DI

'o^the/awcting if a College in.tki$_ Colony

ID

'YALIEo¥MV]EI&SflWe

ACQUIRED BY EXCHANGE

TRAVELS

IN THE

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, EGYPT, AND PERSIA.

Printed by A. Strahan,
Printers-Street, London.

TRAVELS
IN THE
OTTOMAN EMPIRE, EGYPT, AND PERSIA,

UNDERTAKEN BY ORDER OF

THE GOVERNMENT OF FRANCE,
DURING THE FIRST SIX YEARS OF THE REPUBLIC,
BY
G. A. OLIVIER,
MEMBER OF THE NATIONA L INSTITUTE, OF THE SOCIETY OI
AGRICULTURE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE SEINE, &C.
IN TWO VOLUMES.

3lMrafe& &p {frtfiraljinfi;**
CONSISTING OF
HUMAN FIGURES, ANIMALS, PLANTS, MAPS, PLANS, &C
TO WHICH IS PREFIXED
A MAP OF GREECE, OF THE ARCHIPELAGO,
AND
OF A PART OF ASIA MINOR.
THE SECOND EDITION.
VOL. I.

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH.

LONDON.'
PRINTED FOR T.N. LONGMAN AND u. REES, PATERNOSTER-ROW! AND
T. CADELL, JON. AND W. DAVIES, IN THE STRAND,
1801.

Gift
Mt X. Bush-Brawm
M*j 1816

CONTENTS OF
THE FIRST VOLUME.

-List of Plates. - - Page xi
Advertisement by the Translator. xiii
Table fliewing the correfponding days
of the French and.Englifh Calendars. xix
Introduction. ... xxi

CHAP TER. I. Pager
Departure from Paris. — Stay at Toulon, and at
Marfeilles. — Departure from this latter city
with a convoy bound to the Levant, — Behaviour
of the officers ofibefhip. — Arrival at Constan
tinople. CHAPTER II. Page 13
Beauty of thefite of Conftahtinople. — Stay in that
city, — Detention at Trawnik, of the envoy ofthe
Republic— Conducl ofthe Porte. — Arrival of
a Ruffian embaffy extraordinary.
a 3 CHAPTER

vi CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III. Page 24
Character ofthe Muffulmans, Greeks, Armeni
ans, and Jews. — Population of Conftantinople.
—Means of exiftence of its inhabitants.

CHAPTER IV. Page 40
Of theferaglio of the Grand Signior. — Of the eu
nuchs, pages, gardeners, mutes, dwarfs, and
capidgis.
CHAPTER V. Page 52
Of the caiques. — Of the captain-pacha. — Of the
Turkijh navy. — Ofthe galiondgis. — Advantages
of the harbour of Conftantinople,
CHAPTER VI. Page 69
Excuffion to the environs of Pera. — Tombs of the
Armenians. — Trip to Scutari. — Defcription of
the burying-grounds. — Mountain o/*Bourgour-
lou. — Ceremonies of the howling dervifes.
CHAPTER VIi: Page 87
Defcription of the environs of Conftantinople. —
Excurfion of the fultan.—EfiabliJhment of Le-
vena-

CONTENTS: vii
vens-khifih.—Powder-manufaclory of St. Ste-
phano. — Ciiftom of the Orientals.
CHAPTER VIII. Page 104
Defcription of the Bofphorus and of its environs.
—Arrival at Buyuk-dere. — Of the plane-tree
•which is there met with. — Indications of a vol
cano at the mouth of the Black Sea.
CH APTE R IX. Page 123
An error to be found in the Charts ofthe Black Sea.
—Giant's Mountain. — Earthquake. — Environs
of Belgrade. — Mine of foffil wood. — Mode of
- fijhing followed in the environs of Conftanti
nople.
CHAPTER X. Page 135
Excurfion to Princes' I/lands. — Amufement which
is there to %e found. — Defcription of them.—
Their culture and their productions'. — Advan
tageous pofition for the eftablifhment of a lazaretto.
CHAPTER XI. Page 146
We enter a harem. — Marriage ofthe Muffulmans.
— Polygamy. — Its refults. — Influence of women
in all affairs.
a 4 CHAPTER

viii CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XII. Page 170
Ofthe Georgian and Circqffian women. — Of fla
ttery — We enter the market of female flaves.—
Cuftom of the women in regard tofuckling and
fterility.—Of the harems and baths.
CHAPTER XIII, Page 1 89
Excurfion to the frefh waters.— Review of a
Turkifh army. — Origin ofthe revolt ofPafwan
Oglou. — Hiftoricalfummary of the events which
have taken place to the prefent day.
CHAPTER XIV. Page 220
Pofition and temperature of Conftantinople. —
Conftruciion of the houfes. — Ufe of the tandour
and ofpeliffes. — Fires. — Dogs and vultures.
CHAPTER XV, Page 240
Of the plague. — Curative indications of that dif-
e'afe,
CHAPTER XVI. Page 263
Ofthe ulemas.- — Difference between this body and
the miuijiers of religion — -Tribunals of juftice.
— Of inheritance.
CHAPTER

CONTENTS. ix
CHAPTER XVII. Page 287
Of the pachas, waiwodes, and mutfelims. — Ofthe
beylers-beys, fangiaks-beys, zdims, and timariots.
— Of the janizaries, fpahis, and other military
men. — Limits of the power of the fultan and of
the pachas".
CHAPTER XVIII. Page 309
Of the grand vifir. — Of the divan of the Porte,
and of the members of whom it is compofed. —
Ofthe kodjakians and of the vacoufs.
CHAPTER XIX. Page 329
Export-trade. — Alimentary fubfiances. — Wood for
fuel, joiner's work, carpenter's work, andjhip-
building.
CHAPTER XX. Page 367
Of the droguemans and bar at aires. — Of the mar
riage of the merchants. — Ofthe French workmen
fettled in the Levant. — Of the caravdne or car
rying-trade in the Levant.

LIST

LIST OF THE PLATES
CONTAINED IN THE ATLAS.
(First Delivery.)
TRAVELS IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE.

Plate I. Map of Greece, of the Archi
pelago, and of Part of Asia
Minor.
 II. Bosphorus of Thrace or Channel
of the Black Sea.
 III. Plan of the Head of the Gulf of
Mundania. '
.  . IV. Hellespont or Channel ofthe
Dardanelles.
— — V. Map of Troas and of all the courfe
of the Simois, from its fource to
its mouth.
i  VI. Plan of the Iflands of Milo, Ar-
genteria, and Polino.
 VII. Plan of the Ifland of Thera or
Santorin.
.  Vllt. Gulf of Suda, in the Ifland of
Candia.
— - IX. A Turkifh Burying-ground *.
* This plate requiring particular care in the execution, is
not yet finiftied : it will be delivered with thofe which, refer
to the Travels m Egitt. Plate

LIST of the PLATES. XI
late X. Women of Scio.
 XI. Women of Argentiera.
 XII. Hairy-cupped oak, Quercus crinita.
 XIII. Velani oak, £>uercus Mgilops.
 XIV. Oak which produces the galnut
ufed in trade, $>uercus infecloria.
 XV. The fame with its fruit.
 XVI. Reptiles ofthe Iflands ofthe Ar
chipelago.
 XVII. Land-fhells.
flZj3 The Binder is directed to arrange the Plates
n an Atlas, according to, their numerical order.

ERRATA.

V 0 L. I.
Page 1 6 Line 4, for manner read mode
33 — 25, for royal read imperial
67 — 26, /or fchiftous raz*/fchiftofe
78 — 16, for faw read found
95 — 26, /or we fhall raw/you will
127 — 17, _/br Nicodemia read Nicomedia
176 — 13, for maret read market
235 — 12, for aliments read the aliments
240 — h*for exifts read ex id
255 — 2, fbr-iome remedies read of fome remedies
300 — 26, yir people read nation
322 — 3, for with France read. Will France
359 — 24, for chick pea read chich-pea
380 — 8, for no one was reed none were
Note. In page 133 of this volume, we promifed to con-
fult the Author relpe&ing the fifh which he calls pageau.
This we have done ; and, as we conjeflured, it proves to be
the fparus erythrtnus of Linnjeus, which, in .Engli^1* is
known by the naine of taefil'very-eyed, red fparus. In French,
it is more generally termed pagel ; .pageau being a provincial
appellation for the fparus of this fpecies.

ADVERTISEMENT.

-I HE tafte for reading travels is at the pre-
fent day become fo general, that a work of
this nature, if executed with a certain de
gree of intelligence, can fcarcely fail to
meet with a favourable reception : it con
veys inftrudtfon while it affords amufe
ment ; it brings us acquainted with men
and cuftoms that were either imperfectly
or not at all known to us j and the contraft
that neceffarily exifts between the manners
of a diftant country and thofe of our own,
diffufes, in fuch narratives, an attractive
Angularity, which, at once, combines the
intereft of fable and the merit of hiftory.
But not unfrequently the pleafure expe
rienced in the perufaJ. of thefe narratives is
interrupted by long nautical details, which
m be ufeful to feamen alone; and by
minute

XIV advertisement.
minute, though fcientific defcriptions, which
are entertaining only to naturalifts : befides,
in the greater part ofthe accounts of travels
which are publifhed, one either finds ac
cidents common to almoft all travellers, or
adventures the improbability of which de-
ftroys the intereft that they infpire.
The " Travels in the Ottoman ~Em-
" fire, Egypt, and Persia" the Firft
Part of which we now offer to the Public,
are exempt from thefe defects. The ftyle of
M. Olivier is ample, clear, and concife :¦
his narrative bears the ftamp of truth ; in- '
deed, in his Introduction, he declares
that he has adopted the idea of the cele
brated Volney, who has faid.that " tra-
" vels ought to le written in the manner of
" hiflory, and not in that of romance*"
Accordingly, our Author dwells not on
trifles, though he leaves nothing important
to be related by travellers who may here-
* Voyaas en Syrie et en Egypte. after

ADVERTISEMENT. XV
after vifit the fame countries ; and, without
bewildering himfelf in the wide field of
conjecture, he, prefents to his readers none
but objects worthy of exciting the intereft
of the trader, the politician, the philofo-,
pher, and the man of fcience.
The picture which he exhibits of Con
stantinople is both boldly drawn and
ftrongly coloured. In fact, , it required a
mafterly pencil to paint a city no lefs re
markable from the natural beauties of its
fituatiqn, the diverfified fcenery of its en
virons, the commodioufnefs of its harbour,
and the mild temperature of its climate,
than from the blind policy and fupinenefs
of its government, the turbulent and fero
cious difpofition of its inhabitants, and
the malignant influence of the plague, that
deftructive fcourge by which it is fo fre
quently ravaged.
His account of Troas cannot "hut be
particularly interefting to the claflical
fcholar ;

XVI ABVERTISEMENT.
fcholar ; while his defcription of the prin
cipal iflands- of the Greek Archipelago*
and of the once-famous Ifle of Crete,
muft be equally fatisfactory to him and to
the general reader. Laftly, the various en
gravings with which this work is enriched,
wUl gratify curiofity, at the fame time that
they illuftrate the text.
M. Olivier being already fo well known
as a naturalift of the firft clafs, by the dif
ferent works which he has publifhed *, it-
would be fuperfluous here to point out his
merits in that line ; we fhall therefore con
tent ourfelves with obferving that he ap-'
pears to us to have completely verified the
opiniori entertained of hisgeneral talents by
* I. Entomohgle ou Hijloire naturelle des InfeSes, avec leurs
taroSeres-geniriques etfpecifiqUes, leur defcription, leur fynonyme,
et leur figure enluminee. In 4 Vols, large 4to, with upwards
of fixty plates to each.
2. DiSionnaire des InfeSes, fdifant partie de Y Encyclopedic me-
thodique. 4 Vols. 4to. This work is not yet iiniihed : it
will confift of feven or eight volumes. /
3. Memoires d'Hiftoire naturelle et d? Agriculture, which it
-would here be too tedipus to enumerate.
*Q thofe

' ADVERTISEMENT. xvu
thofe who /elected him as a perfon quali
fied for the important miffion on which he
was employed. Of the truth of the affer-
tion, this Firft Part of his " Travels in
" the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and
" Persia," not only affords fufficient
proof ; but juftifies every confidence that
the Second and Third Parts, with which he
has alfo promifed to favour us as foon as
they are refpedbively completed, will enable
us to accomplifh the talk on which we have
entered, in fuch a manner as to leave no
difappointment in the mind of our readers.
kQNPQN, Auguft the 7th, 1 Sox,

VOL. I.

( xix }
To fpare the reader tbe trouble of reference, the Tranflator here inferts
A TABLE,
SHEWING THE CORRESPONDING DAYS OF
THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH CALENDARS.

X

3.
Frtmatre.

Plu-viUft,

7
Germinal.

9.
Pretrial.

Ibtrmidor.

Vetidh

— -~—



— —

¦

. 

j Nov. £1

1 Jan. 10

» March 21

1 May 20

t July ig

x

Sept. "-1

2 22

2 21

2 21

2 21

2 20

%

23

1 *3

3 22

3 *3

3 22

3 2»

3

*4

^ =4

4 23

4. a^

* J3

4. 21

g

27

1 »*
6 26

5 »4
6 25

8 2!

6 25

el 24

I

28 = 9
30
oa. 1

7 27
8 28

7 26
.J8 27

7 27
8 28

7 -26
8 27

7 «S
8 26

9
10

9 ag
10 30

9 28
10 29

9 29
10 30

9 28
10 29

9 27
10 28

ii

2

1 1 Dec. 1

11 3°

- 11 31

H 30

11 29

12

3
4 s

[2 2

12 31

12 April 1

12 31

12 3a

13

13 3
14 4

13 . Feb. 1
14 "a

13 2
'4 3

13 June 1
14 1

13 3*
14 Aug. 1

6 9

11 1

16 4

'5 4

'2 3
16 4

16 -3

17 18

'Z 7
18 8

I7. '¦ $ *
18 . v 6

17 6
18 _ 7
19 8

18 6

M ' \

1920

10

19 9

19 7

19 7

19 9

11

20 10

20 8

26 9

20 8

•20 7
21 8

ai

12

21 - , 11

21 9

21 lo

21 9

2,1

I]

22 12

22 10

22 11 "

22 , 10

22 9

23 24
272829 3o

H16 1718 '9
20 21

23 13
24 14
as i.S
26 16
27 17
28 18
29 19
30 20

23 11
24 12
2< 13
20 14
' *Z J5
28 16
29 17
30 18

23 12
24 13
»s n
26 15
27 10
28 17
29 18
30 19
8
Flart'al.

23 11
24 12
2S 13
26 14
%l *?
28 16
29 17
30 18
10
Meflidor.

23 10
24 11
25 12
26 13
27 14
28 is
29 16
30 . 17

2
Brumairc.
4
Nivofe.
6
VetitSfe.
12
FruCiidiir.
1
a 3
4 1
7 8
9
10
Oa. »2 23 24 as
2629 3031
Nov. 1
1 Dec. 21
2 22
3 -*3
4 24
.? *5
6 26
7 *7
8 28
9 29
10 30
1 -Feb. 19
2 20
3 21
4 22
S 23
6 24 '
7 2f
8 26
9 27
10 28
1 April 20
2 21
3 22
4 23
5 24-
6 25
7 20
8 27
9 28
10 29
1 June 19
2 * 20
3 ^1
4 22
5 23
6 24
I H
9 27
10 28
1 Aug 18
2 19
3 20
4 - 21
5 22
6 23
7 24
8 2?
9 26
10 27
11 28
11
11 31
12 Jan. 1
13 r 2
14 3
16 J
17 6
18 7
19 8
20 9
21 10
11 March 1
11 30
H 29
1213 '4
2 3
4 1
12 - 2
*3 3
14 4
16 6
12 May 1
13 2
14 3
16 5
12 30
13 July 1
14 2
16 4
12 29
13 30
14 31
15 Sept. 1
16 2
1718 J9
20
21
9
10H
17 z
jS 8
19 9
20 10
21 11
17 6
19 8
20 9
21 10
I7. 5
18 6
19 7
20 8
21 9
17 3
18 4
'9 S
20 9
.21 7
22 0
2j 9
24 10
- 2S II
26 12
27 13
28 14
29 JS
30 ID
22
12
22 11
22 12
22 11
22 10
23
24
»3
23 " 12
24 13
23 J3
14 J4
23- 12
24 '3
2] II
24 12
21 2728
29 33
3
%19
20
25 14
26 15
27 16
28 17
29 18
30 19
26 16
27 17
28 18
29 19
30 20
25 14
26 15
27 16
28 17
29 18 .
30 19
25 13
26 14
27 IS
28 16
29 17
I 3a 18
ift Complementary Day, Sept. 17
a m - • J*
3 *'
4 ao
c - - . _ 21
INTRODUCTION.

A celebrated author has faid that tra
vels' ought to be written in the manner of
hiftdry, and not in that of romance * : he
has proved to us in a clear, precife, and
energetic ftyle, that fubjedts the moft feri-
ous, and difcuffions < the moft important-,
might intereft every clafs of readers, . and
ftill pleafe more than the flowery ftyle, the
romantic epifodes, and the exaggerated or
falfe defcriptions of moft travellers.
Penetrated, like him, with this truth,- I
have, in the following narrative, avoided
all fingular 'anecdotes, all humourous fto-
ries, more fit to amufe than inftrucl:. I was
not willing; to , employ thofe oyer-brilliant
colours which may be captivating for a
moment, but the effecVof which is tran-
* Volney, Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte.
b 2 fient.

XXli INTRODUCTION.
fient. The fight of a deferted fields co-
vered with myrtles, or that of a garden
cbnfufedly planted with date and orange
trees, could never Inflame my imagination ;
and I have frequently furveyed, without
' kftonifhment, truncated capitals and feat
hered fragments of columns.
Not but 1 have been ftruck by the beauty
of fituat;ions ; not but the afpecT: of Delos
and of Athens, of Alexandria and of
BabYlon, has drawn from me fighs. .; I
never contemplated the Bqsphorus, the
Propontis, and the Hellespont with
out being moved, without excufing Con
stantine, and without faying to myfelf,
that Nature would have done every thing
for, thefe countries, had flie not at the fame
time placed there the plague arid a fanatic
people, enemies to the arts and fciences^
Constantinople is interefting under
fo many confiderations, that I thought it
my duty not to quit that capital of the
Ottomaa

introduction. xxiii
Ottoman Empire without giving a rapid
iketch of the manners of a Angular people,
who appear to" have been- at firft no mor£
than a great religious and military fociety ;
without making known fome of their cuf-
toms; without calling an eye on their go
vernment ; and without pointing out that
defpotifm, fo terrible towards tributary fub-
jects, preferves, in regard to the Turks,
, moderate forms from which it would be
dangerous to deviate. If thefultan and his
minifters are inverted with great power, the
people are ever ready to rife if they abufe
jt.' - '-'"
TroAs recalled to my mind the fame
of Homer, and that war, true or fabulous,
in which all the gods of Olympus took
a part. I trod with refpe6t on the afhes
of the Greek and Trojan heroes. I
fought with eagernefs the pofition of that
famous city which for ten years fuftained
b 3 the

XXIV INTRODUCTION.
the efforts of all the Greeks united. I fol
lowed with, pleafure the courfe of the Si-
Moi's and Scamander ; but I lamented
to fee fo few inhabitants, and fo little cul
ture on a foil which might be covered with
luxuriant harvefts.
The Iflandsof the Archipelago ap
peared to me dry, parched, and mountain
ous, "although produ&ive, and fituated in
a happy climate. The Greeks who inhabit
them, remote from the tyrants who op-
prefs their country, have preferved their
gaiety, [heir activity, and their love of
independence : thofe of Scio, protected
by their privileges, fhew themfelves the
moft active, the moft induftrious, and the
moft honeft of all.
The Ifland of Crete, fo wretched, fo
poor at this day, is interefting from its pro
ductions, from its advantageous pofition,
from the remembrance of its ancient inha
bitants, andfrom the Sphachiots who, on
the

INTRODUCTION. XXIX
In croflihg the mountains Occupied, by
the Curds, I fhall have pccafion to make
known that warlike, paftoral, and agricul
tural people, who fo greatly refemble the
Medes their anceftors: To me they ap
peared the fame, whether I obferved them
in countries, feemingly fubje£t to the Ot
toman dominion, or faw themeXpofed to
the troubles and agitations which defolate
their neighbours.
For upwards of fixty years, a fucceffion
of ambitious men have uninterruptedly de
valuated Persia in order to govern it. The
cities the moft flourifhing under the 'reign
ofthe Sophis, prefent every where nothing
but ruins : three- fourths ofthe inhabitants
have perifhed, or fled to the more tranquil
and* fertile regions of IndOSTAN. A
ftay of feveral months at the court, for the
accomplifhment of a miffion of the highefr,
importance, fumifhed me with an oppor tunity

XXX INTRODUCTION.,
tunity of obferving the great, of ftudying
the common, people, and of collecting in*
terefting materials for the hiftory of the
inteftine wars which have defolated that
empire fince the death of Nadir Shah.
From Kermancha to Casbin, from
Terehan to Ispahan, and from that
city to Amadan, Persia offered to me
only an elevated country, thickly covered
with high mountains deftitute of wood,
and interfetted by vaft plains, the greater
part uncultivated. • All this fpacc is cold in
winter, but extremely hot in fummer: it
is, in general, very dry, and far from fer
tile. Productions are there obtained only
By means of water, and it is by dint of
labour alone that the inhabitants have fuc-
ceeded in procuring fprings fufEciently co
pious for all domeftic wants and for the irri
gation ofthe lands;
On our return, a terrible war, unexam
pled in the hiftory of nations, permitted us
not

, INTRODUCTION. xxxi
not to embark in Syria ; ahd, notwith
ftanding the ardent wifh of revifiting our
country, notwithftanding the infirmities of
Bruguiere my colleague, and his well-
founded averfion to travelling on horfeback,
we were under the neceffity of returning
by land to Constantinople. We re
paired to Cyprus in the moft dangerous
feafon of the year. We croffed that ifland,
the wonders of which the Greeks have juft-
ly extolled, . and of which the Turks have
made a place of infection and mortality!
We quitted it as quickly as poflible, and
landed in CAramania.
Asia Minor unites the productions of
the coldeft countries to thofe of the moft
temperate. Hot on the borders and in the
environs of the fea, cold in the interior,
elevated and adorned with wooded moun
tains, extenfive plains, fertile and well wa
tered, Asia Minor is, perhaps, the coun try

Xxxii INTRODUCTION.
try? on earth the moft beautiful, the moft
diverfified, and the moft capable of fup-
porting a great population. No country
hascoafts more winding, and harbours more
numerous, more Lafe, and more fpacious.
On our arrival at Constantinople,
we requefted a paflpbrt from the agent of
the European power which covered the fea
with its fhips : it was > refufed to us. This
refufal procured us the advantage of feeing
Attica, the Ifthmus of Corinth, the
Gulf of Lepanto, and the Iflands of
Ithaca, Cephalonia, and Corfu ; but
it was, perhaps, the caufe of the death of
my colleague.. At Ancona, Bruguiere
funk under a diforder occafioned by the
fatigues of a long journey, and the fudden
grief of having loH a brother in the very
country where we had juft landed.
r f
Bruguiere will long be mourned by
his friends : he. will ihceflantly be regretted
by him who had fuch frequent occafion " . to

INTRODUCTION. XXXitt
to appreciate the qualities of his heart, to
admire the refources of his head, and the
depth of his knowledge ; by him who
would have flood fo much in need of his
affiftance for the publication of the inte-
refting articles of natural hiftory refulting
from thefe travels. No one, had gone
deeper than Bruguiere into the clafs fo
difficult, fo numerous, and fo diverfified
of worms, mollufca, and conchylia. He
had applied himfelf betimes to the ftudy of
botany, and he was no ftranger to the
other parts of natural hiftory. It is much
to be lamented that an aftonifhing memory
and the greateft facility of expreffing him
felf had made him neglect to note down
his obfervations, and had even, at all times,
rendered him very idle with refpedt to
writing. Although deprived of my coadjutof for
the particular publication of the articles of
natural hiftory inedited or little known, I
io . fhall

XXXIV INTRODUCTION.
fhall not the lefs unremittingly employ my-
felf about them as fooii as the hiftorical part
fhall be in a ftate of greater forwardnefs, and
a general peace fhall again promote^ among
us, a brifker fale of works of literature.
The tafte of Bruguiere, his fickly
ftate, and his decided predilection for a re
tired and quiet life, not having permitted
him, in the courfe of thefe travels, to ap
ply himfelf to the fame kind of ftudy that
I did, and to tranfport himfelf to al} the
places where obfervations were to be made,
and facts to be collected, I was obliged
to undertake alone that, part of the travels
which relates to the manners, the cuftoms,
and the laws of the nations that we vifited.
• In order to render it more interefting, I
neglected not to caft my eye towards our
political and commercial relations. •' Geo
graphy, both ancient and modern, geopo-
nics, and general phyfics, muft neceffarily
at the fame time- have fixed' my attention ;
and

INTRODUCTION. XXXIII
and if I have not imparted to ray labours
all the intereft of which' they were fuf-
ceptible, it ist>ecaufe the powers of man,
as is well known, always fall far fhort of his
wifhes. I muft here cxprefs my gratitude to
Citizens Rufin, Dantan, and Fran-
OjJiNi, whom I for a long time confulted
at Constantinople, and who were ever
ready to reply to my queftions relative
to the cuftoms and laws of the country.
The laft two even carried their complai-
fance fo far as to procure me the means of
interrogating the beft-informed Turks of
the capital, and to ferve as interpreters
between them and me, whenever I wanted
them. I am alfo indebted to fome mer
chants and commiflaries of commercial re
lations, whom I fhall confider it my duty
to name, for information refpecting the
trade and productions of the Levant;
laftly, I am indebted to Mr. John He'ra-
vofc. i* c thius,

XXXIV , INTRODUCTION.
thius, an Armenian phyfician and prieft,
born at Ispahan, for fome details relative
to the hiftory of the inteftine wars of
Persia. v

ESTIMATE
Of the Monies, Weights, and Measures of
whkh mention is made in this work. ,

1- he Turkijh purfe is worth 500 piaftres, nearly
1000 livres or circa 42I. fterling.
The piaftre is divided into 40 parats which
may be eftimated at 2 livres or is. 8d. fterling.
The parat is divided into three afpre's : it is
equivalent to 5 centimes.
The Turkijh piaftre was formerly worth about
3 livres or 2s. 6d. fterling ; but fince the fuc-
ceffive adulteration of the coin under the laft ful-
tans, the piaftre is worth little more than 1 livre
50 centimes. We have, however, valued it
at 2 livres in imitation of the French merchants.
The kilo is a meafure of capacity which is em
ployed for grain only. Four kilos and a half
make nearly the, load of Marseilles. A kilo
of wheat weighs from eighteen to twenty-two
pkes, according to the quality of this wheat.
The oke is a little more than three pounds two
ounce's Marseilles weight, and a little lefs
thah forty ounces and a half Paris weight, or
pne thoufand two hundred and thirty-nine
grams. 14 The

xxxvi estimate of monies, "&c.
The cantaar is fortytfour okes.
The peek is a meafure of length. Four are
made ufe of at Constantinople : the fmalleft,
or that employed for filk fluffs, fcarcely reaches
two feet (6$ centimetres).
That for cloths of cotton ^and wool does, not
reach two feet one inch (68 centimetres).
That of the arfenal nearly reaches twenty-fix
inches \jo centimetres and a half).
The peek of mafbnry, or the great peek, is
two feet four inches three lines, or 76 centimetres
and a half *.
•The Paris foot is equal to 12.7^9 Englifh inches.— .
Tranflator.

TRAVELS TO
CONSTANTINOPLE,
TO THE ISLANDS
OF THE ARCHIPELAGO, AND TO
CRETE.

CHAPTER I.
Departure from Paris. — Stay at Toulon, and at
MarfeilleS. — Departure from this latter city
with a convoy-bound to the Levant. — Behaviour
of the officers of thejhip. — Arrival at Conftan
tinople.
x\T the end of O&ober 1792, the executive
provifional council*, penetrated with the ad
vantages which were likely to refult from Tra
vels into the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and
Persia, refpecting commerce, agriculture, na
tural hiftory, general phyfics, geography, the
medical art, and even our political relations
with Turkey ; perfiiaded that thofe interefting
countries had not been confidered under their
* The.Members of this council were Citizens Monge,
Garat, Roland, Lebrun, Claviers, and Pache.
; vol 1. b true

2 travels in the
true point of view, or had been fo but partially,
and that there ftill remained much information
for us to acquire reFpefting them, fixed their'
choice, for the accomplifliment of this object, on
citizen Bruguiere and myfelf; gave us va
rious inftru&ions, as well verbal as in writing,
and urged us to fet out as expeditiously as we
pouibly could, in order to avail ourfelves of the
Belette floop of war, fitted out at Toulon,
and ready for failing.
We haftened to make our preparations, to
purchafe fome inftruments of 'phyfics and na
tural hiftory, fit for our obfervations and re-
fearches, and to provide ourfelves with a few
books, both for our amufement and inftru&ion.
We left Park on the 7th of November, at
eight o'clock in the -evening, after having fpent
the day with a few friends/ from whom we have
received in our abfence, and during the ftorms
of the revolution, the moft fincere proofs of at
tachment. On my return, I have had the fatiC-
fa&ion to learn that, through a thousand dangers,
ftilf more from their firmnefs and courage than
from their prudence, they had happily got fafe
to port, and that the Republic might ftill reckon
them among her bell citizens.
Having arrived at Avignon, Citizen Bru-
guier;e took the road QiW&mv&u.vm,, in or
der

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, ,&C ' 3
der to embrace his father, his wife, and his
children, and fettle fome family affairs ; I took
that of the department of the Var, in order to
embrace my parents at the Arcs, and leave, at
Saint Tropez, my wife in the arms of hers.
We repaired much about the fame time to Tou
lon, whence we hoped to fail the firft fine
weather ; but for reafpns which it is unneceffary
to let forth here, the floop waited in the road
a long time for failing orders, and, after two
or three months of expectation, fhe was ordered
to be put out of commiffion.
• Surprifed at fo long a delay, and forry to lofe
our tfrnsj or not to employ it in a ufeful man
ner, notwithftanding the hopes which were given
us from day to day, that we mould fhort ly fail,
we wrote to the Minifter for foreign affairs, in
order to beg him to haften our departure, or to
recall us, if the government no longer conceived
our travels ufeful to the fervice of the Republic.
The Minifter anfwered us that he had juft given
orders to Citizen Gins, correspondent for fo
reign affairs at Marseilles, to look out for a
neutral veffel whofe commander might be willing
to take us on board, as well as a fhip»builder, two
lapidaries, and other different citizens whom the
government was fending to Constantinople,
conformably to rile requefts ydrich had beea
b 2 made

4 TRAVELS IN THE «
made to it by the reis-effendi and the, captain-
pacha. We immediately repaired to, Mar
seilles, and, till we fet fail, we employed out-
felves in vifiting the manufaflories, in procuring
information refpefting the countries over which
we were going to travel, and particularly con
cerning the trade which this town carried on with
the Levant. **--
l> The war had not yet interrupted our com
mercial connexions with Turkey. The Me
diterranean was ftill free ; but, from-one
moment to the other, the Englifh and the Spa
niards, with whom we were already at war,
might make their appearance there with forces
fuperior to thofe. which we had. to oppofe to
them. It was our intereft to haften the hour
of our departure. Citizen Guis negle&ed no
thing to find us a neutral veffel; but. as his
meafures were ufelefs, we had recourfe to a
French Captajn of a foreign-built fhip, bound to
Constantinople, and which was to make part
of the convoy that was getting ready at Mar
seilles for the different fea-portd of the Le
vant. Till then we had flattered ourfelves with
making this voyage with Citizen Semonvillej
appointed for fome time paft Ambaffador of the
Republic to the Ottoman Porte ; but an order
4 of

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 5
ofthe Minifter recalled him to Paris when
every thing was ready for his departure, and we
were waiting only for a fair wind for failing. ;~
i We left Marseilles on the 22d of April
,1793, to the number of about twenty^ne
fail, convoyed by the Sx.bxi.ls frigate, com
manded by. Citizen Rondeau. The weather
"¦ was fine, the wind faint, and- the fea tolerably
finooth. The next morning we entered the
road of Toulon, where we remained till the
29th of April, in. order to: wait for fome Strag
gling veffeis.
On the 25th, we had the fatisfa&ion to fee a
numerous convoy arrive from Smyrna, Salo-
nica, and the principal fea-ports of the Le
vant, efcorted by the M odes te, a frigate com
manded by Captain Venel. An account had
already reached Toulon of the interefting par
ticulars of his~ engagement with the fleet of
the famous captain of a privateer Lambro, ,
of whom we fhall have occafion to fpeak elfe-
where. ,Fof two days paft the wind had blown with
violence from the north-weft, when we got under
way, under convoy of the Du^uesne of 74
guns, commanded by Captain Vence, the
Sibxlle frigate of 40, the Seeieuse frigate, '
and the Sensible and Rossignol floops of war.
The wind held for a few days in the fame quar-
b 3 ter,

6 travels in the
ter, fo that we foon got fight of the weft coaft
of Sardinia, and Shortly after of that of
Africa. The fea was fo high, that almoft aU
the paffengers were confined to their beds. I
was very ill till we got off Malta, and indifpofed
from time to time by fea-ficknefs during the
whole paffage. '¦'•':.
Scarcely had we failed a week from Toolow,
when we difeovered, on the one fide, the foutfe
coaft of Sicily, and, on the -other, Gozzoand
Malta. After having paffed through this chan
nel, the weather became finer, the fea was lefs
rough, and the wind lulled, but it continued to
blow from the north-weft quarter. We faw
fome birds of paffage, fuch as quails, turtles,
come and reft themfelves on the fhip*s rigging.
On the twelfth day, we perceived the Ifland of
Sapienza and the mountains ofthe Morea,
and, before night, we made Cape Mat apan ; on
the thirteenth, we found ourfelves between Ce-
rigo and the Ifland of Crete. There it was
that the Du^uesne left us in order, to return to
Toulon, and that Captain Rondeau took the
command of the convoy. The next day, we
perceived at a very great diftance the moun
tains of the Ifland oj Crete, diftinguiflied by
feamen, by the name of the White Moun
tains.
A part

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 1
A part of the convoy bound to Egypt and
Syria, feparated from us under the prote&ion
of the Sirieuse, and took their route to the
eaftward, while we directed ours to the north-;
ward. We had been at fea no more than fifteen
days, when we found ourfelves, at fun-fet,
near the entrance of the port of Milo, The
wind was to the north : for fome time, we
thought that we were going to anchor in the
harbour of that ifland ; but we difcovered our
miftake by the fignal which was made to ply to
windward, till Captain Rondeau had received,
on board his Ship, a pilot from the ifland.
The French Government maintained at Milo
and at Argentiera, feme old feamen to ferve
as pilots to Ships of war which might arrive in
thefe difficult parts. The captains were exprefsly
forbidden to neglect a precaution on which the
fafety ofthe (hip might depend, in a' fea Strewn
with fhoals, Stormy in winter, and fo narrow as
to oblige a navigator fometimes to gain a port or
to Shelter himfelf from a gale, of wind, in a cove
or behind fome ifland. It is neceflary, in this
cafe, that long experience Should have pointed
out to him the paffages which he may attempt,
the dangers which he ought to .avoid, and that
he Should! know, by the lead, all the places
b 4 where

8 TRAVELS IN THE
where he may caft anchor without expofing him
felf to deftru£tion. , ,
On the fixteenth day, the wind having fhifted
/ to the fouth, we found ourfelves off the Ifland
of Serpho : we had aftern of us the Shoal
called the Falconera, and the Ifland of Sr-
phanto bore from us fouth-eaft. In the eve
ning, we paffed between the Iflands of Zea and
ThermiA ; on the feventeenth, we fleered for
Cape Doro. We foon left aftern Andros and
Tino, which lie fo near to each other, that they
appeared to us to be confounded; on the
eighteenth- day, we paffed Ipsera, and made
Mitylene. The wind continued to blow
lightly from the fouth quarter, the weather was
very fine ; in the morning, the Ships bound to
Smyrna, under convoy of the Sibxlle, had
Shaped their courfe to the eaftward ; thofe for
Sai.onica, under charge ofthe Sensible, had
taken their route to the weft-north-weft : we con
tinued, to the number, of three, ours for Con
stantinople, under convoy of the Rossignol.
Our veffel was fo bad a failer, that till then
we had been conftantly one of the fternmoft of
the convoy, and; the floops rcame frequently to
take us in tow. Our officers, the moft rude
and moft ignorant of all the Seamen of the fouth ;
of

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 9
of France, in fuch cafes, vented a' torrent of
abufe fo low arid fo difgufting, that we were
obliged to fhut ourfelves up in our cabins, that
we might not heair it : befides, both the captain
and the chief mate, and efpecially the fuper-
-cargo, behaved in the moft unbecoming man
ner to all the paffengers that the government
was fending to the Levant, abufing fome,
threatening others, putting all to the fhorteft
allowance, though provifions were in fufficient
plenty on board, and the fum agreed for our
paffage and our mefling was above the common
price. 1 /
On the nineteenth day, we paffed Mitylene :
we difcovered the coaft of Troas and Tenedos ;
and in the evening, the cloudy weather making
us apprehend fome' fudden fquall, it was agreed,
between the captains, to lie to, in Order that
they might not enter the channel ofthe Darda
nelles during the night; but when it was fo
dark that our fhip could not be perceived, our
captain ordered the blinds of the great v cabin-
windows to be Shut, and made fail to the north
ward. ' Citizen Brun, Ship-builder, as well as
the fuperintendants of the workmen whom he
was carrying with him, perceiving the manoeuvre
contrary to what had been ordered by the cap tain

iX> •? TRAVELS IW THB
tain of the 'Stoop of war, and agreed on between
the captains of the Ships,, wifhed to make repre
sentations. According to cuftom, they received
abufe and threats ; the difpufe became fo Se
rious, that all the paffengers prefented them
felves on deck. For a long rime it- had been
feared that men who fhewed fo much repug
nance to be towed, wifhed to fuffer themfelves
to be taken by fome enemy's Ship, or to run
cheir veffel aground: the opportunity had not
been favourable till then, but it became fo on
entering the channeL This fear, which I was
for from Sharing, and which I think was never
well founded, naturally arofe from the conduct
of the: three officers, and might eafily take birth
m the mind of men exafperated by abufive and
even infulting language, and from the uncom
fortable and fullering condition in which we
all were. What idea could we have of thofe
men, who made ferve for eighteen perfons what
could barely be fufficient only for ten, and who^
after having partaken of our flenderrepaft, made
in a hurry, and on deck, fat down to another
meal privately in their cabin morning and even
ing ; who availed themfelves alone of the
greater part of the provifions- which they ought
to have Shared with all, and among others with the

6TT0MAN EMPIRE, &C. II
the wife of the Ship-builder, pregnant and ill, and
with children who. fuffered much from fea-
ficknefs ?
In order to put an end to the difpute, I repre-
fented that we had no right to concern ourfelves?
in the management of the Ship, but had. that of
having an eye tb our own fafety, by obferving
and drawing up an account in Writing of what
might happen on board Since the captain had
difobeyed the orders of the commanding-officer
of the convoy. This obfervation had the efftft
which I had expected from it ; the officers
grew mild; they wifhed to perfuade us that they
were fuch good feamen and fo well acquainted
with the coaft as to enter without danger the
channel during the night; that, however, fince
we were afraid, they would, lie to and wait for
day, as had been agreed. Almoft all the paf-
fengers were quiet ; but the Shipwrights, more
miftruftful than the others, becaufe being fea
men, they were better acquainted .with the dan
ger, alternately kept watch till daylight.
On the twentieth day of our departure, th£
j 8th of May, we found ourfelves, on rifing, be
tween Tenedos and the coaft of Troas ; and,
about feven o'clock in the morning, we entered
the channel with a rather frefh breeze at eaft-
fouth-eaft. The Hoop of war lay to, and did
not

12 ^TRAVELS IN THE
not Shape her courfe fpr Smyrna till fhe was
certain that we were out of all danger from pri-
vateers. Early in the day we paffed Gallipoli,
and in the evening we were becalmed in the fea
of Marmora.
On the twenty-fird day, the weather was very
fine; and the heat began tb be felt ; the wind
was to the fouthward, but it was fo faint, that
we could make no progrefs on account of the
contrary currents We remained the whole day to
the north-weft of the Ifland of Marmora ; but,
during the night, the wind having blown with
fomewhat more Strength, on the twenty-fecond
day, in the moaning, we enjoyed the fight ef
Constantinople, and, about ten o'clock^ we
entered the harbour. .

OT,XOM>AK EMPIRE,;" &C. 13

CHAPTER II.
Beauty of thefite of Conftantinople. — Stay in that
city. — Detention at Trawnik, of the ertvoy ofthe
Republic. — Conducl of the 'Porte. — Arrival of
a Ruffian embaffy extraordinary.
It is difficult to exprefs the various fenfations
Which a traveller experiences at the fight of
this great city and of its inhabitants : its ele
vated pofition, the mixture of trees, houfes,
and minarets * which it prefents ; the entrance
. of the Bosphorus, the harbour and fuburbs of
Galata, Pera, and St. DiMitri ; Scutari
and the verdant hills which lie behind; the
Propontis with its iflands; farther on, Mount
Olympus covered with fnow ; every where the
variegated and fertile fields of Asia and Eu
rope— -all this affemblage exhibits different pic
tures which captivate and aftonifh. One cannot
tire in admiring the natural beauty of the en-
* A fort of fteeple in the fbrm of a pillar, in which is
made a ftaircafe for afcending to a gallery conftru&ed to
wards the top: it overlooks all the houfes, and frequently
is more elevated than the raofque itfelf. vironjs.

14 TRAVELS in the
virons of Constantinople, and in reflecting
at the fame time oh the happy fituation of that
great city, whofe fiipply of provifions is fo ex
peditiously obtained,- whofe defence is fo eafy,
and whofe harbour is fo fafe, fo commodious,
and fo extenfi ve.
We haftened to land, and quit, a veffel on
board of which we had greatly fuffered. We
learnt with pleafure that the plague was not at
Constantinople, and that no uneafinefs was
^feit in that refpect. We were conducted to the
houfe of the firft deputy of commerce : there,'
we were informed that.Citizen Descorches, en
voy extraordinary to the Ottoman Porte, ap
pointed in the place of Citizen Semonville,
who was then no longer expected, was arrived
at Trawnik, and that he was arretted by the
pacha, in confequence of the intrigues of the
agents1 of the courts of England, Germany,
and Russia ; that Citizen Fonton, elected pro-
fional chairman in a meeting of merchants., after
the departure of the ambaffador Choiseul, had
given in his refignation nearly a month before ;
and that it was by means of the deputies of com
merce that our relations with the Porte were
continued. After havirig learned what it concerned us to
know, the deputies gave us a janizary to con.
^ , duft

OTTOMAN EMPIRE* &C , I5
duclt us to tlie fuburb of Pera. It is in this
fuburb that the ambaffadors, the agents of fo
reign courts, and almoft all foreigners refide,
with the exception of the merchants who are
eftablilhed at Galata, being by that means
nearer to the harbour and to their commercial
affairs. PtRA is one of the moft populous.
quarters of the city, notwithftanding its diftance
from the port and from the centre of affairs^
and the lodgings are extremely dear fince the
rich Armenians came to fettle there, in order to
be lefs expofed to exactions and the infults of
the Turks, and to enjoy a little more liberty
under the protection of the Europeans.
When we entered the city, we paffed rapidly
from the fir ft impieffion of aStonifhment and ad
miration occasioned by the beauty of the prof-
pe^ts and by the fight , of fo many different
objects, to a fecond impreffion of furprife and
diftafte. We were difagreeably ftruck to fee it
fb dirty and fo ill builr: the Streets are narrow,
and badly payed ; the houfes are irregular,
mean, and constructed with earth and wood.
We were" furprifed at the filence which reigns
every where, at the haughty look and grave
carriage of the Muffulmans, at the humble,
timid, and fervile. air of the JewSj Armenians,
and even of the Greeks : this contraft is fo
Striking,

l6 -3% TRAVELS IN THE - -
Striking, that the Stranger gueffes, from the car
riage of the man, whether he be a Muffulman
or Raya *, without yet knowing the manner of
diflinguifhihg them by their manner of dreffing
their head or their feet.
Constantin6pLe, on our arrival, was no
longer fuch an abode as it had been a few years
before. The revolution which was taking place
uvFrance, hadcaufed its effefts tobe felt even
in the Levant ; it had divided the French, and
expelled from their houfes gaiety and pleafure :
feveral had already put themfelves Under foreign
protection. The war had juft fufpended trade,
and interrupted bur communications with
France. Thevpalace of the ambaffador was
deferted ; thofe of the other legations were Shut
againft us ; almoft all the droguemans had
emigrated; the monks and priefts of the
country defcribed France under the moft
difgiifting colours ; , the Greek women, who
before neglected no means to plea'fe the French,
and to receive their homages, no longer durft
give themfelves up to them, becaufe they were
reprobates whofe company was to be prohibited,
whofe approach even it was neceffary to dread.
* Thus' are called tributary fubje&s, fuch as Greeks,
Jews, and Armenians. True

OTTOMAN- EMPIRE, &C." 1 7
True it is that the triumph of the priefts was
Very Short, and that our fucceffes iri Europe,
by giving the lie to the gfofs impoftures which
our enemies took a pleafure in fpreadirig con
cerning all the French, prefented us in a
more favourable and truer light. The conftraint
df the women did riot laft, artd, on oilr return
from Persia, Constantinople was an infi-
niteiy more agreeable place of refidence thatt on
out departurei
NThe prefence of a French agent at the Ot
toman Porte might counteract: the projefts and
derange the hoftile meafures which feveral
of the European governments had juft taken
againft France. It Was of importance to pre
vent the PoRf e from acknowledging the French
Republic, arid admitting her ambaffador : it was
rieceffary to do more, tb involve it, if poffible,
in the coalition formed at Pilnitz, and ruin,
at all events, the trade of the French in the
Levant. Citizen Descorches, envoy extra
ordinary of the Republic, detained for fome time
at TrawnIk, obtained pefirtiffiori to come to
Constantinople only as a .fimple individual.
He arrived twenty days after us, under a bor
rowed name, and alfo under the modeft title of
merchant. He did not refide in the French
Jpalace, and obtained from the Porte no public
Vol. i. c - character.

. ijfT TRAVELS IN THE
character. Our political and commercial rela
tions with this government continued to take
place through the medium of the deputies whom
the rnerchants elected annually for the affairs re-
Jativeto their commerce.
It appears that, at this epoch, the Porte,
faithful to its principles, was not willing to take
a part in -what was paffing - in Europe, and
that it was not forry that the chriftians, whom
it hates and defpifes, fhould make war' with
each other ; it temporized, according to its cuf-
tom, and waited events. The*people faw, with
pleafure, war begun between France, Ger
many, and Russia ; they hoped, by this
means, to retake the Crimea from the Ruf
fians, and thence be revenged for their defeats.
It was perceived in all the fea^ports of the Le
vant, that if the government no longer pro
tected the French with the fame warmth, the
people, on their fide, were better difpofed to
wards them.
In the mean time an embaffy extraordinary on
the part of Russia was emphatically announced:
already the Greeks of Pera were calculating
' the immenfe profits which they were going to
make. The women of intrigue were to find
lovers who would indemnify them for the pri
vation of the French ; every mifs propofed,- for
her

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. IQ
heir dwn fhare, to find in" this fuite a hufband ;
the papas * faw in it new ' penitents : houfes
were hired and furnifhed beforehand : the hand-
fomeft dreffes, the moft beautiful attire iffued
from the wardrobe to be repaired. People;
When they met, complimented each other on
this grand embaffy : they expreffed wifhes for
its expeditious and happy arrival; all were in
the moft lively impatience.
'We then lodged, as well as feyeral other fo^
teigners, at the hotife of a French traiteur;
whofe wife was a Greek woman. He was a
fool and a drunkard. Led away by his wife, as
foolifh as mifchievous, he put himfelf under the
protection of Russia, and fignified to us that
we rnuifl lay afide our three-coloured cockade, or
leave his houfei, " Such are," added he, "the
"orders which I have received frbm my new
" ambaffador." We made fome attempts to re
claim a man hurried, away; in fpite of himfelf;
into an inconfiderate meafure. We obferved tb
him that he turned out at once ten or twelve
perfOns who occupied his lodgings, who pro
moted his cookery, and yielded him a confider-
able profit: every thing was ufelefs. "The
*' Ruffians," faid his wife to us difdainfully*
* Greek priefts; *
'e i *' will

tO TRAVELS IN THE
" will certainly contrive to rnake us amends for
" this lofs.'\ We left the houfe immediately,
and went to occupy the lodging of the Jeupes-
de-Langue*, which was vacant from their de
fection. After having been a long time expected, the
embaffy arrived : it was numerous and fplendid.
The delirium of the Greeks was complete, and
was prolonged for fome days ; but ere long
they perceived that> they had .deceived them
felves by an illufion ; they foon • found that the
Ruffian officer had no great pecuniary means,
and that the foldier was on his ration. Befides,
there appeared very feafonably a friendly warn
ing of the general-ambaffador, by which he gave
notice that he would not pay the debts of his
©fficers, and that every one was to look to1
himfelf. \
The French who were at Constantinople,
found it neceffary, in thefe cifcumftances, tp
conduct themfelves ,with prudence, and, never-
thelefs, to difplay all their courage. Hatred
againft thofe who had remained faithful to their
country, had arrived to fuch a pitch that the
fervants of the ambaffador, a few foldiers, and
the greater part of the Ruffian officers infulted
* Pupils intended for droguemans. *, v them

OTTbMAN EMPIRE, &C. 21
them in the .Streets; and fnatched from them
the three-coloured cockade. A great number
of complaints were made, on this fubjeft, to
the Porte, through the medium of Citizen
Descorches, without it appearing to wifh to
apply any remedy. The patience of the French
lafted for fome time, but at length it had a pe
riod ; and, though there were not then two
hundred, including the merchants and their
clerks, people commonly very peaceable, and
though the embaffy was compofed of eight hun
dred perfons, the greater number refolved to arm
themfelves, and to repel by force every infult
that fhould be offered to them. Two or three
piftols loaded only with powder, difcharged op
portunely at the officers, the propofal made to
thofe who difplayed moft boldnefs, to draw their
fword, foori put a Stop to every infult, and
produced an order from the general-ambaffador
not to provoke any longer men "fo hafty and fo
petulant. A little time after, there arrived a German
dancer, an excellent horfeman, who thought to
make a fortune among the Turks, by opening,
at the extremity of the ftreet of Pera, a fort
of amphitheatre. This project appeared incon-
fiderate to thofe who were acquainted with Ori
ental manners, and the quick and terrible effects
c 3 of

2% ,, ],:. TRAVELS IN THE
pf the plague. They were perfuaded that it ?
would not fucceed ; but they little expected that
the German internuncio would arrogate to him
felf the police of this public place, and that he
would forbid his protege to admit there- any in
dividual wearing the threeTcoloured cockade.
The pleafantries to which this ridiculous conduct
gave rife, foon induced the internuncio to dif?
avow it. The. dancer, on his fide, frightened
at the fmallnefs of the firft receipts, publicly
made -amende honorable, and neglected no means
pf repairing the loffes which his fuhmiffion to the
prders that he had received had at firft occa
sioned him.
, W^at contributed, on the one hand, to the
infolence of fome agents of Catherine arid
Francis, and, on the other, to the weak and
wavering conduct qf the Porte, was that
Toulon had juft' been delivered up to the
•Englifh, and that people were perfuadfed that
die Jacobins (thus it is that almoft all the French
were at that 'time diftinguiflied) would foon be
punifhed for their audacity. Fortunately Tou
lon was retaken, and then the Porte appeared
to wifli to protect us a little more effectually.
If the Ruffians and the Germans of thofe two,
legation's conducted themfelves, at that period,
with the greateft indecorum towards us, and in
ii _'- a man-

. OTTOMAN; EMPIRE, &C. 23
a manner little worthy of the rank which they
held, it muft be confeffed that this was not the
cafe with the greater part ofthe other legations ;
and, were we not afraid of committing thein with
their government, we might quote a great num
ber of perfons who beheld with pieafure the ef
forts which the French were making to level the
throne, and give themfelves a free and conftituted
government.

c 4 CHAPTER

24 TRAVELS IN THB

CHAPTER III.
Character of the Muffulmans, Greeks, Armenians,
ani Jews.— ^Population of Conftantinople. — •¦
Means of exiftence of its inhabitants. - ,
V^onsta&tinople affords a mixture of Turks,
' Greeks, Armeniaris, Jews, and Europeans,
whence refults a very great diverfity in
manners, religion, and language. The Turks
are there much more numerous than the
Others, and are fpread throughout the whole ex
tent of the city and fubuib's. The Greeks form
nearly one fi'xth of the population, ; they have
a quarter fituated towards the head of the har-:
bour, diftinguiflied by the Greek name offana-
raki or fanaL A great nurriber, -hoWever, in
habit Pp.ra and Galata, and live among the
Franks*. The Armenians are, fomewhat lefs
numerous than the Greeks : they refide in the
interior of the city, and in the fuburbs ; but the
greater part of the rich, as we have before faid,
have fome time Since come to inhabit Pera,
* This1 is the name given by the Turk? indifcriminately
to all Europeans. and

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. ^[ 2$
md eftabli'fh themfelves among the Franks, yet
without mixing with them. The Jews are the'
leaft numerous : they live in the heart ofthe city.
A few- of them are eftablifhed at Pera' and Ga
lata, and ferve as brokers to the merchants.
The> ' ambaffadors and agents of foreign
powers at the Ottoman Porte, and the Euro-
aearis whom commerce attracts to Constanti
nople, frequently form a population of u'pwards
3f two thoufand perfons. Almoft all the feamen
remain on board1 their fhips. The merchants
are fettled at Galata, in order to be more
within reach of the harbour and the city ; but
the reafon which moft determines them to inha
bit that quarter, is that they occupy houfes built
in mafonry ; that they have, for their goods,
ftore-houfes fubftantially conftructed ; that all
the windows have copper-fhutters ; in a word,
that they have neglected nothing for the fafety
of their perfons and for the protection of their
property from the fires to which this city is in-
ceffantly expofed,'
There are none but Muffulmans, whether
Turks or Arabs, who hold the places or em
ployments of the government, the dignities of
the empire, and who are received among the -
janizaries and into the other military corps, with
the exception of the navy alone, in which the
greater

2-6 TRAVELS IN THE
> i
greater part of the failors are Greeks, as we fhall
mention elfewhere more in detail. Some carry
on an extenfive commerce ; a greater number
give themfelves up to retail trade, and to the dif
ferent mechanic arts, to the ftudy of the laws
and of religion, and to the art of writing.
The Muffulmans have, in "general, little edu
cation, a great deal of fanaticifm, and a ridiculous
pride. The ftudy of thofe who apply them
felves to literature and to the fciences, relates to
the Koran and to the interpretations which va
rious Muffulman authors have given of it, to the
laws which have emanated from it, and to the .
fentences of the civilians. They apply them
felves to poetry, to the ftudy of the Perfian arid
Arabic, and to aftrology. Few among them
have any frnatteririg of mathematics and aftrono-
my. Their phyfic confifts in fome practices
transmitted from father to fon. They have no
idea of natural hiftory, phyfics, geography,' naval
affairs, and rhilitary tactics. They are acquaint
ed with hiftory only as far as it relates to them,
and they are, with refpect to other nations, and
even with refpect to thofe who have preceded
them on the territory which they occupy, in the
moft- complete ignorance. Almoft all the arts
are in a ftate of infancy, or,are unknown among
them, if we except dyeing, the manufacture of
' various

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C VJ
various cloths, and that of fword and knife
blades. v
For a long time paft the Europeans, and efpe-
cially the French, have been defirous to trarifmit
to them knowledge in fome ofthe ufefiil arts, and
they have fucceeded but imperfectly, becaufe na
tional pride, ignorance, and fanaticifm oppofe
the meafure. It is the French who have taught
them to caft cannon and mortars, to build fhips,
to make mufkets, bayonets, and gun-carriages, to
work up iron and even filver, and to manufac
ture foap. National good-will had arrived" to
fuch a pitch that we fhould foon haye taught
them to difpenfe with our manufactures. ' The'
war which has juft been declared, will, doubt-
lets, bring about' a new order of things. The
conduct of the Turkifh government and of in
dividuals, in regard to the agents of the Repub
lic and of the merchants fettled among them,
will unqueftionably point out what is the moft
fuitable manner of treating henceforth with this
anti-focial nation. ,
The Greeks are gay, witty, and cunning :
they exerci/e various trades, carry on fome
commerce, apply themfelves to maritime
.affairs, vifit the different towns of ..the coaft,
and never travel far inland, except into Eu
ropean Turkey. They delight in mufic and
dancing.

