importance to mankind
than that Tyber which " flows fast by the Eternal
City." For this pure little stream, when other streams
shall " mourn their fountains dry," may be conveyed
in abundance to every part of the city, to refresh
and adorn it, when the malaria has made Rome a
desert. The manners and customs of Washington demand
a moment's attention :
I have already in the historical sketch of the city,
glanced at the general character of the inhabitants,
but it may be well to speak of them more distinctly,
as they are often either ignorantly or wilfully misrepre
sented ; sometimes, indeed, caricatured by those who
imagine they are praising them. And it must also
be remembered that their general character must be
every day changing, from the increase of population,
and the great influx of strangers ; who, finding now
what could not have been offered them in the earlier
years of the history of the city, comfortable quarters
and good fare, are willing to make longer visits, and
become more acquainted with the manners and habits
of the citizens of Washington. The amiable and
scholar-like Warden, now resident in Paris, who has
written in a distant land a good history of this coun
try, gave about thirteen years ago, a, lively descrip
tion of all he saw worthy of record in the District of
Columbia, having spent the summer there ; but many
things have altered since that time, and what was
then as much as could honestly be said of them, must
fall short of the truth now. He seemed to feel alarmed
for the society of the city, in contemplating the num
ber of beauties married from the circles of fashion,
bythe members of congress, from time to time. This
laudable custom still continues; but there are no
complaints of it as an evil, at present ; in fact, the
dread of it as such, could only have existed in a
bachelor's brain ; and if he had thought as much of
the doctrine of political economy, as of his affectionate
gallantry, he would soon have discovered that uthe
supply is increased by the briskness of the demand."
The manners of a people are at all times affected by
the greater or lesser importance they attach to them
selves ; particularly when this self esteem is made up
in a considerable degree of the space they may fill in
the public consideration. The people of Washington
know, that whatever transpires in the city, of a public
nature, is a matter of deep interest to the rest of the
Vol. II. —Nos. 73 & 74. 3 K

nation. In such a place, the affairs of government
are constantly discussed. The movements of the
executive, and the doings of the legislature, are in
stantly known to all, and commented upon by all
classes. The interest, however, which may be felt,
is not precisely in proportion to the magnitude of the
subject ; but oftener according to the bearing it may
have on themselves. The appointment of a minister
or the recall of one, or of a judge of the Supreme
Court, or the rapid advancement of a naval or mili
tary officer, great things in themselves, because they
are important to the country, make up only an item
in the mass of daily information ; but the removal,
or appointment of a clerk, or auditor, or any head of
a Bureau, is an affair directly within their vision, and
comes home to their business and bosoms. But all
these things, however pleasant or painful they may
be for the moment, are hardly remembered a day, and
certainly are forgotten in a few weeks, in the quid
nunc appetite of a free people. These changes pro
duce a sort of mercurial disposition in a population ;
which may, and in fact does, tend more to their happi
ness than that apathetical character which despotic
governments give to a people. Politics are all-absorbing
topics of this republic. -More time is certainly taken
up than necessary ; but still a goodly share of our
time, and many exertions, are necessary to keep the
lamp of knowledge and the torch of liberty in pure
and regular burning, and to save it from being dead
ened by the chills of indifference, or blown out by
the fierce storms of faction. Restlessness, anxiety,
and the sickness and fever of party feuds, is the tax
that intelligence has had, in every age, to pay for
freedom ; it was never sustained without it. The
men of Athens, it is said, spent more than a fourth
part of their time in politics. In Rome, the busy
tribunes kept the people awake to their interests, and
jealous of patrician power. The struggles between
the nobles of Venice and the merchants, kept the
whole population involved in endless disputes. In
England, for centuries, public attention has been ex
erted, and great struggles made, for public and private
rights. The history of this country is a history of political
discussions, and perpetual struggles for liberty. The
people have, from the first settlement of the country,
devoted more than a quarter part of their time in
learning their rights and in defending them, and in
building up their institutions. All, from twenty years .
of age to the grave, in any change of years or situa
tion in life, are daily engaged, among other things,
in politics. Washington is the centre of all this bus
tle, the very ear of Dionysius, in which every remote

438

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

whisper is reverberated. The complaints of the
great and the little are all heard here ; the feeble,
who mutter, but dare not speak aloud ; the bold, who
rave in their disappointments, and invoke the curses
of the upper and the nether world — are also heard.
The people of this city have the finest opportunity
of becoming acquainted with the talents and characters
of the prominent men in the country. They see at
every touch and turn the obsequious minion, with his
simperings and flatteries, and the consequential patron,
bloated with " a little brief authority." They not
only see, but read, and read pretty thoroughly too,
the true character of men in power. It falls to their
lot often to see men one day surrounded by secretaries,
foreign ministers, and a bowing crowd ; who, on the
next, pass off to private life, without a farewell salu
tation ; and another set arrive, who bustle through
their reign, and then sleep, either living or dead, with
their predecessors. This proves the force and ma
jesty there is in the people ; but it lessens the impor
tance of the individuals. To the great politicians of
former ages, such a government, had it been truly
sketched, would have justly been classed among the
wildest fictions ever created ; but its perpetuity is a
problem the most timid need not a solution of. The
intelligence of the community may safely be trusted
in modelling anew, or repairing the defects of any
form of government. There is no virtue or spell in any
system of a constitution. The whole political safety, in
a republic, consists in the purity and in the soundness
of the great body politic.
- ¦ The literary taste of the inhabitants now does them
credit, and it is every day growing better. The
visiters find but little time to devote to reading, and
their previous acquirements are sufficient for all the
demands of the occasion ; and to the honour of the
country, I speak of the ladies more particularly, these
are sufficient for their purpose. In some pf the pret
tiest, a close observer will see the lisp or drawl of the
drawing room conversation, which is only a manner
put on for the time. In the moments of intoxicated
vanity from admiration and flattery, even the political
philosopher looks wise, and straightens up ; and can
youth and beauty be expected to be more firm or insensi
ble? The diplomatic corps at Washington have not, in
former years, done much either to enrich, embellish,
or enlighten the city. Those who have been sent
here in former times, have, with some honourable ex
ceptions, been of a secondary Drder of diplomatists,
with their equipage and parties, and after making a
dash, have hardly been heard of again. Many of
them, no doubt, were men of talents : but there was
no opportunity of displaying their intellectual powers

here. The corps are now, however, very respectable.
The English minister is a scholar and a gentleman.
The French minister, I make no distinction in their dif
ferent ranks, is said to be a man of courtesy, and learn
ing ; and those from Netherlands, Holland, and Russia,
are thought to be men of fine manners and high intelli
gence. South America, in her infancy, has sent us
a good share of talents ; men of the most inquisitive
minds, who are indefatigable in studying the political
institutions of this country, and in making themselves
acquainted with the manners and customs of it. This
remark is not confined to the representatives of the new
republics alone ; for no man in Washington was more
respected and loved for his amenity, frankness, in
tegrity, talents, and patriotism, than the late Brazilian
minister, Mr. Rebello. His name is in every literary
and scientific institution, and the poor have blessed
him for his kindness. In former times, a man was
thought to have every claim to society, who was
known to be familiar with a baron, count, or minis
ter ; but the people are growing more republican every
day, and the smiles of a diplomatist is not now the
standard for the admeasurement of claims to so
ciety. Now and then a romantic girl is found
flirting to catch an attache ; but she is, fortu
nately, ninety-nine times out of the hundred, unsuc
cessful. • During the session of Congress, the amusements
of Washington absorb no small portion of the atten
tion of the visiters., as well as members. Political
struggles produce, a sort of dramatic influence on
society ; not that the theatre is very well attended-
but for the short time it is kept open, it finds a very
tolerable support when the press of visiters is great.
The President's levees, and the parties of the secreta
ries, foreign ministers, heads of Bureaus, and those
citizens who can afford to made parties, are frequent,
and well attended. At these parties are collected
the most distinguished men, 'not only of the nation,
but many foreigners of note. The visiters, who do
not think of distinction, like well enough to see what
is passing, and they find easy access to the social
circles, and mingle in the throng, to see and examine
for themselves. It is not difficult to get an introduc
tion to men of. importance, and to pass a social half
hour with them. These routs are rather to be re
membered, than enjoyed at the moment. These par
ties are so crowded as to level all distinctions. Gov
ernors, generals, judges, and political managers,
whose influence is something in a little district, are
all lost in this congregation. Orators, whose speeches
were fine at home, and doubtless raised a most noble
flame among their political partisans, are astonished

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

439

at being overlooked ; and poets, whose works have
been printed on wire-wove and hot-press paper, and
sent to the ladies' toilets in silk or morocco binding,
are mortified that not even a belle lisps a line of
their works, or ever whispers their names. The
traveller, who has seen every kingdom on which the
sun looks down, is put precisely on a par with him
who has just come down from the mountains, or out
of the West, or from the East. Fashion is the bed
of Procrustes, and all are suited to its dimensions.
A whiskered dandy, a black-stocked, officer-like
looking man, and a quizzing-glass attache, are all
moving about, regardless of those they jostle or
crowd. If you inquire who it is that pushes you
out of the way to get at a partner for the waltz, no
body can tell you, and perhaps he hardly could him
self, if you were to ask him, who he was ; no matter,
he seems genteel, and that is sufficient for the hour.
The waltz goes on, much to the gratification of the
exquisites ; for belles- — aye, grave matrons, are swim
ming round in the dance, if Dervise-like whirling
can be called dancing, and yod see blowsy impu
dence and simpering familiarity gazing with Asiatic
voluptuousness upon seemingly unsuspecting inno
cence, made giddy by unnatural motion, or un
meaning flattery. There is not much harm in all
this ; for each one is taught to play a part, and it is
all acting. There is an apparently sober, quiet part
of the joyous whole, who are insinuating the little
rumours of the day ; of this lady's partialities, and of
that gentleman's indiscretions, and without any deci
ded ill nature, but just by the way of amusement,
" Distort the truth, accumulate the lie,
And pile the pyramid of cal umny."
This is a picture of all societies, where persons
unknown to each other, except from the introduction
of the moment, assemble.
There can come no harm from our looking out of
the limits of the city for a moment. The College of
Georgetown is delightfully situated on an eminence,
that commands a fair prospect of all around. This
institution was established about forty years since.
It is a Catholic seminary, and was made a University
by Congress in 1815, with the power of granting de
grees. The college buildings are commodious, and
sufficiently elegant for all the purposes of a school.
The library is respectable, and the system of educa
tion is liberal ; the modern languages are taught
there, with the classical, and youths of all denomina
tions are received as students. The faculties are
composed of pious and learned men, and the young
gentlemen I have known, who were educated there,

have been well instructed. The Catholic clergy of
Maryland are in possession of handsome revenues,
arising from large tracts of glebe lands, throughout
the state. These revenues have been kept for the
true purposes of religion and learning, and the eccle
siastical orders have never been charged with ambi
tion, as they have in other countries, nor have they
aspired to high offices in the state or general govern
ment. The Protestant denominations of every shade
of doctrine have, unquestionably from principle, in
some period or other of the history of Maryland,
been openly and secretly hostile to the Catholic
church ; but it has gone on with such a tolerant
spirit as to disarm all sects of their enmity, and nearly
all of their opposition. The clergy of Maryland
protected those persecuted by the Church of England
on one side of them, and those exiled by the Puritans
of the East on the other. In a free country, all men
should, in the article of religious belief, be persuaded
in their own minds, and the constitution of every.
state should give equal protection to all creeds ;
" Tros, Rutulus ve, nullo discrimine habebo," **
should be the language of the lawgiver in every age
and nation. In the District of Columbia, this prin
ciple is fairly acted upon, and the community feel
its beneficial effects.
The Convent of Visitation is an object of deep
interest to all who take a part in what may be em
phatically called the glory of this country— its edu
cation. Seminaries for boys are sufficiently numer
ous in most parts of the country ; the people have
now to refine and exalt their character, not add to
their numbers ; but well regulated female schools
are yet much wanted. This Convent was established
more than thirty years ago, by Archbishop Neale, a
most worthy prelate, and upon a most improved
plan, with the piety and zeal of the order of which it
is a part. There is infused into the constitution of
it some ofthe most liberal principles of the age. The
superior is elected by the sisterhood every three years,
and is ineligible for more than two terms in succes
sion. Thus the elective franchise in this country,
in its most republican form, has found its way into
" the convent's shade."
The number of Sisters, or nuns, is about fifty;
and they are all devoted to religious duties and to
the education of females. The younger Sisters are
set to keep an eleemosynary school, and do much
good by diffusing correct principles and information
among the poor ; but the most valuable part of the
establishment is the boarding-school for young ladies.
This is in a most flourishing condition. The Sis

440

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

ters themselves are highly educated, in every branch
of science, and in all the current and fashionable
literature ofthe age, as well as in the profound ethics
and the sublime doctrines of the Christian religion.
In this institution the great evil of most schools is
avoided ; this evil is to make one person teach many
branches, and of course no one can be profound in
all. Here, each sister selects her department, and
never walks out of it; six or seven, therefore, are
united as instructors in the same branch, and the
indisposition of one or two does not interfere with
the course of instruction in any branch.
The languages are taught here with great accu
racy, and with a pure, lady-like, and natural accent,
the charm of polished society. The system of edu
cation here, extends to the minute duties of house
wifery, and the pupils graduate with a thorough ac
quaintance with the science of the kitchen and mys
teries of the culinary art, without which no woman
can be said to be all-accomplished.
The system of government in this school is admi
rably strict, not severe; decided, not imperative.
There is no espionage ; no making use of one to find
out the faults of another ; but their care and watch
fulness are so sisterly and maternal,' that the pupil is
naturally moulded, not drilled, to good manners.
Discipline is constantly going on even in those hours
of relaxation in which girls left to themselves often
acquire an awkwardness of manners that cleave to
them for the whole course of their lives. Such
schools are rare. The Ursulines have just opened
one on the same plan, near Boston, which is flour
ishing under a most accomplished superior.
If this age has any thing to boast of over those
that are gone by, it is in the difference of education,
and the facilities it has invented to give a genteel
education to female youths, without endangering the
health, or diminishing the grace and beauty of their
persons.] Alexaiidria, an incorporated city on the west bank
of the Potomac, is a place Of extensive business, and of
fashionable resort during the sittings of congress. It
contains a court-house, six churches, and a theological
seminary. The museum at this place contains, among
its valuables, an elegant satin robe, scarlet on one side
and white on the other, in which General Washington
was baptized ; a penknife with a pearl handle, given to
him by his mother, when he was in his twelfth year,
and which he kept fifty-six years ; a pearl button,
from the coat he wore at his first inauguration as
President of the United States in the old City Hall,
New York ; a black glove, worn by him while in
rriburning for his mother ; part of the last stick of

sealing wax which he used ; the original of the last
letter written by him, being a polite apology, in be
half of himself and Mrs. Washington, for declining
an invitation to a ball at Alexandria ; (it is penned
with singular neatness, accuracy, and precision, and
contains this expression — " Alas ! our dancing days
are over ;") a beautiful masonic apron, with the belt
of scarlet satin, and the white kid gloves, worn by him
the last time he shared in the social ceremonies of
the " mystic tie."
The Chesapeake and Ohio canal was commenced
in 1828. The proposed length is 341 1-4 miles ;
the breadth, at the surface of the water, sixty to
eighty feet ; at the bottom fifty feet ; the depth of
water, six to seven feet. According to the plan of
this canal, it will pass from the tide-water of the Po
tomac above Georgetown, and terminate near Pitts
burgh, in Pennsylvania. Five miles from Georgetown,
the canal is so planned that a branch may be con
structed to Alexandria, another to Baltimore, and
another to the navy-yard in Washington. The first
estimate of the cost was 22,375,000 dollars, but it is
maintained that the cost will not exceed 10,000,000
dollars. The United States have authorized a sub
scription of 1,000,000 dollars to the stock of this com
pany. To be constructed by the Chesapeake and
Ohio Canal Company. The charter was granted ity
Virginia in 1824, and confirmed by Maryland and
congress in 1825.
The Baptists in this District have 18 churches, 10
ministers, and 1,658 communicants ; the Presbyte
rians, 9 churches, 11 ministers, 5 licentiates, and 996
communicants ; the Methodists, 1,400 members ; and
the Episcopalians, 5 ministers ; the Catholics, several
churches ; and the Unitarians, 1 minister.

Washington
Alexandria
Georgetown

Population. 1810.8,208
7,227 4,948

VIRGINIA.

1820.
13,274 8,218
7,360

1830.
18,827 8,263
8,441

This is at once the most ancient and most exten
sive state in the union. It is bounded on the north
by Pennsylvania, on the northeast by Maryland, on
the east by the Atlantic, on the south by North Caro
lina and Tennessee, and on the west by Kentucky
and Ohio. In longitude, it extends from 75° 25' to
83° 4' ; and in latitude from 36° 30' to 40° 37'. Its
greatest length is 430 miles, and its mean width up
wards of 150 miles, comprising about 700,000 square
miles. Though the zones of Virginia are not very distinctly

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BolIou .i'-ujDJjsiied J)y S- Walker.

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s

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

441

marked, each part has its appropriate character. The
oceanic section of Virginia is its tropical climate.
Latitude, exposure, and depressed level, all combine
to give the Chesapeake counties a much more eleva
ted temperature than is found in the interior. This
difference is seen on vegetation. In the lower coun
ties, cotton may be cultivated successfully, whilst the
uncertainty of grain and meadow grasses evinces a
southern summer. The middle, in all the' Atlahtio
states south from Pennsylvania, we find- to be the
arcadia of the state. Middle Virginia is, however,
blended with the mountainous, the former containing
the whole or great part of the valtey counties, Berk
ley, Jefferson, Frederick, Shenandoah, Rockingham;
Augusta, Rockbridge, Botetourt, Montgomery, Wythe,
and Washington. The real mountain section, lies
northwest from the middle, and extends to the Ohio.
The extreme western part is, indeed, composed of a
congeries of hills with alluvial bottoms, but the a'ctual
mountain ridges approach so near Ohio River, and
the hills are in themselves 'so generally abrupt; and
lofty, as to give an alpine appearance to the country:
Taken as a whole, central Virginia, has the best soil,
though in the mountainous part there is much that
is excellent. With the exception of the south eastern
counties, grain and orchard fruits are highly conge-
* We give Mr. Jefferson's" description from his Notes 'on Vir
ginia. — "It is on the ascent of a hill which seems" to have been
cloven through its-length by- some -great convulsion. ; The^fissure,
just by the bridge, is by some admeasurements, 270 feet deep, .by
others only 205'. ' It is about 45 feet wide1 at the -bottom, and 90
feet at the top ;'. this, of course, determines die length of the bridge;
and its height from the water ; its breadth in the middle is about
60 feet, but more at the ends, and the thickness of the mass; at the
summit of the arch, about 40 feet." "A. part Of this.tEickness .'is con
stituted by a coat of earth, which gives growth to many large
trees;. the residue, with the hill on both sides, is one solid rock of
lime-stone. The arch approaches the semi-elliptical. form, but the
larger axis of the ellipse, which would be the chord 'o'f the arch, is.
many times longer than the transverse". Though the sides of this
bridge are provided in some, parts -with a parapet , of fixed rocks,
yet few men have resolution to walk to. them, aiid look over, into the
abyss : you involuntarily fall oil your hands aiid' feet,' creep- to the
parapet, and peep oyer' it." Looking, down- from, this height about:
a minute gave me a violent headache, -If the view from ihe top
be painful and intolerable, that, from below is deligh'tful. in. an equal
extreme ; it is= impossible for the e.moti&ns-arisingfromithe,sublrme
to be felt beyond what they are here : so beautiful an arch, so
elevated, so light, and springing-as it were up to heaven ! the'rap-
ture ofthe spectator is'really indescribable'!. The fissure continu
ing narrow, deep, and straight, for a considerable distance, above
and below the bridge, opens' a short but very pleasing view' of the
North Mountain on. one side, and Blue Ridge on the other,- at the
distance each of them of about five mile's. This bridge is in the
County of Robkbridge,. to. which it has given name, and affords a
public and oommodious passage over a valley which can not be
crossed elsewhere for a considerable distance-. The. stream pass
ing under it is called Cedar Creek ; it is a water of James' RHer,
and sufficient in the driest seasons to turn a grist mill, though its
fountain is not more than two miles above." — Notes on Virginia,
-pp. 21. 22. ....
t " The passage of the Potomac through the Blue Ridge is per-

nial to Virginia, and their various products are the
natural, actual, and, we may safely say, the perma
nent staples of the state. Of metals, iron ore is
abundant in the central and western sections. Brine
has been procured on the Great Kenhawa, and salt
extensively manufactured.
Virginia is justly celebrated for the grandeur of its
scenery. The natural bridge over Cedar creek,
twelve miles south west of Lexington, is esteemed
one of the most extraordinary natural curiosities in
the world.* The passage of the Potomac through
the Blue Ridge, at Harper's Ferry, is also celebrated.t
There are several interesting caves, of which the
most extraordinary is Wier's Cave, oil the northwest
side "of the Blue Ridge. It is between 2,000 and
3,000 -feet in length, and Comprises various apart
ments,- containing beautiful stalactites and incrusta
tions- which display the most sparkling brilliancy
When surveyed by the light of a torch. Near this
there is another singular cavern, Sailed Madison's Cave ;
and in one of "the ridges. of the Allegany mountains,
is Blowing Cave, from which a current of air con
tinually issues, strong enough to prostrate the weeds
at the distance of sixty feet. One of the largest
mounds in the valley of the Ohio is in Virginia, near
the Ohio, fourteen miles below Wheeling. It is

haps one of the most stupendous scenes in nature. You stand on
a very high point of land; on youT right comes .'up the Shenan
doah, having ranged along the- foot of the mountain a hundred
miles to seek a vent; on your left approaches t the Potomac, in
quest- of a passage also; in the moment Of their junction they rush
together against the mountain, rend- if asunder, and pass oif to the
sea. The first glance of this scene hurries our senses into the
opinion, that this earth has been created in time, that the mountains
were formed first, that, the rivers.'began to flow afterwards, that in
this place particularly they have been dammed up by the Blue Ridge
of mountains, and have formed an ocean whieh filled the whole
valley ; that, continuing to rise, they have at length broken over
at this spot, and have torn the mountain down -from its summit to
its base. The piles of rock on eacb hand, but particularly oh the
Shenandoah, the evident marks of their disrupture and avulsion
from their beds by the most powerful agents of nature, corroborate
the impression. But the distant "finishing whieh 'nature has given
to. the picture, ia of a very different character ; it is a true contrast
. to the foreground ; it is as. placid and delightful as that is wild and
tremendous: for the mountain'bejhg cloven. asunder, she presents
to your eye, through the cleft,' a small catch of smooth blue hori
zon, at an infinite distance in the-plain- country, inviting you, as it
were, from the riot and tumult roaring around, to pass through the
breach, and participate of the calm below.- Here the eye ultimate
ly composes itself; and that way too 'the foa'd ;happens actually
to lead. You cross the Potomac above the junction, pass along
its side through the ba3e of the mountain 'fo? three miles, its terri
ble precipices hanging in fragments over you, and, within about
twenty miles,' reach Fredericktown, and the fine country round
that. : This scene is worth a voyage- across the-Atl&ntic ; yet here,
as in the neighbourhood of the -Natural- Bridge";: are -people who
have passed their lives, within half a dozen miles," and have never
been to survey these monuments Of a war between rivers and
mountains, which must have shaken the earth itself to its centre."
Jefferson's Notes on Virginia, pp-.l/, 18. .

442

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES!

about 300 feet in diameter at the base, sixty at the
top, and the perpendicular height is seventy feet. It
contains thousands of human skeletons.
This state has a large fund, the income of which
is appropriated to internal improvements. Dismal
Swamp Canal, twenty-two miles long, opens a com
munication between Norfolk, in Virginia, and Eliza
beth City, in North Carolina. There are various
other canals for the improvement of the navigation
of the James, the Jackson, and the Shenandoah
rivers. No provision had been made for a general system
of education, to be supported by the state, until the
formation of the Literary Fund. Academies and
colleges were established by the legislature, and the
trustees incorporated, on the application of indivi
duals. The colleges are, William and Mary, at Wil-
liamsburgh, founded during the reign of the sove
reigns whose names it bears ; Hampden Sydney, in
Prince Edward county, incorporated in 1783 ; and
Washington, at Lexington, originally Liberty Hall
Academy ; in 1796, its name was changed to Wash
ington Academy, on receiving a donation ofthe shares
in the James River and Potomac Companies, which
had been presented by the legislature of Virginia to
General Washington, and which he had declined to
accept, unless permitted to turn their destination
from his private emoluments to objects of a public
nature ; in 1812 its name was still further changed
to Washington College, which it now bears. A col
lege, to be denominated the Central College, was
about to be established at Charlottesville, by the pri

vate contributions of some of the most enlightened
and patriotic citizens in Virginia, when the legisla
ture, in appropriating -the interest of the Literary
Fund, provided for the University of Virginia. The
commissioners appointed to determine the site of the
¦University, selected the very spot intended for the
Central College. The lands and other property of
the Central College were then conveyed to the presi
dent and directors of the Literary Fund, and the
University established on the proposed site. This
edifice, in which all the orders of architecture are
introduced, has been reared up under the parental
care of Mr. Jefferson. Combining the effect of the
scenery presented by the surrounding country with
the plan and execution of the buildings, the Univer
sity of Virginia is pronounced by competent judges
to be equal, if not superior, to any thing of the kind
in Europe. This institution, the pride of Virginia,
which has had but little more than 200,000 dollars
expended on it, (an inconsiderable sum, compared
with the magnitude of the object,)" requires nothing
but the aid of a library and the necessary apparatus
to put it into complete operation. In 1823 the legis
lature made arrangements, which, it is hoped, will
speedily effect this desirable- object.
The Baptists in this state have 337 churches, 192
ministers, and 39,440 communicants ; the Metho
dists, 77 preachers and 27,947 members ; the Pres
byterians, 104 churches, 75 ministers, 15 licentiates,
and 7,508 communicants ; the Episcopalians, 45
ministers ; the Friends are numerous, and there are
some Lutherans, Roman Catholics, and Jews.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

EASTERN DISTRICT.

Counties.
Accomac, e. . . .
Albemarle, m. . . .
Amelia, s. m. . . .
Amherst, m. . . .
Bedford, s 
Brunswick, s. . . .
Buckingham, n. m. .
Campbell, s. M. . .
Lynchburgh, town .
Caroline, e. m. . .
Charles City, e. m. .
Charlotte, s. m. . .
Chesterfield, e. m.
C ulpepper, n. m. . .
Cumberland, M. . .
Dinwiddie, s. M. . .
Petersburgh, town .
Elizabeth City, s. e.

Total

"Whites.

Slaves.

Free
Blacks.

Population, 1830.

9,458

4,654

2,544

19,656

10,455

11,689

484

22,618

3,293

7,518

220

11,031

5,879

5,927

263

12,072

11,113

8,790

341

20,253

5,397

9,760

612

15,770

7,172

10,928

245

18,351

7,497

7,735

473

15,704

2,490

1,751

385

4,626

6,490

10,764

520

17,774

1,782

2,957

761

5,504

5,583

9,433

236

15,252

7,709

10,337

591

18,637

12,044

11,419

563

24,026

4,054

7,309

326

11,689

7,709

10,337

591

18,637

3,440

2,850

2,032

8,322

2,704

2,218

131

5,068

County Towns.
Accomac, C. H. . . .
Charlottesville . . ,
Amelia, C. H. ...
Amherst, C. H. . . .
Liberty 
Lawrenceville . . .
Buckingham, C. H.
Campbell, C. H. . . .
Lynchburgh ....
Bowling-Green .
Charles City, .CH. .
Charlotte, C. H. . . .
Chesterfield, C. H. . .
Culpepper, C. H. . .
Cumberland, C. H. . .
Dinwiddie, C. H. . .
Hampton 

Distance
R* | W.t

214

206

81

123

47

169

136

180

145

223

69

191

87

162

132

210

120

198

44

78

30

152

96

187

14

136

94

76

55

140

40

162

22

144

96

199

* From Richmond.

t From Washington;

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

443

Countii

Essex, e 
Fairfax, n. e. . . .
Fauquier, n. m. . .
Fluvanna, m. . . .
Franklin, s. . . .
Gloucester, e. . . .
Goochland, m. . .
Greenville, s. . . .
Halifax, s. . , . .
Hanover, e. m. . .
Henrico, e. m. . .
Richmond, city . .
Henry, s 
Isle of Wight, s. e. .
James City, e. . .
King and Glueen, e.
King George, n. e. .
King William, e. m.
Lancaster, e. . . .
Loudon, -n. e. . . .
Louisa, m 
Lunenburgh, s. . .
Madison, m. - . . . ,
Matthews, e. . . .
Mecklenburgh, 3. .
Middlesex, e. . . .
Nansemond, s. e.
Nelson, m 
New Kent, e. m. . .
Norfolk, s. e. . . . ,
Norfolk, korough . ,
Northampton, e. . . ,
Northumberland, e.
Nottoway, s. m. . . .
Orange, m 
Patrick, s 
Pittsylvania, s. . . ,
Powhatan, m 
Prince Edward, s. m. .
Prince George, e. m.
Prince William, n. e. .
Princess Anne, s. e.
Richmond, e 
Southampton, s. e. . .
Spottsylvania, e. m. . .
Fredericksburgh, town
Stafford, n. e 
Surry, s. e 
Sussex, s. e 
Warwick, s. e. . . .
Westmoreland, e. . .
York, e 

Total

Whites.

3,647
4,892
13,116 4,2239,728
4,3143,8572,104
12,915 6,526
5,7177,757
4,0585,023 1,284
4,714
2,4753,155 1,976
15,517 6,4684,479
4,389 3,995 7,443 1,870
5,1435,186
2,586 8,180
5,1313,573
4,0292,9496,4565,494
14,690 2,6615,0393,066
5,1275,023
2,975
6,573
4,685 1,798
4,7132,865
4,118 619
3,7182,129

375,940

Slaves.

6,4173,972
12,612 3,795
4,988 5,6915,7064,681
14,527 9,278 5,9346,345
2,868
4,272 1,983
6,514
3,6356,310
2,6315,3609,3827,233
4,873 3,481
11,950 2,137
4,943 5,946
3,5305,8423,757
3,7343,3576,9857,983 1,782
10,992 5,472
8,593
4,5983,842
3,7362,6307,755
6,925 1,125
4,1643,377 7,736 892
3,845
2,598

Free
Blacks.

467 311
621203 195
603
795332
590
449
1,089
1,960 174
1,222 571410287317 195
1,062 301 245 71
189
874 118
1,698 122
342966928
1,334 567223 198117
340
384
475 700
361343
451
1,745 310384
485 866
860 27
848627 -

Total
Population 1830.

416,259 1 40,780

10,531 9,206
26,379 8,221
14,91110,608
10,358 7,117
28,032 16,25312,73816,060 7,100
10,517 3,838
11,644 6,3979,812
4,800
21,938 16,15111,957 9,236 7,663
20,366 4,122
11,78411,251 6,457
14,998 9,816
8,644 7,953
10,14114,637 7,393
26,022 8,517
14,107 8,3689,330
9,1026,056
16,073
11,920 3,3079,3627,108
12,720 1,570
8,411 .
5,354

County Towns.

Tappahannock .
Fairfax, C. H. .
Warienton . .
Palmyra . . .
Rocky Mount . .
Gloucester, C. H.
Goochland, C. H.
Hicksford . . .
Halifax, C. H. .
Hanover, C. H. .
> Richmond . .

832,979

Martinsville . . . .
Smithfield 
Williamsburgh . . .
King and Q.ueen, C. H.
King George, C. H. .
King William, C..H. .
Lancaster, C. H. . .
Leesburgh 
Louisa, C. H 
Lunenburgh, C. H. . .
Madison 
Matthews, C. H.
Boydton 
Urbanna 
Suffolk 
Lovington 
New Kent, C. H. . .
! Portsmouth . . .
Norfolk 
Eastville 
Northumberland, C. H.
Nottoway, C. H. . . .
Orange 
Patrick, C. H. ...
Pittsylvania, C. H. . .
Scottsville 
Prince Edward, C. H. .
City Point 
Brentsville ....
Princess Anne, C. H. .
Richmond, C. H. . ,
Jerusalem 

} Fredericksburgh .
Stafford, C. H. . .
Surry, C. H. . .
Sussex, C. H. . . .
Warwick, C. H. . .
Westmoreland, C. H.
Yorktown ....

Distance.
R.* | W.t

50
129
107 59
185 8228G3
130 20

109 2151
136
203 100
127185
220 102
122

207

299

180

204

60

163

49

142

88

78

27

120

83

145

153

31

54

110

91

213

110

96

100

184

118

224

83

142

102

224

118

160

30

133

116

219

112

235

174

244

92

151

67 -

189

80

92

241

333

167

259

32

138

75

176

34

156

104

48

137

240

56

118

81

203

66

50

76

46

60

183

50

172

81

184

70

110

72

175

WESTERN DISTRICT.

Allegany, M. . . .
Augusta, North, M. .
Augusta, South, M. .
Bath, m 
Berkley, n. ...
Botetourt, s. m. . .
Brooke, n. w. . . .
Cabell, w 
Frederick, East, n. .
Frederick, West, N. .
Giles, w 
Grayson, s. ...
Greenbrier, w. m.
Harrison, East, n. w.
Harrison, West, sr. w.
Hampshire, n. . .
Hardy, n 
Jefferson, n. . . .
Kenhawa, w. . . .
Lee, s. w. . . . .

2,197 7,208
8,048 .
2,8038,323
11,808 6,774 5,267
8,104
9,260
4,779 7,161
7,791,
9,443
4,4049,796
5,4088,4387,4685,830

571
1,677
2,588 1,140
1,919
4,170 227561
5,342
2,088 470462
1,159 626 145
1,3301,167
3,999 1,718 612

48
257 147 65
276386 39
56
653598 495265
50 10
153
223
493 75 19

2,8169,142
10,783 4,008
10,528
16,354 7,040
5,884
14,099
11,946 5,2987,675
9,015
10,119 4,558
11,279 6,798
12,927 9,2616,461

Covington . .
> Staunton
Bath, C. H. .
Martinsburgh
Fincastle . .
WellsburghCabell, C. H. .
> Winchester
Giles, C. H. .
Grayson, C. H.
Lewisburgh .
> Clarksburgh
Romney . . .
Moorfields . .
Charleston . .
Kenhawa, C. H.
Jonesville . .

191121170
172196
373
344 150
240
276
221 260

233 163
212 71
235280393 71
297354263226

195

116

195

128

182

60

308

356

392

468

* From Richmond.

t From Washington.

444

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Counties.

Lewis, w. M. » . . .
Logan, w 
Monongalia, East, n. .
Monongalia, West, n. .
Mason, w 
Monroe, w. m. ...
Montgomery, s. w. . .
Morgan, n. . ...
Nicholas, w. m. ...
Ohio, n. w 
Pendleton, n. m. . . .
Pocahontas, w. M. . .
Preston, n. . . . . .
Randolph, n. m. . . .
Rockbridge, m. . . .
Rockingham, m. .
Russell, s. w. . .
Scott, s. w. . . .*.-,-
Shenandoah, East
Shenandoah, West, n. m.
Tazewell, s. w. . - . .
Tyler, n. w. . . . .
Washington, s. w. . .
Wood, w. . ' . . . .
Wythe, s. w. . . . .
Total. . .'.'.'
Total of Virginia

Whites.

6,0663,5116,352 7,223
5,7767,033
10,212 2,5173,229
15,033 5,7502,2974,9474,426
10,465
17,814 6,0025,3497,171
9,6984,912 3,991
12,785 5,4879,952

318,505"

694,445

Slaves.

102163
233 129
713
.682
2,037 153 119
362
498227 125
259
3,398
2,331 679 338992
1,431 820 108
2,568 873
2,094

53,465

469,724

Free
Blacks..

13 6
103 16
45835522 1
195 23 17
27
115381-548 36 15
164
294
¦ 18 5
261 49
117

6,323

47,103

Total
Population, 1830.

6,2413,6806,6887,368
6,5347,798
12;304 2,'698. ;3;34|-
15,590
. 6,271 !.>
2,541 5,0995,000
14,244
20,693 6,7175,702 8,327
11,423 4,104 5,750
15,614 6,409
12,163

378,293

1,211,272

County Towns.

Weston . . . ,
Logan, C. H. .
| Morgantown.
Point Pleasant
Union . . .
ChristiansburghBerkley Springs
Nicholas, C. H.
Wheeling . .
Franklin . .
HuntersVille .
King wood .-. .
Beverly .'. .
Lexington .
Hamsbnburgh ,
Lebanon .
Estillville . . ' .
> Woodstock '.
Tazewell, C. H. ,
Middlebourne
Abington .
Parkersburgh Wythe . . . ,

Distance.
R.* | W.t

249 324293 371
208206 186
268357 171191
261
210 156
122
330368 156
2903D?309.
299253

249383215352 267282 93
310264 171
233 183
221 198
144
394
444 100
352273
385
299329-

Richmond, the seat of government, has a beautiful
and picturesque, situation, at the head of the tide and
at the falls of James River, and is the largest town in
the state ; it is favourably situated for trade and
manufactures, and has an extensive commerce. Nor
folk, on Elizabeth River, 8 miles above rts entrance
into Hampton Road, has a good harbour, and is the
most commercial town in Virginia. The site is low,
and in some places^ marshy, and the houses are. not
remarkable* for elegance. At Gosport, near Norfolk,
there is a United States navy-yard, Petersburgh, on
the Appomatox, at the head of the tide, is the third
commercial town, and has considerable trade in flour,
tobacco, and cotton. Lynchburg, on James River,
where it passes through a mountain ridge, 118 miles
west of Richmond, is a flourishing town, ,and has an
extensive trade and considerable manufactures : floitr,
tobacco, hemp, and other produce, are transported
down the river from this town to Richmond. Fred
ericksburg, on the Rappahannock, near the head of
navigation, has considerable commerce ; and. Win
chester, to the west of the Shenandoah, is a handsome
and flourishing inland town. Williamsburg, a town
now decayed, is- famous for having formerly been the
capital of Virginia ; Yorktown, for the surrender of
the British army under Cornwallis ; Charlottesville,
as the seat of the University of Virginia ; Lexington,
as the seat of Washington College ; Harper's Ferry,
for the passage, of the Potomac through the Blue
Ridge, and for a United States armoury ; and the
* From Richmond,

flourishing town of Wheeling, for its situation at the
point where the Cumberland Road reaches the Ohio.
Mount Vernon, a pleasant eminence on the Potomac,
nine miles below Alexandria, ' is 'famous for having
been the residence. of Washington; and Monticello,
near Charlottesville, for having been the seat of Jef
ferson. KENTUCKY.
- This rising state is the most central in the union,
as at present organized. It is bounded on the north
east by the state of Ohio; on the east-by Virginia ;
on the south by Tennessee ; and On the northwest by
Illinois and Indiana.' It extends froiffi longitude 81°
50' to 89° 29' ; and from latitude 36" 30' 'to, 39° 10':
its extreme length is 380 miles ; mean width 99; and
area 37,680 miles.
The eastern counties, bordering on/ Virginia, are
mountainous and broken. A tract from five to twenty
miles wide along the bank's Ofthe Ohio, is also hilly
and broken,- interspersed withfertile valleys. Between
this strip, Green River, and the eastern; counties, lies
what has been called the garden of the state ; it is
the most populous part, arid }s about. 15j0 miles long,
and from fifty to 1.00 wide. The soil is excellent, and
the surface is agreeably diversified.. The lands pro
duce much, timber, with an abundance of grape-vines.
There is. a tract of country in .tide southwestern part
of the state, east and north of 'Cumberland River,
and watered by Green and Barren rivers, about 100

t From Washington.

b-2 Hi

3
¦9

[-4

ft
y t-!