28 -, - Travels in the
dancing. In the reft of the empire, they give
, themfelves up to agriculture with a ' tolerable
degree of intelligence. The rich are well in
formed, fupple, and very intriguing ; they ftudy
languages, and fpare nothing to be employed as
phyficians, as droguemans, or as men of bufinefs
by the Turks who hold the firft places of the
empire The ancient families court the honour
of furnifhing the firft drogueman of the Porte,
and of obtaining the fovereignty of Wala-
chia and Moldavia, notwithftanding the peril
attached to thofe eminent places.
They are, in general, fuperftitious, timid, and
exact obfervers of fafts and lents. The priefts
are very numerous, and exhibit manners fome-
what auftere. The fuperior, clergy are alfo well
informed and tolerably rich : the rectors and
other ecclefiaftics are poor and very-ignorant.
The Armenians are all traders ; in the, Otto
man Empire, it is they who are engaged in the
greateft traffic, and who carry it on with the
moft intelligence. They are patient, economi.
cal, and indefatigable ; they travel into the in-
terior of Asia and into India ; they have ftore-
houfes arid correfpondents every where. The ,
greater part of them exercife mechanical arts ;
they are bankers, contractors, and men of bu
finefs of the pachas or other great perfonages. They

, OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 2$
They are reproached with fparing no means of
enriching themfelves, and of cheating, when they
can, in the quality of merchandife. Neverthe-
lefs, in endeavouring to gain the moft they pof-
fibly can, they feldom fail in their engagements,
and are punctual ' in the performance of their
promifes. - Auftere in their manners, exact obfervers of
the precepts of their religion, ignorant and fu-
perftitious, they need only education and a go
vernment lefs oppreffive and more juft, than
that of the Turks, to become a very eftimable
people. The Jews prefent themfelves here under co
lours far more unfavourable --than in Europe.
More ignorant, more poor, more fanatic, they
give themfelves up to every kind of trade and to
all profeflions, even the very loweft. Few among
them are phyficians, droguemans, or men of
bufinefs : not one is a farmer. All trade to
them is good if it yield a profit, however tri
fling it may be. The rich practife ufury, lend
money on pledges at an intereft of two or three
per cerit. by the month, and even more accord
ing to circumstances. They are brokers,: bank
ers, or traders. The Turkifh cuftom-houfe offi
cers make ufe of them for valuing goods and
collecting the duties.
As

3J0 TRAVELS IN TH£
As auftere in their manners as the Armenians;
as greedy after gain, lefs delicate, lefs honeft
when they deal with a man of a different relU
gion, the Jews live among each other, occupy t
remote quarters, and tremble at the fight of a
Muffulman. Their anti-focial religion will al
ways feparate them from other nations, and will
i^fulate them, in a town, from the other inha
bitants, as long as they fhall be fufficiently ig
norant to believe the laws of their "legiflator,
and the puerile precepts of their rabbis, emanated
from the Divinity.
The inhabitants of this great city, including
thofe of the fuburbs of Pera, Galata, St.
Dimitri, thofe of Scutari, and of all the vil
lages fituated on the Bosphorus, and in the
environs, may be efti mated at upwards of five
hundred thoufand, according to the daily con-
fumption of flour that is there .made. As no
regifters of births or deaths are kept in the Ot
toman Empire, one can never correctly afcertain
the population of the towns of Turkey, where
the manners and the mode of life of the inha
bitants are fo different from thofe of the Eu
ropeans, where the women are almoft always
Shut up, and where the rich men go out of their
houfes as feldom as poflible ; but, in Constan
tinople, the government caufuig a distribution to

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 3 1
to be made ofthe flour and corn which are
confumed in the city and its environs, and this
diftribution being well known *, we can carry
the population to five hundred thoufand . inha
bitants, fuppofing that the men, women, and
children eat a pound and a- half of flour per day.
If the reader obferve that, in all the East, much
lefs meat is eaten than in the north of Eu
rope, but that a much greater confumption is
there made of bread, rice, paftry, milk, and
fruit, he will judge that the calculation which
we prefent is tolerably juft. True it is that we
muft take into the account the introduction of
fome thoufands of quintals of fmuggled flour
and corn, per day, which, takes place notwithr
Standing the vigilance of the government "f ; but
this article is not fufficiently important to pro-
'duce a difference of twenty thoufand inhabi-
+ "
+•
When

tants +-'^

* There are drftributed about fifteen thoufand kilos of
corn per day, which are equivalent to three thoufand one
hundred and fixty-four feptiers of Paris. The kilo weighs
from eighteen to twenty -two okes, according" to the qua
lity of the corn. _ The oke is nearly equal to forty ounces
and a half. - ¦
f Private perfons are forbidden to fell or dulribute corn
or flour. - l-.-
$ Eton, in his Survey ofthe Turklfh Empire, (2dedition,
page 28a) estimating the population of Constantinople, and

3 2 Travels in the
When we reprefent to ourfelves in EuroYe^
fl city like Constantinople, we are, doubtlefs,
inclined to imagine that the means of exifleric'e
there are fimilar to thofe of the great cities
which we inhabit : we are perfuaded1 that a great
number of inhabitants poffefs landed property'
from which they derive an annual income, and
that all the others live by their induftry. We
imagine that we fee the environs of the city per
fectly well cultivated, embellifhed withmanfioris,
country-houtes, and adorned with farms and
gardens. We figure to ourfelves that a city fo
happily -fituated affords public walks and places
of recreation ; in a word, we imagine that Con
stantinople refembles, in many refpects, all
the great cities of Europe*

and taking the 'daily confumption of flour made in- that
city as the bafis of his calculation, gives the following refult.
— Tranflator.
" In Constantinople and its environs there are daily
" confumed from nine to eleven thoufand kilos of corn.-
(t Experience has proved, that one perfon cohfumes nine ki-
" losayear, one with another* One kilo of wheat is twenty-
" two okes, which renders eighteen okes of flour, of which
',' they make twenty-feven okes of bread, as their bread is
*' very moift, made into flat cakes feemingly half baked.
" An oke is about two pounds and three quarters Englifb.
'• avoirdupois weight. According to this calculation, the
" medium number of inhabitants would be 42 6,000 fouls." If

OTTOMAN. EMPIRE, &C. 3.3
If we caft our eyes on the immenfe population
of Constantinople, we fhall, perhaps, be af-
tonifhed to fee that almoft all the inhabitants of
that great city derive their means of existence
from the Grand Signior, from the great em
ployments of the government, from hiring
themfelves as fervants, or from fome private
induftry ; that a great part of the money of
the empire is fwallowed up in the capital by
means of imports, cuftom-houfe duties, and
the right of fucceffion which the fovereign
preferves over all his agents ; by the confifca-
tions in which he indulges, by the fale of all
.employments, of all places and all dignities, mi
litary, administrative, judicial, and religious ;
by the -great revenues enjoyed by the mofques
and the principal officers of the crown ; laftly,
by the voluntary or forced prefents which every
man in place annually makes to thofe wvho pro
tect him with the Porte, fupport and defend
him, as well as to the men of bufinefs who
watch over his intereft, apprize him of all the
changes which happen, and of all the dangers by
which he is threatened.
Almoft all the revenues of the royal treafury
are confumed inCoNSTANTiNQPLE, becaufe there
it is that the national establishments are, and
that, in the provinces, there neither are armies,
vol. 1. d navy,

34 TRAVELS IN THE
navy, arfenals, norfoftreffes kept up at the ex-
perife of the Grand Signior. The governors,
pachas, mutfeliriis or waiwodes, Very far from
deriving emoluments from the Porte, pour, on
the contrary, annually into the treafury a Sum
more of lefs confiderable, according to the ex-
terit and the riature of their government. The
rnolhas, the cadis distribute juftice for a duty of
ten per cent, and various efcheats. The jani
zaries arid other foldiers receive a Very moderate
daily pay, -taken from the revenues of the pro
vince : they equip themfelves at their own ex-
penfe, 'arid join their colours in time of war,
without the Grand Sighior rernitring the
frriaileft fum of money for that purpofe. The
Officers or agas have patrimonies for life, by
means of which they are bound, on the firft
fummons, to repair to the army, and to take
With them, arid at their coft, a certain num
ber of foldiers.
All the establishments relating to the navy are
at Constantinople. Ships of war are not
repaired, equipped, and'mannedin any other port.'
It is there that fhips are chiefly built. True it
is that, at this moment, there are dock-yards at
Sinope, at the head of the Giilfof Mundania,'-
in the Dardanelles, at Mitylene and at
Rhodes,: becaufe thofe countries are within reach

OTTOMAN EMPIRE', &C 3,5
reach of the timber for Ship-building ; but the
furo of money which iffues from the capital, far
this object, is by no means confiderable, and is
but a temporary remittance ; befides, the pachas
moft frequently provide for thefe expenfes.
The fortreffes are kept up by the pachas on
whofe territories they are fituated ; accordingly,
they are almoft all in bad condition : the greater
part of them even are falling into ruins. The
Grand Signior, in this refpect, is eafily deceived,
becaufe he receives annually an account of ex
penfes by which he is impofed on : and if the
fufpicion of infidelity or complaints induced him
to fend any one to the fpot to verify the facts,
a fum of money given by the pacha would al
moft always be fufficient for obtaining a favour*
able report ; but were the latter difplaced; or
even were his head cut off, the fucceffor would
not, on that Account, put the fortrefs into better
condition ; he would at firft make a few unim
portant repairs, and would, interrupt them as
Foon as lie had taken the means fit for infuring
his impunity.
All the.coin of Turkey, if we except Cairo,
is Struck at Constantinople, and yields for
the moment a confiderable revenue to the Grand
Signior, becaufe he has adulterated it to fuch a
degree that it has not half of the value of that of
o a the

36 TRAVELS IN THE
the fultans his predeceffors, and becaufe he has
/caufed it to be circulated for a value equal to
that which it had before. Foreign coin has, in
deed, greatly increafed ; but it is not yet at the
price at which it ought to arrive, becaufe the
balance of trade is to the advantage of this em
pire. This is not the cafe with India, as I fhall
fay in another place, where Turkey has fcarce
ly any thing to furnifh. None but old coin is
received there, and that of Venice, Hungary,
and Spain is ftill preferred, as moft pure.
According to an approximate eftimate, we
may carry to two hundred millions of bur livres
all the money poured annually into Constanti
nople from the different towns and provinces of
the empire. It appears that the revenue of the
Porte and of the Grand Signior *, including
the produce of the coining of fpecie, is about
one hundred and fifty millions of our money f :
the prefents given to the men in place, the fees
of men of bufinefs, the revenue ofthe mofques,
that of the great, all thefe exceed, not fifty mil
lions. This calculation gives us upwards of
three hundred livres per year for the mainte-
* The revenue of the State is. diftinft from that of the
Sultan. f We {hall give fome details on this futjedt, in the courfe
of thefe travels. , _ , • ' nance

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, \StC. 37
nance of each individual ; which is fully fufficient.
I obferve that the induftry of Constantino
ple is limited almoft entirely to the wants of the
inhabitants, and that the principal trade which .
is there carried on, relates only to the confump-.
tion of the city. The carrying-trade is too in-
confiderable to draw from abroad a fum of
money of any importance.
It is feen, by what we have juft faid, that this
city is, at the prefent moment, indebted fbr its
great population only to the prefence of the fo-
vereign, to the expenfes of his palace, and to all
tKe public eftablifhments which are there fixed.
But if Constantinople profited at the fame
time of the advantages given it by its happy po-
fition between the Black Sea and the Medi-,
terranean, between Europe and Asia; if it
turned to account the extent, the fafety, and the
convenience of its harbour, fo fuitable for favour-
ingagreat trade; if induftry affumed a greater acti
vity ; if the objects of art were fcattered through
put the whole empire and even beyond it ; if the
inhabitants fought in the culture of the lands the
fubfiftence which they want and the aliment of a
part of the manufactories ; in fhort, if they fuc-
ceeded in putting a flop to the plague, that moft
deftructive fcourge of the human fpecies, it is
not to be doubted. that this qty would foonbe-
p 3 come

38 ' TRAVELS IN THE
come of an immenfe, extent and of a population,
perhaps too confiderable.
The richeft individuals of the empire do not
come hither to fpend their income in effeminacy
and idlenefs, or diffipate their fortunes in the
hazards of play, in the pleafures of love? or in
the luxury of the table. The agas or lords re
main on their eftates in order to preferve them,
defend them, and make, the moft of them.
The pachas cannot quit their government with
out an order of the fovereign. The molhas
and the cadis exercife juftice in the towns whi
ther they have received orders to repair : both
the one and the other come to intrigue at Con
stantinople only when they are difplaced.
Moft frequently they avoid even the too fe-
vere looks of the. government : they have efta-
blifhed agents, men of bufinefs who intrigue for
them, who i exculpate them with money, who
level difficulties with money, and who procure
them advancement with money. Here all digni
ties are fold to the higheft bidder ; all employ:
ments are put up to auction ; no lucrative place
is obtained without a prefent more or lefs con
siderable. There is a clafs of men who have no other pro-
feflion than that of lending, at an exorbitant in
terest, tp the ambitious who could not obtain
places without this means ; to the extortioners who

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 39
tho wiSh to caufe their crimes to be .forgotten
nd to maintain themfelves in their place?, to
hofe whom a powerful enemy would wilh to
eftroy, and to thofe, in fhort, who want, by a
;reat and fpeedy facrifice, to redeem their head'
hreatened by the Sword ofthe law or by the will
f the fultan,

d 4 CHAPTER

40 " TRAVELS IN THE

CHAPTER IV,
Of the feraglio of the Grand Signior.— Of the
eunuchs, pages, gardeners, mutes, dwarfs, and
capidjis,.
1 he number of perfons attached to the Grand
Signior, to his palace, and to his different
country-houfes, is extremely confiderable, and
their maintenance very expenfive ; it may
even be faid that, in this refpect, no fovereign
in Europe can be compared to him from the
interior luxury of the feraglio, the munificence
which he there difplays, and perhaps even from
the riches which are there contained.
The law of Mahomet allows, as is well
known, every Muffulman, not only four legiti
mate wives ; but it alfo authorizes him to take
for concubines fuch a number of flaves as he
pleafes, and as his fituation or his riches enable
him to maintain. The Grand Signior, from a
fentiment of pride or from political motives, muft
not marry like his fubjedts ; he thinks himfelf
too much above the reft of mankind to involve
himfelf with a woman by the ties of marriage, and

ottoman empire, &c. 41
and place her, in fome meafure, in the fame
rank as himfelf. Hehas an indeterminate number
of female flaves deftined to his pleafures and to
give him fucceffors. But among this great number,
Seven of them only, after having enjoyed morq
or lefs the favours of the fultan, are raifed to a
rank above the others : they become his fa
vourites : it is they who participate moft com
monly in his pleafures, and who Tometimes ac
quire no fmall degree of influence over public af
fairs. They are ¦ diftinguiflied by the name of
Kadeun *.
The Have who becoiries the mother of a boy is
called Haffekee : fhe has a houfe and flaves ; fhe
obtains a diftinguiflied rank ; fhe is treated with
the greateft refpect ; fhe enjoys a fort of liberty*
in the interior of the harem 7 ; in a word, fhe
approaches the fultan as often as fhe wifhes: But
if her fon happen to die, fhe returns among the
Kadeuns if She be not fent to the old feraglio.
The other flaves are called Odaliks, from the
word Oda, which fignifies chamber J. If one pf
them be pregnant, fhe is treated with a great
* The n at the end of the word is pronounced.
•j- Harem or facred place, prohibited place : this is the
lodging of the w,omen, diftinft from that of the men,
among all the Mahometans.
% The Odalikt are diftributed by chambers. deal

42 TRAVELS IN THE
deal of attention ; the eunuchs ferve her with
the greateft refpect when the fultan has as yet no
male children ; fhe finds herfelf, on the con
trary, in a very critical fituation when he has
any by a flave in favour. She is fortunate then
if She efcape by mifcarrying or feeing the
being that fhe has juft brought into the world
fmothered at its birth. For one of thefe odaliks to
become kadeun, an honour extremely in re-
queft and ardently wifhed for by all, it is necef-
fary that the Grand Signior fhould fend one of
the feven favourites to the old feraglio, the place
of exile for his women who have mifbehaved or
have had the misfortune to difpleafe.
To the old feraglio* are likewife fent all
the wives of the fultan who has juft died or has
been depofed ; they are there fed and main
tained with fome luxury and ferved with much
attention j but they can no longer go out of this
place of retirement : it would not be decent in
the eyes of the Muffulmans, that a flave, fup-
pofed to have enjoyed the favours , of a fultan,,
Should pats into the arms of ariother man.
There is only the mother of the new fultan,
called Validai-Sultana, who has her liberty, a
palace, and revenues. The new harem is foon
* EJkiferqi : it wa$ conftru&ed by Mahomet II.
replenifhed.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &Ci 43
replenished, becaufe traders come from all quar
ters to offer young flaves, and the pachas and
the great are eager to prefent beauties capable
pf fixing the attention of the fovereigu ; they
hope by that means to obtain inftantly his good
graces, and place about his perfon women who
may one day be ufeful to them;
Travellers have improperly called fultanas the
wives of the Grand Signior : this name is given
in Turkey only to the princeffes of the blood,
daughters of a fultan, or, as we have faid be
fore, to the mother of him who occupies the
throne. The daughters of the fultanas no
longer bear any other name but that of Ka-
noum Sultana.
It is very difficult and perhaps impoflible to
learn exactly the manner in which the female
flaves are treated in the harem ofthe Grand Sig
nior: never has the eye ofthe obferver penetrated
into this abode of hatred, jealoufy, and pride j
into this abode where pleafure and love have fo
feldom refided. But, according to the account
pf the women whofe profeffion calls them
thither, the reader may reprefent to himfelf
three or four hundred black eunuchs, malicious,
peevifh, tormented by their impotence, curfing
their nullity, endeavouring to counteract the
female flaves intrufted to their charge ? then a
6 confiderable

4J. TRAVELS IN THE
confiderable number of young women whofe
hearts' would willingly expand, whofe fenfes are
moved at the idea of the pleafures which they
wifh in vain tp know, jealous of the happinefs
Which they are perfuaded that their rivals enjoy,
curfing the overfeers who perplex them, folely
taken up with their toilet, with their drefs, and
with all the nonfenfe which idlenefs and igno
rance can fuggeft to them ; feeking, rather from
vanity than from love, every means of pleafirig
a matter too frequently difdainful. We may
reprefent to ourfelves, in fhort, a foltan young
pr old, maftered by ridiculous prejudices, with
out delicacy, often whimfical or capricious,
alone in the midft of five or fix hundred women
all equally beautiful^ in whom he gives birth to
defires which he is unable to gratify, who enjoys
with them no pleafures but fuch as are top eafy
and without prelude, in which the heart has no
Share, and we fhall have a trhe idea of what
paffes in the harem of the Grand Signior.
The charge of the women is intr lifted only
to black eunuchs, whofe mutilation is fuch,
that there remains no trace of their fex. Ori
ental jealoufy has very rightly judged that .fuch
creatures were rather- capable of infpiring fenti-
ments of hatred and contempt, -than thofe of
affection and friendship, which would not have
' ', failed,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 45
failed to take birth if the charge of the harem
had been intrufted to women. It was not
enough tb condemn thefe unfortunate females to
long privations, never to let them know of love
only what was to excite in them defires, it was
even neceffary to deprive them of the confola-
tion of opening their heart in the bofom of
friendfhip. The chief of the black eunuchs, called Kiflar-
Agaris one' of the greateft perfonages of the
empire : he it is who carries to the feiriale flaves
the will of his maftef ; he it is who announces to
them the happinefs which they 'have to pleafe
him*. Independently ¦ of the authority which
he exereifes in the harem, he has the fuperin-
tendance of all the imperial mofques; he is
charged with the general administration of all
the pious foundations which relate to them ; he
has the pre-eminence over the chief of the white
eunuchs, and, what is m5re flattering to a flave,
he more frequently, approaches his mafter,. and
more commonly enjoys his confidence. His in
come is very confiderable.
* All that is faid refpefting the handkerchief prefented
or thrown to the female flave who pleafes the fultan, is
falfe, and fcarcely deferves to figure in a romance. .
The

4t> TRAVELS IN THE I '
The Khafne<Vekili is the fecond eunuch-* of the
feraglio: he replaces the Kiflar-Aga when he
dies or is turned out of office. He has the ge
neral administration of the interior imperial
treafure, which muft be diftinguiflied from the
private treafure of the Grand Signior, admini
stered by the Khafnadar-Aga, one of the pages
of confidence. There are fome other eunuchs
raifed in dignity, fuch as he who belongs to the
queen'-mother, he tb whom the care ofthe princes
is intrufted, thofe who ferve the royal mofque
of the fultana Validai, where the flaves of the
Grand Signior go to fay their prayers ; he who
has the particular fuperintendance of the apart*
ment of the Haffekee, and a few others whofe
functions are lefs important. ,
The white eunuchs do not approach the
women : they are employed out of the harem,
and in the particular fervice of the fultan. They
have the charge of the gates ofthe feraglio ; they
fuperintend and inftrad the pages. , Their chief
is called Capou-Agaffi.
About the middle of the ftreet of Pera, is
remarked a confiderable palace in which a great
number of young lads are lodged, boarded and
maintained at the expenfe ofthe State : they are
calledlchaglans. They are deftined to be pages to the'
fultan and to occupy the principal charges ofthe
court*

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 47
court. Codjas or preceptors come every day to
teach them Turkifh, Arabic, and Perfian, and
mftruct them in' writing and in the precepts of
the Koran. They are all exefcifed fn throwing
the djerid *, in riding on horfeback, and in
handling the fabre with dexterity : they are at
the fame time accuStomed to the functions which
they are to difcharge about the perfori of the
fovereign. „ A great number of them are like-
wife brought up in the interior of the feraglio.
The white eunuchs, to whofe care they are in -
¦ tnifted, treat them with the greateft feverity,
and punifh thern rigoroufly for the fmalleft fault
that they commit. They are clothed in white,
and fed with temperance. They are children
of christians taken in war, or purchafed in
Georgia and Circassia : fome of them come
from various frontiers of the empire and from
the States of Barbary : fons of Muffulmans
are alfo admitted there, fince the Turks no
longer ca'fry on war againft the chriftians with
as mariy advantages as they did formerly.
The Idhlogans who have profited well by
their Studies, thofe who difplay the moft capa
city and intelligence, are the Aril admitted
* A light ftickj which fupplies the place of the Arabic
lance in mock-fights.
among

48 TRAVELS IN THE .
* * , ¦
among the pages ; they fucceffively fill the va
cant places, and occupy in their turn the greateft
offices ofthe feraglio. They frequently receive
very lucrative commiffions from the foveteign,
and rich prefents from thofe for whom they foli--'
cit ahd obtain employments.
Among the young people taken- in war, pur
chafed or brought from all quarters, the greater
number, under the name of Adjem-Oglan, are
intended for the meaner employments of the fe
raglio : porters, wood-cutters, cooks, butchers,
water-carriers are made of them ; in a word,
fervants of every fort : there are feldom among
them fons of Muffulmans. Wheri their num
ber is confiderable, fome of them have beeri
turned over among the gardeners.
The Boftangees or gardeners are about ten
thoufand in number ; their chief is called Boflan-
gee-Bachi; his power is very extenfive. He has ,
not only the abfolute command over all the pa
laces and gardens of the Grand Signior ; but he
is, befides, at the head of the police of the en
virons of the capital and of the canal, as far as
the mouth of the Black Sea. He repreffes
debauchery, and puniShes Uheft, and other ex-
ceffes -which are committed. He Steers the
caique of the Grand Signior when he goes on the
Water, and he accompanies him everywhere on
horfebacfe

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 49
horfeback when ,< he goes out in ftate. This of
ficer is of the number of the four rickab agaleri
or officers of the court, obliged to accompany
his highnefs wherever he goes in ceremony.
The other three are called buyuk imbrohor, or
great equerry, kurchuk imbrohor, or little equerry,
and capidjilar kiayafji, or great chamberlain.
The boftangees are generally fons of Mufful
mans ; they receive a tolerably good pay, and
are almoft all married. -They row with the
greateft dexterity the eaiques of the fultan ; they
fuperintend his gardens and his .palaces, and
fpread themfelves' over the villages and coun
try-places ofthe environs of Constantinople,
and ofthe channel, in order to exercife there an
active and falutary fuperintendance. Eftablifhed
under the reign of the firft emperors, they were
for a long time the hurfery of the belt foldiers.
Thofe among them who displayed the moft
courage, the moft Strength, arid above all the
moft fanaticifm, were turned over among the
janizaries. -According to Oriental manners, there are
no vifits, no fecret conferences, without the
fervants or flaves being prefent : politenefs re
quires that coffee Should be brought, that from
time to time a pipe filled and lighted fhould be
,prefented ; and, according to the rank and dig-
vol. 1. e nity

S« TRAVELS IN THE
riity of the Stranger, Sherbet, effences, and pet-
fumes Should be offered him. Evert When a
Muffulthah is alone, he muft 'now and then have
'a pipe arid fome toffee. The want of bang
continually ¦' waited oh has, no 'doubt, fuggefted to
the Turks tfte idea of being attended "by the deaf
and dumb, when they have occafion to treat of any
important affair. The fultan has, in his palace,
forty deaf Arid dumb jpetfdris who Wait on him in
conjundion With his pages. Moft of the great
have fome alfo \ but there is, in this refped, a
great deal of roguery of which men too credu
lous arid too Unguarded may oe the dupe. I fre
quently faw at the houfe of Citizen Descor-
ches, during the firft days ofhis arrival, a mail
who was reckoned deaf and dumb, with whom
converfatioh was carried ori in Turkifh, in writ
ing, aiid. who communicated the intrigues of
the court arid the anecdotes of the town. He
lent too attentive an ear to all the difcorirfe
which was held, for any perfori'nbt to befoon per
fuaded that he knew more than, one language,
-and that his ears ferved.him tolerably well.
"When he thought himfelf u'nmafked, -he ceafed
to ad a ;part np longer ufeful.
It has often been repeated ftriprb'perty that
mutes were fometimes commifliohed to go and
Strangle the vidims that the fultati' devoted tb
death :

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 5 1
death : it is generally the. capidgis-bachis, of
whom we Shall Speak prefently, that difcharge
thofe fundions, either in the capital, or in the
provinces. The Grand Signior likewife maintains a tole
rably great number of dwarfs, as little calcu
lated to ferve as to amufe him. When thefe
Shrimps are at the fame time deaf and dumb,
their confequence increafes, and they are treated
with much greater refped.
The capidgis • or porters, whofe number is
rather confiderable, keep watch at the outer
gates of the palace. They muft not be con
founded with the fapidgis-bachiif a fort of cham
berlains, whofe place is honourable arid lucra
tive, and who are charged to execute the orders
which they receive from tbe fultan; thofe, for
example, to cut off the head of a rebel or ex
tortioner, to carry the news of the appoint
ment to a government, to go, and colled the
fuceeflions of the great officers of the Empire,
&c. Thar chief, always taken from this clafs,
is called mir-alem. The capidgis-bachis are
fpmetimes raifedto the dignity of pacha with two
tails, and go in that quality to govern the pro
vince which is allotted them- «

z 2 CHAPTER

$2 TRAVELS IN THE

CHAPTER V.
Of the caiques. — Of the captain-pacha.— -Of the
Turkijh navy. — Ofthe galioudgis. — Advantages
ofthe harbour of Conftantinople.
x\. sight really beautiful, and which one can
not fufficiently admire from the French palace,
and from all the elevated places whence the eye
looks down on the harbour and over the fea of
Marmora, is the arrival and departure of
the Ships and large boats coming in and going out
under full fail, and the continual movement of
'a great number of caiques generally manned by
two or three rowers, inceffantly- eroding the
harbour in every diredion, and proceeding
wjth celerity to all the villages of the Bospho
rus, to Scutari, to Princes' Iflands, and
to every place in the environs. Thefe caiques,
thus named in the country, are long narrow
boiats, extremely light, equipped with one, two,
or three pairs of oar?, feldom with four. They
carry one or two, and even three fails, which
are fet only in fine weather, or when the wind is
not too Strong. Thefe boats are not provided with

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, '&C $$
With ballaft, and are fo buoyant, that a breeze at
.all ftiff would overfet them, if the boatman did
not take care to let go the -Sheet- on the fmalleft
danger, and to throw the boat up in the wind by
Shifting the helm. The number of thefe ca'iques
is fo confiderable, and they divide the water
with fuch velocity, that fometimes all the fkill
of the rowers cannot prevent them from running
foul of each other, and one of the two from
being overfet, , efpecially when the weather is
bad ; for then thefe rowers do not form a fuffi-
ciently-corred judgment of the effed of the
wind on a boat fo light, and which prefents a
great deal of furface our of the water. In fuch
cafes, it is proper to know how to fwim and to
be able to gain the fhore : affiftance is feldom
giveri to thofe to whom fuch a misfortune hap
pens, becaufe there would be too much danger
for him who would Wilh to fave one of the un
fortunate beings ; he would run the rifk of being
himfelf overfet in wishing to take the other man
into his boat.
The conftrudion of thefe ca'iques leaves no
thing to be wifhed for in point of the elegance
of their form and the fwiftnefs of their failing.
Two hours are fufficient, with even a light breeze,
to fail.frpm Constantinople* to Prince's
Iflands, diftant from ten to twelve miles ; and
e 7 notwith-

54 travels in the
notwithftanding the contrary wind and current*
three rowers never take more time for reaching
Buyuk-Derb, diftant fifteen miles.
The caiques belonging to the fultan are re
markable for their fize, their gilding, their ele
gance," and the number and' dexterity of the
rowers : they earry fourteen pairs of oars, and
are manned by twenty-eight boftangees dreffed in
White : the bbftangee-bachi, as we have before
faid, is the cockfwaitt or fteerfman. The
eai'que of the grand vifir has twelve pairs of
oars ; that of the principal officers of the
Porte, arid of the ambaffadors of the foreign
powers have feveri pairs, in thefe large caiques
pne man is neceffarily required for each oar ;
while thofe of private perfons are fufficiently
narrow for a fingle man td make ufe of two
oars at a- time.
The fultan feldom goes on the water in whi
ter ; but, in the futnmer, he frequently repairs
to the different palaces which he has on the
channel of the Black Sea, or to the palace ofthe
frefh waters, fituated two leagues from the city, in
the narrow valley Watered by the little river
which empties itfelf into the head ofthe harbour,
and Whofe tranquil ftream permits the ca'iques
fo afcend it to that diftance. The cannon never
fails to announce the departure and the airival
4 ,or*.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. S§
of the, fultan : any one may eafily procure him
felf the fatisfadion of feeing- his highnefs pafs.
His caique is djftjnguiShed by a beautiful crim-?
fon awning, fpread towards the ftern, Various,
caiques of the fame fize, in which are the prm?
cipal officers,, cqme next; he js precede, and,
followed by a great number pf others.
Before w'e enter ipto any details on the fubjed;
pf the TurkiSh navy, we thinklt pur duty to fay
a word of tl|e capitan-pacha., yyhofe zeal an4
adivity have never relaxed fince he has cpm-r
rnapded the naval fbtfceg of tlie Ottoman Em-,
pire, and has been at the head pf all fhe man-*
time establishments. He enjoys with Selim III,
an influence which time feejn? to increafe ancj
Strengthen. In that happy age when the heat
is ftill in aft k§ purity, and at fhe time wheq
the cruel rniftruft pf the fovereign held as pri*
fprier tfje heir pf the empire, Hussein, born in
Circassia, was a Slave to young Selim; he,
foon became the flatterer of all his taftes? thj;'
confidant of his heart, and hrs intimate friend?
The connexions of infancy are fubjed to experi
ence changes and viciffitudes refulting from the
caprices pf that age ; but reafon alrnpfl always
CPUfolidates what a mutual inclination ha? be
gun : the friends of youth are reciprocally at
tached for tfee remainder of life,
E 4 A for-

5§ "'- TRAVELS IN THE
A fortunate circumftance. happened to
Strengthen the Grand Signior's attachment "to
the captain-pacha. The intrigues ofthe feraglio,
it is faid, threatened the life of Selim, before he
had arrived at the throne of his anceftors : a
hint given him by a flave of the feraglio, fifter
to Hussein, faved him from deftrudion. Since
then his -gratitude has been unbounded; Selim,
fcarcely, feated on the throne,, married the
daughter of Abdul Hamid to Hussein, and
loaded him with favours : he rnade him fuper-
intendant ofthe navy, and High Admiral. The
latter, brought up in the feraglio, without
knowledge and without ftudy, appointed to one
of the firft places of the empire, and mafter of
all the maritime forces, was a moment embar-
raffed, when he faw about him no man fuffi-
ciently intelligent to enlighten him and guide his
Steps ; but prefently, in imitation of his prede-
ceffor, he fent for French builders and fhip-
wrights to dired the works pf the arfenal, and
pufh on with adivity the veffels which he re-
folved to conftrud.
> HASsAN-pacha, his predeceffor, a greater man'
than he, but full as ignorant, frequently counter-
aded in his projeds, becaufe he had not, like
the latter, the entire confidence of his mafter,
had eaufed to be built as many fhips as the
finances

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. iff
finances of the State and circumftances would
allow. He had called in a French -builder,
named Leroi, and had permitted him to .give to
the Turkifh Ships the European form which they
had not before. The prefent captain-pacha had
only to follow the fteps of Hassan ; but, being
more fortunate, he found in the attachment of
the fovereign all the pecuniary means fit for
favouring his projeds.
The laft two wars with Russia, the iffue of
which had been fo unfortunate, had made the
Grand Signior. and the Divan fenfible of the ne-
ceffity of having a powerful navy, as well for
defending the poffeffions of the Black Sea and
of the ArcHipelago, as for fecuring the capi
tal from all infult on the part of the Ruffians.
And, indeed, the captain-pacha has had the
facility bf tranfmitting into the department of
the navy the^najor part of the revenues of the
State, and by this means of caufing a great num
ber of fhips to be built. We may, at this mo
ment, carry the Turkifh navy to twenty fail, of
the line, one of which is a three-decker ; to up
wards of twenty frigates or floops, fome of
which are of forty guns ; and to various other
frhall veffels. On our departure, in the year VI.
(1798) Ship-building was puShed on with the
greateft adivity, at the head ofthe Black Sea, at

$$ -, TRAVELS IN THE
at Sinopf, in the Gulf of Muneania, in the
Dardanelles, at Mitylene, and at Rhodes.
And fhould nothing derange the projeds of the
captain-pacha, or divert the funds appropriated
at this moment to the navy, it is not to be
doubted that the Porte will foon have a confi
derable nurriber of fhips like thofe of the Eu
ropean powers : but will it have a fufficiency bf
failors to man them, and of officers fkilful enough
to dired their movements ?
Unfortunately the captain-pacha has not the
great views of a ftatefman, and the knowledge
which his place requires: he employs himfelf
, with the fmalleft details, with the minutenefs
of a man who has more goodwill than talents<
He is himfelf feen to dired the works of the
arfenal, and there to fpend the whole day, in
order to Stimulate the workmen by his pretence ';
but, too confined in his conceptions, he has
thought to be able to forrri a navy by fimply or»
dering the conftrudion of a great number of
Ships : he has not encouraged trade, he has not
even refolved on plans for the formation of fea*
men. There has, indeed, long exifted a mathe
matical fchool in the arfenal : under Tott, ano
ther fchool was formed for navigation : but they
have not received the encouragement which they
would require, and the knowledge of the pro-
7 feffors .

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, -&C. 59
feffbrs is too limited for thefe fenobls to be at
this moment of great utility.
The Turks, in general, are not fond of the
fea ; they cannot conform to the adive life
which a feaman is obliged to lead ; they, cannot
accufldm themfelves to the privations which
that profeffion requires ; they commonly prefer
making ufe ofthe Greeks, who difplay, in this
line as iri every other, an intelligence and an
activity of which the Turks are not capable.
The Greeks manoeuvre tolerably well, and con-
dud their little veffels with much fkill in the
feas with which they are acquainted ; but they
have not the fmalleft theory of navigation : al
moft all of them navigate without a comp'afs,
Steer only by the knowledge of the mountains
and -coafts, bear up for every wirid that blows
fomewhat ftrong, and go and wait for fine
weather in the neareft port.
The failors and foldiers of the navy were for^
• merly called levens or leventis : they are at this ,
day distinguished by the name of galiondgis : the
former are Turks of the maritime villages, or
Greeks of the Archipelago; they are per
manent, conftantly receive their pay, and are to
embark at the firft order. The galiondgis-fol-
diers are all Muffulmans, and receive pay only
when employed: after the fhip is put out of
commiffion

00 TRAVELS IN THE

/,

commiflion they obtain leave to retire into their
own country, and to refume their ufual occupa
tions. The Greeks are employed, in a fhip of
war only for working her ; her defence being re-
feryed for the Muffulmans. Prudence permits
not the latter, in thofe circuniftances, to give
arms to men whom they opprefs ; they know,
befides,- that the Greeks would be little difpofed
to fight, and get themfelves killed for them.
When the exigencies of the State-require it,
rccourfe is had to the merchant-fervice, and, if
it be neceffary, a firman of the Grand Signior
appears, by which it is enjoined to the primates
of every ifland bf the Archipelago, to the go
vernor of every maritime town of any confe
quence, to fend to Constantinople a certain
number of failors. This is what we faw happeri
in thefpring ofthe year VI. (1798), when the
queftion was to man three fhips of the line, two
caravels, three frigates, three corvettes, and fif
teen gun-boats. Thefe laft were intended for
afcending the Danube, and feconding the at
tack which the captain- pacha meditated by land
againft Widin, where Paswan-Oglou was Shut
up. The caravels were to repair to Alexan
dria according to cuftom ; the fhips, the fri
gates, and the co: vettes were to go into the Ar
chipelago for the purpofe .of levying on the
Greeks ;

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. €l
Greeks the annual impoft to which they are
fubjed. The galiondgis^foldiers are very undifciplined,
very, mutinous, and generally very licentious.
Before their departure, they almoft always give
themfelves up. to exceffes which the government
tolerates or dares not punifh for fear of dif-
pleafing them all. The Jews, the Armenians,
the Greeks-, and even the Europeans are very
circumfped at this period: they avoid paffing,
even in broad day, into the quarters at all remote
of Pera and Galata, and they take care to
return to their own habitations before dark.
Notwithftanding thefe precautions, a great num
ber of perfons were ftopped and robbed in
Galata in the year VI. (1798), and fome
even were killed. True it is that to this fcourge
was added that of the arrival of the troops
who were affembling at Constantinople and
Adrianople, in order to march againft Pas-
wan Oglou.
At Pera, there are feveral houfes where Eu
ropean failors, Greeks, and even Turks go to
drink and intoxicate themfelves, notwithstand
ing the feverity of the government in this re-
refped. Quarrels frequently happen among
the fea-faring people, which fometimes ter-
, minate in the death of fome of them. A little
time

62 TRAVELS IN THE
time after our arrival at Constantinople,
we were witneffes -of the affaflination of a
¦Greek, of the audacity of the. galiondgi who
killed him, and of the impunity which was the
refult. i ¦¦¦
A few Greeks, feated round a table, were
drinking with each other, when a galiondgi
whom they did not know, and who had juft
been drinking alone, called on them to pay for
him : the latter refufed ; he infifted, an4
accompanied his demand by the epithets ( of
dogs, hogs, and infidels, fo familiar in the
mouth of the Turks when they are fpeak-
ing to fubjeds not Muffulmans. The an-
fwer was a fecond time negative, but . not
abufive ; the galiondgi immediately drew
his yatagan *, and threatened to • kill thefe
Greeks if they did not pay ; on the third re-
fufal on iheir part, one of them received the mor
tal wQund. The galiondgi, without fear as with
out remorfe, put' on a refolute air, kept the'
others and all the by-Standers in awe, by hold
ing a piftol in one hand, and his yatagan in the
other. He quietly walked off, when tlie guard,
$ * -A fabre a little crooked inward^,' pomted and 've"ry
mar,p, which the Turks wear at their girdle, and of which
they make uie in battle. ., armed

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C £$
«nned only with ftirks, ran to feize hold of
him. The galiondgi faced about, threatened to
fire at the firft who Should advance, made a run
ning fight of it, wounded fome of them, and
reached the burying-grounds, which lie ion a de
clivity to the Weft of Pera. By the help of the
cyprefs *rees, he arrived at the Shipping, where
he met with comrades who- received him and
favowred his ©fcape.
A Ship of war was, not long Since, fitted up in
Cuch a manner that each Turk1 had his birth and
-every (thing that Was neceffary for his cooking
and other -arrangements. The between-decks
Were fo encumbered, that frequently it was very
•difficult to make Ufe df the great guns, and the
Muffulmans had constantly received fever-ail
•broadfidfes from the enemy, before they were in <a
condition fto return them. The guns them
felves were of a different calibre, and they, were
Served without order or preparation : the fhot
which were brought for, loading the cannon,
were frequently either too large or too finally
which did not allow of defending a fhip of the
^grjeateft force againft a fingle frigate : but., with-
*in thefe few years, the Turks have introduced
more order into their Ships ; the -duty is carried
on with much more intelligence, the .between- decks

64 TRAVELS IN THE
decks are no longer fo encumbered, and the ar
tillery is better ferved than it was before.
The captain -pacha, as we have already Said,
is the High Admiral and the fuperintendant-ge-
neral of- the navy ; he ufually commands in
perfon the fleets and all the naval forces of the
empire ; he nominates to all plac.es, and em
ployments ; he orders the building and repair
ing of fhips ; but the terfana-emini is properly
the naval minifter, fince. he has the adminiftra-
tion of the funds appropriated to the navy, the
diredion of the fupply of ftores to the arfenal,
the care of the equipment of the fhips, and the
fuperintendance of all the works ; he has under
him chiefs, deputies, and different harbour-maf-
ters, as well for the execution of his- orders and
and for private fuperintendance, as for the police.
The length, of the harbour, from the point of
the feraglio to the village of Aijub, is upwards
of three thoufand toifes ; its fmalleft width is
about three. hundred : it is reckoned upWards of
five hundred in front of Tophana, and in
front of the arfenal. The fhips of war
are ranged very , near to eacht other along
the arfenal. Merchaiit-veffels commonly an*
chor along Galata.- Some of them' come
under SalYeasar-i and Fondocli, waiting foi

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 6$
for the moment to get under fail ; becaufe
they are afraid, in going out, that' the ftream may
carry them on the point of the feraglio ; "but this
precaution is generally ufelefs: fhips may effed
their departure equally well from the place where
they come to an anchor and from every part ofthe
harbour, provided care be taken, if the wind
hangs to the northward, to keep on the fide of
Tophana, for if the wind were to die away all
at once, and a veffel had got too near the point
of the feraglio, fhe would run a rifle of being
driven againft the rocks by which it is fkirted,
and of being dafhed to pieces. Ships of the line
fometimes, before they fail, bring up in the
middle of the harbour, but moft frequently they
anchor in the Bosphorus, from. Fondocli as
far 25 Bechik-tache.
A fhip may, with the greateft facility, leave
the harbour with every wind that commonly
reigns in thefe countries. There is none but
an eafterly winH that is contrary ; though, in
dependently of that wind blowing very feldom at
-Constantinople, it is there but momentary :
fcarcely is it felt, before it Shifts to the north
ward or fouthward.
However, if it is eafy to leave the harbour, a
fhip cannot ftand for the Archipelago but
with a wind from the northern quarter, nor for
vol. 1. f the

66 TRAVELS IN THE
Black Sea, but with a foutherly wind. The
pofition ofthe feasand the diredion ofthe coafts
form and modify the winds in fuch a manner
that they blow almoft always from thofe two
quarters : a breeze from the fouth is much lefs
frequent than the other, and fcarcely ever blows
during the three fummer months of the year;
on which account, it feldom happens that, in
this feafon, a veffel is able to afcend the Hel
lespont. Although this harbour has no road properly
fo called, it neverthelefs enjoys, more than any
other, that advantage, fince a whole fleet, how
ever numerous, may anchor in fafety in the
Bosphorus, and there wait for the moment of
departure : it might alfo anchor between the
coaft of Asia and Prince's Iflands, and even
all along the city as far as St. Stephano, if
the wind were to the northward.
The pofition of. this harbour is fuch, that
there is nothing tb fear from iwe enterprises of
an enemy's fleet; for it would be eafy to pro
hibit the entrance of the Bosphorus and of
the Hellespont, by fortifying thofe two im
portant paffages. The Propontis might ferve
for naval evolutions, and become a pradical
fchool of navigation. This harbour has, be-
fides, the great advantage of being capable of
containing

OTTOMAN EMPIREj &C. 6y
containing a very confiderable navy, as well on
account of its extent, and of the facility which
it affords of procuring every thing that is
neceffary for the building, the repairing, and
the equipment of a great number of fhips, as
becaufe there might be had, in a little time, all
the failors that would be wanted, from the
quantity of harbours and maritime towns which
lie near at hand, from the extent of the coafts,
and frpm the population of which thefe fertile
and diversified countries, are fufceptible.
In fhort, one of the inappreciable advantages
of the harbour of Constantinople, is that
it cannot be choked up, becaufe a part of
the waters which come from the Black Sea,
and which are driven back by the advanced
point of the feraglio, make the tour of the har
bour, and fweep. away all the ordure and filth
which the Turks never ceafe to throw into
it. %
At the time of -our departure, fome Swedifh
engineers were conftruding a bafin in the
arfenal, to ferve for the repairing and even for
the building of a fhip of the greateft force.
The rock in which they were digging, was
foft, fchiftqus, and neverthelefs fo little fuf
ceptible of infiltration, that the moft fimple
f 2 pump

68 TRAVELS IN THE
pump was fufficient for the removal of
water. From this, hopes may be entertaii
of increafing the number of thefe bafins at
confiderable expenfe ; which would be of
greateft utility to the navy of this country.