'GAlPJllT &IL >mj •OHi©ir^I[ikaIM'mHlI(I

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

445

miles in extent, called the Barrens, which a few years
since was a prairie destitute of. timber. It is now
covered with a young growth of various kinds of
trees. The soil is of an excellent quality, being a
mixture of clay, loam, and sand. Through this
country there runs a chain of conical hills, called
knobs. Ancient fortifications and mounds of earth
are found in almost all parts of Kentucky. It is also
distinguished for some stupendous caves. One, called
Mammoth Cave, 130 miles from Lexington, on the
road leading to Nashville, is said to be eight or ten
miles in length, with a great number of avenues and
windings. Earth strongly impregnated with nitre is
found in most of these caves, and there are many es
tablishments for manufacturing it. From 100 pounds
of earth, fifty pounds of nitre have frequently been
obtained. A number of the rivers in this state have
excavated the earth so as to form abrupt precipices,
deep glens, and frightful gulfs. The precipices formed
by Kentucky River are in many places awful, pre
senting perpendicular banks of 300 feet of solid lime
stone, surmounted with a steep and difficult ascent
four times as high. The banks of Cumberland River
are less precipitous, but equally depressed below the
surface of the surrounding country.
In the southwestern counties near and on the
Tennessee, Cumberland, and the Mississippi rivers,
cotton is a staple ; whilst all the grains, fruits, and
meadow grasses, of the northern and middle states,
.flourish in the other sections. Wheat, tobacco, and
hemp, are staple productions ; but Indian corn is the
principal grain raised for home consumption. Rye,
oats, barley, buckwheat, flax, potatoes, &c, are culti
vated ; apples, pears, peaches, cherries, and plums,
are the most common fruits. The domestic animals
are large and beautiful, particularly the horse. Swine,
horned cattle, horses, and mules, are annually driven
to the neighbouring states for a market, and pork,
bacon, and lard, are exported. The fattening of
animals is the chief mode of consuming the surplus
grain, on account of the expense of conveying it to
market. Considerable quantities of whiskey are made.
Marble of excellent quality abounds, and the whole
state may be said to repose on a bed of limestone.
Salt and iron are among its minerals. The most ex
tensive works for the manufacture of salt established
west of the Allegany mountains, are on the waters
of Kentucky ; and they supply not only this state,
but a great part of Ohio and Tennessee. Kentucky,
Vol. II.— Nos. 73 & 74. 3 L

from its position and fairs, has also become a manu
facturing state.
Louisville and Portland Canal is about two miles
in length, fifty feet wide at the bottom, with a lockage
of twenty-two and a half feet. It was not completed
in 1831. It passes from the Ohio at Louisville, to a
point of the same line below the rapids near Portland-
street. The banks are to be elevated two feet above
the highest water-mark known at Louisville, which
makes forty-two feet from the bottom of the canal.
Underneath there is a solid bed of stone for a founda
tion the whole length of the canal, and this is to be
cut perpendicularly to the requisite depth, varying
from one to ten feet ; the slope above which, to the
top of each bank, is to be faced with stone.
The principal literary institution is Transylvania
University, at Lexington. It was incorporated before
the separation of Kentucky from Virginia. In 1818,
it was re-organized under a board of thirteen-trustees,
who are chosen biennially by the legislature. In
1826, its officers were, a president, nine professors,
including six medical professors, five tutors, and a
principal of the preparatory department ; the library
is large and valuable, and a considerable sum has
been recently expended in the purchase of a chemical
and philosophical apparatus. The number of stu
dents, including medical students, and those in the
preparatory department, in 1825, was 403, of whom
272 were medical. There are also three colleges in
different parts of this state, supported by different
religious societies ; viz. St. Joseph's, at Bardstown, by
the Roman Catholics ; Centre College, at Dainville,
by the Presbyterians ; and Augusta College, in
Bracken county, by the Methodists. Little has yet
been done for public schools in this state. A school
fund has, however, been established, which, if ma
naged with prudence and integrity, may yet sub
serve the great purpose of general education. Efforts
have been made within the last two or three years
to introduce a system of common schools into this
state. The Baptists in this state have 25 associations,
442 churches, 289 ministers, and 37,520 communi
cants ; the Methodists, 77 preachers, and 23,935
members ; the Presbyterians, 103 churches, 61 min
isters, 6 licentiates, and 7,832 communicants; the
Roman Catholics, about 30 priests ; the Episcopalians,
5 ministers ; the Cumberland Presbyterians are also
numerous.

-ft-:

446

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.
POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

fV*

Counties.

Adair, s. M.
Allen, s. . .
Anderson, m. .
Barren, s. w. M.
Bath, e. m. . .
Boone, n. . .

Population.

Bourbon, n. e. m.
Bracken, n. . . .
Breckenridge, w. m.
Butler, s. w. m. . .
Bullitt, n. w. m. . .

Caldwell, w. . . .
Callaway, s. w. . .
Campbell, N. . . .
Casey, m 
Christian, s. w. . .
Clarke, m 
Clay, s. e. . . . .
Cumberland, q. . .
Daviess, w. m. . .
Edmondson, s. w. m.
Estill, e. m. . . .
Fayette, m. . . .
Fleming, n. e. . .
Floyd, e 
Franklin, m. . . .
Gallatin, n. . . .
Garrard, m. . . . .
Grant, n. m. . . .
Graves, s. w. . . .
Grayson, w. M. . .
Greene, m 
Greenup, n. e. . .
Hancock, w. m. . .
Hardin, w. m. . .
Harlan, s. e. . . ,

Harrison, n. m.

Hart, s. w. m. .
Henderson, w.
Henry, n. m. .
Hickman, s. w.
Hopkins, w. .

Jefferson, N. w. M.

Jessamine, m. .
Knox, s. e. . .
Laurel, s. e. m.
Lawrence, e. .

Lewis, n. E.

Lincoln, m.
Livingston, w.

8,220 6,486
4,542
14,821 8,7999,012
18,434 6,3927,3453,0555,560 8,332 ,
5,1599,8934,342
12,69413,052 3,549
8,6365,2182,6424,618
«J5,174 13,493 4,266 9,2516,680
11,870 2,9872,503 3,876
13,718 5,853 1,494
13,148 2,928
13,180 5,292 6,649
11,395 5,1939,763
24,002

9,9614,3212,1823,897 5,206
11,012
. 6,607

Towns.

Columbia . . .
Scottsville . . .
Lawrenceburgh . .
Glasgow . . .
SOwingsville . .
Sharpsburgh . ,
Burlington . . . ,
( Paris ....
1 Millersburgh .
f Middletown .
Augusta . . .
( Hardinsburgh
1 Cloverport . .
( Stephenport
Morgantown . .
I Shepherdsville
i Mt. Washington
( Princeton . .
(Eddyville . .
"Wadesborough .
! Newport . .
Covington . .
Liberty ....
Hopkinsville . .
Winchester . .
Manchester . .
Burkesville . .
Owensborough .
Brownsville ¦ . .
Irvine ....
< Lexington . .
( Athens . . . .
Flemingsburgh .
Prestonsburgh ( Frankfort . .
\ South Frankfort
Port William
Lancaster .
WilliamstownMayfield . . .
Litchfield . . .
j Greensburgh .
\ Campbellsville
Greenupsburgh ,
Hawsville . . .
Elizabethtown Harlan, C. H. .
( Cynthiana . .
< Leesburgh . .
( Clayville . .
i Munfordsville .
\ Woodsonville .
Hendersonville .
New Castle . .
j Clinton . . .
\ Columbus . .
Madisonville . .
{Louisville . .
Shippingport .
Portland . .
Williamsville .
I Nicholasville .
{ North Liberty .
Barboursville J Hazle Patch .
\ London . . .
Louisa ....
( Clarksburgh .
J Vanceburgh .
( Concord . . .
5 Stanford . .
( Crab Orchard .
i Salem . . .
( Smithland . .

Population.

422 180
320617241 158
276
1,219 470 195
091316 194 6476
278226366 167163
717743 118
1,263 620 159
340
229 125 91
6,104 134
642 81
1,680 307 324570 197 44
100
665 126
204601977 138 48
193 49
483 539 81
186 112
10,352 607398 70
409 62
139 15
87 629334
303234254388

. Distance.
F.* I. W.t.

91
151 12
120 7362 72
4350 5373
118129116
141 74
50
229
241
202 7979
00
200 45
115119150 138 71
2535 79
142

575244
284 110 90 78
132130 80
108 3828 50
105180 37
308
200 5254

37
122 102 127 90995161
245
260

622- 686563 661486497 513
516
515505489 656667
554 692
612000766
778801
498498597 745
516 558 028688678 531
534544493445
,538 505559520823 001
025013
428008
031490 134
235 955 050 718 550
847 736
590592

546533558 '
435
446
443 567577 783798

* From Frankfort

t From Washington.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

447

Counties.
Logan, s 
M*Cracken, w 
Madison, M. 
Mason, n 
Meade, w. M  ,
Mercer, M.  ,
Monroe, s 
Montgomery, m  ,
Morgan, e. m 
Muhlenberg, s. w. m. . .
Nelson, w. M  ,
Nicholas, n. e. m. ...
Ohio, w. m 
Oldham, n. m 
Owen, n. m 
j Pendleton, n 
Perry, s. e 
Pike, e 
Pulaski, s. m 
Rockcastle, s. e. m. . , .
Russell, s. m 
Scott, N. M 
Shelby, n. m 
Simpson, s 
Spencer, M 
Todd, s 
Trigg, s.w 
Union, w 
Warren, s. w. M 
Washington, M. , . . .
Wayne, s 
Whitely, s. E 
Woodford, m  Total . .

Population.

13,002 1,298
18,03516,203 4,111
17,706 5,125
10,221 2,8575,341
14,916 8,8324,913 9,563

5,792 3,8663,331
2,677 9,5222,875 3,883
14,67719,039 6,0996,815
8,8015,889
4,435
10,947

8,731 3,807
12,294

Towns.

688,844,

Russellville 
5 Wilmington . . . .
( Paducah . . . . .
Richmond ......
{Washington . . . .
Maysville . . . . ,
Brandenburgh . . . ,
{Harrodsburgh . . . ,
Danville 
Perryville 
Salvisa 
Tompkinsville . . . ,
I Mount Sterling . . ,
( Jeffersonville . . . ,
West Liberty 
Greenville  ,
( Bardstown ....
1 Bloomfield ....
/ Fairfield 
Carlisle 
Hartford 
(Westport ....
Bedford 
Brownsville . . .
La Grange ....
J Owenton ....
( New Liberty . . . ,
Falmouth 
Perry, C. H 
Pikeville 
Somerset 
Mount Vernon ...
(Jamestown ....
| Creelsburgh . . .
Georgetown 
f Shelbyville ....
< Simpsonville . . .
( Christiansburgh . .
Franklin .....
Taylorsville ....
(Elkton 
I Trenton 
\ Cadiz 
( Canton 
Morganfield . . . .
Bowling-Green . . .
{Springfield ....
Lebanon 
Mackville ....
Fredericksburgh . .
Newmarket . . . .
Monticello 
J Whitely, C. H. . . .
\ Williamsburgh . . .
i Versailles 
Mortonsville . . . ,
of whom 165,350 are slaves.

Population.

1,358 12
105
947868
2,040 331
1,051 849283 78
220561 3350
217
1,625 301 88
430242314 104 5727
143
161
207 49
231 142 6737
1,344
1,201 7778
280248 382 178168146
292815
618384 835843
207 50
904 145

Distance.
F.* I W.t

171
282279 50 63
679030 404021
144 60
107177 55
44 48 58
154 445341
3528 36
60
148165 8573
109110 17
2129 15
165 35
186
200226235205 145 50
59
44 5965
110130 13
20

711
827817537482478628565571575572653 501
484 715
606595599510 692577574574568
536544502550422601582615641534572 580566 705
586 726
771765774 743685
601
594 595
610600
607557546 553

The above table contains all the towns and villages
in Kentucky of which the population is given in the
census of 1830. When two or more towns are given
for the same county, the one placed first is the seat
of justice. •
Frankfort, the seat of government, is regularly laid
out on the east side of Kentucky River, sixty miles
above its confluence with the Ohio. The site of the
town is a semicircular plain, from 150 to 200 feet
lower than the table land in its rear. The river is
here about eighty yards wide, and, after heavy rains,
* From Frankfort.

frequently rises sixty feet. Steam-boats of 300 tons
come up the river as far as this place when the water
is high. Population in 1820, 1679. Lexington, the
largest and wealthiest town in the state, is delightfully
situated, twenty-five miles east-south-east of Frank
fort, in a beautiful valley on Town Fork, a small
stream which falls into the south branch of Elkhorn
River. It is regularly laid out, and contains numer
ous and extensive manufacturing establishments.
The growth of this town has been exceedingly rapid.
In 1797, it contained only about fifty houses, and the

t From Washington.

448

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

best farmers lived in log cabins. It is now a large
and respectable town, covered with handsome build
ings. The surrounding country is much admired
for its scenery, and is adorned with more than fifty
country-seats. Population in 1820, 5,279. Louis
ville, on the Ohio, immediately above the rapids, fifty
miles west of Frankfort, is the second town in the
state in wealth and consequence. The great com
mand of water power afforded by the rapids of the
river, and the other advantages of its situation, have
given birth to several extensive manufacturing estab
lishments. A very active commerce is carried on
between this place and Natchez, New Orleans, and
St. Louis. There were in 1821 upwards of twenty-
five steam-boats, measuring together 6,050 tons, em
ployed in this trade. The population of the town in
1820, was 4,012. Most of the foreign goods con
sumed in Kentucky are landed here or at Maysville.
The other principal towns are, Maysville on the Ohio,
sixty-three miles northeast of Lexington, the chief
port for the northeast part of the state, containing, in
1820, 1,130 inhabitants; Russellville, situated in a
very fertile country, 200 miles southwest of Lexing
ton, and containing, in 1820, 1,712 inhabitants ; Hen
derson, on the Ohio, seventy-five miles below Louis
ville, a place of some trade, and containing, in 1820,
532 inhabitants ; Newport, on 'the Ohio, immediately
above the mouth of Licking River, and opposite Cin
cinnati ; it contains a United States arsenal, and had,
in 1820, 611 inhabitants ; and Pans, in Bourbon
county, a flourishing town, with a population of about
1,200 persons, several rope-walks, and manufactories
of cotton bagging.
Mr. Marshall has written the history of this
state, in 2 vols. 8vo. NORTH CAROLINA.
The boundaries of this state are, on the north,
Virginia ; on the east and southeast, the Atlantic ;
on the south', South Carolina ; on the northwest,
Tennessee. It extends from longitude 75° 45' to
84°, and from latitude 33° 50' to 36° 30'. Its ex
treme length from the western border of Haywood
county to Cape Hatteras, in a direction but little
* We extract the following interesting particulars from the
American Almanac : — " The first notice of gold from North Caro
lina, on the records of the mint of the United States, occurs in the
year 1814, within which it was received to the amount of 11,000
dollars. It continued to be received during the succeedingyears,
until 1824, inclusive, in different quantities, but all inferior to that
of 1814, and on an average not exceeding 2,500 dollars a year.
Iu 1825, the amount received was 17,000 dollars ; in 1826, 20,000
dollars; in 1827, about 21,000 dollars; in 1828, nearly 46,000
dollars ; and in 1829, 128,000 dollars. This state is rich in gold
mines. The gold region is far more extensive in the south than
most suppose. It commences in Virginia, and extends southwest

inclined from east and west, is 420 miles ; the area
above 50,000 square miles, and the mean width 120
miles. North Carolina, in its whole width, for about
sixty miles from the sea, is generally a dead level,
varied only by occasional openings in the forest with
which it is covered. After traversing this tedious
plain, we are at length relieved by the appearance of
hills and mountains, from the summits of which we
behold a beautiful country, stretching far to the west
ward. That portion of the state which lies west of
the mountains is, for the most part, remarkably
fertile. No state differs more in soil than North Carolina.
Those zones which diversify New Jersey, Maryland,
and Virginia, are still more conspicuous in this
state. The variety of the climate is fully evinced
by the indigenous vegetables. The dwarf palms and
the live-oak grow around the mouth of Cape-Fear
River, whilst in the western counties, the forests mark
a climate of much lower temperature. In the south
eastern counties, and partially on the whole seaward
zone, cotton is a staple production. As an advance
is made westward, this is entirely superseded by
grain, of almost every species cultivated in the Uni
ted States, except rice. The fig-tree flourishes on
Lower Cape-Fear River ; and in the western and
central counties, the apple is produced in abundance.
The peach succeeds over the whole state, precarious
as it is in every other section of the United States.
The soil and productions, in the hilly country, are
nearly the same as in the northern states. Wheat,
rye, barley, oats, and flax, are the crops generally cul
tivated, and they seem to suit the nature of the soil.
Throughout the whole state, Indian corn and pulse
of all kinds are abundant. Cotton is raised in con
siderable qu anti ties .
North Carolina abounds in iron ore ; and it is the
only one of the states in which gold has been found
in considerable quantities. The gold mines, which
have lately excited a good deal of interest, though
they have not yet proved very productive, are found
on the Yadkin and its branches, and extend over a
district comprising about 1000 square miles.* In al-

through North Carolina, nearly in the middle of the state, as re
gards its length; along the northern part of South Carolina, into
Georgia, and thence northwestwardly into Alabama, and ends in
Tennessee. The mines in North Carolina and Georgia are now
worked to a great extent; those of Virginia and South Carolina
to a small extent ; and those in Tennessee have not been worked
at all, although it is probable that they will be soon. In this state,
the counties of Burke and Rutherford contain the best gold wash
ings, as they are called,-~that is, the gold there is found in small
and pure particles mixed with the sand, which lies in deposits, as
if it occupied (as the miners believe) the beds of what were once
streams of water. But the counties of Mecklenburgh, Rowan,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

449

most any part of this territory, gold may be found in
greater or less abundance, mixed with the soil. It
exists in minute grains or particles, and is also some
times found in lumps of one or two pounds' weight.
North Carolina is far removed from that perfection
of culture, which is necessary to give it the full ad
vantage of the natural richness of its soil and the
value of its productions. One great cause of its
backwardness in agricultural improvement, is the want
of inland navigation and of good harbours. It has
several large rivers, but their mouths are blocked up
with bars of hard sand. The best of the indifferent
narbours in this state are those of Wilmington, New-
bern, and Edenton. Most ofthe produce of the up
per country, consisting of tobacco, wheat, maize, &c,
has hitherto been carried to Charleston, South Caro
lina, and to Lynchburg, and Petersburgh, Virginia.
Since 1815, the state has been zealously engaged in
an extensive system of internal improvements, relating
to the navigation of the sound, inlets, and the rivers

Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, Cape Fear, Yadkin, Catawba,
&c. ; the construction of canals and roads, and the
draining of marshes and swamps.
Within a few years much zeal has been displayed
in the establishment of academies and schools. Until
1804, there were but two academies in the state.
The number at present is 60, and it is rapidly in
creasing ; and there is a flourishing university at
Chapel Hill, 28 miles west of Raleigh, called the uni
versity of North Carolina.
The Baptists in this state have 14 associations,
272 churches, 139 ministers, and 15,530 communi
cants ; the Presbyterians have 126 churches, 57
ministers, 9 licentiates, and 5,907 communicants ;
the Methodists, 32 preachers, and 12,641 members ;
the Lutherans, 45 congregations, 16 ministers, and
1,888 communicants ; the Episcopalians, 11 minis
ters ; the United Brethren, 4 congregations and
1,727 members ; and the Friends, a number of so
cieties.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Anson, s 
Ashe, n. w 
Beaufort, e 
Bertie, e. m 
Bladen, s 
Brunswick, s 
Buncombe, w 
Burke, w 
Cabarras, w. M 
Camden, n. e 
Carteret, e 
Caswell, n 
Chatham, m 
Chowan, n. e 
Columbus, s. 
Craven, e 
Cumberland, m 

Population,

Population,

1820.

1830.

12,534

14,081

4,335

6,991

9,850

¦ 10,949

10,805

12,276

. 7,276

7,801

5,480

6,523

10,542

16,259

13,412

17,727

7,248

8,796

6,347

6,721

5.609

6,607

13,253

. 15,188

12,661

15,499

6,464

6,688

3,912

4,141

13,394

14,325 .

14,446

14,824

County Towns.
Wadesborough 
Jeffersor.ton 
Washington . • 
Windsor 
Elizabethtown 
Smithville ........
Ashville 
Morgantown 
Concord 
New Lebanon ......
Beaufort 
Caswell, C. H 
Pittsborough 
Edenton . . ¦ 
Whitesville 
Newbern . . ' 
Fayetteville 

Distance.
R.* I W.t

134

410

205

399

122

302

130

275

99

385

178

445

259

513

199

453

141

402

201

248

166

383

93

264

33

319

155

284

138

462

120

337

61

347

Davidson, and Cabarras, are the richest in what may be properly
called gold mines, — that is, where the gold is found in ore, and not
distinguishable by the eye, and which is separated by smelting,
using quicksilver for the purpose of detaching the gold from the
gross earthy substances. The best veins of gold are not horizontal,
nor often vertical, but have a dip of forty-five degrees to the hori
zon. They vary in width from a few inches to several feet. They
are not confined to hills at all, but are found also in the low lands.
These veins are often parallel to each other at unequal distances.
Their depth in most places has not been ascertained. There have
beennO shafts sunk lower than 120 feet. It is not five years since
these mines began to be worked to any considerable extent, and
yet many of them are worked upon an extensive scale, and mills
for grinding the ore, propelled by water or by steam, are erected
in vast numbers. One of the Messrs. Bissels, who are probably
doing more-at the business than any others, told me recently, that
their company employs 600 hands; and he stated that the whole
number of men now employed at the mines in these southern states
is at least 20,000. He also estimated the weekly product of these
mines to be equal in value to 100,000 dollars, or 5,000,000 dollars
annually. But a small part of the gold is sent to the United
States mint ; by far the larger part is sent to Europe, particularly
to Paris. The chief miners (I mean labourers) are foreigners, —

Germans, Swiss, Swedes, Spaniards, English, Welch, Scotch, &c.
There are no less than thirteen different languages spoken at the
mines in this state ; and men are flocking to the mines from all
parts, and find ready employment. Hundreds of land owners and
renters work the mines on their grounds on a small scale, not being
able to encounter the expense of much machinery. The state of
morals among the miners is represented to be deplorably bad. —
The village, of Charlotte, in Mecklenburgh county, is in the im
mediate vicinity of several of the largest mines ; it is growing
rapidly. There are indubitable evidences that these mines were
known and worked by the aboriginal inhabitants, or some other
people, a long period since. Many pieces of machinery which
were used for this purpose have been found. Among them are
several crucibles of earthenware, and far better than those now in
use. Mr. B. told' me that he had tried three of them, and stated
that they last twice or three times as long as even the Hessian
crucibles, which are the best now made. These gold mines prove
that the whole region in which they abound was once under the
powerful action of fire ; and the miners who have come from the
mines in South America and in Europe, pronounce this region to
be more abundant in gold than any other that has been* found on
the globe." — American Almanac, p. 226 — 228.
* From Raleigh. t From Washington.

450

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Counties.

Currituck, n. e. . .
Davidson, w. M. . .
Duplin, s. M. . . .
Edgecombe, M. . .
Franklin, n. m. . .
Gates, n. e. . . ..
Granville, n. . . .
Greene, m 
Guilford, w. m. . .
Halifax, n. . . .
Haywood, w. . . .
Hertford, n. e. . .
Hyde, e 
Iredell, w 
Johnston, M. . . .
Jones, s. e 
Lenoir, m 
Lincoln, s. w. . . .
Macon, w 
Martin, e. m. . . .
Mecklenburgh, s. w.
Montgomery, w. M. .
Moore, m 
Nash, M 
New Hanover, s. e.
Northampton, n.
Onslow, s. e. x . .
Orange, m 
Pasquotank, N. e.
Perquimans, n. e. .
Person, n 
Pitt, e. m. . . . ,
Randolph, w. m. .
Richmond., s. . .
Robeson, s. . .
Rockingham, n. .
Rowan, w. m. . .
Rutherford, s. w.
Sampson, m. . .
Stokes, n. w. . .
Surry, n. w. . .
Tyrrell, E. . - . .
Wake, M. . . .
Warren, N. . .
Washington, e. .
Wayne, m. . . .
Wilkes, n. w. . .
Total

Population, | Population,
1820. 1830.

8,0989,744
13,276 9,7416,837
18,222 4,533
14,51117,237 4,073 7,7124,967
13,071 9,607 5,2166,799
18,147 6,320
16,895 8,693 7,128
8,185
10,86613,242 7,016
23,492 8,0086,8579,029
10,001 11,331 7,5378,204
11,474
26,009 15,351 8,908
13,033 12,320 4,319
20,102 11,004 3,9869,0409,967

County Towns.

Distance.
R.* I W.t

638,829

7,654 Currituck 
13,421 Lexington 
11,373 Kenansville 
14,933 Tarborough 
10,665 Louisburgh 
7,866 Gates, C. H 
19,343 Oxford 
6,313 Snow Hill 
18,735 Greensborough . . . .
17,738 Halifax 
4,593 Haywood, C. H. . . .
8,541 Winton . - 
6,117 Lake Landing . . . .
15,262 Statesville 
10,998 Smithfield 
5,628 Trenton 
7,635 Kingston 
22,625 Lincolnton 
5,390 Franklin 
8,544 Williamston 
20,076 Charlotte 
10,918 Lawrenceville . . . ,
7,753 Carthage 
8,492 Nashville 
10,759 Wilmington 
13,103 Northampton, C. H. . .
7,814 Onslow, C. H. . . . .
23,875 Hillsborough 
.8,616 Elizabeth City . . . .
7,417 Hertford 
10,027 Roxborough 
12,174 Greenville 
12,400 Ashborough 
9,326 Rockingham 
9,355 Lumberton 
12,920 Wentworth ....'.
20,796 Salisbury 
17,557 Rutherfordton . . . .
11,768 Clinton 
16,196 Salem 
14,501 Rockford 
4,732 Columbia ......
20,417 Raleigh 
10,916 Warrenton 
4,562 Plymouth 
10,902 Wanesborough . . . .
11,942 Wilkesborough . . . .
738,470, of whom 246,462 are slaves.

211 110 120 72 30
241 4784 8586
295 129
207 146 27
140 80
169
333 106150
109 69
44
149 95
188 41
189
282 60
97 72
113 94
108118
223 96
127151170 57
128 51
175

257362 356252 255254259 298315216549
240387 396 313357
316430587
268 402
382355273
416225
405 296260 267271277 345399380292379
484 382
355 379332270229290337
403

POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS IN 1830.

Newbern, 3,776
Fayetteville, 2,868
Wilmington, 1820, 2,633

Raleigh,

1,700

Tarborough, 971

Salisbury,

1,613

Warrenton, 962

Edenton, 1820,

1,561

Plymouth, 660

Raleigh, the seat of government, is pleasantly
situated near the centre of the state. Newbern, the
largest town, is on a flat sandy point of land, at the
junction of the Neuse river with the Trent. Fay
etteville is regularly laid out near the west bank ot
Cape Fear river, at the head of boat navigation, and
is one of the most flourishing commercial towns in
the state. Wilmington is on the east side of Gape
Fear river, just below the confluence of the two
branches, 35 miles from the sea. The harbour admits
vessels of 300 tons ; but the entrance is rendered
dangerous and difficult by a large shoal. More pro
duce is exported from this port than from any other

* From Raleigh.

in the state. Edenton is on Albemarle Sound, near
the mouth of Chowan river.
Dr. Williamson, the historian of this state, has some
very judicious observations of general applicability
to other southern regions of the union. The re
marks on the soil and produce, and on the state of
health in different parts of the country, will be read
with advantage. As a medical philosopher he will
rank higher than as an historian.
" The climate of North Carolina," says he, " is
usually thought to be unhealthy , but this character
is not applicable, except to the eastern part of the
state ; the part that is best known to strangers and
t From Washington.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

most frequented, because it is intersected by naviga
ble rivers, and is the general seat of commerce.
Other parts of the state are exceedingly healthy. By
taking a short view of the face of the country, we
shall immediately perceive the cause of this remark
able difference.
" Carolina is a perfect plain for sixty miles from the
Atlantic ocean, "without hills or stones. It has been
covered by water, at no great distance of time.
Beds of oyster shells and other marine exuvias, are
found near the surface, in many parts of the flat
country. Those concretions of shells are burnt for
making lime. The gulf stream runs along the coast,
within six or seven leagues of the shore. The
soundings change suddenly at the edge of the gulf
stream, for the margin is nearly a perpendicular bank.
A great fissure, nearly in the direction of northeast and
southwest, has been made in the bottom ofthe ocean,
by some convulsion of nature. Such at least appears
to have been the case. The ground rose to the
northwestward of the chasm, and sunk to the south
eastward. The sandy bottom of the sea, by this
elevation to the westward, was converted into dry
land. In this case, the rivers coming down from
the original dry land, made a crooked path for them
selves through the sandy plain. Those rivers had
little descent ; wherefore, in their tardy course, they
deposited the vegetable mould that came down from
the higher grounds. In some cases, the sandy plain
had been depressed five or six feet below the level of
the common surface. In those parts, it must have
happened that ponds of stagnant water were formed,
until the sunken ground was filled up by vegetable
mould. By this hypothesis we are enabled to explain
all the present phenomena of the flat country. In
some parts we find large sandy tracts, perfectly level,
that hardly contain any mixture of clay or vegetable
soil. The growth is pine or black jack. In other
parts the land is of an excellent quality, with a stiff
clay bottom. Those lands are low, and in many
places they require draining. The rivers are bor
dered by a strip of land that is lower than the com
mon surface of the country. Those river lands are
exceedingly rich, for they consist of vegetable mould,
three or four feet deep, with a small mixture of sand
or clay. In many places those river lands are three
or four times the breadth of the river. There are
other large tracts detached from the rivers, in which
the soil is nearly ofthe same quality with that of the
river lands. But it is seldom mixed with sand or
* Cupressus disticha, foliis disticis patentibus.
t Cupressus tryoides, foliis imbricatis frondibus ancipitibus.
t Acer rubrum.

451
clay. In those tracts the vegetable soil is commonly
five or six feet deep, and the whole of it is saturated
with water. Such are the Dismals, so called, and
the other great swamps that are numerous in the flat
country. " Supposing as above, that the original surface,
where the swamps are found, had been covered
for many years with stagnant water, because it was
somewhat depressed ; it would follow, that the chief
rivers at every great fall of rain must have thrown
part of their turbid stream into those stagnant ponds,
until they were so filled with adventitious soil, as to
produce reeds and other aquatic plants. The luxu
riant growth in those swamps, in the progress of time,
caused the surface to rise ; so that in many cases it
is higher than the adjacent sandy and dry plain.
Some of those swamps are fifteen or twenty miles in
diameter, and they are chiefly covered, at present,
with a thick growth of cypress* or Juniper.f In
some parts they are covered with maple,! poplar,§
and white oak, II intermixed with tall reeds, magnolia, T
and green briars.
*' The soil increases every year by the addition of
decayed vegetables ; but the water is detained by the
leaves and the roots of trees, so as to have little mo
tion, though the surface has become much higher than
the water in the adjacent rivers.
" Some years ago, Mr. Josiah Collins of Edenton,
and one or two other gentlemen, projected a canal,
about five miles long, through a swamp of this kind,
in Tyrrel county, that was chiefly covered with stag
nant water. Their original object was to drain a
lake that is eight or nine miles long, and nearly of
the same breadth. Upon making a survey, it ap
peared that the water in the lake was three feet
higher than the richest part of , the swamp, and the
surface of that swamp was seven feet higher than
the water in the nearest river. By that survey it
was discovered that they were in possession of an
excellent rice swamp ; above ten thousand acres in
one body, that may be covered at pleasure with fresh
water, eighteen inches or two feet deep. By finish
ing the canal, and erecting three or four mills, that
are turned by the waters of the lake, and by raising
a few crops of rice and wheat, they have shown that
lands, formerly of little value, may be made the most
profitable lands in the state. The rice produced on
those lands is not exceeded in quality .by any rice in
Georgia or South Carolina. Mr. Collins, to vary the
crop, has occasionally sown part of those lands with

§ Arbor tulipifera Virginiana.
II Gluercus alba Virginiana.
IT Magnolia glauca, foliis oblato oblongis, subtus glaucis.

452

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

wheat, and they produce thirty-four to thirty-five
bushels per acre.
"In digging the canal from the lake to the river,
many large trees were found in a state of good pre
servation, though they had been covered four or five
feet deep by vegetable soil. A clear indication of
the manner in which the soil has been formed.
" It is conjectured that the swamps, within forty
miles of the coast, do not occupy less than a fifth
part of the surface. It "will readily be perceived,
that so large a quantity of stagnant water among
putrescent vegetables, must be unfriendly to the
health of the inhabitants. Intermitting fevers are
very frequent in the summer and autumn ; but fevers
with inflammatory symptoms, that have a putrid ten
dency, prevail in the winter. The progress of time
and cultivation of the soil, cannot fail to make a
considerable change in the climate, in the flat lands
of Carolina. And the effect of that change must be
favourable to the health of the inhabitants. The
natural operations of time would reduce those exten
sive and numerous swamps, to the condition of firm
and dry land ; but this event must be greatly accele
rated by the progress of cultivation. The subsidence
of water is very observable, in many parts along our
coast. Wnere the lands are high, this circumstance
has been little observed ; but in flat countries, where
the water is troublesome, it claims more attention.
There are considerable tracts, now planted with corn,
that, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, were
covered by water. This was not the effect of
drains or ditches ; it was caused by the waters sink
ing in the adjacent rivers or sounds. There are two
causes that equally contribute to the failure of water
in the low country ; — the cultivation of the interior
lands, and the regular subsidence of water in the
ocean. Most of the large rivers in Carolina discharge
themselves into a sound, that communicates with the
Atlantic by small inlets. The water in the sound is
' nearly fresh ; it is perfectly fresh in the rivers.
These rivers have no tide, and they have little
motion through the whole of the flat country. The
waters are observed to swell in the rivers and in the
sound by a heavy fall of rain. From this circum
stance we infer, that every decrease of rain will be
attended by a decrease of water in the rivers, and by
a consequent decrease of water in the sound. The
general decrease of rain is easily accounted for by the
progress of cultivation. We account, in the same
manner, for the decrease of fresh water in all our
rivers. As the waters decrease or sink, the lands
appear to rise, and the marshes, that communicate
with the rivers, become dry land ; except in cases

where a level surface and thick growth prevents the
rain water from running off. The decrease of the
rivers, from this cause alone, with the aid of ditching
and draining, would soon reduce all the great swamps
to the condition of arable land. But there is another
cause that co-operates with the decrease of river
water. The waters on the coast are. supposed to
sink. We have no solid marks on our coast, by
which we can estimate the accidents of ocean water;
but we allege the general subsidence of the ocean
here, from what is observed in other countries. The
inhabitants of West Bothnia have observed, by marks
on the rocks, that the sea decreases four inches five
lines every ten years, or forty-four inches and two
lines every century. Dalen calculates, that the
waters in Sweden sink thirty-seven inches in one
hundred years. Ravenna, in Italy, is no longer a
sea-port. There seems to be good evidence, that
a direct communication by water formerly existed
between the Baltic and the Euxine or Black Sea.
" Herodotus alleges, that great part of Poland and
Russia had been covered by water. And Orpheus,
in his Argonauts, supposes that one might sail from
the Euxine to the Baltic. There must have been a
tradition, that such a passage had formerly been
effected. Ptolemy speaks of Scandinavia as an island.
Homer describes the island of Pharos as a day's sail
from Egypt ; and we know, that the present city of
Alexandria is built on the very spot that was the
original harbour of the old city. This remarkable
subsidence of the ocean has been accounted for by
different theories ; none of them, as I think, satisfac
tory. It is not to be supposed, that the bed of the
ocean is deepened by the attrition of the water ; for
more earth or clay is doubtless brought into the
ocean by rivers, than is taken out of it by other
means. " There may be caverns in the earth by which water
is occasionally absorbed. Islands have been raised
in the ocean by the help of subterranean fire. A
small one has lately been added to the Azores ; but
the space they formerly occupied does not contain
much water. When we consider the numerous and
frequent volcanic eruptions that have appeared in the
great chain of islands that extend through the Pacific
ocean, near the equator ; the numerous eruptions
that have appeared in the Cordillera of the Andes ;
and the constant flames that appeared in Greenland
and other high latitudes, giving light and heat to
those frozen regions ; we must suppose that the earth
abounds in caverns whereby water has been absorbed.
But we are also to consider that dry land has disap
peared or sunk in different parts of the world ; and

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

453

the absorption of water by volcanic eruptions is
neither great nor regular.
" There is another process by which, as I conceive,
the decrease of water may be accounted for. It is the
regular and constant conversion of water into shells,
madrepores, and corals. Fixable air abounds in
water, by means of which it unites with calcareous
bodies. Coials and other substances, formed by this
union, are specifically heavier than water, nearly as
two and a half to one.
" We do not pretend to know, by what process certain
animals or insects in the ocean cause the formation
of shells, madrepores, and corals, from water, or from
earth and air that are attached to water, and seem to
be part of that fluid ; for they increase its bulk ; but
the process is constant. The shells that appear in
shallow water, on our coast, are of little importance ;
but the madrepores and corals, formed in the ocean,
are of prodigious magnitude. We are told, by late
navigators, that in some parts of the South Sea
navigation has become dangerous ; and in other
parts it is absolutely impracticable, by the formation
of great ledges of madrepores or corals, where the
water had been very deep. When we consider that
more than two inches of water are required to form
one inch of those weighty substances, we shall disco
ver a probable cause for the subsidence of ocean water"
Whatever the cause may be, it can hardly be doubted,
that the ocean is retiring from the land, or decreasing
in depth. Nor is it to be doubted, that the quantity
of water discharged by the rivers in Carolina, and in
every new country, is decreasing every year. It
must inevitably follow, from one or both of these
causes, that the marshes or swamps in Carolina will
soon disappear. The progress of agriculture is a
steady auxiliary to the operations of nature in pro
ducing this desirable change. It is already dis
covered, as we have seen, that marshes are drainable ;
and the soil, when fitted to the plough, is excellent in
quality. In process of time all those swamps will be
cultivated. " Intermitting fevers are the usual complaints in
the eastern part of Carolina. Those fevers seem to
arise, as we have already observed, from the exhala
tions of stagnant water or putrid vegetables. They
prevail more or . less, according to the quantity of
water that is exhaled, impregnated with putrescent
vegetables. All our observations tend to confirm this
opinion. When stagnant water is not exhaled, in
termitting fevers are less prevalent. When putre
scent vegetables are exposed to the action of the sun,
intermittents are frequent. In the midst of great
forests, the sun never visits the surface ; his rays
Vol. II.— Nos. 75 & 76. 3 M

being fully intercepted by a thick growth of cypress,
juniper, magnolia, and reeds. Intermitting fevers
do not prevail in such places. Families who live in
the Dismals, employed in making shingles, without
a perch of clear or dry ground, enjoy more health than
people who live on their new plantations, near the
rivers or swamps. The bad effect of recent cultiva
tion, by which decaying vegetables are exposed to
the sun, is severely felt in flat countries and warm
climates. Carolina was less sickly before the coun
try was opened. The second colony of adventurers
remained twelve months in the country, and they lost
only five men out of one hundred and seven, though
they were badly sheltered, and suffered much by the
scarcity of provisions. A gentleman in Craven county
lived on his farm above forty years, without suffering
by intermitting fevers, though his family consisted
of fifty or sixty persons. There were about one
hundred acres of clear ground in front of his house
that had been cultivated many years : but there was
a thick wood behind the house. In the beginning of
the year 1785, he caused all the timber and shrubs
that were behind his house, within four or five hun
dred yards, to be cut down. His object was pasture,
and a free circulation of air. One third of his family,
on the next summer, was taken down by intermitting
fevers. Such complaints were not more prevalent
than usual, during that summer, in other parts of the
flat country. Those fevers were certainly caused
by exposing to the sun a large surface of fresh land,
covered with putrescent vegetables. Similar effects
are very common in tbe West Indies, where they are
fatal to such a degree, that soil, newly turned up, is
supposed by the planters to contain some pestilential
quality. Putrid exhalations are the general cause of
those bilious intermittents ; but in tropical climates,
where the sun is vertical, and the tendency to putre
faction great, and where the influence of heat on the
living body increases the malignancy of the complaint,
those fevers become most fatal. The simple inter
mitting fever that prevails during the summer season,
in Carolina, is seldom fatal to the natives, except in
cases where the frequent recurrence of such fevers
may occasion an indurated spleen and other visceral
obstructions. The consequence of such obstructions
is a dropsy or other cachectical complaint, of which
the patient dies. Fevers ofthe warm season some
times become dangerous, especially to strangers, by
the imprudent conduct of the patient. Upon the ap:
proach of febrile symptoms, strangers are apt, as they
express themselves, to brave the fever. In this case,
by taking exercise, increasing the muscular motion,
and not unfrequently by the use of ardent spirits or