CHAPTI

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 6g

CHAPTER VI.
Excurfion to tlie environs of Yexz.—Xpmbs of , the
Armenians. — -Trip to Scutari.— Defcription of
the burying-grounds.—r Mountain 5/"Bourgour-
lou. — Ceremonies of the howling dervifes.
1 ill the arrival of the envoy extraordinary of
the Republic, our pecuniary means allowed us
not to undertake diftant excurfions-: we were
Under the neceffity of confining ourfelves to
feeing the city and the adjacent couritry, and to
vifiting, in Asia, the environs of Scutari,
and the land of the ancient Chai.cedon. Our
firft Steps were direded to the burying-ground
of Pera, a place for walking and recreation to
fome, a place for melancholy and meditation to
others. You arrive there by the long ftreet of
Pera, and you find yourfelf on an elevated
lawn, partly covered with grafs, occupied by
the burying-ground of the Armenians and by
that of the Europeans : on one fide is feen a
-cultivated field, and a little farther on, a thick
foreft of eypreffes, a vaft cemetery of the Muf
fulmans. A company of boftangees are there in
F ^ j a fort

,7° TRAVELS IN THE
a fort of pavilion, to give, to thofe who call for
them, pipes arid coffee. This place, melan
choly, from the furrounding objeds, is never- -
thelefs infinitely agreeable from the various
profpeds which prefent themfelves, from the
landscapes afforded by the coaft of Asia and
the (hores of the Bosphorus, from the view of
thepROPONTis and of a great part of Con
stantinople.
The graves ofthe Europeans "are fcattered over
a fpace fomewhat confiderable : the greater part
of them are remarkable from a large fepulchral
Stone, on which is engraved an infcription more
or lefs emphatical. For this purpofe is em
ployed a granite marble, whitiSh, and frequently
veined with gray, which is drawn from the
Ifland of Marmora. The graves of the Turks,
of which we Shall prefently Speak, are concealed
from the view by a thick foreft of cypreffes.
Thofe of the Armenians ferve as a feat, and are
Shaded by different trees of an agreeable and di
versified afped': among others are to be re
marked the mulberry-tree, the plane-tree, the
afh, the elm, and the walnut-tree. :
The graves of the Armenians are very clofe to
each other, arid are covered by a marble fculpr
turedjn relief in its upper part, reprefenting a
vafe of flowers, the instrument which defignates the

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 7 1
the rank and profeffion of the deceafed, and an
infcription in Armenian charaders. A perfon
muft have died very poor if he have on his grave
only a fimple flone, without any ornament.
Frequently is perceived, hy the fide of the in
fcription, the figure of a man whofe head is cut
off; this is a method of perpetuating the re
membrance' of an injuftice, of an ad of tyranny
on the part of the Turks, and of tranfmitting
it to the moft remote posterity. I have often feen
in the forenoon, Armenian women weeping
and mourning over the grave of a hufband,
over that of a father, a mother, or a child : the
whole family fometimes come thither: not unfre-
quently too priefts come, with the parents of
the deceafed, to recite, over his grave, prayers
for the repofe and falvation of his foul. The
Armenians, like the Turks, confider it as a
duty to waSh the body of their dead before they
bury them, and almoft all of them take, care to
plant, near the grave, a tree that may. fhade it
one day, and moderate the ardent rays of the
fun. From-this beautiful fite you defcend rapidly,
by different roads, into a narrow, fertile valley,
where fome Turks cultivate, with no great in
telligence, the black mulberry-tree, a few fruit-
trees, and feveral kitchen-garden plants, fuch as
f 4 the

72 TRAVELS IN THE
the garden bean, lettuce, chicory, folanum melange-
na, hibifcus efculentus, and various fpecies of pump
kins. You leave at fome diftance, to the right, the
TurkiSh cemeteries of which we havefpoken; to the
left, an uneven "ground, often uncultivated: at the
extremity of this -Valley you find, at a little dif
tance from the fea, a walk planted with old cy-
preffes and a few elms, too far diftant from the
city to be frequented. Beyond this, are feen two
palaces belonging to the fultan, one of which
fituated on a height, is in a rather bad condi
tion : the other, placed on the fhore of the chan
nel of the Black Sea, is kept up andraken
care of : the latter has gardens tolerably exten
five, various edifices, and feveral kiofks' or little
pavilions ornamented and beautified externally.
Selim III. goes thither, it is faidj every year to
fpend a few days at the beginning of the Sum
mer ; he takes with him his harem, fome pages,
and moft of his officers.
We had already been feveral times on the
coaft of Asia, and had thence brought back
fome plants and land Shells infinitely interefting :
we had vifited the extenfive burying-grounds,
of Scutari and examined the foil of Chalce-
DON,whenwe refolved, on the 15th of Prairial (3d
of June) to go and affift atthe religious ceremonies
of the howling dervifes, and to afcend the moun tain

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 73
tain of Bourgourlou, in order to enjoy fully the
view of Constantinople. From the valley
which I have juft mentioned, we repaired to the
fea-port of Dalma-batche with fome of our
friends : we had taken with us two janizaries
belonging to the French palace, in order that
they might ferve us as an efcort and guides.
This precaution is not abfolutely neceffary in the
environs of the capital, for it very feldom hap
pens that, in ordinary times, feveral Europeans
affembled are there infulted by Turks ; but it is
proper and fometimes even ufeful, becaufe a
Stranger is more refpeded, and more confidered ;
betides, he obtains what he wants with greater
facility, and always at a more moderate price
than when he is alone.
We embarked in ca'iques with three pairs of
oars. The fea was fmoofh, the weather very
fine; ten minutes were fufficient to tranfport us
acrofs the channel, and land us at ScutaRi. This
town, which may be confidered as a fuburb of
Constantinople, is fituated on the oppofite
bank of the channel, on a Sloping ground : it pre^
fents itfelf in the form • of an amphitheatre, and
affords a view very pidurefque from the mixture
of trees, houfes, mofques, and minarets. Its; popu
lation is eftimated at near Sixty thoufand fouls.
The greater number of the inhabitants of Scu
tari

74 TRAVELS IN THE
TARiare Muffulmans : there are, however, many
Greeks, a few Armenians, and a few Jews.
This town, ferves as an emporium and a ren
dezvous to the caravans of Asia : it carries on.
fome trade inland, and likewife with Constanti
nople. Some manufadories of fluffs, both of
filk, and of cotton, are there to be feen. The
ground which furrounds it is tolerably well
cultivated, and furnifhes grain, vegetables, her
bage, fruit, and particularly grapes which are
kept during the whole winter and part of the
Spring. At Scutari, there is one ofthe great moltias
of the^ernpire for the administration of juftice.
His jurifdidiori embraces the part of the channel
of the Black Sea on the fide of Asia, and
extends feveral leagues inland. He has, under
him, a na'i'b or lieutenant, and feveral registers.
For the police, there is a guard-houfe of bof
tangees commmanded by a captain dependent on
the boftangee-bachi, and a guard-houfe of jani
zaries commanded by an officer dependent on
the janizary aga of Constantinople.'
The burying-grounds of Scutari are the
handfomeft of the Ottoman E-mpire, from their
extent, the luxury of the tombs, and the height
and clolenefs of the trees. The rich Turks of
Constantinople, from a fentiment of pride or

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 75
or piety, prefer being buried in i\siA, which
they confider as a holy land, as a land belonging
to the true believers ; while the land of Europe,
according to therh, is to fall one day into the hands
of the christian powers, and be trodden on by
the infidels. Thefe burying-grounds are fitu
ated ahove the town, and extend to the eaft and
to the fouth, towards the fea, and to the en
virons of the fpot formerly occupied by Chal-
cedon. y
Before we Strayed into this foreft of cypref-
fes, we vifited ' feveral florehoufes of tomb-
ftcnes ready to be ereded :, we there found an
affortment relating to the different profeflions
and employments of the Turks, and calculated
at the fame time to fatisfy the tafte of every one :
feveral workmen are employed in cutting the
marble, in giving it Various forms, in tracing on
one of its faces, flowers, eulogiums, and fen-
tences taken from the Koran.
When you have penetrated into the foreft,
the image of the tombs, the fight of a young
widow Shedding tears over the grave of her
hufband, of a mother regretting the lofs of the
dear eft of her children, of an old man who has
feen the laft branch of his family become ex-
tind ; the filence which reigns in thefe places
confecrated to death; the dark and uniform green

76 • travels in the
green of the cyprefs ; the abfence of the fun,
whofe rays cannot penetrate the thick foliage of
the trees; the plaintive fong>of the turtles —
every thing inclines man to meditation, and
plunges him into a fweet melancholy. A fimilar
place in Europe would be frequented by un
happy lovers, by unfortunate men, by thofe
to whom fadnefs is a want, and tears are a
relief. The graves are very clofeto each other, and
very diverfified in their form. The poor Turks
content themfelves with ereding, at the two ex
tremities of the grave, a fimple fepulchral Stone,
without ornament and without infcription. Moft
frequently there are two Slabs of marble fdulp-
ttired and ornamented, one of which furmount-
ed by a turban .fimilar to that which the man
wore in his life-time, prefents an infcription in
dicating the age and profeffion of the deceafed,
arid which contains at the fame' time a pane
gyric or a fentence taken from the Koran : the
other piece of marble is ornamented with a cy-
prefs-tree in relief, or a vafe of flowers ; it alfo
bears fometimes a fecond infcription. The let
ters are always in relief, and painted in black' or
gilt. The graves of the women are diftin-
guifhable, from one of thefe flabs of marble, in
lieu of prefenting a turban, being commonly ter
minated

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 77
minated in the form of a mufhrobm. Thofe of
the rich have the "circumference of the grave in
mafonry : fome, fimilar to an antique farcopha-
gus, are raifed about three feet, and compofed
of four pieces of marble, two flat ones of which
form the fides of the tomb ; thofe of the two
extremities are furmounted by two pillars feven
or eight feet high, on one of which is feen a
long infcription. The upper part of the farco-
phagus is without a lid, and leaves expofed to
view the earth which covers the body. Some
times a fpace containing one or feveral graves
is furrounded by a wall or palifade. A cyprefs-
tree is commonly planted at one of the extre
mities of every grave ; which is the reafon that,
in thefe Turkifh burying-grounds, thofe trees are
fo numerous and fo clofe that they form a thick
foreft. For the firft years after the interment, the rela
tions of the deceafed come from time to time* or
at fixed periods, to Shed tears over the grave, to
renew their regret, and fpend the whole day in
afflidion. Some, more alive to their lofs, make
it their duty to cultivate flowers there, to take
care of the cyprefs-tree which they have planted,
and thence to addrefs prayers to the Supreme
Being.
We

j8 travels in the
We quitted thefe gloomy places in order to
fee images more cheerful. Half a league to the
eaftward of Scutari is the hill of Bourgour-
lou, whence the view extends afar, and fpreads
over the greateft part of Constantinople.
The road thither Js tolerably good: we went in
to a little village from which we had feen a
great nurhber of perfons come, leading horfes
loaded with pitchers. We learnt that Sultan
Selim and almoft all the great men of the ca
pital drank no other water than that of the
fpring of this village, becaufe it was confidered
as the. moft wholefome^ and the lighteft of all
the waters which reach Constantinople, or
are to be found in the environs. We tailed it,
and we faw that, in fad, it deferved, to a certain
degree, the reputation which it enjoyed. The
hill whence it iffues is fchiftous, and has nothing
remarkable but a light turf, and a clump of
trees that fhades it, under which Turkifh women
affemble to drink coffee, fmoke a pipe, and
make a frugal repaft.
We for fome time enjoyed the enchanting
fighf which prefented itfelf to us : we could not
fufficiently contemplate the majefty of thefe
places ; our eyes could not tire in alternately
furveying the city and the harbour, the winding
channel of theBLACKSEA, and the numerous vil
lages

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 79
lages fituated on its fhores, the Sea of Marmora
covered with iflands, and the ever- verdant fields
of Europe and Asia. But the fcene was to
change : it was time to go and affift at the re
ligious ceremonies of the dervifes, known under
the name of howlers ; to fee to what a pitch re
ligious roguery fports with fools and blockheads,
and by what means it fucceeds in making dupes.
One would have fome difficulty in believing that
men are capable of fo rriuch folly, and friars
' of impoftures fo grofs, if the moft enlightened
ftates of Europe had not themfelves afforded us
fcenes as ridiculous, and full as difgufting.
In a fquare hall by no means fpacious, badly
lighted, and in very indifferent condition, there
was, for the men, a gallery raifed three or four
feet, and above, a tribune for the women, faced
with clofe lattice-work. On one of the fides
was a fpace lower by a foot than the floor of the
hall, where we were as in the pit of a theatre.
The middle of the hall was occupied by about
thirty friars of different ranks and profeffions, to
judge of them from their turban. Some of
them were dreffed as janizaries, others as tcho-
cadars, fome as boftangees; feveral had the length
ened, and almoft cylindrical felt-cap of dervifes.
The fuperiors of the order had their turban
nearly fimilar tb that ofthe men of the law ; fe-
4 veral

80 TRAVELS IN THE
veral among them wbre the green feffe-, like the'
emirs. The ceremony began by fome prayers, during
which all the friars gave each other the kifs of
peace -or fraternity. The novices, or thofe who
appeared to us of an inferior ranks fimply kiffed
the hand ofthe fuperior and ofthe chiefs ofthe
order, with the greateft refped. The latter were
placed towards the wall, on a line a little curved ;
behind them were fufpended various iron instru
ments, fit for piercing the different parts of the
body, and taking hold of burning coals in order
to put them into the mouth or on the tongue j
fome were intended to be made red hot in the
fire and to be afterwards applied, as we were
told, to different parts of the body. Facing
thefe chiefs, towards the middle of the hall, the
dervifes were placed, on a curved line, in a hum
ble pofture, kneeling, fitting on their heels, ac
cording to the oriental cuftom. After a few mi
nutes fpent in prayer, to thefe laft was given a
great tabor, in the infide of which were one, two,
or three Strings fimilar to our thick violin" or
bafs Strings. One alone of thefe tabors had five
or fix little copper-wires. In front of thefe mu-
ficians was placed a brazier, for the purpofe of
heating the inftruments from time to time, and
giving to ths fkin the fuitable tenfion. The fupe rior

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 8 1
rior beat time, and regulated the movement of
the instruments with cymbals : two others ftrUck
on two little kettle-drums. This mufic accom
panied canticles in honour of Mahomet, which _
all the friars fang in unifon. i
During this monotonous and tirefome con
cert, we were from time to time eledrified by
the fight of a 'friar who came and prefented him
felf to the fuperior, as if Struck by the omnipo
tence of the Divinity : he fell by degrees into
convulfions : his body then grew ftiff, and ap
peared in the State of one dead. He funk into
the arms of the friars in waiting, who tried to re
store him to life by touching his face, his drefs,
and principally his arms and thighs. With fome,
this was a fimple ecftafy : the return to life was
effeded in a flow and gradual manner; with
others, the ftate bf death appeared complete. '
The friars in waiting extended them on the
floor, and made the greateft efforts to reftore
them to life. Independently of touching them
repeatedly, they fpoke to them feveral times in
their ear ; and, when all common means were
exhaufted, the chief approached in order to ex-
ercife his omnipotence- He fpread his hand over
the face of the dead perfon, whp fuddenly came
to himfelf and got up with the greateft nimble-
nefs, aflifted by a dervife in waiting^ This fight,
yol. i. ' o prefented

82 TRAVELS IN THE
prefented all the time that the ceremony lafted>
became more frequent towards the end, during
the howlingsof thefe fanatics.
For half an hour the mufic had fatigued' our
ears, and the convulfionaries had afflided our
hearts, when two men, naked to the waift, came
to occupy the fcene for feven or eight minutes.
They were each armed with two irons, upwards
of a foot long, pointed at one of the extremi
ties, and terminated at the other by a wooden ball
covered all round with little chains, the laft link
of which .was in the form of a very fharp nail.
Thefe men made different movements back
ward and forward with force and celerity,
and appeared to thruft the points of thefe two
irons into their belly ; but they took care every
time to put their thumb on the points. How
ever, the quicknefs of the motions, direded
fometimes on one fide, fometimes on the other,
the noife'and the play of the little chains— every
thing prevented their cunning from being dif-
tindly perceived. Thefe two men at length
pretended to thruft the instruments into their
ears, their forehead, and their eyes ; but then
their precaution appeared greater, their motion
was not fo quick, and a dervife fuddenly wrap
ped them up in a cloak; he laid them on the
floor, where they remained for fome minutes like

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 8,3
like dead perfons. j) They then got up again at
the fame time rubbing their face and body with
their hands, and they appeared as if refufcitated
and cured of their wounds. They went and re-
fumed their place and their tabor.
We were told that fometimes the ceremony
is more diverfified, that thefe fanatics put burn
ing coals into their mouth, and that they apply
their tongue to hot irons ' we eafily believed it,
on feeing fufpended againft the wall the inftru-
ments fit for' executing fimilar. fooleries.
When this mufic ceafed, almoft all the
dervifes placed themfelves in a circle and pro
nounced the word Allah (God), at the fame
time following the tone at firft flow, then quick,
which was given by two of them, who had
placed themfelves in the middle, and who were,
during this time, Singing canticles in honour
of Mahomet and his defcendants. The former
Shook their heads, fometimes forward, fometimes
Sideways or circularly, with more or lefs rapidity,
accdrding to the fong. At other times they
tofled about their body, fometimes to the right,
fometimes to the left, and fometimes backward
and forward, till they had exhaufted themfelves
with fatigue, and were quite bathed with fweat.
They took breath for a moment, and then began
again, conftantly pronouncing the word Allah,
o a :; < " or

84 -TRAVELS IN THg
Of only venting a cry fimilar to that of heh ot
< hei, which appeared to iffue from the bottom of
the Stomach. The Short intervals which occur
red' between thefe howlings,^ were filled by the
Tinging of the two friars who, as we have faidj
were feated in ¦ the middle of thefe howlers.
We remarked that there was among the chiefs
more referve, more calmnefs, lefs difpofition to.
fanaticifm ; thofe among them who from time to
time mixed with the howlers, fpared their lungs,
and did not fatigue their body.
We came out of this hall with a head-ach
and a general uneafinefs occafioned by the hor^
rible clamour of thefe fanatics and the fight of
thefe difagreeable feenes. We felt it neceffary
to take the air and give a turn to pur thoughts :
( we direded our fteps towards Kafacsera)', fitu-
ated on the fea-fhore, half a league to the fouth
of Scutari ; this is an imperial palace at pre
fent deferted, built by Amurat IV. Although
it- was very agreeably fituated, had fine gardens, C
and afforded a view of thePROPONTis, of Con-
stantinoplej and of the coafts of Europe and
Asia, yet the laft fultans have preferred their
palaces on the channel $ becaufe in fummer the
current of air which comes regularly every day
from the Black ' Sea, procures a coolnefs
which is enjoyed much lefs at Kavacse&aii be-
, fiJes,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 85
fides, a place 'fo near to the cemeteries of Scu
tari was much more calculated for meditations
than for recreation and pleafurei
Continuing our walk, we came to the ground.
formerly, occupied by Chalcedon, Where we
found nothing very interesting, except fome re
mains of walls and a little temple under ground,
which appears to have been conftruded in the
tirrie of the perfecution of the ^chriftians. We
fpent the refnainder of the day near a fpring, in
order ' to enjoy the coolnefs under the thick
Shade bf feveral plane-trees. Our caique had
been waiting for us there a long time ; an in
telligent Greek had prepared, a large pilau and
a few dainties for our janizaries and boatmen ;
and for us, a dinner which was feafoned by a
good, appetite, and enlivened by our refledions
and by the charming fpot on which we were
feated. %lf
If the inhabitants of Megara, in founding,
under the name of Procerastis, a city at the
fouth entrance of the Bosphorus, had the in-
tentipn of making it an establishment for trade,
people have been in the right to give it from
derifion the name of. Chalcedon or City
of the Blind, fince there exifted very near to
that fpot a fituation which afforded the advan
tages of an immenfe and very fafe harbour ;
g 3 but,

86' travels in the , ,'
but, as a country-town, Chalcedon enjoyed
an extenfive and fertile territory, and a pofition
infinitely agreeable : placed on a promontory
facing the Proppntis, fheltered from the north
winds, at a littlfe diftance from Princes' iflands,
it is not furprifing that this town fhould become
powerful, and that it fhould have rivalled By-
santium, founded fome time after. Chalce
don, befides, had two fmall harbours, whofe
jetties are ftill to be diftinguiflied, which muft
have been fufficient for its trade and' for its
wants. Pleafed with our day's excurfion, we entered
the caique before fun-fet, in order to repair to
the city. All this coaft, elevated fome toifes
above the level of the waters, was then cover
ed with feveral plants and various fpecies of
broom in flower, which produced the moft beau-
tiful effed, and Angularly ornamented the pidure
prefented to us by the cypreffes of Scutari, and
the neareft hills of Asia. Here the fea is ne
ver fufficiently agitated to encroach on the coaft'
for any great extent, and form a beach at all
confiderable. When the foil allows, vegetables
grow and frudify at. a little diftance from the
Shore, without being incommoded by the waters.
v CHAPTER

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 8~7

CHAPTER VII.
Defcription of the, environs of Conftantinople. •—
Excurfion of the fultan: — EJiabliJhments of Le-
vens-fchiflit. — Powder-manufaclory of St. Ste-
phano, — Cuflom of the Orientals..
C^iTizENDEScoRCHes arrived at Constanti
nople on the 1 9th of Prairial year I (7th of June
1793) ; from what he told us he was ignorant
of our miffion : he had not, before his departure,
received^any inftrudions which related to us,
and found not' at the legation any letter or no
tice concerning our travels. We were a little
furprifed to fee ourfelves, as it were, abandoned,
"when France, ftrongly agitated internally, and
externally attacked with vigour by a confider
able number of enemies, could not permit the
provifional government to caft their looks on
us. Befides, the ministers who had fent us to
the Levant Were no longer in place, or were
already no longer in existence.
Our miffion, fubopiinate to events, had for a
long time paft changed its objed : our political*
g 4 > and

88 , TRAVELS IN THE
commercial relations with the Ottoman Port
were almoft interrupted Since the retreat of th
provisional ruler, fince, above all, the looks c
the Governrrient of France appeared to t
fixed more particularly on the points threaten
ed, and Since the greater part of the ruler
guided by a blind and difaftrous delirium, wer
unfortunately hurrying the nation into meafure
fubverfive of all induftry and of all commerc<
The fate of the French fettled in the Levan'
depended on that of the mother-country : a fei
reverfes more in Europe would have been fui
ficient for them all to fee themfelves in a mo
ment involved in one general profcription : t
fuch'a degree did the Porte then appear weak
and the enemies of France exading.
Doubtful' whether our travels would prefen
the fame degree of utility to thofe who wen
fince our departure, inverted with authority, an
whether they would grant us the affiftance whici
their predeceffors had promifed us, and wit!
which we could no longer difpenfe, we refolve
to return to our own country, or wait at Con
stantinople, according to the opinion of C
tizen Descorches, till the minifter for foreig
affairs had . explained himfelf refpeding us
And in order to derive, at all events, the greate:
advantage from our travels, we haftened to gath« a

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C, '89
all the knowledge which a Stay of a few months
might allow u&; we attentively vifited the city
arid the environs, and direded our fteps towards
every place where we could make any interefting
-difcovery. Although the foil of the, environs of Con
stantinople is every where very fit for the
vine, for various fpecies of corn, for the mul
berry-tree, and for the different fruit-trees of our
climates, fcarcely any culture is there feen,
except on the borders of the channel. The
land is tolerably level in the weft part of the *
city ; ' it forms a few rifing grounds and fome
vaft plains, on which an induftrious and agricul
tural people would eafily find an abundant and
' varied food : it is uneven and inter feded by hills
and" vales in the northern part, that is to fay,
from the harbour to the Black Sea. Almoft
all this place is fehiftofe ; the vegetable ftratum
is more or lefs thick and of a tolerably good
quality, efpecially in the vallies and in the places
where the foil is of any depth ; but whether the
mifchievous genius of defpotifm dries up every
where the fources of public prosperity, or whe
ther the Turks are not fond of giving them
felves up to the culture of the land, and that, in
imitation of their forefathers, they prefer the dan
gerous profeffion of arms, robbery or traffic, it

is

00 TRAVELS IN THE
is certain that, , in all the Ottoman Empire
-part of the belt lands are negleded, and tha
it is the Greeks, the Armenians, and th
Arabs who apply themfelves more particular!;
to agriculture, when they are not too much op
preffed by the. agents of the government, o
tormented by pillaging aiid devastating .horde
that the pachas tolerate or cannot reprefs.-
Within thefe few years', fome Greeks o
Epirus and of Dalmatia have fown with fuc
cefs a few wafteTands in the environs of th<
capital, and have there made fufficiently plenti
ful harvefts ; their example will be imitated, nc
doubt, if the government do not throw any ob
flacles in the way, if it can be convinced that :
land covered ,with rich crops, produdive trees
and ufeful plants is the moft beautiful ornamen
of the ehvirons'of a, city and the moft fiatterinj
panegyric of the fovereign.
On going out by the elevated fuburb of Pera
you find an uneven, fchiftofe foil, little culti
vated : to the left you fee a narrow, deep val
ley, extremely fertile, in which are rearei
different kitchen-garden plants. Beyond thi
valley you perceive, on an elevated ground, th
village of St. Dimitri, which may be con
fidered as one of the fuburbs of the capital
The environs of this Greek village prefent a fe\
6 vineyard;

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 9 1
vineyards and _ gardens. After having paffed
a fecond valley, you foon arrive on a level
ground, uncultivated, and tolerably, fpacious,
called Ojc-fliEi'DAN, to which the fultan repairs
fometimes in fummer, accompanied by the prin
cipal officers ofhis houfehold and a part of his
pages. He there fpends the day in a beautiful
kiofk or under magnificent tents, and fome
times amufes himfelf in letting off two or three
arrows. Skilful flatterers, ever adive about the man
in power, have not failed to find that every ar
row fhot from the hand of the fovereign reached
to a prodigious diftance, and, in order to eter
nize the remembrance of it, have been eager to
ered, every time that the fultan has taken this
diversion, a marble pillar on which is engraved
in relief a long infcription.
The pages who exercife themfelves after him,
would take good care not to difplay all their
Strength and all their Skill, if they were not cer
tain that the markjwhich has juft been hit, in ap
pearance, by the fukan, has been placed out of
the reach of their arrows. '
Thefe pages then perform a mock-fight on
horfeback with the lance, very much ufed
among all the Orientals ; it confifts in throwing
on a gallop, with the arm raifed, that weapon with

92 TRAVELS IN THE
with the greateft force, and hitting with its point
one's adversary at a fomewhat great diftance.
And whether he have miffed his aim or ftruck
his enemy, the Turkish, Arabic or Perfian
warrior, in order not to remain unarmed or be
ftruck in his turn, muft again recover his wea
pon going on at the fame time, without fetting
his foot to the ground. In the mock^fight, they
make ufe of a flick called djerid, taken from a
light wood, fuch as the willow or the date-tree ;
for, without this precaution, ferious accidents
Would frequently happen : a perfon might be
dangeroufly wounded if the djerid were of a hard.
and heavy wood.
In every part of the Ottoman Empire, we
were feveral times witneffes of the dexterity
which '-the Orientals difplay in this combat,
and of, the nimblenefs with which, while
on a gallop, they recover their djerid, often
at the firft attempt. This fight, much
more frequent among the Arabs than among
the Turks and the Perfians, can take place
only between an inconfiderable number of ,
combatants, and ampng nations which make
much more ufe of the lance than of fire
arms. In following the road of Belgrade and of
Buyuk-dere, you fee fome uncultivated'' lands, a fe\v

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C ' 93
a few fcattered vineyards, and fome fields laid
down in corn. After a journey, on foot, of an
hour and a half, you arrive at a fort of farm,
called Lefens-Schiflit, adorned with fome
gardens tolerably pidurefqu'e, and fome rather
extenfive buildings kept in very good order.
Hassan, captain-pacha, to whom fukan Ab
dul Hamid had, given it as an appanage, had
made of it a plaee of recreation, and had there
placed a guard of levens or marines, in order to
reprefs pillage, and prevent the robberies which
Were then committed on this road, and even
under the walls of the city.
What is at this day feen moft interefting at
Levens-schiflit, is a manufadory of muf-
kets and bayonets in the European ftyle, efta-
bliShed at the commencement of Selim's reign,
by a Spanifh engineer : it was negleded and al
moft abandoned a little time after its establish
ment ; but it has refumed its adivity Since
Selim, the captain-pacha, and fome members
of the council, finding the fuperiority of our
weaporis and the advantage of ' our tadics, re
folded to introduce them by degrees into the
Ottoman -armies.
A part of thefe, buildings is occupied, at this
moment, by a corps of infantry of twelvq hundred
boftangees paid and exercifed in the European manner,

94 travels in tat
manner, by another corps of about four thou*
fand gunners, bofnbardiers, and matroffes, and
by a company of horfe-artillery ; but it appears
that there had alfo been an intention of lodging
there cavalry, to judge from the extent of the
Stables and buildings which were ereded at the
time that the Grand Signior and the. greater
part of the merribers of the Divan were likewife
taken up with the creation of a Standing army,
Organized in imitation of ; that" of the European
powers. Notwithftanding the mutiny,' the threats, and
the revolt of the janizaries ; notwithstanding the
refiftance of the other corps of troops and the
oppofition of the whole nation, which repels
with obftinacy the cuftoms that have been
tranfmitted to it by other nations, it is not tobe
doubted that Selim would have fucceeded in
his projeds, and have furmounted all the ob
stacles which the interefl of fome, and the ig*
norance and fanaticifm of all oppofed to him, if
a man no lefs extraordinary than enterprifing, if
Paswan Oglou had not found, in his genius
and in the pecuniary affiftance of thofe whom
the fuccefs of his projects might counterad, the
means of paralyzing the great meafures of the
Porte, the only ones capable perhaps of
Strengthening the authority of the fovereign, of
preventing

OTTOMAN, EMPIRE, &C OJ
preventing the revolts, of the pachas, of relieving
the people, and of protrading the fajl of this
vaft empire.
I Shall, on another occafion, make known
that man who is moved by hidden fprings, and
whom policy makes ufe of whenever it has need
of him.
After having paffed Levens-Schiflit, you
proceed, by various roads, to Belgrade, to Ta
rawa, and to Buyuk-dere, villages which the
European ambaffadors have fucceffively inhabited
in the fummer. To' the weftward and north
ward of the firft, are fome ancient forefts,
the abode of wild boars, Stags, roe-bucks,
jackals, and of feveral birds of prey. The
fmilax excelfa* climbs up to the top of the
moft of thefe trees, and envelops them with its .
branches and foliage.
If you then dired your Steps totheoppofitefide, -
to the weft part of the city, for example, where
the level grounds and the extremely fertile lands
feem to invite man to conceal himfelf from the
intrigues, the noife, and the tumult of cities, in
-order to feek in the fields, under a cool Shade,
in the middle of an orchard, plenty, peace, . and
happinefs, we fhall be furprifed, no doubt,
to find thefe land's fo little cultivated, equally
* Lofty-climbing oriental bindweed.— T.
negleded

$6 Travels in the '>
negleded as the others, and to fee them feldom
covered with rich harvefts. We were ftruck,
the firft time that we direded our fteps towards
thefe places, at the terrible effed which defpot-
ifm produces on agriculture in the environs of
Constantinople. The filence which reigns
every where, the nakednefs of the fields, the
culture of the lands extremely negleded, and
the total abandonment of fome, befpeak rather a
devaftated country, ot the fteril borders of a
province diftant from the roads, the ports arid
towns of confumption, than the approaches of
the capital of a great empire.
On a vaft extent of ground which you trav'erfe
in the environs of the roads of Adrianople
and of Rodosto, or on the road of St. Ste-
phano, you meet with only three or four farms,
the appanage of fome eminent place or poffeffed
for ever by fome imperial mofque.
In following 'the road the neareft to the
fea-fhore, you arrive, after two hours' walk, at St.
Steph ano, a Greek village, where the Grand
Signior has, within thefe few years, eftablifhed
a manufadory of jjun-powder, the diredion of
which he has intrufted to an Italian. The ig
norance of the Tur,ks, in regard to the manu-
fadure of powdery has always been fuch, that
they for. a long time purchafed that commodity

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 97
ofthe Venetians, and have not yet fucceeded in
giving it that rdegree of perfcdion which it ob
tains among us. The powder maaufadifed
in Turkey is fcarcely (it for Shooting-,; arid ef-
pecially for the priming of a muSket or%a piftol.
The fhip-captains who frequent the Levant, al
moft all make it an article of merchandife ex-
tremely a'dvantageousj becaufe the Turks feek,
for their piftols and carbines, the fine powder of
Europe, and becaufe the Europeans who amufe
themfelves in Shooting, cannot difpenfe with it.
The environs pf Sr. Stephano" are excellent
for quail-Shooting, from the end bf Frudidor
to the end of Vendemiaire. Ducks arid teals
are alfo to be found during the winter ,! on -the
banks ofthe lake known under the Italian name
of Ponte Piccolo*, which lies beyond the vil
lage. This lake is extremely full of fifh ; I
have feveral times feen monStrous' carp that had
been caught there; they weighed from fifty to
eighty pounds, and were three or four feet
long. * Or the little bridge ; and in Turkifh, Koutchouk-tchefme,
The lake has taken the name of the bridge ellablifhed on th£
narrow part which communicates with the fea. Agfew
leagues from this fpot, is another lake, called, for the fame
reafon, Ponte grande or Rvyuk-ichefmi. ¦
VOL. I. H It

«|8 .-travels in the
It was on the 2 2d of Prairial (10th of June)
that we went, on. foot, to St. Stephano,
walking acrpfs fields covered with thiftles,
graffes, and plants of every fpecies which delayed
our prpgrefs, and 'fatigued us greatly. We
hoped to return the fame day by fea, in order
tp examine the fhore ; but as it was already late
when we.left the manufadory, it was impoflible
for us to find a boat, fo that, tired as we were,
we were obliged to determine on making a fru
gal repaft at the houfe of a Greek papas, and
pafs the night on a fopha, expofed to fleas
and bugs, extremely numerous throughout the
Levant. The Orientals, more Simple than ourfelves in
their houfehold furniture, are not acquainted,
with the luxury of beds. They have in their
houfes a certain number of very light mattreffesj,
of wool or cotton, which they fpread on the
floor or pn the fophas at bed-time, and on which
they pafs the night. The.women take off their
trinkets, and lay afide their finery ; the men ftrip
themfelves of their habit pf ceremony, change
their turban, and lie down in their -clothes, as
well as the women. They cover themfelves.
with quilted. coverlids, to which the rich add a
cottpn Sheet, which they commonly do not.
.>i 1 change

OTTOMAN EMPIRE; &C. ;<J9
change till it is very dirty, or almoft worn
out. The next morning thefe mattfeffes and cover
lids are taken away ; they are fhut up in clofets,
and the bed-chamber again becomes the drawing-
room and eating-parlour. Among the poor
Greeks, Armenians, and Jews, the whole fa*
mily almoft always fleep in the fame room ; but,
among the Muffulmans, the apartment of the
men is always Separate from that of the
women. As the ufe of chairs and tables is equally un
known to the Orientals, fophas are the principal
and almoft the only articles of furniture of their
apartments : thefe are generally placed on three
fides of the room, on that of the windows and
on two of the other fides : they are immediately
placed on the floor, or raifed a few inches, half
a foot and even a foot, by means of a little
eminence forrried of fome planks. They are
covered with beautiful printed callicoes, fluffs
of filk, velvet, or cloth, and ornamented with
cotton, filk, filver, or gold fringe. There are
large cufhions for the back, throughout all the
length of the fopha, trimmed with fringe and
covered with the fame Stuffs ; carpets and mats
are placed in the middle of the room. There
remains a part of the floor, oppofite to the en-
h 2 trance

TOO  TRAVELS IN THE :
rranceidoof, which is tower by five 'or fix inehes>
and which ferves as a paffage for going to the
lateral chambers.
The fopha ferves as a feat during the day, and
¦as a' bed during the night : there it is, that the
Orientals pafs the^ day, fq-uatted, with their legs
crbfled, and that, at night, they place their mat-
treffes for, Sleeping. Frequently, in order not to-
wear, ,the fopha too much, they remain on the
•^arpetor orr the mat, and, at night, for want of
other mattreffes, they Sleep on the fopha, after
having takenj off the cover by which it is or
namented. .
, It may. be, conceived that this manner of .liv
ing on the floor, on carpets or mats which can-
,not be fwept, and which are negleded to be
beaten, or Shaken, in wooden houfes, in a hot
climate, among a people who are fcarcely ac
quainted with the ufe of linen, who keep on
their garments- during the night, and do not take
them off in general till they are worn out, fleas,
bugs, and all the vermin which adhere to the
dirty and- negligent man, muft be extremely
pt\merous; this too was what made ' us 'Suffer
moil in the courfe of our travels, becaufe it was
impofSble for us to fecure ourfelves againft thofe
infeds when we were obliged to lie down in a
place which wa# infefted by them. It

OTTOMAN EMPIRE,'' &e. lt>l'-
It was not enough for the ; fleas and bugs to
prevent us from fleeping ; we were, befides, light
ed by a lamp which was> burning before the
¦ image of the virgin, as is the pradice night and
day in all the Greek houfes. of the Levant.
We durft not extinguish it : we Should have af-
flided too much the worthy prieft at whofe h'oufe
We had ftopped, and who had received us with
the greateft pplitenefs.
We had obferved, .in going tp St. Steph ano,
the, double ditch and .the double wall which Se
cure Constantinople by land, and which have
been fo- well pTeferved, notwithstanding the va
rious attacks which that city has experienced :.
we wifhed, on our return, to take a look, at the
wall which formerly defended it by fea, from one
extremity to the other, and which extended all
along the harbour as far • as the environs of
Aijup- We embarked the next morning in a
caique, and, in, an hour and ahalf, we were before
'the little circular fort, known by the name ofthe
¦Sefen Towers, fituated at the fouthern extremi
ty of the city. -It is nothing more at the pre
fent, day but a State prifon, in which the am-
baffadors and agents of foreign powers are Shut
up when the Turks are at war with them.
The walls which are afterwards feen, are part-
ly deftroyed. Here are to be remarked various
h 3 inferip-

I0£ TRAVELS IN THE
infcriptions which indicate the period of the
works' which the Greek emperors ereded.
Here are iikewife to be feen pieces of pillars
which the Turks employed when they repaired
the breaches occafioned by the fiege that they
carried on before they made themfelves mafters
of the city.
We foon arrived at the gate of Daoud-Pacha,
near which is the ancient harbour of Theodo
sius or of Eleuther. We ftopped further
on at CaTisga-limani, or the galley-harbour,
conftruded by Julian, repaired by Maho
met II, at this day choked up, and, in a great
meafure, transformed, as well as the other, into
kitchen-gardens. Thefe two -harbours, ufelefs to the navy,
would, neverthelefs,be deepened and kept up by
a nation more enlightened than that of the
Turks, becaufe they would facilitate the convey.
ance of »provifions and merchandife into every
quarter of this great city, whofe uneven and
hilly ground fcarcely permits the ufe of carts.
We rowed upwards of an hour along the
walls of the - city before we arrived off the
feraglio. Here, cypreffes, pines, and plane-
trees rife above the outer wall ; farther on, va
rious irregular buildings, feveral domes and
•minaret*

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 103*.
minarets of mofques are to be remarked in this
vaft enclofure which was occupied by the an
cient Byzantium ; by the fea-fide are feen a few
kioSks, whither the fultan repairs fometimes to
enjoy a view of the Propontis, and breathe the
cool air which comes every day, in fummer, froriV
the Black Sea.
Having arrived at the point of the feraglio,
we paffed the harbour, leavingjt on the left, and
Scutari on the right; then we difembarked at
the landing-place of ToP-hana fituated to the
eaft of Galata.

h4 , CHAPTER

I*>4 t RAVELS fN TH«

CHAPTER VIII.
Defcription of the Bofphorus and of its environs.
— Arrival at rSuyuk-dere. — Of the plane-free
which is there met with -^Indications of a Vol
cano at the mouth of the Black Sea. >
VJto-fhe .25th pf Prairial (13th of June) we re-
refolved to go and take up our refidence at
B^yuk-Djjre, a village fituated in Europe,
near rive leagues from Constantinople, to
wards the mouth of the channel, in order to be
better enabled to yifit to a fomewhat confi-
derabl diltance from the city, the fields of
Europe and of .Asia, to repair with greater
facility to the fhores of the Black Sea, and
to avail ourfelves of the feafon favourable for
obfervations, refearches, and the colleding of
moft of the articles of natural hiftory. The
fpring-plants had already done flowering, and
no -longer afforded any thing but feeds.; thofe
of fummer were going to flower, and gave us
hopes of an abundant harveft. On our return
from Egypt inThermidor andFrudidoryearI.il.
we had cplleded a few late plants and a great ma
ny Seeds ; and? onreturnihg from Persia in the
year

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 105
year VI. (1798) we had pot quitted Constan
tinople without gathering the fpring-plants.
We went to embark at Top-hana on board a
caique with three pairs of oars : it was neceffary
to pafs through a multitude of fnarling dogs
which fatigue Europeans by their barking, and of
which a perfon ought to be on his guard, be
caufe they fometimes revenge themfelves un
awares for the blows which they, from time to
time, receive from the failors. The fquare which
leads to the Steps where you' embark, is large,
irregular, planted with fome beautiful plane-
trees, and adorned with a fountain conftruded
within thefe few years by a captain-pacha. It is
furmounted by a broad, wooden frame, on which
are crowded ornaments, gilding, fentences, and
infcriptions. At this period. workmen were em
ployed in building in the park of artillery, fitu
ated on the fide of the fquare, .a triple row of
barracks which are difpofed in the figure of an
amphitheatre, and have a tolerably handfome
effed. In the fquare were lying heaps of corn
and fruit, on which turtles and fparrows in great
numbers were gorging themfelves without being
in fear of the paffengers or the mafter of thefe
commodities. The Turks have, in this refped, the greateft
indifference : they neither allow themfelves to kill
thefe

io6 travels in the
thefe birds nor- to drive them away : fome even
would think themfelves very happy in providing.
for their maintenance. " Muft not thefe innocent
" ereatures," fay they, "find their fubfiftence ?
" If it pleafe God, we JIj all next year have a more
" abundant harvefi." Spme among them build^
in various parts of their houfes, nefts not without
a degree of beauty, and take good care not to
disturb the loves of thefe birds, Still lefs to de
stroy their young. Thefe religious fentiments
form a Singular contrail with the unjuft and op
preffive ' condud which they hold towards the
chriftians who refide among them and whom
they have unmercifully Stripped, and. by no
means agree with that infatiable cupidity which
charaderifes the Turkish nation, and of which
I Shall frequeritly have occafion to fpeak.
On receding from the water-fide, the eye ex
tends with pleafure oyer the fuburbs of Galata,
Top-Hana, Pera, Salybasari, and Fondo-
gli, which you leave on the left, and which
prefents itfelf in the' form of an amphitheatre.
You prefently arrive in front of the feraglio of,
Bechik-tache, of which I have already fpoken..!
You then fee the village of that name, together
with thofe of OrTa-keUi, KouroU-tchesme;»
and Arnaoud-keui ; but all this Space forms,
properly fpeaking, only one contiguous village^ where

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. I07,
where are feen fome very handfome houfes almoft
entirely built of wood and varioufly painted :
thofe belonging to the Turks are in white or
red;, thofe of the Greeks, Armenians, and
Jews are of a blackifh brown. The latter are
not allowed to employ the , colours of the Muf-'
fulmans : in Turkey, the houfes, like the/gar
ments, diftinguiSh "the raafter from the flave.
The ground forms, all along the channel,
a chain of fchiftofe hills, very fertile, covered
with cypreffes, oaks, lime-trees, chefnut-trees,
arb'jtufes, myrtles, brooms, and vines, which
prefent an infinitely agreeable afped. Thefe
hills are interrupted by tome vallies of the
greateft fertility, which contribute to vary and
embellish the pidure. • Gardens more or lefs
fpacious, adofned with flowers and kiofks dif-
pofed in fuch a manner as to receive the current
of. air, and afford at a, diftance a view of the
channel, make thefe houfes places of enjoyment
and delight. Moft of the rich- inhabitants of
Constantinople here pafs in fummer the
whole day, alone, fquatted on a fopha, em
ployed in fmoking, drinking coffee, cafting their
eyes on pafferigers, and rolling in their fingers
chaplets of coral, agate, and precious Stories./
We landed, near the caftle of Europe, in
order to examine fome plants and flowers which
ftruck

Xo8 TRAVELS in the
ftruck us. We entered into a Turkifh burying-
ground planted with beautiful cypreffes and a
few turpentine-trees :. we found among others, a
beautiful fpecies of fennel-giant five or fix feet
high, different from the narrow-leaved fennel-
giant aind feveral fpecies of campanula ; we faw
the beautiful violet, rough carabus, which I
have defcribed and drawn in my Entomologie*.
After having fpent feveral hours on fhore, we
returned to our caique ; we foon paffed R'ou- ,
Mili-hissar, 'fituated' on a Sloping ground;
This caftle, built under Constantine, Paleo-
logus, laft emperor of the East, by Maho
met II, when he was* meditating the conqueft
of Constantinople, is much more calculated
at this day to ferve as a fcare-crow, . thjan' to op-
pofe the paffage of a fhip of the line'. In fad, a
Single frigate would foon knock tp pieces all the
gun-carriages and difmount the guns which are
expofed to view on the beach, and put to flight
the gunners, whom nothing fhelters. This ij
the cafe with the caftle of Asia which lies on
the other fide ofthe channel : its conftrudion is
no better, -and cannot defend the approaches of
the capital. .
* Entom. ou Hifi. Nat. deslnfettes. Vol. III. Carale. N° 7.*
pi. viii. fig. 83. la

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, -&C. 100/
In this 'place it was that Darius, king of
Persia, eftablifhed a bridge of boats in order to
carry " over his army when he . wifhed to .make
waragainft the%e^gam By this place took was
•that the crufaders, animated by a holy zeal, en
tered Asia, in order to deliver the Holy Land
from the yoke of the Mahometans.
. We -followed -the coaft of 'Europe, becaufe
the waters which come frbm the Black Sea^
form a current more rapid in the middle of the
channel and towards the coaft of Asia. The
caiques which are afcending, all follow the fame
route, whereas, in returning to Constanti.-
nqple, mariners take care to keep in the midT
dig of the channel, and even to approach-the
coaft of Asia a little more than that of Eu
rope ; which facilitates their return, especially
if. a light northerly wind allow them to fpread
their fails. ¦
If we confider the quantity of water which
the Black Sea receives from the Danube, the
Dniester, the Dnieper, and the Don, as
well as from a gre'at number of rivers and tor
rents which d^fcend from Mount Caucasus and
the Iiills of Mingrelia, or which come from
Georgia, Armenia, and NATOLiA,we Shall per
ceive that, confined in a b'afin too narrow, thefe.
waters would have been obliged, to fpread themr
io felves-

116 TRAVELS IN THE. ,
felves more iri order to provide for a greater
evaporation and put themfelves in equilibrio, had
they not found an iffue through the Bosphorus
and the channel of the Dardanelles. It is
by this means that the furplus of the .water's of
that fea isinceffantly flowing out, and is'poured
into the Mediterranean i and, this is what
explains to us why the waters of the Black
Sea and thofe of the Propontis are lefs fait
than thofe of the /Mediterranean and of the
Ocean-
The current is fo ftrong, that the channel, in
fomeplaces, rather refembles a river than an arm
of the fea : it is feen to oppofe the progrefs of a
Ship when the fouth wind blows but faintly.
The diredion of the coafts compels the waters
to fe't more towards thofe of Asia, and' to form
on that fide a more rapid current.; however, at
the point pf Arnaoud-keui, one is obliged to
afcend by tracking, by means of a rope which
is thrown to fome failors who remain continu
ally on the „fhore\ The waters, in this part,
have fuch a rapidity, that it would be impdflibl'e'
to proceed by rowing without going to a dif
tance from the land: but when this obstacle is
overcome, the current is fcarcely any longer
perceptible, and even, in various places, the
diredion of the capes caufes the waters to af
cend,

ottoman empire, dec, ut
cend, as in rivers ; which favours the progrefs
of a boat, as is to be remarked, in a very evi
dent manner, from Top-hana to beyond Fon-
docli, becaufe the waters, fetting with impetu
osity on the advanced point of the feraglio of
Constantinople, they there divide : one part
of them makes the tour of the harbour, returns
along Haskeui, the Arfenal, Galata, Top-
hana, and afcends afterwards to Fondocli and
Bechik-tache, while the other fets immedi
ately into the Sea of Marmora. This fepa'ra*
tion pf the waters, as well as their diredion, is
much more apparent after a heavy rain, when
they are disturbed by the fmall river which dis
charges itfelf into the head of the harbour.
This circular motion of the waters of the
channel, united to that of the fmall river of
which I have juft fpoken, rids the harbour of
Constantinople, as I have faid ehewhere, of
the ordures which the Tuiks throw into; it, and
at, the fame time fweeps away all the filth which
the rain-waters carry into it in winter from every
part of the ,city, and which would not fail to
choke it up one day, becaufe the Turks, by no
means fufceptible of forefight, would be at no
expenfe for keeping it in order.
For a long time we faw flocks of birds paffing
and repaffing continually towards the- middle of
the

Hi travels in the
the channel, fkimrning the furface of the- water
and flying with the greateft fwiftnefs. The Eu
ropeans designate them by the name oi damned
fouls, becaufe they think that they fee in them
reftlefs beings, tormented by the wiih of pro
ceeding inceffantly from the Black Sea into
the Mediterranean, and from the latter into
the former As foon as we had paffed the firft
caftle, we direded our boatmen to recede from
the coaft, and advance towards the middle of the
channel. Our intention was to fhoot at thefe
birds, in order to ascertain their fpecies, and
to preferve fome -of them. We foon came up to,
them : they paffed fufficiently near the caique
in which we were, to permit us to kill feveral at
every Shot. The boatmen were Turks : they at
firft rowed without repugnance towards the
birds which the firft difcharge of our pieces had'
brought down ; but, becaufe we would not allow
them to cut their throat, which would have da
maged the plumage, we had the greateft diffi
culty to fnake them row afterwards toward
thofe which a fecond difcharge had alfo brought
down ; fo that, foon participating ourfelves in
the compaffion with which the fight of thefe
birds Struggling with death muft infpire all, we
very quickly fmothered them and contented
ourfelves with taking four of them. We wrap ped

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 113
ped them up in a cloth in order to conceal them
from the fight of our boatmen, and to preferve
their pltfttiage ; after which we ag&in direded
our route towards the coaft of Europe.
The Muffulmans, from a fentiment of piety
or religion, are in the habit of cutting the throat
or chopping off the head of all the animals which
they bring down by a mufket-fhot or otherwife,
even when they are quite dead. This cuftom is
fo generally and fo religioufly obferved, that, in
the different countries which we vifited, we were
feldom able to obtain even for any money, that
the throat of the birds which were brought to us
Should not be cut ; and when we were prefent,
it was frequently very difficult for us to" pre
vent it.
The b'td that we had juft taken is a flight
variety of the petrel-puffin *. It differs from it
by its make being a little fmaller and by the bill
being eritirely black. By the account of fea-
men, it makes its neft on the Shores of the
Black Sea, and fcarcely lives on any thing
but fifh. Its flefh is not good to be eaten.
We foon reached the point of Yeni-keui,
whence we had a charming view of Tarapia
andBuYUK-DERE. Having arrived off Tara
pia, our eyes were direded with pleafure to-
* Procellaria puffinus. -
VOL. 1. 1 wards

1X4' TRAVELS IN THE
wards the Black Sea, which we difcovered at
the diftance of upwards of two leagues : our
ifnagiriation was already meafuring its 'extent;
\re were already impatierit to vifit its Shore ;
ahd, like new Argonauts, we were already form
ing the projed of carrying off from thefe regions
all the produdions of nature, in order to convey
them into our own country. Circumstances, as
will be feen, fomewhat cburiteraded our pro
jeds', and forced us to dired our firft Steps into
countries better known, more frequented, but
no lefs interefting.
We arrived at an early hour at Buyuk-derI :
it was a-ho.liday. In the evening, we wiShed to
take a walk in the meadow, and fee the famous
plane-tree which had long fince been mentioned
to us, and of which fome travellers have given a
Slight defcription. Seven or eight trees of an
enormous fize, adhering at their bafe, rife cir
cularly and leave in the middle a rather confi
derable fpace. A great many Greeks and Ar-
irienians were feated on the turf, under the
Shade of thefe trees, and fmoking their pipes:
different groups' of Turkifh and Armenian
women, veiled and furrounded by their chil
dren, were feated apart : fome Greek women
richly dreffed, more or lefs handfome, fixed the
looks and the attention of fome Europeans whom

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 115
whom the crowd of people had attraded. . Seve
ral Turks were in the enclofure of the plane-
tree, fmoking their pipe, and drinking coffee
which had juft been prepared for them hard by. -
' The moment was not favourable for the ob
fervations which we wifhed to make ; however,
we approached the tree, and when we were by
the fide of the Turks they invited us to fit down
near them : they offered us pipes and cpffee
which we accepted, and, by means of a French
.drogueman who accompanied us, we carried on
a converfation not very important. We had- an
opportunity of feeing at pur hotel two of thefe
Turks, and of offering them, in our turn, an
excellent dinner and the belt wine that is drunk
in Constantinople. >
The planectree often prefents at its bafe a con
fiderable expanfion of a diameter double and
triple that of the trunk, and which may exceed
thirty feet, as we have feen in fome places, fo
that it frequently happens, when the tree dies of
age, that it fends forth all round the flump,
Shoots which formfo many new trees; this, no
doubt, is what has happened to the plane-tree
Xii Buyuk^dere. We remarked, indeed, that
the feven or eight trunks of which it is formed,
appear to have a common origin, and that they
are all conneded by their bafe,
12 The

il6 TRAVELS IN THE
The plane tree grows naturally throughout
all the East : it is common on the banks of
the rivulets in Greece, in the iflands of the
Archipelago, on the coaft of Asia Minor,
in Syria, and in Persia. Its wood is not in
ferior, for cabinet-work, to any wood of Eu
rope ; it takes a beautiful poliSh, and is very
agreeably veined. The Perfians employ no
other for their furniture, their doors, and their
windows. This tree deferves to be more gene
rally cultivated in France, as well on account
of the qualities of its wood, as from the beauty
of its foliage and the cool Shade which it affords.
It acquires, in a good foil a little moift, a fize at
which no European tree arrives.
It is well known that the Romans conveyed
this tree into Italy, and that they, propagated
the culture of it to fuch a degree in their gar
dens and country-houfes, that Pliny and
Horace exclaimed againft the abufe which
was made of it in their time. It was then diffi
cult to make a better chpice, and to procure a
tree more beautiful and better calculated for af-
fordirig a cool Shade. There Was, according to
Pliny, a plane-tree, in Cyprus, and another
at the fountain of Gortyna in Crete, which
preferved their leaves all the year. We muft,
doubtlefs, place this affertion among the fables
' which

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, && t\J
Which antiquity has tfanfmitted to us, or at leaft
confider thefe trees as different from common
plane-trees. Buyuk-d er£ or the Great Vallex, is a village
Situated in the broadeft part of the channel, on
a fort of gulf, about fix miles from the Black
Sea. The houfes ftand on the fea-fhore, and
occupy near a mile in extent : thofe belonging
to moft of the ambaffadors, built in the Eu
ropean tafte, are remarkable for their elegance
and the beauty of their gardens. As this vil
lage is fcarcely occupied except by Europeans,
Greeks, and Armenians, it would be an infi>
niteiy agreeable place of refidence, if the am
baffadors would bring themfelves to lay afide*
efpecially in the country, the ceremony, eti
quette, and preferences which accompany them
every where. The man who is fond of good
living, and who is not in a condition tb procure
it for himfelf at his own horhe, finds at their
table the reward of his complaifance and the in*
demnificatibn of the incivilities which he is often
obliged to put up with.
The Armenian women, here as effewhere,
live retired, and do not appear in the Streets un
veiled ; the Greek women live with as little con
straint as in the capital, and contribute to render
i 3 tne

tt8 travels in the
the monotony of fociety fupportable. It were to
be wifhed, however, that they pined, to a face
generally handfome and to their natural gaiety, a
mind more cultivated, a heart more loving, and
that they fhewed lefs avidity for money and lefs
tafte for trifles.
The channel anciently known under the name
of the Bosphorus of Thrace, is near feven
leagues long, and about twenty miles from the
point of the feraglio of Constantinople to
the Cyanean Iflands. It is not two miles in its
greateft width, and it is fo narrow in feveral
places; that fome ancient authors have advanced
that a perfon may hear the birds fing from the
one Shore to the other, and that two men may
eafily hold a converfation acrofs the channel.
The next day after our arrival at Buyuk-
dere, the weather being very fine, and the
water perfedly fmooth, we haftened to go on the
Black Sea, in order to vifit the fhore at fome
diftance from the mouth of the channel. We
frequently landed, as well to examine the coaft,
as to ,obferve the plants and the various pro-
dudions of nature that were there to be met
with. As foon as we had paffed the village, we were
ftruck at feeing on' both Shores, indications of a
volcano which we followed for an extent of feve ral

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. lip
rai leagues. We diftinguiflied every where
rocks more or lefs changed or decompofed ;
every where accumulation and corifufion atteft -
the adion of fubterraneous fires : we perceived
jafpers of various colours, carnelians, agates,,
and chalcedonies in veins among porphyries
more or lefs changed ; a breach by no means
folid, almoft decompofed, formed by fragments
of trap, agglutinated4by calcareous fpar ; a hand
fome porphyry on a rocky bafe of greenifh
trap, coloured by copper : in fhort, we faw,
over an extent of upwards of half a league, a
hard rock of trap of a greenifh blue, in like
manner coloured by copper.
It is this laft, no doubt, that occafioned the
ancients to give the name of Cyanem or
Cxanean Islands to fome iflets which were
fituated at the mouth of the channel, near the
coaft of Europe. At this day they are nothing
more than very fmall rocks ; which leads us to
believe that their fize has diminifhed from the
conftant action of the waters which has eaten
them away and undermined them by degrees.
Thefe rocks were alfo called Symplegades, be
caufe they appeared united or joined, according
to the place whence they were viewed. As they
are more or lefs apparent, according as the
north or fouth wind raifes or lowers the waters
1 4 in.