454

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

otrier stimulating drinks, they bring on a typhus or
other constant fever instead of a simple intermittent.
A warm season, followed by a considerable drought,
often produces an endemical flux or dysentery. Those
complaints are doubtless of the putrid kind, and
should be treated accordingly.
" People on the low grounds of Carolina, are fre
quently attacked by fevers in the winter, which are
called inflammatory ; for they are attended by pain in
some part of the head or the breast. . These fevers, in
many cases, prove fatal in three or four days. By
the general symptoms, compared with the circum
stances and places in which those fevers prevail, they
seem to be of the putrid kind. They prevail in dis
tricts that are subject to intermitting fevers ; whence
they may be presumed to arise, in some measure,
from the same cause ; but they prevail in a different
season ofthe year; whence it maybe inferred^ that
there is a combination of causes in one fever that
does not occur in the other. It has already been
observed, that intermitting fevers are more or less
frequent in the lowlands of Carolina, according to
the quantity of putrescent vegetable substance that is
exposed to the action of the sun. From this circum
stance it is conjectured, that the most simple species
of intermitting fevers are, in some measure, the effect
of putrefaction ; but the most dangerous putrid fevers
arise 'from the same cause. The difference then
between, the appearance or the effects of those fevers
must depend on the state of the solids or the fluids
of the person affected, or upon the acrimony or
virulence which the putrescent matter may have
acquired before it is absorbed. The appearance of
those fevers in the summer, when putrescent matter
is plentifully diluted by rain, seems to be determined,
in some measure, by the constitutions of the several
patients. Strangers, from a northern climate, who
have a vigorous constitution, whose muscular system
is well braced, instead of having a moderate fever,
in the summer or autumn, that will duly . intermit
after the first or second day, in many cases have an
ardent fever with full pulse. Instead of intermitting,
it puts on the appearance of a typhus, or a nervous
fever, in a few days, and terminates fatally. The
same cause should produce the same effect upon
similar bodies ; but the effects upon the native and
stranger are not alike ; hence we infer, that a tense

* A young man, near Pasquotank, heated himself by dancing,
after he had been affected some hours by a slight pain in the brow.
This happened in the winter season, during the prevalence of a
complaint, that is called, however improperly, " a pleurisy in the
head." He died within two days. This disease having obtained
the name of an inflammatory fever, is usually treated like such
complaints, by copious blood-letting. Though the patients, most

fibre or vigorous constitution, which naturally excites
more heat, or causes the fever to be more ardent,
produces, at the same time, a different and dangerous
type. According to this theory, we observe, that by
taking violent exercise, when the symptoms of an
intermitting fever are coming on, the fever becomes
ardent, and in many cases it is attended with danger.
From these facts it would appear, that the affecting
cause remaining the same, the fever is more or less
dangerous according to the constitution of the patient,
or any other circumstance that tends more or less to
brace the system, or produce symptoms of inflam
mation.* " Though the fevers that appear in winter are not
usually called intermittents, they are not less effected
by putrescent vegetable matter than the autumnal
fevers. Those winter fevers have been deemed inT
flammatory, because they are usually attended by a
pain in the head, or by a pain in the breast, that resem
bles pleurisy. They prevail, not only in the same
districts in which intermittents are common, but they
are most likely to attack people who on the preced
ing autumn had suffered by intermitting fevers.
These circumstances make it probable, but there are
other circumstances from which it is certain, that the
fevers to which I refer arise from a septic cause. In
different years they prevail in different neighbour
hoods, affecting one or more persons in every family.
When this disease is most prevalent, it may generally
be traced to the vicinity of a marsh, or the bed of a
river, where mud or other putrescent vegetable sub
stance has been exposed to the sun, in dry weather.
The effects of dry weather on similar grounds, in the
summer season, is frequently a flux or dysentery,
which are also ofthe putrid kind. If the same cause,
that would produce a simple intermittent, may also
be found to produce an ardent fever, tending to pu
trefaction, bythe sole concurrence of muscular motion,
or the direct operation of the sun, whereby heat is
excited, we are to presume that winter colds would
produce remarkable effects on the appearance of that
fever. The common effect of cold is to brace the
solids and check the perspiration . In the case before
us, the perspiration being obstructed, the offending
matter, that has been absorbed, is retained in the
system, and gives a septic disposition to the fluids, by
the increased action of the muscles.! It is generally

of them, die, the lancet continues to be used with too much free
dom ; because it seems to give temporary relief, and it can be
used by men who have never taken the trouble to learn the nature
of the disease, nor its proper remedy.
t It has been alleged, that the endemic fevers of summer and
winter are equally caused by the absorption of putrid matter into
the system. In support of this opinion we observe, that being

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

observed, that men suffer more than women or chil
dren by this disease. In the months of December
and January, 1794—5, eight or nine men, the heads
of families, who lived near the river Neuse, were taken
off by a fever such as I have mentioned ; but no
other people in that vicinity suffered by the disease.
Some cause must have existed for this remarkable
difference. The complaints of those men were not
produced by intemperance alone ; for though ardent
spirits injure the system not only by destroying the
powers of the solids, but also by vitiating the fluids,
whence they bring on death in various forms, some
of the men who fell under that bilious pleurisy, were
not intemperate. In this case, the disease seems to
have arisen from obstructed perspiration. It can not
escape notice that men in Carolina are chiefly exposed
to complaints which arise from that source. The
temperature of the weather, in the eastern part of the
state, is very changeable. When the wind is at north
west, there is occasional hard frost ; but the weather at
other times is moderate and soft. As there are not
many cold days, nor many days in which flannels or
thick woollen garments are necessary, people fit their
dress for the temperate weather, and not for the few
days of incidental cold. They do not consider that
warm clothes may be worn, in temperate weather,
without danger ; but thin clothes, in cold weather,
expose the wearer to mortal disease. Women and
children are not only more temperate than men, but
they are usually at home ; and they can increase
their clothes upon a sudden approach of cold, or they
can sit by the fire. Men are frequently surprised by
rain or sudden cold, when they are abroad, and are
not provided with a suitable dress. Prudence is the
child of experience, but heedless men are seldom
taught by the experience of other people. Personal
experience, in this as in many other cases, frequently
comes too late. When the planters, they especially
who have been visited by intermitting fevers during
the summer or autumn, and those who live in the
flat country, shall have the prudence to keep them
selves dry, and shall be provided, in all their excur
sions, during the winter, with clothing fitted to cold
exposed to a heavy shower in summer or autumn, in warm cli
mates, is usually followed by intermitting fevers ; but people at
sea, in the same latitude and season of the year, expose themselves
to showers without danger, because the atmosphere, at sea, is not
charged with putrescent exhalations. It may also be observed,
that people who use unguents, in warm climates, are less endan
gered by those fevers. Black people, and white people, who have
a copious perspiration, are also less subject to those complaints.
Cold evenings in the autumn, and rain, by shutting the pores of
the skin, are known to be the cause of innumerable fevers. While
the perspiration is free, the putrid matter, that may be taken in by
the absorbing vessels, is immediately discharged from the system ;
but in the case of obstructed perspiration, it is retained among the

455
weather ;* when they shall exchange the use of grog
and ardent. spirits for beer well seasoned with hops,
or water, that is less dangerous than either, we may
be assured that many useful lives will be saved to
the community.
"When the country shall be sufficiently -cleared,
and the lands perfectly drained, there is much reason
lo believe, that people near the sea-coast will enjoy a
desirable state of health through the latter part of the
summer, which is now called the sickly season. The
weather will also be less variable during the winter
season, for reasons that have been stated ; and a free
circulation of air will diminish tbe summer's heat.
" There are not many countries, in which the state
of health differs so much as it does at present in the
different parts of North Carolina. At the distance
of sixty or seventy miles from the coast, the land be
gins to rise into small hills, stones appear on the
surface, and the streams ripple in their course. As
we advance a little farther to the westward, we find
all the variety of hills and dales that may consist
with a fertile country, fit for cultivation. In that
happy climate, where the soil is good, and the water
pure ; where the inhabitants enjoy the desirable
effects of winter, without suffering by the rigorous
severity of cold ; there are few of the diseases which
are most painful and destructive in cold climates :
neither are the inhabitants wasted by the more fatal
diseases of warm climates. There are not many
parts in the United States, perhaps there is not any
part of the world, in which families increase faster
than in the western part of Carolina. When we
consider, that the inhabitants are seldom affected by
coughs, consumptions, or inflammatory complaints, for
the winters are temperate ; that intermitting, bilious,
or putrid fevers, are seldom found among them ; we
naturally infer, that the climate must be healthy. It is
not denied, that people, in many other climates or
countries, are equally healthy with those in the
western part of Carolina ; but the winters in other
regions, that are deemed healthy, are more severe,
or the land is less fertile, or it is not so cheap, or the
means of supporting a family, from one cause and

circulating fluids, and becomes the seed of mortal disease. In cold
weather, the complaint is usually thrown upon the head or breast.
* Such is the commendable industry of women in Carolina, that
two thirds of the inhabitants are clothed in cotton that is raised,
spun, and woven by themselves. This is an excellent dress for
warm or temperate Weather ; but a garment of soft wool, to be
worn next the skin, is greatly to be preferred by valetudinarians.
It is found that sheep thrive very well in Carolina, and their wool
is good in quality. Planters, such of them especially as are in
valids, and they who live in sickly districts, should never go
abroad in the winter season, without a flannel waistcoat under the
shirt, and a substantial greatcoat to be worn in case of a sudden
change of weather.

456

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

another, are more difficult than in Carolina ; whence
it follows, that early marriages are not so frequent,
and the increase of families is not so great. We have
not the means of comparing the increase of people
in Carolina with that in foreign countries, but it has
been compared with the increase in other states. It
appears by the census taken in the year 1791, that
the number of inhabitants above sixteen years old,
exceeded the number under sixteen in all the northern
and middle states, including Maryland. In the south
ern states there was a difference in favour of those
under sixteen, and this difference was greater in
North Carolina than in any other state, except Ken
tucky. This difference might be explained by -sup
posing that the duration of human life is shorter in
the southern states, and that sixteen years is nearer
the middle of the general extent ; but this solution
can not be admitted, because in the most healthy
parts of the southern states, the difference was greatest
in favour of the class under sixteen. The greater
proportion of people below sixteen must be the com
bined effect of early marriage and a good climate.
Families are easily supported where the lands are
good, and the winters mild. In this case, people
marry young, and have many children ; but early
marriage alone will not produce a great proportion
of children when compared to that of grown persons,
because sickly climates are hot less fatal to infants
than to those who are more advanced in years. This
distinction is fully supported by the census in North
Carolina. The number of males in the whole state,
below sixteen, was to that above sixteen, nearly as
eleven to ten ; but this difference can not be the effect
of early marriage alone, or the facility of maintaining a
family ; it depends very much on the salubrity of the
climate. People live in the district of Edenton with
more ease than in the district of Salisbury ; for their
cattle require less feeding in winter,* and they have a
plentiful supply of fish ; but the proportion of persons
under sixteen, was to that above sixteen, in Salisbury
district, compared to that in Edenton district, nearly as
three to one. In Salisbury district there were fifteen
thousand eight hundred and twenty-six males under
sixteen, and thirteen thousand nine hundred and
eight above sixteen. The difference is nearly equal
to a seventh part of the whole number of the older
class. In Edenton district, the number of males
under sixteen, was eight thousand six hundred and
ninety-six, and the number above sixteen, was eight
thousand three hundred and ninety-four. The differ
ence being less than a twenty- seventh part of the

* The flat lands near the coast, except such of them as are com
posed of sand, are generally covered by a thick growth of canes.

number of the older class. This remarkable-excess,
in favour of Salisbury district, can only be explained
by the greater salubrity or the climate. There are
some very old people in the western parts of Carolina,
but they were not born in that country ; they are
older than the settlement. After the country shall
have been planted two or three centuries, and the
natives shall have attained the length of years that
corresponds with the climate, a greater proportion of
the inhabitants above sixteen years will doubtless be
found." TENNESSEE
Is bounded on the north by Kentucky and Virginia,
on the south east by North Carolina, on the south by
Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and on the west
by Arkansas territory. Its length is 420 miles, ex
tending from longitude 81° 28' to 91° 37' ; its breadth
102 miles, from latitude 35° to 36° 30' ; comprising
an area of 43,000 square miles.
Tennessee is marked by bold features. It is
washed by the great river Mississippi on the west,
and the fine rivers Tennessee and Cumberland pass
through it in very serpentine courses. The western
part is undulating ; some of it level ; in the middle
it is hilly ; and the eastern part, known by the name
of East Tennessee, abounds in mountains, many of
them lofty, and presenting scenery grand and pictu
resque. Of these mountains, the Cumberland, or Great
Laurel Ridge, is the most remarkable. Stone, Yel
low, Iron-Bald, Smoky, and Unaka mountains, join
each other, and form, in a direction nearly north east
and south west, the eastern boundary of the state.
North west of these, and separated from each other
by valleys of from 5 to 15 miles wide, are Bay's
mountain, Copper Ridge, Clinch mountain, Powell's
mountain, and Welling's Ridge. The last four ter
minate north of Tennessee river. They are all
encircled by valleys, which open passages for rivers
and roads, and give occasion to many beautiful views.
Caves of great depth and extent are found throughout
the state.
The climate is generally healthy. In East Ten
nessee it is so tempered by the mountain air on one
side, and by refreshing breezes from the gulf of
Mexico on the other, that this part of the state has
one of the most desirable climates in North America.
The middle part resembles Kentucky. The winter
in Tennessee resembles the spring in New England
Snow seldom falls to a greater depth than ten inches,
The leaves of this plant are green all winter. They are long and
succulent, and cattle in general are greatly attached to them.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

457

or lies longer than ten days. Cumberland river has
been frozen over but three times since the country
was settled. Cattle are rarely sheltered. In the
western parts there are some low bottoms, on which
the inhabitants are subject to bilious fevefs, and fever
and ague in the autumn.
A considerable portion of the state is bedded on
limestone. A large deposit of gypsum has been dis
covered. Copperas, alum, nitre, and lead, are among
the minerals. Some silver has been found. Coal
is supposed to be plentiful. Saltpetre is so abundant
as to form a great article of commerce. There are
several mineral springs, and many valuable salt
springs. The western part of the state has a black,
rich soil ; in the middle are great quantities of excel
lent land; in the eastern, the mountains are lean,
but there are many fertile valleys. There is a great
profusion of natural timber, and in many places are
great quantities of cane remarkably thick and strong.
The state also abounds with medicinal plants. But
the great business ofthe state is agricultural. The
soil produces abundantly cotton and tobacco, which
are the staple commodities. The inhabitants also
raise a plentiful supply of grain, grass, and fruit.
They export cotton, tobacco, and flour ; also saltpetre,
and many other articles. The principal commerce
is carried on through the Tennessee and Cumberland
rivers, and from them by the Ohio and Mississippi
to New Orleans. This state also supplies Kentucky
Ohio, &c. with cotton for inland manufactures ; and

from East Tennessee considerable numbers of cattle
are sent to the seaports on the Atlantic. It is pro
bable that a new avenue to commerce will soon be
opened, by means of roads or a canal between the
Tennessee River and the navigable waters of the
Tombeckbee. The Chickasaws possess all the west
ern parts of this state, between the Mississippi and
Tennessee. The Cherokees own a large tract near
the south east part, on the Hiwassee.
There are nominally four colleges in this state ;
one at Greenville ; one at Knoxville ; one at Nash
ville, and one in Washington county. Greenville
College is a flourishing institution. It has a philo
sophical apparatus, a library of between one and two
thousand volumes, and between seventy and eighty
students. The college at Knoxville was founded
several years since, but has not yet come into opera
tion. It is entitled to the benefit of a donation from
congress, which it is expected will yield a capital of
50,000 dollars.
The Baptists in this state have 11 associations,
214 churches, 141 ministers, and 11,971 communi
cants ; the Methodists, 125 preachers, and 38,242
members, including a few belonging to adjacent
states ; the Presbyterians, 105 churches, 60 ministers,
20 licentiates, and 6,214 communicants ; the Luther
ans, 10 ministers. The Cumberland Presbyterians,
computed at about 100,000, reside chiefly in Tennessee
and Kentucky.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

WEST TENNESSEE.

Counties.

Bedford, m. . .
Carroll, w. . .
Davidson, M. . .
Nashville, town .
Dickson, w. m.
Dyer, w. . . .
Fayette, s. w. . .
Fentress, n. .. .
Franklin, s. . .
Gibson, w. . . .
Giles, s. . . . .
Hardiman, s. w. .
Hardin, s. w. . .
Haywood, w. . .
Henderson, w. m.
Henry, n. w. . .
Hickman, m. . .
Humphreys, w. m.
Jackson, n. . .
Lawrence, s. . .
Lincoln, s. . . ' .
Madison, w. . .
Maury, m. . . .
M'Nairy, s. . .

Population, 1820.

16,012
20,154 5,190
16,571
12,558 1,462

6,080
4,067 7,5933,271
14,76r
22,141

Population, 1830.

30,444 9,378
22,523 5,5667,261 1,904
8,6542,760
15,644 5,801
18,92011,628 4,867 5,356
8,741
12,230 8,132 6,1899,902
5,412
22,086 11,750
^8,153 5,697

County Towns.

Shelbyville
Huntingdon > Nashville

Charlotte . .
DyersburghSomerville . .
Jamestown . .
Winchester .
Trenton . .
Pulaski . . .
Bolivar . . .
Savannah . .
Brownsville .
Lexington . .
Paris . . .
Vernon . . .
Reynoklsburgh
GainesboroughLawrenceburghFayetteville .
Jackson . .
Columbia , .
Purdy ¦ ¦ .

Distance.
N.* | W.t

52
109

40
168184131 82
139 77
158112
275 130108 66777975
73
147 42
128

692823 714
754882873 600084
853739849803891840810 700
792052758722801 733
819

* From Nashville.

t From Washington.

458

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Counties.

Montgomery, n.
Obion, n. w. .
Overton, n.
Perry, w. m. .
Robertson, n. .
Rutherford, M.
Shelby, s. w. .
Smith, n. . .
Sumner, n. . .
Stewart, n. w. .
Tipton, w. . .
Warren, m.
Wayne, s. . .
Weakley, n. w.
White, m. . .
Williamson, m.
Wilson, n. m. .

Total

Population. 1820.

'Population, I 1830.

12,219 7,188
2,384 7,270
19,552 344
17,58019,211 8,397
10,348 2,4598,701
20,640 18,730

287,501

14,365 2,099 8,246 7,038
13,302
26,133 5,652
21,492 20,606 6,9885,317
15,351 6,013
4,796 9,967
26,608 25,477

County Towns.

Clarksville . .
Troy ....
Monroe ....
ShannonsvilleSpringfield . .
MurfreesboroughMemphis . ; .
Carthage . . .
Gallatin . . .
Dover ....
Covington . . .
McMinnville . .
Waynesborough Dresden . . .
Sparta ....
Franklin . . .
Lebanon . . .

488,448, of whom 124,492 are slaves.

Distance.
N.* I W.t

46
161 109114 25 33
224 522581
197 7492
132 92 18
31

746
863622 805 727686 915 670 699787
894644783834623732683

EAST TENNESSEE.

Anderson, m. . .
Bledsoe, M. . .
Blount, e. . . .
Campbell, K. . .
Carter, n. e. . .
Claiborne, n. . .
Cocke, e. . . .
Granger, e. m.
Greene, e. . . .
Hamilton, s. e. m.
Hawkins, n. e. .
Jefferson, e. . .
Knox, e. m. . .
McMinn, s. E. M.
Marion, s. . . .
Monroe, s. e. . .
Morgan, n. . .
Rhea, e. m. . .
Roane, e. m. . .
Sevier, e. . . .
Sullivan, n. e.
Washington, e. .
Total

4,668

5,312

4,005

6,448

11,258

11,027

4,244

5,110

4,835

6,418

5,508

8,470

4,892

6,048

7,651

10,066

11,221

14,410

821

2,274

10,949

13,683

8,953

11,799

13,034

14,498

1,623

14,497

3,888

5,516

2,529

13,709

1,676

2,582

4,215

8,182

7,895

11,340

4,772

5,117

7,015

10,073

9,557

10,995

135,312

196,374, of

Clinton 
Pikeville 
Marysville . . .' .
Jacksonborough . . .
Elizabethtown . . .
Tazewell 
Newport 
Rutledge 
Greenville 
Hamilton, C. H.
Rogersville ....
Dandridge 
Knoxville 
Athens 
Jasper ......
Madisonville ....
Montgomery ....
Washington ....
Kingston 
Sevier, C. H 
Blountsville ....
Jonesborough ....
of whom 17,890 are slaves.

195

534

109

608

197

532

215

543

316

420

243

491

247

479

232

483

273

454

148

619

264

451

229

497

199

516

153

572

114

653

168

561

46

746

129

593

159

556

225

515

306

409

298

429

POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

Population.

Increase.

Slaves.

Increas<

1800, 105,602

13,584

1810, 261,727
From 1800 to 1810,
156,125
44,535
30,951
1820, 420,813
1810 1820,
159,086
80,107
35,572
1830, 684,822
1820 1830,
264,009
142,382
62,275
The population of none of the towns in Tennessee
is given by the new census, with the exception of
Nashville, the seat of government, and much the
largest town. Some of the other most considerable
towns are Murfreesborough, once the seat of govern
ment, Clarksville, Franklin, Fayetteville, and Mem
phis, in West Tennessee ; and Knoxville, in East
Tennessee.
CHAPTER V.
SOUTH CAROLINA — GEORGIA  ALABAMA — MISSIS
SIPPI  LOUISIANA.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
This state, recently so conspicuous in its opposi
tion to the tariff, is bounded on the north and north
east by North Carolina ; on the southeast by the At
lantic, and on the west by Georgia. It extends from
longitude 78° 24' to 83° 30', and from latitude 32° to
35° 8' ; is 275 miles long, and 120 broad, and contains
33,000 square miles.
Like some other states, South Carolina is natu
rally divided into three zones. The maritime zone
rises by a very gentle acclivity from the ocean ; the
rivers are shallow near their mouths, and much of
the surface is flooded by the tides and land floods.
This outer belt is followed, about the lower falls of
the rivers, by a still more sandy zone, which is in
turn succeeded by the hilly tract between the head of
tides and the mountains. The third or mountainous
tract, with the exception of the mountain ridges and
* From Nashville.
t From Washington.
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

459

a still increased elevation, differs in no essential re
spect from the middle or hilly zone. Both the latter
sections of South Carolina partake of the general di
versity of surface, salubrity of climate, and fertility
of soil, which distinguishes the verge of the Apala
chian system in all its length. The extreme north
western part Of South Carolina is on the great table
land from which the sources of the Tennessee flow
north and northwest ; those of the Chatahooche from
southwest ; and those of the Savannah and Santee
southeast. It is probable that an allowance of two
degrees of Fahrenheit will be a moderate estimate for
the effect on temperature by difference of level, from
the southeast to the northwest angle of this state,
and the difference of latitude being 3° 10', the entire
difference of temperature will exceed 5° of Fah
renheit. The soil of South Carolina is divided into six
classes :^-l. tide swamp ; 2. inland swamp; 3 high
river swamp, or low grounds, distinguished by the
name of second low grounds ; 4. salt marsh ; 5. oak
and hickory high land ; 6. pine barren. The first
two classes are peculiarly adapted to the culture ol
rice and hemp ; the third is most favourable to the
. growth of hemp, corn, and indigo. The salt marsh
has been much neglected. The oak and hickory land
is remarkably fertile, and well adapted to the culture
of corn, as well as indigo and cotton. The pine bar
ren, though the least productive, is so much more sa
lubrious than, the other soils in the low country, that
a proportion of it is an appendage indispensable to
every swamp plantation. The staple commodities
of this state are cotton and rice, of which great quan
tities are annually exported. These articles have so
engrossed the attention of the planters, that the cul
ture of wheat, barley, oats, and other crops equally
useful, but less profitable, has been almost wholly ne
glected. So little wheat is raised throughout the state,
that considerable quantities are annually imported.
Cotton was not raised in any considerable quantities
till so late as 1795. Before that period indigo was,
next to rice, the most important article of produce ;
but it is now neglected. Tobacco thrives v/ehV The
fruits which flourish best are pears, pomegranates,
and watermelons : the latter, in particular, grow to
an enormous size, and are superior, perhaps, to any
in the world. Other fruits are figs, apricots, necta
rines, apples, peaches, olives, almonds, and oranges.
The period of vegetation comprehends, in favour
able years, from seven to eight months, commencing
in January or February, and terminating in October

or November. The frosts generally, in the months
of November, December, January, and February, are
too severe for the delicate productions of more south
ern latitudes. The low country is seldom covered
with snow, but the mountains near the western bound
ary often are. Frost sometimes occurs, but seldom
penetrates deeper than two inches, or lasts longer
than three or four days. At some seasons, and par
ticularly in February, the weather is very variable.
The temperature has been known to vary forty-six
degrees in one day. In Charleston, for seven years,
the thermometer was not known to rise above 93°, or
to fall below 17° above 0. The number of extremely
hot days in Charleston is seldom more than thirty in a
year ; and there are about as many sultry nights in
which the heat and closeness of the air are such as
to prevent the enjoyment of sound sleep. The low
country is infested with all the diseases which spring
from a warm, moist, and unelastic atmosphere. Of
these the most frequent are fevers, from which the
inhabitants suffer more than from any, or perhaps
from all other diseases together. The districts of the
upper country enjoy as salubrious a climate as any
part of the United States.
A rail-road from the city of Charleston to Ham
burgh, on the Savannah, opposite to Augusta, is in
progress. The whole length of the rail-road, when
completed, will be about 135 miles ; and according
to a report made several months since, eighty-eight
miles were then under contract. Several miles, ex
tending from Charleston, were completed in 1830,
and a steam car has been placed upon it, moving at
the rate of fifteen miles an hour.
South Carolina College, at Columbia, is a flourish
ing institution, and has been liberally patronized by
the state. Colleges have been incorporated in Charles
ton, Abbeville district, in Beaufort, and in Winns-
borough, but they have not taken a higher rank than
academies. The Medical College at Charleston, is
an institution of some promise. Free schools are
established throughout the state, and the sum of 37,000
dollars annually has been appropriated by the legis
lature for their support.
The Methodists in this state have 54 preachers
and 25,114 members ; the Baptists, 6 associations,
159 churches, 131 ministers, and 12,316 communi
cants ; the Presbyterians, 77 churches, 46 ministers,
7 licentiates, and 6,671 communicants ; the Episco
palians^ 34 ministers ; there are also some Associate
Presbyterians, Lutherans, Roman Catholics, and Uni
tarians.

460

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.
DISTRICTS AND SEATS OF JUSTICE.

Districts.

Seats of Justice.

Distance.
C* | W.t

Districts.

Seats of Justice.

Distance. C.» | W.t

Abbeville ....

100129 62
147110 57
102 938657
29
134117 150 33

534
550562613544448 426588
435 557
476 482509459467

Marlborough, n. . . .
Orangeburgh, M. ...
Richland, m 
Spartanburgh, n. . . .
Williamsburgh, e. . .

Marion, C. H 
Marlborough, C. H. . .
Newberry, C. H. . . .
Orangeburgh, C. H.
Pickens, CH 
Spartanburgh, C. H. . .
York, C. H 

7379 12
115102 45
43
157104 44 77
8678

442
498 512424426493538550
500477 481
467488
432

Anderson, C. H. .
Barnwell, C. H. .
Coosawhatchie . .

Chester, C. H. . .

Chesterfield, C. H.
Walterborough

Edgefield, C. H. .
Winnsborough . .
Greenville, C. H. .
Conwayborough
POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
Population.
Increase.
Slaves.
Increase
In 1790, 249,073
107,094
1800, 345,591
From 1790 to 1800,
96,518
146,151
39,057
1810, 415,115
1800 1810,
69,524
196,365
50,214
1820, 502,741
1810 1820,
86,626
258,475
62,110
1830, 581,459
1820 1830,
78,717
315,365
56,890
POPULATION OF THE DISTRICTS AND OTHER DIVISIONS, AS GIVEN IN THE CENSUS OF 1830.
Abbeville district .  28,134
Anderson ditto  17,170
Barnwell ditto  1 9,236
Charleston city  30,289
Charleston Neck  : . 10,054
St. Andrews' parish  3,727
St. John's Colleton  1 0,045
St. James, Goose Creek  8,632
St. Stephen's  2,416
Christ Church  3,412
St. James, Santee  3,743
St. Thomas and St. Dennis  3,055
St. Peter's parish  3,834
St. Helena  8,799
St. Luke's  9,659
Prince William's  9,040
Chester district  19,182
Chesterfield ditto  8,472
Colleton ditto  27,256
Edgefield ditto  30,511
Fairfield ditto  . 21,546
Georgetown district  19,943
Greenville ditto  16,476
Horry ditto  5,323
Kershaw ditto  .... 13,545
Lancaster ditto  10,361
Laurens ditto  20,863
Lexington ditto  9,076
Marion ditto  11,208
Marlborough ditto  8,578
Newberry ditto  17,441
Orangeburgh ditto  18,45
Pickens ditto  14,475
Richland ditto  11,465
Columbia town  3,310
Spartanburgh district  21,148
Sumter ditto ...  28,278
Union ditto  17,908
Washington ditto  13,728
Williamsburgh ditto  9,015
York ditto  17,785
Total population, 581,458. Slaves, 315,665.
Charleston, the largest town in the state, is situated
an a peninsula, between the rivers Ashley and Cooper,
which unite immediately below the city, and form
a spacious and convenient harbour, communicating
with the ocean at Sullivan's Island, seven miles
southeast of the city. The harbour has a bar at its
mouth, through which are two channels ; the deepest
has sixteen feet of water at low tide. It is defended
by Fort Pinkney and Fort Johnson, which are on
islands, the former two, and the latter four miles be
low the city ; and by Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan's
Island. Charleston contains a city-hall, an exchange,
* From Columbia.
a custom-house, a guard-house, a theatre, an orphan-
house, an hospital, an alms-house, two arsenals, two
markets, a college, and nineteen houses of public
worship. The Charleston library contains about
13,000 volumes. The Orphan Asylum is a noble
and well endowed institution, which supports and edu
cates nearly 200 orphan children. There are several
other charitable societies richly endowed. The city
is regularly laid out in parallel streets, which are
intersected by others nearly at right angles. The
tongue of land on which it is built was originally in
dented with creeks and narrow marshes, which have
t From Washington.
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

461

been filled up ; and it is drier and more elevated than
most parts of the low country of South Carolina.
Many of the houses are elegant, and furnished with
piazzas. It is much the largest town in the state,
and was formerly the seat of government. It has an
extensive commerce : the shipping owned here in
1816, amounted to 36.473 tons ; in 1820, to 28,403
tons. That dreadful distemper, the yellow fever, has
made frequent ravages in Charleston, but its effects
have been chiefly confined to persons from more
northern situations ; and the climate of the city is
accounted healthy to the native inhabitants, more so
than that of most other Atlantic towns in the southern
states. Its superior salubrity attracts the planters
from the surrounding country, and it is the favourite
resort of the wealthy from the West Indies. It affords
much agreeable society, and is reckoned one of the
gayest towns in the United States.
Dr. Ramsay, the celebrated philosopher, has done
much to promote a knowledge of South Carolina ;
and Dayton's work has materials of value to the
historian. Mr. Robert Mills, in an elaborate and recent work
on the statistics of South Carolina, has furnished a
minute account of the benevolent, literary, and other
institutions which dignify the city of Charleston.
From his publication the following extract is made.
" After this enumeration," says Mr. Mills, " of
benevolent establishments in Charleston, the remark
made in the beginning, that this city possesses a
greater number of charitable institutions, in propor
tion to its population, than any other in the union,
will not be regarded as unfounded in fact ; and truly
it is cause of humble rejoicing, that there exists such
a spirit of piety in a spot where so great a field for
doing good is opened. Charleston is the centre of a
vast circle, which will be benefited in proportion to
the exertions made in it to promote the cause of virtue
and truth.
" The Medical Society, for the advancement of the
healing art, was formed in 1789, and incorporated in
1794. It has contributed much to medical science,
and the public weal. In all cases respecting the
medical police of the city, application was made to
this society for their advice, and it always cheerfully
gave it, and essentially contributed to form beneficial
regulations for preserving the health of the inhabi
tant. " These institutions emanated from this medical so
ciety, of great public utility : the Humane Society ;
the Charleston Dispensary ; and the Botanic Garden ;
all still in operation, except the latter, which has
declined. Vol. IL— Nos. 75 & 76. 3 N

" The Medical Society, within two years past, has
enlarged its sphere of usefulness, having established
a college, and endowed professorships ; a course of
lectures is annually delivered to students in medicine,
and diplomas are granted to such as take their de
grees. This society has been eminently successful,
and now possesses able professors. The first year
of its duties, (Nov. 1824,) the number of students
was between 40 and 50 ; the second year, the number
was nearly doubled ; and there is every prospect that
this institution will command a most extensive patron
age. The number who have graduated and received
diplomas amounts to 33.
'•' The St. Cecilia Society is of very old standing.
It was established some time in 1762. Music
has always been highly admired and patronized
in this city, and still is, though more in a private
way. " It has contributed much to establish a good
taste for music in the state. At one time it gave an
nual salaries of 2 to 3000 dollars, to secure first-rate
professors. " The Free Masons, in this city, constitute one of
the largest and most respectable associations in the
United States. They comprise 14 lodges, and include
about 1500 members ; their charities amount annually
to near $1500.
" The Charleston Library Society was established in
1748, and incorporated in 1754. It is composed of
upwards of 300 members, and comprises now between
13 and 14,000 volumes, besides a number of fine en
gravings, port-folios of views, &c. In the great fire
that took place in 1778, a large portion of the origi
nal library was destroyed, with a valuable philosophi
cal apparatus.
" Its capital in bank shares and stock, amounts to
$11,600, andyearly income to $3,000. Average annual
expenses, $2,500, including the purchase of books and
contingencies. "This library occupies the principal part of the attic
story of the court-house.
" There have also been founded in this city, within
a few years, two other library societies, the Franklin
and Ramsay, the latter composed chiefly of young men.
" The Literary and Philosophical Society is an
institution that does great honour to the state. It
was founded in 1813, .and comprises a large mineral
ogical cabinet, with a number of subjects of natural
history and botany.
" The Museum is situated on Chalmers-street,
nearly fronting the city square, and is well stored
with curious subjects in natural history, Indian an
tiquities, foreign and native works of art, &c.

462

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

"The institutions for educating youth in this city
are both numerous and highly respectable. At the
head of these is the Charleston College, established
soon after the revolutionary war. It commenced as
an academy under the superintendence of the Rev.
Dr. Robert Smith, (afterwards Bishop of the Protest
ant Episcopal church.) By his exertions in obtain
ing the best qualified classical teachers, it soon was
incorporated as a college, of which he was appointed
as principal. Bishop Smith held this office until 1798,
when he resigned it.
" After the state institution went into operation at
Columbia, this college declined, and remained in
operative until within a few years, when an effort
was made by a few gentlemen to restore its useful
ness, — in which they succeeded. It is now upon a
permanent footing, possesses able teachers, and pro
mises to redeem its original character. This impor
tant institution is now under the care of trustees.
" The first Free School in this state, was founded
in Charleston, as early as 1712 ; since which, exten
sive means have been created to dispense knowledge
among the destitute, both by the state, and by various
benevolent societies, already noticed. There are four
Free Schools established in Charleston, under legis
lative patronage. The liberal salary of $1,200 is
allowed to each teacher. These, wi'th the numerous
private academies and schools distributed through the
city, evince the particular attention paid to this most
important subject.
" Many valuable institutions, devoted to the instruc
tion of female youth, are established in Charleston,
where every branch of useful, elegant, polite, and
ornamental education, is taught.
" Besides the circulating libraries, (of which there
are several, both extensive and respectable, in Charles
ton,) there are innumerable fountains of knowledge
opened in every part of the city. Every public house
has a reading-room, where the periodical papers of
the day, and those from different parts of the union,
are received. A taste for reading and polite literature
is extending itself generally among our citizens, and
a happy circumstance it is, as during a certain part
of the year considerable leisure occurs, the season of
business being of limited duration.
" Among the private establishments of this character,
1 Walker's reading-room' is the most extensive, both
in the variety and interest of the periodical produc
tions received there, and particularly in English litera
ture, independent of newspapers.
"Every bookstore presents a mental feast, and for
number, elegance, and richness of literary lore, are
not exceeded by any city in the union. Wherever

our steps are directed, the improvement of Charleston
in literature and the arts manifests itself. The book
stores of Messrs. Hurlbut, Mill, Berret, and many
others, are not only extensive in the number, but choice
in the selection of their books.
" In reviewing the springs of knowledge in this city,
we must not forget to mention one, from which
much benefit is anticipated to be derived, namely, the
Apprentices' Library Society, instituted in 1824, ex
pressly to benefit the youth devoting their attention-
to mechanical pursuits.
"The library at present consists of upwardsof 3,000
volumes, mostly presented by donation. The sub
scription amounts annually to two dollars, which is
chiefly laid out in the purchase of suitable books.
The library room is over the centre market-house,
the use of which has been liberally granted by the
commissioners of the market.
" There are four daily public journals printed in this
city ; their titles, according to seniority, are, the City
Gazette, Courier, Southern Patriot, and Charleston
Mercury ; all edited, with ability, and conducted upon
liberal principles. There are besides, three weekly
journals issued, devoted principally to religious sub
jects, the Southern Intelligencer, Catholic Miscellany,
and Wesleyan Journal. The Gospel Messenger, (an
Episcopal work,) and Medical Journal, are published
monthly, besides a work devoted to agricultural sub
jects." Columbia, the seat of government, is regularly laid
out on an elevated plain on the banks of the Con-
garee. Georgetown is on Winyaw Bay, near the
mouth of the Pedee, thirteen miles from the sea. It
is well situated for trade, being in the neighbourhood
of fertile lands, and connected by the Pedee and its
branches with an extensive back country ; but there
is a bar at the mouth of Winyaw Bay, wliich prevents
the entrance of vessels drawing more than eleven feet
water. Beaufort is on an island, seventy-two miles
southwest of Charleston.
It deserves to be stated, that the botany of this
state and of Georgia, has found an able writer in the
late Stephen Elliot, Esq., a gentleman of profound
science in natural history. His work is in two
volumes, large octavo, 1821-4.
GEORGIA
Is bounded on the north by Tennessee, on the
northeast by South Carolina, on the southeast by the
Atlantic, by Florida on the south, and by Alabama
on the west. It extends from longitude 80° 50' to
86° 6', and from latitude 30° 30' to 35°. Length

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

463

from north to south, 300 miles ; mean breadth. 203 ;
and area, 61,000 square miles.
Georgia is divided by the hand of nature into three
zones, with very distinct features. The lowest, and
what may be called the tropical zone, rises by a very
slow acclivity from the Atlantic ocean, commencing
in a series of islands. This is, in its oceanic margin,
a recent alluvion ; and is followed by a sandy tract
of little more elevation, but reaching to the falls of the
rivers. The third, or hilly and finally mountainous
section, is the most extensive, fertile, and salubrious.
From the level of the Atlantic Islands to the moun
tain vales, of Chatahooche and Etowah Rivers, must
be an elevation of 12 or 1500 feet ; at the lowest
an equivalent to 3° of latitude ; which, added to 4°
38', gives a difference of 7° 38' in temperature. The
mountainous northern extremity rises into an eleva
tion favourable to apples and the grasses ; while the
southern extremity on the Apalachicola, Suwanne,
St. Mary's, Santilla, and Alatamaha, has a temperature
suitable to the sugar cane, orange, olive, date, and
lemon. Between those extremes vegetable produc
tion has an extensive range. To those already
named, may be added cotton, rice, tobacco, and in
digo ; of fruits, the peach, fig, pomegranate, plum, &c.
The sea border is a region of palms, and has a mean
temperature at least two degrees above that of equal
latitudes in the basin of Mississippi. In summer the
Atlantic border is a real tropical climate, whilst
towards North Carolina and Tennessee the mountain
vales smile under a mitigated sun. Cotton, rice, and
sugar, may be regarded as its staples. The former
has, however, so far predominated, the Atlantic islands
producing a peculiar kind of superior value, that it
might, without much error, be considered the exclu
sive staple of the state. The sweet orange and sugar
cane can be cultivated with success along the whole
ocean border, and for some distance inland.
In the northern part of Georgia there are interest
ing falls on the head waters of Savannah River.
The river Terrora descends, in the space of a mile,
300 feet, and has one cataract of sixty feet nearly per
pendicular. Toccoa Falls, on a small rivulet, are a
beautiful cascade of 186 feet perpendicular. — The
principal mineral waters in Georgia are the Indian
Springs, which are west of Milledgeville, and much
visited ; and Madison Springs, northwest of Athens.
Valuable gold mines have been lately discovered in
the northern parts of the state, near the sources of
the Chatahooche, Tallapoosa, and Coosa.
Many writers have favoured the public with ob
servations on the climate and diseases of Georgia ;
but a general reference to their papers in the periodi

cals must suffice. Some interesting remarks of the
late governor, Henry Ellis, of this state, merit a more
particular notice. This distinguished individual,
more than seventy years ago, drew up a number of
valuable reflections on the climate, in a communica
tion to a friend, and their pertinency even at this
day will be seen by the contemplative reader. His
letter is dated July 17, 1758, and may be seen in the
American Medical and Philosophical Register, vol. 2,
published at New York, and edited by Professors
Hosack and Francis, of that city.
" Though some weeks have passed since I wrote
you," says Gov. Ellis to his friend, " yet so little
alteration has happened in the state of our affairs,
that nothing occurs to me, relative to them, worth
committing to paper. This, indeed, I need not re
gret, as one cannot sit down to anything that requires
much application, but with extreme reluctance ; for
such is the debilitating quality of our violent heats in
this season, that an inexpressible languor enervates
every faculty, and renders even the thought of exer
cising them painful.
"It is now about three o'clock ; the sun bears nearly
S. W. and I am writing in a piazza, open at each
end, on the northeast side of my house, perfectly in
the shade ; a small breeze at S. E. blows freely through
it; no buildings are nearer, to reflect the heat, than
sixty yards ; yet in a thermometer hanging by me,
made by Mr. Bird, and compared by the late Mr.
George Graham, with an approved one of his own,
the mercury stands at 102. Twice it has risen this
summer to the same height, viz. on the 28th of June,
and the 11th of July. Several times it has been at 100,
and for many days successively at 98 ; and did not
in the nights sink below 89. I think it highly pro
bable, that the inhabitants of this place breathe a hot
ter air than any other people on the face of the earth.
The greatest heat we had last year was but 94, and
that but once ; from 84 to 90 were the usual varia
tions ; but this is reckoned an extraordinary hot sum
mer. The weatherwise of this country say it fore
bodes a hurricane ; for has it always been remarked,
that these tempests have been preceded by continual
and uncommon heats. I must acquaint you, however,
that the heats we are subject to here, are more intense
than in any other parts of the province, the town of
Savannah being situated upon a sandy eminence, and
sheltered all around with high woods. The people
actually breathe so hot an air as I describe ; yet this
very spot, from its height and dryness, is reck
oned equally healthy with any other in the province,
" I have frequently walked a hundred yards under
an umbrella, with a thermometer suspended from it

464

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

by a thread, to the height of my nostrils, when the
mercury has risen to 105, which is prodigious. At
the same time I have confined this instrument close
to the hottest part of my body, and have been aston
ished to observe, that it has subsided several degrees.
Indeed, I never could raise the mercury above 97 with
the heat of my body.
" You know, dear sir, that I have traversed a great
part of this globe, not without giving some attention
to the peculiarities of each climate ; and I can fairly
pronounce, that I never felt such heats any where as
in Georgia. I know experiments on this subject are
extremely liable to error ; but I presume I cannot
now be mistaken, either in the goodness of the instru
ment, or in the fairness of the trials, which I have
repeatedly made with it. The same thermometer I
have had twice in the equatorial parts of Africa ; as
often at Jamaica, and the West-India islands ; and,
upon examination of my journal's, I do not find that
the quicksilver ever rose in those parts above the 87th
degree, and to that seldom; its general station was
between the 79th and 86th degree ; and yet I think I
have felt those degrees, with a moist air, more disagree
able than what I now feel.
" In my relation of the late expedition to the north
west, if I recollect right, I have observed, that all the
changes and variety of weather, that happen in the
temperate zone, throughout the year, may be expe
rienced at Hudson's Bay settlements in twenty-four
hours. But I may now extend this observation ; for
in my cellar the thermometer stands at 81, in the next
story at 102, and in the upper one at 105, yet these
heats, violent as they are, would be tolerable, but for
the sudden changes that succeed them. On the 10th
of December last, the mercury was at 86 ; on the
11th it was so low as 38 of the same instrument.

What havoc must this make with a European con
stitution ? Nevertheless, but few people die here out
of the ordinary course ; though, indeed, one can
scarce call it living, merely to breathe, and trail about
a vigourless body ; yet such is generally our condi
tion, from the middle of June to the middle of Sep
tember." The University of Georgia consists of a college
called Franklin College, established at Athens, and of
an academy, either established, or to be established, in
each county. This body of institutions is under the
direction of a Senatus Academicus, consisting of the
governor and senate of the state, and fifteen trustees.
The Senatus Academicus appoints a board of commis
sioners in each county, to superintend the academy
of the county and the inferior schools. In 1817,
200,000 dollars were appropriated by the legislature
for the establishment of free schools throughout the
state. " In 1801," says Mr. Sherwood,* " only six
academies had been incorporated in the state."
" The importance of education, about 1811, seemed
to be more appreciated ; and academies sprang up in
almost every town. Few persons born since that
period are entirely destitute of education ; but thou
sands who were brought into the world before 1800,
know not a letter." The total number of academies
is now nearly ninety.
The Baptists in this state have 12 associations, 390
churches, 205 ministers, and 31,797 communicants;
the Methodists, 64 preachers, and 27,038 members :
the Presbyterians, 55 churches, 31 ministers, and
3,034 communicants ; the Christians, 3 churches,
and 28 ministers ; the Episcopalians, 4 churches and
4 ministers ; the Roman Catholics, 3 churches and

3 ministers
and Jews.

there are also some Lutherans, Friends,

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Appling, a. m. . . , .
Baker, s. w 
Baldwin, M 
Bibb, m 
Bryan, s. e 
Bullock, e. m 
Burke, e  :
Butts, N. M 
Camden, s. e. ..-,..
Campbell, n. w. . . ,
Carroll, n. w. ' . , . .
Chatham, e. . . . ; .
Clarke, n. m. .....
Columbia,, n. m. ....
Coweta, n. w. . . ' . .

Whites.

1,284 977
2,724 4,138 723
1,933
5,0663,225 1,458
2,694
2,7234,325 5,4384,4713,634

Coloured.

184
276
4,565 3,005
2,416 653
6,767 1,687
3,120 629696
9,9054,7388,135 1,372

Total
Population.

1,4681,253
7,2897,1433,1392,586
11,833 4,9124,578 3,3233,419
14,23010,176 12,606 5,006

County Towns.
Appling, C. H 
Byron 
MllLEDGEVILLE 
Macon 
Bryan, C. H 
Statesborough 
Waynesborough ....
Jackson 
Jeffersonton 
Campbellton 
Carrollton 
Savannah 
Watkinsville 
Applingville . . . . . .
Newman 

Distance.

M.t |

W.t

125

787

155

797

642

35

677

117

671

37

689

51

707

212

744

134

715

153

746

107

662

69

623

93

602

129

722

* Gazetteer of Georgia, second edition, 1829
r From Milledgeville. t From Washington.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

465

Counties.

Crawford, w. m. .
Decatur, s. w. . .
Dekalb, n. w. . .
Dooly, w. m. . ,
Early, s. w. . .
Effingham, e. . ,
Elbert, n. . . . ,
Emanuel, E. m. . ,
Fayette, n. w. . ,
Franklin, n. . .
Glynn, s.j:. . .
Greene, n. m.
Gwinnett, n. w.
Habersham, n. .
Hall, n. w. . .
Hancock, n. M.
Harris, w. . .
Henry, n. w. m.
Houston, w. M. . ,
Irwin, s. m. . .
Jackson, n. . .
Jasper, m. . .
Jefferson, e. m. .
Jones, m. . . .
Laurens, m. . . .
Lee, w. m. . .
Liberty, s. e.
Lincoln, n. m. .
Lowndes, s. . .
Madison, n. . .
Mcintosh, s. e. .
Marion, w. m. .
Meriwether, N. w.
Monroe, m. . .
Montgomery, m.
Morgan, n. m. .
Muscogee, w. .
Newton, n. w. m.
Oglethorp, n. m.
Pike, w. m. . .
Pulaski, M. . .
Putnam, M. ." .
Rabun, n. . .
Randolph, w.
Richmond, e.
Seriven, e. . .
Talbot, w. . .
Taliaferro, n. m.
Tatnall, e. m. .
Telfair, M. . .
Thomas, s. . .
Troup, w. . .
Twiggs, M. . .
Upson, n. w. M.
Walton, n. w. M.
Ware, s. . . .
Warren, n. m. .
Washington, M.
Wayne, s. e.
Wilkes, n. w. .
Wilkinson, m. .

Total.

Whiles.

3,591
2,541 8,376 1,7871,505 1,746
6,5012,1684,268 7,712 597
5,026
10,938 9,733
10,573 4,607 2,8317,9915,161 1,066
6,1846,767 3,6036,4693,188 1,367 1,588
2,8242,113 3,365 1,0951,3273,018
8,836 934
5,1462,2618,1315,5544,3623,1175,5122,114 1,508
5,163
2,387 3,839
2,162 1,519 1,569 ,
2,1273,6074,4954,444 7,763 1,132
6,0445,905 676
5,2654,603

Coloured.

Total
Population.

1,7231,3071,671 348 546
1,2235,853 513
1,233
2,4233,970 7,525
2,282 915
1,182'
7,215
2,2742,5762,208 114
2,816 6,3643,7066,8732,390 307
5,6463,313 340
1,261
3,903 109
1,406
7,366 335
6,877 1,247
3,0238,004 1,6941,782
7,744 61
683
6,481
2,389 2,101
2,770 520567
1,169
2,1923,5342,569 3,168 62
4,802 3,915 286
8,972 1,955

5,314 3,848
10,047 2,1352,0512,969
12,354 2,681 5,501
10,135 4,467
12,55113,22010,64811,75511,822 5,105
10,567 7,369 1,180
9,000
13,131 7,309
13,342 5,578 1,674
7,2346137
2,4534,626 4,998 1,436
4,424
16,202 1,269
12,023 3,508
11,154 13,558 6,0564 899
13,656 2,1752,191
11644 4,7765,9404,934
2,039 2,136 3,2965,799
8,029 7,013
10,931 1,194
10,846 9,820 962
14,237 6,558

County Towns.

Distance
M.* | W.t

Knoxville . . .
Bainbridge . .
Decatur . . .
Berrien . . .
Blakely . . .
Willoughby . .
Elberton . . .
Swainsborough .
Fayetteville . .
Carnesville . .
Brunswick . .
Greensborough .
Lawrenceville .
Clarkesville . .
Gainesville . .
Sparta . . . .
Hamilton . . .
McDonough . .
Perry . . . .
Irwin, C. H. . .
Jefferson . . .
Monticello . .
Louisville . . .
Clinton . . .
Dublin . . . .
Pindertown . .
Riceborough . .
Lincolnton . .
Franklinville Danielsville . .
Darien . . . .
Marion, C. H. .
Greenville . .
Forsythe . . .
Mount Vernon .
Madison . . .
Columbus . . .
Covington . .
Lexington . .
Zebulon . . .
Hartford . . .
Eatonton . . .
Clayton . . .
Randolph, C. H.
Augusta . . .
Jacksonborough Talbotton . . .
Crawfordsville .
Perry's Mills
Jacksonville . .
Thomasville . .
Lagrange . . .
Marion . . .
Upson, C. H. .
Monroe . . .
Waresborough .
Warrenton . .
Sandersville . .
Waynesville . .
Washington . .
Irwinton . . .

516,567, of whom 217,470 are slaves.

POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

In 1749,1790,1800,1810,1820, 1830,

Population. 6,000
82,548
162,686
252,433348.98S516,567

Increase. Slaves. Increase.

From 1790 to 1800,
1800 1810,
1810 1820,
1820 1830,

80,138 89,74788,456
165,578

29,26459,699
105,218149,656
217,470

30,435
45,51944,438 67,814

POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS,

60
206 117 97
227 181 101 79
187114
200 44 93
144123 24
134 85 6098 35522247
130
202 100187 92
187174111 608944
120 GO69866722
174170 90
144
112 47
115111
235 133 3787 72
161 4927
190 6420

702
848 680739
869671579633 700
578733628656608626618 776
687 702
614 668644665689772
692
570829600 720816753702721648762 662 603
725709650
611812580 634 754
615 757
753877 752
697729641776 617669721 573662

Savannah, Augusta,

7,303 I
6,696 |
1 From Milledgevilie,

MaconColombia,

2^09 I Milledgeville
2^000 I Athens
t From Washington.

1,599 1,100

466

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Savannah, the largest town, and the centre of com
merce for the state, is on the Savannah River, eigh
teen miles from the bar at its mouth. Vessels draw
ing fourteen feet water can come up to the city ;
larger vessels receive their cargoes three miles below.
Augusta is on the Savannah, just below the falls, 127
miles by land north of the Savannah. Large quanti
ties of cotton and other produce are brought to Augusta
from the back country, and carried down the river to
Savannah. Milledgevi-lle, the seat of government, is
on Oconee River, near the centre of the state. Da-
rien is on Alatamaha river, twelve miles from the bar
at its mouth. It will probably soon be a place of
importance, as it is the centre of commerce for the
country on the Alatamaha and its branches, which
is rapidly becoming populous. Sunbury, Brunswick,
and St. Mary's, are on the sea-coast, southwest of
Savannah. Petersburgh is on the Savannah, fifty-
three miles above Augusta. Washington is fifty
miles northwest of Augusta. Athens is on a branch
of the Oconee, about seventy miles north of Milledge-
ville.

ALABAMA

Is bounded on the north by Tennessee, on the east
by Georgia, on the south by Florida, and the Gulf
of Mexico, and on the west by Mississippi. It ex
tends from longitude 85° to 88° 30', and from latitude
30° 10' to 35° ; is 336 miles long and 195 wide, con
taining 51,770 square miles.
Alabama, like several other states, is naturally
divided into three zones ; the northern, traversed by
the southwestern extremity of the Apalachian chain,
and drained by numerous small rivers flowing into
Tennessee, may be considered, if not mountainous,
at least very broken, and most pleasantly diversified.
The middle or central zone, drained by the various
branches of the Coosa, Cahawba, Tuscaloosa, and
Tombigbee rivers, gradually assumes a more level
surface, and has a soil in general very inferior to the
northern. The southern or Pine region is still less
broken by hills than the central, and contracted by
the western projection of Florida to a strip of sixty
miles wide, along Mobile Bay, terminates in the sandy
alluvium of the Mexican Gulf.
Extending over almost five degrees of latitude,
and rising from the level of the sea on the south to
a considerable elevation, perhaps 1000 feet in the
north, this state exhibits a marked difference of tem
perature. It touches rather than enters the region
ofthe sugar cane, but admits in all its extent of the
profitable cultivation of cotton. Fruits, from the fig
to the apple, flourish abundantly ; but even the south

ern section does not admit the successful production
of the orange. Small grain is cultivated, though
maize predominates as a crop. Cotton is the staple
of the state, but might be superseded by tobacco or
indigo, and perhaps by other vegetables. Alabama
has been too recently settled to admit the full deve
lopment of its metallic wealth ; nor, except iron, do
the known specimens promise great abpndance.
The climate is mild ; indeed, it might be with safety
called delightful. Much of the soil is fertile, none
utterly barren. By navigable rivers this state pos
sesses great commercial advantages, though compri
sing only one direct outlet to the sea. Besides many
of less note, Alabama is watered by the Tennessee,
Tombigbee, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, Cahawba, Coosa,
Talapoosa, and Conecuh rivers.
When Alabama was admitted into the union in
1819, the government granted to the state, on certain
conditions, one section, or the thirty-sixth part of
every township, for the support of schools, and two
townships for the establishment of a university.
The prospects of the University of Alabama seem to
be pleasing. In 1826, the number of acres appro
priated for its benefit which had been sold, was
12,718 ; producing, with interest and rents, the sum
of 276,956 dollars. There remained unsold, 33,361
acres, and it is supposed the proceeds of the whole
will not be much short of 750,000 dollars.
The University of Alabama, since the period of
this European publication, has gone into successful
operation. That valuable record of American affairs,
the American Almanac, of 1834, has the following
account of this institution.
" This institution was incorporated by the Gene
ral Assembly, Dec, 1820, under the title of the
' University of the State of Alabama ;' and, in 1821,
two trustees from each judicial circuit were elected
by the legislature for three years, the governor of the
state being ex officio president of the board. The
trustees were authorized and required to sell by
auction or to rent the University lands ; to select a
site for the institution; to superintend the erection
of the buildings ; to appoint officers and fix their
salaries, to prescribe the course t>f studies, and make
regulations and laws for the University ; and to make
an annual report of its financial concerns to the legis
lature. In the session of 1827-8, the university was
placed by the legislature in a fine, healthy situation,
about a mile and a half to the east of the state-house in
Tuscaloosa, 268 miles NNE. of New Orleans. Ac
cording to an official report, dated Jan. 14, 1830,
21,845 3-4 acres of the land had been sold for the
sum of $304,651 06, of which $111,712 59 had been

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

467

invested in 6 per cent stock ; and 24,234 1-4 acres
remained unsold. — The buildings already erected
consist of a Rotunda, a circular edifice of three stories,
in the centre of the grounds, 70 feet in diameter, and
70 in height, the ground floor or lower story being
used for a chapel, for commencements, examinations,
<fcc, the 2d story forming a circular gallery for spec
tators, and the 3d story forming the library room ; —
of three edifices, or dormitories, all three stories high,
for the accommodation of students, two of them 60 feet
by 30, and the other 90 by 30, the two former afford
ing accommodations for 48 students each, the latter for
72 ; — of a laboratory containing the chemical and phi
losophical apparatus, cabinet of minerals, and several
lecture-rooms ; — of a hotel in which the steward re
sides ; — and of four houses for professors. The cost of
these buildings has not exceeded $100,000. In order
to complete the plan, there are required three more dor
mitories, four more houses for professors, and another
hotel. The university went into operation in April,
1831, a president and three professors having been
previously appointed ; and the first commencement

was held in Dec, 1832. The library consists of 2,000
volumes, and about a thousand additional volumes
have been ordered."
Five per cent ofthe net proceeds arising from the
sale of the public lands is appropriated to making
roads and canals, and improving the navigation of
rivers. As the condition of these grants, the state
agrees that no lands belonging to the United States
shall be taxed for any purpose for the term of five
years from the day of sale, and that all the navigable
waters within the state shall for ever remain public
highways, free to all the citizens ofthe United States,
witho it any tax or toll. A water communication,
to unite the Tennessee with the Alabama, is con
templated. The Baptists in this state have 12 associations, 219
churches, 130 ministers, and 8,953 communicants ;
the Methodists, 44 preachers and 13,504 members ;
the Presbyterians, 38 churches, 27 ministers, 6 li
centiates, and 1,669 communicants; the Roman
Catholics, 9 ministers ; the Episcopalians, 2 minis
ters.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Autauga, m 
Baldwin, s 
Bibb, m 
Blount, n. m 
Butler, s. m 
Clarke, s. m 
Conecuh, s 
Covington, s 
Dale, s 
Dallas, M 
Fayette, n. m 
Franklin, n. w 
Greene, w. M 
Henry, s. e 
Jackson, N. E 
Jefferson, m 
Lauderdale, N. w 
Lawrence, n 
Limestone, n 
Lowndes 
Madison, n 
Marengo, s. m 
Marion, n. w 
Mobile, s. w, 
Mobile, city 
Monroe, s. M 
Montgomery, s. M 
Morgan, n. ...... .
Perry, m 
Pickens, w 
Pike, s. e 
St. Clair, N. E. M 
Shelby, M 
Tuscaloosa, M 
Walker, n. m 
Washington, s. w 
Wilcox, s. m  Total . . . .

Population

11,872 2,324 6,305
4,233 5,634
7,584 7,444 1,522
2,021
14,017 3,470
11,078 15,025 3,955,
12,702 6,855
11,782
24,984 14,848 9,421
28,011 7,7424,0583,071 3,194
8,780
12,694 9,053
11,509 6,6207,103
5,975 5,521
13,646 2,2023,478 9,469

County Towns.

WashingtonBlakely . .
Centreville .
BlountsvilleGreensville .
Clarkesville Sparta . .
Montezuma .
Dale, C. H. .
CahawbaFayette, C. H
Russellville .
Erie . . .
Columbia ( Bellefonte
( Woodville
Elyton . .
Florence . .
Moulton . .
Athens . .
Lowndes.
HuntsvilleLinden

C. H.

Pikeville ....
I Mobile . . .
Claiborne . . .
Montgomery . .
Somerville . . .
Perry, C. H. . .
Pickens ....
Pike, C. H. . . .
Ashville ....
Shelbyville . . .
Tuscaloosa ... .
Walker, C. H. . .
Washington, C. H.
Canton . . . .

308,997, of whom 117,294 are slaves.

Distance.

T.* |

W.t

129

869

228

1020

39

837

110

748

143

903

146

969

205

971

187

947

242

1002

96

886

50

874

127

804

47

896

260

872

172

686

185

708

59

799

146

796

102

779

130

751

138

882

155

726

78

914

118

850

226

1033

157

949

119

859

135

751

61

865

48

906

179

909

129

747

73

803

858

47

834

146

982

113
i

912

* From Tuscaloosa.

t From Washington.

468

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.
POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

Population.
In 1810, less than 10,000
1816, 29,683
1818, 70,542
1820, 127,901
1827, 244,041
1830, 308,997

Increase.

From 1820 to 1830, 181,096

Slaves.

In 1820, 41,879
1827, 93,008
1830, 117,294

Mobile is on the western channel of the Mobile
River, near its entrance into- Mobile Bay. It is built
on a high bank, in a dry and commanding situation ;
but the approach to the town for vessels drawing
more than eight feet of water is difficult and circui
tous. The country in the rear is unsettled pine
woods. While this town was under the dominion
of the French and Spaniards, it was a mere military
post. When it came into possession of the United
States, in 1813, it contained only 100 houses; but
since the rapid progress of the settlements on the
Tombigbee and the Alabama, an attempt has been
made to make it the depot for the produce of the
country on those rivers. There is, however, a
vigorous rivalry between this place and Blakely.
Blakely is on the Tensaw, or eastern outlet of the
Mobile, ten miles east-north-east of Mobile. It is a
new town, laid out in 1813, and has considerable
advantages as an emporium for commerce. The
same wind that enables a vessel to enter Mobile Bay
will carry her to the wharves of Blakely. Another
advantage is an open road to the rapidly improving
country on the Alabama. Vessels drawing twelve
feet of water can enter the port at full tide. The
tov/n is abundantly supplied with excellent water. —
Huntsville is a flourishing town in Madison county,
on Indian Creek, ten miles north of the Tennessee.
The surrounding country is fertile, and rapidly in
creasing in population. MISSISSIPPI.
This state has for its northern boundary the state
of Tennessee ; for its eastern that of Alabama ; its
southern is formed partly by the Gulf of Mexico, and
partly by Louisiana; and its western by Louisiana
and the Arkansas territory ; from which it is divided
by the Mississippi. The state extends from longi
tude 88° 30' to 91° 50', and from latitude 30° 08' to
35°. Length from north to south, 338 miles. Mr.
Darby states that the area of this state has never
been very accurately determined ; but estimates it at
above 51,000 square miles, with a mean width of
150 miles.
The state of Mississippi is washed on its western
border by the Mississippi ; the Tennessee touches
the northeast angle, and the sources of the Tombig

bee, Pascagoula, Pearl, Amite, Homochitto, and
Yazoo, drain the interior. Apart from the islands
of the Gulf of Mexico, the soil of Mississippi is divisi
ble into three portions. First, the alluvial borders
of the rivers ; second, the bluffs adjacent to the Mis
sissippi overflow ; and third, pine forest land. The
flat margin of the Mississippi on the left or east bank,
is less valuable than similar soil on the opposite side.
This difference is produced by the bluffs, confining
the water, and subjecting the river border to more
frequent and more durable inundation than takes
place on the west side, where the waters are freely
drained into remote swamps and outlets. Rising
from the Mississippi alluvium, the bluffs are followed
by a waving, productive country. This commences
in Louisiana, as low down as Iberville, and with the
mere interruptions of the streams, stretches into Ten
nessee, with a width of from ten to thirty or forty
miles. It may be doubted whether, every thing con
sidered, the bluff zone of Mississippi is exceeded in
value by any tract in the United States. In its natu
ral state, and so in great part it still continues, it was
covered with a heavy forest, with a great variety of
vines and underwood. In the primitive settlements
near Natchez, tobacco, indigo, and cotton, have been
successfully staples, and all have been produced luxu
riantly. The latter has prevailed within the last
thirty years. Much excellent land exists along the
streams over the whole state, and when brought under
cultivation, produces similar vegetables with the bluff
lands. The pine forest, with other interval land of
various but inferior quality, constitutes the greater
part of the surface of the state, and will preclude a
dense population, except in detached places, unless
objects of culture can be introduced suitable to the
now useless soils.
What has been stated respecting the climate of
Alabama, may be repeated with regard to that of Mis
sissippi, except that, being more exposed to the winds
of the northwest, the temperature of the latter is
lower than that of the former in winter. Neither
sugar cane nor the orange can be cultivated above
latitude 31°, nor even below that line, to any advan
tage, in the state of Mississippi. The winters are
very unequal in point of temperature, and often se
vere in the vicinity of Natchez. Snow, mpre or less,

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

469

occurs annually, and the thermometer has shown a
depression of the mercury to 12° above zero.
About one half of the territory of this state, em
bracing the northern and northeastern parts, is in
the" possession, of the Chickasaw and Chocktaw In
dians. In 1820, the Chocktaws ceded to the United
States a large tract, including all their lands on the
Mississippi below the mouth of the Arkansas. .
In the act of congress admitting this state into the
union, the government agreed, that, after paying a
debt of 1,250,000 dollars to Georgia, and indemnify
ing certain claimants, five per cent of the net pro
ceeds of the, public lands lying within the stated shall
be applied to roads and canals. As the condition of
this grant, the state has provided, that the public
lands shall be exempted from all taxes while belong
ing to the' United States, and for five years from the
day of sale ; that lands belonging to citizens of the
United States residing without the state, shall never
be taxed higher than lands belonging to persons
residing therein ; and that the river Mississippi, and
the navigable rivers or waters leading into the same
or into the Gulf of Mexico, shall be common high
ways, and for ever free of toll or duty to all citizens
of the United States. In 1829, a Board of Internal

Improvement was organized by the legislature, con
sisting of the governor and three commissioners.
The Board was authorized to employ a civil engineer,
and to negotiate a loan of 200,000 dollars upon the
credit of the state, to be appropriated to the improve
ment of the navigable streams and public roads.
The state has a Literary Fund, derived from
"escheats, confiscations, forfeitures, and all personal
property accruing to the state as derelict ; fines, and
pecuniary penalties, and forfeitures, recovered of per
sons for the visitation of any penal statute, or for
crimes and misdemeanors." No portion of this fund
can be distributed till it shall amount to 50,000 dol
lars, except as much as shall be necessary for the
education of the children of the poor. Increasing
attention has of late been paid to the subject of edu
cation, and there are now several flourishing semina
ries in this state.
The Methodists in this state have 23 preachers,
and 5,918 members ; the Baptists, 3 associations, 58
churches, 12 ministers, and 1,714 communicants ;
the Presbyterians, 25 churches, 21 ministers, 3 licen
tiates, and about 950 communicants ; the Episco
palians, 4 ministers ; and there are some Roman
Catholics.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.
Adams, s. w 
Natchez, city 
Amite, s. w 
Claiborne, w. ...... .
Copiah, s. w. m. 
Covington, s. m 
Franklin, s. w 
Greene, s. e 
Hancock, s  .
Hinds, m 
Jackson, s. e 
Jefferson, s. w. 
Jones, s. m 
Lawrence, s. M 
Lowndes 
Madison, E  .
Marion, s. . 
Monroe, e 
Perry, s. e. ....... .
Pike, s 
Rankin, w 
Simpson, s. m. . 
Warren, w  , .
Washington 
Wayne, e 
Wilkinson, s. w. 
Yazoo, w 

Population.

12,129 >
2,790 S
7,9439,8187,024
2,549
4,622 1,8491,961
8,619 1
1,789
9,755 1,471
5,321 3,342
4,9733,701 3,8552,2855,4022,0842,6667,861 1,976
2,778
11,693 6,550

County Towns.
Natchez . . . . . . . . .
Liberty 
Port Gibson 
Gallatin 
Williamsburgh 
Meadville 
Leaksville 
Pearlington 
Jackson  .
Raymond 
Jackson, C. H. 
Fayette 
Ellisville 
Monticello 
Columbus 
Livingston  .
Columbia 
Hamilton 
Augusta 
Holmesville .......
Brandon 
Westville 
Vicksburgh 
Princeton 
Winchester 
Woodville 
Benton 

Distance.

J.*|

W.t

112

1146

122

1156

67

1101

53

1087

83

1087

105

1139

171

1046

200

1135

1035

19

1053

213

1073

93

1127

134

1054

88

1120

134

900

31

1066

120

1097

150

916

137

1063

151

1128

16

1051

56

1090

54

1089

119

1154

165

1008

148

1182

64

1075

* From Jackson.
Vol. IL— Nos.,75 & 76 3 0

t From Washington.

470

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
The country now forming the states of Mississippi
and Alabama, was erected into a territorial govern
ment by the name of the Mississippi territory, in 1798,
and so continued till 1817. Population in 1800,
8,850; in 1810,40,352 :— of Mississippi alone, in 1816,
45 929. Increase. Slaves. Increase.
In 1820, 75,448 32,814
1830,136,806 From 1820 to 1830, 61,358 65,659 32,845
Natchez, the largest town, contained 2,184 inhabi
tants in 1820 ; in 1830, 2,790. Some of the other
most considerable towns are Port Gibson, Vicksburgh,
Woodville, and Monticello.
Mr. Schoolcraft has recently published a work on
the sources ofthe Mississippi, of great research and
value. It deserves a close reading with his former
work on the Missouri and Arkansas territory.
LOUISIANA
Is bounded on the north by the Arkansas territory,
on the east by the state of Mississippi, on the south
by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west by the Sa
lina River, which separates it from Texas, a pro
vince of Mexico. It extends from longitude 89° to
94° 5' ; its extreme southern point is in latitude 28° 56',
and its northern latitude, 33°. The longest line that
can be drawn 'in Louisiana is from the mouth of the
Mississippi to the northwest angle on Sabine, 380
miles ; the irregular form renders a correct estimate
of its mean width difficult, but 120 miles is not far
from accurate ; area, 48,220 square miles.
There is not, perhaps, on earth, a continuous tract
of equal extent, presenting a greater diversity than
Louisiana. Within its limits are included all the va
rieties; from the most recent, and still periodically
inundated alluvium, to hills approaching the magni
tude of mountains ; every quality of soil, from the
most productive to the most steril, and from unwooded
iplains to dense forests. All the southern part of this
state is an alluvial tract of low champaign country,
extending from Lake Borgne to Sabine river, and
from the Gulf of Mexico to Baton Rouge and Red
River, — about 250 miles long, and from seventy to
140 wide. This extensive tract is intersected by
numerous rivers, bays, creeks, and lakes, dividing the
country into a great number of islands. The coun
try about the Balize is one continued swamp, destitute
of trees, and covered with a species of coarse reeds,
from four to five feet high ; and nothing can be more
dreary than the prospect from a ship's mast, while
passing this immense waste. A large extent of coun

try in this state is annually overflowed by the Mis
sissippi. According to Mr. Darby, the average width
of overflowed lands above Red River, from latitude
31° to 33° north, may be assumed at twenty miles ;
equal to 2,770 square miles. Below latitude 31° to
the efflux of the Lafourche, about eighty miles in ex
tent, the inundation is about forty miles in width ;
equal to 3,200 square miles. All the country below
the efflux of the Lafourche is liable to be inundated,
equal to 2,370 square miles more. From this calcu
lation it appears that 8,340 square miles are liable to
be inundated by the overflowing of the Mississippi ;
and if to this be added 2,550 square miles for the
inundated lands on Red River, the whole surface
of the state liable to inundation will amount to 10,890
square miles. Of this extent, however, not one half is
actually covered annually with water. Tbe imme
diate banks of the streams are seldom, and many of
them never inundated, and they afford strips of rich
arable land, from a mile to a mile and a half wide.
Embankments are erected on the margin of the
Mississippi, called levees, to prevent the water from
overflowing the plantations during the periodical
floods. On the east side of the Mississippi, the em
bankment commences above 125 miles above New Or
leans, and extends down the river to Fort St. Philip.
On the west shore, it commences at the Atchafalaya,
239 miles above New Orleans. The levee is com
monly about five feet high, and twelve feet in diame
ter at the base, with sufficient width at the top for a
foot path ; but at points where the current acts with
greater force, it is sometimes fifteen feet high, and
thirty feet at the base. As there is no stone to be had,
the only material used is a soft clay. A crevasse,
is a breach formed in the levee by the waters of the
river in time of inundation. " A crevasse," says Mr.
Brackenridge, " rushes from the river with indescriba
ble impetuosity, and a noise like the roaring of a ca
taract, boiling and foaming, and tearing every thing
before it." When a crevasse occurs, the inhabitants
for miles above and below instantly abandon every
employment, and hasten to the spot, when every exer
tion is made by day and night to stop the breach ;
their efforts are sometimes successful, but more fre
quently the hostile element is suffered to take its
course, and the consequences are the destruction of
the crop and the buildings ; sometimes the land itself
is much injured, the current carrying away the soil,
or leaving numerous logs and trees which must be
destroyed before it can again be cultivated.
From its~ southern latitude, it might seem reason
able to expect in Louisiana a very warm climate ;
and this has been reckoned upon to a greater extent

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

471

than experience justifies. The winters are in fact
more severe, and the mean temperature lower than in
higher latitudes by 2° on the Atlantic. In reality, as
far as vegetation can decide the question, the seasons
may be considered milder at Charleston, South Caro
lina, latitude 32° 42', than at New Orleans in lati
tude 30°."-
Sugar and rice are the staples of the state gene
rally, below latitude 30°, and cotton above that line.
The latter is cultivated in every section of the coun
try, and sugar, partially, to near the northern bound
ary ; but avidity of gain, in some instances, has insti
gated to an unprofitable struggle with the laws of na
ture. The whole produce of sugar in Louisiana, in
the year 1828, was stated at 88,878 hogsheads of
] ,000 pounds each ; and the capital invested in sugar
estates was estimated at 45,000,000 dollars; the
number of sugar plantations, in 1827, being about
700. In fruits Louisiana is abundant ; amongst
those successfully cultivated may be mentioned, the
apple in the northern parts ; the peach, and the fig,
of several species, over the whole state ; the orange
nearly commensurate with sugar cane ; the pome

granate over the state, wherever attempted. Garden
vegetables generally seem to have no assignable limit
on a soil so varied, and in a climate so near the tro
pics. It may seem incredible that horticulture should
be neglected in Louisiana, but such is the fact ; and
a fact the more unaccountable, as some individual gar
dens would seem irresistibly alluring to imitation.
In April, 1831, the rail-road from New Orleans to
Lake Ponchartrain was opened. It is four miles and
a half long, perfectly straight, and its ascent and de^
scent only sixteen inches. The company are construct
ing an artificial harbour and breakwater in the lake,
at the end of the rail-road. These works have caused
a great rise in the value of property in the vicinity.
The Roman Catholics are the most numerous reli
gious denomination in this state, which is divided
into upwards of 20 ecclesiastical parishes, most of
which are provided with priests. The Baptists have
1 association, 28 churches, 14 ministers, and 1,021
communicants ; the Methodists, 6 preachers, and 1,573
members ; the Presbyterians, 3 churches, 4 ministers,
1 licentiate, and 200 communicants ; the Episcopa
lians, 3 ministers.

TABLE OF THE PARISHES AND SEATS OF JUSTICE.

EASTERN DISTRICT.

Parishes.

Ascension, s. e. m 
Assumption, s. e. m 
Baton Rouge, East, M. . . .
Baton Rouge, West, m. . .
Concordia, n. e 
Feliciana, East, e. m. ...
Feliciana, West, e. m. . . .
Iberville, s. e. m 
Jefferson, s. e 
Lafourche Interior, s. . . .
Orleans, s. e 
New Orleans, city and suburbs
Plaquemines, s. e 
Point Coupee, m 
St. Bernard, s. e. m 
St. Charles, s. e. m 
St. Helena, e. m 
St. James, s. e. m 
St. John Baptist, s. e. m. . .
St. Tammany, e 
Terre Bonne, s 
Washington, e 

Total

Population,

5,4005,6706,7173,0924,6628,2478,6297,0506,8465,5003,793
46,310 4,489 5,9363,3565,1074,0277,672 5,700
2,864 2,121
2,286

Seats of Justice.

Donaldson . . .
Assumption, C. H.
Concordia . . .
Baton Rouge . .

Jackson . . .
St. Francisville
Iberville . . .
Coquille . . .
Thibadeauxville > New Orleans
Fort Jackson
Point Couoee .

St. Helena . .
Bringier's . .
Bonnet Carre .
Covington , . .
Williamsburgh Franklinton

155,318, of whom 80,421 are slaves.

Distance
N. 0.* | W.t

7590

1278
1293

117

1237

158149 98
202 108

11931205
12561149
1311

1203

75
154

1278 1210

9860 3644

1212 12621241 1159

1162

WESTERN DISTRICT.

Avoyelles, M. . .
Catahoula, N. M. .
Claiborne . . .
Lafayette, s. . .
Natchitoches, N. w.
Rapides, M. . . .
St. Landry, s. w. .
St. Martin's, s. . .
St. Mary's, s. . .
Washita, n. . . .
Total

3,4882,576 1,764
5,606 7,926
7,559
12,552 7,2046,4425,140

Marksville . .
Harrisonburgh
Russellville . .
VermillionvilleNatchitoches .
Alexandria . .
Opelousas . .
St. Martinsvi'Je
Franklin . . .
Monroe , . .

60,257, ol whom 29,210 are slaves.

240
251441 192
354
272 192176
141
323

12471186
1274135113281246 1S261366 13441258

* From New Orleans.

t From Washington.

472

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Population.
Eastern District  155,318
Western District . . . • . . 60,257

Total of Louisiana

215,575

Slaves. 80,421
29,210
109,631

New Orleans, the capital, is regularly laid out on
the left bank of the Mississippi, 104 miles from its
mouth by the course of the river, and about ninety
in a direct line. The streets are generally forty feet
wide, and cross each other at right angles. On the
streets near the river the houses are principally of
brick, but in the back part of the town of wood.
New Orleans is admirably situated for trade, being
near the mouth of a river whose branches extend for
thousands of miles in opposite directions, and open
communications with the whole valley of the Missis
sippi. It is already one of the greatest emporiums
of commerce in America, and the introduction of
steam navigation on the Mississippi daily adds to its
importance. The population has increased rapidly.
In 1802, it was estimated at 10,000 ; in 1810, it was
17,242 ; in 1820, 27,146 ; and in 1830, 46,310.
Besides the navigation of the Mississippi, New Or
leans has a convenient inland communication with
Alabama, (fee, by Lake Pontchartrain, to which there
is a bayou and canal extending from a basin in the
rear of the city, navigable for sloops and schooners.
Baton Rouge is situated on the left bank of the
Mississippi, 138 miles above New Orleans, on the
first considerable natural elevated bank which reaches
that river above its mouth. This town contains
about seventy houses, and 350 inhabitants. St.
Francisville stands on an elevated bank near the
mouth of Bayou Sara, and about one fourth of a mile
from the Mississippi, 170 miles above New Orleans.
It is a thriving little village, and the mart of the ad
jacent country. Natchitoches, the largest town west
of the Mississippi, is on Red River, 200 miles above
its junction with the Mississippi. The French es
tablished it as a military post in 1717, and about
one third of its present inhabitants are of French
origin. The population in 1818 was estimated at
more than 600, exclusive of the garrison. Alexan
dria is a new and flourishing settlement on Red Ri
ver, 120 miles from its mouth, and eighty miles
below Natchitoches. Madisonville is on the north
side of Lake Pontchartrain, twenty-seven mile^s north
of New Orleans.
Of the several publications written of late on
Louisiana, that of Judge Brackenridge is among
the best and most ample. The late Historical Tract
of the Abbe Marbois, on the purchase of Louisiana,
deserves also close perusal. The American transla
tor has added to the value of the original work.