120 Travels in the
in this part, the. Greeks, always inclined to the
marvellous, have fuppofed that thefe iflands
were floating and infinitely dangerous to impru
dent or inattentive mariners.
On one of thefe rocks the Romans ereded an
altar to Apollo, which, at Constantinople,
is improperly called Pompey's Pillar. Several
travellers have made efforts to read the Latin
infcription which is there to be found ; but the
letters are at prefent fo effaced, that it is difficult,
perhaps even' impoffible to accomplish that taSk.
We had not time to fee whether the indications
of a volcano extend to a great diftance in Asia,
becaufe about ten or eleven o'clock in the morning
the wind blew from the northern quarter, and raif
ed a great fwell on the fea: it would have been
imprudent, in a fmall caique, to crofs from the
point of Europe, where we were, to that of
Asia. We contented ourfelves with coafting
the European Shore for fome time, and with
convincing ourfelves that the indications of the
volcano extend on that fide to upwards of a
league. ,The width of the channel, at its mouth,
is from eighteen tp nineteen hundred toifes..
The entrance is defended, on each fide, by
fortifications' ereded^by Baron de Tott and
augmented lately by . fome French engineers.
The

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. I 21
The Turks, through ignorance, through foreign
influence, or through motives of economy, have
always oppofed the execution of the plans which
the engineers prefented to them, though it Was
very important for them to deprive their natural
enemies of the means of coming to difturb them
even in their capital. In fad, it would be very
eafy for the Ruffians, at this moment, to pene
trate into the channel, with a northerly wind,
and to advance as far as Constantinople, be
caufe the batteries being few in number and ex
pofed, the guns would foon be difmounted by the
fire of a line-of-battle Ship. A fleet, befides,
would efcape by receiving a few fhot, if the
Turkifh gunners were more Skilful, more exer-
cifed arid mpre adive than they are.
At fome diftance from thefe fortifications, there
is in Europe and in Asia a lighthoufe for guiding
mariners and pointing out to them the mouth of
fhe channel ; which does not prevent Shipwrecks
from being very frequent when the wind is a
little Strong, becaufe the Turks and Greeks, na
vigating on the Black Sea, without a compafs
and at a little diftance from the land, are eafily
difconcerted when they lofe fight of the coaft, or
no longer distinguish where they are. Frequent
ly it happens to them, when the weather is foggy,
to take a diredion contrary to that of their
courfe.

«22 , travels In thS«
courfe. Citizen Beauchamp, returning front
Trebisond, met with a Turkish Ship which was
fleering to the eaftward, thinking that ,She was
Standing for Constantinople: ha had no
-fmall difficulty to convince the mafter of his- mif-
take and perfuade him to follow the veffel in
which he was embarked:

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 1 23

CHAPTER IX.
An error to be found in the Charts ofthe Black Sea.
Giant's mountain. — Earthquake. — Environs of
Belgrade. — Mine offoffil wood. — Mode offijhing
followed in the environs of Conftantinople.
J- he fanaticifm and ignorance of the Turks
having always oppofed a barrier to the naviga
tion of the European powers on the Black
Sea, it follows that the charts published to this
day are very defedive. Citizen Beauchamp
having been requefted, bythe National Institute,
to determine, in a precife manner, the true po
fition of the capes and principal towns fituated
on that fea, could never procure the confent of
the Porte to furniSh him with the means nor
permifllon to go thither to make his obferva
tions. The prornife even of communicating the
refults which he might obtain, had no effed on
the TurkiSh government or on the captain-pa
cha. The latter anfwered the drogueman who
was fpeaking to him on the fubjed ; " We have
*' navigated on this fea for a long time paft,
" we

124 TRAVELS IN THE

" we do not want to be better acquainted with it,
" and all your obfervations would tend only to give
" a more exacl knowledge of it to our enemies"
However, by dint of folicitations, Citizen
Beauchamp obtained permiflion to travel as a
naturalift, and it was under this title that he fur-
veyed the coaft as- far as Trebisond. If. refults
from his obfervations, that the fouth coaft ad
vances in fome places about a degree more to
wards the north, that Cape's Kerenpe and
Indje are nearly in the forty-fecond degree,
that the Gulf of Samson is much deeper, and that
Trebisond is five or fix leagues more to the
weftward than it is laid down on the charts.
We had not the means of feeing the eaftern
coaft and of deteding the errors concerning it.
Thus it is that a fanatic and anti-focial na
tion prevents, not only the diffufion of knowledge
at home, but alfo objeds to others coming
thither for the purpofe of difcovering ufeful
truths. It is undoubtedly needlefs to eftabliSh hypo-
thefes and enquire whether there was a period
when the waters of the Black Sea, after hay
ing broken their dam, made an irruption into
thofe of the Mediterranean, or whether the
communication of thofe two feas be as ancient
as their formation ; it ought to be fufficient for
6 a tra-

'ottoman empire, &c. 125
a traveller to ftate fads : indudions will -be
eafily drawn from them, when we fhall have ac
quired a more' exad knowledge' of local cir-
cumftances. We regret not having had it in
our power to vifit all the fhores of the Black
Sea, in oid^r to examine whether they indicate
that the waters had rifen formerly' to a, height
above that which they have at this day, and
whether, after having broken the dam which the
lands oppofed to them, they have not fallen all
at once to the point where they now remain. It
is not to be doubted that the fudden fall of the
waters, if it had taken place, would have left ma
nifest traces ; the lands would prefent at a dif
tance confiderable Strands, imperceptible declivi
ties, recent veftiges of marine bodies, &c. &c,
Oppofite to Buyuk-dere is to be remarked
in Asia, a hill a little more elevated than the
other, fituated on the fhcafltaff the channel ; it
is known by the name OvaK^ Mountain :
it is famous from an infinitermmber of fables
accredited, and from the fuppofition that there
exifts on it the grave pf a giant. TJjis hill is
fchiftofe, and has nothing remarkable but the
fertility of its foil. Grafs grows there in abun
dance, vegetation is vigorous, and tbe number
of fcarce and curious plants is fufficiently con
fiderable to merit the attention of the botanift. One

126 _ TRAVELS IN THE
One part had been laid down in corn; a nu
merous flock came every day to graze on the
other. From the top of th;s hill are to be admired va
rious profpeds infinitely agreeable and diverfi- '
fied : on one fide, is perceived the fife ack Sea :
on the other, the Sea of Marmora: the eye
extends with pleafure over the fertile, hilly, and
wild foil of Europe and Asia, and one follows
with a fort of rapture all the windings of the
channel. We afterwards Strolled over different hills cover
ed with brooms, rock-rofes, arbutufes^and heath:
we found the famous hellebore of Hippocrates,
the daphne ponticdvery common, a beautiful fpe
cies of bupleurum, and a laferpitium which yielded
us, in preparing it, a fpecies of refinous gum very
odoriferous, fomewhat fimilar to gum ammo
niac. We faw a^ftat number of Greeks em
ployed in tearing up the Stumps of the arbutus,
in order to make charcoal of it, as in the depart
ment of the Var and elfewhere, an excellent
charcoal is made with the flumps of the tree
heath and the brujh heath.
On the 28 th of Prairial ( 16th of June) at a few
minutes paft eleven o'clock in the morning, we
felt a flight Shock of an earthquake : the wea
ther was then-perfedly calm, the air alittle foggy, and

OTTOMAN EMPIRE^ &C. 127
and the heat fomewhat powerful.*-,, It is well
known, th'at, in all times, thefe countries have
been expofed to violent Shocks. Historians re
late that the temple ereded by Constantine .
the Great to divine wifdom, was thrown down
l\>y an earthquake a little time after it's conftruc- -
tion. The fuperb church of St. Sophia, built
by Justinian on the ruins of the temple itfelf,
fuffered a little at another epoch. In 1509,
under the reign of Bajazet, a great part of
Constantinople was likewife thrown down
by a violent earthquake : but Bithynia, all the
fouth coaft of the Black Sea, almoft all Asia
Minor and efpecially Syria, are ftill more fub
jed to it. Smyrna has been feveral times de
stroyed almoft to the very ground. Bursa,
Nicea, and Nicodemia have experienced the
fame fate. We Shall fpeak. elfe where of the
earthquakes of Syria oJM&e occafion of that
which, during our Stay iiffpERSiA, threw down
a great part of the houfes of Latakia.
A few days after, we direded our fteps to
wards the valley of Buyuk-dere ; we croffed a
wood ofche'fnut-trees and oaks ; we paffed under
the firft aqueduds, and, after two hours' walk,
we arrived at Belgrade, a fmall village where
•the ambaffadors formerly paffed the fummer,
but which they have abandoned by degrees, be
caufe

128 TRAVELS I'N THE -
caufe the air is become infalubrious, Since the
Turks have negleded to keep in order and
, cleanfe the little lake which lies near the village.
This lake has been formed in a valley, by means
of a thick wall which flops the rain-waters and
thofe of fome little fprings which run thither.
It furnifhes a part of the water which has been
brought to Constantinople for the wants of
the inhabitants.
In Persia, we have feveral times feen fuch
walls ereded for the irrigation of the lands.
This method Is fo Simple, that we are furprifed
that it is not generally adopted in countries
where water is wanting, in regions where the
produdions are infinitely more confiderable and
more valuable, when, during the fummer, there
can be introduced on a foil, a quantity of water'
fufficient for the watering of the plants which it is
there wifhed to cujttfeate. In all mountainous
countries, in gorges^n places where a valley
grows narrow, a wall in mafonry may be con
ftruded, and ftrengthened on the outfide by
earth brought for that purpofe. There would
neceffarily be formed during the winter and
fpring, the ordinary feafons of rains, a lake
more or lefs extenfive, according to thedifpofi-
tion of the ground and the choice that may have •
been made of it. This water may afterwards he
distributed,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &c. S- S2£
diftributed, either for the wants of a city, as at
Constantinople, or for the irrigation of lands
fituated below, as in Persia. It will, in cer
tain places, be fufficiently abundant to afford
feveral fountairis to a town, and to water, * be
sides, a part of its territory.
In the environs of Belgrade, are met with
feveral little villages, at no great diftance from
each other, almoft all inhabited by Greeks."
The fields prefent fome degree of culture : vine
yards and a few gardens are there to be feen.
All this country affords fine clufter or Stalk-
fruited oaks *, whole wood is very hard arid very
fit for Ship -building. Various aqueduds con
ftruded by the emperors of the East, for the1
purpofe of bringing water to Constantinople,
attrad admiration. '
The environs of Belgrade are very well cal
culated for Shooting, you may there kill phea-
fants, woodcocks^ red partridges, feveral fpecies
of ducks, hares, roes, and fometimes red deer.
Quails are very plentiful in autumn ; you alfo
fee the ftarling, the thrufh, the blackbird, the
turtle, the roller, the loriot, the cuckdo, and
almoft all the birds of Europe.
* Chene a grappe. Quercus racemofa. Lamarck, En-
tycl. No. I.
; vol. h K For

i;3 a ' Travels in the
For foirie.days'paft we had feen, in the even
ing and. during the night, little phofphoric bo
dies fcattered in great numbers in the air, crofling
each other in every diredion, fucceeding each
other, tracing a luminous track and disappear
ing with the rapidity of lightning. We foon dif-
covered that this was the little Italian glow
worm *, the male and female of which are
equally provided with wings, and equally lu
minous. We had long known that there exifted a coal
mine on the Shores ofthe Black Sea, and ano
ther Jn the environs of Rodosto ; but we had
not yet taken any Step towards feeing them.
Some Armenians who had recently obtained per-
miffion from the captain-pacha to work the for
mer for the wants of thearfenal, were very glad
to have a converfation with us on that fubjed :
their obj ed was to learn from us the means of
working their mine, frpm which they as yet
drew but a coal of bad quality. We wifhed to
proceed to the fpot, which gave them great plea
fure ; fo that, in the courfe of Thennidor, we fet
out from Buyuk-dere, in order to. repair thi
ther. We croffed a country very uneven, a
little mountainous, at firft volcanic, then fchif-:
tpfe, uncultivated, covered with rock-rofes, ar-.
* Latnpyris Italica. butufes

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 131
butufes and broom : we went to three or four
fmall villages, and we arrived on the fh'ores of
the Black Sea, after having walked near half
an hour on a low fandy ground,, covered with a
pretty bindweed with oval, downy leaves *.
The coaft, elevated upwards of twenty toifes,
almoft perpendicular for a great extent, prefents
nothing but a mixture of clay and calcareous
earth, gray or bluifh, in which are to be re
marked a few veins, more or lefs thick, of
vegetable fubftances, and efpecially of pieces of
wood very diftinguifhable, which have not yet
entirely reached the ftate of charcoal. The
waters of the fea, .when violently agitated by a
wind rather ftrong from the north or the eaft,
come to the very edge of the coaft ; but when
they are fmooth or nearly fo, there is feen for a
great extent a ftrand of feveral toifes in breadth,
covered with ftones and pebbles.
The Armenians worked this coaly fubftance
only by cutting perpendicularly all the foil ; this
occafioned them a confiderable expenfe for
which they received no indemnity, Since they did
not yet procure any real coal. We had fome
difficulty to make them understand that it was
neceflary to form galleries and penetrate into
t
* Convolvulus Per/icUs.
K 2 the

13s TRAVELS IN THE
the minek But, as we epnje&ured, either that
the mine was good for nothing, or that the coal
would be much lower, we prevailed on them to
clear away the foil and penetrate into the veins
which they Should difcover beneath. " If your
" firft eflays," added we, " Should not pro-
ec cure you a better coal than that which ydu
" have hitherto obtained, relinquish your under-
" taking."
The mine which lies in the environs of Ro-
dosto on the Propontis, appears tobe of bet
ter quality than that on the Shores of the Black
Sea, were we to judge from 'fome Specimens*
taken at the furface ; for it has not yet been
worked, though it is at a little diftance from the
fea. We were affured .that it extended afar, and
that it was met with again in the environs of
Erecli.
In all feafons of the year, fifh is extremely
common in the Propontis, the Bosphorus,
and the Black Sea; but as the Turks make
very little ufe of this food, and as there is fcarce
ly any other than the table of the Europeans
and that ofthe rich Greeks and Armenians which
are fet out with it, it follows that there are very
few fifhermen throughout the East, and that
at Constantinople even few perfons apply
themfelves to this kind of induftry.
We,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, SfC. k I13--
We are not here fp^aking of failed fifh which,
comes in thev way of trade, from the Black*
Sea, or from fome countries pf Greece : as it-
is at a low price, it is in requeft with the poor
Greeks, Armenians and ^Jews, who make of it^
a rather great confumption.-
The mode of fifhing the riioft followed in the
environs of the capital,- confifts in ereding in
the places which are known to.be frequented by
Stationary, fifhes or by fifties of paflage, a fcaffold
in the form of an.X, on the top of which a man
places himfelf in order to obferve the moment,
.when the net, fpread at the foot of it, is full of
fifh : at the fignal which he gives, the net is
drawn, and the fifh are taken.
The bonito, which fome ichthyologists impro
perly take for the young tunny, is there in great
plenty, efpecially at the end of the fummer and
in autumn. The bearded mullet, the pageau *,
the dorado, the turbot, the mackarel, the fole,
the whiting, are the .fifties the moft in requeft
and the moft comriion of thofe feas.
In the environs of Constantinople, are
alfo taken various fhell-fifh more or lefs efteemed
by the Greeks. The oyfter is abundant and
very well flavoured. Mufcles there acquire a
* We are ignorant what fifh is here meant; but we will
take an opportunity of informing our readers, when we
have confultEd the Author.— Tranjlatot1.
K 3 con-

I34 TRAVELS IN THE
confiderable fize. Lobfters and fea-crayfifh-are
there to be eaten in great plenty : the latter is
as good, there as in the fouth of France.
The dplphin appears not unfrequently in every
feafon of the year. Thefe fifhes are feen to
come in fhoals into the very harbour, and play
on the furface of the water, efpecially when the
fea is fmooth, and the wind blows from the
fouth quarter. The people of the country, more
ignorant and more credulous than the ancients,
relate refpeding the dolphin an infinite nuiriber
of ftories all equally ridiculous, which we Shall
difpenfe with repeating.

CHAPTER

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 135

CHAPTER X.
Excurfion to Princes' Iflands. — Amufement which
% is there to be found. — Defcription of them- —
( .Their .culture and their productions.— Advan
tageous pofition for the efiablifhment of a laza
retto.
* W e had already made two excurfions to
Princes' Iflands, the one in Meffidor, the other
in Thermidor : we refolved, towards the end of
Frudidor year I, (1793) to go thither for the
third time, in order to examine them complete
ly and to afcertain all their produdions. Se
veral of our friends accompanied us, as well to
divert themfelves after their occupations, as to
Shoot quails, extremely plentiful and very
eafy to be killed in this feafon. A merchant
was fo kind as to receive us into his country-
houfe and take on himfelf all the details of the,
expenfe. We hired two large ca'iques, and, in
two hours, with a light breeze from the north
north-eaft, we reached the harbour of Prinki-
pos, nearly twelve miles distant from Galata.
k 4 The

I
I36 TRAVELS IN THE
The fea was fo fmooth that no one was fick ; fo
that we were able to enjoy, at our eafe, the dif
ferent profpeds prefented to us by the coaft of
Asia. We foon paffed Chalcedon, the deep
bay which lies beyond it, and the cape planted
with cypreffes which comes next, and on -which
the Turks have ereded a light-houfe. We left at
a diftance on the right, Prota and Antigona;
we approached nearer to Chalkis, and we ar
rived at Prinkipos before fun-fet.'
The town is fituated on the eaft part of the
ifland, along the fea-fhore : it is almoft entirely
peopled by Greeks, the greater part mariners or
cultivators. Its population may be eftimated at
two or three thoufand inhabitants. The coaft of
Asia being diftant only about two leagues,
fhips anchor in all feafons with fafety, under
Shelter of all thefe iflands, but more particularly
3t one or two cables' length from the village of
ChalkIs and PriSkipos : the ca'iques come
and moor alpng the Shore, to a fort of quay,
''The difficulty of repairing to Constanti
nople, when the weather is bad or the wind a
Uttle too ftrong, has induced the ambaffadors and
agents of foreign powers, to prefer a refidence
at Belgrade, Tarapia, and Buyuk-der/,
where the air is lefs pUre, lefs wholefome, and
where th© plague makes its appearance more fre,
quently

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. %$J
quently than in thefe iflands. But this disad
vantage is compensated by the power which
they have of fetting out at all times from thofe
three villages, in a carriage or on horfeback,
while they would be obliged fometimes at the
iflands, to wait for favourable weather for return
ing to the capital, whither urgent bufinefs may
call them every moment.
We arrived in the moft agreeable feafon and
at the period ofthe year when the concourfe of
people is the greateft. We had every even
ing, in a coffee-houfe open to all the curious
and all the amateurs a fight much relifhed by
the Turks, and frequented even by the moft de
cent women, although it moft frequently repre-
fented fcenes at which European females, the
moft fhamelefs, would have blufhed to be pre
fent : true it is that thefe women did not enter
the coffee-houfe, but contented themfelves with
remaining in the ftreet, whence they could per
ceive every thing. This fight is called Kara-
gueuze, a fort of Ombres Chinoifes which consti
tute .the delight of the capital, and which indi
viduals in eafy circumftances procure them
felves from time to time at their own houfes.
The fcene which moft diverted the fpedators,
was that of a hc-afs amufing himfelf with a Jew.
We were furprifed, the firft time that we were
prefent

138 trAv'h'ls.in the
prefent at the kara-gueiize, tb fee the Turks
naturally-grave and Silent, give themfelves up tc»
immoderate laughter at the fight of thefe ob--
fceriities. " What inconsistency,'' faid 'we, " in
" a nation which breaks out againft libertinifm
*c with an extreme rigour, often with ferocity,
" which punifhes fometimes with death the
" flighted attack on morals, which will not to-
" lerate proftitutes, and which permits in pub-
" Ik fuch an indecency!"
• The iflands known under the name of
Princes' Iflands, are feven in number, -four
large, and five fmall ones. The firft is called
Prota ; the fecond, Antigona ; the third,
Chalkis ; and the fourth, Prin-kipos; to the
fouth of the, latter, lies the little ifland called
Rabbit Ifland ; to the weft, are two fmall iflands-,
one of which is, known by the name of Oxya%
and the other by that oi Plata: the two others
are nothing but namelefs rocks.
Prinkipos is the moft confiderable and the-
moft fertile of them all : it appeared to us en
tirely volcanic and formed of quartz, granites,
ac. &c. altered or decompofed. The land is
elevated, uneven, and hilly. It is dry and arid
on the hills, red and tolerably fertile in the bot
toms, and efpecially to the fouth ofthe town.
The natural produdions are the Aleppo pinej
known

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. I 39
known in the South of France by the name of
pin bLnc ; the oxycedrus or brown-berried juni
per ; the broad-leaved phillyrea, the arbutus, fhe
prickly pimpinella, the pale-flowered French la
vender, the bfoom, the acute-leaved afparagus,
the Cretan ciftus or rock-rofe, the turpentine-
tree, a fpecies of favory, the mallow-leaved bind
weed, &c. &c.
The wild olive-tree is to be found . in abund
ance on all the hills. We likewife faw it in the
iflands of the Archipelago, on the rifing
grounds of the Hellespont and on thofe of
Asia Minor, at no great diftance, from the fea.
It is fmall and ftunted wheri it is without cul
ture, and expofed to be griawed by cattle.
Does it grow naturally in all the places where
we faw it ? Is it in fome a remnant of ancient
culture ? This 'is a queftion on which we fhall
avoid giving our opinion.
This tree does not grow on the borders of
the Bosphorus nor in the environs of Con
stantinople, becaufe the cold is fometimes
more fharply felt there than at Princes' Iflands,
on account of the vicinity of the Black Sea.
But it is to be found ftrong and vigorous in the
fouth part of the Propontis, and on the fhores
of the Hellespont Some tolerably fine ones
jare to be feen fcatteted in the fields of Prin-
¦ kipos,

14©' travels in the
kipqs. I am ignorant whether it be cultivated
on the coaft of Rodosto and of Erech : I had
no opportunity of vifiting that country.
The culture of Prinkipos xonfifts in a few
fields fown with wheat, barley, chich-peas, kid
ney-beans, broad beans, &c. The vine is not
there abundant ; it is planted and trimmed as in
the fouth of France : it yields two or three
forts of very good grapes, from which wine is
feldom made. In this ifland, the inhabitants pre
fer carrying the grapes to the markets of Con
stantinople, and there felling them.
Near the town are feveral gardens; in Which
are cultivated with no great Skill a few kitchen-
garden plants and fruit-trees, among which
are' diftinguiflied a fpecies of fig-tree with fruit
greenifh without, red within, fend of an excellent
quality. This ifland has feveral tunes ferved as a pri-
fon or place of exile to the Greek princes.
Among others we recall to' mind that Irene,
a young Athenian woman, born of noble but ob-
fcure parents, raifed to the throne by the charms
of her mind and the graces of her perfon, fet no
bounds to her ambition, and ftained herfelf by
various crimes after the death of Leon Por-
phyrogenetes, her hufband. She was de
throned by Nicephorus, one of her confidants,
io and

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. I4I
and banifhed to a monaftery of this ifland, which
She herfelf had eaufed to be ereded *.
Our fowling-pieces procured us every day a
confiderable quantity of quails. We had ex*
cellent pointers, which enabled us to come very
clofe to them before we put them up. They
generally build their nefts under the rock-fofe,
the prickly, pimpineila, or other little Shrubs ;
and as there are no trees in thofe places they are
very eafily Shot. They are extremely fat and very
Well tafted ; in the fpring they are much more
fcarce and lefs favoury. We faw fome other
birds of paffage, fuch as turtles, rollers, loriots,
thrulhes, &c. and in particular falcons and fpaj-
row-hawks. Hares are very fcarce at Prinkipos, and rab
bits are not there to be found ; but the latter are
in plenty in the little defert ifland which bears
their name. We fometimes procured ourfelves
the pleafure of this diverfion, and we always
brought back feveral rabbits. It is neceffary to
arrive very early in the morning, and furprife
them before they have re-entered their burrows.
Fifhing afforded us ftill more refources than
fowling : we were every day ferved with oyftefs,
mufcles, and feveral fifhes, fuch as mackarel,
* Some authors fay that ihe was ferit to Lejbos. mullet.

142- Travels in the
bonito, turbot,' and particularly the bedrded
mullet. We feveral times found in the ftomach
i i
of this laft fiSh a very fmall fpecies of fea- urchin
which we have preferved, and which we fhall
publish among the other articles of natural hif-
toiy, The run from the town of Pri-nkipos fo that
of Chalkis is nearly a league, and caiques
are always to be found ready ' to receive paffen-
gers. We had'apprifed the fuperior of the mo
nastery of the Trinity, of the day we Should
vifit his convent and take a dinner with him, in
order that we might not find him unprovided ;
for, in general, the caloyers are very temperate
and their fare is very fcanty. One is fortunate
to find in their convent, honey, eggs, and fome
fruit. Strangers, in order to make a return for
the civilities which they receive under their roof,
never fail to vifit the church, and to leave
in a bafin the pieces of money which they judge
proper to give.
This monaftery, Situated on a hill almoft in
the middle of the, ifland, enjoys a charming prof-
ped : the air there is yery falubrious, and it .is
not uncommon to find a numerous fociety, be
caufe Europeans and even Greeks frequently go
thither to fpend a part of the fummer, far from
the buftle and trim.uk of the capital. We Stop ped

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. I43
ped a long time to contemplate over the door of
the church the representation of hell, purga
tory, and paradife, although the painting was
very bad. Hell was Silled with Muffulmans,
bifhops, archbifhops, and Greeks richly dreffed ;
purgatory and paradife were peopled only by
calpyers, papas, Pr priefts, and Greeks more Sim
ply "dreffed. We afked the friars who accompa
nied us, if they were not afraid of fome mifchief
on the part of the Turks for damning them in
this mariner. They told us that this had hap
pened to them once, but "that they had got out
of the fcrape for a little money. They added,
that they fet a great value on their pidure, and
that they would preferve it. as long as they could,
without expofing themfelves too much.
There is another monaftery in the fouth-eaft
part ofthe ifland, remarkable frorh feveral beau
tiful alleys of cypreffes, and from a wood of pines,
from a fpacious building, and from the number
of caloyers who refide there. The latter, though '
very agreeably fituated, does not, like the other,
enjoy fo extenfive and fo diverfified a profped.
There are likewife two monasteries at Prin-
kipos, fituated in. the moft elevated and the
moft folita.ry places, in the ifland. The caloyers
apply themfelves to the culture of the fields
belonging to their monaftery, or to fome branch of

144 TRAVELS IN THE
of mduftry ufefiil to the community, Their
wants are very limited, becaufe they have never
allowed luxury to be introduced among them :
their health is for a long time preferved Strong
and vigorous by moderate labour, temperance*
and peace of mind ; and what, perhaps, consti
tutes their greateft happinefs, is that the Turks
do not come to difturb the repofe and tranquillity
Which they enjoy in thefe places. :
Chalkis is lefs considerable than Prinkipos,
and its village is a little lefs extenfive ; its pro-
dudioris are nearly the fame, and the foil pre
fents every where indications of a volcano.
Oil the- hill neareft the village is found a hard,
britde rock, which appears ferruginous ; and,
towards the fouth-eaft part of the ifland, a mine
of copper which appears to have been anciently
worked : it is probably from this circumftance
that it derived the name of Chalkis, from
the Greek word p^aAxoj, which fignifies copper :
but we faw nothing that indicates the gold-mine
of which Aristotle and Stephen of Bysan-
tium have fpoken.
If the Turks were capable of perceiving that it
is eafy to* fecure themfelves from the plague by
taking againft that terrible fcourge the precau
tion which are employed in Europe, the pofi
tion of Princes' Iflands would, no doubts be
invaluable

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 145
invaluable for the accomplifhment of that objed,
and for the fecurity of the capital by fea : a laza
retto might be eftablifhed at Prota or at Anti.
gona, becaufe thofe iflands have very few inhabi
tants, and Ships anchor there in great fafety. In
the former of thofe two iflands exift alfo the
ruins of a village and two monasteries, which
atteft that it is fufceptible of fome degree of cul
ture, and that it may afford places for walking
and recreation to perfons who might be obliged
to perform quarantine.

vol. 1. l CHAPTER

146 TRAVELS IN THE^

CHAPTER XI.
" * >. -
We enter a harem. — Marriage ofthe Muffulmans.
—Polygamy. — Its refults. — Influence of women
in all affairs.
x wo days after our return from Princes*
Iflands, we were invited by a capidgi-bachi to
embark on the Bosphorus, and proceed to vifit
his mother who had been ill for fome time, in
order to give our opinion to a Greek phyfician
that attended' her, and prefcribe the treatment
which we fhould judge the moft proper. The
envoy of the Republic, at whofe hcufe we were
at that moment, warmly folicited us to render
fervice to a man who enjoyed great influence with
the Grand Signior, and who might be ufeful to
the French eftablifhed in the Levant. We
acceded the more willingly to the entreaties of
the envoy, as by obliging a* man in power, we
Were enabled to fatisfy our curiofity: In fad,
for a long time paft I had been wifhing to fee the
interior of a Turkifh family, and to carry an ob
ferving eye into the very harems, in order to
learn the arrangements of them, and remark the -
cuftoms'

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. J47
cuftoriis which are there eftablifhed. Phyfic fre
quently furriifhed me wkh this opportunity in
the courfe of our travels,and put it in my power
to fee that, in fpite of bolts and keepers, women
will find means to be revenged for the tyranny
of men.
An appointment was made for the next morn
ing. We fet out early, accompanied by a
droguefnan and a janizary belonging to the le
gation, and we arrived at the houfe of the ca-
pidgi at the fame time as the Greek phyfician.
We were received in a handfome kioSk, a fort
of faloon open on the fides, ornamented with
paintings, gilding, and Arabic fentences taken
from the Koran. In the middle were a jet
d'eau, and a bafin of white marble : on one fide,
was a view ofthe Bosphorus; and, on the other,
that of a'beautiful garden,, and of part of the ca-
pidgi^s houfe built with much elegance.
After the tuftomary compliments, pipes and
coffee were brought : we converfed for fome time
refpeding his mother's diforder, and we learnt
with furprife that the phyfician had found it a
more eafy matter to make his patient believe
that She was bewitched, than to cure her. The
capidgi then fpoke to us of himfelf, and com
municated to us his particular complaints : he
lamented bitterly that he was no longer able, as
l z formerly,

148 TRAVELS IN' THE"
formerly, to carry into his harem joy and fjlea*
fu're. This man, forty odd years of age, was, in
other refpeds, robuft and of a ftrong conftitu-
tion ; ' he had betimes abufed the pleafures-
which he regretted, and was objiged tp have re-
courfe to an opiate compofed of materials the
moft hot and molt irritating,, in order to dif-
gharge his duties of hufband on the night from
Thurfday to Friday, according to the precept of
Mahomet. •
After an hour's eonverfation, we went to the
female patient : no fervant followed us. The
capidgimade us crpfs various apartments, the
doors of which he himfelf opened and fhut.
We arrived at a hall, rather fpacious, furrounded
on three fides by, a fopha covered with a beau
tiful crimfon cloth, trimmed with gold fringe.
On the floor were fpread ' a fine Egyptian"
mat and a few little Perfian carpets. The fick
woman was in the middle of the room- on a light
mattrefs, furrounded by large cufhions on which
Shewas leaning. Shehad her clothes on, according
to the cuftom of the Orientals, who do not un-
drefs themfelves when they are ill, or when they
lie down to-fleep. When we entered her apart
ment, fhe wore, no doubt on our account, a
white muffin veil, which .She foon took off: two
young female flaves were thereto wait on her., This,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, <&C. 149
This. woman, who was near fixty years old,
had an exceffive embonpoint ; fhe was troubled
with the vapours, and affe'ded with a fcrofulous
complaint which made its appearance on different
parts of her body. She was, in other refpeds,
in tolerable health, and had preferved her appe
tite. She told us fome very Angular ftories re
fpeding her complaints, which She attributed,
among other things, to a malicious female flave
who had bewitched her, becaufe Sire had refufed
to confent tp her being married-
During this converfation, curiofity had at-
traded the capidgi's women behind a grate
which feparated the room we were in from that
Where they were. We faw lifted up, from time
to time, a curtain which concealed them, and
•which they let down when we diseded our looks
towards them. The two flaves who were near
us did not fail to make us feel their pulfe, and
to aSk us various queftions : they were young
and very handfome ; one of them, more bold,
notwithftanding the feverity of the Sick woman,
who feveral times reminded her of her indeco
rous behavioyr, could not help putting her hands
on our garments which She thought very extra
ordinary, and perhaps even indecent, from every
part of the body being too apparent for perfons
£Ccuftomed, to fee men only with garments
•l 3 veI7

15° Travels in the
very ample, - and which conceal the whole
body.
We prefcribed to the patient a calming opiate
arid the ufe of the bitter fweet orfolanum dulcamct*
ra, which we had perceived in one of our excur
sions to a village beyond Belgrade. The
capidgi ftr.ongly preffed us to come and fee him
again ; which we could not difpenfe with doing
at the expiration of a few days.
When we had left the houfe, the Greek phy*
fician informed us that the harem of this man
was compofed of thirty Georgian and, Cir-
caffian flaves, intended for waiting on his wife,
a young princefs to whom he was indebted for
, his interest and his fortune. It was fince this
marriage that the phyfician had brought him to
the ufe of aphrpdifiacs, and came pretty regu
larly to his houfe in prder to iriquire into their
effed. He likewife informed us of the Turkifh laws
relative to marriage, and communicated to us fe
veral curious obfervations which his quality of
phyfician had enabled him to make in the 'ha
rems. In the courfe of our travels, we our
felves have had opportunities of colleding ob
fervations refpeding the Mvffulman women, of
ftudy ing their manners comparatively With thofe
of the Greek and French women born in the
5 Levant,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, ,.&C. 15I
Levant, and of redifying the ideas which top
great precipitation might at firft have made us
adopt. The reader will not perhaps be dif-
pleafed with us for the efforts which we made in
this refped.'1
In Turkey, the law permits three manners of
cohabiting with womeri. Tournefort has faid
with reafon that a man married the firft, hired
the fecpnd, and purchafed the third.
The Muffulman women live very retired, and'
do not appear in public without a veil and gar
ments which conceal their figure and difguife
their whole body: there is np one but the
hufband and the neareft relations, fuch as the
fathers, the brothers, and the uncle-germans, '
who fometimes have accefs to the harems, and
can fee a Muffulman woman. with her face un
covered. The man who wifhes to marry can be
acquainted with the charms of the perfon and
the attradions of the mind of his future wife,
only from the account of fome female relation
01 friend, or of fome intermediatrix of an ad
vanced age. Commonly the latter gives every
information that is wanted, tries to fmooth all
difficulties which may arife, and prepares and ar
ranges all matters. When the relations are
agreed among themfelves, they fix the fum that
the hufband fhall give as a prefent to his wife
' L 4 for

I52 TRAVELS IN THE
for the price of her blood. An inventory is taken
of every thing that -belongs to the latter, in fur
niture, clothes, money, or property, becaufe
every thing is to be reftored to her in cafe of
divorce or repudiation. When She dies without
children, the hufband keeps a part of what he
has received, and returns the other to the rela
tions, as is regulated by the law.
The preliminaries being fettled, the future
hufband, the father or the neareft relation ofthe
young lady, go, with two witneffes, to the houfe
of the cadi, in order to get him to fign the arti
cles of the marriage, arid obtain a permiffion for
it in writing. The celebration of the marriage.
cannot take place but on the eve of the Friday,
which anfwers, among the Miiffulmans, to the
Sunday of the Chriftians, and to the Saturday
of the Jews. One or. two days before, the
young lady is conduded to the bath, where She
is fubjeded todepilation for the firft time. On the
day of the wedding, fhe dreffes herfelf in the
richeft clothes that fhe can procure, and covers
herfelf with jewels, pearls, and pieces of money
which the relations very often borrow. They
try to embellifh the young lady's face, by co
louring it with red, white, and blue, and by
painting her eyebrows and eyelids black. In
certain countries, they next colour the arms and
hands

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 15?
hands with black, paints the nails yellow or
black, arid the feet an orange colour yellow :
laftly, they place with art, on the head-drefs and
among the braids which hang behind, flowers,
pearls, precious ftones, and gold coin. In
Egypt and in Syria, thefe braids are very nu
merous ^and each is terminated by one or mora
fequins. '
Thus adjufted'and placed on a feat more eleT
vated than the fopha, She is to compofe her car
riage, caft her eyes down or keep them Shut,
""while a troop of women invited to the feaft give
themfelves up to joy, and various dances are
performed, the company Singing or playing on
different instruments.
At night, the female relations of the hufband
and fome women invited by them come wit!
flambeaus and a rioify band of mufic to the
houfe of the young lady, in order to take her tc
that of the hufband. She goes out accompa
nied by her female relations and friends : th*
men do nut follow her, but remain at theii
homes amufing themfelves.
Being arrived at the hufband's houfe, She is
perfumed and placed on an elevated feat, preparec
on purpofe for her. All thewomen not belonging
to the family go out a moment after, and there nc
longei

Ijf.1 TRAVELS IN THE
longer remain any but the female relations of
the contraded couple.
The bridegroom* during this time, is in ano
ther apartment, where his relations and fome
young men whom he has invited, perfume him,
drefs him in his richeft clothes, and fing fongs
analogous to the ceremony.
• A'moment after, all the men, accompanied by
their mufic, fally forth in order to proceed to
the mofque. They fay their prayers with the
greateft compofure, after which they come to
the door of the hufband's houfe, where he en
ters, accompanied only by his relations. While
the hufband is at the mofque, the bride is
brought into fhe~ apartments that are intended
for her. On returning from the mofque, the
father of the huSbahd, or any other relation the
moft advanced in years, leads by the hand the
hufband to his wife, prefents him to her, and
retires. There remains no one but the midwife
or a female relation who ferv.es up a Supper to
'the hufband, while the wife continues Standing
before him, in a very humble attitude, After
fupper, the latter prefents to her hufband a bafin,
water, and a towel, in order that he may wafh
and wipe himfelf : fhe then gives him a pipe and
coffee, after which fhe herfelf fups. When She
has

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. - £$$
has fupped? the midwife withdraws, and the
married couple remain by themfelves,
The next morning, the hufband goes into an
other apartment, and, as foon as his back is
turned, one of his female relations comes and
fpreads on the door of the room the drawers
which the wife has worn during the night.
All the women prefent the preceding evening,
more richly dreffed, come to pay their compli
ments and give themfelves up the whole day to
joy. They muft fee the marks of virginity of
the bride ; the midwife, muft fhew them the
drawers ftained with blood ; after this ceremony,
She folds them up, ' carefully puts them by,
and depofits them in the harids of -the mother
of the bride or her neareft female relation.
The bride is to be that day in a modeft atti
tude; She is to obferve filence, keep her eyes
caft down and remain quiet on the fopha. while
aU the women around her are abandoning them
felves to joy. v
The feGond manner of a man marrying one
or feveral wiyes, diftinguiflied by the name of
kapin, - corififts in his prefenting himfelf before
the cadi, and binding himfelf to feed and main
tain till a certain period, fuch a woman whom
he designates and whofe confent he has ob
tained: which is attefted by. her father or her
.* neareft

l$6 TRAVELS IN THE
ueareft relation, and two witneffes; to tak?
care of the children that fhe fhall bear, and to
give up to her befides, at the time of repudia
tion or atthe expiration of the term agreed on,
a fum of money or clothes, effeds and property
Stipulated and expreffed. The children that pro
ceed from thefe 'marriages, enjoy the fame rights
as the others, and remain at the charge of the
father when he has repudiated or put away his
wife. It feldom happens that Muffulmans marry in
this manner, becaufe women of a certain rank
would, never confent to be united to a man on
fuch conditions, and becaufe the latter generally
prefers to purchafe Slaves, rather than marry in
the kapin manner with Muffulman women bora
of poor parents. ;
? The traffic for flaves is very exprefsly prohi
bited to Jews ' and Chriftians, and is allowed
only to Muffulmans. The law authorizes the
latter to have whatever number of flaves they
may defire, and fubmits them to no fort of
formality. The children that they obtain ars
free, and Share, like the others, in the. division
of their property after their death.
The law prohibits not Muffulmans from mar
rying a woman of a different religion, provided
the parties bind themfelves to bring up their
children,

OTTOMAN empire; -&c. %$i
children in the religion of the father ; but it h
exprefsly forbidden to women, unlefs the man
embraces beforehand the religion of Maho
met. It punifhes with death a Jew or a Christ
ian caught with a Muffulman woman, in a place
or in fuch a manner as to caufe the fufpicion of a
carnal, intercourfe.' He cannot efcape but by
erribracing the Muffulman religion and marry
ing this woman, if, however, fhe confent to this,
and they both be unreftrided by the ties of wed
lock. In the contrary cafe, the man is carried
to execution ; the woman efcapes a punifhment
lefs fevere onlyby declaring that She was forced
or taken by furprife, or, by denying that any
thing improper paffed between them.
If fhe woman be married, her fate depends on
the hufband : he may carry his revenge fo fat
even as to puniSh her with death ; but frequently
the fear of her relations restrains his arm when
ready to Strike : he then contents himfelf with
repudiating her.
It' enters not intp our plan to examine what
were the motives which determined Mah-'jmet
to allow Sour wives to the followers of his reli
gion, independently of fuch a number of concu
bines as they could fcpport. Has he wifhed to
pleafe' one fex at . the expenfe of the other?
Has he thought by this means to obtain a greater
population?

*5& TRAVELS IN THE
population ? In fhort, has he wifhed to faridioft
a cuftom which exifts in Arabia from time im>
memorial ?'
Polygamy offers inconveniences without num.*
ber and fo ftrikirig, that every one muft be afto-
nifhed that Iegiflators fhould have permitted or
tolerated it, The firft of thefe inconveniences,
and the greateft no doubt, is that it is prejudicial
to the population of a State ; it is that it favours
pederafty ; it is that feveral women cannot
quietly fliare among them the pleafures, too
feldom occurring, which the hufband diftributes
to them : miftruft, jealoufy, hatred, quarrels,
muft neceffarily eftablifh their empire in a harem
and thence baniSh true pleafure.
It Should feem, at the firft view of the fubjed,
that polygamy is favourable to population, for
though the phyfical faculties of man are limited,
he can, neverthelefs, in a rather fhort fpace of
time fecundity feveral women, and obtain a great
number of children during the courfe of his
life. But as the number of women is nearly equal
to that of men, it can only be at the expenfe of
the poor that the rich take feveral of them : a
man cannot have four wives, without three
others being deprived of them ; and, indeed, it
will not be prefumed that four women, Shut up in

- OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C t$§
\
in a harem with afingle man, fometimes old and
infirm, can haye the fame number of children as
when thofe women have each a hufband, whofe
favours they alone enjoy.
The harems, it is true, are fcarcely filled with
any but foreign females, Georgian, Circaffian,
and Ethiopian flaves brought annually in the
way of trade ; but it brings alfo a greater num
ber of male flaves; which muft induce the fup-
pofition that, in general, the number of the
men in Turkey, is at leaft as great as that of
the women. But what proves that polygamy is
prejudicial to the population of that empire, is
that, notwithftanding this great number of
Slaves of both fexes who come from European
countries, from Asla, and from Africa, the
empire is becoming confiderably depopulated,
though there are no inftances of emigration on
the part of the Muffulmans ; though, for a long
time paft, wars there are by no means frequent
and by no means deftrudive. The population
of the Greeks, Armenians, and Jews, on the
contrary, is kept up, notwithftanding their emi
gration and the tyranny of the Turks in regard
to them : but the former, as is well known,
marry but one wife, and it is very exprefsly for
bidden to them to have flaves and concubines ;
which

}6o Travels in the
which is the reafon that they marry early iri life.,'
and that few among them remain bachelors.
The ftate of inability in which a man finds
:himfelf to fatisfy the defires of a great number of
women, has fuggefted the idea of bolts, harems,
and thofe unfortunate beings appointed to take
care of them, deprived of the faculty of reprodu^
cing themfelves. Jealoufy, frequently atrocious,-
has eaufed adultery to be punifhed with death j
and the government has thought itfelf bPund,not
only ftridly to oppofe libertinifm by fepaTating
the two fexes, but alfo to deal very feverely with
girls or women convided of amorous intrigues.
This Severity in regard to morals, this feparation
of the two fexes, and above all the total priva
tion of women experienced by a^great number of
individuals, has intrpducedin the East a pa'flion
for boys, a paffion reprobated by the philofopher,
held in abhorrence by the legislator, and far more
immoral, far more infamous than the illegal in-
tercourfe of the two fexas, from which, befides,
there refults no advantage to fociety.
Through an inconfiftency worthy of remark^
the law, which always lays under contribution,
which fometimes punifhes with death the man
who gives way to a natural inclination, who
obeys', the imperious voice of Nature, tolerates
i however,-

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C l6l
however, and feems to permit a vice which be*
fpeaks a total depravity of morals. The Muf
fulmans, very auftere in other refpeds, give
themfelves up without Shame to the tafte which
misleads them, - and the habit pf which they
have contraded in the early part of their life.
Very far from blufhing at this vice, they make
it ferve for the gratification of their vanity* and
Shew with pride the objed of their affedions.
This paflion is become fo ftrong among them,
that they endeavour to fatisfy it by every poffible
means, and very frequently employ violence.
Among other inftances, one occurred at Smyr
na, where a European failor, upwards of fixty
years of age, was killed and violated by three
janizaries, without there being a poffibility of ob
taining their juft punifhment.
Proftitutes are neither allowed nor tolerated :
the government fometimes deals very rigoroufly
with thofe who are of the Muffulman religion.
It is not uncommon for fome of them to be laid
hold of during the night, and, after they have
been tied up in a fack with fome ftones, for them
to be thrown alive into the fea, towards the point
of the feraglio ; and yet one frequently meets in
the Streets pf Constantinople Greek youths,
dreffed in an effeminate manner, announcing by
vol. i. m their

I 64, TRAVELS 'JN THE
their carriage that they are" ready to abandon
themfelves to whoever will pay them;
Notwithstanding the cuftoms of the country,
thefe youths preferve their hair, take the
greateft care of it, wafh it every day, perfume
it with iriufk, amber, and effence of rdfes, and
adorn it with the flowers (of the feafon! ' An ar
tificial ted colours their cheeks, an ebony black
is placed on their eyebrows and- eye-lids, in or
der to animate their eyes and form a contraft
with the fairnefs of their complexion. To all
the natural charms of the body, they generally
join thofe of the mind, and not unfrequently
they borrow the attradions of mufic and
dancing. Although the law allows Muffulmans to have
four wives, yet few among ttiem have more
than one, becaufe they lead to confiderable ex
penfe ; becaufe, fliut up in the fame harem,
they cannot live together in harmony; they
perplex the hufband with their complaints, or
plague him with their pretentions. Befides, al
moft every woman, on her marriage, requires an
obligation from the hufband, not to wed another
in her life-time or as long as fhe Shall riot have
been Separated by a divorce. But fhe 'canriot
prevent him from purchafing white or black
9 flaves,

OTTOMAN. EMPIRE, &C. 163
Slaves, according to his tafte and his means;
and' provided he lie with his wife once a week,
according to the obligation which Mahomet
has impofed on every Muffulman' ftill young and
in good health ; provided he furnifh her
wherewith to clothe and maintain herfelf ac
cording to her condition, and to go to the bath
when fhe has been polluted by him Pr by the
indifpofitipns natural to her fex, fhe cannot fue
for a divotce. But what is, perhaps, more
grievous, fhe neither is juftified in complaining
that the hufband is frequently parfimonious of a
pleafure which She claii^^-and of which he is
prodigal towards fome Georgian or Circaflian
male flave.
But if he wiShed to require from his wife the
fame indulgences that he is accuftomed to ob
tain from his male flaves, fhe is authorized to
prefent herfelf before the cadi, in order to de
mand of him the punifhment of the hufband
and even a divorce ; this the judge grants if fhe
tie feconded by her relations,' and if, befides, the
reputation of the hufband give to the complaint
an air of truth ; and, in order to fpare this
woman the fhame of declaring fuch a circum
ftance in pretence of the whole tribunal, She is
to have recourfe to a fign agreed on, and confine
herfelf to turning over her flippers.
m 2. In

164 travels in the
Iri no cafe, can the hufband require any thing
from the flaves that, belong to the wife : he has
a right only over thbfe that he hirnfelf has pur
chafed. It very feldom happens that he forgets
himfelf in this refped, becaufe the wifq would
not fail to prefer her complaint and caufe him to
be punifh'ed.
When a man wifhes that peace and happinefs
Should dwell under his roof, he confines himfelf
folely to his wife ; or if he take any liberty in re
gard to the female flaves that he has purchafed to
wait on her, he recommends to them to preferve
towards her the greateft refped and fubmiSIion.
He endeavours to perfuade them that fhe is igno-
'rant ofthe love which he has for them ; and the
wife, on her fide, wifhing to preferve peace in the
family, pretends to be ignorant of the infidelity
of the hufband, and fubmits with lefs pain to-
the privation to which he condemns her, being
indemnified by the empire which She continues
to exercife over her flaves.
But when a Turk marries feveral wives who
have all the fame rights and the fame pretentions,
it is very rare that preferences do not lead to
jealoufies and quarrels ; it is very rare that they
fee with coolnefs one of themfelves receive more
frequently marks of attachment, without giving
vent to their complaints. , And however impar tial

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C '165
rial the hufband may be in the distribution of his
favours, they all will tax him with injuftice, all
will believe or pretend to believe their rivals
more fortunate, and the hufband , more eager to
pleafe them.
It is much worfe if difguft keep him at a dif-~
tance from his wives, and lead him entirely
towards his female flaves ; and if the latter,
abufing the weaknefs of the hufband, take ad
vantage and grow proud of the favours which
they receive ; if they appear lefs fubmiffive and
lefs refpedful, then peace cannot be re-efta-
bliShed but by the difmiffion, of thefe inconfider-
ate flaves and theTincere return of the hufband
towards the wives*
From this arrangement of Turkifh families,
it is feen that the wife has an eye on' the female
flaves, becaufe She would be very glad to find
them iq fault in order to fet the hufband aga.inft
them ; and the flave who fhares the bed of the
hufband, is the moft dangerous Argus for the
wife : the latter never goes put without being
accompanied by the other ; which renders infi
delity rather uncommon.
Some women, in the indigent clafs of the.
people, give themfelves up to men with tolerable
facility for money, and in fpite pf the feverity
of the government. Among the rich, there are
m 3 in

1 66 TRAVELS IN THE
in Turkey, as in Europe, amorous intrigues :
i but in a country where a woman feldom goes
out," where She is furrounded by the female rela
tions ofthe hufband and by female flaves inte-
refted in watching her, it is evident that thefe
intrigues prefent an infinite number of difficulties
to be furmounted, and obftacles to be overcome,
which render them lefs common. Almoft al
ways the woman makes the firft advances ; does
She perceive a good-looking man, a man who
pleafes her, fhe fets; a matron to work, and in
forms herfelf of every thing that can intereft her.
Is fhe certain that the man anfwers her paffipn ?
A party is arranged ; fhe goes out with her ufual
retinue, and proceeds to the houfe of a female,
relation or friend, or to that of fome female
flave made free and married : thence fhe repairs,
under various pretexts, to the houfe of another
female flave, or to that of fome Jewefs, fome
times to a third, alone or accompanied by fome
trufty perfon. There it is that the man has
been introduced, frequently difguifed as a
woman. Parties are in this manner renewed as
often as circumftances may permit, without-
incurring too much danger. Advantage is
taken of the hufband's abfence or of the mo
ment of prayer at the mofque. When the
woman is fure of her flaves, which is very feJ-
dpm

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C l6?
dom the cafe, She can introduce a man into the
harem ; but woe be to thofe who are difcpvered,
almoft always death enfues.
The bath -may alfo ferve as a place of rendez
vous, when with money a man may rely on the '
difcretion of the perfons who have charge of
them, and when he is certain of not being dif-
turbed by them.
There are in Constantinople and in the
great cities, jeweffes and Armenian women who
carry into the harems valuable fluffs, jewels,
perfumes, baubles, and comfits to be purchafed;
the greater part of them are Skilful matrons,
through whofe hands pafs all amorous intrigues.
Every one knows that love watched or laid under
constraint is inventive, and that it very frequently
finds means to conceal itfelf from the vigilance
of keepers. As no fecret converfations can be
held without exciting fufpicion, and as the
TurkiSh women feldom can write, thefe matrons
keep up correfpondences by. the arrangement of
the flowers of a nofegay, by the difpofition of
different colours or of any other fign agreed, on.
It is above all in Syria and in Egypt that the
art of exprefling ideas by means of flowers is
carried to fuch a pitch, that the moft adive
correfpondence may take place between two
lovers, without awakening the attention of
M 4 jealoufy

l68 TRAVELS IN THE
jealoufy, without atfrading the looks of over?
feers. The influence which Turkifh women have
over public affairs, in the nomination of the
agents of the government, and in the diftribution
of favours and punifhments, is much more con
fiderable than might be prefumed, from their
retired manner of living. The harems are the
places of rendezvous inacceflible to men *,
where the moft interefting anecdotes of the
town and of the provinces pafs fucceffively in re
view, where the moft curious news are fpread,
where plots and confpiracies are framed. Women
of every age and every rank come thither to foli-
cit graces and favours for their hufbands or their
relations, or in order to complain of a hufband
too jealous, too fevere, and demand protedion
againft him, or againft fome perfon of weight.
An affair often paffes through the channel of fe
veral women before it arrives at its destination :
an emancipated female flave, or woman of the
loweft clafs of the people, fometimes obtains
through her patroneffes fuch an intereft, that
her protedion is fought after from all quarters.
* The hufband never enters his wife's apartment when
fhe is with female ftrangers. This cuftom 'is very fcrupu-
loufly obferved.
The

f OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. „ l6g
The Muffulman < women fupport each other,
and are always ready to make a common caufe.
They are implacable in their r.efentment, arid
feldom fail to revenge themfelves for an outrage
or an offence at all ferious. • Their influence is
increafed by that which a favourite flave or the
Sultana-Valide generally obtains over the fultan.

CHAPTER

IJO TRAVELS IN THE

CHAPTER XII.
Ofthe Georgian and Circaffian women. — Offta-
very- — We enter the market of female flaves.
— Cuftom of the women in regard to fuckling
and Jlenility .—Of the harems and baths.
a. hroughout the East much is faid in
praife of the beauty of the Georgian and Cir
caffian women, flaves brought to Constanti
nople, and there fold, while young, and thence '
fcattered all over Turkey, in order to ferve in
the harems or produce children to their mafters.
Thefe women, from the account which has been
given us of them by the female chriftians of the
country who frequent them, and from the fmall
number of thofe whom the pradice of phyfic has
afforded us an opportunity to fee, have European
features : almoft all are fair with dark hair ;
fome have flaxen or light brown hair ;' all
are finely proportioned when they are young ;
but they generally acquire^ through repofe,
good living, and the frequent ufe of baths, an,
embonpoint which conftitutes the delight of
,the Turks, and which, neverthelefs, exceeds the
limits of beautiful proportion, Ihe

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, Sec. lyi
The Turks, have nearly the fame ideas ofthe
beauty of women, as the Europeans, except that,
in general, they prefer the fair with dark hair,
and thofe with light brown to the flaxen, and ex-
ceffive embonpoint to thinnefs: it mayevenbefaid
that women in good health and plump pleafe them
much better than thofe whofe fhape is flender, whofe
perfon and limbs are pliant, and not very flefhy.
" One muft not be furprifed that thefe women
are, in general, very well made, Since they are
the choice of all that is moft beautiful among
thofe that are fold in the Turkifh markets, by
the parents themfelves. But what muft excite
aftonifhment, is that avarice fhould overpome
religious prejudices; that a father and mother, at
the fight of gold, fhould fhut. their heart to ten-
dernefs and to the fweeteft affedions ; that they
fhould abandon and give up without remorfe a
child, ' to be brought up in a . different religipn
and ferve for the pleafures of whoever will pur-
chafe her. And the chriftian priefts of that
country endure and permit this infamous traffic
for a few prayers and fome alms, fo true it is, ac
cording to them, that there is a way of accommo
dating matters with heaven.
The price of thefe flaves, in .the markets of
Constantinople, varies like that of all mer-
chandife, and is regulated according to their
number

lyz travels in the
number and that of the purchasers. They com
monly coft from 500 to 1000 piaftres, that is
from 1000 to' 2000 livres. But a female flave of
a rare beauty . amounts to an exceffive price
without there being a neceffity for expofing her
to fale, becaufe moft of the rich men are always
ready to make pecuniary facrifices in order to
procure fuch for themfelves. The men in place
and the ambitious are likewife eager to purchafe
them in order to lay them at the feet of their
fovereign or prefent them to their protectors,
and place about them women who, being in
debted to them for their elevation, may endea
vour through gratitude to contribute to that of
their former matters.
In no cafe does a female flave Shew herfelf
naked to him who wifhes to purchafe her : this is
contrary to Ottoman decorum and manners;
but' when fhe is marriageable, it frequently hap
pens that the purchafer fends a matron of his
acquaintance to examine her, and afcertain whe
ther She be a virgin.
A perfori would have a falfe idea of flavery
among the Turks and the Perfians, were he to
judge of it from that which the Europeans have
eftabliShed in their colonies, and above all frOm<
the accounts ofthe unfortunate captives ofthe
coaft of Barbary, "who have been made to
undergo

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C I73
undergo harfh treatmerit, and been tormented,
in a thoufand ways in order to oblige them to
embrace the Muffulman religion. - In Turkey
and in. Persia, flaves of both fexes, commonly
purchafed before the'age or the period of pu
berty, are brought up in the religion of Maho-,
met, and treated with the fame 'kindne'fs and
almoft with the fame refped as the fons of the
family. It feldom ¦ happens that a Turk fells
again a flave with whom he is diffatisfied ; he
contents himfelf with threatening him and even
with punifhing him as he would punffh a fon.
After a fervitude more or lefs long, according
as this Muffulman is a more or lefs exad ob-
ferver ofthe precepts of Mahomet, who fixes
the period of flavery to nine years, he gives him
his liberty, and marries him : almoft always, at
his death, his flaves become free, whether, he
may have been able to didate his will, or be
caufe the heirs confider it their duty to follow
his intention in this refped.
When a mafter is a man of weight and at
taches himfelf to any of his Slaves, he negleds-
nothing for their education and advancement.
For that purpofe he employs his intereft and his
fortune, as he would do in regard to his own
fon ; and it muft be confeffed that, in -general,
thefe flaves are more attached to their matters and

474 TRAVELS IN 'THE
and ferve them better, whether in their houfes, or
in battle, than their fervants.
No one is ignorant, that, in Turkey, the art
of pleafing a mafter, intelligence, boldnefs; and
laftly money lead to every thing, and carry a
man rapidly to the firft employments. Moft
of the pachas and great men of the empire,
raifed by fortune arid intrigue, from the rank of
flave or of fimple private perfon to* that which
they occupy, are for all the Turks a fpur ever
adive which animates and encourages them. In
all adminiftrative and military places, talents are
held in no eftimation ; they are almpft always
ufelefs and even frequently dangerous.
The prejudices of Europe, in regard to birth,
not being known in the Levant, moft of the
Turks marry, without difficulty, their flaves, or
give them in marriage to their fons. In like
manner they give, without repugnance, their
daughters in marriage to the male flaves with
whom they are pleafed ; they grant them their
freedom and procure them commiffions, em
ployments, or give them money to undertake a
trade or exercife a profeffion.
The prifoners whom the fate • of war throws
into the hands ofthe Turks, if they be not ex
changed immediately after the battle, which
is very feldom the cafe, or if they be not maf-
facred,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 1 75
facred; which more frequently happens, are
Slaves, and belong to thofe who have taken
them. They are fometimes carried to a consi
derable, diftance from1 the theatre of war, and
there fold, in order that they may not make their
efcape, nor be exchanged. Thofe flaves, of
more advanced age than the others, frequently
refufe to renounce their religion; which is the
reafon that they do not then enjoy the fame ad^
Vantages as the Muffulman flaves, and that they
are treated with lefs kindnefs. They are em
ployed in the rougheft $and moft degrading la
bours, and cannot hope to be fet at liberty but
by paying a ranfom ; which to them is almoft
always impoffible, for they feldom have the
means of communicating their fituation to their
family, and if they were fufficiently induftrious
to earn a little money, and economical enough to
keep it, they would infallibly be Stripped by their
mafters or by the other Slaves, becaufe a Mufful
man thinks himfelf not bound to obferve, in re
gard to a Chriftian or a Jew, an honeft lineof
condud in which he would be aShamed to fail
towards a man of his own religion.
We have faid that the traffic for flaves was
forbidden to the Jews and Chriftians who inhabit
Turkey. No one is fuffered to enter the ba-
far where women are expofed to tale, but
Muffulmans

iy6 TRAVELS IN THE
Muffulmans who prefent themfelves to pur
chafe them. Europeans cannot be introduced
there without a firman of the fultan, which is
granted only to the ambaffadors and agents of
foreign powers, when they' are on the eve of
quitting the Ottoman Empire. A few days be
fore our departure we with pleafure availed
ourfelves of the firman which Citizen Carra
Saint Cyr obtained, in order to fatisfy our curi-
ofify in that refped. In company with him we faw
the monuments 'efcaped from barbarifm, time,
and fire, the principal mofques, the mad-houfes,
the menagerie, and the maret for female flaves.
But whether the traders, apprized of our arrival,
had made them retire, or whether this was not
the feafon when they are moft numerous, we
found few flaves in the bafar, and among thofe
that we faw, the greater part were veiled and
Shut up in their, rooms ; fo that we could not
fee them but for a moment through a window
which was by the fide of the door.
We ftopped to contemplate three of them who
ftruck us by their -beauty and the tears which
they fhed. They were tall, well made, and
fcarcely fifteen years of age ; one of them, with
her head and left arm refting againft the wall,
vented fobs which wrung us to the heart. No
thing could divert her from her profound grief :
her

OTTOMAN EMPIRE,' &C. 177
her companions, leaning1 the one againft the
other, were hclding each other by the hand
while we furveyed them. They caft on us looks
whicfvdoubtlefs, expreffed their regret at having
lofl; their liberty, at being torn from the arms of
a too cruel father and mother ; at having been
Separated^ perhaps, from thofe with whom love
and hymen were to unite their fate.
The traders, imbued with ridiculous preju
dices, fear the mifchievous look of Chriftians
and Europeans t a woman cannot be feen, by
them without being depreciated, without run
ning the rifk of being affeded by their malig
nant influence. Befides, thefe female flaves,
ftill chriftians, may according to thefe traders, fall
fuddenlyin love with a man of their own religion,
and attempt to make their efcape. l They like-
wife fear that the too great afflidion into which
the flaves are plunged by every thing that recalls
to their mind recolledioris extremely dear, may
occafion them to fall fick or bring on a rrielan-
choly that may affed their health.
The building has nothing remarkable, and
does not correfpond with .the beauty of the ca-
TavanfarieSj, which it refembles in point of form
and conftrudion, nor to that of moft of the ba
zars of the capital. You fee a fuite of fmall
naked chambers, which receive the light only
by a door and a little grated window, placed on
vol. 1. n one

I78 TRAVELS IN THE
1 1
one fide. It is into one of thefe rooms that the
unfortunate creatures who belong to the fame
trader are crowded : there it is that each waits
till fate throws her into the hands of a man
young or old, robuft or infirm, mild or paflion-
ate, good -or bad, in order that fhe may become
his wife or his concubine, or wait on the women
ofhis harem.
The negreffes whom commerce draws annually
from Ethiopia and Nubia, are brought up, as
well as the white female flaves, in the religion of
Mahomet, and treated with the fame kindnefs
as the others ; but being more particularly in
tended for the fervice of the harems, it feldom
happens that they fhare the bed of their mafter.
After a few years' fervice, the greater part of
them are married to white flaves. Being both at
liberty, to the hufband is given wherewith to
fet up a little fhpp, or exercife a profeffion which
may provide for their maintenance. Frequently
they are 'kept in the houfe without being libe
rated, the wife ferves, in cafe of neceffity, as a
wet-nurfe to the children pf her miftrefs, and
continues her fervice jn the harem : the hufband
.remains about the perfon of his mafter, and
performs the fame fervice as before ; he fol
lows him in his walks, in his expeditions, and
in the journies which his trade renders necef
fary. , As

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. , 179
As for the negroes, more unfortunate, per
haps, than thofe of the WesT'India colonies,
mutilated early in life, they are almoft all em
ployed in the care of the women of the fultan
and of thofe belonging to the great men of the
empire. True it is that fome of them obtain a
distinguished rank,extenfive power, and confider
able riches ; but can they be happy, when they
know that the method of pleafing their mafter,
is to difpleafe the women intrufted to their
charge ? Can they be happy, when they are
obliged to live with women quite young, quite
heautiful, from whom they never obtain a look
of good- will, . and whofe afped iriceffantly re
minds them of the idea of their impotence and
nullity ? , ,
In the East, the women have not yet (uf-
peded that the method to preferve longer their
bloom, and enjoy without interruption the fafci-
nating pleafures of fociety, was tu withdraw
themfelves from duties the moft jacred, by de
livering into the hands of a hireling the precious
pledges of their marriage. They fijid the ca-
reffes of the infant that they nourifh with their
milk, far more' fweet, far more agreeable than
the.fmile of a perfidious andcorrupt world. If
their mode of life is more fimple, lefs tumultu
ous, if their pleafures arelefs lively, lefs ilriking,
N 2 ,they

180 TRAVELS IN THE
they are amply indemnified by the calm ofthe
fenfes, bf the peace of mind, and by the health
which they preferve, and by that which they
tranfmit to tlrcir children. In the East, they
are fcarcely acquainted with that multitude of
diforders occafioned by the difperfion of milk,
thofe ladecus indurations and fecretions which
afflid fo many European women, and carry
them off in the flower of their age.
If through any extraordinary caufe a woman
lpfe her milk,, and find herfelf obliged to have
recourfe to a.Strarige nurfe, She receives her into
her houfe, and caufes her to be treated with, the
fame refped and the fame attention that Sheherfelf
receives. Whether Muffulman or Chriftian,- }t de
pends on this fofter-mother no longer to aban
don the infant that fhe has fed with her milk,
to continue towards it her maternal care, and to
receive all her life,' from it or from its parents,
marks of the moft lively gratitude :-it depends
-on her, in a word, to be incorporated in the .fa
mily, and to be there confidered and refpeded
as a fecond mother.
Through a luxury advantageous to the indi
gent, from which, befides, no inconvenience re
mits, moft of the opulent mothers, in the inten.-
.tion of p'referving their embonpoint, of reppfing
more quietly during the night, and of giving.. a
more

OTTOMAN empire',' &e. 181
a more abundant nourishment to their children,
place about them a fecond nurfe charged with
fhe moft laborious furidions, to fuckle them
during the night, to amufe them, and'divert their
attention during the day : but the mother does
not, on that account, think herfelf exempted'
from watching over the health of her child, :
from feeding it, with her milk, from providing
for all the wants that it appears 'to have, and
from! beftowing on it all the care that its age and
weaknefs require.
Throughout the East, fterility of women
is confidered as one of the greateft misfor
tunes ,that can happen to, them ; independently
of a barren wonian not obtaining the considera
tion which She would have enjoyed as mother of a
family, She finds herfelf almoft always negleded
by her hufband ; She fees him pafs into the arms
of another woman ; She is obliged to fubfcribe
to the divorce which he demands, and, to com-
plete her misfortunes, fhe can fcarcely ever, in
fuch a cafe, find a fecond hufband. Befides,
fterility prefents with it the idea of an imper-
fedion in the organs, which humiliates her who
is the Pbjed pf it.
When the figns of pregnancy, do not mariifeft
themfelves a few months, after marriage, the
wife, in her impatience never 'fails to addrefs
n 3 herfelf

t$A TRAVELS IN THE
herfelf to matrons and to phyficians, in order to
afk thera for fome beverage, fome particular re
cipe that may facilitate and haften the moment
of conception. The former prepare peffaries
in which are contained the hotteft and moft ir-
ritating fubftances, fuch as muSk, amber, be-
, zoar, aloes, cardamum, ginger, pepper, cinna
mon, cloves,.&c. They at the fame time caufe
moft of thefe drugs to be taken as ,an opiate or
mixed with aliments, at the rifle of producing
"iome inflammation or fome other diforder more
or lefs dangerous,
Unlefs the number of children be already con
fiderable, or the fortune of the hufband be de-
rangedj if the wife, ftill young, after one or
more lyings-in, find too great an interval before
She be pregnant, fhe has recourfe to. the fame
means, and fhe employs the fame drugs. The
Greek women, befides, lefs devout and more
fuperftitious than the Muffulman females, make
offerings to the Panayia *, fend a wax-taper to.
the church, caufe maffes to be faid, and invoke
the male and female faints of paradife in whom
they have moft confidence,
The houfes of the Muffulmans are difpofed in
fuch a manner that the lodging of the women is
* riavoyw, all holy \ thus it is that the Greeks call the
mother pf C|hrift, always

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. rS T,
always feparated from that of the men : the for
mer is called harem, or facred place, and the
htterfelamlik, or habitation ofthe man. Atthe
houfes ofthe great, there are two piles of build
ing which communicate with 'each other by in
termediate apartments, of which the hufband
alone has the keys. Accefs to the harerri is
Stridly forbidden to men ; the male fervants
and flaves never enter it ; and" the male relations
themfelves are never admitted, except it be on
the two grand feftivals of the year, and on the
occafion of weddings, lyings-in, or circum*
cifion. Commonly the harem has no windows to
wards the ftreet, or if there be any, they are
lofty, and grated in fuch a manner that one can
not fee from without what is paflirig within. In
the countries where every houfe has its terrace
or flat roof, there are walls of feparation which
canriot be paffed, and which prevent all commu.
nication. We frequently experienced difficulties in the
courfe of our travels, when we wiShed to afcend
to elevated places in order to have a view of a
town and judge of its extent, becaufe the inha
bitants were afraid that our objed was to ob-
ferve the\women who were walking in their gar
dens, or taking the air on the terrace of their
n 4 houfes.

1 84. '.^TRAVELS IN THE x'o
houfes. It has .frequently happened,, on thefe
pceafions, that Turks have fired mufket-Shots at
Europeans whofe intentions u appeared to them
fufpicious. , The wife of a certain rank, when young, goes
very little from home, becaufe it is not. fafbion-
able~..for her to appear in thp ftregts although
veiled, becaufe the law exempts, her from going
to the mofque, becaufe She has in her own houfe
baths which She ufes at pleafure, and becaufe She
is furrounded by female flaves who watch over
her, and female relatives who counterad her in
clinations. To pleafe her hufband, to detain
him in the harem as long as his affairs permit, tp
take care of her children, to occupy herfelf
with her -drefs, and very little with her family,
to pray at the hours prefcribed by religion, and
to pafs a part ofthe day without dping any thing,
another in Smoldng, drinking coffee, receiving
female friends, relations, or women under 5her
protedion, fuch are the duties and pleafures of
a Muffulman woman. She feldom can read and
fcarcely ever write ; She has learnt to few and
embroider, prepare comfits and dainties, and
make Sherbet ; but She finds it more pleafant to
do nothing, to remain quiet on her fopha, and
roll between her fingers a- chaplet of coral or
agate. She considers it as a delightful enjoy ment

OTTOMAN EMPIRE,. &C. 1 85
ment to hold fronrtime to time a difh of coffee
in one hand, a pipe in the other, and to carry
them alternately to her mouth, at the fame time
inhaling the vapour ofthe one, and retaining as
long as poffible that of the other ; what after
wards gratifies her the moft, is to have it in her
power to difplayto the eyes ofthe women whom
She * receives, fome rich trinkets and a robe of
great value.
A Muffulman" is very poor if he have not Seve
ral flaves to wait on his wife, and the -latter is
-very unfkilful if fhe do not foon convert into:
dreffes and trinkets thegreateft part of the huf-
band's fortune. This extraordinary and pre-,
ppfterous condud, efpecially in the mother, of a
family, appears , to me to arife naturally from
the laws and cuftoms eftablifhed in Turkey.
It is well known that the fovereign has the right
to confifcate, to the benefit of the imperial
treafury, the inheritance of the agents that he
has employed, and that, in this cafe, the property
ofthe wife is always refpeded. Befides, when a
divorce takes place between a married couple,
the wife keeps her jewels and her wardrobe, in
dependently of the other effeds ftipulated in the
contrad of marriage. <
The wife takes her meals aldne, or with the
mother and the female relations of the hufband, i
who

l86 TRAVELS IN THE ;">'
who are with her in the harem. He eats with
his father arid the male relations who live' with
bim, and when he is alone or carifes himfelf to
be ferved in the harem, which frequently hap-.
pens, even ihe wife does riot eat with him-, She
waits on him, or fees that the flaves are attentive
in waiting on him. The meal being, finiflied, the
hands and mouth wafhed and wiped, She herfelf
.prefents him the pipe and coffee.
When there are feveral wives, each has her
.houfehold, her table, her apartments, and her
flaves in the fame pile of building. It is very
uncommon for a fecond woman, or flave, to be
lodged in another houfe; this fcarcely happens
except among the chiefs of caravans, who,
obliged to live half of the year in one town,
and the other half in another, wifh to have a
wife in each of thofe two towns.
No religious precept is more fcrupuloufly fol
lowed ; no law is more rigoroufly executed, in
aDy religion and among any people, than ablu
tions and wafhings in Turkey. Before the five
prayers of the day, before and after meals, at
every Stool, whenever he has been touched by
any impure body, the Muffulman muft purify
himfelf by partial ablutions. But when he has
/^habited with a, woman or has experienced a
Ample pollution, he is fubmitted to a general
waShlng ;

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 1 8/
walhing ; and the woman, befides, is obliged to
obey this cuftom after her lying-in and at the
end of the indifpofitions natural to her fex.
Thence thofe ablutions almoft continual and
thofe frequent vapour-baths with which no one
difpenfes, of which all have made themfelves a
want, and in which both fexes find a delicious
charm. What inclines the women to wifh for baths
with the moft lively eagernefs, is that they there
make themfelves > amends , for the constraint to
which the laws and cuftoms have fubjeded them.
It is at the baths that they meet, and make ap
pointments with each other ; there it is that
they fee each other with familiarity, that they
converfe without conftraint, and give themfelves
up to the fweetefl voluptuoufnefs. There it is
that the rich women can difplay, with the
greateft minutenefs, their moft fplendid attire,
and their moft coftly garments. There they are
ferved with pure mocha, exquifite reftoratives,
and fumptuous collations. There they lavifh
effences and perfumes; and the entertainment 13
frequently terminated by mufic, dances, and
the ombres Chinoifes : but, on thofe occafions, the
|jath is fhut to the public for the whole day.
The poor women, almoft without any ex
penfe, there find pleafures lefs noify indeed, but
perhaps

1 8 8r TRAVELS IN' THE
perhaps as warmly felt. Common coffee, com
mon Sherbet, no other perfume than tobacco,'
dainties- which they themfelves bring, and fome
fruits of the feafon :' this is to reftbrelhe body
and gratify the fenfes. Their vanity is xflattered
at difplaying a fine fhift, clean drawers, decent
clothes, necklaces, chains, and other ornaments
in fequins. In fhort, they no longer have any
thing to wifhfor when they have undergone com
plete depilation, when their locks are arranged,
their braids plaited, their eyelids and eyebrows
painted black, and the nails of their hands an.d.
feet of an orange colour yellow,

CHAPTER

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 1 89

CHAPTER XIII.
Excurfion to the frefh waters. — Review of a
Turkifh army. — Origin of the revolt o/"Pafwan
Oglou.—Hiftorical fummary of the events
which have taken place to the prefent day.
1 wo leagues from Constantinople, in af-
cending the fmall river which difcharges its
waters into . the head ' of the harbour, is an
agreeable and folitary walk, the only one em
bellished by art. The fultan goes thither fome
times in fummer to Spend the day with a nume
rous fuite : frequently Europeans go thither on
parties of pleafure, at the fame time, however,
taking the precaution to have every thing car
ried that is neceffary for them ; v for the Turks,
not being in the habit of walking, nor of fre
quenting' this fpot, have not even thought of
eftablifhing there a coffee-hQufe.
On quitting* the harbour, you leave behind
you Constantinople ; you fee on the left the
village of Aijub, where.the fultana- mother has
juft caufed-a mofque, and a Sepulchral chapel to
be built in order to repofe/in it after her death :
, you

190 TraVeLs in the
you perceive on the right a Turkish coffee-houfe,
in front of which is a place-Shaded by fine trees,
under which TurkiSh and Armenian women
fometimes feat themfelves, to drink coffee, and
fmoke their pipe. You enter into a fertile val
ley, confined between two fchiftofe hills, naked
arid uncultivated ; the river which flows in the
middle, is broad, deep, and tranquil at its
mouth ; it becomes narrow in proportion as ypu
advance. Ali the furface of this valley confifts
of natural meadows, on which herds of oxen
graze during the whole year.-
You foon arrive in front of the kiofk of the
great equerry Buyuk-imbrohor, fituated on the
left bank of the river : you pafs under a wooden
bridge ereded there for communications, and
you arrive by the fide bf the palace of the Grand
Signior. Beyond this palace, built with fome
degree of elegance, the river is received into a
broad canal, whence it falls in cafcades on fteps
of white marble : it forms various Sheets of
water, and afterwards returns to its bed. Some
fine trees fhade this place, worthy of figuring befide
the moft beautiful gardens of Europe. One
only regrets that the two hills which bound the
valley, are not cultivated, and adorned with,
country-houfes ; they would add to the embel
lishment of this fpot, if they prefented, in the
2 form

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C I 01
form of an amphitheatre, the vine, various
fruit-trees, and fome fields laid down in porn.
On the 20th of Germinal, year VI, (c-th of
April i7o8,)iwe went with the French legation
and different citizens, to fee in this valley the
filing off of the remainder of the army which
fultan Selim was fending againft Paswan
Oglou, ayam ofWiDiN, for a longtime paft
in rebellion againft the Porte. Already had
fifteen or twenty thoufand Afiatic troops conti
nued their route for Adrianople, the general
rendezvous of the" army. There ftil! remained
from five, to fix thoufand men encamped at
Ok-maidaM, who were to file off before the
fultan. The captain-pacha, appointed ferafkier
or general of the army, was to be admitted to
kifs the feet of his highnefs, and receive the pe-
liffe. of honour. We had a curiofity to fee this
ceremony, and to learn at the fame time the order
and difpofition of a. Turkifh army.
At eight o'clock in the morning, we went to
embark at Top-hana : the day was fine ; we
enjoyed the fight always more beautiful, always
more enchanting, prefented, on one fide, by the
feraglio, and on the other, by1 Galata, Pera,
and the different villages which are confounded
with the foreft of cypreffes :. we ranged along
the numerous tiers of merchant-veffels anchored off

192 ' travels in the
off Galata ; we faw, as we paffed, the arfenal
and the Ships of the navy ; we, counted twenty
fail of the line, fourteen or fifteen of which were
in good condition, and as many frigates or Sloops
of war : we ftopped for a moment to view
Lambro's flotilla, which the Frerich frigate the
Modeste, commanded by Captain Venel,
had destroyed in 1792. It took us near an
hour to arrive at the head of the harbour and
enter ''the river which we haVe before men
tioned. We quitted our caiques in front of the houfe
of the great equerry. Already -were the hills
covered with fpedators : a part of the fultan' s
houfehold was arrived,, and the pages were ex-
ercifing themfelves in the "meadow, in throwing
the djerid. The army had advanced towards
the declivity of the hill, and was now waiting
only for the order of departure. All the co
lours were difplayed, and martial mufic was
heard from time to time.
At ten o'clock, arrived Sultan Selim in a fu
perb ca'ique, and placed himfelf in the kiofk of
his equerry: we were withjn twenty paces of
him, under the fhade of an afh, on the oppofite
bank of the river. A moment after, the order
was given, and the troops filed off. They de-
fcended by the hill of the left bank of the river,
paffed

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 193
paffed over a wooden bridge at a little diftance
from the kiofk, followed the road made at the
foot of the hill on the right bank, and went to
encamp for three days two leagues from this
place, in the environs of a farm known by the
name of Daout-pacha.
We faw pafs in fucceffion companies of ca
valry of delis, of za'ims, of timariots, cifeliclars,
and oifpahis, armed with a muSket, two piftols,
and a fabre, After them came a company of
horfemen armed with lances : like thofe who
went firft, they had their' fabre and their pif
tols, Each company was preceded by one or
two colour?, arid followed by a great number
oi facas or water-carriers. The horfes on which
thefe facas were mounted, had two large leather-
bottles full of water, for the wants of the
company. What had a rather bad effed among this
chofen troop, was that the mufkets were of dif
ferent forrn and calibre : the horfemen were ir
regularly clothed : many among them were in
rags and ill mounted, while fome others were
better dreffed, better mounted, and better
armed. The officers were distinguished by the
beauty of their horfes, by the richnefs of the trap
pings, and by the footmen who preceded them.
vol. 1. o The

*94 TRAVELS IN THE
The company of flying artillery in uniform,
tolerably well mounted, having with it forty
pieces of cannon, made a more warlike appear
ance: it was •compofed of young men ftrong
and vigorous : their look, their {kill, and their
manoeuvres did honour to the French officers
who inftruded them.
After thefe we faw pafs fome other troops of
cavalry, and . then eighty flags of different co
lours. There remained all the houfehold of the
general, two European carriages, and two
.litters, whenHussEiN-pacha appeared on horfe-
back; followed by two boftangees and a tchoca-
dar on foot : he croffed the meadow, and, hav
ing arrived within a little diftance of the kioSk,
he alighted : he was immediately furrounded by
the pages of the fultan and conduded to the au
dience-chamber. He approached his highnefs,
kiffed the Skirt of his garment, and placed him
felf at a little diftance from him, on his knees,
feated on his heels, with his hands on his thighs,
concealed by the large fleeves of his robe. All
the pages left the .hall : there remained only
three mutes to wait. The conference lafted
half an hour; after which Hussein again kiffed
the fkirt of his highnefs's robe, and was clothed
with a fuperb pelifle by fome pages who entered
for that purpofe.
Hassetn

OTTOMAN EMPIRE,' &C I95
Hussein came down from the kioSk, remount
ed his horfe, returned by a femi-circle, and pre
fented himfelf before the fultan, leant down to
the ftirrup of the right foot, and went away, ac
companied by the three perfons with whom he
had come.
The troops had halted during this conference ;
but the military mufic had not ceafed to play :
it was compofed of trumpets,' tymbals, tymba-
lons, and drums different from thofe of Eu
rope. The houfehold ofthe pacha filed off in good
order : it was remarkable for the beauty of the
horfes, the richnefs of the trappings, and the
drefs ofthe horfemen : we faw pafs his tchiaoux,
his tchocadars, his fecretaries and clerks, a
tropp of galioridgis, and, laftly, his carriages and
litters. Three horfemen carried, among the
> colours, on a fort of pike, three horfes' tails
which defignated his rank. The pacha next
made his appearance, followed by the principal
officers of his houfehold and by fome general
officers belonging to his army : a numerous com
pany of facas clofed this march.
We rerriarked in all the companies, people to
lerably well mounted, whofe cap of a conical
form, was covered on the outfide with tin and
little bells. We were informed that their func-
o 2 tion

196 TRAVELS IN THE
tion is to gallop into the ranks in order to make
the foldiers drefs, to excite them to battle, and to
flop the runaways.
In Europe, people have fpoken too varioufly
of Paswan Oglou, and have been too little ac
quainted with the origin of his revolt, for us to
pafs over in filence the accounts which we have
colleded refpeding him.
Oglou, in Turkifh, fignifies fon: Paswan
Oglou, that is, fon of Paswan. The father
was ayam or notable of Widin : he was rich,
, and enjoyed great consideration among his fel
low citizens. He commanded a troop of volun
teers in the laft war of the Turks againft' the
Ruffians and Germans. It is thought that his
reputation and above all his riches, induced the
grand vifir, then ferafkier of the army, to caufe
him to be apprehended, and his head to be cut
off. PaswaN Oglou was apprehended with his
father, and detained for fome time,, after which
he obtained his liberty and a flender part of
the property which he ought to haye poffeffed.
He retired to Widin, • meditating fignal ven
geance, not only for the death of his father,
but alfo for the injuftice committed in regard to
himfelf. It was not long before an opportunity
prefented itfelf, and like a man ftill more able
2 than

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &Cv ^97
than angry, he found means tp, derive from
events the purpofe. moft fuitable to his projeds.
Under the reigns of Mustapha III. arid
Abdul Hamid, companies of gunners and
bombardiers had been formed at Constanti
nople : fome batteries had been ereded at the
entrance of the Hellespont and of the Bos
phorus: in the arfenal, a fchool of navigation
had been eftablifhed by the fide of that for ma
thematics; the government turned their thoughts
towards the navy, they wifhed, in a word, to
repair the loffes occafioned by the fucceffive de-,
feats of the Ottoman armies ; but they were
very far from having attained that objed when
Selim III. afcended the throne. Extremely
alive to the lofs of the Crimea, one of the
granaries pf Constanpinople ; painfully af-
feded to fee himfelf threatened in the very heart
of the capital, the firft movement of Selim was
to give a new impulfe to thofe establishments ;
his firft looks were direded towards the navy;
his moft ardent wifhes were to organize by de
grees an army in imitation of that of his ene
mies ; and lefs jealous of his authority, than of
the profperity of his dominions and of the fuc-
cefs of his arms, he created a council compofed
of twelve perfons capable of enlightening and
fecondinghis beneficent views. He at the fame
o 3 time

I98 TRAVELS IN THE
time eftablifhed an impoft the produce of which
he appropriated to the new military eftablifh*
ments. The fuperiority of the European arms and
the inappreciable advantage refulting from tac
tics, were acknowledged by a few Muffulmans;
whom genius and education raifed above pre*
judjces ; but it was difficult to Stifle the clamours
of a great. number of perfons to whom thefe
projeds gave offence : it was difficult to get them
adopted by an ignorant people who confider as
criminal the innovations which are tranftnitted
them by thofe whom they call infidels : it was
much more difficult, perhaps, to prevent, the ef-
fed of corruptive gold on the grea-teft rper-
fonages of the empire.
The janizaries had loft that ancient energy
which had fo long rendered them, formidable :
there was no longer feen among them thofe
boftangees inured to the labours of the earth,
capable, of braving the inclemency of the fea-
fons ; thofe Slaves,' thofe children of tributej
who, neither knowing, their parents nor their
country, feryed with enthufiafm and zeal the re
ligion which they had embraced, and the mafter
who paid them. At this day, mutinous and un-
difciplined, without energy and without courage,
more formidable to the authority of the fove
reign

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C I99
reign than to the enemies of the State, to re
place them by an intelligent and difciplmed ftand-
ipg army, prefented incalculable advantages.
The fultan, from that moment, would have been
lefs expofed to the agitations and movements of
an irritated populace; he would have been in-
ceffantly able to difpofe of his forces, to carry
them to the frontiers in order to repel the ene
my, or into the interior to apprehend a rehel,
fubdue a revolted province,, or deftroy an army
of robbers ; he could augment his forces, or re
duce them according to, the exigencies of the
State. The; janizaries, extremely numerous in the
capital, although debated, merited neverthelefs
a little refped. An infurredion on their part
would have occafioned fhe;mifcarriage of the
projeds wifely conceived : it was prudent to
rpay them and to make ufe. of them, till the new
troops Should be organized. ; As for thofe of the
provinces, .fcattered over the 1 towns and the
country-places, (they could offer only a refiftance
eafy to be overcome ; hawever, in order neither
to indifpofe the one nor the other, it was re
folved to attack at firft none but the yamags :
thus it is that are called on the frontier of Ger
many, the new comers or the new companies
formed for the garrifpn of the towns and the
o 4 duty

200 TRAVELS IN THE
duty of the fortreffes, in the countries newly
conquered. ' Belgrade was, in confequence, the firft town
where a trial was made to abolifh the formidable
corps of janizaries ; but the yamags revoked,
took up arms, arid threatened the life of the
pacha. The latter fucceeded in gaining over
the officers and in difperfing a corps of troops
too ill organized to be able to refift him for
any length of time. The government fuccef-
fively came to the other, frontier towns of Ger
many : every where they experienced the fame
refiftance ; but every where authority triumphed.
At Widin, the yamags were more fortunate;
PaswaN Oglou, in his capacity of < ayam,
which he had recently obtained, marched at
their head againft the pacha, cut him in pieces,
and obliged him to abandon the town.
Thefe firft, fucceffes gave a great idea of the
military talents of Paswan, and eaufed him to
be confidered as a man entirely devoted to the
interefts of the people. He had no great diffi
culty in engaging all the inhabitants of Widin
in his party, and in drawing about him a great
number of malcontents, by flattering them, not
only with preventing the reforms which the
Porte wifhed to make, but with oppofing the
eolledion ofthe new tax on provifions, wool, cot
ton,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 201
ton, &c. which Selim had juft eftablifhtd, and
the produce of which he had appropriated, as I
have before faid, to the expenfes rendered ne
ceffary by the new corps of gunners, bornbar-
diers, and matroffes, whofe number had juft been
augmented. What muft neceffarily have irritated the people,
was tofee the pacha become muhaffil or farmer of
the new tax, for his province, in confideration
of a pretty confiderable fum which he had en
gaged to remit annually to the Porte, while be
fore the eftablifhment of this tax, not only the
Porte drew nothing from Widin, but fent
the money neceffary for the pay of the yamags
and the repairs of the fortifications.
The revenues of Widin not being fufficient
for the payment of the army, which was every
day increafing, Paswan fent detachments into
the neighbouring provinces, took poffeffion of the
money belonging to, the imperial treafury, le
vied taxes, fummoned the princes of Walla-
CHia and Moldavia to furnifh him with pro
vifions, military Stores, and a fum of money
fomewhat confiderable,' under pain of having
their country invaded. Tbe latter addreffed
themfelves to the Porte, which, according to
its cuftpm of temporizing and waiting for cir
cumstances,

202 TRAVELS IN THE
cumftances, fent them orders privately to yield,
for the moment, to neceflity.
The Greeks form the major part ofthe popu
lation of European Turkey: it was of import
ance to Paswan to draw them to his, party,
by conciliating their efteem and infpiring them
with the greateft confidence. For this purpofe
he put in force the ordinances of Sou'man I,
altered or changed by the fultans his fucceffors ;
he gave them hopes of alleviating their fitua-
tion, promifed them the free exercife of their
religion, and the abolition of that infamous dif-
tindion of ray as : at the fame time he topk for
his motto, Liberty -and fuftice ; magic wprds, car
pable of eledrifying men the moft full of apa
thy, and of leading, to devptednefs and enthu-
fiafm a people who groan : under the moft cruel
tyranny. The condud of Paswan muft neceffarily have
produced the effed which he expeded frpm it.
Throughout the whole empire, the janizaries con
fidered him only as a man armed far. defending
their interests, and oppofing the enterprifes ofthe
fultan and his council .• the Greeks regarded him
as their approaching deliverer: all offered up
vows for the fuccefs of his arms, and in the mean
time the Porte: hefitated as to the'courfe which it
had

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. £03
had to follow. The divan affembled feveral
times for this, objed, without coming to any
determination : a few members, among whom
was distinguished the captain-pacha, were of
opinion to oppofeto Paswan a force capableof
flopping his progrefs, punifliirig his audacity,
and giving an example of feverity which might
awe the ambitious who fhould be tempted to
imitate him ; but the majority- ftrongly infifted
.on offering Paswan his pardon arid the restitu
tion of the property confifcated from his father,
if he would lay down his arms and difband his
army. When a government refolves to treat with a
rebellious fubjed, it gives' the meafure "of its
weaknefs or of its' folly. From that time the
ambitious conceive the boldeft projeds, arid flat
ter themfelves that their enterprifes will be
crowned with fuccefs. Such was the effed
-that the propofals of the divan muft have pro
duced on Paswan ; but this' man was too Skil
ful to irritate the. Porte by a formal refufal,
and expofe the fate of his, army by too precipi
tate a meafure :. befides, he wanted to gain time
•and-amafe riches for the fuccefs of his projeds.
'He did not, perhaps, rely fufficiently on the fa
vourable difpofitions of all the janizaries of the
empire. He contented himfehy for the moment, with

204 TRAVELS IN THE
with demanding that every thing fhould remain
at Widin o'n the ancient footing, that the new
tax fhould not he eftablifhed there, and that the
janizaries fhould: be maintained in their rightsi
Sultan Selim acceded to thefe difgraceful con
ditions, and fent to Widin a pacha provided
with a firman to that effed. The pacha was
received, and inftalled with the cuftomary cere
monies ; but, too weak to ftruggle againft a man
who had an army at his command, he was un
able to obtain any fort of authority. Paswan
preferved his influence and power, and conti
nued, in the name ofthe pacha, to govern and.
administer the town and the province.
Paswan was too well acquainted with the
wily policy ofthe Porte, to fall afleep in per-
fed fecurity : he was perfuaded that it would
employ fooner. or later its ordinary means,
Steel or ppifon, in order to get rid of a man
.who might ftill : perplex it, who had dared to
..paralyze its meafures, and who exercifed in Wi
din an illegal authority. He negleded nothing
to procure prptedors and partifans among the
great perfonages of the capital : he continued
.to flatter the people and to make them hope for
.reforms ufeful and ardently wi Shed for, and
anxious to obtain, in the prefent circumftances,
. a legitimate power, he warmly folicited the . go
vernment

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 20$
vernment of Widin, together with the dignity
of pacha with three tails.
Although the Porte , had betrayed great
weaknefs in pardoning a rebellious fubjed, and
fubfcribing to the conditions which he had
didated, it could never bring itfelf to grant
him the dignity which he requefted, and, by
that means, contribute to his elevation. It en
deavoured to gain time waiting for fome fortu
nate circumftance which might rid it of a man
whom it confidered as no lefs dangerous than
culpable. It amufed him as long as it could,
by promifes which it was its intention never to
make good. It did not conceal from itfelf that
this ambitious man folicited the government of
Widin only in order to render himfelf after
wards independent, and to remove a pacha
whofe pretence was irkfome to him, and who
might, from one moment to another, feize on
authority and punifh him for his crimes.
When Paswan perceived that he had nothing
to hope for from the Porte, he again raifed
the ftandard of revolt : he drove away the pa
cha, and recommenced his incurfions into the
neighbouring provinces.
His generals, more warlike than politic, wifh
ed to prevail on him to take poffeffion of Wal-
lachia and Moldavia, to fortify the principal towns

<2o6 TRAVELS IN THE
towns fituated on the Danube, and thence
brave all the efforts of the Ottoman Empire.
Paswan knew the courts of Vienna and Pe
tersburg : he was perfuaded that they would
favour, that they would even fecond his enter-
prifes in the interior ; but that they would unite,
on the contrary, with the Porte, to prevent him
from establishing himfelf beyond the Danube,
and forming a ftate independent of thofe two
principalities. A more extenfive field of glory and profperity
offered itfelf to Paswan ; this was to march
Straight to the capital, to feize boldly on the
.throne, to difpofe of the fate of Selim, to facri-
fice his enemies to the manes of his father, and
to his own fafety ; to unite under the fame laws,
nations feparated by religious -fanaticifm; to give
to cPmmerce and induftry a new impulfe ; to
give life to agriculture ; to create a formidable
navy ; in Short, to fix the government on a folrd
bafis, by giving it that harmony, that general
connexion in which it is defedive.
Had the boldnefs of this man equalled his
prudence ; had his mind been as adive as his
genius was fertile ; had he had, for attack, the
¦talents which he has difplayed for defence, it is
not to be doubted that the throne of Selim
would have -paffed into other hands. Already had

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 207
had the janizaries refufed to march ; already did
the immenfe number of inhabitants of Con
stantinople hold out their arms to him
whom they confidered as their deliverer, as the
defender of their rights: the majority of the
great were devoted, to his interefls, and the peo
ple, as is well known, always feduced by the
preftiges which furround the great man, fecond
his projeds without inquiry, and promote with
out miftruft all his enterprifes. ,
Paswan hefitated as to the" courfe which he
had to follow: the obstacles which he corifi-
dered appeared to him too great perhaps : he
doubted of fuccefs ; he refolved to wait in Widin
for all the forces which the Porte chofe to
employ againft him, perfuaded that the foldier
would draw up under his colours, or find death
at the foot of the walls and in the marfhes with
which the town is furrounded.
In the mean time, the Porte, which could no
longer conceal from itfelf the danger arising from
this rebel being fupported by public opinion,
commanded the different pachas of Euro'pean
Turkey, to colled all the forces which they
had at their difpofal, in order to go and fight
him, force him in his laft entrenchments, feize
on his perfon, cut off his head, and fend it to
Constantinople. It at the fame time ordered
Allo,

208 travels in ths
Allo, pacha or beyler-bey of Cutayed, a dif
tinguiflied warrior, to come and give battle to
Paswan with all the forces of his province.
The frontier fortrefles of Germany were pro
visioned, and intrufted to pachas or governors
on whofe fidelity and bravery the government
thought that a reliance might be placed.
Thefe different corps of troops, to the number
of forty or fifty thoufand men, approached the
provinces occupied by the generals of Paswan :
they at firft obtained fome advantages, among
others that of furrounding the divifion com
manded by Serekchol Oglou, of obliging
him to enter, Varna, of cutting him in pieces,
and of fending to the Porte the heads of the
general and of his principal officers.
This fuccefs, of little importance, was im
mediately repaired by that which the other ge
nerals obtained on all fides over the united pa
chas. Belgrade, that bulwark of the empire,
was threatened ; Orsova, Silistria, Kersova,
almoft all the towns fituated on the Danube,
were foon in the power of Paswan, who, from
the heart of Widin, whence he never iffued, di
reded the march of his warriors, and almoft al
ways fixed vidory under his colours.
What, no doubt, is very deferving of remark,
is that Paswan's army was not weakened by
the

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. S09
the different battles which it fought : the number
¦ of his foldiers increafedaccording-tp his wants,,
while that of the pachas was ftill more weakened
by defertion than by the fword of the enemy.
The ,janizary, as I had before mentioned, re-
*
garded. PasWan's caufe as his own, and the
army of the latter, in whofe favour vidory de
clared, better fed and. more regularly paid, every
day.attraded to it a great number of malcon
tents. ,
The prince of Wallachia, compelled to
pay a heavy contribution in money, and to fur-
nifh provifions and warlike ftores to Paswan,
incurred the difgrace of Selim. He was de-
pofed, recalled to Constantinople, and re
placed by Khangerli, drogueman to the cap
tain-pacha, an able, intriguing inan, devoured
by ambition, ftrongly fufpeded of favouring in
fecret the projeds of the natural enemies of the
Ottoman Empire, and of holding out his hand to
their corrupting gold.
The Porte, undoubtedly, did notexped that
Paswan, abandoned to his own Strength, was
in a condition to oppofe*an army capable bf re
filling that of the pachas , united. It did not
imagine above all that he had at his difpofal the
gold that was neceffary for him to maintain it*.
It was fenfibly alarmed at his fucceffes, and
vol. 1. l £ very

2io Travels in rai
very uneafy refpeding the fate of Belgrade,'
of which the rebel feemed to wifh to make himfelf
mafter. It likewife was afraid that he would crofs
Mount H.*£mus, and come to eftablifh himfelf
at Adrianople, whence he might have mo-
lefted the capital. It took the refolution of dis
playing againft him very confiderable forces, in
order to finifh quickly an unfortunate war which
was threatening the empire with a general over
throw, and exhaufting unfeafonably the finances
of the State. In Niv6fe, year VI. (1798), it
convoked the principal officers belonging to the
janizaries of Constantinople, in order to
found them refpeding thelntention which it had
to march their corps * againft Paswan. The
latter appeared not difpofed to fecond the views
of the fultan ; they reprefented that the foldiers
faid loudly that they would never make war
againft a Muffulman,'' who had, according to
them, committed no other fault than that of
wifhing to prevent an attack from being made
on their rights, and from there being introduced
into the empire of the true believers, the cuf-
toms of the infidels, enemies of their god and of
* their prophet.
* The number of janizaries in Constantinople is
reckoned to be upwards of fifty thoufand. At

OTTOMAN EMPIRE,'-&C. 1\\
At one moment it was thought that the jani-
zary-aga would pay with his head the ill-will of
the foldiers ; but Selim contented himfelf with
removing him from the capital for a few days,
and fending him to GAllipoli. He came and
refumed his fundions, when the government
were affured that his removal could not, in any
way, change the peaceable difpofitions of the
janizaries and of their officers.
At the fame time an order was difpatched to
the pachas and governors of the provinces of
the empire, for them to furnifh different corps
of troops, and caufe them to march on the firft
notice that they fhould receive. The grand vifir,
on whom the command of the army had de
volved, being old and infirm, Selim appointed
in his place the captain-pacha, as if the zeal and
good-will of his High Admiral could, in this
cafe, make amends for the knowledge and ex
perience which he wanted. Hussein had never
been engaged in war, either by fea or by land j
how then could he contend, with advantage,
againft a man who had fet at nought the bravery
and military talents of the old generals that
he had had to combat.
It is faid that it was the very enemies of the
captain-pacha who eaufed him; to be appointed
ferafkier of the army, as well to remove him
p a from

St 2 - T RAVELS IN THE
from the capital, as to plan for him an affair ofthe
higheft importance, in which they hoped that he
would mifcarry. . . „ -
Hussein could not refufe the command of
the army, without difpleafing the fultan; without
being taxed with cowardice, without giving a
hold to the malignity of the public. He hoped
befides, if he obtained impofing forces, to def-
troy eafily a rebel againft whom none but half-
meafures had hitherto been taken, againft whom
none but inconfiderable forces had been em
ployed. As artful as his enemies were per
fidious, he prefented himfelf tp Selim, prof-
trated himfelf at his feet, and faid to him :
11 Lord, my life is yours; if you think, me ca-
" pable of leading your Iahd-forces.asT have hi-
*f therto led thofe of the fea, command : I am
" ready to obey you ; I will march ' againft the
" rebel, I will bring you his head, or I will Iofe
" my own; but Paswan's party is numerous
" and powerful ; his creatures, his friends are
" fpread every where ; they will fetter my ope-
" rations if I am not inverted with great autho-
" rity; they will make my enterprifes mifcarry,
** if I have riot confiderable forces and all the ,
" money neceffary for infuring the fubfiftence
" of the army, and for detaching, if it be need-
«' ful, from the rebel party the generals, to
" whofe

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 21J
" whofe talents and courage Paswan owes the
" fucceffes which he has obtained againft your

" arms."