CHAPTER VI,
THE TERRITORIES.— ARKANSAS  FLORIDA — MICHI
GAN — CHIPPEWAYAN DESERT — OREGON.
ARKANSAS.
This extensive territory is bounded by the state of
Missouri on the north ; the Mississippi River on the
east ; Louisiana on the south ; and Texas and the
western territories of the United States on the west.
It lies between longitude 90° and 100°, and latitude
32° 40| and 36° 30'. Greatest length from the Mis
sissippi, 550 miles ; mean breadth, 220 ; area, 121,340
square miles. It was erected into a territory in the
year 1819.
Arkansas is naturally divided into three sections ;
the eastern or alluvial, towards the Mississippi ; the
central or mountainous, broken by the Ozark system ;
and the western or prairie. Proceeding westward
from the Mississippi, an unbroken plain, covered
with a dense forest, is succeeded by a very gradual
ascent, partially forest and partially prairie, rising
into hills of increasing elevation towards the west.
A distinct chain of mountains rises in Missouri, and
stretching south west over Arkansas, terminates in
Texas, towards the Rio del Norte. The western,
interior, and prairie section of Arkansas, as extensive
as both the preceding, if not more so, is properly the
commencement of that ocean of grass which spreads
from the forests of the Mississippi to the summits of
the Chippewayan mountains. From these grassy
plains issue those numerous confluents which form
the great volume of the Arkansas River. The Ca
nadian, a considerable, stream formed by three
branches, unites with the Arkansas proper at the
western foot of the Ozark mountains, and these to
gether form the second largest constituent branch of
the Mississippi. Breaking through the mountains,
the Arkansas rolls towards the Mississippi, but in a
course of 300 miles receives no farther accession be
yond the size of a large creek. The general features
of this extensive region are defectively explored.
The Ozark tract is supposed to be prolific in mineral
treasures ; in fact the lower lead mines of Missouri,
at and around Potosi, belong to this region. Muri
ate of soda (common salt) so much abounds in the
western plains, as to render unfit for use the waters
of Arkansas. The Methodists in this territory have 7 preachers
and 983 members ; the Baptists, 1 association, 8
churches, 2 ministers, and 88 communicants ; the
Roman Catholics, several priests ; the Presbyterians,
3 or 4 ministers ; and the Episcopalians, 1 minister.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.
POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

473

• Counties.
Arkansas, e. ......
Chicot, 8, e 
Clark, e. m. ...... .
Conway, e. m 
Crawford, m. ......
Crittenden, n. e 
Hempstead, s 
Hot or Warm Spring, m. . .
Independence, n. . . . . .
tzard, N. . . . 
Jackson 
Jefferson 
Lafayette, s 
Lawrence, n. e 
Miller, s. w, ......
Monroe 
Phillips, e. .......
Pope ... 
Pulaski,, m. 
St. Francis . 
Sevier 
Union 
Washington 
Total ....

Population.

1,4231,165
1,369 982
2,440 1,272.
2,507 458
2,032 1,266 333 772748
2,806 358
461
1,152 1,483
2,395 1,505 636640
2,181

30,383,

County Towns.

Arkansas . .
Villemont . .
Clark, C. H. .
Harrisburgh .
Crawford, C. H.
Greenock . . .
Hempstead, C. H.
Warm Spring . ,
Batesville . . ,
Izard, C. H. . .
Litchfield . . .

Lafayette, C. H. . .
Jackson . . . . .
Miller, C. H, . . .
Jacob's Staff . . .
Helena 
Scotia 
Little Rock . . .
Franklin 
Paraclifta ....
Corea Fabre . . .
Fayetteville ....
Of whom 4,578 are slaves.

Distance.
L. R.* | W.t

114

1064

184

1134

87

1155

40

1108

136

1204

168

936

130

1198

60

1128

102

1044

172

1114

182

1250

152

994

228

1296

84

1034

124

1074

81

1149

1068

168

1236

217

1285

Little Rock, the seat of government of the territory,
is situated on the south side of the Arkansas, in lati
tude 34° 44' north, and longitude 15° west of Wash
ington. Cadron is situated on the north bank of the
Arkansas, thirty-five miles above Little Rock. The
post or town of Arkansas, is on Arkansas River, about
thirty-five miles from its mouth in a straight line, but
about sixty-five miles by the course of the river, which
is remarkable for its numerous windings ; in conse
quence of which, boats generally proceed to the Mis
sissippi by the White River, which communicates
with the Arkansas by what is denominated the Cut
off, a deep though winding bayou. It is one of the
most ancient settlements west of the Mississippi, having
been established by the French before the beginning
of the last century. Hopefield is a settlement on the
Mississippi, nearly opposite Memphis in the state of
Tennessee. Helena, the county town of Phillips, is
a thriving village, also on the Mississippi. Batesville,
the seat of justice of Independence County, is on
White River, and carries on a considerable trade in
cotton and furs. Here is situated the land office for
the northern district of the territory.
FLORIDA.
This territory is peninsular, having the Atlantic
on the east, the Gulf of Florida on the south, and
the Gulf of Mexico on the west ; the states of Ala
bama and Georgia- form the northern boundary.
This is the most southern section of the union, ex-

* From Little Rock.

tending from latitude 24° 40' to 31° ; its extremes of
longitude are 80° 25' and 87° 20'. Following a cur
ved line along the peninsula, from Florida Point,
and continuing to Perdido River, at north latitude
31°, the length of Florida is about 600 miles ; mean
breadth, 90 ; and area, 54,000 square miles.
Embracing six degrees of latitude, a considerable
difference of seasons must be experienced in Florida ;
but from the general uniformity of surface, and from
being enclosed on three sides by the sea, the transi
tions of temperature are seldom very rapid or violent.
Florida is naturally divided into two very different
zones by the twenty -eighth degree of latitude : above
it, the surface of the country is more broken, better
timbered, and the soil of a superior quality ; below
it, the land is in great part marshy, flat, and devoid
of timber, the true palm-tree section of the United
States. The thermometer in summer usually stands
between eighty-four and eighty -eight degrees of Fah
renheit in the shade ; and in July and August fre
quently rises to ninety-four degrees. The sun is
scorching hot at noon. In winter it very rarely
freezes, nor is the cold ever so severe as to injure
the China orange. From the end of September to
the end of June, " there is not," says Volney, " per
haps, a finer climate in the world."
Florida abounds in vegetable productions of great
variety, and of luxuriant growth. It is remarkable for
the majestic appearance of its towering forest trees,
and the brilliant colours of its flowering shrubs.
Many rich fruits, particularly limes, prunes, peaches,

t From Washington.

474

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

grapes, and figs, grow wild in the forests. St. John's
River, and some of the lakes, are bordered with
orange groves ; and olives are cultivated with success.
Some ofthe most important productions to which the

country is well adapted, are sugar, coffee, cotton, rice,
indigo, tobacco, vines, olives, oranges, and various
other tropical fruits. Cultivation has been extended
only to some very small tracts.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties.

i Escambia, n. w.
Jackson . .
Walton, w. .
Washington, m.
{Gadsden, n. m.
Hamilton, n. m.
Jefferson, W
Leon, n. m. .
Madison . .
Alachua, M. .
Duvall, n. e. .
Mosquito . .
Nassau, n. e. .
_St. John's, e. .
S. Florida. Monroe, s. .
Total . .

East
Florida."

Population.

3,3866,092
4,894 553
3,3126,493 525
2,204 1,970 733
1,511
2,535 517

County Towns.

34,723.

Pensacola 
Marianna 
Alaqua . . . . . .
Holmes' Valley . . .
duincy 
Miccotown 
Monticello 
Tallahassee ....
Hickstown 
Dell's . 
Jacksonville ....
Timoka 
Fernandina 
St. Augustine ....
Key West 
of whom 15,510 are slaves.

Distance.
T.» | W.t

242 77
161121 23

178
252
313
292

1050 927
1011 971 873925
896 875
801776
841

Tallahassee, the capital, was founded in 1824, be
tween the rivers Oeklockonnee and St. Mark's, and
twenty-three miles north of the Gulf of Mexico, in
latitude 30° 20', longitude 84° 8'. It was endowed
with the proceeds of the lots of which the town is
composed, to be invested in public buildings, and it
is rising into importance with the settlement of the
country. St. Augustine is a sea-port on the eastern
coast, in latitude 29° 51'. It is regularly laid out,
the streets intersecting each other at right angles.
The houses are generally two stories high, and built
of a peculiar kind of stone, a concretion of shells found
near the sea shore. The situation is pleasant, fresh
water abundant, the atmosphere dry and healthful. In
valids frequently resort thither for benefit. The soil
in the vicinity is generally sandy, yet it produces
oranges, corn, and esculent plants, in great perfection.
The harbour is good, but the bar at its mouth has only
ten feet water ; the anchorage outside the bar is also
good. At St. Augustine is a strong fort, built by the
Spaniards, capable of carrying sixty cannon, and
extensive barracks, a court-house, and two stone
churches, catholic and presbyterian. St. Augustine
is estimated to contain a population of 1,400 souls.
Pensacola is a sea port of the Gulf of Mexico, on the
bay of the same name, nine miles from the sea. It
stands on a dry sandy plain, elevated eighteen or

* From Tallahassee.
t From Washington.
t The preceding is that tongue of -land which stretches north
ward from Indiana and Ohio, and is particularly designated the
Territory of Michigan ; but for temporary purposes, the United
States government has connected with the peninsula an immense
region, improperly called the Northwest Territory, towards the

twenty feet above the level of the water. The po
pulation amounts to about 2,000. It has a catholic
church, and a navy-yard is about to be established
by the United States in the vicinity.
MICHIGAN.
At the opposite extremity of the republic is another
peninsular territory, — Michigan ; not indeed render
ed peninsular by the ocean, but by the fresh-water
seas which divide the United States from the British
provinces. This territory is bounded on the north
by the Straits of Michilimackinac, on the northeast
by Lake Huron, on the east by the St. Clair River,
Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, and Lake Erie, on the
south by the states of Ohio and Indiana, and on the
west by Lake Michigan. It extends from longitude
82° to 86°, and latitude 35° to 45° 20', having an area
of 34,000 square miles. t
The peninsula erf Michigan is composed chiefly of
tableland, resting upon a bed of limestone and ar
gillaceous sandstone. The interior, towards the
sources of the rivers, is generally , level and inter
spersed with lakes and morasses. An inclined plain,
about twenty miles in width, skirts the peninsula on
the east, north, and west sides. The rivers towards
their sources have a sluggish current ; when they

sources of the Mississippi, and embraced within the following
boundaries: — area, 140,000 square miles, equal to 89,600,000
acres, to which if we add the peninsular part, we have 174,000
square miles, or 111,360,000 acres. From the northeast angle of
the state of Illinois to the northwest angle of Trans-Michigan, the
territory is 650 miles long. The breadth is very irregular, but
averages about 200 miles.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

475

approach the declivity they become more rapid, but
generally become sluggish again a few miles above
their mouths. In the interior, particularly towards
the northwest, there are extensive prairies ; and
marshes in many places border the mouths of the
rivers ; but more than seven-eighths of the whole pe
ninsula is covered with a dense forest. The surface
ofthe country along the eastern shore of Lake Michi
gan consists of sand-hills, sometimes covered with
stinted trees and a scanty vegetation, but generally
bare, and thrown by the wind into innumerable fan
tastic forms. This tract has been gained from the
lake ; and the -land is still encroaching upon the
water, every storm throwing up new quantities of
sand. A large part of the soil is fertile and well
adapted to the purposes of agriculture. The princi
pal settlements are in the southeast ; smaller settle
ments are at Michilimackinac in the north, and at
Green Bay, west ofthe lake. But a small portion of
the land has yet been purchased.

The climate is healthy, and usually, though proba
bly fallaciously, accounted more mild than in similar
parallels on the Atlantic.
The forest trees are of great variety. The wild
rice, or wild oats, is a valuable natural production,
covering the marshes near the margins of the lakes
and rivers. The soil is well adapted to wheat, rye,
oats, barley, flax, hemp, garden vegetables, and
grasses. No part of the United States is more abun
dantly supplied with fish, aquatic fowls, and wild
game. The fish are of various kinds, but chiefly white
fish and salmon-trout, both of exquisite flavour.
The trout weigh from ten to seventy pounds.
This territory is favourably situated for commerce,
being almost surrounded by navigable waters, which
are expected before long to be connected with the
Mississippi on one hand, and the Hudson on the other.
The vessels that navigate the lake usually carry
from ten to sixty tons. Detroit and Michilimackinac
are ports of entry.

POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES AND COUNTY TOWNS.

Counties,

Berrien . . . . .
Cass 
Jackson . . . .
Lenawee, s. . . .
Macomb, s. e. . .
Michilimackinac, N.
Monroe, s. e. . .
Oakland, s. e. m. .
St. Clair, e. . . .
St. Joseph . . .
Van Buren . . .
Washtenaw, s. m.
Wayne, s. e. . .
Detroit, city . .

Population.

323928
1,491
2,414 877
3,1874,910 1,115 1,313 5
4,0424,565 )
2,222 J

County Towns.

Niles 
Edwardsburgh . . .
Jacksonopolis . . .
Tecumseh ....
Mount Clemens . .
Mackinac ....
Monroe 
Pontiac 
St. Clair 
White Pigeon Prairie

Ann Arbor
Detroit .

Distance.
D.* | W.t

179169 88 6326
321 3626
59

42

651 643563 512 552
847
490552585

535526

COUNTIES WEST OF LAKE MICHIGAN.

Brown
ChippewaCrawford Iowa . .

Total

964 625692

Menomonie . . .
Sault de St. Marie
Prairie du Chien .
Helena ....

31,260, of whom 27 are slaves.

356598

1060

Detroit, the capital of the territory, is on Detroit
river, nine miles from lake St. Clair. It was settled
as early as 1683, by the French from Canada, for
the purposes of the fur trade. At present its trade
is chiefly with Ohio and New York, and with the
military posts on the upper lakes. In 1818, the
amount of shipping was 849 tons. The fort is a
regular work, with parapets and bastions, and sur
rounded by palisadoes, a deep ditch, and a glacis.
In 1820, the population was 1422. Michilimackinac,
commonly called Mackinaw, is on an island of the
same name, in the straits of Michilimackinac. The
*  :  '  .  .  '  ¦ 
* From Detroit.

island is about nine miles in circumference, and the
village is on the southeast side of it, on a small cove,
which is surrounded with a steep cliff 150 feet high :
on the top of the cliff stands the fort. Behind the
fort, at the distance of half a mile, is another summit,
150 feet higher, and 300 feet above the level of the
lake, on which Fort Holmes is erected ; from this spot
there is an extensive prospect over Lakes Huron and
Michigan. During the summer, Mackinaw is the
resort" of many Indians and fur traders. Fort Gratiot
is a military post on St. Clair River, and defends the
entrance into Lake Huron. The Sault de St. Marie
t From Washington,

476

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

is of importance as a military and trading pbst, being
at the head of ship navigation on the great lakes, and
the grand thoroughfare of Indian communication for
the upper countries, as far as the arctic circle, all the
fur trade of the northwest being compelled to pass
through it. The government of the United States
resolved. to occupy this post, and in June, 1820, ob
tained from the Chippewayan Indians the cession of
a tract of land four miles square, commencing at the
Sault, and extending two miles up, and the same dis
tance down, with a depth of four miles.
CHIPPEWAYAN DESERT  OREGON.
The entire extent of the North American republic
is far from being comprehended in the states and ter
ritories which have, now been described. In addition
to these is the wide expanse of the Chippewayan
Desert, to the westward of Missouri, Illinois, and
Michigan ; and the district of Oregon, lying between
the Chippewayan Mountains and the Pacific Ocean.
Although subject to the dominion of the United States,
and constituting a portion of its territory, its govern
ment in these regions has rather a nominal than a
real existence. It does not appear to have any ma
gisterial representation, or any judicial officer ; nor
have the scattered inhabitants of this waste a voice in
national affairs or a civil existence of any degree. In
full possession of personal liberty, they roam or rest in
these almost boundless regions, while here and- there
a military station is the only signal of authority, and
preventive of wrong. As may be supposed, the ten
ants of the wild are comparatively few, and of a da
ring and lawless character; Some are allured by the
profits to be derived from the pursuit of the chase ;
and others by the congeniality of such a life with a
reckless and adventurous spirit.
The whole region possessed by the United States,
westward of the Chippewayan range, is comprehended
under the name of Oregon. The waters that rise on
the western declivities of these mountains, flow into the
Columbia, the Multnomah, and the Lake Bueneventura.
Most ofthe elevated summits ofthe mountains are above
the limits of perpetual congelation. Beyond the moun
tains the country descends by regular belts in the form
of immense terraces, or descending plains, disposed
regularly, the one below the other. Beyond the first
plain, and between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific,
is another extensive and high chain of mountains, in
which are the great falls ofthe Columbia. Still west of
these, and running parallel with the coast, and at the dis
tance of 150 miles, is the third and last chain. The
peaks of all these chains are covered with perpetual
snow. The highest peaks have been named Mount

Baker, Mount Regnier, Mount St. Helens, Mount
Hood, and Mount Jefferson. The only rivers explored
in this region are the Columbia and its branches.
Being sheltered on the north by protecting ridges
of mountains, and the breezes from the west being
softened by coming over an immense extent of sea,
the climate is as mild as it is in the country east of
these mountains, four or five degrees to the southward.
Langsdorf describes the country on the southern limit
as the country of oranges and figs, of verdure, health,
and fertility. We scarcely remember to have seen
more sober pictures of a desirable country than those
drawn by him of that region ; they" correspond with
the accounts of Lewis and Clark, as well as those of
other travellers, who have explored it. When the
intelligent and intrepid adventurers we have just
named left the country, in March, and in the latitude
of Montreal, the prairies were in blossom, and the
forwardness of the season seems to have corresponded
with that of North Carolina at the same time. The
winters are rainy, and some parts of them severe. j
This country was discovered by the Spaniards.
In 1791, Captain Gray, of the ship Columbia, of Bos
ton, entered the river, and from his ship it received
its name. It was occasionally entered by navigators
afterwards. In 1805, Lewis and Clark descended
this river from the mountains to the Pacific, and spent
the winter on its shore.. They returned by the same
river to the mountains ; and most of the exact infor
mation that we have respecting the country, is de
rived from them. For some years a settlement of
fur traders, called Astoria, (after John Jacob Astor, a
merchant of New York,) has existed here ; and the
chief intercourse of this place is with China. In the
neighbourhood of Astoria is a military post, called
Fort Classop, or Fort George. The question of per
manently settling this delightful country has been
more than once debated in congress. Were such
settlements authorized, and rendered secure by the
requisite military establishments, there can be no
doubt but it would receive large accessions of emi
grants. The - number of Indians of the different
tribes is estimated at 140,000.
In the description of the different states, we have,
for the sake of compression, omitted the particulars
of the rivers and lakes, and some other portions of
natural geography, of which a general account has
already appeared in the first part of this volume.
We trust that satisfactory information has been
conveyed, alike interesting to those who delight to
make the field of nature their study, and important
to those who contemplate a removal to this prosperous
republic of the western hemisphere.

BOOK VI.

METEOROLOGY.

[This article was announced in the American Edi
tor's preface to this work, but not being at hand when
the general meterological matter was struck off, it
necessarily comes in towards the close of this volume.]
It may be proper to state, that the leading doctrines
of the following essay were first published in a work
on natural philosophy, entitled, " A New Theory of
Terrestrial Magnetism," in 1833.* In that work, the
author endeavoured to prove that caloric is the most
subtile and refined exhibition of matter with which
we are acquainted, but that its properties and effects
are as open to investigation as those of other matter ;
that it possesses the following properties, — extension,
or the occupation of space ; attraction for ponderable
matter, by which it combines intimately with it, and
becomes latent ; repulsion of its own particles, to
which is owing the power of steam, and the elas
ticity of all other matter ; mobility, and divisibility;
these are the fundamental properties of caloric, which
demonstrate its materiality. He endeavoured to de
monstrate the fundamental identity of caloric with all
the forms of electricity; and that "this universally
pervading element is the cause of all the powers
and attractions of ponderable matter." In his paper
on molecular attractions, he has shown, that the affi
nity of caloric for ponderable matter is so strong and
universal, that they cannot be entirely separated, —
that heat surrounds, and is chemically combined, in
greater or less proportion, with the atoms of all bodies
in a latent state, — that in solids it binds the atoms
together, — and that it draws the atoms of fluids to
gether less strongly, giving to their drops a globular
form; in short, that caloric is the combining force,
by which the atoms of matter are held together. He
has shown that there is " more heat between the
atoms of fluids than of solids, and more between
the atoms of gases than of fluids. He also main
tains, that the small cohesion of fluids and gases, is
owing to the large amount of caloric between their
molecules ; when thus accumulated, its repulsion of
its own particles exceeds its attraction for ponderable
* By Dr. Samuel L. Metcalfe, M. D
Vol. IL— Nos. 77 & 78. 3 P

matter ; but that in solids, its attraction for ponderable
matter exceeds its repulsion of its own particles, —
which explains how it is, that the same agent is the
cause of both attraction and repulsion throughout
nature. The author next proves, that caloric is the
cause of capillary attraction, a phenomenon hitherto
unexplained. He maintains that the caloric of fluids
has an affinity for porous solids and capillary tubes,
because the fluids are plus, and the solids minus, — ¦
and that hot water penetrates porous solids or capil
lary tubes more rapidly than cold water ; which
demonstrates that heat is the moving force in capil
lary attraction. He attributes the greatly increased
circulation of sap in trees and plants, to the power of
heat on the approach of spring. He also explains the.
production of cold on dissolving common salt, snow,
muriate of ammonia, muriate of lime, and many other
salts, from their attraction for caloric, a large quan
tity of which is necessary to convert them into fluids,
when it becomes latent, which causes " the coldness."
Dr. Metcalfe further maintains, that caloric is the
cause of chemical affinities, and that its agency is
discoverable in all the decompositions and recombi
nations which take place throughout nature — that this
position is clearly demonstrated by the greater amount
of chemical action which is constantly going on in
the tropical than in the polar regions, and during
summer than winter ; and by the fact, that in the re
gions of perpetual frost, there is little or no chemical
action : hence, that meat may be preserved for any
length of time fresh, and metallic utensils from rusting.
He considers it a universal law, that every process of
oxidation, or combustion, is promoted by moderate
heat, and arrested by cold — and that without heat, or
electricity, there would be no combination of oxygen
with other elements. He objects to the general doctrine
of the schools, that cohesive and chemical attractions
are owing to the agency of specifically distinct pdwers,
and adduces the opinion of Sir Isaac Newton, that " the
atoms of all matter are endowed with one and the
same power of attraction and repulsion, varying ac
cording to a certain law of the distances."
Dr. Metcalfe conceives that elective or chemical

478

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

affinity is owing to the stronger attraction of one
element for caloric than another, by which the atoms
of different elements are more powerfully drawn to
gether, than the atoms of the same element — from
which it follows, that cohesive and chemical at
tractions are owing merely to different degrees of
the same power. He repudiates the idea of innate
powers of attraction in the atoms of ponderable mat
ter, maintaining, that there must be some imponder
able intermedium, by which they attract and repel
each other — and as caloric is known to surround the
atoms of all matter, and to have an attraction for
them, it must be the combining force.
Embracing the. doctrine of Sir Isaac Newton, that
the action of large masses of matter is resolvable
into the action of their minutest particles or atoms,
and that the atoms of all matter are endowed with
one and the same power of motion, the author main
tains that caloric is the bond of union among the
heavenly bodies ; that the sum of all the atomic at
tractions of matter constitutes the attraction of gravi
tation ; that the attraction between atoms is in pro
portion to their size, and inversely as the distance;
and that the same law is predicable of the largest
bodies ; that the force of cohesive attraction exceeds,
many millions of times, that of gravitation, because
the atoms of matter are many million times nearer
together. He maintains that those bodies have the
strongest attraction for caloric, which contain the
least of it, such as gold, mercury, and other dense
metals ; that mountains contain less caloric than
aqueous vapour, in proportion to their amount of mat
ter, therefore attract its caloric, by which means the
vapour is collected around them, and condensed into
clouds, rain, &c. ; that all matter is collected together
by the attraction of caloric for ponderable matter. He
quotes the opinion of Newton, " that there must be
some connecting medium between the heavenly bodies,
by which they are retained in their orbits, which he
termed ether ;" and he adduces the astronomical com
putation, that the sun is more than 500 times larger
than all the planets and comets that revolve around
him ; that this immense body is continually emitting
streams of light and heat, which vivify the whole
planetary system with an ever active flame ; in fine,
that all the discoveries of science lead to the conclu
sion, that every part of the universe is governed by the
same laws, from the minutest atoms to the largest bodies.
The second part of Dr. Metcalfe's work is devoted
to the theory of Terrestrial Magnetism, which he has
connected with the subject of Climatology. He com
mences by laying down the following positions as the
basis of his theory.

1. That there is an unequal distribution of tempe
rature in the tropical and polar latitudes.
2. That the unequal distribution of land and water
over the globe, causes unequal temperatures in given
latitudes. 3. That a line passing round the globe from east
to west, which divides its temperature into two equal
portions, is the magnetic equator.
4. That the centres of greatest cold are the centres
of magnetic attraction ; and that the force of attrac
tion is proportional to the intensity of cold.
5. That the prevalence of land in the tropical lati
tudes produces a general elevation of temperature ;
while its predominance in the higher latitudes, causes
a corresponding reduction of temperature.
6. That the magnetic needle is apparently opera
ted on by two forces — one vertical, and the other
horizontal ; and that the horizontal is exclusively the
directive force.
7. That the vertical force, which causes the needle
to dip, is probably equal on every part of the globe,
when the horizontal force is quiescent.
8. That at the magnetic equator the dipping needle
is horizontal — and that it dips gradually more and
more, until we approach the magnetic poles, where it
becomes vertical.
9. That the horizontal intensity decreases, as the
dip increases, until we approach the regions of lowest
mean temperature, where it vanishes, and the compass
needle will not traverse, but remains in whatever
position it is placed.
10. That there is more than three times as
much land in Arctic America, as in Arctic Asia
and Europe, attended by a corresponding reduc
tion pf temperature, and increase of magnetic in
tensity. 11. That there are at least two magnetic poles in
each hemisphere, of unequal intensities, and at unequal
distances from the geographical poles.
12. That these poles are not stationary, but shift
from east to west, and from west to east — also, from
north to south, and from south to north.
13. That the unequal distribution of caloric in the
tropical and polar latitudes, is the cause of magnetic
polarity. 14. That the unequal distribution of land and wa
ter causes an unequal distribution of temperature in
given latitudes, is most clearly exemplified in the dif
ferent zones of the American continent. Between
the equator and the fortieth degree of south latitude,
there is more than double the quantity of land that
there is between the equator and the fortieth degree
of north latitude, which causes an increase of tern-

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

479

perature of several degrees in the southern hemisphere.
Besides, there is more than six times as much land
in North America between latitude 4(1° and 80°, as
there is between latitude 40° and the equator, which
is a powerful additional cause of diminished tem
perature in the northern portion of the western con
tinent. From the successive observations of Capt. Scoresby,
Sir Edward Parry, Sir John Franklin, Capt. Ross, and
other navigators, the author has shown, that the coldest
part of the northern hemisphere, is about 70° north lati
tude, and 98° west longitude from Greenwich ; and that
the compass needle is directed to that point over about
240 degrees of longitude ; that there is another cen
tre of magnetic influence in the northern "part of Asia,
in latitude 85° 12' north, and 140° 6' east longitude,
according to the observations of M. Hansteen. There
are likewise different magnetic poles, or centres of cold,
in the southern hemisphere, situated at unequal dis
tances from the geographical pole ; one of them in
S. Lat. 68° 52', and 132° 35' east longitude ; the
other, southwest of Terra del Fuego, in Lat. 78° 16'
and Long. 135° 59' west from the meridian of Green
wich. The influence of these poles produce all the
phenomena of magnetic variation. The author main
tains, that if the whole earth were of uniform surface
and elevation, its temperature would be the same in
given latitudes ; that the poles of the earth's axis
would be the coldest points, and, consequently, that
the needle would always point true north and south,
and that there would be no variation of the compass.
He maintains, that the unequal distribution of land
and water, mountains and plains, produce all the
variations of terrestrial temperature, in the same lati
tudes. He supposes there will be few philosophers
hardy enough to contend, that the compass needle
would traverse north and south, were the tropical and
polar regions of the same temperature. The Doctor
maintains, that whatever the cause of polar attraction
may be, it must be a material agent, every where
present on the globe ; and that if caloric be the cause
of all the other powers and movements of ponderable
matter, it must be also the cause of polarity. But
the facts which demonstrate the agency of caloric in
terrestrial magnetism are, that all the variations of in
tensity, dip, and direction of the needle, obey the an
nual, monthly, and diurnal variations of temperature.
It is impossible to present any thing like a fair view
of the work in a brief summary, as it is greatly con
densed, and cannot be fully understood without fol
lowing the chain of facts and arguments throughout.
The whole theory of magnetism is intimately con
nected with the identity of caloric and electricity.

It will be obvious to the philosophical reader, that
if the author's facts and reasonings are in accordance
with the established laws and phenomena of nature,
the cause of attractions, so long involved in obscurity,
has been discovered, — and the hidden spring of that
indwelling energy, which actuates and animates the
whole system of nature, revealed. He has unfolded
a new principle, which embraces and connects the
whole circle of physics, and which must lead to the
most important results, both in a practical and theo
retical point of view. Disregarding the sneers of
ignorance and prejudice, and deeply imbued with
the love of truth, he has modestly, but freely, can
vassed the opinions of his predecessors — and the
whole of his speculations are remarkable for boldness
and originality.
The object of the following essay, is to point out
the agency of caloric in the phenomena of rain, thun
der and lightning, dew, fog, Indian summer, winds,
hurricanes, tornadoes, and hail-storms, together with
the aurora borealis. The author endeavours, through
out, to prove the identity of caloric and electricity.
On nearly all these branches of science, which have
recently so much occupied the attention of philoso
phers in Europe, he has taken almost entirely new
ground. It remains for future investigations to de
cide how far he has succeeded in his efforts to extend
the boundaries of truth. His theories afford much
to reflection, something to doubt upon, but nothing
to condemn.
After tracing the operations of caloric in causing
attractions generally, the author takes up the subject
of atmospherical phenomena, as follows.
The attraction of caloric for water causes it to
enter into and combine with its particles, by which
it is carried into the atmosphere in the form of in
visible vapour, which is charged plus with caloric,
while the affinity of the same caloric for bodies that
contain less of it draws the vapour towards them.
Thus, mountains which contain a vast quantity of
ponderable matter are minus, and attract neighbour
ing masses of vapour which are plus, abstract their
heat, when they descend in showers of rain, snow, or
hail, according to the temperature of the atmosphere.
It has been proved by a long series of observa
tions, that double the quantity of rain falls on Mount
St. Bernard that falls at Geneva; and double the
quantity falls at Geneva that falls at Paris. We are
also informed by Mr. Jefferson, that it rains five days
in the week on the warm spring mountain in Virgi
nia, which is about 3000 feet above the level of the
ocean. It was observed by Dr. Franklin, that masses of

480

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

vapour in different states of electricity attracted each
other far beyond what he called the striking distance.
When cumuli of clouds are formed in the atmosphere,
by parting with a portion of their heat to colder
bodies, they are minus or negative in relation to all
uncondensed or transparent vapour, which is plus,
so that they become centres of attraction, drawing to
them successive masses of invisible or transparent
vapour, and abstracting their caloric, by which a
perpetual condensation or nimbification is kept up,
until they become aggregated into extensive masses,
which sometimes resemble huge castles or vast rocky
mountains suspended in the air. We witnessed in
New York, on the evening of June 2, 1833, the most
beautiful display of aerial condensation, that we re
member ever to have seen. The wind was brisk
from the- south, and brought from the ocean successive
masses of transparent vapour of a red brassy hue,
which allowed the rays of the setting sun to pass
partially through them, when on meeting with a colder
upper current as they passed over the city, vivid
streaks of lightning darted from them, and they were
suddenly condensed into black clouds, which inter
rupted the solar rays, and were attended by rapid
precipitations of rain. The showers intermitted
and augmented several times, between the succes
sive flashes of lightning ; and during the intermis
sions, the atmospheric vapour assumed the same
brassy colour as at first. It will be proved here
after, that these remarkable condensations resulted
simply from the giving out to a colder body of air
in the form of lightning, that portion of caloric
which is necessary to hold water iii a state of vapour.
So decided is the attraction of caloric for pondera
ble matter, and its repulsion of its own particles,
that it passes with great facility through the densest
bodies, which are therefore called conductors, but
with difficulty through those which are light, such
a sgases, furs, silks, woollens, rezins, &c. whose pores
are filled with caloric.
In tracing the relations of caloric and atmospheric
electricity, it becomes necessary to examine whether
they are both derived from the same source, as well
as the effects which they produce on common matter.
What then is the agent by which water is con
verted into atmospheric vapour? Is it caloric or
electricity? It is time that all philosophers should
agree in the answer to this question.
Dr. Dalton demonstrated by experiment, that caloric
is the only cause of evaporation. He put a little
water in a dry glass flask, with a thermometer in it,
when he found that a small quantity of vapour was
formed at 32° F. At 40°, the quantity of vapour was

increased ; at 50°, it contained still more ; while at
60°, the quantity was still further augmented. He
also found, that when the temperature of the flask
was suddenly reduced from 60 to 40 degrees, a portion
of the vapour was converted into water, and that the
quantity retaining the elastic form was precisely the
same as when the temperature was originally at 40°.
{Meteorological Essays.) Evaporation then goes on
at all temperatures, increasing from 32°, or even from
0, up to 212°. When the flask hecom.es/ull of va
pour, its pressure or elasticity prevents the further
process of evaporation. When the atmosphere is in
this condition, it is said to be saturated with vapour ;
and the smallest reduction of temperature causes pre
cipitation. When the atmosphere is already full of
aqueous vapour, it presents a mechanical impediment to
the passage of more vapour through it, which enables
us to comprehend why it is that a cold wind when dry
promotes evaporation, better than a warm wind which
is already saturated with aqueous vapour. In this last
condition of the atmosphere, the slightest reduction
of temperature causes a condensation of the transpa
rent aqueous vapour into mist, clouds, rain, &C ; but
when the atmosphere contains very little vapour, as
when it comes from an extensive region of dry land,
or during the cold winter months, in the interior of
North America, a much greater reduction of tempera
ture is requisite to produce precipitation, because such
air is not saturated. If two masses of atmospheric
air of equal volumes, one at 60° and the other at 80°,
each saturated with transparent vapour, be mixed,
condensation takes place, causing moisture or precipi
tation ; and the air at 60°, has its temperature
elevated by the evolution of the latent caloric of the
vapour at 80°.
When the wind has prevailed for some time from
the ocean over the land, loaded with transparent
aqueous vapour, the latter is condensed oh meeting
with a colder current from the northern regions ; and
precipitation continues until the, current from the
ocean has deposited its vapour, or until it is driven
back by the predominant force of the northern
wind. According to Dr. Dalton's experiments and calcula
tions, the atmesphere which surrounds the earth is
composed of several distinct aerial fluids or gases,
which vary in density, height, <fcc, and exist in a
state of mechanical mixture. They are oxygen,
which he supposes to extend 38 miles in height ;
nitrogen, 54 miles ; aqueous vapour, 50 miles ; and
carbonic acid gas, 10 miles. {Meteorological Essays.]
The above estimates can be considered only as
approximations to the truth, as we have good reason

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES

481

to believe, that there is very little aqueous vapour in
the atmosphere, above the elevation of ten miles. At
32 degrees of Fahrenheit, the largest amount of aqueous
vapour which can exist in the atmosphere, is about tst
of its volume ; at 60°, it is i^rth, and at 93°, it is Ath.
The transparency of the atmosphere is in proportion
to its temperature. This explains why there are
more clear days in the tropical than in the middle
and higher latitudes : and why the atmosphere is
transparent below the region of the clouds, even
when the sky is overcast. While the average quan
tity of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere decreases from
below upwards, and from the equator to the poles.
It is still the general opinion of philosophers, that
the decrease of temperature as we ascend in the atmo
sphere, amounting to a degree for every 352 feet, is
owing to its increased rarefaction from diminished
pressure, and consequent increase of capacity for heat.
Is it not more probable, that the obstruction and ac
cumulation of the sun's rays by the earth's surface, is
the cause of the warmth of the lower atmosphere ?
The stratum of air in contact with the earth becomes
heated, and rises, when the next stratum becomes
heated and rises ; and so on, until the whole atmo
sphere becomes warmed to a considerable height.
The passage of the solar rays through transparent
media without heating them, has led unreflecting per
sons to doubt whether the sun's rays possessed any
heating power, before combining with other matter.
M. Pouillet concludes from some plausible experi
ments he made, that the solar rays which reach the
surface of the earth in the course of a year, have suf
ficient power to melt a complete stratum of ice, about
46 feet in thickness. {Elemens de Physique, fyc.)
At the depth of from about 50 to 100 feet below
the surface of the earth, the temperature is invaria
ble — therefore, independent of the solar rays, and
due to the constituent caloric of the globe.
It has been estimated by Sir I. Newton and others,
that the pores of water occupy about 40 times the
space of the ultimate atoms ; which space is filled
with caloric ; while the atmosphere is 825 times
lighter than water, which is also owing to the amount
of caloric between its molecules. If a small portion
of atmospheric air be suddenly condensed by means
of a syringe, a sufficient quantity of heat is disen
gaged to set tinder on fire. If two dry sticks be
rubbed together, they take fire. If granite, marble,
or the densest metals, be compressed with' great force,
they become hot. The smith often kindles his fur
nace by hammering a piece of iron, until it is red hot,
and applying it to his coals.
It is susceptible of demonstration, that all bodies

contain caloric in some inverse measure to their spe
cific gravities. The most dense contain it minus,
while the lightest contain it plus. It is in reality
impossible to imagine any other cause of specific
gravity than caloric. The most intense heat ever
produced by artificial means, has been developed by
the combustion of oxygen and hydrogen gases.
The atmosphere is an immense balloon expanded by
heat — yea, the solid earth owes its volume chiefly to
this subtile fluid in a latent state.
An important fact, illustrating the identity of caloric
and electricity, is, that during all combustions electri
city is evolved. M. Pouillet ascertained by repeated
experiments, that during the combustion of hydro
gen, ether, alcohol, wax, fat, charcoal, and many other
vegetable substances, a zone of air surrounding the
flame was electrified plus, while the interior of the
flame was electrified minus. His inference was, that
during the combustion, the atmospheric oxygen gives
out positive electricity, while the carbon and hydrogen
of the combustible bodies give out negative electri
city. M. Pouillet has also proved by direct experi
ment, " that the combination of oxygen with the mate
rials of livingplants is a constant source of electricity."
We do not, however, agree with M. Pouillet, that
electricity is thus generated de novo. — {Ann. de
Chim. et de Phys. XXXV. 401.)
Moreover, if two pieces of the same body, of equal
size, be submitted to different pressures, the one which
experiences the greatest pressure is electrified plus,
while the other is minus, According to the experi
ment of Becquerel, the quantity and intensity of elec
tricity thus developed is proportional to the pressure.
— {Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. XXII. 5.)
M. Avogrado has also discovered, that if two pieces
of the same metal are plunged at different instants
into an acid which oxydizes them, the piece first in
troduced will be positive and the second negative.
(See Ed. Phil. Journal, vol. 9.) The above experi
ments show conclusively, that electricity pervades
all bodies, — that it is disengaged from them by pres
sure and by chemical agency, like caloric, — in short,
that they are one and inseparable. They also de
monstrate that what has been called two electricities,
is nothing more than the plus and minus state of the
same fluid. Every thing is full of latent caloric,
which is convertible into sensible heat or electricity,
according to the mode of their development. If a
piece of white sugar, or any other dry substance, be
forcibly struck, or suddenly compressed, in the dark,
electricity and light are disengaged.
It would seem obvious to the most superficial ob
server, that caloric is the cause of evaporation, inas-

482

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

much as the greatest amount of evaporation takes
place in regions which receive most of the sun's heat.
We may form some idea of the vast amount of calo
ric contained in atmospheric vapour, when we reflect,
that a pound of vapour will raise the temperature of a
pound of water nearly 1000 degrees ;* that its bulk
is increased about 1800 times in passing from a state
of water to that of vapour ; and that all the rivers of
the earth are supplied by its precipitation.
What then becomes of all the caloric which must
be given out during the condensation of this vapour 1
We know that thunder and lightning are most abun
dant in the tropical regions, and during hot, sultry
weather, in the middle latitudes. Hence we infer,
that the caloric -of vapour, when greatly accumula
ted, is given out rapidly, in the form of electricity,
on approaching a colder mass of vapour which is
negatively charged with caloric.
Does it not involve a striking contradiction to say,
that vapour is raised into the atmosphere by caloric,
and that it is condensed by the evolution of another
distinct fluid, called electricity ? If so, whence origi
nated the electricity 1 Are we to suppose with Dr.
Thomson, "that when two currents of dry air are
moving different ways the friction of the two surfaces
may evolve electricity? or with M. Pouillet, that it
is developed by chemical action, and by the growth
of vegetation ? Absurd as these hypotheses may ap
pear, they forcibly illustrate the difficulty of account
ing for its origin and existence, when considered as
a distinct elementary fluid from caloric.
We are not authorized to predicate a primary dis
tinction, until fully acquainted with all the different
states and affections of caloric, under different cir
cumstances ; for example, in its combinations with
different substances, in a solid, fluid, gaseous, or im
ponderable state — as with the matter of light — its
diffusion, concentration, compression, &c
Moreover, we are not philosophically warranted
in assigning more causes than are sufficient to ex
plain the phenomena. Now the expansion of fluids
by caloric explains satisfactorily the process of eva
poration ; — and the passage of the same caloric out of
the vapour is sufficient to account for its condensation :
whether it pass out slowly and insensibly, or with
rapid and explosive violence.
We know that condensation and precipitation of
vapour often take place, when two currents of vapour
of different temperatures unite, without any visible
display of electricity. We also know that caloric is

* Dr. Hare says, that there is twice the quantity of caloric " given
out during a snow storm, that would be given out by an equal quan
tity of red hot powdered glass."

given out during all aerial condensations. It is a
matter of common observation, that the weather is
more hot and sultry in summer during the formation
of clouds, than when the air is clear ; and that in
winter, it becomes warmer during a fall of rain or
snow, unless accompanied by a northern wind.
There is not a greater apparent difference between
any of the forms of caloric and electricity, than be
tween the electricity in the atmosphere and in an
exhausted receiver. The explosion of gun-powder
resembles an electric explosion much more nearly
than it does the combustion of ordinary fuel. We
often see the heavens filled with sheets of flame, pro
duced by the evolution of caloric from atmospheric
vapour. The spark from steel resembles the electric spark,
except that it will not pass through conductors :
perhaps, because the ignited matter with which it is
combined is less subtile.
In subtilety, the electric and galvanic sparks are
equalled only by the solar rays. What can be more
different than caloric in its free, and in its latent
state ? When we shall understand more thoroughly
how caloric assumes so many different states and ap
pearances, we may discover how it exhibits electrical
phenomena. Before caloric combines with, and expands water
into atmospheric vapour, itis universally acknowledged
to be sensible heat ; after it enters into the water, and
converts it into transparent invisible vapour, its state
is changed ; and, when greatly accumulated in this
state, it exhibits electrical phenomena. To say,
however, that its elementary nature is changed, would
be as unphilosophical, as to contend, that the latent
caloric of water is specifically different in its nature
from the same caloric, when set at liberty by pouring
water on calcined lime ; or that it is distinct from
the caloric which moves a steam engine by its ex
pansion ; or that the galvanic fluid is distinct from
the electricity of a Leyden jar, because it moves with
less velocity. But it is universally acknowledged,
that galvanism and electricity are essentially the same
fluid ; and we shall show hereafter, that galvanism is
developed by the combustion of metals in acids, alka
lies, or atmospheric air.
Had philosophers attended more carefully to the
great changes which take place in the states of caloric,
produced by its various modes of combination with
other matter in different forms, they would probably
have been led to discover more clearly, if not the
identity of caloric and electricity, at least that they
are inseparable, and that without caloric there could
be no electricity.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

483

Sensible heat and electricity do not differ more than
latent heat and free caloric ; nor more than ice differs
from water, or water from transparent aqueous vapour.
We know that a Leyden battery may be filled with
the electric fluid drawn from a living man ; and that
a living man may be charged with the electric fluid
until it runs over, producing palpable currents.
Yet there is no possible mode of conceiving how
the system becomes charged with electricity, except
from a decomposition of the atmosphere by the lungs
in respiration : in other words, the animal heat derived
from the atmosphere becomes animal electricity, when
abstracted from the system by means of an electrical
machine, and deflects the magnetic needle 90 degrees,
according to the late experiments of Dr. Locke,—
which proves, at least, that the heat and electricity of
animals have one common origin, or that animal
heat is convertible into electricity.
One of the most decisive proofs that caloric and
electricity are convertible into each other is, that
during all condensations of aerial vapour, whether in
to rain or snow, during winter or summer, caloric is
given out in very large quantities. It is notorious
among the vulgar, that the air is rendered hot and
sultry, during summer, before showers, which is owing
to the heat given out by the transparent vapour as it
condenses into clouds, as before stated ; also, that the
temperature is greatly moderated by a fall of rain or
snow during winter. In the above examples we
perceive, that the same fluid, which, when greatly
accumulated in the atmosphere, and suddenly given
out, causes lightning and thunder ; under ordinary
circumstances of condensation, is given out silently,
producing no other sensible effect, than to raise the
temperature. We have observed a cold northeast wind to continue
several days during the month of April, until an up
per current from the ocean, loaded with aqueous va
pour, gave out its caloric, when a general rain came
on, and the temperature rose several degrees, before
the wind prevailed from the southern points of the
compass, on the surface of the earth — and that when
the rain ceased, the temperature was again reduced.
Dr. Franklin was greatly puzzled to account for
the origin of atmospheric electricity. At one time
he supposed that it was produced in the ocean, by the
friction of salt and water ; but afterwards finding this
hypothesis unsatisfactory, because he ascertained that
clouds were negatively electrified, and that all bodies
were more or less filled with electricity, he imagined
that the electric stroke passed from, the earth to the
clouds, and not from the clouds to the earth : — an
hypothesis still less tenable than his former one.