Selim granted all the demands of the pacha,
and invefted him with great power ; he gave or
ders that all the corps of troops, as well of Eu
rope as of Asia, which could be raifed, fhould
join their colours in the early part ofthe fpring;
and nothing was fpared for the fuccefs of this en-
terprize. From that time, the greateft adivity was ex
erted, in the conftrudion and equipment of fif-
teen gun-boats, carrying a 24 or an 1 8 pounder
in the bow, and one or two fmall cannons on
each fide ; they were intended for afcending the
-Danube in order to fecond by water the attack
which was meditated by land againft WfDiN.
Different craft were equipped for the convey
ance of the artillery and ftores neceffary for the
figge, as well as for the provifions for the
troops. Adrianople was fhe general rendezvous of
the troops ofthe fouthern part of Turkey' in
Europe and of thofe in Asia. A part of the
former filed off through Constantinople ; a
part paffed through Galhopoli. The whole
army colleded was estimated at one hundred
thoufand combatants.
p 3 Hussein

214 TRAVELS IN THE
Hussein, general in chief, had a corps of
from twelve to fifteen thoufand Afiatics, and
another compofed of feven or eight thoufand
men, topchis, galiondgis, and volunteers, raifed
in Constantinople and in the environs.
Allo, pacha of CutaYed, was at the head
of thirty thoufand Afiatics, delis, fpahis, janiza
ries, and volunteers,
Ali, pacha of Yanina in Albania, com
manded ten or twelve thoufand Albanians and
five or fix thoufand janizaries.
Mustapha, pacha of Bosnia, had a corps
of five or fix thoufand men, as well infantry as
cavalry.
Ismael, bey of Seres in Upper Macedo
nia, brought five or fix thoufand fpahis.
Orders were alfo given for the marching of
detachments taken from Salonica, Philopo-
polis, Sophia, and fome other towns of Eu
ropean Turkey. »
It was thefe forces, capable of fubduing an
empire, that Hussein marched to deftroy a
rebel, and lay fiege to a revolted town.
The Turkifh government muft naturally have
expeded that Paswan, on his fide, would ne-
gled nothing for reinforcing his army, and put
ting it on a refpedable footing. They pre-
fumed that he would come and wait for the
captain-*

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 215
captain-pacha at the defiles of Mount H^mus,
in order to difpute with him thofe difficult
paffes, and attempt to deftroy an army which
the firft obftacles . might, difcourage and put to
the rout. They were very much furprifed to
fee him, on the contrary, difband a great part
of his troops, abandon the towns of which,
he had made himfelf mafter, and Shut himfelf in
Widin with twelve thoufand chofen men, on
whofe fidelity and bravery he could rely. He
had had time to . colled provifions and warlike
Stores in a quantity fufficiently great to fuftain a
Siege for upwards of two fucceffive years, with
out putting the inhabitants to too great ftraits.
He had, befides, a flotilla which rendered him
mafter of the courfe of the Danube, and which,
in cafe of need, was to facilitate the re-vidualling
of the place. This artillery was under the di
redion of fome Polifh engineers, who alfo drew
his plans of defence.
The imperial army repaired without obftacle
to the vicinity of Widin : all the corps of
troops were affembled there before the end of
Prairial : the flotilla and thp gun-boats arrived
at the fame time ; the provifions and military
Stores were in great abundance ; the captain-
pacha was in want of nothing but men capable
pf direding a fiege, and foldiers better difpofed
p 4 for

-2 1 6 travels in the
for fupporting the caufe for which they were
going to fight.
After having reconnoitred the environs of the
town, after having affigned to the different chiefs
the pofts which they were to occupy, or having
made all the difpofitions which he judged ne
ceffary for the fiege, Hussein fummoned Pas
wan to lay down his arms, promifing him his
life, liberty, and a diftinguiflied rank if he
would fpare Muffulman blood. " In vain wilt
" thou oppOfe to me," faid he to him, " a mo-
<c mentary refiftance; I have a hundred thou-.
" fand. men with me; a hundred thoufand
*' others would come to their afliftance, were it
" neceffary : acknowledge thy errors ; pro-
" Urate thyfelf before the majefty of the impe-
" rial throne, and deliver up to me thy town
" and thy army."- Paswan received the en
voy of the pacha on the moft lofty terrace of his
palace, whence he was obferving with a glafs
the movements of the enemy ; and with that
difdain which the idea of the fuperiority of one's
Strength and talents naturally produces : " Go
" and tell thy mafter," replied he, " that it
*{ depended on me to have a hundred thoufand
** men to oppofe to him ; I preferred conquer-
«' ing him with ten.",
Hussein

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 21?
Hussein having no hope of being able to bring
back Paswan to his duties, refolved to pufh the
fiege with the greateft vigour: prefently he
thought himfelf in a condition to make a ge
neral attack on the town, and, by this means,
to make himfelf mafter of an ifland fituated on
the Danube, facing Widin ; but he was every
where repulfed with confiderable lofs: the
town was very well defended ; and the ifland,
on which it was of importance to eftablifh him
felf, had been fo fortified that all the efforts of
the pacha could make no impreflion on it : his
flotilla was beat off by that of Paswan, by;the
fire of the place, and by the batteries of the
ifland. His gun-boats having too imprudently
expofed themfelves, fuffered considerably ; fome
of them funk, and the others were no longer
in a fituation to fecond in the fequel the different
attacks which took place.
The town, almoft entirely furrounded by
marfhes, was difficult of approach : the Works
neceffary for the fuccefs ofthe fiege were ill exe
cuted, and worfe conceived; forties, made op
portunely, deftroyed them, or retarded their
progrefs. Already had two general attacks been
very unfortunate : a great lofs of men had been
fuftained in the fruitlefs attempt of the capture
of the ifland ; the fiege was "drawing on to a
great

2l8 TRAVELS IN THE
great length ; the feafon was advancing ; the
army was diminishing considerably by ficknefs,
by defer tion, and by the fire of the befieged.
All thefe confiderations induced the captain-
pacha to make a final effort, and employ at once
every means that he had remaining.
The army was divided into three corps : All a
took the command of the firft ; Ali, that ofthe
fecand ; Hussein referved to himfelf the third :
he ordered the firft two to proceed during the
night by different roads, to the place affigned for
the attack ; but through a miftake, very culpable
no doubt, one of the divifions, at the break of
day, fired on the other, taking it for an ene
my's corps which had fallied from the place ;
the miftake had been perceived while the battle
was- ftill going on, becaufe the general who had
flood feveral difcharges, was fo incenfed with
anger, that he ordered the other corps to be
fired on, as if it had been one belonging to the'
enemy. The foldier partook of the indignation
ofthe general, and the battle did not end till
the third division had advanced, fallen fword
in hand on the combatants, and feparated them
in fpite of themfelves. Difcontent became fo
great, mifunder Standing was fo general, and
defertion fo confiderable, that the captain-pacha
thought proper to raife the fiege, retire, and
wait

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 219
wait from time and circumftances for that which
his arms had not been able to obtain.
As foon as Hussein had retired, Paswan re
called the foldiers that he had difoanded ; he a
fecond tinfe made himfelf mafter of the places
which he had evacuated, and again threatened
the north of the empire. After various delibe
rations of the council, the Porte determined
to offer the rebel whom it could not deftroy,
his pardon, the government of Widin, and the
dignity of pacha with three tails ; and as, in
thefe circumftances, defpotiftn required a vic
tim, the prince of Wall achia was facrificed to
the refentment of Hussein, and his bead brought
to Constantinople in Ventofe, year VII.
(799-)

CHAPTER

2-20 travels in the

CHAPTER XIV.
Pofition and temperature of Constantinople. —
Conftrudion of the houfes. — Ufe qf fhe tandour
end ofpeliffes. — Fires. — Dogs and vultures.
If Constantinople leaves fcarcely any thing
to be wifhed for as to the natural beauty of its
fituation and that of its environs, the fertility
and the variety of its territory, the extent, the
commodioufnefs, and the fafety of its harbour,
and the facility with which it is fupplied with
provifions., it has alfo the advantage of enjoying
a very mild temperature, a beautiful fky, and a
very healthful climate. Situated in the latitude
of 41 degrees 1 minute north, the heats of fum
mer are there tempered by a north north-eaft
wind which blows regularly from the Black
Sea during the day ; and the cold, in winter,
is never excellive, becaufe this fame wind, the
moft cold and moft frequent of all, lofes much
of its fharpnefs in paffing over almoft the whole
length of that fea.
The winds are variable in winter, and blow
from all points; but it feldom happens that the
eafterly

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 221
eafterly wind does not foon veer to the -north-
eaft, and the wefterly wind come round to the
fouth- weft or fouth. Rains are frequent, and
the fky is almoft always cloudy in that feafon,
from the winds which blow from the Black
Sea, while it is generally ferene from thofe
which come from the PropoNtis and the
Archipelago. I have, neverthelefs, feen it
rain indifferently with northerly and foutherly
winds ; but, in the latter cafe, the clouds are
detained and condenfed by a north wind which
reigns over the Black Sea. It is not uncom
mon, in winter, to have, for fifteen or twenty
days fucceffively, with a light foutherly wind, a.
very beautiful fky and a very mild tempera
ture. The north-weft wind blows, in general,, only
after a heavy rain. The fky is clear during its
continuance, and the cold is moderate ; buf it
does not hold long in that quarter : it is fome
times the precurfor of the foutherly wind, and
not unfrequently it fhifts to the north and north-
eaft. •
It feldom freezes in open day, and the ther
mometer fcarcely ever falls, during the night,
more than two or three degrees below the
freezing point. There are years when fnow is
frequent ; but generally it melts in falling, and
ij feldom

222 TRAVELS lit THE
feldom remains feveral days together, in the en
virons of the city, without melting and difap-
pearing entirely. It is related, however, that
the cold has been fufficiently fharp to freeze the
water at the head of the harbour, that the fnow
has been feen to fall to a foot -in depth, and re
main unthawed feveral days ; and what is more
extraordinary, under Constantine Copro-
nymus, the Bosphorus froze to fuch a degree
that it was croffed on foot : under Arcadius,
the Black Sea remained frozen for twenty
days ; when the ice broke up, pieces of a con
fiderable fize were feen floating before Con
stantinople.
In the fpring, the winds are likewife variable
and the cold very moderate ; the rains are com
monly abundant in Germinal and even in -Flo-
real, and the heats are not felt till Meflidor.
At the end of Pluviofe, year VI. (1798), the
buds of the trees expanded rather quickly ;
peach and apricot trees had been in flower for
fome days, and almond-trees already Shewed
their fruits.
In Meflidor, the wind fixes at north, and it
feldom happens that, during the three fummer
months, it blows from the fouth quarter. The
Sky is always clear in this feafon, and rains are
extremely uncommon. Vegetation is kept up by
the

. OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 223
the dews, tolerably copious in fummer, on ac
count of the vicinity of the two feas, and be
caufe the foil, though uncultivated in feveral
places, is, neverthelefs, covered with trees,
Shrubs, and plants which contribute to the cool-
nefs and humidity of the nights. At the end
of Frudidor, the winds never fail to become
again variable, and then it is that the veffels
riding in the Hellespont prepare to afcend the
channel, and to -take advantage of the firft
foutherly wind.
It fometimes happens in Meflidor, and more
commonly at the beginning and in the middle
of Frudidor, that the wind blows for two or
three days from the fouth quarter, and that the
heat is fenfibly felt. On the 7th, 8th,, and
9th of Frudidor, (24th, 25th, and 26th of
Auguft,) I faw Reaumur's thermometer rife to
27 degrees, while it is generally, during the
'ftrongeft heat of the day, only at 23 and 24.
The autumn is generally very fine : it rains
for a few days and repeatedly, before and after
the equinox, after which the weather is fine, the
fky is clear and ferene for a fortnight, a month;
and even more, and the colds do not begin to
be felt till Nivofe. Tott has obferved that the
foutherly wind, at the beginning of the autumn,
was fomewhat cold, becaufe it paffed over the
fnow

224 TRAVELS! IN THE
fnow of Mount Olympus. We made the! fame
remark, and we faw that, even in winter, this
wind was conftantly colder the firft day that it
blew, than the fecpnd and third ; but, in
general, this wind Shifts to the fouth fouth-weft,
and follows the diredion of the Gulf of S aros,
and of the HELLESPdNT. It is known by the
modern Greeks under the name of Lodos ; it
is always more mild in winter than the foutherly
wind, and the fky is always more ferene and
more clear.
It is not uncommon for the wind to blow
from the northern quarter over the Bosphorus
and the Propontis, while it blows from the
fouth quarter over the Archipelago and the
Hellespont. We have frequently been wit
neffes of it during the flay which we made in
the Dardanelles ; and when we returned
from Egypt in Meflidor year III. (1795) the
fouth-weft wind carried us thrice beyond the
point of Nagara, and thrice we found beyond ,
it the north wind which prevented us from ad
vancing, and obliged us to return to our an
chorage. The third time we had a great deal
of difficulty to reach a cove,' half a league from
a village called Galata, where we remained
for three days.

It

ottoman empire, &c. 225
It is in this part of the Hellespont com-
prifed between the point of Nagara and Gal-
lipoli, that the fouth wind, on the one fide,
and the north wind, on the other, fometimes
meet and ceafe to blow: there is not a feaman
who muft not have made this remark, and have
feen feveral times, in winter, fhe fky foggy or
ftormy towards the Black Sea, while it was
ferene towards the Archipelago.
At the end of Nivofe and in Pluvidfe, the
north wind is fometimes felt in the Propontis,
and on the ArchipeLago, with fuch violence,
that veffels which are at fea, run the greateft
danger if they do not bear up immediately and
gain a harbour. We were informed that feve
ral European fhips which had failed with Sine
weather from Constantinople in Nivofe, the
year before our arrival in the Levant, had
been loft in the Sea of Marmora, and at the
entrance of the channel of the Dardanelles,
in foggy weather, and with a fudden and vio
lent north wind accompanied by fnow and rain.
During the three winter months and in the
vernal equinox, prudent and timid navigators
do npt fet fail if the weather be not fettled; and
they generally pafs the night at an anchorage,
on the fmalleft equivocal Sign that they perceive.
The Turkifh and Greek mariners fcarcely ever
vol. 1. CL fail,

2 2;6 , TRAVELS IN THE
fail, during the fix moft idangerous months of
the year, to, run every night into a harbour,
and to ^anchor whenever the wind is too ftrong,
when it is contrary, or when the fky threatens
a ftorm. The Black Sea, by the account ofthe ma
riners who frequent it, is ftill more ftormy, du
ring the winter;, than the Profontis and the
Archipelago : the fky then is frequently foggy.
or covered with clouds, and the harbours there
are far from numerous; which is the reafon
that the Orientals, who almoft all navigate
without a compafs, dare not expofe themfelves
there during three or four months of the year,
arid that the boldeft and leaft ignorant among
them periSh there fometimes,1 becaufe, accuf-
tomed not to lofe fight of the land, the north,
north-eaft or north-weft winds, which blow
generally with the greateft ftrengtb, dafh their
veffels * to pieces on the rocks which Skirt the
fouth coaft. During the fummer, this fea is as
free from Storms as the Mediterranean, and
the weather there is commonly very fine.
Notwithftanding the facility which there
would be. at Constantinople to procure
* Thefe veffels, called fa'i'ques, are .conftrufted in fuch a
manner as. not to be able to keep the fea when the wind is
too ftrong. They are, obliged to prefent their ftern to the
wind, and gain a harbour. Stones,

. OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. , 22^
Stones, bricks, lime, and every thing that is ne
ceffary for building in a folid and durable mari
ner, the houfes of the rich, like thofe of the
poor, are, conftruded with wood. The frame,
almoft always of oak, refts on a foundation in
mafonry of no great depth : the interftices left
by the wood, are filled up by means pf earth
kneaded with ftraw or chopped hemp ; the wall
is covered with painted planks, rather ill joined :
all the floors are of wood, and the roofs' are
made with hollow tiles, difpofed as they are feen
in the South of France. The public edifices
alone, fuch as the baths, the caravanfaries, and
the befefteins are built in mafonry in a very folid
manner. As for the mofques, conftruded on the model
of the ancient Greek churches, the greater part
are of a tolerably handfome form. The pillars
of marble, alabafter, granite, and porphyry are
placed with much more tafte than is generally
difplayed by the Turks. The minarets by
which they are furmounted, to the number of
one, two, four cr fix, have an effed very pic-
turefque and very agreeabte to 'the eye.
In a great part of the empire, efpecially in
the countries where the rains are uncommon and
the heat exceffive, all the houfes have, in lieu of
a ridged roof, terraces or flat roofs on which
Q_2, the-

22$ TRAVELS IN THE
rhe inhabitants fleep in fummer : but this cuf-
tpm is not introduced at Constantinople,
where the heats are temperate, and the nights
cool and damp.
If we except the palaces of the ambaffadors
and a few merchants' houfes, the inhabitants of
Constantinople have no chimnies in the
apartments which they occupy : they warm
themfelves by means of a brafier in copper or
baked earth, called mangal, which they place
within reach of their fofas : but in the houfes
of fome Muffulmans, and in almoft all thofe of
the Greeks and Armenians, this brafier is
placed under a round or fquare table, covered
with feveral carpets, one of which, wadded and
quilted, in printed calico, hangs down to the
floor in every diredion, and retains the heat
under the table : in this cafe a little charcoal is
put into the brazier, and it is covered with
afhes, in order, to temper the heat. A Stuffed
bench, placed all round, allows feveral perfons
to fit down, to Stretchout their legs towards the
mangal, and to receive the heat up to their mid
dle. This table, callid tandour, appears to have
a Greek origin, if we confider. that its ufe is
more common among the Greeks than among
the Turks, and that it is no longer to be found
in the interior of Asia Minor, where the colds are

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 22$
are more Sharp and more piercing than at Con- ,
STANTINOPLE* Whenever it is a little cold, the women fel
dom quit their tandour, there it is that they
pafs their day, that they work, that they receive
their female frieftds," that they caufe their meals
to be ferved up. In the evening, k is on the
tandour that they play at cards *, at chefs; or
at draughts. It is round the tandour that they
affemble to carry on converfation, comriiunicate
the news to each other, liften to fome tragical
ftory, fome tale of a ghoft, or the prbwefs of
fome pacha in rebellion againft the Porte.
The Europeans willingly habituate themfelves
t6 this cuftom, becaufe it brings the two fexes
together, and becaufe the ftrid eye of a mother,
or the jealous looks of a hufband, cannot rei
mark the figns of intelligence nor prevent the
expreflive touches Which the tandour favours.
If ever the ufe of chimnies could be introduced
at Constantinople, we are perfuaded that
the Greek women would oppofe it with all their
might ; and certainly they would find in their
perfuafive. eloquence, good reafons in favour of
the gentle, moderate, and mo*e economical heat
of the tandour,
* Cards are known only to the Greeks and Armenians
Who frequent the Europeans.

^3° TRAVELS IN THE
v In a city where the houfes are of wood and ill
built, where the windows are numerous and
badly Shut, where the wind and exterior.. air
come into every room, not only through the
doors and windows,; but through the walls and-
partitions, neither the maiigal nor the tandour
could fufficiently fecure the.inhabitants from the
cold : they require to be warmly clothed :
RussiAland Poland afforded them the warmeft
clothingthat man can wear, and the cuftom of
furs, was adopted by the inhabitants of the ca
pital, whence it fpread in a moment over the
moft diftant. provinces. The pefiffe is become
,every where the aliment of luxury, the indica
tion of opulence, the reward of fervices, a preft
ing want to all. In countries where the cold, is
never felt, as in Egypt and Arabia, as well as
in the moft northern cities of Turkey, fuch,
as Constantinople, Adrianople, and Bel
grade, this cuftom is general, not only among
rich perfons and thofe who enjoy a moderate
fortune, but likewife among the indigent.
The rich man wears at the fame time two or
three furs during the winter ; he. changes them
in all feafons, and; during the fummer, he is. ftill
feen dreffed in the ferge of Angora, lined with
petit gris, or gray fquirrel-fkin. If the inhabitant
of the country-places cannot procure a fine and
foreign

OTTOMAN EMPIR~eY:&C. 23 I
foreign Skirt, "he- at leaft ufes thofe which fall iri
Ms way: the hare, the" jackal, the lamb, the
Sheep, all are acceptable ' to him '; he ' fecures
himfelf from the cold, arid-he- mutates the inha
bitants of the cities.
(The women have likewife furs' of all feafons :
the black fox, the fable for winter; the gray
Squirrel for autumn ari£T fpring, theermine for
fummer: the greater part" have -in their clofets
ten or twelve' furred gowns,, • the deareft of
which fometimes exceeds fifteen or .twenty thou
fand livres.
It is not furprifing that fires fhould be fre
quent in Constantinople; when there is con
tinually fire, during the winter, on wood-floors,
within reach of fofas, mats, and carpets.
The fmalleft negligence, children playing, or a
few fparks to which no attention has1 been paid,
frequently fet on fire thofe combuftible fub
ftances ; and fhould a perfon then happen to be
afleep or abfent from his houfe, the fire com-
iriunicates by degrees from the furniture to the
floor ; if it be long before it is perceived, it
foon breaks out with violence, fpreads with ra
pidity, gains the neighbouring houfes, and
fometimes evep corifumes a confiderable pprtion
pf the city. From the palace of the ambaffa
dor and frpm the elevated places of Pera, we
q„4 wfi-e'

%$% TRAVELS IN THE
were, more than once, witneffes of the violence
pf fire, pf the quicknefs with which it fpread,
and of the terrible effed which it produced.
This fight, beautiful and awful as it is,
Strikes with hprrpr the man of feeling who wiShes)
to contemplate it, becaufe it prefents the image
of unfortunate beings who, in thofe frightful
moments, are Struggling with .death ; of thofe
who; feized with terror, are endeavouring tp
efcape with their valuable effeds ; of thofe, in
Short, who are ftriving, in the midft of the
flames, to carry off children of pld men that
are dear to them.
When a fire breaks out, whether by day, ot
by night, all the inhabitants of the city are foon
warned tp have an eye tp their own Safety, or
to give afliftance tp the unfortunate perfons con
cerning whom they take an intereft. The
guard of every quarter parades the .Streets,
trailing pn tlie pavenient flicks Shod with iron,
and crying from time to time hi a melancholy
and mournful voice : " There's a fire!" Twq
enormous drums, placed the one on a lofty
tower about the middle pf Constantinople,
and the Other on that of Galata, likewife
apprize the inhabitants pf a fire having broken
put. In thefe circumftances, it is the duty of
the commander pf the janizaries to run immedi ately

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C l$$
Btely with a numerous guard to the place where
the fire has been difcovered : the grand vifir muft
alfo repair thither in perfon, and if the fire be
riot extinguifhed immediately, the fultan never
fails to come, and to caufe money to be distri
buted in order to excite the pumpers, the por
ters, the guard, and the paflengers, tp work with
ardour. But when the fire has made fome pro*
grefs, and efpecially when it is rendered more
adiye by the wind, no hope can be entertained of
extinguifhing it but by endeavouring to circum-
feribe it : in order to effed this, the neareft
houfes which are ftill untouched are demolished
as quickly as ppflible : the materials are removed
before the fire has reached them, and thofe
which cannot be taken away are laid unde?
water. The damages occafionedv by fire are foon re
paired ; a few days after the conflagration, are
feen on all fides houfes rifing fimilar to thofe
which the fire has confumed : the irnperfedions
prefented by narrow Streets, ill laid out, are
exadly preferved ; nor is any change made in the
prder and diftribution of the apartments. The
JVIuffulman comes thither to refiime, if he can,
his former occupations, and live there, as be
fore, without regret and without for efight.
Among

234 " travels in THE, . '
-> Among this; ignorant and ferocious people,
fire is not unfrequently a mode of expreffing
their dif content . at the dearnefs of provifions, at
the abufe of authority, at a denial of juftice,
or at the innovations , which the government
wifhes to introduce : of this, hiftory affords US
feveralrinftanqes.' We fhall alfo relate in another
place" Tvith fome degree of ¦ mtnutenefs how the
Turks, at Smyrna,, revenged themfelves- 'fop,
the affaflkiation of a janizary, by carrying fire
and fword into the quarter of the Europeans,
and murdering indifcriminately the Greeks,
Armenians, and Jews that they met in > the
ftreets. The fire at Pera, which took place
in the year yil. (1799.}1 is attributed by thofe
who were witneffes of it, to the expedition of
the French into Egypt, and Still more to the
monftrdus' alliance x>f the Porte With Russia.
From the afped-pf' that multitude of dogs
which are met with in the ftreets ofthe capital,
from their exceffive Ieannefs, >and from the hun
ger which torments them,- one .would be in
clined to imagine that, independently of the
plague, of fires, and, of the foldiery that defol
iate this city, madnefs muft be blended to thofe
fcourgesand caufe, in, its turn, many ravages
among an improvident, people : one would be
miftaken,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE,; ,&C. 235
miftaken,, for if travellers may be credited, the
teftimony of the inhabitants, and the opinion, of
a great number of phyficians- whom I qonfulted
on this fubjed, canine, madnefs is totally un
known, in the East. It appears that this dif
order is as foreign to] thefe countries, as the
plague is to the part of Europe which we inha^
bit ; ¦ and I do not imagine that, in any circum
ftances, either the one or the other can make its
appearance fpontaneoufly, whatever ;may be the
State of the atmofphere, . the quality and the
quantity of aliments, and the vicinity of infeded
places : a dog muft neceffarily be bitten by ano
ther dog or by fome other, animal afflided by
that diforder, for madnefs tp break out in him,
as a man muft have a communication with. pefti:
ferous perfons or touch the objeds to which they
have tranfmitred their taint, for him to be at-
tacked.by the plague. The fyphilis offers us' an
example more Striking of the difeafes which qan:i
not be attributed to other caufes than to a con-
,:¦ V -.'''¦' T". " . , . '. ¦ ;•' *
tad with perfons infeded. But this is not the
place to treat of canine madnefs": it is fufficient
for us to remark that it is unknown in the Ot
toman Empire, although the various caufes to
which phyficians attribute it, exift in Turkey
almoft all in a degree more eminent than in
Europe. In

2$6 TRAVELS IN THE
In fad, dogs are there more numerous ; arid
as they belong to no one, they there fuffer more
than in our countries, from hunger and thirft :
the climate is much hotter than ours, and the
cold is fufficiently Sharp at Constantinople,
and Adrianople, for thofe animals, to whom
the entrance of the houfes is prohibited, to feel
it rriore, during the night, than thofe of the
northern countries of EuRpPE. The former,
as is well known, cart fecure themfelves to a
certain degree from 'the inclemency of the fea-
fons, to which the dogs of Turkey are incef-
fantly expofed.
Although the Muffulmans confider dogs as
unclean animals, fo much fo that they avoid
touching them, and prevent them from enter*
ing into their houfes, yet they fuffer them to
breed' considerably in moft towns, becaufe they
think that their dung is very fit for the drefllng
and the dyeing of Morocco leather : one could not
even, if we may believe them, fupply the place of
this fubflance by another. The advantage which
they alfo derive from thofe animals, is that they
clear the ftreets of the carrion and other filth
which the inhabitants -are inceffaritly throwing
there. .
The charity of the Turks in regard to them
confifts" in giving them fometimes bread and
what

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 237
what they cannot, confume, in diftributing to
them daily the liver, lights, entrails, and head
pf the flieep which are killed in the flaughter-
houfes, becaufe they never make ufe of thofe
aliments profcribed by their religion, and be
caufe the christians, following their example,
dare not eat them. Every day are feen in the
ftreets men carrying on a long pole a great
number of thefe livers and lighten order to
fell them at one or two fous to the devout and
the rich who may be defirous of regaling with
them the dogs of their neighbourhood*
There are perfons who caufe to be built,
near the door of their houfes, huts for the
purpofe of lodging bitches and their young :
they carry thither ftraw, and give them every
day bread or meat. It is even faid that fome
have, on their death-bed, left legacies for the
jfupportofa certain number of thefe animals.
The police which the dogs exercife among
themfelves is very ftrid : divided into packs
more or lefs numerous,, according to the quan
tity of fiiftenance which a particular part of the
tpwn affords, they always frequent the fame
ftreets, affemble round the flaughter-houfes and
places where they find food, and if they per
ceive a dog belonging to another quarter, they
fall on him, and drive him away, biting him as
a hard

238 TRAVELS IN THE
hard, as they can. Ill fed as they are, they un
doubtedly, are afraid to fhare a fcanty meal with
a new comer. If it happen that, one of them
be driven from -his pack, he is generally obliged
to leave the town and wander about the fields,
unlefs he be ftrong enough to difpute with per-
feverance a place of refufe, or patient enough
to endure for a long time the bites and the
eroffnefs of jhofe with which he wifhes to af-
foeiate. -4 }Vs
Vultures, kites, and moft of the birds of
night combine with the dogs to clear the city pf
its filth : the firft mentioned * arrive in the
fpring, pafs the fummer on the minarets, the
mofques, and other elevated places, there lay
their eggs, and return before the winter into
the more fouthern countries, fqch as Egypt,
Arabia, and the interior of Africa. During
the heat of the day, they foar to a confiderable
height, hover for feveral hours together over
the town, and at night come to take their fhare
of the carrion which they have perceived.
The kite, the great-eared owl, the fong-eared
owl, the fcops owl, the common owl, the
fcreech owl, and the reddiSh owl make war on
the rats and mice, which are extremely nume-
* Vultur pernopterus, rous

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 239
rous in a city built of wood," where the inhabit
ants are very negledful, and where cats are
fcarce and often dangerous; as they may tranfmit
the plague from one houfe to another, in the
feafon of their loves.
As for the ordure, the inhabitants of Con-
stantinople do not commonly give themfelves
the trouble to have it removed, becaufe they de
pend in this refped on the rain. This refource
is almoft always fufficient in autumn, winter,
and fpring, becaufe the city affords every where
a declivity fufficiently great for the waters to
wafh it away and carry it along with them ; and
when ' thefe means are not fufficient, they
throw it into the harbour ; which forms, on fe^
veral parts of the Shore, confiderable rifings.

CHAPTER

240 TRAVELS IN THE

CHAPTER XV.
Of the plague.— Curative indications of that
difeafe.
W hen there neither exifts, near a town,
marShes nor other hotbeds of infedion ; when
the air is inceffantly renewed with facility, and
carries off the putrid miafrnata refulting from
a great population ; when the waters are pure
and the aliments of a good quality ; when, in a
word, the climate is temperate,' the inhabitants
enjoy, in general, good health, and are expofed
only to the complaints common to human na
ture. All thefe advantages are united at Con
stantinople', to fuch a degree that we fhould
not hefitate to fay that this city would be one of
the moft healthful in the world, if a terrible
malady did not there make frequent ravages, and
carry off from time to time a part of the inhabi
tants.1 In fad, if we except the plague, the caufe
of which appears foreign to the climate, as we
Shall prefently Shew, at Constantinople one
is not expofed to local diforders, and ftrangers
whs arrive iri fhati city. have not to dread the"
malignant

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 24I
malignant influence of a dangerous and unwhole-
fome climate. But the plague alone takes off
more inhabitants than all other diforders toge-'
,ther caufe to perifh, more than war or naviga
tion caufe to difappear ; and if this city was not
continually repairing, from all points of the em
pire, the loffes which it fuftains, it would, Shortly
be no more than one vaft folitude. >
With their ideas of fatalifm, the Turks, per
fuaded that man cannot change the immutable
decrees of the Eternal, confider not only as ufe-
lefs? but even as criminal the precautions Which
the Europeans "take againft that deftrudiye
fcourge, and when death is Striking them on all
fides, they difplay a great tranquillity and an en
tire refignation. . Not one of them appears to
have arty repugnance to atterid the fick w,ho are
dear to them; neither could he make up his
mind to forfake them pr give them qp, as is done
by. Europeans in moft -of the fea-ports ofthe
Levant, to hirelings who are accufed of haften-
ing too frequently the death of the patient, in
order to enjoy fooner his fpoils. v-
Under whatever form death prefent itfelf, 'the
fage receives it with ferenity : it is not even ter
rible to the generality pf men, except when it
is accompanied by acute pains, and when every
hope of recpvery has fled ; but the courage of
vol. I.. r the

242 TRAVELS . IN THE
the moft ftoical philofopher would, perhaps, be
Staggered, if, ftruck by this cruel diforder, he
were witnefs ofthe fright which feizes on all
thofe who have had a communication with him ;
if he found himfelf forfaken, abandoned by his
neareft relatives, his belt friends ; if, in thofe mo
ments of grief and agony, he could not fee and
embrace a wife, a child, nor didate to* them his
laft will 5 if he faw himfelf defcending, as it were
, yet living, into the grave.
Affedions the moft tender, the clofeft connex
ions,' almoft always among Europeans give way
to the fright which this cruel diforder infpires: the
wiSh of our own prefervatidn breaks in a jrioment
the ties of blood, and Stifles fentiments the moft
virtuous. At the firft fympfoms of a ferious
illnefs, the man fufpeded of having the plague
is immediately fent to the hofpice, fituated at. the
extremity of the ftreet of Pera, folely deftined
for the treatment of that diforder : there a Ma-
ronite friar is charged to. receive the patients
that are fent, and to caufe to be administered to
them fuch affiftance as his zeal may fuggeft.
Gratitude is, undoubtedly, dqe to the man who
; has devoted himfelf to the relief of the infed
ed, who has, been' able to make up his mind
to refide among them and pour into their heart
the words Of confolation ; but to his good inten tions

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 243
tions he ought to join the knowledge neceffary
for the treatment of this diforder, and be able,
without expofing , himfelf too much, to afford
every, affiftance\ which the patients claim, and
which humanity requires. Unfortunately, the .
attentions of this friar are hitherto confined to
caufing to be given from a diftance a few light
aliments, a few infignificant drinks, and to pre- •
fenting himfelf at the door of each patient in or
der to administer to him the fpiritual fuccour
prefcribed by religion. N
It would, doubtfefs, be eafy by taking fuitabfe
precautions, to eftabliSh in this hofpice a curative
treatment, which might be modified or changed
till a fortunate refult had been attained. We
doubt riot that this diforder, however quick and
terrible it may be,* may fometimes yield to a
treatment direded by an able and experienced
hand, and that it may, perhaps, be eafy to pre
ferve one's felf from its contagious effeds by
never touching thev patient or his garments,
without immediately dipping one's hands in wa
ter, vinegar, or any other liquid ; by fumigating
his room from time to time, by making him even
, Sleep in the open air when the feafon might per-
^mit, by taking, in fhort, the precaution of anoint
ing with oil, butter, or gr'eafe, one's hands 'and
r 2 the

244 TRAVELS IN THE
the parts of one's body the moft expofed to any
contad. When one has refided in the Levant and
efpecially at Constantinople, one is con
vinced that, in ordinary times, this diforder is
propagated but flowly ; few individuals are at
tacked by it at a time ; fome get the better of it,
and one muft have a more intimate coriimuni-
catiori, a more immediate contad to be afflided
by it, than when it Shews Itfelf under an epidemi
cal afped : in this latter cafe, it fpreads with' an
aftonifhing rapidity, is communicated with the
greateft facility, and carries ©if almoft all thofe
who are ftruck by it. The moft certain method
pf guarding againft it, is for a perfon to Shut
himfelf up in his houfe and no longer hold com-
munication with any one ; for it appears demon
strated that the air does not tranfmit the plague ;
but that it is communicated and propagated only
by the contad of a fick perfon, or by pbjeds..
which he has recently touched ; and what muft
leave no doubt on this fubjed, is that there is no
inftance of the rnoft deftrudive plague having in
troduced itfelf among the Europeans, when they
have infulated themfelves, and dipped in water,
vinegar, or perfume, all the articles which they
-drew from without. ' i&
This .

" OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 245
This obfervatipn which is daily confirmed by
experience, no longer permits us to look for the
caufe of this difeafe in. putrid, malignant, pefti-
lential miafmata emanated from foriie irifedious
places, fome Stagnant waters, &c. ftill lefs in
the periodical inundation of the Nile, as fome
authors on too flight grounds, have advanced.
No city is more expofed to the plague than Con
st, antinople ; and, neverthelefs, as we have
before .obferved, the air there is very wholefome,
and neither marfhes nor infedious .places are to
be feen in the environs. In Egypt, the Nile
begins to fwell towards the middle of Meffidor,
and has entirely overflowed its banks at the, be
ginning of Frudidor, In Vendemiaire, the lands
which the river has inundated are fown : this
would, undoubtedly, be the period of the fudden
appearance; of the plague if this diforder were
occafioned by the putrid exhalations produced
by the waters remaining on the lands, and yet
itrs obferved that this difeafe always ceafes in
Egypt in the hotteft feafon of the year, and that
it very feldom breaks out in autumn, but morei
frequently in winter and fpring, that is, when
the waters fpread over the lands have entirely
difappeared, and there can no- longer be dan
gerous* exhalations. What likewife proves that
the periodical inundations of the Nile have no
b. 3 influence

24P" TRAVELS IN THE
influence on the plague, is that Egypt is fome-
tim'es free from this diforder for feveral years
together. For this difeafe to 5 make its appearance in a
town, the germ muft be brought thitherc frorri
without. Infedipus marfhes, vegetable and ani
mal fubftances in a ftate of putrefadion, vitiated
aliments, and mephitic exhalations will, no
doubt, fometimes occafion very ferious diforders,
and fevers as dangerous as the plague ; but
thofe diforders will ceafe when the caufe , which
has produced them Shall difappear : they will
not embrace a vaft extent of ground ; they will
be circumfcribed to the places which gave them
birth. ' , '
The plague vifits the different countries ofthe
Ottoman Empire, as the fmajl-pox vifits the dif
ferent countries of EuroPe : like the latter, it
neither owes its Origin to putrid exhalations nor
to caufes derived from the foil or the climate :
it exifts in the Levant, as it would foon exift in
Europe, if we took no method of fecuring our
felves from it, and it might, undoubtedly, be
made to ceafe , in the Ottoman Empire, if the
Turks were capable of employing the means
proper for that purpofe. The plague vifits
Turkey, and makes its appearance more or lefs
often in a town, according as. commerce and
com-

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &.C. 247
communications are more or lefs frequent : thus
it is almoft always at Constantinople, be
caufe this is the city which communicates the
moft with all the points of the empire. The
plague cannot break out in any towri'of the'pro-
vinces without its being foon tranfmitted to the
capital. Smyrna is the next city where this
diforder moft frequently makes ravages, becaufe
trade there is very brifk, and becaufe the inter-
courfe of that city with almoft all thofe of Tur
key is rather frequent. Egypt carries on a
fomewhat confiderable trade with Constanti-'
nople ;, and, indeed, it , commonly happens
that the Turkifh fhips or the caravels belonging
to the Grand Signior bring the plague to Alex
andria, whence it fpreads to Rosetta, Da-
mietta, and Cairo, and thence into all the vil
lages and even into the habitation ofthe cultivator.
This cruel malady extends into Syria, by
means of the merchandife which Egypt fur
nishes to that country: it comes thither alfo
through Smyrna and Constantinople';
thence it fometimes reaches Damascus, Alep
po, .and Mesopotamia ; it is brought into the
interior of Asia Minor by the caravans from
Constantinople and Smyrna. Turkey in
Europe is more expofed to the plague than the
distant provinces of Asia, on account of its vi
cinity and the connexions which it has with
r 4 the

24§ TRAVELS IN THE
the capital. At Diarbekir and at Mosul,
this difeafe is known but every fifteen, eigh
teen, or twenty years ; it is much more rare at
BagdAt and Bassora, and the Perfians are
fcarcely ever afflided by it.
This difference is owing, on the one hand, to
thofe towns receiving fcarcely ariy indigenous
rrierchandife from Smyrna and Constanti
nople, and to the pestilential infedion having
time to be diffipated* in a very long, paffage
acrofs Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, or the de-
fert of Arabia. Bendes", it appears certain that
a cold fomewhat fevere, fuch as is felt in Asj.-* Mi
nor, or a great heat like that of Egypt, of Syria
or of the defer t of Arabia, is fufficient for fmother-
ing entirely the germs of this fcourge ; and this, •
no doubt, is the 'reafon that the plague does not
make its appearance two years fu'cceffively in
the countries either too cold or too hot, except
on the coafts, where , it rriay be inceffantly kept
up by commercial communications.
Turkey not furnifhing • any merchandife to
Persia, this diforder can be tranfmitted thither
only by travellers'; but as fhe germ of this dif
eafe is foon developed in perfons who have re
ceived it, "they would be attacked before they
had travelled over a fpace at all confiderable.
This is the cafe with Bagdat and Bassora:
the interior of Turkey furnilhes very few arti cles

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 249
cles of trade to thofe two cities : fome filk fluffs
are brought thither from Damascus and Alep
po, together with. fome European cloths, very
little fugar, cochineal, andrindigo, but a great
deal of old copper which paffes into India, and
metals; as is well known, are little fufceptible of
preferving and tranfmitting the germs of the
plague. >
What fortunately contributes to' retard the
progrefs of this malady in the Levant, is that
the Turks are in the habit of freighting from
preference European veffels for the conveyance
of their merchandife, and~ our feamen are too
well acquainted with the dangers which , they
have to run not to take every precaution that
prudence requires. Befides, 'commercial fpecur
lations are almoft always fufpended or relaxed
in a town violently afflided by this fcourge.
Furs of which the Turks make a great ufe, con
tribute moft to the communication of the plague,
either becaufe the fur in which a man has died,
ferves to clothe or to adorn his neareft relation,
or 'becaufe it is immediately expofed to fale, and
purchafers flock from all quarters. v It is, be
fides, proved that this merchandife is the moft
fufceptible of tranfmitting the plague, and it is
com"monly from Constantinople that. all
the chefts of peltry are difpatched for the dif
ferent

250 TRAVELS IN THE
ferent fea-port towns of the Levant. The
merchants of Alexandria have remarked that
it is through that channel and through the Sick
perfons that are fometimes on board .the Turkifh
fliips arriving from Constantinople, that this
diforder breaks out in their town. It feldom
happens that it comes thither from Syria, be-,
caufe the commodities which that country fur-(
nifhe^ to Egypt through the European veffels, <
fuch as' tobacco and filk, are by no' means fuf
ceptible of tranfmitting it. Smyrna generally
receives it from Constantinople, and fome
times . from Alexandria and Salonica,
through the goods which are brought thither
and through the 'Sick who are there landed.
The greater part of the iflands of the Archi
pelago fecure themfelves ' from it by not, per
mitting accefs to. veffels arriving from an infefted
town. May their' example one day enlighten the
" Turks and make them fenfible that man may,
to a certain point, keep at a diftance and retard
the calamities which aftlid him, and that the
plague makes ravages among them, only becaufe
they negled to take againft it the precautioris
that are taken in Europe !
Next to peltry, dotton and wool are reputed
the articles the moft fufceptible of tranfmitting
this diforder : paper is infinitely dreaded, and
6 is

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 25 1
is not received without great circumfpedion.
In general, , rough bodies catch the taint much
more eafily, and' preferye it much longer than
fmooth ones. On the fmalleft, fufpicion of the
plague, the merchants no longer admit the per
fons with whom they carry on bufinefs, but in
rooms from which every article of Stuff furni
ture has been removed ; they entirely Shut their
houfes if the difeafe make an alarming progrefs.
In the chanceries of the legations, there is a
partition ereded which Strangers cannot pafs,
and no paper is received there that has not been
fumigated, that is, paffed through the very warm
vapour of an aromatic fubftance.
When the merchants are Shut up, a known
purveyor brings daily to their, houfes the ali
ments that are befpoke, tand depofits them in a
great tub full of water, placed at the entrance
of the houfe. Bread alone is excepted : necef-
fity, no doubt, has eftabliShed the opinion that
it is notfiafceptible pf tranfmitting the taint of the
plague except when it is hot, and that there is
nothing to be feared in receiving it cold. It is by
means of thefe precautions, incomplete as they
are, that the Europeans fecure themfelves al
ways frorri this terrible diforder ; but it is ne
ceffary that they fhould exercife aq adive and
Strid vigilance in regard to fervants, that they
fhould

252 . TRAVELS in the
Should preverit them from, going out by -Stealth
or introducing any ftranger into the houfe.
I obferved, during the flay that I made in the
Levant, that if the progrefs of this malady is
fometimes extremely rapid, fo much' fo that the
fick perfon finks under it the fecond or third
day, it frequently happens, efpecially at Con
stantinople and at Smyrna, where the
plague is, as it were, endemical, that it Shews it
felf under an afped lefs frightful. On certain
bccafions, fome patients abandoned to them
felves recover their health by means of one or
two buboes which fuppurate abundantly. The
progrefs of the diforder being then flow and
uniform, and the Symptoms being well charac
terized; it would be eafy to affift efficacioufly
thofe infeded perfons, to eftablifh a methodi
cal treatment, .and employ for the phyfician and
the affiftants prefervative means.
The undion of all the body of a fick perfon
with olive-oil has lately been made known as a
very important difcpvery, and fure means of
cure. Unfortunately experience has demon
strated the inutility of this remedy when the
diforder has broken out : olive-oil cannot prevent
the virus introduced into the infideof the body
from making there its ufual ravages ; but it may,
as well as other oils, butter, and greafe, ad-as an

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 253
an excellent prefervative, • if it be true; as every
one afferts, that the butter-men, whofe hands
and ganhents. are almoft always impregnated
with that fubftance, are fcatcely ever attacked
by the plague.
It is like wife remarked that the facas or water-
carriers are much lefs expofed to this diforder
than other labouring men, and that thofe who
wafh the body of perfons dead of the plague are
not attacked by the difeafe through this opera
tion : whence it would follow that greafy bodies
oppofe the introdudipn of the peftilential '
venom, and that water carries it off with it.,
Many perfons are in the habit of keeping open
one or more iffues in order to preferve them
felves from this difeafe, and, what has been at
tested to me by a great number of phyficians, a
perfon is not attacked by the plague during a
venereal treatment, in whatever manner mer
cury be administered.
It would be very interefting to make, in this
refped, experiments which might leave no
doubt, and which might tranquillize the perfons
who fhould be willing to attend the fick ; for,
till the prefent time, almoft all the European
phyficians have conftantly refufed to give their
attendance to fuch patients, notwithstanding
the warmeft entreaties and the moft advantageous promifes ;

254 ' TRAVELS IN THE : '<¦-
promifes ; and he to whom the ardent defire pf
inftruding himfelf or the fatisfadion of aflifting
his fellow- creatures may have diffembled the
dangers which refult from the treatment :of this
diforder, has foon found himfelf the Vidim of
his zeal and humanity. People are obliged to
have recpurfe tb JewiSh phyficians who are led
by a blind routine, governed by falfe prejudices,
and incapable of drawing luminous inductions
from the fads of which they are every' day
witneffes. Thefe phyficians, however, take the
precaution neither to approach the fick per
fon, touch any thing in his houfe, nor ad-
minifter , themfelves the remedies which they
prefcribe. Though I have riot myfelf attended the fick
attacked by the plague, though I have not had
it in my power to apply myfelf to the pradice
of that terrible diforder, I have fo frequently
had an opportunity of converting, either at
Constantinople, or in the other parts of the
Levant, with Greek and Jewifh phyficians,
with perfons who have feen and attended pa
tients infeded with the plague, or had themfelves
recovered from this difeafe, that I think 1 have
acquired refpeding it notion* fufficiently corred.
On my third journey to Constantinople, I
eaufed a trial to be made, through the means of

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C ' 255
of a Jewilh phyfician ahd of Citizen Brun,
naval archited, fome remedies which were
crowned with fuccefs. I invite thofe who Shall
be able to furmourit the fear of danger, and
who fhall be willing to renounce all fociety du
ring the courfe of their obfervations, to follow
up the experiments which I have begun, to
modify and change the treatment till it gives a
happy refult. No place is more fit, for fuch ob
fervations than the hofpice of the Franks or
that ofthe Greeks, becaufe the patients are en
tirely atthe difpofal of the phyfician., and the
latter might, befides, take with, refped to himfelf
every precaution that he fhould judge proper. •
We have faid that in the towns where the
plague is habitual and as it, were endemical, it
fhewed itfelf with fymptoms lefs ferious than
¦ when it was epidemical ; but when fome time
has elapfed fince it appeared in a country, it
generally 'affumes a charader of malignity, • fo
much fo that almoft all the patients who are at
tacked by it, die at the expiration of two or- three
days, fometimes of four or five. It announces
itfelf by an oppreffion of fpirits, and a total lofs
of Strength, vomiting, frequently a Sharp pain
in the ftprnach, and a pain in the head more or
lefs violent : the fick perfon cpmplaifts of an
internal

256 ¦* TRAVELS IN THE v
internal, infupportable heat ; he does not long
preferve his reafon; he foon raves, and, -by his
geftures and his words, he betrays1 the fright by
which his mind is feized. The pulfe is hard,
fcarcely feverifh ; it afterwards becomes inter
mittent arid irregular : the patient generally dies
in convulfions before a bubo has Shewn any fign
of fuppuration, before it- has been well able to
make its appearance.
When the diforder raanifefls itfelf with this
degree of malignity, there can be no hope of
recovery. The, art of curing in thefe circum-
Jfonces is always of no avail ; but one may com
bat it with advantage and obtain feveral cures,
either in the decline of the contagion, or in the
years when the plague proceeds with more flow.
nefs, and Shews itfelf with fymptoms lefs terri
ble : then the oppreffion is lefs great ; the vo
miting does not announce itfelf with a pain in
the ftomach fo acute, the pulfe is lefs concen
tered, and the fever more perceptible : the pa
tient preferves his reafon for fome time, or if he
rave, it is only by intervals and in a manner lefs
tumultuous. The bubo, in thefe cafes, makes
its appeararice on the firft or fecond day, and
quickly tends to fuppuration. This plague,
which might be called mild, comparatively to
the

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 257
the other, is, neverthelefs, a diforder alfo very
dangerous, becaufe fcarcely one third of the
lick recover their health.
When the bubo is in full fuppuration, the fci
Ver infenfibiy diminishes, the appetite returns;
and the patient by degrees recovers his Strength ;
but if, through any miftake, in his regimen,
through any excefs, or through any caufe fre
quently unknown, the fuppuration of the bubo
ceafe entirely, or dirniniSh all at once, the pa
tient dies -on the fecond or third day at lateft;
With anbther bubo which fcarcely fhews itfelf.
Sweats do not appear till the pulfe is deve
loped, and the diforder affumes a favourable7
afped ; this happens commonly on the fourth or
fifth day : they giVe confiderable relief, and
prevent not the fuppuration ofthe bubo.
Nature indicates that the plague cannot be
cured without the fodden appearance and the
abundant fuppuration of one or more buboes :
all the efforts of the phyfician fhould therefore
tend to provoke, as quickly as poffible, this
fuppuration, by the application of the adual
cautery or of a burning iron to the place where
the buboes begin to fhew themfelves : this me
thod is preferable to that of a blifter, becaufe it
is mOTe expeditious,' and one has not tp fear the
adion of the cantharides, which would not fail
Vol. ii s to

258 TRAVELS IN THE
to increafe the internal heat of which the pa-'
tient conftantly complains.
Recourfe muft quickly be had to an emetic
in order to clear the ftomach, and to follow
likewife the indications which naturally prefent
themfelves. Vomiting is one of the firft
fymptoms of the diforder ; it fcarcely ever fails
to take place and to relieve the patient when it
is abundant. Tartar emetic is that which
appeared to me the moft proper and the rrioft
fafe. Bleeding cannot be fuitable in any cafe ; it is
never employed by the phyficians of the coun
try ; it is even confidered as- hurtful ; it would
diminish the Strength of the patient, and coun-
terad the eruption and the fuppuration of the
bubo. The day after the emetic, I have prefcribed
with fome fuccefs; an ihfufion pf camomile, at
(he fame time adding to every half glafs two
drops of volatile alkali fluor or of ammoniac,
which was given every three hours; and at
night half a drachm pf diafcordium and as much
th'eriaca. In lieu of volatile alkali, I admini
stered to fome workmen belonging to the arfe
nal, concerning whom Citizen Brun interefted
himfelf, twenty grains .of flour of fulphur every
fix hours, in a glafs of the fame infufion. Onthe-

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 259
the fecond and third day, from what I afterwards
learnt, the phyfician confiderably increafed the
dofe, fo much fo that it operated as an emetic
and cathartic, and excited a copious fweat.
The pubo fuppurated very well, and thefe pa
tients perfedly recovered. '
It is neceffary to purge frpm time to time when
the diforder is prolonged, and the patient begins
to grow better, and to keep up his ftrength by
meat broths, and even by a light diet more fub-
ftantial. In the beginning, on the contrary,
nothing but light rice creams, barley water, or
gruel fhould be allowed ; the patient muft be
made to take a phtifan of barley and liquorice
root, to which fhall be added, according to cir
cumftances, a little riitre.
The treatment eftabliShed by the people of
the country, confifts in giving (except to fcru-
pulous Muffulmans) fpirituous liquors, fuch as
brandy, in the intention of driving out the ve
nom and provoking the iffue of a bubo. The
fick perfori is then made to fwallow the urine of
one in health, in which the juice of two or three
lemons has been fqueezed. The expreffed juice
of parfley is alfo given ; this laft is regarded by
the Jewifh phyficians, as one of the befl reme
dies againft the plague: They alfo.prefcribe opi- '
ates into the compofitionN of which enters-,
s 2 among

260 TRAVELS IN THE
among various cordials and tonics, mufk, am
ber, and above all animal bezoar. When the
bubo appears, they apply to it a plafter made
with the yolk of an egg, and verdigrife or alurri
reduced to powder.
Garlickj onion, vinegar, and particularly
brandy, are confidered by the Greeks, the
Armenians, and the Jews, as prefer vatives againft
the plague. Moft of them keep in their hands
fome labdanum*, an aromatic fubftance which
heat foftens and renders more odoriferous ; they
turn it again and again in every way between
the fingers, and fmell to it from time to time*
and efpecially when they are in fear of any dan
gerous emanations. Some, in the fame view,
carry about them mufk, ambergris, ot cam-
phire. No one doubts in the Levant, that a per
fon can have the plague feveral times : the opi
nion of phyficians, on this fubjed, is perfedly
conformable to that of the public ; and I have
myfelf feen on feveral perfons the fear of twp
or three buboes which had faved them as many
times. Obfervation proves every day in Tur
key, that the plague attacks indifferently him
* Lrabdanum is extracted from a fpecies of rock-rofe,
and gathered in Greece, in the Iflands ofthe Archipelago, ia
C»rf«,andat Cyprus.
who

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 261

j

who has efcaped it one or more times, and
him who has never had it ; therefore the pro-
pofal made by fome phyficians to inoculate that
diforder, as we inoculate the fmall-pox, is at
leaft ridiculous : it would be far more rational
to propofe the means of caufing it difappear
from the Ottoman Empire and from IIarbar'y,
as it is made to difappear from the civilized
States of Europe.
It has frequently been remarked at Con
stantinople, that domeftic animals were not
exempt from the plague. They are, indeed, lefs
fufceptible than man of being attacked by it,
and it is fcarcely but in the years when the dif
order fhews itfelf with all its intenfenefs, that it
makes ravages among them. Several intelli
gent perfons allured me that dogs, in every cafe,
efcaped in greater number than man from this
difeafe, and that they had, like him, buboes the
fuppufation of which was more or lefs abundant.
It would be very important, no doubt, to in
quire into the origin of this difeafe^ to obferve
the nature of its venom, and to explain why,
being fo contagious, fo quick, and fo terrible,
jt is not tranftriitted by the air, and cannot be
eomfnunicated without the immediate contad of
a fick perfon. or an objed touched by him. It
' would be interefting to know what are the ob-
s 3 |eds

262 TRAVELS- IN THE »
jeds fufceptible or not of tranfmitting this ve
nom, and how long a time it can be preferved ;
what is the degree of heat or cold that caufes it
to difappear; .what are the fubftances which can
fecure one from it, and to what degree they can
do fo. It would refult, perhaps, from thefe in
quiries, that this virus is analogous to that ofthe
itch, of fyphilis, of madnefs, and of all the dif
orders which, in man and in animals, are only
contagious through immediate contad ; and then
it might be poffible to find among the prepara
tions of metals and femirmetals, if not the fpeci-
fic for the plague, at leaft a remedy that might
cure it in feveral inftances.

CHAPTER

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 263

CHAPTER, XVI.
Ofthe ulemas. — Difference between this body and
the minifiers of religion — Tribunals of juflice.
1 — Of inheritance.
In every country on earth, the ministers and in
terpreters of religion enjoy very great privi
leges ; but in none, without doubt, are the ad
vantages which they derive from their profeffion
fo great as, in Turkey. Here they poffefs the
moft lucrative employments ; they join judicial
to religious power ; they are at the fame time
interpreters of religion and judges of all civil
and criminal affairs ; they are fecure from the
extortions of the pachas and great men of the
empire: they cannot be legally put to death
without the confent of their chief : their pro
perty, after their deceafe, paffes as a right to
their heirs, without the imperial treafury being
able to appropriate it to itfelf. They form, in-
Short, under the name of ulemas, a corporation,
highly confidered, powerful, and formidable fome
times to the throne itfelf, from their direding al-
s 4 moft

264 TRAVELS IN THE
always public opinion, and from there being, per
haps, no government where public opinion i\
pronounced with fo much Strength and fuccefs as
in Turkey.
We muft not, however, confound thefe ma-
giftrates, thefe dodors of law with the imans
who ferve the mofques, with the muezins, whofe
employment is to afcend five times a day to the
minarets in order to. fummon the Muffulmans to,
prayers : the latter are not admitted into the
auguft body ofthe ulemas : they are turned out
pf office, or if they voluntarily, quit their func
tions, they return into the clafs, of Simple pri
vate perfons'. Subjed, like the other Turks, tp
the magiftrate of the place who appoints them
pn the prefentation that is made to him by the,
people, the imans are not under the particular
infpedipn nor under the fafe-guar.d of the mufti
and, the mpllas. They may certainly be confi
dered as minifters of religion in the mofques, but
it is the ulemas who are its depofitaries and in
terpreters. The Koran, as is well known, is the civil and
criminal code of the Muffulmans, the regulator
of the rights and duties of all the citizens : all
judgments, all fentences, all decifions muft
have emanated from* this book reputed fa-
cred, or from the interpretations which com
mentators

ottoman Empire, &c. 265
mentators have given of it, and this prerogative
refides exclufively.in the hands of the ulemas.
The following is in a few words the order
prefented by this body, the moft refpedable and
the beft informed of the Ottoman Empire.
The mufti or fheik-iflam is the fupreme chief
pf the religion, of Mahomet, the oracle whp
is confulted, and who folyes all the queftions
which are put tp him : his decifions are called
fetfas. The fultan has recourfe to him in all
difficult and intricate cafes, and he promulgate?
no law, makes no declaration of war, eftablifhes
no impoft without having obtained a fetfa. It
is the mufti whp girds on the fultan's fword on
his acceffioh to the throne, at the fame time re
minding him of the obligation of defending fhe
religion of the prophet and of propagating its
creed. This eminent place might ferve, no doubt,
as a counterpoife to the almoft abfolute and un
limited authority of the fovereign : it might even
frequently paralyze it, if the latter had not the
power of appointing, the mufti, of denoting him,
of baniihihg him, and even Of putting him to
death after having depofed him ; and, indeed,
it feldom "happens that a mufti oppofes the will
pf the fultan and his minifters. His fetfas are
forced from him by the wifti of preferving his

266 TRAVELS IN THE
place and by the fear of death : yet more than
once religious , zeal and probity have induced
-fome to prefent themfelves to the fultan, and to
make to him obfervations and remonftrances ;
fome even, more fanatic and more courageous,
braving every danger, have refufed to conde-
fcend to his wiShes. Hiftory affords various
examples of fultans and vifirs killed or depofed
through the great influence of the muftis on
'public opinion ; but it likewife prefents more
muftis who have been vidims of their zeal for
religion and of their attachment to the interefts
of the people.
The mufti refides at Constantinople and
enjoys feveral appanages : he is treated with much
attention by the fultan ; both the great and the
people Shew him the utmoft refped, and fubmit
blindly to his fetfas. According to the eftablifh-
ed order; he muft be chofen from among the
kadilefkers of Romania arid thofe who have
occupied that employment. Seldom does fa-*
vour there lead to the appointment of a kadi-
lefker of Natolia, a ftambol-effendi, or a Sim
ple molla : he remains in place as long as it
pleafes the fultan to keep him there.
In public ceremonies the mufti and the grand
vifir walk on the fame line, the grand vifiir on
the right, and the mufti on the left. When the
latter

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 267
latter is difgraced, he is -not permitted to remain
in the capital : the fultan fears the influence of a
man whom the people are accuftomed to regard
aS the oracle of religion. He is baniihed to
fome ifland of the Archipelago or to fome
houfe fituated on the Bosphorus, with a prohi
bition to Stir out pf it, to receive any of the
/principal officers of the empire, or to correfpond
with them. ( -
The mufti prefents annually a lift to the ful
tan for the nomination of two kadilefkers, of the
ftambol-effendi, of the mollas of Mecca and of
Medina, of thofe of Bursa, Adrianople,
Cairo, and Damascus, as well as of thofe of Je
rusalem, Aleppo, Smyrna, Larissa, Salo-
nica, Scutari, Galata, and Aijup. It is
cc-mnionly according to the rank of feniority that
the choice is made, when favour does not call
thither fome proteded perfori or the fon of fome
great man.
There are at Constantinople twoT kadilef
kers, that of Romania pr of'TuRKEY in Eu
rope, and that of Natolia pr of Turkey in
Asia. They were formerly the judges of mili
tary men, the former for European Turkey,
and the latter for the Afiatic countries, when
the fultan commanded them in perfon. The ka-
difefker of Romania was then charged to decide
on the affairs of the Muffulmans, and the other on

e68 travels in th*
pn thofe of the tributary fubjeds.- For fome time
paft, the former has the pre-eminence over fh§
latter, and determines alone all the caufes car
ried to his tribunal by the fole will and at the rer
queft of the plaintiffs. The tribunal of the
kadilefker of Natolia has beert a long time
fuppreffed as ufelefs. They both affift -at the'
divan pf the grand vifir, hear and difcufs the
bufinefs brought before .them, after which the
kadilefker of Romania alone pronounces the
fentence. They remain in place only a year ;
but the kadilefker of Natolia generally fuc-
ceeds that of Romania, and the former hast
before paffed thrpugh the fame rank. They
appoint all the fimple cadis of the empire ;
which makes their place, in a country where
every thing, is venal, very lucrative, independ
ently of the appanages which they poffefs. The
kadilefker of Romania appoints the cadis of
Turkey in Europe, and that of Natolia ap,
points thofe of Asia and Egypt.
After them comes the ftambol-effendi, mollaon
judge of the capital. It is he who more particu
larly takes cognizance of all the affairs, of all
the law-fuits which arife among perfons who,
exercife the different arts and trades. He alfo,
repairs on the Wednefday of eyery week to

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 26*0
las of Galata, Scutari, and Aijup *, all
the affairs which there prefent themfelves. He has
feveral tribunals in different quarters of Con
stantinople, where he places a na'ib pr lieu
tenant, to determine without appeal like him
felf. The ftambol-effendi has the general infpedion
of the grain and other provifions which arrive
for the fupply of the city. All the veffels laden
with grain are obliged to come to the Iandirig-
pktce of -the general depot of flour, eun-cdpan,
Where a na'ib infpeds it, fixes the price of it, and
distributes it to the bakers : he keeps a regifter
of the quantity of corn which arrives, of that
which is diftributed, and ofthe price at which it
is delivered. There is likewife a na'ib at the de
pot of tallow, yac-capan, for the distribution of
that article to the corporations. The ftambol-
effendi muft go from time to time into the diffe
rent quarters of the city, in order to examine'
the eatables which ate fold by retail, and to
verify whether the weights are every where juft.
He immediately punifhes with the baftinado
thofe who are found with falfe weights, or with
adulterated commodities, and fometimes he
caufes them to be nailed by the ear tp the door of
* Aijup is one of the fuburbs of Corijlantinople. the

27° travels in th£
the: Shop. A fecond trnfgreffion is almoft al
ways punilhed with death. , --
The ftambol-effendi remains in office but one
year: he generally paffes to thatof kadilefker of
Natolia, and is appointed from among the
mollas- of Mecca and Medina.
To the imperial mofques of Constantino
ple, Bursa, and Adrianople, are attached
madreffes or colleges, to which are fent, from
all parts of the empire, young people to be in-
ftruded in the law of the prophet, in religious,
civil, and criminal jurifprudence, and to learn
all the opinions, all the fubtleties of the com
mentators of the Koran. They are made to
undergo various examinations, and when they
are thought fufficiently well informed, they are
given the rank of muderis or profeffor. Thefe
colleges were founded by different fultans. The
firft was founded at Nicea, in the year
1330, by OrkhanI They enjoy a confiderable
revenue, and provide for the fupport of two or
three thoufand fcholars. -
The muderis who are not willing to follow
the career of profeffor and obtain fhe eminent
rank of molla, folicit ofthe kadilefkers a place
of cadi, which is eafily granted to, them for a pe
cuniary facrifice. In the towns the leaft1 impor
tant of the empire, there is a Simple cadi, who
judges

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, SCC. 2ft
judges without appeal all litigious affairs, not
only of the Muffulmans, but even thofe of the
Jews and Chriftians. Frequently a lieutenant,
called na'ib, occupies the place of a cadi or of a
molla, and judges like them without appeal : the
nai'b is a muderis and runs the career pf ma
gistracy. He is generally appointed cadi the
following year, and fent to another poft. The
cadis remain ' in this rank, and obtain no other
advancement than that of a tribunal more exten
five and confequently more lucrative. They, ne
verthelefs, become mollas of an inferior rank:
fuch are thofe of Bagdad, Philopopolis, &c.
but they cannot become kadilefk'er,s, muftis, &c
unlefs they enter the grand mofque of Soliman
I. and continue their ftudies.
The muderis • who intend themfelves for the
moft important places, thofe of molla, kadilef
ker, and mufti, pafs, after freih examinations,
to the mofque of Suleimani or of Soliman I,
and wait till their turn, their merit, or their in
terest procures them an appointment. Eight.
among them, under the name of makhredje, are
appointed every year mollas or judges of the
towns of Jerusalem, Aleppo, Smyrna, La-
rissa, Salonica, Scutari, Galata, and
Aijup. Four, among the latter, are afterwards
named to the cities of Bursa, Adrianople,
Cairo

®72 TRAVELS- IN TIlE
Cairo, arid Damascus, and the following year
two of thefe become mollas of Mecca and of*
Medina : from among thefe laft is taken the
ftairibol-effendi. Thus it is that, fucceffively in
their turn, they arrive at the places of kadilef
ker. and even, of rriufti.
For a muderis. to obtain the favour of paffing
to the mofque of Suleimani, and run the ca
reer pf high rriagiftracy, he muft be proteded of
Shew ardent zeal for religion, diftinguiflied ta^
lents, great application to ftudy, and very au-
Stere manners:
The mollas, the kadilefkers, and others who
are. not employed and who are waiting their
turn to be fo, have appanages or benefices
called arpaliks. Several obtain, inferior tribu
nals, where they place na'i'bs who difcharge their
fundions, and to whom they grant only a part
of the income.
Frequently the pachas and great officers of
State caufe one or more of their foris tobe re
ceived into the body of the ulemas, in order
to have it in their power to tranfmit to them8
their property, and by that means withdraw it
from the confifcation which the fultan has a
right to make of it after their death. In this
cafe, they content themfelves with callirig undo?
their roof profefiors to inftrud their fons, and

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, 4?c- 27^
to make them undergo the examinations prs-
-ICribed by the law: they get them admitted as
muderis, and, if favour fecond their ambition,
they caufe them to pafs through all the ranks of*
mpllas, without performing the duties of them,,
and .without receiving the income, the place
being occupied by another. The fultan, always
above the law, creates ulemas at pleafure;
which is the reafon that for fome time paft there
have been a great many ignorant mollas and
cadis. The appointments of favour have been
very prejudicial to that body, and have dimi
nished the confideration which it enjoyed. It is
no longer fo formidable to the throne, as it was
formerly ; for a fimple pacha frequently pro
cures the exile of a cadi who counterads him or
oppofes his will. It happens too that when the
fultan wifhes to put to death an ulema whofe zeal
and courage give him umbrage, he endeavours
by feigned careffes, to make him accept a pacha-
lik or any other employment : then become
agent of the government, he orders his head
to be cut off without any formality.
In fome of the provincial towns, are muftis of
a rank inferior to that of molla, whofe func
tions confift in interpreting the Koran, and its
commentaries, affifting at great affemblies, and
giving their opinion on all the questions which
vol. I. t are

274 Travels in the
are there agitated. Their opinions frequent!
differ in matters of jurifprudence, but they ar
nearly the fame in religious affairs ; whic
caufes them all to be confidered as orthodox
They are appointed for life by the mufti of th
« capital, and haVe fixed faiaries. They are nc
judges of the town where they are placed
they are there only as lawyers. They are mil
deris, and as fuch affociated to the body of th
ulemas ; but they have renounced magiftracy
and can obtain no other advancement than tha
of being fent by favour into a town more cor
fidefable. The immediate minifters of religion, as I hav
before mentioned, make no part of the body t
ulemas : they cart, rieverthelefs, , be adttlkte
into it, either by undergoing examinations an
getting themfelves received as muderis, or b
obtaining through favour a place of provinci;
'mufti, of cadi, or of na'ib. If, after haviri
occupied with diftindion thefe employment
they get themfelves admitted into the body c
the muderis, and wifh to pafs to the mofque <
Soliman, they can then arrive at the mc
eminent places of judicature. The 'firft ran
among them is that oifcheik or preacher, who
fundion is to preach in the mofques every Fi
day after the noon prayer,, and even often

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 275
when there are foundations for that purppfe.
The fcheiks of the fourteen imperial mofques
of Constantinople are the moft confidered
in the empire, and are appointed by the mufti ;
thofe of the other mofques are named by the'
magiftrate of the place or of the diftrid.
The khatibs have no pther employment than
that pf difcharging, in imitation of the prophet
and of the firft caliphs, and in the place of the
fultan who reprefents them, the- fundions of
imametb or of the priefthood, at the folemn
prayer which takes place on the Friday, and qf
reciting the khoutbe or public profeffion refped
ing the unity and the attributes of the Supreme
Being, accompanied by a prayer for the prefer-
vation and profperity of the fultan, and for the
fuccefs of his arms againft the infidel^. They
are appointed by a khatty-fcherif figned by the
hand of the fultan.
The iman recites in a loud voice, in the
mofque, five times a day, except at the folemn
Friday's prayer, the namaz, which the perfons
prefent repeat in a low tone ; he at the fame
time performs the ceremonies which accompany
that prayer } he aflifts at circumcifion and in
terments; in a word, he difcharges all the
fundipns which wprfhip requires*
T 2 In

276 TRAVELS IN THE
In the early ages of Mahbmetanifm, iman fig-
nified and defignated the pontiff or the fupreme
chief of Iflamifm : the fucceffors of the firft
four caliphs took only the title of iman-ul-mufli-
min, - pontiff of the Muffulmans. The dodors
and interpreters of the law were afterwards de
corated with it, and for fome time paft; it has
no longer been given to any but the minifters
of religion. The fundions of muezim are to afcend five
times a day to the minaret, there to pro
claim aloud the profeffion of faith of Maho-
~m£t, invite the Muffulmans to prayer, and fing,
'on festivals, different hymns. For that purpofe;
"young men, whofe voice is ftrong, clear, arid
fonorotfs, are chofen ; for the Turks take a great
pleafure in hearing good finging on the mina
rets. In the little mofques, the muezims fweep
•and arrange the carpets, light the tamps, &c. ;
but this fundion, in the great ones, is referved
for other young men called cayimi. In the
. greater part of the villages, and even in fome
. mofques of the towns, whofe revenue is too Ii-
"mited, the iman difcharges at the fame time the
fundions of fcheik, khatib, iman, muezim, and
cayim. The mofques of the fecond order, called
mesjids, have rio need of a khatib, becaufe they
have

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C, 2JJ
have npt the right to celebrate the folemn prayer
of Friday.
: In Turkey, are not known that. multitude
of counfeHors, attornies, clerks, bailiffs, judges
in the -firft, fecond, and third inftance,, who, in
-Europe, multiply, without end, the expen.fes
of a trial, and that chicane, thofe fubtleties, thofe
forms, thofe delays, thofe appeals,, which render
them infer rhinable: neither are there known thofe
officious defenders, often worfe than the coun-
fellors and attornies whofe place they havefupplied
among us, and ,whofe greedy cupidity fome
times leaves to the man, too fimple or too fan-
guine, nothing but tears to fhed and regret to
exprefs. A mekemS or tribunal of jullice is compofed of
a judge molla, cadi, or nai'b, and of one or
feveral writers. Almoft all caufes, as well civil
as criminal, are determined according to the de-
pofition of two or more witneffes. Every writ
ing is pf no value, and is not admitted in juf-
tice, if it bear not the fignature or the feal of
two perfons known and fettled as houfekeepers.
The parties prefent themfelves, plead their
caufe, which is tried without appeal, and with
out any other expenfe than ten per cent, of the
fum or the value in difpute. The judge appro.
priates to himfelf a fine more or lefs. heavy,
t 3 when

278 Travels iri the
When there is no queftion bf an affair of intereft :
and, in order that he may not lofe his fees, it
is always the gainer of the caufe who pays the
cpfts. In a country where the laws are Simple and by
no means numerous, where the rights of all are
traced in a book understood to be written by
the hand of the meffenger of God, trials muft
be far from complicated, rather rare, and eafy
to be avoided. Every one knows the extent pf
his duties, arid the limits of his rights. Every
pile can be hisown judge, when he does not give
way to a vicious inclination, Whfen he is not mifc
led by difhonefly.
But it muft be confeffed that if trials are
more rare and lefs expenfive than among us, if
the fame day which witneffes the origin of a dif-
jmte fees, in a manner, its termination, juftice is
not, on that account, better administered : the
venality of all ernplbyirients has introduced into
every profeSEpn aRd into every ctafs of the in
habitants of this empire, an avidity for gain and
fuch a corruption, that the fmalleft favour, the
fmalleft Service are obtained only by prefents.
A perfon purchafes the fentence of the judge
and the depofitipn ofthe Witneffes, as yog put-
chafe an employment, as you purqhafe the
favour of a man iri p]a"ce. In no country on
earth

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 27Q
earth are falfe witneffes fo common and fo
Shamelefs as in Turkey, and it feldom hap
pens that a cadi or a molla is bold enough to
refift the will of a pacha, or the felicitations of a
great man, and virtuyus enough to difdain the
gold which is offered them by the pleaders.
The Muffulmans have fuch a contempt for
all thofe who profefs a religion different from
theirs, that they do not, in general, admit as
evidence, in affairs which concern them, Jews'
and Chriftians, in oppofition to Turkifh wit
neffes ; or if they admit them fometimes, they
have fo little refped for them* that ten wit
neffes, among them, are not wpr.th one fingle
Muffulman witnefs. It is the fame in the affairs
which do not regard them : the teftimony of a
Muffulman cannot, in any cafe, be balanced by
that pf feveral Jews or Christians.
Tournefort was mistaken, when he fays
that, at Constantinople, a perfon could appeal
from the fentence of a cadi : Europeans alone
enjoy that advantage, when the fum in litiga
tion exceeds 4000 afpres, or nearly the value of
66 livres, fuppofing the piaftre at 2 livres. In
all the tpwns of Turkey, the molla, the cadi,
and the fimple na'ib, judge without appeal : they
condemn to fines, to corporal puniShments/or tp
death, without the delinquent or perfon ac-
t 4 cufed

280 TRAVELS IN THE
cufed having it in his power to have recourfe to
another tribunal.
c ' ¦
Europeans have alfo the advantage of paying
no more than three per cent, in lieu of ten,
which is paid by ; all, the inhabitants of the
country ; but it may eafily be conceived that a
judge, ever ready to receive money from one
of the parties, cannot bring himfelf to decide a
caufe in favour of an European, if he do not
promife him beforehand the ten per dent, and
even a prefent calculated on the importance of
the trial.
The merchants are, in general, averfe to car
rying their difpqtes to the capital, becaufe they
are not willing to go far from the place of their
occupations, and becaufe they rather frequently
rhiftruft the probity and the zeal of the drogue.
mans charged, in that cafe, with prefentirig
their caufe at the audience of the vifir, and with
profecuting the trial of it. They prefer making
Sacrifices which are prejudicial to commerce in
general, becaufe the difhpneft man who cheats
with impunity, very often finds imitators:
whence it follows that confidence is deftroyed,
credit becomes more rare, and the operations
of trade diminish, or prefent many more diffi
culties: j
The

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 2% t
The formula obferved in all cafes by lawyers,
confifts in the clear and fim pie exppfi tion of the
fad, prefented to the judge by one of his clerks :
the anfwer which he puts at the bottom in a few
words, is only the application of the law. The
fentence pronounced in a mekeme is called Ham,
arid the order fighified to a perfon to repair to
the tribunal, to pay fuch a fum, to go to prifon,
&c. is called murafjele.
Thei muftis of the provinces frequently affift
at the mekemes, and are connilted in matters
purely religious, and in affairs of high import
ance; but it is always the ordinary judge who
pronounces the ilam.
There are divers tribunals in the remote
quarters and in the fuburbs of Constanti
nople, where a na'ib tries without appeal all
the caufes which are :prefented. Every one
has, neverthelefs, the right to carry his affair
diredly to the ftambol-effendi, molla or judge
of Constantinople, or to the kadilefker of
Romania : but a great number prefer carrying
it to the divan of the grand vifir, that is to fay,
to the Porte or to the arzodaffe, that is, to the
audience-chamber of the grand-vifir, although
in thefe laft two cafes, it is the kadilefker of Ro
mania who pronounces the fentence : that of
3 Natolia

282 "TRAVELS IN THE
Natolia is prefent without pronouncing ; he
is merely confultedin affairs a little intricate.
What determines people to carry an affair
into the two tribunals of the grand- vifir, is that
falfe witneffes dread to come thither, becaufe,
being interrogated in his pretence, he can fend
them to p^Nfon, order them to be cudgelled, and
even caufe their hands to be cut off if he per
ceive that they give a falfe evidence ; while the
judges have not the fame right, but fometimes
iind themfelves compelled to pronounce their
fentence according to the depofitiori of the wit
neffes, notwithftanding the convidion which
they have of their diShonefty.
The two kadilefkers affift on Friday only at the
divan and the arzodaffe ofthe grand-vifir . The
ftambol-effendi and the mollas of Galata,
Scutari, and Aijub affift there on Wednef.
day, and, like the others, fit firft at the arzo-
dafle, and then at the divan. The ftambol-
effendi pronounces the fentences on that day,
as the kadilefker of Romania pronounces them
on the Friday.
Every judge, in his department, caufes to be
performed by one of his writers the duties of
¦taffarn, which confift in prefenting themfelves, at
the houfes of all the . deceafed in order to affix the

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 283
the feals, make out an inventory of the inherit
ance, and distribute it-to the right heirs, accord
ing to the laws, or according to the intentions
of the teftator.
When a pacha or any other agent of the
government dies, his property belongs of right
to the public treafury, becaufe, the law fuppofes
that this property arifes from the public money,
or from extortions committed on the people ;
which is almoft always true in Turkey. The
fultan fends a capidgi-bachi or one of his pages,
to recover it ; but he never touches the rer-
fonals, the jewels, and property whit h belong
to the women. He even rather frequently
grants a part of the property to the children,
as a reward for the fervices of the father ; and
fometimes he gives up to them the whole, when
the fucceflion is fcarcely fufficient for their wants.
On the death of the reis-effendi Raschid,
which happened intheyearVl. (1798)3 little time
before our departure from Constantinople,
fultan Selim contented himfelf with taking a
rich cangear * : he gave up to the family the fum
of thirty purfes (30,000 livres or 1 250I. Ster
ling) which Raschid, owed to the mint, and
* A large knife which the Muffulmans wear in their gir-
41e, the handle of which is in filver, guld, ivory, jafper,
¦pr coral, enriched with emeralds, rubies, and diamonds. made

2»4 TRAVELS IN THE- ">
made them a prefent befides of eighty purfe's
(80,000 livres or 2334I. fterlingj) through grati
tude for the fervices, the zeal, and the talents
of that minifter.
It frequently happens that an arrangement
is made, by which the relations of the de
ceafed keep all the property that he had, for a
fum of money poured into the public treafury ;
and often, through this very arrangement, the
fon fucceeds to' the employment of the father.
When an agent of the government has eaufed
to be received into the body of the ulemas one
or more of his fons, the property which he has
fettled on them, the purchafes which he has
made in their name, belong to them, and the
imperial treafury always refpeds them. As far
the mollas and the cadis, as we have, before
faid, through a prerogative attached to their
body, all their property is tranfmitted entire to
their children or their heirs, whatever may be
their profeffion or their rank in fociety. .
This prerogative, attached to the body of the
ulemas, muft neceffarily, in a few generations,
accumulate immenfe riches in the hands of
fome individuals, if the fon followed the career
of his father, and limited his ambition to occu
pying the eminent, lucrative, and honourable
places of magistracy j but almoft all, m, the
view

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 285
view of obtaining greater confequence, and
more extenfive power, difdain the employments
of their father, and folicit places pf minifter and
pacha, which they almoft always abtain by
means of their riches. Then become agents of
the government, all their property returns, at
their death, into the public treafury, and the
children are left at the mercy of the fultan.
A Muffulman or any other fubjed, who pof-
feffes no administrative or military place, is
mafter of his property, and tranfmits it to his
heirs : he may difpofe, if he choofes, of a third
of his fortune, when he has children or relations,
and of the whole when he has none at all. If
he die inteftate and without natural known
heirs, the beitalmaldgi, or farmer of cafual : pro
perty, caufes a fale to be made of his effeds,
moveable or immoveable, of which the caffam
makes a memorandum, and takes poffeffion of
¦their produce in the name of the imperial trea
fury. Should an heir fome time after prefent ,
himfelf, who can prove to the mekeme his re
lationship, the beitalmaldgi is obliged to reftore
the property. of the deceafed. There ate, for
thefe little fucceffions, particular farms, united,
.in the provinces, to the other rights of the
pachas, mutfelims, or waiwodes. Constan
tinople, on account of its extent, has a parti cular

286 TRAVELS IN THE
cular farmer for that objed ; but if the fucr
ceffion exceed 2500 piaftres (5000 livres or
208I. fterling) the farmer has not the right of
appropria|jng it to himfelf ; it is poured diredly
into the pubric treafury.
There are four cafes in which inheritance
cannot take place : thefe are when there is, 1.
difference of religion : 2. difference of country :
3; flavery : 4. affaffination or poifoning.
1 . A Chriftian, a Jew, or a Muffulman can
not inherit the one from the other. A father
and hisfons, or two brothers, of different religion,
cannot tranfmit to each other their fucceffions.
The Greeks and the Armenians, Schifmatic or
Roman, being confidered by the law, as Chrift
ians, cannot fucceed to each other.
2. By difference of country, is understood
Muffulman country, and country not Mufful
man. A man charged with a miffion by the
government, or abfent for affairs of trade,
without an intention of expatriating himfelf, is
not excluded from the right of inheritance.
3. A flave cannot inherit from his mafter, as
long as he is in a ftate of flavery.
4. A perfon cannot inherit from his parent
whom he may have killed or poifoned, al
though he were abfoked of the. crime.
CHAPTER

OTTOMAN " EMPIRE, &C 287

CHAPTER XVII.
Of the pachas, waiwodes, and mutfelims.—Of the
beylers-beys, fangiaks-beys, zams, and timariots1.
— Of the janizaries, fpahis, and other military
men. — Limits of the power of the fultan and of
the pachas.
If the judicial power, as well as the religious,
refides in the hands of the ulemas, the pachas
unite the military power with the administrative :
they are governors, military commanders, and
intendants of their provinces ; and, through an
abufe infinitely prejudicial to the interefts of the
people, the greater part of them hold at the
fame time the general farm of the taxes. The
pacha with three tails is invefted vvijth a very great
authority ; he has, like the fultan whom he re
prefents, the terrible right of punifhing with
death all the agents that he employs, without
any other formality than that of giving an ac
count to the fultan of the motives which deter
mined him to this ad of juftice, feverity, or ri
gour. He maintains a military establishment more
or lefs numerous, according to the pofition and the

288 TRAVELS rN THE
the revenues of the pachalik, and marches at
the head of the armed force of all his department
when he is required to do fo by the fovereign,
or when the frontier is -threatened. He fuperin-
tends the aflgffment of the taxes, the repairing
and the keeping in order of public edifices, for-
treffes, &c.
The pacha with two tails has not a power io
extenfive, nor a department fo confiderable : he
cannot put any one to death without a legal
trial ; he is, like another, chief of the armed
force of his department ; but when he takes the
field, he is obliged to unite his ftandards to
thofe of the pacha with three tails, and to march
under his orders.
The mutfelim is a deputy-governor, a lieute-
nanfof the pacha^; he enjoys, in his diftrid, all
the rights given him by the power of execution:
he is chief of the armed force ; but he is fubjed
in every thing to the pacha on whom he depends,
and whofe orders he receives.
Thewaiwode is governor of a fmall province,
or of a town which, not making part of a pacha
lik, is fometimes the appanage of a fultana, of
the grand vifir, of the captain-pacha, or of any
other great officer of the empire. He enjoys all
the prerogatives of a pacha with two tails, but
he occupies an inferior rank. When he is re
quired

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 289
quired to march at the head of the armed force
ofhis department, he joins his colours to thofe
ofthe pacha with three tails. Both the one and
the other are charged with carrying into execu
tion, in their provinces, the fentences pronounced
by the judges.
In the iflands ofthe Archipelago, the Muf
fulman or Greek fimply charged by the Porte
With the gathering of the tax and with the police
of the place, is likewife diftinguiflied by the name
of waiwode. >
To the governors of provinces were formerly
given indifferently the names of pacha arid of
beyler-bey : the latter at this day is referved for
the pachas of ManasTir and of Cutaye :
they have the pfe-eminence over the othqr
pachas, and generally command the troops which
are brought into the field. The beyler-bey
of Manastir has under his orders the
European troops, and the beyler-bey of Cutaye
thofe of Asia. They are, neverthelefs, fubor-
dinate to the grand-vifir when the latter takes
the general command of the armies.
A pachalik is divided as to the military part,
into a certain number of diftrids called fangiaks
or ftandards. The janizaries, the fpahis, the
zai'ms, and the timiariots ofthe diftrid are oblig
ed, in cafe of war, to unite under the colours of
vol. 1. u the

290 TRAVELS in the
the military commander, called fangiak-bey, and
to wait for the commands of the pacha of the'prp-
vince, in order to march againft the enemy, puniSh
fome rebel, or fubdue fome revolted province.
In proportion as the Turks drove the Greeks
from Asia Minor and Europe, and eftabliShed
themfelves on their territory, they created a fort
of feudal fyftem no lefs oppreffive than that from
which our ancestors have had fo long to fuffer.
Matters, according to their cuftoms, of the for
tune, of the liberty, and of the life of the people
that they had conquered, the fultans difpofed at
their pleafure, after each vidory, of the lands
which they had juft united to their empire :
they granted for. ever, without quitrent, fome
portions of them near the towns and within their
walls, to the officers and foldiers whofe zeal and
bravery they wifhed to reward : they deftined a
tolerably great number of them to religious
worfhip ; they referved fome, as an appanage,
for the great administrative and judicial em
ployments ; they ereded others into lordfhips,
under the names of za'im and timar, to be given
for life, as military rewards and encouragements.
Almoft all the rich Greeks were difpoffeffed
of their property : moft of the opulent men were
unmercifully murdered,, and their eftates confif-
cated. As for the lands divided into fmall por-
tionsi

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 29I
tions, fome were the prey of the conqueror, the
others remained in the hands of their old pro
prietors, with the power for all to tranfmit them
to their heirs, to fell them and exchange them ;
but they were oppreffed by an annual quitrent ;
namely, by a fifth of their .produce for the rayas
or infidels, and by a feventh only for thofe which
fell to the Muflulmans.
Thofe who poffefs a zai'm or a tirtlar, are ho
noured with the title of aga : , they are bound to
a military perfonal fervice, and obliged to bring
With them, to war, one or more gebelis, horfemen
or foot-foldiers, armed and equipped according
to the revenue and extent ofthe lord Ship. The
tirnar differs in no refped from the zai'm, except
that it is of lefs value, and that the aga who
poffeffes it, does not arm as many horfemen and
foPt-foldiers as the other.
¦ The number of zai'ms, in Turkey in Eu-
. Rope, is nine huridred and fourteen, and that of
the tirriars is eight thoufand three hundred and
fifty-fix. Nearly the fame number is reckoned
in Asia ; which furnifhes, With the gebelis, a
militia of upwards of fixty thoufand men better
difciplined and more inured to war than the
fpahis arid the janizaries. This militia for
a long time conftituted the principal force of
the Ottoman Empire : to this it is principally that
u 2 the

292 TRAVELS IN THE
the firft fultans were indebted for the aftonifhing
fuccefs of their arms, and the rapid progrefs
which they made in a little time in Asia, in
Europe, and even in Africa.
On the death of a ziamet or of a timiariot,
the fultan is to draw a year's revenue from the
lordfhip, and, neverthelefs, give it up again to the
fon of an aga, a fpahis or any other military man,
efpecially to him who, by a brilliant adion, has
diftinguiflied himfelf in a battle; who has mount
ed the firft to the affault, has penetrated into the
enemy's entrenchments, has killed a great num
ber of infidels, or contributed to put them to
the rout. But fince the fultans prefer to the
fatigues of war, to the dangers of battle, the
tranquillity of their feraglio, and the pleafures of
their harem ; fince above all a mean and incon
siderate cupidity has eaufed to be put up to auc
tion the places intended formerly for valour and
merit, the lordfhips are become the patrimony
of the rich and of intriguers. The courage of
the foldier has no longer been Simulated by the
hope of plunder, that of making prifoners or
of obtaining a few pieces of money which the ge
neral fometimes caufes to be diftributed after the
battle, to thofe who have brought in enemies'
Jieads. 'Thus it is that the belt inftitutions de
generate ; thus it is that the Muffulman former-

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 293
Iy intrepid and valiant, is no longer any thing
but a vile plunderer or a ferocious affaffin ; .thus
it is that the Ottoman armies, fo formidable to
their enemies, are become an objed of contempt
or pity, and that this vaft empire would already
no longer be in exiflence, were not fome Eu
ropean powers interfiled in its fupport.
The aga at the prefent day obtains, in his life
time, with tolerable facility, the grant of the
lordfhip which he enjoys, in favour of one or
more of his fons, for a fum of money inferior
to that which is paid when it is put up to
audion ; but if he negled this precaution, at his
death his fon is difpoffeffed if he do not outbid
the competitors, or if, powerfully proteded, he
do not at leaft pay the price offered by another.
Moft of the agas, little accuftomed to the fa
tigues of war and to the privations which it ne-
ceffitates, for a long time paft have exempted
themfelves, under various pretexts, from military
fervice ; they always find the pachas and the
fangiaks-beys difpofed to receive a prefent from
them, and grant them the exemption which
they requeft. They frequently get their place
fupplied by fome volunteer, or if they them
felves join their colours, they never want pre
texts for quitting them before the end of the
campaign and returning to their home,
' u 3 The

294 TRAVELS, IN THE
The cultivators are free and independent, io
corifideration of the quitrent to which they are
fubjed ; they may eftablifh whatever culture they
think the moft fuitable to their interefts, with
out the aga having a right to moleft them ; but
too frequently the latter abufes his influence, his
riches, and above all the police which he exer-
cifes in his village. He exads, with the rod in
his hand, for particular lands which he poffeffes,
the gratuitous labour of the cultivators : he
caufes provifions, wine excepted *, to be
fold to him at the price which he himfelf de
termines ; he makes the advances ; pf the ka-
ratch f at an intereft extremely ufurious ; in a
word, he torments in a thoufand ways the Greeks,
the Armenians, and the Jews of his village ;
but he is more referved towards the Muffulr
mans, becaufe the complaints of the latter are
ways more favourably heard, becaufe he would
infallibly be removed from- his office, and even
more feverely,punifhed, if all the Turks ofthe
village, proteded or fupported by fome power
ful enemy of the aga, rofe at the fame time and,
demanded juftice.
* Muffulmans are forbidden to make, drink, or purchafe
wine. ¦f Capitationj or perfonal impoff to which non-Mufful-
mans are fubjeft. There

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 295
Throughout the whole empire there are two
forts of organized troops, the one of cavalry, the
other of infantry, the fpahis and the janizaries.
The former are fpread , over all the towns,
and more particularly in the country-places :
they are almoft all married and fettled ; they
exercife different profeffions or fometimes apply
themfelves to the culture of the land ; they re
ceive a daily pay, have their officers, and affern-
ble at the firft order, armed and equipped, under
the colours of their diftrid.
The fpahis are a more ancient corps than the
janizaries : they have more pay, and are under-
ftood to be the fons of Muffulmans in a certain
degree of affluerice ; they fight under the fame
enfigns as the ziamets and the timariots, and
ought to fucceed them in the poffeffion of their
fiefs, if the regulations of the . firft fultans were
more refpeded, or the national intereft a little
more eonfulted.
Under the firft fultans, the fpahis formed the
principal Strength of the Ottoman armies. Al
moft always in the field, familiarized to military
exercifes, hardened to the fatigues of war, Simu
lated by intereft, glory, religious fanaticifm, and
by the example of the fultari, it is not furprifing
that nothing fhould withstand their arms, and
that the Greeks, enervated by luxury and riches,
V 4 folely

2g6 TRAVELS IN THE
folely occupied by intrigues and theological quef-
tions, Should be as foon fubjugated as conquered.
In the reign of Amurat I. a fifth part of all
the prifoners was begun to be taken for the pur
pofe of forming a new corps of infantry, under
the name of yenitcheri, janizaries,, or new militia.
The neceffities of the war afterwards produced
another law which incorporated in this corps a
tenth part of the children pf the Chriftians, and
which was in vigour till the reign of Amurat
IV. Under that bf Soliman I. there were al
ready one hundred and fixty-one odas * of jani
zaries at Constantinople, each of which con7
tained from three to five hundred perfpns.
At prefent none but Muffulmans are received
into this mijitia : they are fcattered and organ
ized in all the towns. Thofe who infcribe their
names in it receive a daily pay, and /join their
colours whenever they are required. In the
large towns and in the fortreffes, they are di
vided into chambers ; they are fubjed to pa-
troles, to different expeditions, to the guard of
gates, &c. The greater part are married, fet
tled, and exercife different profeffions. Thefe
renounce all promption, and generally exempt
themfelves, under various pretexts, from joining
their colours. * Oda, chamber, ' or company. Many

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 297
Many rich perfons, in the towns, enlift among
the janizaries, in the view only of being more
effedually proteded, and of enjoying all the
privileges attached to that corps, They receive
no pay, and, for a little money, eafily exempt
themfelves from all military fervice.
The commandant-general of this troop is call
ed janizary-aga ; he refides at Constantino
ple ; and, although he enjoys great power, and
great consideration, he has a rank inferior to
that of pacha. In moft of the towns where the
pachas with three tails refide, there is likewife a
janizary-aga, divifional general of the infantry of
the whole province. He is fubjed to the pacha,
whofe orders he receives and executes.
During feveral reigns, religious fanaticifm, the
hope of plunder, and the prefence of the fove
reign rendered the janizaries extremely for
midable. They flew to arms with joy, and
eagernefs, whenever the Standard of Mahomet
was difplayed, and the queftion was to make
war againft the infidels ; but fince European
tadics have made a progrefs which the ignorance
pf the Turks could not or would not follow, and
Since above all the bonds of the empire are
broken or relaxed, the warlike ardour of the
janizaries is much damped. This corps, for
midable for fuel* a length of time, is no longer any

29^ TRAVELS IN THE
anything but a fhapelefs mafs of workmen, Shop
keepers, farmers, and boatmen, without either
difcipline or courage, and ever ready to defert or
mutiny againft their officers.
For fome time paft there has been formed a
corps of infantry of upwards of thirty thoufand
men, under the name of topchis or gunners.
Scattered over the capital, and the reft of the
empire, they receive a moderate pay, and are
obliged to join their colours when they receive
orders for that purpofe.
Independently ofthe other corps of troops, as
well on foot as on horfeback, which are raifed
in time of war, or which the pachas keep in
their fervice, are to be diftinguiflied the felic-
tars, a corps of cavalry, lefs numerous and lefs
fcattered than that of the fpahis, and the delis or
delibaches *, volunteers on horfeback in the
fervice of the pachas. Thefe delis are brave,
determined, enterprifing, and ever ready to ex
ecute the orders of their mafter in the expedi
tions which he commands, and in the extortions
which he direds. They follow him to war,
perform the office of light troops, and fight
without order and without difcipline : they flop
and bring back to battle the runaways, and fre-
* Deli, in Turkifh, fignifies mad, and delibache, mad-
leaded. quently

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 2t)9
queritly precipitate themfelves into the enemy's
ranks, with a boldnefs which aftoniShes and
which fometimes determines the vidory in their
favour. When a pacha is difgraced or when, from any
motive, he difmiffes his de'libaches, as they are
without pay and without refources, they then
commit the moft terrible robberies ; they 'fpread
themfelves over the fields, the villages, and
even the towns ; they rob indifcriminately, lay
all under contribution, and flop and plunder
the caravans, till they are called into the fer
vice of fome other pacha, or till fome im-
pofing force has put them to flight and difperfed
them. In the moft defpotic empire, the will of the
fovereign is limited, circumfcribed or fettered
by laws arid cuftoms which he cannot call in
queftion without danger : fuch is the Ottoman
Empire. As fucceffor of the caliphs, the fultan
unites in himfelf every power ; he is fovereign
abfolute, legiflator, pontiff, and fupreme chief of
religion : he may create, change, and modify,
according to his wifh or his caprice, the laws of
the State : he eftablifhes the imports and taxes
which he judges neceffary : he difpofes at his
pleafure of the eminent places, adminiftrative
and military, religious and judicial of the em
pire :

3©0 TRAVELS IN THE
pire : he is mafter of the life and of the fortune''
of all his officers and of all the agents that he
keeps in pay ; however, he would find infur-
mountable obftacles if he meddled with the
fundamental laws depofited in the book of the
prophet, and even with moft of thofe which cuf
tom immemorial has rendered, as it were, as
faPred as the others. In v eftablifhing imports,
herakes care not to overburden the people, ever
ready to manifeft their indignation, to rife, to
demand the head of the vifir, to depofe the ful
tan, and proceed to all forts of exceffes. In
the appointment of lawyers, he generally re-
fpeds rank and feniority of fervice, becaufe he
would be afraid to irritate and ftir up to rebel
lion the auguft and formidable body of the ule
mas : in fhort, he neither can legally put to
death a fimple individual nor ufurp his property,
without a previous trial, without a fentence of
the lawyers.
It has, neverthelefs, happened more than once
that the Grand Signior, the vizir, the captain-
pacha, the.pachas with three tails, have put to
death citizens without trial : but thefe cafes are
rare, and are not without danger. The hiftory
of this people prefents a crowd of examples of
fultans aud vifirs killed or depofed for ads of in
juftice and extortions, a little too revolting. The
complaints

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. ^01
complaints' of the people have frequently forced
the fultan to facrifice to his own fafety a minifter,
a favourite, whofe crimes fometimes have been
no more than a blind fubmiffion to the will of
their mafter.
The prefence of the fovereign, a greater mafs
of knowledge, an immenfe population, the divi
sion of intereft, favour, and power, occafion def-
potifm, at Constantinople, not to be fo ca
lamitous, nor fo terrible as in the provinces,
becaufe the fultan watches over his minifters,
becaufe the people league together and revolt
with fuccefs againft their oppreffbrs, becaufe
they almoft always find a fupport in the jea-
loufy, ambition, or probity of fome man in
power. But a pacha in his province, at a dif
tance from the looks of his fovereign, mafter of
all the armed force,' and invefted with powers
almoft unlimited, feldom finds, in the tribunal of
juftice, in the affembly of notables, and in the en-
terprifes of the people, a dam fufficiently ftrong
to confine him within the limits of his duties.
Too frequently the pacha, by his courage,
his boldnefs, and his intereft, contrives -to fileriee
the judge and the honeft men, to paralyze the
good intentions of the divan, and to make the
people whom he oppreffes tremble : too fre
quently too the obftacles which the laws wifely
oppofe

302 TRAVELS IN THE
oppofe to his ambition, and his wickednefs, re
main Without effed through the connivance of
the prevaricating judge, of, the divan charged to
watch over the interefts of the people i then ads
of violence and injuftice no longer have bounds',
efpecially if the pacha be powerfully fupported
by the Porte, and if he have in his fervice a
great number of delibaches ever ready to exe
cute his orders, and defend him in cafe of attack.
However, when ads of injuftice excite an in
dignation too ftrongly marked, the pacha en
deavours; to appeafe it by difavowing the officer
executor of his orders', by removing him, and
even by putting him to death. It is the Chrif
tians who have always moft to fuffer, becaufe
they are not fupported like the Muffulmans, and
becaufe they find a greater difficulty in tranf
mitting to the foot of the throne their juft com
plaints. The Greeks, the Armenians, and the
Jews form between themfelves corporations the
chiefs of which make a few efforts to put a flop
to the extortions of a governor, to caufe him
to be recalled or punifhed ; but too frequent
ly their remonftrances remain without effed,
or tend only to render their fituation ftill
worfe. ,
The impunity of the pachas has been fuch for
fome time paft, that the greater part of them have
taken

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 303
taken the liberty to fet up a powerful military
eftablifhment which requires confiderable ex-
penfes, far above the legal produce of their
pachaliks. Extortions have increafed in propor
tion to the number of perfons that they had to
maintain ; they have, by dint of money, ob
tained from the Porte the jundion of all the
employments ofthe province ; they are mouhaffils
or farmers-general ; they have got themfelves
confirmed every year in their places, and fome
have ended by acquiring riches fo confiderable,
and fuch an authority, that the fultan cannot
find means to displace them or put them to
death. But this violent ftate of things muft ne
ceffarily have a period : the inhabitants of the
country-places, overburdened with imports, mo-
lefted in their fortune, and threatened in their
life, imperceptibly forfake the lands which can
no longer fupport them ; they go into the great
towns to feek that repofe which they have loft
in their cottages, and the means of living which
they no longer find in the culture of their lands.
However, the pacha exads the fame contributions,
and compels thofe who remain, to pay for thofe
who have fled : whence it follows, that all the
inhabitants foori difappear, and that the village
is for ever deferted. There is no part of the
empire, at a little diftance from the capital, that
3 ' does

3©4 TRAVELS IN THE
does not prefent the afped of the moft complete
devaftation, that does not exhibit large plains
without culture, hamlets, and villages deftroyed*
and without inhabitants.
It is not furprifing that the governors of pro*
virices negled no means of fqueezing the people*
when they are obliged tp purchafe dearly that
right, when they know that they cannot main
tain themfelves in their place, or occupy others
without making new pecuniary facrifices, whenj
in a word, the fovereign fells all the eminent
places, and when, after his example, the mini*
iters and the men who difpofe of any employ
ment, give it only to the higheft bidder*
Througba very old cuftom which miftruft has*
no doubt, introduced, every important place is
granted only for a year : a new firman is necef->
fary for a perfon to be kept in it. The pachas
above all, whofe extenfive power affords the
means of fkreening themfelves from fhe fove
reign authority, muft be regularly changed
every year, and the fultan feldom deviates front
this cuftom when he has it in his power ; but
the pacha, on his fide, , knowing that gold, in
Turkey, can abfolve a man from the greateft
crimes, and caufe the moft revolting extortions
and the moft arbitrary condemnations to be
forgotten, haftens to amafs it; and if to his
criminal

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. jdj.
criminal ambition he join courage, boldnefs;
and talents, he obtains with the three tails, art
eminent pachalik : he then endeavours to main
tain himfelf in his poft, by preventing, oft the
One hand, the complaints refpeding his cdndud
from reaching the throne, and, on the other, by
performing fcrupuloufly the engagements which
he has contraded towards the imperial treafury;
but if he fucceed, like the pachas of Scutari,
Palestine, Bagdad, arid fo many others, in
extending his government, and rendering it
fufficiently produdive to have an army, he
obliges the fovereigri to fpare him, to confirm
him every year in his pachalik, and to preferve
only the appearance of power. True it is that, in
that cafe, the fultan employs' his two great
means, curining and patience ; lie difpatches
fecretly, and under various pretexts, capidg% tb
the pacha of whom he wifhes to be rid : if the
latter be not fufficiently miftruftful for prevent
ing a*ny fufpicious mail from approaching too
near him, he receives the mortal blow, and the
capidgi inftantly produces the firman of the
Grand Signior, which all ¦ the by-ftandefs, in
their turn, kifs with refped, and place on their
head in token of fubmiffion.
What delays the ruin of the greater part of
the provinces, are the ayams, (an Arabic word
vol. i. x which

3©6 TRAVELS IN THE
which fignifies eye,) whofe emplpyment is t&
watch over the fafety and the fortune of indivi
duals, over the good order and the defence of
a town, to oppofe the unjuft enterprifes of the
pachas, the exadions of the military, and to
concur in the juft affeffment of the taxes. Ap
pointed by the people, they are generally me1*'
reputed the moft virtuous, who undertake this
honourable fundion : there are feveral of them
in the great towns j a fingle one commonly
unites feveral villages in the plains. \ The ayams
receive no other reward for their zeal and their
trouble, than the consideration, almoft always
merited, which they enjoy, and the fatisfadion
which an honeft man feels when he is ufeful to
his fellow-creatures.
The ayams call to their divan the notables of
thrown and the lawyers, in order to difcufs
fubjeds of a very great intereft, to digeft
with them the remonftrances to , be made to
the pacha, and to eftablifh in concert the
. motives of complaint which they judge neceffary
to be prefented againft him to the Porte.
What likewife contributes in the towns to
the fafety of the individuals who are not at
tached to the military fervice, and who occupy
no place emanating from the government, is
that almoft all the Muffulmans, from the mer
chant

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 307
chant down to the loweft workman, belong to
an organized corporation, the chiefs of which
are charged to watch over the rights of the
community arid of individuals. If a butcher, a
fruiterer, for inftance, be attacked by any man
of weight, the affair is carried to the mekeme
or tribunal of juftiee. The chiefs prefent
themfelves to defend the individual oppreffed ;
they reprefent that from fuch a period this man
has been fettled in the neighbourhood, that he
has always led an exemplary life, that he is a good
Muffulman, a good father, a good hufband,
and they affift at the hearing of the witneffes ;
if they difcover that the accufedis really guilty,
they retire, and give him up to the rigour ofthe
laws : if they believe, on the contrary, that he
is innocent, they defend him with courage, call
in, if it be neceffary, the whole corporation,
and the oppreffor is generally obliged to defift
from his purfuits. But, in the country-places,
the people have not the fame means ; they muft,
in that cafe, have recourfe to the ayams or to
the kiaya of the village, a fort of municipal of
ficer eleded by the people, with whom reft all
the affairs of the hamlet, all the demands of
money, &c. : it is generally the richeft or the
moft intelligent of the village, whp performs
gratuitoufly this fundion. The greater part of
x 2 the

3C8 TRAVELS IN THE
the kiayas ate reproached, perhaps with fonte
reafon, with having a fecret underftandittg
with the pachas, with facilitating their extor
tions, and enriching themfelves almoft always at
the expenfe of thofe whom they ought to defend
andproted. The Jews and the Chriftians have alfo or
ganized corporations, whofe chiefs frequently
bring to a hearing the complaints of the op-
prefied ; but it feldom happens that the moft
unjuft accufation is not terminated by fome fa-
crinees of money, unlefs the accufed be pro-
teded by an European ambaffador or conful,
or by fome opulent Turk. Thefe unfortunate
beings are through the whole empire, the cow
which the Muffulmans are eager to milk when
ever their neceffities require it.