Mr. Daniell, in his late excellent work on Meteor
ology, observes, " that the interesting subject of atmo
spheric electricity has been almost totally neglected ;"
and " that at present, he had nothing to offer on this
most important branch of physical science."
Dr. Thomson says, " that the formation of vapour
seems to be connected with electricity, though in
what way the vesicular form is induced by electri
city we have no conception." It is indeed very diffi
cult, if not impossible, to conceive how and whence
the electricity originated, if it be not caloric. He adds
further, " the formation of rain is still involved in
impenetrable obscurity."
In the transactions of the British Association for
1832, it is observed, by Mr. Forbes, " that on the noble
science of atmospheric electricity, almost every thing
has yet to be done."
With due deference to the opinion of Dr. Thomson,
the rationale of rain is very simple, if we admit that
caloric and electricity are convertible into each other.
Water is expanded by heat into transparent vapour —
raised into the atmosphere, where it remains sus
pended, until it approaches the vicinty of a mountain,
or a mass of vapour, at a lower temperature, when the
attraction of caloric for those bodies which contain
less of it, causes it to leave the transparent vapour, and
it coalesces into mist, clouds, rain, snow, or hail. If
the difference of temperature be great between the
masses of meeting vapour, the equilibrium is restored
suddenly by a violent explosion, in the form of the
electric spark or lightning. During winter, the dif
ference of temperature between different masses of
vapour is usually small in the middle latitudes, so that
the equilibrium is restored gradually and without ex
plosion. During spring, and especially in April, when
masses of warm and cold vapour frequently meet, light
showers are precipitated, by the sudden passage of
caloric from one to the other— still without much
thunder and lightning.
But in summer, when the atmosphere is saturated
with transparent aqueous vapour, whichisfull of caloric,
its approach to a mountain or a mass of vapour charged
minus, is attended with rapid and sudden transitions
of caloric from the plus to the minus body, causing
terrific explosions of thunder and lightning.
An erroneous opinion has hitherto prevailed, that
lightning is accumulated in the clouds, and that it
darts from one cloud to another. Nothing could be
more in opposition to all our knowledge of electricity
than such a belief. How is it possible that electricity
can accumulate in a conductor ? The very question is
idle. It is accumulated in transparent aqueous vapour,
and thence often passes through the neighbouring

484

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

clouds, so as to present the appearance of originating
in them, or of coming from them. It is doubtless, in
many cases, attracted by the earth, by trees, build
ings, ships, mountains, &c, and thus made to pass
through such clouds as intervene, thus leading to
the idea, that it proceeds from the clouds as start*
ing points ; while it is only an appearance, which
a philosophical examination proves to be an illusion.
A large body of vapour from the tropics resembles an
immense Leyden jar, charged with caloric or light
ning. The globe itself is but the grand laboratory of
nature, which the art of man has imitated on a Lilli
putian scale.
" Neque aliud est natura quam ars quaedam magna." Leibnitz.
Dr. Arnott has given substantially the following
explanation of rain, in the first volume of his work
on Nat. Phil. p. 348. The production of rain and
snow, he attributes to the elevation of watery vapour
into the higher regions of the atmosphere, where,
from the greater dilatation of the atmosphere, it becomes
colder, and thus condenses the atmospheric vapour.
He takes no account of the diminished quantity
of caloric in clouds already formed, and in moun
tains, high plains, &c, which abstract caloric from
invisible vapour, and cause it to descend in rain.
It is notorious that when the wind blows steadily
in one direction, for some time, over a level country,
very little rain falls. In the great desert of Sahara,
there is scarcely any rain, because the vapour trans
ported over it from the ocean, is still further rarefied
by the heat of the scorching sand, where there are
no mountains to condense it. For a similar reason,
we often have long droughts in the level parts of the
United States during summer. Owing to the great
heat of the atmosphere, the vapour brought from the
Atlantic ocean by southern and eastern breezes, is
not condensed, but still further expanded, until it
meets with a current from the northern points of the
compass — a descent of cold air from the higher re
gions* — or with mountains and highlands of a lower
temperature, when thunder-gusts follow.
After a long drought, the first precipitations take
place over moist ground, river courses, &c. — which are
colder, or negative, and therefore attract the electric
fluid from the positive atmospheric vapour. Hence
it frequently occurs, that such situations receive two
or three showers, before the rain becomes general.
* Dr. Thomson thinks that air can not descend without giving
out its caloric as it falls, which he thinks would prevent it from
cooling the temperature of the lower atmosphere. He seems not
to have been aware, that the upper air may be more condensed
by cold than the lower air by pressure, in which case its descent

When the aerial vapour is condensed into a cloud,
by giving out a portion of its caloric, it becomes nega
tive, in relation to the surrounding vapour, and attracts
caloric from it ; which also becomes negative, and acts
on the neighbouring vapour in the same way, until it
is successively condensed for several hundred miles,
and the rain becomes general. When the equilibrium
is restored, the storm ceases, and the sky becomes serene.
Our equinoctial storms are produced by the meet
ing of extensive masses of vapour from opposite quar
ters, of different temperatures. The vast amount of
condensation, caused by the meeting of opposite cur
rents, during the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, occa
sions extensive vacuums — a violent rush of elastic
vapour from different quarters is the consequence, con
stituting whirlwinds, hurricanes, and tornadoes.
In the United States, the difference of temperature
between northern and southern winds, is much greater
than in Europe, which has a maritime climate, and
on the ocean generally, where the temperature is
more uniform ; for this reason, we have more intense
lightning than in Europe and on the ocean, and not
as M. Volney supposes, " because of the greater dry
ness of our atmosphere." The most violent thunder
storms on the American continent occur in June, July,
and August, when the air in the middle latitudes is
greatly rarefied, so as to favour a descent of the cold
upper, current from the equator.
Dr. Franklin believed, that vapour was held in a state
of solution by electricity ; but it is evident that caloric
is the vaporizing agent all over the world. From which
it follows, that the latent caloric of aqueous vapour is
the basis of atmospheric electricity or lightning. - There
is little or no thunder and lightning in the polar regions.
Before leaving this interesting branch of meteorology,
it may be proper to take a cursory view of the agency
of caloric in producing atmospheric currents generally.
The unequal distribution of solar heat over the
earth's surface, together with its annual and diurnal
revolutions, enable us in some measure to compre
hend the laws which determine the periodical move
ments of the atmosphere which surrounds it.
There are three great currents of the aerial ocean,
by which it is kept in perpetual circulation: — one
from the polar regions towards the equator, which
is an under current ; another from the equator to
the poles, which is an upper current ; and a third,
called the equatorial current, or trade wind, which
blows from east to west around the globe, for about
would be attended by a reduction of temperature, in proportion to
the mass whieh descends from above. The sea and the air over
it are less heated, because the water on its surface rises in the
form of vapour, carrying off a great portion of its caloric.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

485

30° on each side of the equator. Near the equator,
the trade winds blow directly from the east, but at
a distance from it they become northeast and southeast
near their northern and southern limits.
There is another general wind, which blows from
west to east, in the middle and higher latitudes in
the northern hemisphere, about two thirds of the
year — while in tliose portions of the southern hemi
sphere, where there is no land, it is nearly as uniform
as the trade wind.
Dr. Hadley, and after him, Dr. Franklin, attributed
these currents to the following causes. " The air
under the equator and between the tropics, being con
stantly heated and rarefied by the sun; rises ; its place
is supplied by air from the higher and polar latitudes,
which, coming from parts of the earth that had less
motion, and not suddenly acquiring the quicker mo
tion of the equatorial earth, becomes an east wind
blowing westward ; the earth moving from west to
east and slipping under the air." Mr. Daniell has
shown conclusively, that, from the greater density of
the polar atmosphere than the equatorial, its height
is proportionally less ; so that the air rarefied between
the tropics, and rising, must flow toward the poles.
Before it rose, it had acquired the greatest motion the
earth's rotation could give it: it retains some degree
of this motion, and descending in higher latitudes,
where the earth's motion is less, becomes a westerly
wind. See Franklin's Works, vol. 3. p. 236, and
Mr. Daniell on the Atmosphere.
The force and direction of the trade winds are
influenced by the proximity of islands and conti
nents. Along the western side of Africa, their di
rection is reversed. To the distance seaward of
about 300 miles, they blow towards the heated land.
They are reversed in a similar manner in the Pacific,
west of South America. When the sun is in the
northern tropic,, they extend several degrees farther
north than during our winter; but when the sun is
south of the equator, they prevail farther south.
There is a tract corresponding with the isother
mal division of the globe, which, as we shall find
hereafter, is the magnetic equator, where the great
polar currents from the north and south, constituting
the northeast and southeast trade winds, meet, and
neutralize each other. They are characterized by
a constant succession of irregular winds and calms,
or storms of thunder, lightning, and rain. They
are called by seamen the swamps, or rainy lati
tudes — and are extremely sultry, owing to the im
mense quantities of heat given out, during the con
densation of so much aqueous vapour.
The most violent and extensive hurricanes occur
Vol. IL— Nos. 77 & 78. 3 Q,

in the tropical latitudes, where evaporation and con
densation are three times greater than in the middle
latitudes— and, perhaps, six times greater than in the
polar latitudes.
In South America, and the West India Islands,
north of the equator, the rainy season is from April
or May, until October ; because the northern hemi
sphere is then exposed to the sun's heat, the air presses
from the colder southern hemisphere, and from the
icy tops of the Andes, causing a southern wind,
which condenses the aqueous vapour of the northern
tropic, producing floods of rain, at some places to
the amount of 280 inches during the year. In the
southern tropic, the rainy season commences in
October and ends in April ; because South America
is then greatly heated, and becomes a focus of fluxion
from the northern hemisphere, which is cooled down
during the absence of the sun : thus, during the
winter of North America, the colder air presses into
South America and condenses its aqueous vapour.
The same thing is true of the tropical portions ofthe
old world, where wet and dry seasons prevail during
half the yearalternately. In middle latitudes, where the
winds frequently shift, there is no protracted dryseason.
The great heat of the tropics causes the vapour
to ascend from three to four times higher than in the
colder latitudes, which explains why it descends in
such large drops.
During winter in the northern hemisphere, the
polar latitudes being deprived of the sun's rays, while
the tropical parallels continue to be heated, we have
a predominance of northerly winds, the dense polar air.
pressing towards the tropics, to restore the equili
brium — while the greater velocity of the middle and
tropical than of the northern latitudes, causes a de
flection of the polar currents to the southwest and
west, making northeast and east winds, which al
most uniformly succeed to north winds, and continue
blowing until an equilibrium is established between
the higher and middle latitudes. In the mean time,
under the influence of the solar rays, the land air
becomes more heated than the atmosphere of the
ocean, even south of it, which causes a south wind,
until the equilibrium is restored between the sea and
land atmosphere. During summer in the United
States, southwesterly winds predominate ; and north
easterly winds during winter. The same thing is
true of India, China, and Arabia. They are heated
during summer, and the atmosphere over them rare
fied, which causes the air to flow in upon them from
the tropical seas, when it is deflected to the east, by
passing from latitudes that move rapidly to those
which move more slowly. This is what writers call

486

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

the southwest monsoon. When the sun is south of
the equator, the air moves from the northern land,
which is cooled down, towards the equator, which
has a swifter motion ; thus causing the northeast
monsoon, and which corresponds with the northeast
wind of our cold season. Volney supposed that the
prevailing southwest wind of the Mississippi Valley
was a recoil of the tropical trade wind, deflected by the
Andes of Mexico. But the fact which he states, of its
crossing the Alleganies, and advancing northeastward
as far as Montreal and Q,uebec, is sufficient to demon
strate that it must be owing to a cause far more gene
ral and extensive in its operation than any mountain
range. It is the meeting of this wind, charged with
aqueous vapour from the ocean, with the colder north
and northeast currents during spring and autumn,
which causes vast precipitations of rain in the United
States. During the latter part of August and September,
when the atmosphere is filled with aqueous vapour,
and meets with a colder current from the northern
points of the compass, extensive hurricanes sweep
the gulf of Mexico, and the southern portions of the
United States. There can be no doubt that opposite
currents frequently meet in the higher atmosphere,
which are not observed at the earth's surface, and
which cause precipitation. The existence of currents
and counter currents in the upper atmosphere, enables
us to comprehend how it is that rain frequently oc
curs, without any visible meeting of air from opposite
quarters, and of different temperatures. When M.
Robertson ascended from Castle Garden on the 4th
of July, 1834, the wind was from the east ; and as
the aeronaut arose above the city, he was carried
westward, across the Hudson River, when he disap
peared in a mist or cloud, at an elevation of about 3000
feet above the surface. At this time he met with a
counter current from the west, which brought him
back over the city, and landed him ten miles to the
eastward, on Long Island. It is quite evident, that
the canopy of clouds which overspread the city in
the afternoon, was condensed by the colder upper
current from the west.
From the 7th until the 10th of July, 1834, the heat
was excessive at New York, ranging from 86 to 96 de
grees of Fahrenheit in the shade, while the wind was
from the southeast. On tho 10th, about 12 o'clock,
the wind shifted, blowing from the west, and con
densing the vapour which had been brought from
the ocean, into floods of rain, which continued about
three hours. It is thus that a land wind which
usually brings fair weather, causes precipitation, by
meeting with and absorbing caloric from the oceanic
vapour. It is highly probable, that at all times,

when rain attends a southern wind, and when the
land temperature exceeds that of the sea, precipitation
is owing to the prevalence of a colder upper current,
from an opposite direction.
What can be more sublime, than this grand lustra
tion of the earth, by which the waters of the ocean
are wafted over continents and islands, in fertilizing
showers — pestilential vapours dispersed — -the face of
nature refreshed, and adorned with living robes of
surpassing beauty ? By sinking into the earth, they
acquire the properties of the various mineral beds
through which they pass, and again bubble up in
fountains of delicious water, for the sustenance of
man, as they return to the sea.
We have seen that during the coldness of winter in
North America, the great movement ofthe atmosphere
is from the cold northern regions towards the tropics,
but that it is deflected by passing from latitudes which
move slowly, to those which, move more rapidly, by
which means, north winds become northeast and east
winds. We have also perceivedj that during sura-
mer, while the land is greatly heated, the prevalent
wind is from the ocean, and that when it presses di
rectly from the south, it is changed into a southwest
wind, by passing from latitudes which revolve at the
rate of nine or ten hundred miles per hour, to those
which move only six or eight hundred miles per
hour. The same observations apply to Great Britain.
These leading facts enable us to understand why it
is that our regular winds, follow the sun, producing
a constant succession of circuits, from left to right,
and blowing from all points of the compass. For
example, the ordinary succession of our winds is
from the north, next from the northeast, east, south
east, south, southwest, west, northwest, and so on, in
tolerably regular succession, and rarely, if ever, per
forming an entire circuit in the opposite direction.
As the greater portion of the United States is more
heated than the ocean, even south of them, and for a
longer period, the wind blows from the southwest a
greater number of days than from any other quarter,
throughout the year.
If the whole earth were of uniform surface and
elevation, its temperature would be the same in given
latitudes and seasons, and the currents of the atmo
sphere would present a succession of regular move
ments, which could be foretold with as much precision
as the changes of the moon, or the increase and de
crease of the tides. There would be no sudden pre
cipitations of rain, no lightning, and no violent winds
or hurricanes, because there would be a regular gra
dation of temperature and density ofthe atmosphere
from the equator to the poles ; but as the surface of

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

the earth is diversified by land and water, mountains
and valleys, hills and plains, unequal temperatures in
the same latitudes, and during the same seasons, re
sult, causing all those violent and irregular move
ments ofthe atmosphere, termed hurricanes, tornadoes,
water-spouts, &c
We stated before, that the most extensive and vio
lent hurricanes occur in those regions where evapo
ration and condensation are most abundant. Such
winds depend on local rarefactions, produced by the
caloric given out in the atmosphere, by the condensa
tion of aqueous vapour, and are always accompanied
by a depression of the barometer.* Whenever the
barometer sinks low, we may be sure of a gale.
Hurricanes, which follow a great depression of the
barometer, generally blow from different quarters.
If they commence from the northeast, they shift
round, until they blow from the northwest, when
they subside, and the clouds gradually disappear.
After blowing with great violence in one direction,
for some time, there is frequently a short calm or
intermission, for a few minutes, when the gale blows
with equal severity from an opposite quarter. It is
probable that the calm is produced by the meeting of
these violent currents from opposite quarters, which
neutralize each other for a short time. The hurri
cane of August, 1831, at Barbadoes, commenced from
the north, but afterwards blew from the south, which
was shown by the direction of the fallen trees.
The unequal amount of condensation of aqueous
vapour which takes place at different points, causes
a difference in the force of hurricanes at different
places. They are more violent on the shores of the
West India Islands, and on the southern coast of the
United States, than in the interior. The hurricanes
of the East Indian seas, occur during the shifting of
the monsoons, and are accompanied by torrents of
rain, thunder and lightning, and are obviously owing
to the coming together of extensive masses of air,
from different quarters. We are informed by seamen
who navigate the Atlantic between England and the
United States, that while one vessel encounters a
storm, others enjoy mild breezes within 40 or 50
miles of the same place, which must be owing to
unequal rarefactions, caused by local condensations
of vapour, on meeting with a mass of colder air.
For example, the Gulf Stream, and the air over it,
* The horary oscillations of the barometer, or atmospheric tides,
increase as we advance from the higher latitudes towards the equa
tor, while the irregular depressions and elevations ofthe barometer,
augment from the tropical- to the higher latitudes, because in the
higher latitudes, the density or specific gravity of ttife atmosphere
increases in proportion to the diminution of temperature ; and be- I
cause equal volumes of air,- and all other 'gases, are equally expanded \

487
are from 10 to 20 degrees warmer than other parts
of the ocean in the same latitudes, the consequence
of which is extensive evaporation, and when the
vapour is condensed, by giving out its caloric to a
colder body of air, rarefaction is produced, and a con^
sequent rush of cold air to restore the equilibrium ;
which process causes a succession of local storms,
water-spouts, &c As many as sixteen water-spouts
were seen at the same time by Captain Lawrence,
on the borders of the Gulf Stream, Lat. 32° 48', when
off Charleston, on his voyage from New Orleans to
New York. The same general agency, modified
by the relative position of land and water, oceanic
currents, mountains and valleys, operates to a greater
or less extent over all the earth. Off Cape Hat
teras, which is washed by the Gulf Stream, there is
a constant succession of gales, which is readily un
derstood when we learn from our seamen, who trade
from New York to New Orleans, that they always
find a sensible change of temperature on passing the
Cape. Hence the frequent boisterous winds which
render it so notorious among navigators. The same
cause renders the Cape of Good Hope a theatre of
perpetual war of conflicting tempests, produced by the
proximity of the great equatorial current, as it
doubles the cape.
We shall never fully comprehend the cause of these
phenomena, until we recognise the influence of the
vast amount of heat which exists in aqueous vapour
— the elastic force which it gives to the vapour, and
its agency in rarefying the atmosphere, where it is
given out. An eye-witness of the tremendous hurri
cane which desolated the Island of Barbadoes, on the
10th of August, 1831. informs me, that for an hour
previous to its commencement, the heat of the atmo
sphere was almost insupportable — that it began about
10 o'clock at night with torrents of rain, and broad
flashes or sheets of fire, in rapid succession, which
threatened to overwhelm the inhabitants with a flood
— or sweep them away in a tempest of flame. There
can be no doubt that the amount of caloric or light
ning given out during extensive hurricanes, is in
proportion to the amount of condensation ; but that
its intensity or concentration, is less than during
ordinary thunder storms ; because the electric fluid
is attracted by a more extensive mass of cloud, and
is thus diffused. This also explains why it is. that
by equal increments of , heal ; consequently the weight or local pres-.
sure ofthe atmosphere is farther altered by every local change of
temperature, produced by the evolution of heat from aqueous va
pour in the middle and higher latitudes, than within the tropics.
Are not the atmospheric tides caused by the successive heating
and rarefaction of different meridians 1

488

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

the violence of lightning and thunder usuallysub-
sides after precipitation becomes general. The elec
tric fluid being constantly drawn from the transpa
rent or positive aqueous vapour, by the extended
conducting surface of falling cloud, prevents it from
accumulating into a large ball of fire, or thunderbolt,
in the same way that a damp atmosphere prevents us
from charging the Leyden battery of a common
electrical machine. The streaked and forked appear
ance of ordinary lightning, are optical illusions, and
result from the rapid passage of the electric spark
through the air, which makes an impression upon
the optic nerve that remains during its passage, in
the same way that a burning stick, when revolved,
presents the appearance of a continuous circle of fire.
The fork is owing to a division of the original spark
or ball into two or more sparks, which pursue a
divergent course. When an electrical explosion
takes place very near to a spectator, it always pre
sents the appearance of a ball of fire, attended by a
simultaneous report, like that of artillery. The reason
that the report is commonly heard many seconds
after the flash is seen, is owing to its distance from
the point of observation, and to the slowness with
which vibrations are propagated through the atmo
sphere — Hence, its rumbling, or prolonged existence.
The report itself, is caused by a collapse of the air,
as it fills the vacuum suddenly produced by the pas
sage of the electric bolt through it. It is probable
that lightning owes its luminosity or incandescence,
to the decomposition of aqueous vapour, and to the
combustion of its hydrogen by so intense a heat.
The depressing influence of a cold damp atmosphere,
is caused by the abstraction of this subtile vital fluid
from the system, more rapidly than it is supplied by
respiration. It was first observed by Dr. Franklin, that our cold
summer gusts almost always came from the west,
from which he concluded, that -they were caused by
a descent of cold air from the upper current of the
atmosphere, on its passage from the equatorial to the
polar latitudes. That this is in part the cause of
our prevalent west winds, during three fourths of
the year, in the middle latitudes, is obvious from
what we have already stated in relation to the de
flection of aerial currents, as they pass over different
latitudes. That this is also the true mode of account
ing for our cold summer gusts, is evident from the
following considerations. The land being greatly
heated by the scorching rays of the sun, rarefies the
atmosphere over it, until the superincumbent air
sinks down and mixes with it. At the same time, it
communicates its tropical motion from west to east ;

condenses the vapour of the lower atmosphere by
absorbing its caloric, and thus produces our western
thunder-gusts, which are often attended with hail,
and almost always with a great reduction of tempe
rature. In this way, clouds are formed suddenly,
the whole sky becoming obscured by -dense black
vapour. It is a remarkable fact, that thunder
storms, whether attended with hail or not, almost
always occur between midday and sunset, when the
lower air is most heated and rarefied, so as to favour
a descent ofthe upper current from the equator.
On the subject of hail storms, much learning and
ingenuity have been expended, since the days of
Franklin, without any satisfactory explanation of
their cause. The celebrated Volta supposed that
they were produced by a " highly electrical condition
of the atmosphere" — "that the frozen masses were
kept in a state of reciprocating motion between two
clouds, oppositely charged with electricity, until the
mass rendered the force of gravity predominant — or,
until the electric tension of the cloud was exhausted
by mutual reaction." In their Report on the present
state of Meteorological Science for 1832, the British
Association say, that no better solution has yet been
offered to the world.
We shall endeavour to demonstrate, that all hail
storms are caused by a descent of cold air from the
upper regions, by the following facts—
1. They occur during warm weather, when the
lower atmosphere is greatly rarefied.
2. They run in veins of limited extent.
3. They are often accompanied by whirlwinds,
thunder, and lightning.
4. They are usually limited to the middle lati
tudes. 5. They come on too suddenly to be caused by
a meeting of northern and southern air— and are
attended by too intense a cold.
6. They are common in level districts, which are
hemmed in by high mountains, as the south oi
France ; because, in such situations, the atmosphere
is prevented from circulating freely, and becomes
greatly rarefied, so as to favour a descent of air from
the frozen regions above — which suddenly abstracts
caloric from the vapour of the atmosphere in the
form of lightning — when it falls in icy globules;
which augment as they descend, by- passing through
numerous strata of aqueous vapour. This is all we
shall now offer on the general doctrine of hail-storms.
It is highly probable that those tornadoes or whirl
winds which run in harrow veins, and move with a
velocity of from 100 to 140 miles per hour, prostra
ting every thing before them with resistless force,

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489

are owing to, the same general agency — viz., a sudden
descent .of cold air from the upper regions, which
condenses the lower transparent vapour, and pro
duces a vacuum, as it passes from the aerial to the
aqueous state, so that the surrounding vapour rushes
in from different quarters, to restore the equilibrium,
with a force proportioned to its elasticity, and thus
producing a violent gyratory motion. We shall be
less surprised at the force and velocity of these tor
nadoes when we reflect, that the volume of aqueous
vapour is diminished 1800 fold by giving out its
caloric, as it passes to the cloudy or aqueous state.
A striking example of a tornado of the above descrip
tion, occurred about the 20th of March, 1832, lat. 35°
north, in the southern part of Tennessee.
After several remarkably warm days for the season,
accompanied by a south wind, a tornado came on
suddenly, without the slightest warning, about seven
o'clock in the evening. It excited great astonish
ment, as the whole day had been warm, calm, and
clear, with the exception of a slight haziness, up to
the moment when the crashing noise of falling tim
ber announced the approaching storm from the west.
The temperature was immediately reduced from
about 75°, to several degrees below the freezing point.
The. tornado continued to blow with violence about
ten minutes, and pursued a tract of from a quarter
to half a mile in width. The next morning the
wind was cold and northwesterly, and continued
northerly for two days.
During the present summer, (1834,) which has been
unusually hot and sultry, we have heard of tornadoes
and hail-storms of limited extent, having visited
almost every state in the union, from Maine to Loui
siana — several of them attended with great loss of
lives and property. In almost every case they pur
sued a course from west to east.
A remarkable example of sudden cold, caused by
a descent of air from the upper regions, occurred in
Cuba in 1809, 24th of May. Cornelius Roberts, a
sugar planter, who resided forty years on the island,
informed me,
blowing from
22d until 11 o'clock A. M., of the 24th, a calm fol
lowed for an hour, when the wind prevailed from
the northwest. At the same time, the atmosphere
became extremely dark like night, accompanied by a
roaring in the air, trembling of the earth, and intense
cold. Every thing green became black, as if a fire
had passed over the country." Query, was not the
calm, in the above case, produced by a descent of
cold air, which had acquired the tropical velocity of
the earth from west to east, on its passage from the

" that after a hurricane had been
the southeast and south, from the

equator to latitude 23° north, and which neutralized
the currents from the southeast and from the south,
thus producing the calm?
The difference between the temperature ofthe ocean
and atmosphere over it being small, there is little or
no dew at sea, and very little thunder and lightning.
The unceasing motion of its particles preserves a
uniform temperature, being only two or three degrees
colder during night, than during day : — while on
land the difference is often ten times as great.
Air considerably rarefied by heat, receives into it
a much greater quantity of vapour before it is satu
rated than cold air, because it affords much more
room between its particles for the expanded vapour
to pass through it, and because it does not condense
the vapour, but allows it to accumulate in larger
quantities before precipitation. Hence, though there
be more invisible water in the atmosphere during
summer than winter, there is less vapour : more rain
in summer, and more fog in winter. In this latter
state, the atmosphere is a better conductor of caloric than
during summer, which thus passes freely from place to
place without being accu mulated, and therefore without
explosion. This, together with the diminished quan
tity of caloric in the atmosphere, is the reason there
is no thunder and lightning in the polar regions, nor
in our own climate during winter. In the pro
duction of dew and frost, the earth is first cooled
down by radiation, when it attracts caloric from the
stratum of transparent atmospheric .vapour immediately
over it, by which it coalesces into dew or frost, ac
cording to the temperature of the surface.
It is highly probable, that Dr. Wells' ingenious
explanation of the increased production of dew on
clear nights is incorrect, and that he mistook a mere
concomitant, for the real cause of this phenomenon.
He attributes the small amount of dew which is
formed under a cloudy canopy, " to the obstruction
of heat radiated from the earth's surface by the clouds."
Admitting that a portion of the heat radiated from the
surface of the earth, is reflected back instead of being
absorbed by clouds, it is insufficient to produce so deci
ded a change of temperature. Is it not more probable,
that the caloric of aqueous vapour, which is given out
to the atmosphere during its condensation into clouds,
is the reason that the surface of the earth is not cooled
to the dew point 7 and that, consequently, no transpa
rent aqueous vapour is condensed into dew? On a
clear night, when no caloric is given out to the atmo
sphere by the condensation of vapour, the earth is
cooled down by radiation, because it receives nothing
to compensate for the loss of what is given off ; so
that the transparent aqueous vapour, contained in the

490

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

lower strata of the air, is condensed into dew. With
this single exception, we know not a more beautiful
example of philosophical induction, than Dr. Wells'
treatise on dew. There is no dew on windy nights,
for the same reason that a removal of water, and agi
tation, promote the solution of salts.
The formation of all. fogs, is owing to a partial
condensation of aqueous vapour, caused by the ab
straction of heat from colder bodies — sometimes, by
the mixture of air of different temperatures. For
example, during autumn, the temperature of the Mis
sissippi, Ohio, and other large rivers, is nearly the
same during night and day ; while that of the land
is greatly reduced at night by radiation, especially
towards morning, when it is at the extreme limit of
reduction. Under such circumstances, the inter
mixture of the land atmosphere at the temperature of
40° F. with that over the water, which is at 45 or 50°,
produces a fog or mist. The same effect is produced
on the eastern coast of the United States, during au
tumn. The land is cooled down by radiation at
night, while the temperature of the ocean remains
nearly the same. During this state of things, whether
the wind blows from the sea or land, a mixture of
warm and cool air produces fogs. Over the banks
of Newfoundland, where the warm atmosphere from
the Gulf Stream, is intermixed with that of the cold
water and icebergs of the north, they prevail through
out the year. Nova Scotia is, proverbially, the re
gion of fogs. The frost rime of the polar seas, is
produced in the same way, but by the agency of a
lower temperature.
During summer, the Alleghany mountains are al
ways covered with fog in the morning, during fair
weather. Being cooled down at night by radiation,
they abstract caloric from the transparent aqueous
vapour, which is always suspended in the atmosphere
in greater or less quantity, by which it is condensed
into huge volumes of mist or fog, that envelope the
mountains with giant fojds of majestic drapery — and
which are not redissolved by the solar rays, before 9
or 10 o'clock in the morning. The greater quantity
of rain and snow which fall on mountains than on
plains, is owing to the same cause, as we have already
stated. In all parts of the United States, there is an au
tumnal period called Indian summer, which usually
commences some time in Novem. and continues, with
occasional intermissions,_through a portion of Decem
ber — some seasons, in the Mississippi Valley, until
Christmas. It is generally ushered in by a southerly
wind, which, being warm, is filled with transparent
aqueous vapour ; but as the earth becomes gradually

cooler on the approach of winter, by losing more heat
than it receives from the sun, the air over it is also
cooled down, the transparent vapour is slightly con
densed into a fine hazy mist, which reflects the blue
rays of light, and gives the whole atmosphere a smoky
appearance, which continues until the wind changes.
As the Indian summer is always a dry season, and as
the mountains and prairies are frequently on fire
during such weather, the smoky appearance of the
atmosphere has been attributed by many persons, to
the vapour of burning substances diffused through the
air. This cause, we think altogether too limited in
its operation to account for the prevalence of Indian
summer throughout a continent — often many hun
dred miles distant from burning prairies. The con
flagrations which occur during this period, are the
effect of a dry season — while the gradual cooling
down of the earth, during the prevalence of warm
southerly winds, is all sufficient to account for the
phenomenon. The commencement and predomi
nance of northerly winds, by mixing with them, ab
stract their caloric, and condense their aqueous va
pour, causing dark cloudy weather, and general rains
or snows, according to the latitude and elevation —
after which, the reign of winter becomes established.
When we examine the mode in which galvanic
electricity is produced, we discover a still more inti
mate relation to caloric than in any of its other forms.
We shall find that in every case, it is produced by the
combustion of metallic plates differently oxidizable,
and that the energy, of the pile is proportional to the
rapidity with which the intervening acid is decomposed.
The oxygen of the acid combines with the metals,
and electricity is evolved, in the same way that calo
ric is given out during common combustion.
The principal difference is, that in common com
bustion, a great portion of the caloric evolved, is car
ried off in the vapour of the combustible materials
in the state of flame, &c.,. while in the combustion or
oxidation of metals by the pile, the caloric is not car
ried off, owing to the less evaporable nature of the
metals ; so that it is concentrated and. conveyed by
the conducting wires to the extremities of the battery.
We shall also find, that the energy of the battery is
proportional to the extent of the metallic surfaces, as
well as to the decomposibility of the fluid which sup
plies the oxygen. When the decomposition of the'
fluid ceases, the pile loses its energy, and the-galvanic
current is at an end.
When only two large plates of zinc and copper
are immersed into an acid solution, we obtain an
imponderable fluid, differing in a slight degree from
the caloric evolved by ordinary combustion. But

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

491

if we lessen the size of the metallic plates, while we
increase their number, an imponderable fluid is pro
duced, of an intermediate character between caloric
and common electricity. When only two plates or
coils are used, the apparatus is called a calorimo-
tor, but when a great number of small plates are
used, it is called an electrical or galvanic pile. If we
gradually lessen the size of the plates, while we in
crease their number, so that the area of square feet
shall be the same, we obtain an igneous fluid, pos
sessing less and less the characteristics of caloric,
and more of electricity, which demonstrates the
identity of caloric and electricity beyond the possi
bility of a doubt : for it would be totally unphilo-
sophical to suppose that by merely changing the size
and number of the plates, a radically different fluid
is evolved ; while the metals are of the same material
and thickness, and the acid in which they are im
mersed the same. The calorimotor evolves caloric,
until the metallic plates are consumed, or until the
acid is decomposed ; while the galvanic pile produces
electricity until the plates or acid are consumed by
oxydation. M. De la Rive of Geneva, and M. Parrot of St.
Petersburg, have recently demonstrated, that in all
cases where electricity was supposed to have been
developed by the mere contact of different bodies, it
was produced by slight oxydation, or by friction.
When M. Parrot brought metallic plates into contact,
and separated them after an interval cautiously, so
as to avoid friction, he could not discern any trace of
electricity with the most delicate instruments.— (*S*ee
Transactions of the British Association for 1832.)
We are informed by writers on galvanism, that a
few large plates disengage more of the galvanic fluid
than a great number of small plates ; hut that the
intensity of its action is in proportion to the number
of plates. They have not given any reason for this
difference, which is probably owing to the fact, that
the oxydation of large plates, resembles more nearly
the process of ordinary combustion, and the calorific
or electric currents are less concentrated than when
the plates are small — and hence cannot be conduct
ed off by the connecting wires with the same ve
locity that it is when in a concentrated state. Ca
loric, electricity, and galvanism, have hitherto con
stituted a separate and distinct triad of imponderables,
perfectly incomprehensible ; all the phenomena of
which are quite intelligible, if we refer them to the
agency of one grand, primary, universal element.
Will any philosopher contend, that during the oxy
dation of metals by a galvanic pile, there are two dis
tinct fluids disengaged, caloric and electricity ? or

that during the evaporation of water, two distinct
imponderable fluids become latent in its vapour ? The
idea is absurd.
The earth may be considered as a huge galvanic
pile, and the various combinations and decompositions
which mark all its chemical changes, are effected by
the agency of caloric in some of its forms.
Thus we perceive that the galvanic fluid is pror
duced in the same way that caloric is produced, viz.,
by combustion, or by the union of oxygen with com
bustibles. M. Pouillet found, by experiment, that
whenever two bodies united by combustion, the sup
porter gave out positive, and the combustible, negative
electricity. We know, that during every combination of oxygen
with combustible matter, caloric or electricity is given
out. There can be no doubt, that all earthquakes,
vol canoes, and th ermal wafers, owe their existence to the
caloric given out in the lower parts of the earth, in a
mode similar to its evolution from a galvanic pile. It
is certainly given out during all oxidations of the
earths and metals — and we know that oxidation is per
petually going on throughout all matter, as far as we
are acquainted with it. In treating of atmospheric elec
tricity, we endeavoured to show, that it resulted from
the accumulation of solar heat in aqueous vapour, and
from its rapid passage out of this vapour into bodies
charged negatively with caloric — from which itfollows,
that the sun is the great fountain of atmospheric electri
city. We have reen, that caloric is universally diffused
throughout terrestrial matter in a latent state, that it
can be disengaged from all bodies by pressure, friction,
and by chemical decomposition : — electricity is pro
duced in the same way.
Caloric in its latent state, does not differ more from
its active state, than does sulphuric acid in its sepa
rate state, from that of its combination with soda or
magnesia. Nor does it differ more from electricity,
than does electricity from itself, in an exhausted re
ceiver, and under the pressure of the atmosphere.
Dr. Franklin denominated the fusion of metals by
electricity, a cold fusion. He adds, " I do riot mean
fusion by the force of cold, but a fusion without heat,
because it expands and separates their particles in
stantaneously, without producing combustion." {See
his Works, vol. 3. p. 51.) But we know, that if an
electric or galvanic current is continued through the
metals, combustion occurs with sensible heat — and if
retarded or obstructed in its passage, it produces an
explosion. If it be asked why the electric spark does
not produce the sensation of heat, we answer, because
of its velocity, and the subtilty of the combustible
matter with which it is combined. The hand may

492

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

be held in a shower of sparks produced by the friction
of steel with emery, without a sensation of heat, for
the same reason, unless the sparks be very large. Yet
on examination with a microscope, they are found to
consist of small particles of steel in a state of fusion.
Dr. Hare, of Philadelphia, concluded from experi
ments with his calorimotor, that the galvanic, fluid is
composed of both calorie and electricity — that they
are combined by what he terms the "reciprocal attrac
tion of imponderables." With great respect for the
talents of Dr. Hare, we have not been able to discover
the slightest evidence that any such affinity exists
between caloric and electricity, admitting them to be
distinct elementary fluids ; nor has Dr. Hare offered
any facts in support of this singular hypothesis,
Caloric, which is imponderable, has an undoubted
attraction for ponderable matter, which is the reason
it cannot be kept in a separate state, unless insulated
by non-conductors, and then only for a limited time ;
whether in the form of domestic heat, galvanic, or
common electric heat, but universally seeks a latent
state, by entering into other matter, and thus becom
ing a constituent portion of it.
The attraction of oxygen for combustibles, which
is owing to their being in different states of caloric,
causes a perpetual combustion throughout nature.
Perhaps there is no such thing as total quiescence in
matter. Hence bituminous coal is continually chang
ing by oxydation, and passing into a state of anthra
cite or hard coal. Hence also the accumulation of
caloric, given out by combustion in the bosom of the
earth, which is restrained for centuries by superin
cumbent pressure, until its elastic force overcomes all
resistance, and raises mountains, or bursts forth into
volcanoes. Nearly all the changes which take place on the
earth's surface, result from the combination of oxygen
with other elements— which combination, as we before
stated, is promoted by heat, and by electricity.
It is this tendency of oxygen to combine with
other elements which causes the various decompositions
of organic matter. Oxygen forms a portion of all the
varieties of rocks, which are composed of a few simple
elements, differently arranged and combined, by the
force of molecular attraction. In the animal and
vegetable kingdoms, all the varieties are produced
by the different combinations of carbon, hydrogen,
and nitrogen, with oxygen, together with a small pro
portion of salts, earths, and iron. All the dissolutions
and reproductions of matter are ultimately resolvable
into the subtile silent agency of heat, which reduces
them to theelementary state, and thus prepares them for
entering into new combinations. Solids are converted

into fluids, and fluids into gases, which are again
converted into animals, plants, and minerals. In the
decomposition of vegetables, the oxygen of the air,
unites with their carbon, making carbonic acid gas,
the appropriate food of living vegetation. And so on
through all the endless ramifications of nature, we
perceive that death is only a transmutation of matter,
by which it is prepared for entering into new forms
of life and beauty.
The atmosphere is perpetually wasted by oxyda
tion, combustion, the respiration of animals, and growth
of plants ; but it is also as constantly reproduced
from solids and fluids, by the expansive power of
heat. From the ceaseless agency of caloric in chang
ing solids and fluids into gases, we are authorized to
conclude, that if the whole atmosphere were annihilated,
it would be again reproduced — or, that if all the wa
ters of the earth were converted into solids, they would
be gradually regenerated by chemical agency, under
the influence of solar and terrestrial heat. How
beautiful and sublime are the ordinances of nature !
We shall endeavour to point out in another place, the
difference between the attraction of vitality, and that
of chemical composition. The greater amount of
caloric constantly appropriated by living than dead
bodies, endows them with more active powers, by
which they attract the molecules of dead matter-
overcome their chemical affinities — and assimilate
their particles to their own structure.
We have seen that caloric is not only the cause of
chemical and -cohesive attraction, but that, when ac
cumulated, it is the agent by which the molecular
attractions of matter are dissolved. In short, that it
is the cause of all the changes which take place
throughout the globe. If rocks arid salts are dissolved
in water, it is caloric which effects it. If rocks and
hills are carried down by running water into the plains
and seas, caloric is the cause of fluidity. The puri
fication of all metals is effected by, caloric, which va
porizes and carries off their drossy combinations.
We cannot pass over in silence, what we consider
a fundamental error on electricity, which has been
embraced by many modern writers in France and
England : — we allude to the doctrine of two distinct
electricities — a doctrine which has no foundation in
truth — which is contrary to the simplicity that cha
racterizes all the operations of nature — and which
will not bear the test of philosophical analysis. It has
arisen from the fact, that vitreous, resinous, and many
other substances, are in different states of electricity,
that is, plus and minus in relation to each other.
lt is stated by different authors, that whenever a
body is charged with positive electricity, it tends to

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493

produce negative electricity hi. all the bodies in its
vicinity. {Lib, of U. Knowledge, Article Electricity.)
This, fact alone is sufficient to refute the doctrine of
two distinct fluids. How is it possible to conceive
that a body charged with vitreous or positive elec
tricity, can communicate electricity of another species
to a body in its vicinity ? The difference is only in
degree. The communicating body being charged
plus, imparts a portion of its electricity to bodies near
it, which become minus or negative. Every attempt
to improve this simple and beautiful theory of our
¦countryman, Dr. Franklin, has only rendered the
subject of electricity more complicated and obscure.
A distinction has been inferred from the difference of
form and colour of electric sparks produced by posi
tive and negative electricity. As well might we say
- that there are different species of caloric, modifying
the numerous colours of flame in ordinary combustion.
The colour and form of the electric spark depends on
its size, and on the nature ofthe conductor through
which it passes.
It is stated, that if a plate of glass with a polished
surface be rubbed against one that is roughened, the
former always acquires the vitreous, and the latter the
resinous electricity, {See Lib. U. K.) What bet
ter proof could be required, that in the above cases
there are not two distinct electricities developed ; but
that in one case it is plus, while in the other it is
minus. It is difficult to conceive how Sir Humphrey Davy
.mistook the attraction between electricity and ponder
able matter, for an attraction between two electrici
ties. When the ponderable elements attract each
other, he supposed that it was owing to the attraction
of positive for negative electricity.
Now it is demonstrable, that when two bodies are
•charged with the same electricity, one plus and the
other minus, whether positive or negative, they attract
each other — so that it is the attraction of electricity
for ponderable inatter,that causes bodieswhich contain
different quantities of electricity to combine. Will it
be said that the attraction of my hand for frozen
mercury is owing to its being filled with positive
electricity, and the mercury with a different species
of electricity, which is called resinous ? — and that it
is the attraction of the two electricities for each other
which causes the effect? The idea is preposterous.
The hand is plus and the mercury is minus — and
caloric is attracted from the plus to the minus body.
The above mistake Has been a perpetual barrier to a
clear understanding of electrical attraction.
To enumerate all the effects of caloric would be to
give. a history of universal nature.
Vol. IL— Nos. 77 & 78 3 R

It has been found that different quantities of caloric
are required to raise different bodies to the same tem
perature. For example, it requires double the quan
tity of heat to raise a pound of water from 32 to 100
degrees of F., that it does to raise a pound of spermaceti
oil to the same temperature. The quantity of heat
necessary to raise different bodies to the same tempe
rature, has been termed by some chemical writers,
their " specific caloric" — and by others " their heat
of capacity" — which are, both, vague and inappro
priate expressions of what is meant. Whenever we
use the phrase " specific caloric," we mean the quan
tity of heat which is combined with the atoms of dif
ferent bodies in a latent state, which determines their.
volumes and specific gravities. In reality, it is diffi
cult to conceive any other cause of specific gravity,
except the constituent caloric which is combined with
the ultimate atoms of different bodies. The reason
why spermaceti oil, the ethers, alcohol, and all gaseous
bodies, require less caloric to raise their temperatures
a given number of degrees, than that of water, is, that
they already contain a greater quantity of heat be
tween their molecules, in proportion to the amount of
matter, than water does. For example, the con
stituent heat of alcohol greatly exceeds that of water,
which is proved by the following experiment.
If an ounce by weight of ice, be put into two
ounces of alcohol, and the same quantity into two
ounces of water at the same thermometric tempera
ture, the ice in the alcohol dissolves much more rapidly
than in the water — showing, that the ice receives
caloric from the alcohol faster than from the water.
The same thing is true of brandy, gin, and with the
different species of wine, according to the relative
quantity of alcohol which they contain.
It has been rendered extremely probable by the
experiments of Dulong and Petit, " that the atoms of
all the simple elements are equally heated or cooled
by equal accessions or abstractions of heat. Should
this beautiful and comprehensive law be verified by
more extensive research, it will afford a key to the
atomic constitution of matter, by which we shall be
enabled to trace the relations of caloric to ponderable
matter, through all the diversified phenomena of na
ture. It has been already found, that the specific
gravity of all the gases, is the inverse measure of their
specific caloric — that of hydrogen being least, it con
tains the largest amount of latent heat. The specific
gravity of aqueous vapour, is less than that of atmo
spheric air, but its latent heat is greater, and so of
all the gases."
From the above facts and observations, it follows,
that one of the principal functions of caloric is to give

494

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

volume to bodies by keeping their particles asunder ; —
that in reality all light bodies are composed chiefly
of caloric in a latent state. Hence, the reason why
gases and all light spongy substances are bad' con
ductors of caloric, which repels its own particles ;
while the densest bodies, such as gold, platinum,
and silver, are good conductors.* It would be in
teresting to trace the few exceptions to this general
law : for example, why melted resins are better
conductors than in the solid state, together with a few
others. The small specific gravity of wool, furs, silk,
sponge, cork, &c, has been attributed by Dr. Thom
son to the diffusion of air through their interstices;
but we have shown that the bulk of atmospheric air,
and of all other bodies, is owing to caloric, which is
easily demonstrated by condensing them by pressure,
when light and heat are copiously given out, and
in many cases accompanied by electrical phenomena.
The identity of caloric and electricity is strikingly
exhibited by their analogous effects on ponderable
matter. Electricity, as well as caloric, expands at
mospheric air, water, &c Dr. Franklin filled a small
glass tube with water, and sent a charge of electricity
through it, by which it was shattered to pieces, thrown
all over the room, and the water evaporated. The
same effect is still more obvious with oil. Electricity
inflames ether, alcohol, and gunpowder, renders wine
red-hot, singes the hair of animals, sets houses, trees,
&c, on fire.
The calorific effect of lightning is so intense, that,
when it passes down a metallic chain, instead of a
rod, it often fuses the chain so as to part it, doubt
less owing to the retardation of the electric fluid, by
the air between the links, which is a bad conductor.
The damage which is usually produced on houses,
ships, trees, &c, by lightning, is owing to their being
imperfect conductors ; and consequently arresting or
retarding the fluid, until it tears, burns, and fuses
them. Caloric repels its own particles, and is
attracted by ponderable matter ; the same is true of
electricity. They are also both conducted by the same
materials. Caloric and electricity are both attracted
by points. Caloric enters slowly into a smooth me
tallic body, but rapidly into one which presents a
great many points. They are both produced by fric
tion, by pressure, and by chemical action.
That caloric, or electricity, is greatly concentrated
on quitting a mass of vapour in the form of lightning,
is proved by the fact, that a single spark or streak

* That it is the expansive power of caloric which raises water
into the atmosphere, and not its affinity for air, is evident from the
experiments of Mr. Dalton. who proved that evaporation p-nes on

causes a general precipitation of rain ; from which we
are authorized to infer, that its force and velocity are
owing to its condensation. When greatly compressed
in the form of steam, the velocity of its explosion is
instantaneous. Flannel, worn next the skin, acquires electrical
properties, because a bad conductor, and gives out
sparks freely on rubbing it. Signor Matracci, of Forli,
found by experiment, that when glass plates were ex
posed to the solar rays, they became electric if no
clouds intervened.
The rapid motion of electricity has been considered
as an argument against its identity with caloric ; but
we have proved that the rapidity of its motion, is
owing to its accumulation. When caloric is greatly
accumulated in iron, as when it is brought to a white
heat, it is radiated with great velocity, carrying off
with it portions ofthe metal in a state of incandescence,
or sparks, with a rapidity resembling the electric
spark. The spark from flint and steel is produced
by the percussion of hard bodies, and moves with
great rapidity.
Electricity can be drawn from a prime conductor
gradually, by means of a sharp metallic point, with
out producing a spark, when it becomes a constant
current while the cylinder is turning : — and, if directed
On the forehead, it produces the sensation of a pleasant
breeze. If the human body be insulated while the
current is passing into it from the prime conductor,
it is very soon saturated, when the fluid runs over —
the hair stands erect, until the body is brought near
to a conductor, when it passes off, and the equilibrium
is restored. It cannot be contended, that the velocity of the
electric fluid is greater than that of the solar rays.
Caloric, like electricity, moves with a velocity pro
portioned to its intensity at its source. Caloric and
electricity, in all their forms, produce the same light.
The combustion of charcoal by a current of galvanic
electricity, causes the most vivid light in nature,
except that of the solar beams. When decomposed
with a prism, they present the same elements.
We have been thus particular in elucidating the
subject of electricity, in connexion with caloric, from
a deep conviction of its importance — and because we
believe that it is not rightly understood. It is con
trary to that simplicity which characterizes all the
operations of nature, to make a primary distinction
between them ; consequently it is unphilosophical to
consider them as separate branches of pneumatology.
much more rapidly in an exhausted receiver than under common
atmospheric pressure.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

495

Though we do not pretend to understand how it is,
that caloric in all cases exhibits electrical phenomena,
we have proved, that, independent of caloric, electri
city has no existence.
We have no evidence that either caloric or electri
city is ever visible, unless when combined with other
matter in a state of expansion. There is no matter
which does not become luminous when greatly ex
panded by this subtile element. The light of a candle
is produced by the expansion of its combustible ma
terials by caloric -—from which it follows, that light
is composed of ponderable matter in a state of ex
treme diffusion.
Dr. Fusinieri found by experiment, that the electric
spark, drawn from metallic conductors, carries off with
it a portion of the metal, in a state of fusion, or of
incandescent molecules, whatever be the nature of tlie
metal. Are we not authorized to infer from the above
facts, that solar light is composed of the matter of the
sun, so exceedingly expanded by caloric, as to become
phosphorescent and imponderable ? The expansion
of solid matter into light by caloric, is, perhaps, the
nearest approach to the ultimate division of matter,
that we can conceive.
Sir Isaac Newton supposed, that an ounce of pon
derable matter might be so diffused, as to fill the whole
space of the solar system — that not a quarter of an
inch should be unoccupied by a portion of its par
ticles. In so large a body of matter as the sun, is there
not caloric enough constantly evolved, by chemical
agency, to bear off a portion of its matter through all
the illimitable field of space ? It is not a little sur
prising, that the production of light by common com
bustion, did not long ago lead philosophers to this
conclusion. They generally agree, that in light, calo
ric is pombined with some other material. In the case
of a burning candle, what is it, but the diffusion of its
combustible matter !*
That portion of the matter of light which is not
caloric, probably combines with the ponderable mat
ter ofthe earth, and other planets, and thus loses its
phosphorescent properties, becoming a portion of com
mon matter. Sir Isaac Newton asks the question,
" are not light and common matter convertible into
each other ?" If the above facts and analogies esta
blish the affirmative of this important query, as we
think they do most clearly, the conclusion follows,
that all the planets and comets, including satellites,
and meteoric stones, are emanations from the sun —
that they have been formed by the aggregation of so-
* It has been ascertained by the experiments of M. M. Nobili
and MellOni, that phosphorescent matter is always accompanied by

lar light — that they are slowly but constantly aug
menting in size — and that after inconceivably long
periods of revolving cycles, they will successively re
turn to the great source from which they came, by
which their existence as planets, &c will be brought
to an end, supplying the waste occasioned by solar
radiation. We have no doubt, that the numerous
meteoric stones which have fallen upon the earth
since the historical era, were formed by the aggrega
tion of light, far beyond our atmosphere— that they
revolved around our planet in obedience to its at
traction, for unknown periods of time, until that attrac
tion brought them to its surface.
It is estimated by astronomers, that the eccentricity
of the earth's orbit is slowly diminishing ; and that
the moon has been moving quicker and quicker,
since the first recorded eclipses. Sir William Her-
schel, and M. Laplace, supposed that the sun and
all the planets were formed by the consolidation of
what they termed nebulous matter. Without going
back so far, we consider it extremely probable, that all
cometary bodies are formed by the gradual consolida
tion of solar light, at great distances from the sun —
that after they are thus formed, they obey his attrac
tive influence, and return towards him with a velocity
increasing as the squares of the distance diminish —
but that they are prevented from falling into the sun,
by the deflecting attraction of some other body, by
which they are carried, around the sun' with extreme
rapidity, and so back to the point from which they
started, with a velocity diminishing as the squares of
the distance increase. During such a revolution, it
is evident, that the comet must describe an elliptical
orbit, which gradually becomes more and more cir
cular, as it increases in size, solidity, and rotundity,
until it becomes a planetary orb. When such bodies
are formed in the vicinity of a planet, they become
moons, or satellites, and revolve about it, as the moons
of Jupiter and Herschel.
Thus we may form some idea of the first origin of
the. beautiful worlds that revolve around the sun, and
learn that their motions were commenced by the same
power which has kept them revolving ever since ; and
that the original " projectile force" exerted on them,
was that of gravitation.
Should any one deem it incredible, that a fluid so
ethereal and refined as solar light, may be condensed
into solid and opaque bodies, like the earth and other
planets, we would refer him to the daily occurrence
of this wonderful metamorphosis, in the conversion
of common matter into flame or light, in our domestic

caloric, though in small proportion. {See Annates de Chim. et de
Phys. for October, 1831.)

496

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

fires ; and its reconversion into gases, liquids, and
solids. All that we behold in nature leads to the
conclusion, that every part of the universe is governed
by the same laws, from the minutest atoms, to the
largest bodies.
From the preceding premises, it follows, that there
was a time when the earth did not exist ; and that a
period must arrive, when it will be resolved into the
great ocean of fire from which it sprung — that accord
ing to the language of sacred writ, " the earth shall
be burnt up" — when all that it contains, shall be re-
dissolved into its primitive elements. When contem
plating this vast circulation of the solar system, and
the incomputable periods of time required for the form
ation of such large bodies as Jupiter and Saturn,
the human mind becomes sensible of its limits, while
it is elevated and expanded by such views of infinite
power, wisdom, and harmony. Compared with the
immensity and duration ofthe solar system, our globe,
with all its geological revolutions, dwindles into a
petty province, marked by a few insignificant epochs.
We know from actual observation, that the matter of
our planet is in a state of unceasing circulation ; that
the internal portions of the earth, are forced up by
subterranean heat, as if by the power of a mighty heart,
to the surface, forming mountains and hills ; while
rains, rivers, and springs, are perpetually reducing
them to plains, and transporting them into the ocean,
again to be elevated above its waters, and to form
new mountains. Thus we behold with the spiritual
eye of philosophy, the whole universe in a state of
perpetual motion — and that through all its untold revo
lutions, it is under the guidance of that unchangeable
Being, who " clothes himself with light as with a
garment — who maketh the clouds his chariots ; who
rideth upon the wings of the wind, and who maketh
his ministers a flaming fire." Sir John Herschel
expresses himself at a loss to conceive how so enor
mous a conflagration as that of the sun can be kept
up. He says, ( Treatise on Astronomy, p. 202,) " if
conjecture might be hazarded, we should look rather
to the known possibility of an indefinite generation
of heat by friction, or to its excitement by the electric
discharge, than to any actual combustion of ponder
able matter, whether solid or gaseous, for the origin
of the solar radiation."
According to our theory, it results from chemical
agency. It is estimated by geologists, that there are
about 200 volcanoes in operation, on the surface of
our continents, and double the number beneath the
ocean, making 600, which are owing to subterranean
chemical action, and which evolve an enormous quan
tity of heat. Now if the sun be several hundred

thousand times as large as the earth ; and if he be
subject to the same chemical laws, he must evolve as
many hundred thousand times as much light and heat
by chemical, or volcanic agency, as the earth, and
all sufficient to supply the solar radiation. Moreover,
if we admit the existence of several hundred thousand
enormous volcanoes to be distributed over the sun, there
must be large opaque spaces between them, termed
spots, some of which are supposed to be 45,000 miles in
diameter. Whatever may be thought of such specu
lations, we are warranted to conclude from analogy,
that the amount of heat evolved from all bodies by
chemical action, is in proportion to the amount of
matter, arid that it is equal in all given periods pf
time. If the earth were as large as the sun, it would
evolve as much heat as the sun by chemical agency,
which would carry off continually a portion of its
matter in the form of light, giving birth and anima
tion to new worlds, and supplying them with light
and life as the sun now does to the planets of the sO-
lar system.
Some philosophers have supposed, that those large
planets, termed Saturn and Herschel, are uninhabit
able, owing to their immense distance from the sun.
But if there be an evolution of latent or combined
heat, from all bodies, by chemical agency, in propor
tion to the amount of matter which they contain, these
immense planets may enjoy a temperature of their
own, which, in connexion with the heat derived from
the sun, may produce a climate more equable and
delightful thari that of the earth, adapted to the most
refined and exalted conditions of organic life. More
over, if the atmospheres of Herschel and Saturn cor
respond in weight and density with their size, they
must retain the solar rays, as in the polar regions of
our own planet, where the temperature is from 80 to
90 degrees higher in the sun than in the shade ;
while in the tropics, the difference is not more than
47° F. These immense and remote bodies, may have
been peopled by far higher and nobler orders of in
telligence than man, for millions of ages ; while the
existence of man on the earth, according to the testi
mony of geology, does not extend beyond a few thou
sand years. What progress may they not have made
in the boundless march of improvement ! — exceeding,
perhaps, our loftiest conceptions of flaming cherubim
and seraphim.
What shall we say of those theorists, who deny
the materiality of both light and heat ? — who reject
the evidence of their senses ? — and who will not be
lieve in the existence of any thing which cannot be
weighed with our imperfect balances, like a loaf of
bread ? They know that caloric increases the volume

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497

of matter ; — they also know that light is decomposable,
and that it produces chemical changes on other mat
ter ; — yet they maintain, that they are merely the re
sult of motion among the particles of bodies. If
asked what causes this motion among the atoms of
ponderable matter, they are silent. If they are re
ferred to the elastic power of caloric in a steam engine,
they are equally at a loss. Admitting that caloric is
the effect of motion among the particles of water in
the boiler, what causes the motion ? It is something
which produces palpable and visible expansion ; —
therefore, must be matter.
Dr. Young, and Sir John Herschel, tell us, that
light consists of the periodic movements of an elastic
medium which pervades all space — regularly recur
ring at equal intervals, no less than five hundred
millions of millions of times in a single second. That
it is by such movements communicated to the nerves
of our eyes, that we see ; — nay, more, that it is the
frequency of their recurrence which affects us with
the sense of the diversity of colours ; that, for instance,
in acquiring the sensation of redness, our eyes are
affected four hundred and eighty-two millions of mil
lions of times ; of yellowness, five hundred and forty
millions of millions of times ; and of violet, seven
hundred and seven millions of millions of times per
second.* The question naturally arises, what is the elastic
medium to which these distinguished philosophers re
fer, if it be not caloric ? — and what is the cause of
the rapid periodic movements, to which they attribute
the sensation of different colours, admitting that such
periodic movements do exist ? We doubt very much
whether the above theory will stand the test of rigid
analysis. It reminds us of Sir John Herschel's defi
nition of abstract science; contained in the second
chapter of his really beautiful Discourse on Natural
Philosophy. He says, " that abstract science is inde
pendent of a state of nature— of creation — of every
thing, in short, except memory, thought, and reason."
We confess ourselves 'unable to comprehend the
meaning of such definitions.
Those who maintain that solar light is the result
of undulations of an elastic medium, must suppose
that the laws of nature are not uniform ; or that the
light of a candle is also produced by the undulations
of an elastic medium. The undulatory theory of
light is encompassed with difficulties which to us
appear insurmountable. 1. It assumes the existence
Of an imaginary elastic medium. 2. It assumes
* See a Discourse on the Studyof Natural Philosophy, by J. F.
W. Herschel, Esq., F. R. S., and Young's Lectures on Natural
Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 62.7.

the existence of different numbers of vibrations or
undulations, to produce the various colours — while
we know from the best defined experiments of New
ton and other philosophers, that all the primary co
lours may be separated by the prism, and seen at the
same moment. Now if all these vibrations occur
simultaneously, it is evident that they would produce
a total confusion of all colours. The whole theory
involves an unnecessary complication of the subject,
while the Newtonian theory of emanations of a subtile
and material compound fluid, is perfectly simple and
intelligible. Nothing is more surprising than that such men as
Count Rumford and Sir Humphrey Davy, should
have doubted the material and independent existence
of caloric. Sir Humphrey Davy supposed, that ca
loric was often produced by the combination of vitre
ous and resinous electricity — in which opinion he has
been followed by Winterl and Oerstedt.
That the reader may more fully understand the
views of Sir Humphrey Davy in regard to the nature
of caloric, we shall present the following quotation
from his Chemical Philosophy, page 52 ; observing
at the same time, that we think it the most incon
clusive reasoning contained in his valuable work,
and altogether unworthy of so great a man.
" When the temperature of bodies is raised by
friction, there seems to be no diminution of their ca
pacities, using the word in its common sense ; and
in many chemical changes connected with an increase
of temperature, there appears to be likewise an increase
of capacity. A piece of iron made red hot by ham
mering, cannot be strongly heated a second time by
the same means, unless it has been previously intro
duced into a fire. This fact has been explained by
supposing that the fluid of heat has been pressed out
of it by the percussion, which is recovered in the fire ;
but this is a very rude mechanical idea. The ar
rangement of its parts are altered by hammering in
this way, and it is rendered brittle. By a moderate
degree of friction, as it would appear from Rumford's
experiments, the same piece of metal may be kept
hot for any length of time ; so that if heat be pressed
out, the quantity must be inexhaustible. t When any
body is cooled, it occupies a smaller volume than be
fore : it is evident, therefore, that its parts must have
approached towards each other. When the body is
expanded by heat, it is equally evident, that its parts
must have separated from each other. The imme
diate cause, then, of heat, is motion, and the laws of
t , It. is certainly inexhaustible while any of the metal remains
to be condensed by the pressure and friction.

498

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its communication are precisely the same as the laws
of the communication of motion."
" Since all matter may be made to fill a smaller
volume by cooling, it is evident that the particles of
matter must have space between them ; and since
every body can communicate the power of expansion
to a body of a lower temperature, that is, ean give
an expansive motion to its particles, it is a probable
inference, that its own particles are possessed of mo
tion ; but as there is no change in the position of its
parts as long as its temperature is uniform, the mo
tion, if it exist, must be a vibratory or undulatory
motion, Or a motion of particles round each other."
We have called the attention of the reader to this
passage, because it has influenced the opinions of
many other writers, both in England and in this
country ; and because we think it fundamentally er
roneous. A remarkable proof of the mechanical force of ca
loric was exhibited the other evening in this city.
On the 7th of May, about eight o'clock in the even
ing, the porter and victualling house of Mr. Wood
ward, 553 Grand Street, was struck by lightning,
and considerable injury done to the wall and pro
perty. Thence it passed off across the street in an
oblique direction, and struck the house of Mr. Swee-
sey, corner of Mangin and Grand Streets, entering
near the eaves under a dormant window, which was
shivered to atoms; while a lady who sat near it
happily escaped unhurt. In its passage through the
house, it overturned a bedstead and bed completely
upside down, injured the furniture, and upset a barrel
of pickles in the lower part of the house. The hole
which it made in entering the house, was nearly as
large as a barrel. {Vide New York Courier and
Enquirer.) Mr. Lyell relates, on the authority of Dr. Hibbert,
that at Funzie, in Fetlar, one of the Shetlands, about
the middle of the last century, " a rock of mica schist,
one hundred and five feet broad, and in some places
four feet thick, v/as in an instant torn by a flash of
lightning from its bed, and broken into three large,
and several lesser fragments. One of these, twenty-
six feet long, ten feet broad, and four feet thick, was
simply turned over. The second, which was twenty-
eight feet long, seventeen broad, and five feet, in
thickness, was hurled across a high point to the dis
tance of fifty yards. Another broken mass, about 40
feet long, was thrown still farther, in the same direc
tion, quite into the sea. There were also many les
ser fragments scattered up and down."
We have taken this general view of caloric, for
the purpose of showing the various appearances

which it exhibits, under different circumstances.
There are strong reasons for believing, that the au
rora borealis and australis, is one of the forms of ca
loric, which is given out by the upper current of the
atmosphere, as it passes to the poles-
It is a well known law, that all matter gives out
caloric, in passing from a rarer to a denser state ; and
we know that the density of the atmosphere greatly
increases as we advance from the lower to the higher
latitudes. We also know that the atmosphere, like
all other bodies, owes its bulk to caloric. Hence it
follows, that caloric must be given out by the atmo-
phere, as it passes from a rarer to a denser state. M.
Hansteen says, " that it is a matter of common obser
vation, in the arctic regions, confirmed by long ex
perience, that the aurora borealis is accompanied by
intense cold, especially after a mild day. He adds
further, that while the aurorse are streaming, the sky
becomes opaque or misty. He thinks that the aurora
takes from the transparent aqueous vapour a portion
of its caloric, and that it first becomes luminous on
passing out of the atmosphere." M. Hansteen also
states, that the aurorse are accompanied by an in
crease of magnetic intensity — that, when they are
vivid, the horizontal needle is restless, quivers, and
varies from three to five degrees from its ordinary
place. {See Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,
vol. 12, p. 89.)
It is not a little surprising^ that M. Hansteen was
not led by these facts to the theory above suggested.
He considers the aurora as " probably the result of a
struggle of powers put in activity by the variously
constituted substances composing the mass of earth,
which we may one day, perhaps, learn to know ;" —
" that it decomposes the aqueous vapour of the polar
atmosphere, thus producing the polar fogs ;" — from
which it is evident that M. Hansteen's views of this
singular phenomenon were vague and indefinite.
Notwithstanding the amount of caloric given out
by the upper equatorial currents as they pass to the
poles, very little effect is produced by it in moderating
the climate, as it escapes into the regions above —
where not being compressed by the atmosphere, it
expands like the electric spark in an exhausted tube,
into broad bands or zones and columns— filling the
sky with halos, or crowns of lambent light or undula
ting coruscations.
It is highly probable that the aurorse are formed in
the upper and rarefied regions of the atmosphere —
and that the different apparent heights of the columns
are owing to their different distances from the point
of observation.When the atmosphere between the observer and the

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499

lights is hazy, they appear crimson or irised, for the
same reason that the sun rises and sets red, when the
lower atmosphere is filled with vapours. The aurora
is seldom, if ever seen between the tropics, because
the atmosphere is not convinced within the tropics ;
and it generally ceases shortly after 12 o'clock at night
because the atmosphere acquires nearly its maximum
density by that hour. The arched appearance of the
aurora is an optical illusion, produced by the limits
of vision, according to the laws of perspective, for the
same reason that the sky presents a vaulted appear
ance—or a canopy of clouds which appears to be
arched, while in reality they are suspended in hori
zontal strata.
It is worthy of notice, that the northern lights are
most numerous and vivid during the long polar
night, while the cold is most intense, when the up
per current from the equator in its passage to the
pole is greatly condensed ; and that they are then
exhibited in much lower latitudes than during sum
mer. It is stated by Sir W. E. Parry and by Captain
Scoresby, that during winter in the high latitudes, the
aurora were discovered more frequently south than
north of Spitzbergen and Melville Island — from which
we may conclude, that they are rarely formed over
the latitudes of greatest cold ; because the atmosphere
arrives at its maximum density at the limits of great
est cold.
It is also an important fact corroborating this view
of the subject, that they are seen in lower latitudes in
the middle and eastern portions of America and Eu
rope, than on the western ; which are known to be
considerably colder than the western, in the same
latitudes, which is owing to the prevalence of west
winds, which blow from the Pacific and Atlantic
oceans, and thus temper the middle latitudes of west
ern coasts. The effect is increased by the condensa
tion of aqueous vapour which is brought from the
Pacific and Atlantic oceans by the prevalent west
winds of the middle latitudes, and which gives out
caloric during its condensation and precipitation on
the western coasts. Hence, the greater amount of
rain which falls on the western coasts of America
and Europe, than on the middle and interior portions
— hence, also, the dryness of our west winds in the
United States, east of the Rocky Mountains ; having
deposited their vapour on the western side before
reaching the interior. These facts enable us to un
derstand why our west winds are dry — while in
England and France they are wet, and east winds
dry. The aurora is seen much oftener in Vermont, (be

tween latitude forty-two and forty-four degrees N.)
which is a cold mountainous state, than in France or
England, though they are much farther north. Gene
ral Martin Field has recorded in the American Jour
nal of Science, that during the year 1830-^31, the
aurora was perceived on fifty-six nights ; and that
during ten years previously it was observed eighteen
nights on an average, annually, at Fayettville, Vt.
We have been asked why the aurorae are not con
tinually formed, as the atmosphere is perpetually
flowing from the tropical to the higher latitudes ?
We might as well be asked why there is not perpetu
al thunder and lightning while the atmosphere is
charged with vapours moving from the sea over the
land ? The condensations which occur in both cases
are temporary and unequal, and depend on the rela
tive temperatures of different aerial masses. When
the upper current of warm atmosphere, charged with
vapour, comts in contact with the cold air of the
polar regions, it gives out a large portion of caloric,
and the aurorae are vivid ; but when the condensa
tion is less considerable, the caloric is given out im
perceptibly. The aurora is probably given off during the con
densation of the upper equatorial current, .with the
vapour which it contains, in a mode similar to the
evolution of silent lightning of a summer evening,
which produces a lambent light, much more like the
aurora than the common lightning. It is highly
probable, that the electric fluid is nearly all given
out before the upper current reaches the centre of
maximum cold, which explains why the aurora is
less brilliant at Melville Island, than at Bear Lake,
the Shetlands, Orkneys, &c It also explains wjny in
the coldest regions, as at Port Bowen, Winter Island,
&c, the magnetic needle was not sensibly affected by
it, as in the United States, and in the north of Europe ;
and why in the former places it was almost always
seen by the British navigators southward of them.
Siberia, Lapland, and the Norwegian Alps, are
distinguished bythe frequent display of this beautiful
meteor. If is said by Bergman, " that persons travel
ling over the high mountains of Norway have been
enveloped in it." It is also stated by Captain Cook
and other voyagers,' that it is frequenly seen in the
southern hemisphere, south of Van Diemen's land, and
off Cape Horn, where the cold is excessive.
Thus we perceive, that the whole earth is sur
rounded by an ocean of unseen but living fire. It
is that which gives beauty and lustre to the blue em
pyrean dome — which dissolves and suspends the wa
ters of the ocean on high — and which lets them fall
in " fruitful showers to cheer the plains below." It,

500

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

is the active spirit of the storm and tempest — while
it clothes the fields with living green, and causes all
nature to rejoice.
Whoever unfolds aright the grandeur and harmony
of these manifestations of Infinite Wisdom, may be
said, in the language of the eloquent Galen, " to
chant a solemn hymn of lofty adoration to the great
Author of the universe."
If the facts and principles which we have thus
endeavoured to unfold be founded in truth, we can
perceive no limits to their application. They are
intimately connected with all the phenomena of living
and dead matter, and therefore with every depart
ment of human knowledge. The philosophy of

chemical affinity is still in its infancy, and presents a
far more extensive field for discovery, than has ever
yet been explored. He who enters upon it with en
larged views, and cultivates it with unwearied appli
cation, will greatly extend the boundaries of science,
and will derive from his labours more imperishable
renown, than that of the conqueror, who wades to a
diadem, through the blood and tears of suffering
humanity. To control the operations of nature,
and render her elements subservient to the happiness
of millions, is the most noble prerogative of enlight*
ened and philanthropic man ; and raises him to com
munion with the ever blessed spirit of eternal

truth.

END OF VOL. II.

INDEX.

The subjects marked with an asterisk (*) in the Index, are additions of the American Editor.

Abraham, battle of the heights of, i. 176.
* Adams, Samuel, excluded from the general pardon, after the battle
of Lexington, i. 224.
*  , John, the father of the American navy; report in the legis
lature of Massachusetts, i. 230.
 's administration, i. 315.
*  , John Quincy, his speech to Lafayette; and the general's
answer, i. 361.
Agriculture of the United States, ii. 139 ; progressive improvement
of, 140 ; clearing the land, 141 ; manures, drainage, ib. ; culture of
wheat, rye, turnips, &c., 142 ; animals employed in, 144.
Alabama, topography of, ii. 466 ; produce, ib. ; roads, 467 ; chief
towns, ih. ; admitted into the Union, i. 353.
Alexandria, ii. 440 ; surrender of, i. 340.
Alligator,' the, ii. 133.
America, supposed early discoveries of, i. 11 ; hostilities commenced
in 1775, i. 223.
* American literature, with notices of several writers and their works,
from the earliest history of the country, ii. 272.
Amherst College", ii. 341.
Amygdaloid, ii. 43.
Andre, Major, execution of, i. 281.
Annapolis, ii. 422.
Antinomian dissensions, i. 52. .
Apalachian Indians, war with, i. 149 ; mountains, ii. 5 ; geology of,
44 ; character of, 52.
Arkansas River, ii. 12 ; territory, ii. 472 ; town of, ib.
Arnold, General, treachery of, i. 230 ; memoir of, ib.
*  , his conduct in the campaign of 1777, i. 265,
Arts, state of, in the United States, ii. 285.
* — , progress of, in the United States, ii. 302.
Assemblies, ii 307.
•Astoria, ii. 476.
Athens, university of, ii. 409.
Atlantic slope, ii. 4.
* Attraction of caloric, ii. 479.
Augusta, ii. 335 — 466.
Augustine, Fort, expedition against, i. 148.
* Avon, waters of, described by Ur. J. W. Francis, of New York; con
sidered efficacious in many diseases, ii. 81.

Bacon Academy, ii. 346.
Baltimore, city of, ii. 422 ; battle near, i. 340 ; college of, ii. 421.
* Ballston waters analyzed by Dr. Hosack, ii. 76.
Bangor, ii. 335.
Banks, number of, ii. 205 ; bank of United States, ib. ; charter, ib.
Baptists, persecution of, i. 60; in the United States, ii. 255.
* Barbary powers, humbled by the energy of the American navy, i. 326.
Barlow's voyage of discovery, i. 20.
Barrens, soil of, ii. 30.
Batesville, ii. 473.
Bath. ii. 335.
Vol. II. Nos. 77 & 78 3 S

Baton Rouge, ii. 472.
* Baum's defeat and death, with a minute account of the battle, i. 258.
Bear, the black, ii. 101 ; grizzly, 102.
Beasts, ii. 100.
Beaufort, ii. 462.
Beaver, the, ii. 105.
Bellamont, Earl, appointed governor of New York, i. 123; his death,
124.
Benevolent societies, ii. 271.
Bennington, ii. 339.
Berlin decree, effect of, i. 229.
Bermudas, the, sold, i. 30.
Bethlehem, ii. 408.
Beverley, ii. 343.
* Biddle, of the navy, i. 231.
Birds, ii. 110.
Bison, the, ii. 109.
Black mountains, ii. 14 ; geology of, 50.
Blakely, ii. 468.
Books, importation of, ii. 184.
Boston, description of, ii. 341 ; first church founded in, i. 48 ; first
general court at, ib. ; proclamation of William and Mary at, 67 ; the
peace of Ryswick proclaimed at, 72 ; riots at, 77 ; tumults in,
occasioned by the stamp act, 190; tumults in, 198; convention at,
199 ; arrival of troops at, ib. ; affray between the troops and popu
lace in, 203 ; convention at, 219 ; attacked by General Howe, 236.
Botany, ii. 84.
Boulders, ii. 58.
Bowdoin College, ii. 334.
* Braddock's defeat at Monongahela, i. 167.
* Bradstreet' s, Colonel, nature of the swell ofthe lakes, ii. 17.
Brandywine, battle of, i. 255.
Brattleborough, ii. 339.
Bridgeport, ii. 348.
Bristol, ii. 345.
British parliament, proceedings of, i. 192.
Brooklyn, ii. 389.
Brookville, ii. 413.
Brown University, ii. 344.
Brunswick, ii. 335 — 466.
* Bunker Hill, battle of, i. 226.
*  Monument, i. 356.
Burgoyne, General, surrenders to the Americana, i. 263.

¦'s surrender, i. 283.

Burlington, University of, ii. 338.
Burr, Colonel, conspiracy of, i. 329.

Cabot, voyage of, i. 12.
Cadron, ii. 473.
Cahokia, ii. 415. _
* Calef, Robert, the fearless exposer ofthe delusion of witchcraft, l. 69,
* Caloric, principles of, ii. 477.

502

INDEX,

Cambridge, introduction of printing at, i. 54.
Camden, battle near, i. 277.
Camp meetings, ii. 269.
Campaign of 1757, i. 169 ; of 1758, 171 ; of 1759, 173 ; of 1776, 245 ;
of 1779, 273.
Canada, French settlements in, i. 163; expedition to, in 1775,231;
evacuated by the American troops, 237 ; campaign in, 335.
* Canonicus, Indian chief, sold lands to Roger Williams, i. 105.
Cape Girardeau, ii. 418.
Carolina, North, topography of, ii. 448; produce, ib. ; agriculture,
449 ; chief towns, ib.
—  ¦-, South, topography of, ii. 458; soil, 459; roads, ib. ; chief
towns, 460.
-, North and South, history of, i. 139; charter granted to Lord

Clarendon, 140 ; settlement of emigrants from Barbadoes, ib. ; con
stitution, 141 ; Dutch colony transferred to, 143; sanguinary war
fare in, 281 ; several forts surrendered, 283.
Caroline, Fort, taken by the Spaniards, i. 16.
Carpeting, manufacture of, ii. 181.
Cartier, voyage of, i. 13 ; his second attempt at discovery, ib.
* Carver, John, the first governor of Plymouth colony, i. 42.
Castine, ii. 335.
Census taken in 1801, i. 322.
* Chatham, Earl of, honoured and esteemed in America, i. 171.
Champlain, Lake, naval engagement on, i. 253.
Charlestown, Massachusetts, ii. 343.
Charleston, ii. 460 ; settlement at, i. 47 ; defeat of the British at,
i. 240 ; siege of, 1780, i. 270.
Charlottesville, ii. 444.
* Cherokee alphabet, invented by George Guess, his Indian name See-
quah-yah, ii. 317.
Cherokees, present state of, ii. 317.
Chesapeake Bay, Captain Newport first lands in, i. 25 ; builds James
town, ib.
 frigate, attack on the, i. 329.
¦  and Ohio canal, ii. 440.
Chestertown, ii. 422.
Chillicolhe, ii. 411.
Chippewa, battle of, i. 339.
Chippewayan desert, ii. 43, 476, or Rocky mountains, ii. 6 ; geology
of, 40.
* Cholera, in the United States ; its progress and fatality, i. 382.
Cincinnati, ii. 411.
Circulating medium, observations on, ii. 203 ; amount of, ib.
Civil list, ii. 207.
Classop, Fort, ii. 476.
Clarksville, ii. 458.
Cleveland, ii. 411.
* Clinton, De Witt, nature of tides in the lakes of the West, ii. 15.
Climate, ii. 18; very cold region, ib.; cold region, 19; temperate
region, 20 ; hot region, 21 ; general view of temperature, 23.
*  and pestilence, Dr. Francis's remark, ii. 37.
*  Dr. Hosack on the same, ii. 37.
* Climatology, ii. 478.
Coal, ii. 72 ; anasphaltic, 73 ; bituminous, ib.
Cochrane, Admiral, declaration of blockade by, i. 339.
Coffee, importation of, ii. 182.
* Colden's, Lt. Governor, observations on the diseases of New York,
ii. 35.
*  memoir of the New York canal ; a full history of the sub
ject, ii. 350.
Colleges, ii. 279.
Colonial government as instituted by King James, i. 24.
Columbia, topography of the district of, ii. 422.
 , Carolina, ii. 462.
;  College, ii. 386.
Columbus, ii. 411.
ttmmerce and navigation of the United States, ii. 175; state of, pre

vious to 1789, ib. ; rapid increase of, ib. ; state of, from 1807 — 1830,
176; exports, 177; products ofthe sea, ib. ; ofthe forest, ib.; of
agriculture, ib. ; exports of manufactures, ib. ; imports, 178 ; total
amount of imports, 184.
Concord, ii. 337.
Confederation, system of, adopted, i. 270.
Congregationalists, ii. 255.
* Congress, provincial, their proceedings the next day after the battle
of Lexington, i. 224.
Connecticut, topography of, ii. 345 ; trade, 346 ; chief towns, 347 ;
history of, i. 83; Dutch settlements, ib. ; emigration from Massa
chusetts, ib. ; hostilities of the Indians, 84 ; constitution of, 87 ;
union ofthe colonies, ib. ; patent granted by Charles II., 88; Indian
hostilities on the river, 89 ; penal enactments, 92 ; infringements on
civil and religious liberty, 96; constitution modified, 97.
Constitution of the United States, ii. 227 ; amendment of, 230.
Convention, general, in 1727, ii. 234.
Copper, ii. 70.
Cornwall, ii. 348.
Cornwallis, Lord, surrenders with his army, i. 287.
Corydon, ii. 413.
Cotton, culture of, ii. 145 ; manufacture of, 164 ; duties on, 180.
Cougar, the, ii. 100.
Creeks, treaty with the, i. 364.
Culpepper's insurrection, i. 143.
Cumberland, ii. 422.
Customs, ii. 196.

Darien, ii. 466.
Dartmouth College, ii. 336.
* Dearborn, in the campaign of 1777, &c, i. 264.
Debt, amount of the public, ii. 210 ; proposed extinction of, ib.
Declaration of independence, i. 242; of rights, 216; of war against
Great Britain, 1812, 333.
Deer, the, ii. 108.
Delaware, topography of, ii. 418 ; produce, ib. ; canals, ib. ; chief
towns, 419; vide Pennsylvania; contest for the possession of, i.
256 ; cession of, to the United States, i. 329.
, Lord, arrival of, in Virginia, i. 29.

Detroit, surrender of, i. 178, 337 ; site described, ii. 475.
Dickinson College, Carlisle, ii. 404.
Dieskau, Baron, defeat of, i. 167.
*  mortally wounded in Johnson's fight near Lake
George, i. 169.
Dissenters, persecuted, i. 49, 148.
* District of Columbia, history of; the government of; the taking of
Washington ; the schools in Washington ; the streets ; the market ;
soil and climate ; the situation ; the Capitol of the United States ;
the artists who ornamented the edifice, their productions ; the presi
dent's house ; Meridian Hill; the library; Congress; Columbian
Institute ; Colonization Society ; the medical faculty ; the manners
and customs of Washington city ; the nunnery, &c. &c, from the
pen of the American editor, ii. 422.
* Doctrines of South Carolina in regard to the construction of the
Constitution of the United States, i. 385.
Dover, ii. 337, 419.
Dress, American, ii. 307.
Duelling, bad practice of, ii. 309.
Du Quesne, Fort, capture of, i. 173.
* Dwight, Colonel, officer at the taking of Louisbourg, i. 76.

Eagle, the, ii. 110.
* Earthquakes, their effects on the waters of the lakes, ii. 18.
Easton, ii. 408.
Edenton, ii. 450.
Education, ii. 278; colleges, 279.

INDEX.

503

* Eaton, General, his exploits in Derne, at the head of a handful of
troops, i. 328.
Edwardsville, ii. 415.
Elizabethtown, ii. 403.
* English language, origin, rise, progress of, by S. L. Knapp, ii. 272.
Episcopalians, ii. 254.
Erie, Lake, ii. 7.
Eutau, battle of, i. 284.
Exeter, founded by Wheelwright, i. 80 ; site of, ii. 337.
Exports, tabular view of, ii. 188—195.
Fairfield, ii. 384.
Fairmount water-works, Philadelphia, ii. 407.
Falmouth burnt, 1775, i. 231.
Fayetteville, ii. 450, 458.
Finances, tabular view of, ii. 181.
Fish, ii. 134.
Flax, manufacture of, ii. 181.
* Flint's description of the Valley of the Mississippi, ii. 15.
Florida, taken possession of, i. 354 ; topography of, ii. 472 ; produce,
473 ; chief towns, ib. ; attempts of the Huguenots to colonize, i. 15.
Forests, effect of clearing, ii. 34.
Forest trees, ii. 84 ; oak, ib. ; walnut, 85; maple, 86 ; birch, 87; ash,
ib. ; elm, ib. ; chestnut, ib. ; beech, 88; pine, ib.; white pine, 89;
spruce, 90 ; cypress, ib. ; acacia, 91 ; poplar, 92.
Fossil remains, ii. 60.
France, secret negotiation of the States with, i. 268 ; recognizes the
independence of the States, 269 ; sends a fleet to their succour, 272 ;
the United States declare war against, 318 ; importations from, ii. 280.
* Franklin's, Doctor, correspondence with Lt. Governor Colden, upon
stereotyping, ii. 170.
Franklinlown, ii. 418, 458.
Frankfort, ii. 447.
Frederickstown, ii. 422.
Fredericksburg, ii. 444.
French and Indian wars from 1756 — 1763, i. 163 ; causes of the rup
ture, 165.
 . — troops arrive in the United States, i. 279.
Frenchtown, massacre at, i. 335.
Friends, ii. 257.
Frontignac, Fort, capture of, i. 173.
Fruit-trees, ii. 93.

Garrangula, chief of the five nations, his speech, i. 120.
Gaseous substances, ii. 82.
Geology, facilities for research, ii. 51 ; results of, 52 ; nomenclature, 53.
Georgia, topography of, ii. 462 ; produce, 463 ; chief towns, 466 ;
history of, i. 155; Indian chiefs visit England, 156; its advantages,
il. ; Spanish expedition against, 158; introduction of slaves, 159;
insurrection in 1749, 160 ; surrender their charter, 162.
 , College of, ii. 464.
Georgetown, ii. 462.
George, Fort, ii. 476.
Germantown, battle of, i. 256.
Gilbert obtains a charter of land in America from Queen Elizabeth, i.
18 ; his equipments, 19; arrives at Newfoundland, ib. ; sails for the
Isle of Sable, ib. ; is lost with his crew in a storm, ib.
Glass, manufacture of, ii. 168; importation of, 184.
Gloucester, ii. 343.
Gold, ii. 70; from Carolina, 448.
* Gold, from the American mint, and an account of, ii. 202; the regu
lation of the gold currency, ii. 203.
* Gordon's Gazetteer of New Jersey, ii. 403.
* Gorham, Colonel, officer at the taking of Louisbourg, i. 76.
Gosnold, voyage of discovery of, i. 23.
Gosport, ii. 444.
* Government of the province of Massachusetts Bay, i. 42.

Gravel, ii. 58.
* Graham's Letters on Vermont, ii. 339.
* Greene, General, his military services and character, i. 285,
Greenstone, ii. 42.
Grenville's voyage to Virginia, i. 21 ; his second voyage, 22.
* Gridley, Colonel, engineer of the works on Bunker Hill, June 17,
1775, i. 125.

Hagerstown, ii. 422.
Hallowell, ii. 335.
* Hamilton, Alexander, a writer in the Federalist, i. 300.
College, ii. 386.

Harper's Ferry, ii. 444.
Harrisburgh, ii. 408.
Harmony, ii. 413.
Hartford, ii. 347.
Harvard College, i. 54 ; ii. 340.
Hatteras, Cape, ii. 4.
Havre de Grace, ii. 422.
Hawkins's unsuccessful attempt to find a north-west passage, i. 18.
* Hayne, Colonel, senator in Congress, great speech of his on the doc
trines of the convention of South Carolina, i. 385.
Helena, ii. 473.
Hemp, culture of, ii. 142 ; manufacture of, 281.
Henderson, ii. 448.
Henry, the celebrated Patrick, speech of, i. 188.
* Hendrick, Indian chief, distinguished for his wisdom, fidelity, and
bravery, i. 165.
Herculaneum, ii. 418.
* Heyn, Dutch admiral, scours the sea of the pirates on the coast of
America, i. 112.
* History of New Jersey, by Smith, ii. 403.
Hopefield, ii. 473.
Horticulture, ii. 251.
*  , Dr. Francis's address to the New York Horticultural
Society, ii. 152.
* Horticulturists of the United States, Mitchell, Clayton, Jefferson,
Walter, Garden, Logan, Marshall, Rush, Colden, Livingston, Hol-
yoke, Cutler, Belknap, &c. &c, ii. 153.
* Hoyt, General, his account fully given of the battles immediately pre
ceding the surrender of Burgoyne and his army to the American
forces, i. 264.
Hudson's voyage in 1609, i. 111.
Huntsville, ii. 468.
Huron, Lake, ii. 7 ; geological state of, 59.
* Hutchinson , Anne, her religious opinions, her trial, admirable defence,.
exile, and fate, i. 38.
Illinois, topography of, ii. 413 ; admitted into the Union, i. 353 ; col
lege, ii. 414.
Immigrants into the United States, ii. 221.
Imports, total amount of, ii. 178; tabular view of, 188—195.
* Indians, the customs, manners, modes of living, fighting, their elo
quence, with some- passages of their history, ii. 277.
 , Elliot's efforts to convert the, i. 57; success of the gospel
among, 58 ; wars of, i. 81 ; wars in 1790, i. 306; characteristics of,
ii. 311 ; their customs, 313 ; religion, 314 ; wars, ib. ; number of, in
the States, 316.
Indiana, topography of, ii. 411 ; chief towns, 413.
Insects, ii. 137.
Iron, ii. 70 ; manufactures of, 166 ; importation of,-183.

* Jackson, president of the United States ; his inaugural speech, i. 386
* Jay, John, one of the writers of the Federalist, i. 300.
Jefferson, his administration, i. 320 ; retires, i. 330.
 College, ii. 404.

504

INDEX.

Jeffersontown, Missouri, ii. 418.
Jeffersonville, ii. 413.
* Johnson's fight near Lake George, i. 168.
* Jones's, Sir William, ingenious fragment of Greek history alleged to
be from Polybius, i. 291. i

Kansas, treaty with the, i. 365.
Kaskaskia, ii. 415.
Keene, ii. 337.
Kentucky, Jopograpby of, ii. 444; produce, 445; caves in, ib.; canal,
ib. ; chief towns,-447.
Kidd, Captain, piracies of, i. 123.
Knoxville, ii. 458.

La Fayette arrives in America, i. 355.
*  ¦  -'s departure from Washington city, i. 363.
Lancaster, ii. 408.
Language of the United States, ii. 272.
Laudonniere's expedition to Florida, L 15 ; his fleet destroyed in a
storm, ib.
Laws, American, ii. 242.
Lead, ii. 71.
Legislative power, ii. 235 ; circuit courts, 239.
Leisler usurps the governorship of New York, i. 120; is executed, 121.
Lewistown, ii. 419.
Lexington, ii. 444, 447.
*  , battle of, i. 223.
Litchfield, ii. 343. '
Literature, state of, ii. 281.
Little Rock, ii. 473.
Londonderry settled, i. 82.
Long Island, the Americans defeated in, i. 246.
Louisbourg, expedition against, i. 75 ; taken, 76 ; second capture of, i. 171 .
*  , taken by the forces from New England, i. 76.
Louisiana, purchased from France, i. 323 ; operations of the British
in, i. 341 ; topography of, ii. 470; produce, 471; chief towns, ib.
Louisville, ii. 443 ; canal, 445.
Lubeck, ii. 335.
* Lyman, General, second in command in Johnson's fight near Lake
George, i. 168.
Lynchbu.rg, ii. 444.
Lynn,ii. 343.

Machias, ii. 335.
* Madison, one of the authors of the Federalist, i. 300.
.  ¦  's administration, i. 331.
Madisonville, ii. 472.
Magnolia, ii. 92.
Maine, topography of, ii. 333 ; commerce, 334 ; submits to Massa
chusetts, i. 60 ; admitted into the Union, i. 354.
*  , histories of, ii. 385.
Manners of the Americans, ii. 303.
Manufactures, 159 ; state of, in 1789, ib. ; account of, 1810, 160 ; im
position of additional, duties in 1816, 161 ; further increase in 1824,
ib. ; proceedings in Congress, 1828, 162; general manufactures, 169.
*  .  ¦, rise and progress in America, i. 345.
Marblehead, ii. 343.
Marriages, ii. 307.
Marietta, ii. 411.
Maryland, history of, i. 136 ; granted by Charles II. to Lord Baltimore,
ib. ; rapid progress of, 137; first assembly, ib. ; persecution of the
Catholics and Quakers, 138 ; separated from Delaware, 139 ; topog
raphy of, ii. 419 ; produce and trade, 420 ; Canals, ib.; chief towns,
421 ; university of, ib.
Maserne or Ozark mountains, ii, 14,

Massachusetts, topography of, ii. 339 ; history of, L 39 ; early attempts
at settlement, 40 ; immigration of puritans, 41 ; progress of the
colony, 46; Gorges appointed governor of New England, ib. ; ex
tensive immigration, 47; disfranchisement of dissenters, 49; first
representatives, 50 ; large accession to the colony, 52 ; Antinomian
dissenters, 52; printing introduced, 54; laws of, 55; required to
deliver up their charter, 60 ; confederacy of the Indians, and com
mencement of hostilities, 64 ; the colonists raise an army and dis
perse them, 65; hostilities ofthe French and Indians, 67; first
paper money issued, ib. ; new charter granted, ib. ; the governor
opposes the assembly, 73 ; defensive preparations of the colony
against France, 75 ; disturbances arising from the currency question,
70 ; immigration from Germany, ib. ; proceedings of the house of
representatives in 1765,189; in 1768, 196; provincial congress of,
219; insurrection in 1786, 302; convention at, ii. 233; trade, 340;
chief towns, 341.
Maysville, ii. 448.
Memphis, ii. 458.
Mercury, ii. 70.
* Metcalfe's meteorology, ii. 477.
Methodists, ii. 257.
Meteorology of the United States, ii. 19.
Michigan, Lake, ii., 7 ; territory, ii. 474; produce, 475; trade, ib. ;
chief towns, ib.
Michilimackinac, ii. 475.
Middletown, ii. 347.
Middlebury, ii. 3.39 ; College, 338.
Military stores taken at sea by the Americans, i. 234; power, ii. 247;
establishments, 208.
Milledgeville, ii. 466.
5 Mineral waters, ii. 74.
Mineralogy, ii. 69, 172.
Mint, ii. 201.
*Minuit, governor of New Netherlands ; his embassy to the Plymouth
colony, 1627, i. 113.
Mississippi, topography of, ii. 468 ; surface, ib. ; roads and canals, 469 ;
admitted into the Union, i. 353; river, ii. 10; inundations of, 13;
navigation, ib. ; bed of, 14; valley of, 8; climate of, 24 ; soil, 30, 32;
formation of, 58.
Missouri, topography of, ii. 415; produce, 416 ; minerals, ib. ; trade,
ib.; chief towns, 417; admitted into the Union, i. 354; river, ii.
10 ; valley of, 11.
*Mitchill, Dr. Samuel L., notice of his elaborate memoir of the fishes
of New York, ii. 134.
Mobile, ii. 408.
Montgomery, General, death of, i. 233.
Monmouth, battle of, i. 271.
Monroe's administration, i. 349.
Monticello, ii. 444.
Montpelier, ii. 339.
Montreal, expedition against, i. 122 ; cruelties of the French and In
dians, 123; surrender of, 178, 232.
* Montcalm, his epitaph, i. 177,
* Montgomery, death of, i. 233.
* Morgan, in the campaign of 1777, i. 264
Mount Vernon, ii. 444.
* Mugford, a naval hero of the revolution, i. 231.
Murfreesborough, ii. 458.

Nashville, ii. 458.
Natchitoches, ii. 472.
Natchez ii. 470.
Naval establishment, ii. 209 ; improvements, ib. ; accumulation of
timber and stores, ib.
Navigation act, English, i. 36 ; insurrection against, in Virginia, 37 ;
in Massachusetts, 64 ; American navigation protected, ii. 185 ;
amount of tonnage in 1829, 186.

INDEX

505

' Navy, am historical sketch of, i. 325.
Newark, ii. 403.
New Bedford, ii. 343.
New Brunswick, ii 403.
Newbern, ii. 450.
* Newburgh Letters, an insurrectionary movement in the army, at the
close of the revolutionary war ; Washington's address on the occa
sion, i. 295.
Newbury, ii. 339.
Newburyport, ii. 343.
Newcastle, ii. 419.
New England, ii. 333 ; state of, i. 55; union ofthe colonies, ib. ; com
missioners appointed by Charles II. to visit, 64 ; complaints against
the colonists of, 66 ; expedition of France against, 75 ; theology of,
ii. 267.
Newfoundland, taken possession of by Sir H. Gilbert, i. 19.
New Hampshire, topography of, ii. 335; trade of, 336; chief towns,
337 ; history of, i. 79 ; union with Massachusetts, 80 ; Indian
wars, 81.
*  , history of, ii. 337.
New Haven, settled, i. 86 ; described, ii. 347.
New Jersey, topography of, ii. 391; canals, 397; rail-roads, 400;
trade, 401; chief towns, 403; college of, 401; history of, i. 127;
conquered by the Dutch, and surrendered to the English, 128; gov
ernment of Andros, ib. ; his tyrannical proceedings, il. ; first assem
bly, 129 ; the proprietorship purchased by Penn, ib. ; character of, ib.
New London, destruction of, i. 288.
New Madrid, ii. 418.
New Netherlands, granted by Charles II., i. 116.
New Orleans, ii. 471 ; defence of, i. 341.
Newport, i. 110; ii. 345, 448.
, New York, topography of, ii. 348 ; roads and canals, 349 ; trade, 384 ;
city of, 385 ; history of, i. Ill ; granted to the Dutch West India
company, 112 ; extend their settlement, ib. ; the English and Dutch
unite in a war against the Indians, ib. ; the English conquer the
Dutch, 116; state ofthe colony, 118; English government insti
tuted at, ib. ; taken by the Dutch, 119; restored by the treaty of
peace, ib. ; expedition against the Five Nations, ib. ; added to the ju
risdiction of New England, 120 ; effects of the revolution of 1688
at, ib. ; contests between the governor and assembly, 125 ; various
administrations, 126; state of, in the middle of the 17th century,
127 ; petitions of the assembly of, 186 ; convention of colonial
delegates at, 189 ; the governor burnt in effigy, 191 ; abandoned in
1776, 250.
*_  , a full account of the city; the settlement; the early his
tory; the population at different eras; the ancient buildings; de
scription of bay and harbour ; of the trade and commerce of the city ;
public buildings, &c. &c. &c. ; from the able pen of Dr. John W.
Francis, ii. 389.
Niagara, Fort, destruction of, i. 169 ; again taken, 174 ; falls of,
ii. 348.
Norfolk, ii. 444.
* North Carolina ; the plains ; the rivers ; the flat country ; the canals ;
the rise ; digging the canals shows the formation of the soil ; the
extent of the swamp ; the analogy between this country and Po
land as described by Herodotus ; diseases of North Carolina, ii. 448.
Norwich, ii. 347.
Nottingham, ii. 422.
¦ Nova Scotia, successful attack on, i. 166.
Ohio, topography of, ii. 408 ; canals, ii.; trade, 409; chief towns, 411;
valley of, 46 ; geology of, 47.
Ontario, Lake, ii. 7.
Opossum, the, ii. 104.
Oregon, District of, ii. 476.
Ornamental trees, ii. 92.
Ornithology of the United States, ii. 110.

= ;s, treaty- with the, i. 365.
Ozark or Maserne mountains, ii. 14 ; geology of, 47.
Painters of the United States, ii. 285.
Pakenham, death of General, i. 342.
Palmetto, ii. 93.
Paper, manufacture of, ii. 169 ; importation of, 184.
Paris, peace of, i. 179; town of, ii. 448.
Parrot, ii. 113.
Pawtueket, ii. 345.
Peace, treaty of, in 1783, between the United States and Great Britain,
i. 293; in 1815,346.
Pensacola, ii. 474.
Penn, William, memoir of, i. 130.
Pennsylvania, topography of, ii. 403; canals, 404 ; trade, ib. ; chief
towns, 406 ; university of, 404 ; history of, i. 130 ; early settlement
of the Swedes, ib. ; subjugated by the Dutch, ib. ; granted by
Charles II. to William Penn, 131 ; government of, ib ; penal code,
132; rapid extension of, 136; retreat of the Americans from, 251;
insurrection in, 308.
* Pension, provided for certain officers of the revolutionary army, i. 380.
* Pepperell, Sir William, commander of the American troops at the
taking of Louisbourg, 1745, i. 76.
Perth Amboy, ii. 403.
Petersburg, ii. 444.
Philadelphia, city of, ii. 406; founded, i. 133; first general congress
at, i. 215 ; taken possession of by the British, i. 256.
Philip, Indian insurrection under, i. 64 ; his death, 65,
Phipps, his expedition against Canada, i. 67.
* Pilgrims, their sufferings and character, i. 43.
Pirates, encouragement given to, i. 144.
Pittsburg, ii. 407.
Plants, ii. 96
Platte, river, ii. 11.
Pittsburgh, the British defeated at, i. 349.
Plymouth, fortified, i. 46; Dutch trade at, 47; described, ii. 343.
Pocahontas, romantic story of, i. 26.
*  , Indian princess, the preserver of the infant colony of
Virginia ; her life and character, i. 30.
Poets of the United States, ii. 283. . .
Police of the United States, ii. 246.
* Poor, General, a pioneer in many battles, i. 265.
Population of the United States, ii. 219 ; rapidity of its increase, ib. ;
census, 223 ; tabular view, 224 ; of the several states, and of the
counties and county towns, viz. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Delaware, Mary
land, District of Columbia, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina,
Tennessee, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louis
iana, Arkansas, Florida, Michigan, 333—476.
Port Royal, taken by the English, in 1710, i. 73,
Portland, ii. 335.
Portsmouth, ii. 337; first assembly at, i. 81.
Post-office, ii. 201.
Prairies, description of, ii. 31.
* Preble, gallant conduct of, in the war with the Barbary powers, i. 326
* Prescott, hero of Bunker Hill, i. 226.
Presbyterians, ii. 254.
Primitive and transition rocks, ii. 41, 44, 45.
Princeton, battle of, i. 254 ; college of, ii. 401.
Prison discipline, ii. 244.
* Proclamation from President Jackson, stating his views of constitu
tional law, in opposition to the doctrines assumed by the convention
of South Carolina, i. 398.
Providence, ii. 345.
Public lands, survey of, ii. 197 ; reservations, 198 ; appropriations for
roads and schools, 199.

506

INDEX.

Public assemblies, ii. 307.
" Pulaski, death of, i. 274.
Puritanism, sketch of, i. 40 , persecuting tenet of, 49.
* Putnam, in the battle of Bunker Hill, i. 226.

Quakers, conduct and suffering of the, i. 61 ; public opinion against
it, 62 ; account of ii. 257.
Quebec, expedition against, i. 174 ; surrenders, 178 ; act, i. 211 ; attack
on, 233.
Queen's College, ii. 402.
Quinnipiack, purchased by Davenport, i. 86.

* Rain, theory of, ii. 484.
 in the United States, ii. 29.
Raleigh, ii. 450.
Reading, ii. 408.
Red River, ii. 12.
Religion, state of, ii. 252.
Religious bodies of the United States, ii. 252 ; tabular view of, 271 ;
seminaries, 269, 270.
Representatives, house of, ii. 227.
Reptiles, ii. 132.
Revenue of the United States, ii. 196 ; internal, 200.
Revival of. religion promoted by the visits of Whitefield and Wesley,
i. 94 ; recent revivals, ii. 264.
Revolution, American, i. 150.
Revolutionary pensions, ii. 208.
Rhode Island, topography of, ii. 344; trade, ib. ; chief towns, 345;
history of, i. 105; government, 109; new charter, ib. ; college, 111.
Ribault, his expedition to Florida, i. 15 ; is massacred, 16.
Rice, introduction of, i. 147 ; culture of, ii. 146.
Richmond, ii. 444.
Right of search, claimed by Great Britain, i. 329.
Robinson, and his church, leave Leyden for America, i. 42; settle at
Plymouth, 45.
Rock formations, tabular arrangement of, ii. 57.
Rocky or Chippewayan mountains, ii. 6; their geology, 41.
* Rolfe's marriage with Pocahontas, i. 30.
Roman Catholics, ii. 253.
Rowley, settlement of, by Yorkshire clothiers, i. 54.
Russellville, ii. 448.
Rutland, ii. 339.

Sackett's Harbour, unsuccessful attack on, i. 336.
St. Augustine, ii. 474.
St. Charles, ii. 418.
St. Genevieve, ii. 418.
St. John's College, ii. 420.
St. Mary's, ii, 422, 466.
St. Lawrence, river, ii. 8.
St. Louis, ii. 417 ; college, 418.
Salem founded, i. 47 ; described, ii. 343.
'Salisbury, settlement at, i. 54.
Salt, ii. 74.
Sandstone, ii. 41.
Saratoga, encampment of Burgoyne at, i. 259 ; mineral waters at, ii. 74.
Sault de St. Marie, ii. 475,
Savannah, ii. 466,
Saybrook, synod at, i. 91 ; form of church government, 92; descent
of the British on, 339 ; described, ii. 348.
Schenectady, destruction of, i. 121.
Secondary formations, ii. 47.
Servants in America, ii. 305.
Shawneetown, ii. 414.
Shirley, General, operations of, i. 168.

Silver, ii. 70.
Silkworms, ii. 143.
Slate quarries, ii. 340.
Smith, exertions of, in founding Jamestown, i. 26 ; is taken prisoner
by the Indians, ib. ; is released, and discovers the source of the
Chesapeake, ib. ; made president of the colony, 27 ; returns to
England, 28.
Smyrna, ii. 419.
Sons of Liberty, association of, i. 191.
Soto, expedition of, in 1539, i. 14.
* South Carolina, Ramsay the historian of; Mills's statistics of the
state ; the Medical Society ; the free-masons ; Literary and Philo
sophical Society; Museum, &c. &c. ii. 461.
Spain, treaty with, 1. 309.
Spirits, distillation of, ii. 171 ; importation of, 182.
Springfield, armoury al, ii. 344.
Stafford, ii. 348.
Stamp act, i. 190 ; repeal of, 193.
* Sterrett, captured the first Tripolitan ship in the war with the
Barbary powers, i. 328.
* Steel, Doctor, observations on Saratoga waters, ii. 77.
"Stereotyping, an American invention, ii. 169.
Stillwater, actions near, i. 260.
Stony Point, stormed by General Washington, i. 275.
Sugar cane, culture of, ii. 146 ; maple sugar, 147.
Sunbury, ii. 466.
Superior, Lake, ii. 6.
* Synod, called at Cambridge, Massachusetts, for the trial of Mrs.
Hutchinson, i. 52.

Tallahassee, ii. 474.
Tariff, ii. 172 ; tabular view of, 173.
Tarleton, defeat of, at Cowpens, i. 282.
Taxes, direct, in United States, ii. 200.
Tea sent to the United States, i. 208 ; destroyed at Boston and other
places, 209 ; importation of, ii. 182.
Tennessee, topography of, ii. 456; climate, ib. ; produce, 457; chief
towns, 458. -
Territory of the United States, various accessions to,- ii. 3.
Tertiary formations, ii. 57.
* Thatcher's, Doctor, opinion of Ballston waters, ii. 77.
Ticonderoga, Fort, unsuccessful attack on, i. 172; taken by the Eng
lish, 174.
Tobacco, cultivated in Virginia, i. 32 ; culture of, ii. 144.
Trade winds, ii. 25.
Transylvania University, ii. 445.
Trap rocks, ii. 42, 53.
Trenton, ii. 403 ; battle of, i. 252.
* Trial of the witches in New England, i. 69.
Tripoli, bombarded by the fleet of the United States, i. 324.
^Tucker and Talbot, naval heroes of the revolution, i. 231.

Union College, ii. 386.
Unitarians, ii. 250.
United States, boundaries of, ii. 4 ; physical divisions, ib. ; climate,
18; soil, 29; salubrity of the, 33; natural history of, 40; geology,
ib. ; mineralogy, 69 ; botany, 84 ; zoology, 100 ; ornithology, 110 ;
agriculture, 139; manufactures, 159; commerce and navigation,
175; revenue and finance, 196; expenditure of, 207; population,
219; state of society, 225; constitution of, 227 ; laws, 242; religion
of, 252 ; language of, 272 ; literature, 281 ; fine arts, 284 ; manners,
303 ; topography of, 333.

Vandalia, ii. 415.
Verazzani, expedition of, i. 12.

INDEX.

507

Vermont, topography of, ii. 337 ; trade, 338 ; chief towns, 339.
* Vessels, number of, taken from the British during the revolutionary
war, i. 230.
Vevay, ii. 413.
Vincennes, ii. 413 ; college of, 412.
Vine, ii. 94, 151.
Virginia, topography of, ii. 440; produce, 441; scenery, ib.; chief
towns, 444 ; history of, i. 20 ; partly colonized by Sir W. Raleigh,
22 ; permanent colony, 25 ; second charter of, 27 ; disastrous state
of the colony, 28 ; third charter, 30 ; divided into proprietorships,
31 ; tyranny of Capt. Argal, 32 ; Sir. G. Yeardley appointed gov
ernor, ib. ; convokes the eighteenth assembly, ib. ; culprits trans
ported hither, 33 ; proceedings in England against the colony, 34 ;
dependent on the crown, ib. ; state of, during the commonwealth,
35 ; navigation act, 36 ; insurrection against it, 37 ; suppressed, ib. ;
various governors, 38 ; resolutions of the house of burgesses, 188 ;
proceedings of the house of burgesses, 208 ; convention and dec
laration, 212 ; descent of the British on, 274 ; constitution of, ii. 232.
* Volney 's opinion that Lake Ontario was the crater of a volcano, ii. 17.
Vulture, the, ii. 110. i

Waldoborough, ii. 335.
Walpole, ii. 337.
* Ward, Artemas, general and commander-in-chief of the provincial
army, before the appointment of George Washington, i. 225.
* Warren, Joseph, who fell in the battle of Bunker Hill, his life and
character, i. 226.
Warren, ii. 345.
Washington, General, early operations of, i. 166 ; his prudence in the
command of the army, 237 ; bold operations of, and battle of Tren
ton, 253 ; resigns his command of the army, 297 ; his administra
tion, 301; his farewell address, 310; he retires to Mount Vernon,
315; his death, 319 ; memoir of, ib.
*  's literary acquirements, i. 298.
 , city of, ii. 422; burned, i. 340.
, college of, ii. 404, 420.

Wheat, culture of, ii. 142.
Wheeling, ii. 444.
Whitefield, George, visits Georgia, i. 157.
* Wild wheat, supposed by Governor Clinton to be an indio-enous
plant, ii. 98.
William and Mary College, Virginia, i. 39.
Williams College, Massachusetts, ii. 340.
 , Roger, persecuted and banished from Massachusetts, i. 50 ;
his character, 51 ; memoir of, i. 108.
*  , Colonel, killed in Johnson's fight, i. 169.
*  's History of Vermont, ii. 339.

-, Fort, capture of, i. 351.

* Webster's eulogy on Adams and Jefferson, i. 365.
Wesley, John, visits Georgia, i. 156.
Wessagusset, Weston's settlement at, i. 46.
Wethersfield, ii. 348.

Williamsburg, meeting of delegates at, i. 213 ; site described, ii. 444.
William Henry, Fort, destruction of, i. 170.
Wilmington, ii. 450.
Winchester, ii. 444,
Windsor, ii. 339.
Wines, importation of, ii. 182.
Wiscasset, ii. 335.
* Witchcraft in New England, i. 68.
 , trials and executions for, i. 69.
* Wolcott, major-general in war of 1745 ; at the taking of Louis
bourg, i. 76.
Wolf, the, ii. 102.
Wolfe, General, death of, i. 176.
*  -, death of, i. 176.
Wollaston, establishment of Mount, i. 46.
* Wompam, Indian money, how obtained, i. 112.
* Woodhull, General, life, services, and tragical death of, i. 247.
Woollens, manufacture of, ii. 165 ; duties on, 181.
Worcester, ii. 344.
Yale College, founded, i. 90; general synod at, ib.; expulsion of
students from, 96 ; ii. 346.
*  ,ii. 279.
Yamassee war, i. 149.
Yorktown, attacked and carried, i. 287 ; site of, ii. 444.
York, ii. 335.

Zanesville, ii. 411.
Zoology of the United States, ii. 100.

DIRECTIONS FOR THE BINDER.

The back and fore-edge of all the Plates should be made square before they are inserted in the volumes.
Place the Contents of each volume after the Preface, and the Engravings as follows, viz.
VOL. I.
Portrait of Washington, (Frontispiece,) to face Engraved Title-page. To face Page
Map of North America  1
Yale College and State House, New Haven  90
A Distant View of Schenectady on the Mohawk River  121
Battle of Bunker Hill  •  226
The Death of General Montgomery  233
Fac-Similes of the Signatures to the Declaration of Independence  •  244
Cornwallis resigning his Sword to Washington  288
Capitol at Washington • •  j  320
Capture of the British Frigate Guerriere by the U. S. Frigate Constitution  334
The President's House  340
VOL. II.
Niagaka Falls, as seen from below, (Frontispiece,) to face Engraved Title-page.
Head Waters of the Juniatta, Alleghany Mountains  5
Lake George, N. Y.  8
Piazza of Congress Hall, Saratoga Springs  75
Harvard University, Cambridge  340
Amherst College  341
Hancock House  342
Tremont House • • • •  342
State House, Boston  • • 342
Deaf and Dumb Asylum, Newport, R. 1.  345
Distant View of Niagara Falls  348
View of the Canal at the Little Falls, Mohawk River  349
Military School, West Point  370
The Pallisade Rocks on the Hudson  372
View of New York  384
View of Newburgh  386
View of Albany from Van Rensselaer's Island  387
Saint Paul's, Broadway, N. Y.  388
City Hall, New York  393
Source of the Passaic Falls  398
View of Philadelphia  406
The Race-Bridge and Fair Mount Water-Works, Philadelphia  407
Penitentiary, Philadelphia  407
Battle Monument, Baltimore  419
Natural Bridge, Virginia • •  44 1
Harper's Ferry  441
Episcopal Church, Richmond  ;  444
Capitol at Richmond  444

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