CHAPTER

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 309

CHAPTER XVIII.
Of the grand viftr. — Ofthe divan of the Porte,
and of the members of whom it is compofed.——
Ofthekodjakians and of the vacoufs.
X he dignity which is on a footing with that of
mufti or of fheik-iflam, but the powers of which
"are much more extenfive, is that of grand vifir
or of vifir-azem. Being the lieutenant of the
fultan, in whofe name he governs and from
whom he holds the feal, inverted with the
greateft authority, and intrufted with all the >
power of execution, the vifir may ftrike off the
heads of perfons receiving falaries who oppofe
the progrefs of the government, who throw
obftacles in the way of its administration, who
do not obey its orders, or do not execute them
according to its pleafure; he commands the
armies in perfon ; fie difpofes of the finances ;
he names or caufes perfons to be named to all
the adminiftrative and military employments.
Nothing, in a word, is foreign to his powers,
but the interpretation of the law intrufted to the
ulemas. x 3 But

310 TRAVELS IN THE
* But the greater the power of the grand vifir,
the greater is his refponfibility. He is account
able both to the fovereign and to the people, for
the ads of injuftice which he commits, for the
unfortunate refult of his administration, for the
extortions which he does not reprefs ; he is acr
countable, above all, for the unexpeded dearnefs
of provifions, for too frequent fires, and for the
defeats of the armies : all the misfortunes of the
State are attributed to him. The fword, always
fufpended over his head,- ftrikes him equally
whether he difpleafe the people, or difoblige the
fultan. Secretly attacked by thofe who are ambitious
of his place, by thofe whom he has diffatisfied,
or to whom he has done an ill office, furroundr
ed by1 fnares, and expofed to every fhaft, it is
extremely rare for a vifir to grow old in the dan
gerous poft which he occupies, if he poffefs not -
the difficult art of malting the great, tremble, of
making himfelf beloved, by tbe people, and of
rendering himfelf neceffary to the fultan. How-
many might we inftance, whom intrigue has
displaced or eaufed to perifh, whom the fultan
has facrificed to his own fafety ! How many
vifirs does not hiftory afford us, whofe prefump-
tuous ignorance has occafioned the misfortunes
of the State and accelerated their own ruin !

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 311
The other minifters, obliged to confer with
the grand vifir and to take his orders; dif-
burden themfelves on him of all the refponfi-
bility attached to their adminiftration, and the
counfellors by whom he is furrounded cannot
fave him when his ruin is refolved on. At li
berty to follow or to rejed their advice, there
remain for him neither pretexts nor excufes :
it is to him alone that the fovereign power is in
trufted, it is to him alone to give an account.
The law and cuftom, as I have faid with re
gard to the fultan and the pachas, have put
fome fhackles on the right which the vifir has
to punifh with death all the agents, all the per
fons in the pay of the government. Before, he
ftrikes off the head of a great perfonage of the
empire, he muft have an order figned by the
hand of the fultan ; and when a military man is
jn queftion, he muft obtain the approbation of
,fhe coirimanders.
In the frequent excurfions which he makes
incog, in the city for the purpofe of having an
eye to good order, of informing himfelf of the
State of the articles "of food, examining the
weight's and meafores, and infpeding the cpn-
dud of the agents appointed for the diftribution
of provifions, the vifir, accompanied by a pub
lic executioner, and fome officers difguifed like
x 4 himfelf,

312 TRAVELS 'IN THE
himfelf, orders delinquents to be apprehended
and puniShed on the fpot : he calls out, if neT
ceffary, the guard of the quarter ; he direfts
the baftinado to be given to the Shopkeepers who
vend aliments of bad quality ; he caufes him who
is found with falfe weights to be nailed by the
ear againft the door of the fhop ; he even
puniShes with death relapfes or malverfations of
too ferious a nature. During fires, he orders
to be ftruck off the bead of the thief caught in
the very fad ; but, in thofe cafes, the law has
pronounced' beforehand the penalty of death.
"Charged to liften to the complaints of indivir
duals, to caufe juftice to be done to all, -the
vifir cannot, under any pretext, difpofe legally
of the life and fortime of citizens;. It is not that
he does not too frequently abufe his authority ;
it is not that he does not fometimes yield
to perfidious advice, that he does not fuffer
himfelf to be led away by motives pf hatred pr
revenge, that the thirft of gold does not im
pel him tp arbitrary ads ; but woe be to him if
his injuftice be too revolting ! When he top
frequently puts himfelf above the laws, the
people, in their turn, trample him under foot,
unlefs the fultan be expeditious in administering
juftice.

At

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 313
At the head ofthe armies, far from the eye of
the fovereign, the power of the grand vifir is
difengaged from the forms which fometimes re-
ftrain him in the capital, and it muft be con
feffed that he has the utmoft need of there dif-
playing a very great feverity. The Muffulmans
naturally turbulent and feditious, can be checked
only by the fight of punifhments. If the heads
of the mutineers, ofthe plunderers, and of the
affaffins do not fall from time to time, Shortly
the army no longer exhibits any but fcattered
gangs of robbers who devaftate, with the fame
avidity, the provinces of the empire and thofe
belonging to the enemy.
The kadilefkers or ordinary judges of the
army follow it only when the fultan commands
it in perfon : a molla appointed for that pur
pofe always difcharges their fundions when the
vifir has the command. It is the fame when it
is fubmittedto a pacha ; but, in all cafes, death
muft immediately follow the knowledge of the
crime, and the fentence of the judge is but a
fimple formality.
The grand vifir gives audience to the public
on feveral days ofthe week; he hears the com
plaints of the citizens, admits or rejeds their
petitions, permits them to plead their caufe be
fore the kadilefkers, the ftambol-effendi, and the

314 TRAVELS IN THE
the mollas pi Galata, Aijub, and Scutari,
and to caufe juftice to be administered to them
with fufficient difpatch ; but it is not corred to
fay that he renders it himfelf/ Unlefs it be an
affair of police, or that the petitioners and the de
linquents be agents of the government, the
fentences are pronounced by the ordinary
judges ; .the vifir caufes them to be executed as
the pachas do in the provinces.
When the grand vifir is obliged to abfent him
felf in order to take the command of the army,
the fultan appoints for the interim a ca'imacan or
fubftitute who difcharges his fundions, is in
verted with the fame authority, enjoys the fame
rights, but not the fame revenues ; his falary is
fixed, arid the emoluments of the place belong
to the vifir, to whom the ca'imacan muft give an
account of them. It is generally a pacha with
three tails who is appointed tp this eminent
place. A very remarkable change has taken place in
the government fince Selim III. created a
new council to which are at this day fubmitted
all, projeds, to which are referred all important
affairs, and from which emanate all the refolu-
tions and, as it were, all the ads of the goT
vernment. The refponfibility of the vifir muft
have diminished with his power: the misfortunes of

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 315
of the State, the public calamities cannot hence
forth be attributed to him ; and if the firft
place of the Ottoman Empire continue to be
changeable and tottering, it will at leaft be no
longer accompanied, by the Tame dangers.
The divan ' or the council of the grand vifir
was formerly compofed of fix ordinary vifirs or
pachas with three tails, whofe reputation for
wifdom and intelligence was not to be equivocal.
The vifir afked their opinion when he thought it
neceffary. To this council, were likewife admit
ted the mufti and the two kadilefkers when the
law was to be confulted,
A little time after his acceffion to the throne,
Selim compofed this council of twelve perfons
the moft distinguished by their office. The vifir
and the mufti are presidents of it, the one in
his quality of .lieutenant-general of the empire
for temporal affairs ; the other as vicar of the
fultan for the interpretation and depofitory of
the laws. The other ten members are the
the kiaya-bey, the reis-effendi, the tefierdar-effendi,
the tchelebi-effendi, the terfana-emini, the tchia-
oux-bachi, two ex-reis-effendi, and two ex-tefter-
dars effendi.
The kiaya-bey is, properly fpeaking, the
lieutenant of the vifir; he momentarily dif-
charges his fundions when the latter happens to

»

3*6 TRAVELS IN THE
to die. All affairs pafs through his hands be
fore they arrive at the vifir, and all orders ema
nating from the Porte receive their execution
through the impulfe 'of the kiaya-bey. He is
appointed by the Grand Signior, on the pre
formation of the vifir. He is generally involved
in the difgrace of his principal, and if he do not
lofe his head as frequently as he, his fortune,
in that cafe, always runs the . greateft rifk. Al
though he have no military rank, it may be faid
that he occupies the fecond adminiftrative place
In the empire, confidering the importance and
the multiplicity of his fundions. If the fultan
be diffatisfied with his fervices, he receives, on
quitting his office, the dignity of fimple vifir or
pacha with three tails. It feldom happens that
he is given only the two tails when he is fent to
govern a province.
The reis-effendi is, as it were, fecretary of
ftate, high chancellor of the empire, the princi
pal of the gens deplume *, the minifter for foreign
affairs. He figns all the orders of the Porte,
which do not diredly concern the finances and
* As we have not in England thofe three diflin&ions,
rflade in France; oi gens de plume, gens d'epee, and gens de
robe, we have deemed it moi'e expedient to retain the
French term than to employ one which might be ambigu
ous to fhe rtvAzx.—rTranJlator. the

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. %lj
the military operations ; he treats with ali the
European minifters who are at Constanti
nople ; in a word, every thing that concerns
the foreigri powers, and every thing that re
lates to the interior adminiftration, paffes
through the channel of the reis effendi ; but he
does nothing without communicating it to the
grand vifir and faking his orders.
The tefterdar-effendi muft be confidered as
the minifter of the finances ; he receives the
produce refuking from the fale of the great em
ployments, that which arifes from the annual
renewal of the barats or firmans obtained by the
za'fms, timaripts, and others, the produce of
_ the karatch or capitation-tax on the Jews and
Chriftians ; the produce of the farmed domains,
that of the cuftoms, &c. He1 has a great num
ber of offices into which are poured the different
revenues of the empire, and at which are made
the different payments ordered by the Porte'.
There are at the head of each office, a great
officer, principals and clerks taken from among
the kodjakians or gens de plume of whom I fhall
have occafion to fpeak further on.
This minifter cannot be confounded with the
khafne-veliki, a black eunuch, charged with
the general administration of the interior impe
rial treafure, into which are poured the pro
duce

318 travels in th~e
duce of fhe confifcations and inheritances that
ferve, for the fupport of the feraglio. The pre
fents, the effeds, the jewels which are fent by
foreign powers, thofe acquired by conqueft,
the colours, &c. constitute a part of this
treafure. The. private treafure of the fultan is admini
stered by the khafnadar-aga, one of the pages of
confidence. This treafure, increafed by the
favings of the greater part of the fultans, is
fuppotted by the profits of the mint and by
fome confifcations.
The place of tchelebi-effendi did not exift
formerly ; it was created under the reign of
Selim III, at the fame time as the tax on
wine, eatables, and moft articles of merchan
dife, as cotton, wool, &c. The produce of this
tax, known by the name of njzam-djedit, has
been appropriated to the new corps of gunners,
bombardiers, matroffes, and fufileers that has
been formed, to the buildings which have been
conftruded for them, to the foundery of can
non, to the manufadory of mufkets, gun-car
riages, &c. The tchelebi-effendi is the receiver-
general of this tax, the adminiftrator of thefe
funds', the infpedor-general of thefe establish

ments, the intendant of the buildings.

I have

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 319
I have faid, in another place, that the terfana-
emini was the minifter of the marine.
The tchiaoux-bachi is fecretary of ftate ; it is
to him that a perfon muft addrefs himfelf to fee
the grand vifir, to be admitted to his divan, to
plead at his tribunal. He has about him two
tefkeredjis who receive the memorials, the
'claims, the petitions of the pleaders and of all
thofe who prefent themfelves, and who admi
nister juftice according to the order of the
vifir. The captain-pacha and the kiaya of the ful
tana validai are called to the extraordinary coun
cils ; and although they are not ordinary mem
bers of the council, they areconfulted, and both
have the greateft influence in the deliberations
from the intereft which the former preferves
with Selim, and from that which the latter has
obtained with the fultana-mother. The latter was
born poor in Candia. He is faid to be a man
of underftanding and very clever : he poffeffes
above all the art of intrigue, and joins to his
eafy manners, an agreeable and prepoffeffing
perfon. Selim, occupied with ufeful establishments,
ameliorations and changes neceffitated by the
critical circumftances in which he found himfelf
on his acceffion to the throne, could not doubt
8 of

3^0 TRAVELS IN "fHE
of the fuccefs of his enterprifes in caufing to
emanate from a council formed by the moft
powerful and the moft enlightened men of the
empire, all the innoVatioris that he wifhed to in
troduce, all the beneficent laws that he wifhed
to haVe paffed. Could he fufped, that by reni
dering arbitrary ads lefs frequent, great exe
cutions more rare, by diminishing the too abfo
lute and tob tyrannical power of the vifir, by
fubmitting to difcuffion all the operations of the
government, by promulgating no law till it had,
as it Were, received the fandion of his couricilj
guilt would become more frequent, ambitiori
more audacious, rebellion more difficult to be
fepreffed, armies of robbers more numerous?
Could he imagirie, in a word, that the influence
of foreign powers would be greater, arid that it
Would fucceed in flopping all thefalutary mea-
fures that he wifhed to have adopted ?
This council, unfortunately compofed of
members enemies among themfelves, jealous of
each other, more taken up with themfelves than
with the happinefs of the State, is very, far frpm
having accomplifhed the intentions of Selim.
One would be inclined to believe, from
feeing it fometimes in inadion in the midft df
dangers, and fometimes in a route contrary to
that which it ought to follow, that moft of the
members,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 32 1
members, far from feconding the defigns of the
fultan, labour, on the'contrary, to make them
mifcarryi Since its creation, the ftate of
affairs is daily becoming worfe ; the empire is
menaced with a total diffolution ; the finances
are exhaufted ; and a rebel already threatens to
place a ftranger on the throne. He is waiting,
perhaps, only for the moment when the people
fhall be prepared for this extraordinary event,
unexampled in the Turkish annals.
If, inftead of eftablifhing a council too wa
vering, too weak, and too eafy to be corrupted,
Selim could have intrufted authority to a vifir
endowed With a rare understanding, a profound
mind, a pure heart, a firm courage, and an un
shaken refolution, it is not to be doubted that
all his projeds would have completely fuc-
ceeded : the Ottoman Empire would have re-
fumed by degrees its rank among the powers of
the earth ; it would at leaft have emerged from
that ftate of abjedion and nullity in which it
has been for feveral reigns : the troubles of the
interior would not have taken place ; the re
bellious pachas would have returned to their
duty, and the janizaries the mpft mutinous
would have paid with their head the firft mover"
ment of infurredion which they fhould have
made. Y It

VOL. I,

322 TRAVELS IN THE
It is very difficult to forefee how the Ottoman
Empire will extricate itfelf from the fatal crifis
into which it has been brought with France,
1 fo much inclined formerly to fupport it *, pre
vent the powers, which at this day appear to de
fend its interefts with warmth, from making it
foon undergo the fate of Poland, or from
taking from it at leaft a part of its dominions ?
The kodjakians or gens de plume form in the
capital » a numerous body, intelligent and re-
fpeded ; . this is the profeffion which holds the
middle rank between the military men and the
lawyers, and which is become fufficiently
powerful fince the ulemas are rather lefs fo, fince
the divan is compofed only oi gens de plume,
and fince fome among them obtain fiefs, mili
tary rank, and governments.
Almpft all the minifters, all the agents in the
different administrations of the capital, the cuf-
toms, and the mofques ; all Ihe principals of
offices, all the fecretaries, all the clerks, all the
fchoolmafters ; in a word, all the writers, from
( '
• The political and commercial interefts which fo long
'united France and the Ottoman Empire, have- greatly
changed fince our eftablifhment in Egypt, fince abo\je all
that colony makes us hope for a more advantageous trade
than that which we carried on before, and enables us to
ftop the pretenfions which England, makes to theexclu-
five commerce of the whole world.
14 the

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 323
the Simple kiatib, who copies books, petitions, or
memorials, and him who applies himfelf to writ
ing purely and corredly the language, to the
reis-effendi who is at the head of them, are all
fliftinguiShed by the name of kodja, and make
part of that fort of corporation.
The art of tranfcribing the national books
and efpecially the Koran, forms the nurfery of
the gens de plume. The number of copyifts of
thefe books is prodigious in the capital. Young
men who have no fortune and who are defirous of
embracing this profeffion, after having learned to
read and write in the fchools, apply themfelves
firft to the copying and felling of books; they
afterwards draw up petitions and memorials for
thofe who have occafion for them. If they dif-
play intelligence, andacquire information in this
trade, they fucceed in procuring themfelves a
place in fome office,' and by degrees, with pro-
tedors, condud, application, and, above all,
money, they arrive at the firft fituations in the
public offices, and at the firft dignities in the
miniftry. The Muffulmans are indebted to the kodjas
for a vaft number of works held in great efti
mation among them, relative to the Arabic and
Perfian languages, philofophy, morality, Ma
hometan hiftory, and the geography of their pro-
y a vinces;

324 TRAVELS IN THE
vinces ; and it is among them that are generally
found the Slatefmen the moft intelligent and the
moft capable of ferving as minifters.
The fear of depriving of their profeffion this
great number of copyifts, the oppofition of al
moft all the powerful gens de plume, the refufaf.
of, the lawyers to fuffer the Koran and the other
books of religion to be printed, and perhaps too
'the averfion which the Muffulmans manifeft for
the pradices and the arts of Europeans, are fo
many motives which concur in preventing the
art of printing from being eftablifhed among,
them in a fubftantial manner..
The gens de plume are entitled kodjas or effen-
dis. The latter defignates a man of a more dif
tinguiflied rank, him, for inftance, who has ar
rived at the firft places, the firft dignities. This
latter 'title is alfo given to the lawyers, to the
imans of the mofque. Effendi is the word which
distinguishes gens de plume and lawyers from mi
litary officers, to whom are given the appellation
of aga and bey.
Favour often grants" military fiefs to gens de
- plume little qualified, in g'eneral, for the fatigues
of war : minifters and other great perfonages
alfo obtain fometimes the dignities of pacha with
two or three tails, without being fit to march at
the head of the troops of their provinces. But as

OTTOMiAN EMPIRE, &C. 325
as in Turkey it is confidered rather whether
the place be fit for the man than the man for the
place, no effendi makes it a point of delicacy to
folicit thefe important polls. What does it
fignify to them to have no military knowledge,
provided they have a more diftinguiflied rank*
a greater authority, and they have it in their
power to acquire great riches ? Neither are
they ftopped by the contempt which the foldiers
manifeft for them, and by the frequent farcafms
in which the latter indulge themfelves refped
ing them, not unfrequently even in their pre-
fence. The adminiftration of the pious foundations
called vakfs or vacoufs, employs a great number'
bf gens de plume, and procures them a fituation
far more lucrative than honourable. Supersti
tion, religious zeal, and above all the tyrannical
law of confifcations have eaufed to be converted
into vacoufs a great part of private property.
Without fpeakingof thofe vaft domains granted
to'religious worfhip, of thofe villages fmall towns,
and countries, whofe produce is appropriated to
the mofques, a great number of individuals give
up to them during their life, or bequeath them
after their death, a part or the whole of their for-
. tune. But, guided more frequently by motives
oi intereft than by a religious fentiment, they
y 3 - make

326 TRAVELS IN TH*E
make a donation of their property, for a mode
rate fum which they receive from the mofque,and
an annuity which they bind themfelves to pay
tP it. The enjoyment remains with the donee
till the extindion of the heirs at law, in an or
der defignated by the ad.
The intention of the founder, in this cafe, has
no other objed1 than to put under the fafe-
guard of religion, hitherto refpeded by the ful
tans, a property which it is very eafy for a perfon
to preferve and to tranfmit to his children. But
fooner or later, for the want of heirs, the vacouf
property devolves to the mofques. If the law do
not put a Stop to thefe donations, or if the go
vernment do not one day appropriate them to
itfelf, almoft all the immoveable property of the
empire will end by being appropriated to reli
gious worShip, or devoted to, pious establish
ments. No foundation takes place without their being
a mutevelli or administrator, and a nazir or in-
fpedor, the one for the employment of the mo
ney according to the intention of the founder,
and the other for the fuperintendance and veri
fication of the accounts^ But, in a country
where it is fo rare to meet a man who refills the
wifh of appropriating to himfelf a fum of money
which paffes through his hands, and for which he is

, OTTOMAN EMPIRE, Sec. ' 327
K to account only to his confcience and to an
infpedor as knavifh as himfelf, no one doubts
that the mutevelli and the nazir have a fecret un
derftanding, divide between them what they can
purloin, and appropriate to themfelves annually
fums more or lefs confiderable, according to the
importance of the foundations which they are
charged to administer and fuperintend.
Little fatisfied with the right which is ad-
. judged them by the founder, they think to be
able to excufe their criminal condud by the in
utility of the revenues which exceed the employ
ment that is to be made of them, or perhaps
they confider as indifferent to the fpirit of the
foundation to retain for themfelves this excefs,
inftead of diftributing it to the poor, of making
favings, pr of improving the capital.
Moft of the founders, with the twofold inten
tion of tranfmitting to their heirs a certain re
venue fecure from the rapacious hand of the im
perial treafury, and of not enriching unknown
adminiftrators and infpedors, nominate and ap
point thefe agents in their own family. They take
care, if they are attached to the government, to
difpofe in reality of two thirds of the income of
the property that they eftablifh vacouf, with
out which the government, which would difcover
y 4 the

328 TRAVELS IN THJ!
the formal intention of depriving it of an
immoveable property that it ought to inherit,
would appropriate the whole of it to itfelf, to
the prejudice even of the mofque named in the
ad of donation.

CHAPTER

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. , 32Q

CHAPTER XIX.
Export-trade. — Alimentary fubftances. — Wood for
fuel, joiner's work, carpenter's work, and fhip-
building. '
i- he little confidence infpired by a govern
ment too frequently unjuft ; the jittle, folidity
prefented by the fortunes of private perfons, the
certainty of lofing one's money if the man to
whom it has been lent die in, an employment,
or if he be punifhed with death for any mifde-
meanour, real or fuppofed ; the tyranny which
is every where exercifed by- thofe who are in
verted with power, the venality of the tribunals,
the innumerable^multitude of falfe witneffes— r
every thing in Turkey infpires fuch a miftruft
in affairs of commerce, that a man lends not his
money but at a very high intereft, and delivers
not his goods on credit but at an exorbitant
price. Very frequently even no bufinefs takes
place if the creditor be not provided beforehand
with a pledge above; the value of the money
which he has lent? or of the goods which he has
delivered on credit. The intereft of money muft have

339 TRAVELS IN THE
have rifen in proportion to the rifks that the
lender had to run : it is generally from eight to
ten per cent, in regard to Europeans ; from fif
teen to twenty per cent, in regard to Mufful
man, Jew, Armenian, or Greek merchants ; it is
at thirty, forty, and even fifty per cent, in re
gard to the Turks who belong to the govern
ment. To private perfons money is lent at
twenty-five or thirty per cent, but almoft al
ways in towns, pledges are required for the fe-
curity of the debt.
Honefty, however, is not entirely banifhed
from the Ottoman Empire. The European
merchants know , that the countryman almpft
always performs without difficulty the engage
ments which he has contraded, that the 'man* of
of bufinefs is generally the Slave of his word,
that the trader feldom fails to difcharge his ob
ligations when his payments become due. If
probity alone be the inftigator of the firft, the
others are anxious to preferve a fpotlefs reputa
tion which may increafe their credit, multiply
their operations, and facilitate all the affairs
which they undertake.
It is with the pachas and the great that one
ought to avoid to deal otherwife than with ready
money, becaufe it is they who fhew the moft dif-
honefty, and whp almoft always make an im
proper

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 331
proper ufe of their authority. As much as one
may be confident with the plain man who hears
and follows the voice of his cpnfcience, with the
merchant always moved by felf-intereft •• which
commands him to appear an honeft man, fo
much ought one to miftruft the man of power
whom intrigue has led to the firft employments,
who, deaf to the call qf honour, thinks that he
can fkreen himfelf from the eye of juftice.
I fhall not here eftablifh a parallel between
the different nations' which inhabit the Levant^
and which are fubjed to the Ottoman govern
ment. The, individuals who compofe them, ac-
cufed of being equally covetous, equally cunning,
equally knavifh, neverthelefs, perform their en
gagements when one has taken with them fuita-
ble precautions. If probity do not incline them
to it, fear at leaf| determines them, becaufe the
Turks are always there to impofe on them an
exadion. As for the Muffulmans, one finds, in general,
among them more fincerity : one may, in ge
neral, truft more to their word. We fhould
confider them as the moft honeft and the moft
eftimable of all, did they not fhew themfelves
unjuft towards tributary fubjeds : did not the
contempt which they have for them induce
them to violate in regard to them the law of na-
tions,

332 TRAVELS IN THE
tions, to make them undergo humiliations, and
cover them not unfrequently with difgrace.
It is to the government alone, founded on an
oppreffive religion, that we muft impute the
knavery of fome, the tyranny of others, the
vices of all. The Greeks, the Armenians, and
the Jews, deprived of the rights of citizenShip,
excluded from civiLemployments and from mi
litary fervice, Strangers to the religion on which
every thing refts, obliged to redeem every year
their head by a difgraceful tax *, threatened in
ceffantly with the lofs of their life or their for
tune, and weak and unproteded, have, from their
very infancy, learnt to diffemble, to give way
to the fmalleft fhock, ; to withdraw themfelve*
from force by addrefs, from violence by fub
miffion. They have been obliged to be falfe
from habit, cringing and vile from fear, cunning
and knavifh from the neceffity of living and ex
isting, (
The Muffulmans, vain of their" fuperiority, in-
folent towards unarmed flaves, proud of belong
ing to a religion which infpires contempt for all
thofe who are not admitted into it ; fanatic, fe
rocious, and unjuft through the effed of that
religion ; tolerated in the extortions which they
* The karatch. exercife

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 333
exercife towards tributary fubjeds ; emboldened
even by a government which dreads thofe whom
it oppreffes ; the Muffulmans, like their ances
tors, would poffefs a difpofition for greatnefs,
heroifm, and robbery, had they preferved their
morals, their courage, and all their fanaticifm.
But at this day the fale of all employments and
the precarious tenure of them makes all private
perfons avaricious, and converts all the depofita-
ries of authority into oppreffors. Juftice is ve
nal, becaufe the cadis have been laid under con
tribution ; the venality of the judges has pro
duced falfe witneffes ; religious zeal is relaxed,
courage is worn out, immorality has crept in
every where: one may fay boldly that it has
at the prefent day reached its higheft pitch in
the towns.
The law of confifcations has frequently occa
sioned to be confidered as criminal men whom
birth, chance, or induftry had enriched. That
which affigns to the fultan the property of
thofe who receive from him any pay whatever *,
muft, like the other, neceffarily have clogged, the
operations of commerce, infpired fears, and moft
contributed to the exceffive rate of money.
* All thofe who receive a pay from the fultan or from the
State, from the fimple janizary up to the vizir-azem, ara
called houls or fervants ; and as fuch the fultan can difpofe
of their life, and, if he .pleafe, feize on all their property. If

334 TRAVELS IN THE
If we except fome parts ofthe two Indies,ui no
country on earth is gold fo common as in Tur
key ; it circulates every where, it is the bafe of
all payments, and every traveller has more or
lefs in his girdle. ; There is riot a woman who
has not chains, necklaces, and other ornaments
in fequins ; not a child that has not on its head
fome pieces of money ,: but this gold, the orna
ment and drefs of the women, is for ever taken
aWay from trade. The hufband, purfued by
his creditors, would not dare to touch it, and the
wife fometimes fees the father of her children
brought to punishment, without being tempted
to make the facrifice of that gold which fhe has
fnatched from his weaknefs, or obtained from
his affedion.
Turkey, however, is tributary fo India, as
we are to Turkey. The gold which the Eu
ropeans carry as a laft refult to that empire in
payment of its merchandife, flows, in a great
meafure, through the Red Sea, through the
Persian Gulf, and through Persia,, and is
fwa flowed up on the fertile and induftrious coaft
of the In dian Ocean. This is what I fhall ex
plain elfewhere more minutely.
The French merchants have very frequently
lamented to fee in all operations of commerce,
the Jews and Armenians inter.pofed between them

OTTOMAN. EMPIRE, &C. 335
them and the Muffulmans ; but they do not pay
attention that, being verfed in the cuftoms and
languages ofthe country, thefe Jews and thefe
Armenians undertook a detail for which the
European merchants were not qualified. Would
they go like them, and fcatter their money be
forehand in the country-places in order to pur
chafe at a low price commodities when they are
gathered ? Would they, like them, be willing to
draw an ufurious intereft from their money ?
Could they k,eeo fight of it, arid would they
take the Steps and make the cuftomary pecu
niary facrifices towards the cadis and the pachas
when the queftion is to recover their demands
from diShoneft debtors ? Undoubtedly not. — .
Well, let us leave to thefe Jews and thefe Arme
nians all the details of a traffic which can be ad
vantageous to none but themfelves, and let us
confine ourfelves to bartering with them our
produdions which they know better than we
how to place fuitafely, which they fell retail in
the1 town, or which they deliver to the inhabi
tants ofthe country on account of their commo
dities. If we caft our eye on Marseilles and on
all the ports of the fouthern departments ; if we
examine the prodigious number of manufadories
which this trade fupported in all parts of
France,

33&" TRAVELS, IN THE
France, how many hands it occupied every
where, and how many veffels and feamen it em
ployed, we fhould be convinced that this trade
was an inexhauftible fource of 1 iches to the mo
ther-country and to its colonies, and that it was
eftablilhed in the manner the moft fuitable to the
interefts of all.
Scarcely emerged from the convulsive Slate in
which we had been for upwards 'of ten years,
we muft hope that the Levant trade, no lefs
advantageous to the Orientals than to ourfelves,
will foon be revived on both fides with its for
mer adivity. The war which the Porte has
been forced to declare againft us, cannot be of
long continuance : we fhall avail ourfelves of our
advantageous pofition in fpite of the efforts of a
jealous and powerful enemy. We fhall, in fpite
of him, turn to account our territorial produc
tions and our induftry. The number of our
feamen will rife in proportion to our commerce :
our navy is at this day without Strength, becaufe
it is, in general, without inftrudion ; without
energy, .becaufe it is without confidence ; with
out fuccefs, becaufe it is commanded by men
who are no longer in their place ; our navy, I
fay, will infure us this important trade when it
Shall rival in glory our armies, when the bravery
of eur failors Shall ~ be direded by the talents, the

OTTOMAN EMPIRE," &C. ^7
the information, and the prudence of their com
manders. Did not the mifchievous genius of the Turks
lead them to ftifle conceptions and paralyze in
duftry, did not rheir anti-focial religion impofe'
filence on reafon and philofophy, no city in the
world would be better calculated to ferve as an
emporium to an extenfive commerce, than Con*
stantinople. Situated on the confines of
Europe and Asia, between the Mediterra
nean and the Euxine, furrounded by fertile
provinces, the capital of a vaft empire, Con
stantinople would fee pafs within its walls
the produdions of the East and of the West,
as well as thofe of the North and ofthe South.
The caravans of Asia and the Ships of Europe
would fucceed each other without interruption,
for the purpofe of effeding exchanges advan
tageous to all nations *.
But, in the prefent ftate of affairs, this com
merce is very limited. The induftry of the in
habitants is confined to the fimple wants of the
city, and its territory is fo little cultivated that it
affords no article of exportation. Neverthelefs,
* If the Bosphorus and the Hellespont belonged to
an induftrious, civilized power ; if they made a part of a vaft
empire, Constantinople would neceffarily become the
metropolis of the world.
VOL. I. 2 the

338 taavels in. the
the neighbouring countries are fo fertile and fo
produdive, that they fupply not orily the nu
merous inhabitants of the capital, but permit
the French merchants to export a fufficiency to
pay for one half of the value of the merchandife
which they receive from Marseilles. A part
of thefe commodities paffes through the town,
the other is immediately fhipped at Rodosto, at
Mundania, at the Dardanelles, and at the
harbour of Enos.
In fpeaking here only of the export-trade, my
objed is to make known the moft ufeful natu
ral produdions of every country that I fhall
vifit, and the commodities of which European
commerce may have availed itfelf. At the end
of this work I fhall prefent a general pidure of
the import-trade which France carries on with
all the Levant. I fhall publifh, at another
time, thofe articles of natural hiftory which have
not been treated of, or are little known.
Wool.
Wool forms the principal article of exporta
tion from Constantinople, and the fecond
frpm all the Levant. It is eftimated that the price
ofthe wools which the French riterchants fend to
Marseilles from Constantinople, Rodos
to, the Dardanelles, and Enos, amounts, one
year with another, to 1,500,000 livres (circa
3u 62,409!.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 339
64,499k fterling)., This value has fometimes
rifen to upwards of 2,600,000 (83,333!. fter
ling). They come frorn the environs of the
Bosphorus, from the Propontis, and frorh
the Hellespont, as well as from Romania,
Bulgaria, Bessarabia, and the foutherri
coafts of the Black Sea. The flaughter-
houfes of the capital alone furnifh a fomewhat
confiderable quantity.
In Turkey are bred two forts of fheep, that
with a broad tail, and that with a common tail.
The former is the larger, its fleece is lefs fine,
and its tail receives fuch a quantity of fat, that
it fometimes weighs upwards of ten pounds.
The wool of the plain-tailed fheep of Bulgaria,
and of Bessarabia, which comes to Constan
tinople by way of Varna, or which paffes
through Adrianople, in order to be fhipped
at the harbour of Enos, is the moft efteemed.
The wools of Bosnia are reckoned to be of a
quality fuperior to all thofe of the Levant :
they are conveyed on the back of mules or
horfes, to Spalatro, Zera, and Ragusa,
whence they go-by fea to Venice. The wools
of Wallachia and of the north of Servi a
are generally fpread through all Germany.
All the wools of Turkey are, in general, of
an indifferent or of a bad quality, and little fit
z 2 for

34<> TRAVELS IN THE
for the manufadure of fine plain cloths. Ne
verthelefs, when they are picked and mixed with
the fine wools of Spain and Roussillon, the
traders of Languedoc find means to make with
them firft and fecond londrins which they fend
to Marseilles, and thence to all the fea-port
towns of the Levant, where a confiderable
confumption of them is made.
Camel's Hair.
In the cold countries of Asia Minor and of
Persia, camels have, during the winter,
a tolerable abundance of a fine, filky wool,
which falls every year at the beginning of the
fummer. It is known by the French in trade,
under the improper name of laine de chevron.
The moft efteemed is brought from Persia by
the caravans of Erivan, Tiflis, Erzerum,
and To cat. There is fome of three qualities :
the black, the red, and the gray. The black is
the deareft, and the gray is worth only half the
price of the red.
Some comes annually to Marseilles by way
of Aleppo, Smyrna, and Constantinople.
This laft city expedites from eighty to a hun
dred bales weighing about three hundred pounds
the bale. Smyrna and Aleppo fend a quan
tity much more confiderable. This

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 341
This wool is employed in the manufadure of
hats,: it is purchafed by all the European nations
that trade to the Levant. The French, how
ever, are thofe who draw the moft of it, and
make of it the greateft confumption. The Eng
lish employ but a fmall quantity of the black,
which they procure at Smyrna.
This camel's hair muft not be confounded
with another wool longer, more filky, and finer
which is found in Persia, and which is pro
duced in plenty by a fhe-goaton the mountains
offvERMAN. I fhall have occafion to fpeak of
it elfewhere.
, " Goat's Hair.
On the hills and mountains of the environs of
Angora,' is bred a goat fmaller than ours,
with pendulous ears and fhort legs, whofe white
fleece, long and very fine, is carefully fpun by
the inhabitants of the country, and partly em
ployed by them in- the manufaduring of the fluffs
known under the name of ferges, camlets, and
chalis of Angora. The French have feveral
fadoties in this town, for the purchafe of the
thread ; and although this trade has for fome
time paft been carried on through Smyrna
rather than through Constantinople, never
thelefs, feveral bales of it pafs through this
z 3 latter

~342 ' TRAVELS IN THE
latter city, Which the French merchants difpatch
to Marseilles.
Befides the goat's hair of Angora, there is
alfo known in trade* that of Beibazar, which
lies fifteen or twenty leagues to the weftward on
the road of Bursa. The former is more ef
teemed than the latter ; it is finer, more fupple,
and more eafy to be wrought; but that of
Beibazar is whiter, becaufe the inhabitants of
this town are in the habit of foaping and walh-
ing the hair before they fpin it,
The Angora goats have much affinity, as to
the finenefs of their hair, to thofe of Ke,rman
and thofe of Cachemire. Both of them
inhabit elevated places, cold in winter and
very warm in fummer ; both are taken great
care of, combed, and frequently wafhed by the
Shepherds who guard them..
Cotton.
Cotton is not cultivated at Constantinople
nor on the fliores of the Black Sea : the cli
mate is too cold. It is only in the fouth and
weft part of the Propontis, in the environs of
the Hellespont, that the culture of this va
luable vegetable begins. Cotton is the moft
plentiful merchandife of the Levant,, and that
which the French draw in the greateft quantity.
The merchants of Constantinople difpatch
annually

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 343
annually from Gallipoli, from the Darda
nelles, and from Enos, about fix hundred
arid fifty bales, eftimated at 125,000 livres
(circa 5,208k fterling).
Neither are the white fpun cotton and the
red dyed fpun cotton of Adrianople a very
important article of the export- trade of Con
stantinople : their value fcarcely exceeds
40,000 livres, while from Smyrna alone, Mar
seilles draws upwards of 2,000,000 of livres
of fpun cotton half white, half dyed red, and
to the amount of 5,400,000 of livres of cotton
in wool : the greater part of the other fea-port
towns of the Levant furnifh more or lefs of this
laft article.
Formerly the red fpun cotton of Adriano
ple enjoyed a very great reputation ; but, for
fome time paft, a preference is given to that of
Larissa in Greece, and to thofe of the en
virons of Smyrna and of fome towns of the in
terior of Asia Minor. Means have alfo been
found within a Short time, in our French manu
fadories, to give fpun cotton a red colour full
as beautiful and as durable as that which is given
to it in Turkey. The red fpun cottons of
Greece do not come into France; they pafs
by the Adriatic, to Venice and Trieste,
whence they fpread all over Germany.
z 4 Buffaloes'

344 TRAVELS IN THE "
Buffaloes' hides.
'•¦','(,: The buffalo is in very great plenty throughout
the East : it ferves for tillage : it is harneffed
tp the waggons ; it is made to turn the ftones
of mills, and wheels for the raifing of water
from wells. It is ftronger than the ox, and
more generally employed. Although it delights
more particularly in aquatic or marfhy places,
on the banks of large and fmall rivers, it ne
verthelefs thrives every where, and acquires
a fize above that of oxen.
% Its flefh is fearcely • fit to be eaten : it is
tougher, lefs favoury than that of the ox, and
is almoft always" accompanied by an odour of
mufk which renders it by no means agreeable.
It feldom happens that the Orientals fubfift on
it ; they univerfally prefer the fheep, whofe
flefh is much more delicate than, in our coun
tries, The milk of the female is abundant and
well-tafted ; but the butter preferves a fmell
fomewhat difagreeable, to which, however,
one is foon reconciled.
The hide of the buffalo is much thicker and
far more fubftantial than that of the ox ; it
weighs from eighty to a hundred pounds, and
even more. A great quantity of therri comes to
Constantinople from Romania, Bulgaria, Bessa-

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 345
Bessarabia, Wallachia, and Moldavia,
and very few from the interior of Asia Minor.
The hides of the males are more efteemed than
thofe of the females ; they are thicker, Stronger,
and much heavier. There pafs annually to
Marseilles five or fix thoufand of them, the .
price of which, one with another, is 15 livres
or 2 Shillings and 6 pence fterling. Ancona,
Leghorn, and Messina alfo confume a rather
large quantity. The Orientals content them
felves with falting thofe which are intended for
Marseilles and Ancona ; while thofe which
are carried to Leghorn and Messina have
been dreffed and tanned with the cup of the
Velani oak.
Thofe hides, dreffed and tanned at Grasse
in the department of the Var, with different
fubftances, and among others with myrtle, are
very thick and very ftrong, have a greeniSh co
lour, and are employed by the country-people
for foles which laft twice or thrice as long as
thofe of the belt ox hides.
There are alfo difpatched to Marseilles
two or three thoufand ox and cow hides not
much efteemed. The value ofthe ox-hide does
not exceed 1 livre 50 centimes, and that of the
cow 1 livre. They come from the Shores of the
.Black Sea.
Buffaloes'

346 TRAVELS in the
¦Buffaloes' tongues.
The fmoked buffalo's tongue, which is pre
pared in Romania, is held in tolerable eftima
tion : a great confumption is made of this article
at Constantinople. Seven or eight hundred
are exported every year to Marseilles. The
Italians alfo purchafe a great quantity. The
preparation of them confifts in their being falted
and expofed for fome time to the flow and
continual adion of fmoke.
Hare's fkin.
The hare is fo common throughout Asia
Minor, Romania, and Bulgaria, that it is
purfued for its fkin, and there are difpatched
from Adrianople, Bursa, and Constanti
nople, for Marseilles alone, from three to
four hundred bales, eftimated at from 4 to 5000
livres. The duty in the Levant, levied on goods
exported, is difcharged by the fellers ; but as a
bale of hares' Skins is fometimes furnifhed by
feveral perfons, and as the cuftom-houfe officer
would experience difficulties in the colledion of
the duties, in order to put a flop to the com
plaints of the PorTe and to the vexations to
which the merchants were expofed in this re
fped, it was refolved, under the embaffy of M,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &a 347
de St. Priest, that it Should, in future, be the
purchafers who Should pay the duties, on this
merchandife, at the rate of a parat or a fous
per oke (the oke weighs forty ounces and a
half). Turkey leather or Morocco,
The manufadories of morocco of Galli-
poli, ofthe Dardanelles, and of fome towns
of Asia Minor are the moft renowned of the
Levant. They drefs the Skins of the fhe and
he-goats killed in the capital, and thofe which
are difpatched from Romania and the interior
of Asia. Almoft all the towns of Turkey
alfo manufadure fome, becaufe the confump
tion of them is every where confiderable. The
Turks, as is well known, wear no other Shoe-
leather than morocco : the black and the violet
ferve for the Jews and the Armenians. The
Greeks employ more generally the red : this is
alfo the colour of the janizaries and of the
common people. The rich Muffulmans, both
men and women, all wear yellow Shoes. Yel
low is Stridly prohibited to tributary fubjeds,
fuch as the Greeks, the Armenians, and the
Jews. Amongft them there are none but thofe
who are attached to the legations and to the
confulates of foreign powers, or who are fpe-
cially

34^ ' TRAVELS IN THE
cially proteded by a barat, that can adorn them
felves with this privileged colour.
It is faid that the Turks learnt from the AI-
gerines, todye morocco red, which is known to
be very beautiful among them, and for which
they employ madder root, kermes, and a very
little cochineal.
Their yellow morocco is not inferior in
beauty to the red. In quality it is generally
Superior, becaufe in the manufadories the fkins
which appear the beft are feleded, in order to
be dyed the colour referved for the Muffulmans.
The common moroccos are fold for 2 livres
50 centimes a piece. The French merchants "
difpatch annually from Constantinople,
twelve or fifteen hundred. The other European
nations alfo purchafe a fmall quantity.
According to the inftrudions which -were
given to us before our departure, we made
fome efforts to learn the^ proceedings which are
employed in the drefling and in the dyeing of
morocco : we offered money in order to be
permitted to follow the procefs made ufe of in the
manufadories ; but we found every where a
refiftance of which we did not imagine the Turks
capable. Although we entered feveral times
into their manufadories, it was impoffible for
us to difcover whether it is to the quality of the
fkins

&c. 349
Skins which they employ or to their proceedings,
that we muft attribute the beauty of the mo
roccos of the Levant. Among the fubftances
which we perceived, are lime, fumac, the gal-
nut, the cup of the Velani oak, dog's dung,
madder root, cochineal, kermes, the rind of
the pomegranate, and the feed of a rhamnus,
different from that which yields the feed of
Avignon.
Silk.
Before the troubles of Persia, the caravans
¦ brought to Constantinople and to Smyrna
a great deal of filk froin Guilan, Chirvan,
and Aderbe'jan, which the French and the
Englifh were eager to purchafe ; but, for feme
time paft, thefe filks go into Russia by the
Caspian Sea, and a part paffes thence into
England by the Baltic, as I Shall have occa-
fion tomention when I fhall fpeak of the com
merce of Persia with Russia.
None but the filks of Bursa, Adrianople,
and Bulgaria are at this day known at Con
stantinople. Thofe of Bursa are the moft
abundant and tbe moft efteemed ; they are al
moft all white ; and their thread is fine and to
lerably fupple. This'filk fupplies the numerous
manufadories of the town, thofe of the capital, and

35° travels in The
and thofe of Scio ; fome even goes to AleppP
and to Damascus ; and, neverthelefs, there is
every year exported to the amount of 2 or,
300,000 livres. The French have a houfe esta
blished there : the EngliSh fend thither fadors
when they wifh to make purchafes, and the
merchants of Tunis and Algiers alfo come
thither to provide themfelves every year.
The environs of Nicomedia, Nice a, and
all the country fituated between Olympus and
the PropoNtis, are covered with white mul
berry-trees cultivated with care, and with a
fufficient degree of intelligence. The inhabit
ants prefer keeping them dwarfs, in order to
ftrip them more eafily of their leaves.
The filk of Adrianople and Bulgaria is
almoft all white, and in point of quality, ap
proaches that of Bursa. It has been tole
rably abundant there for fome years paft, aflid
efpecially fince a confiderable number ofthe in
habitants of Bursa have come thither to plant a
great many mtflberry-trees, and apply them
felves to the rearing of filk-worms.
This tree does not grow on the other fide of
the Danube; but it thrives very well in . the
Crimea; which leads us to prefume that
Shortly this fertile country, under an enlightened govern-

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 35I
government, will produce filk as eafily as wine,
and that we fhall at the fame time fee there al
moft all the productions of Europe.
Wax.
So great a quantity of wax comes from all
the coafts of the Black Sea, of the Propon
tis, and of the Hellespont, as well as from
Romania, Bulgaria, / Wallachia, and
Moldavia, that the French merchants efta-
blifhed at Constantinople difpatch of it every
year to the value of 300,000 livres (circa
i2,8ool. fterling). x A great deal is fent to
Genoa, Leghorn, and Venice. The Englifh
and the Dutch alfo purchafe fome, and there is,
befides, a great confumption made of it in the
Greek and Armenian churches, and in the
houfes of all the individuals of the country, ef
pecially during the month of the ramazan.
^ie wax of the interior of Asia Minor is
conveyed by the caravans, to Aleppo and to
Smyrna. ¦ Box.
Box is abundant in fome places' of the fouth
coaft bf the Black Sea : there, comes fome
from Bar thin, a fmall town fituated at the
mouth of the PartheniuS ; but the fineft is to
be found on Mount Caucasus, and comes t».
CoNSTAN-

352 Travels in the
Constantinople by the fhips which bring
Georgian, Circaffian, and Mingrelian female
flaves. There is fent to Marseilles every
year to the value of 12,000 livres (500I. Ster
ling). Copper.
Such a quantity of copper is drawn from the
mines which are fituated to the fouth of Tre
bisond, in the environs of Tocat, and in fe
veral places of Asia Minor, that Turkey is
able to pay with this metal for a part of the
merchandife which fhe draws from India.
There comes annually to Marseilles, from
Constantinople, from Smyrna, and from
the ports of Syria, to the value of from 12 to
1300,000 livres. A great deal alfo paffes into
Italy, and the Turks make a very great con
fumption of it for their artillery which is all of
brafs, for theii table and kitchen utenfils^For
their mangals, their chandeliers, and others.
There likewife comes to Marseilles to the
value of 5 or 6,000 livres of copper coffee
-pots, made at Trebisond, or in the environs of
that town. ' Orpiment.
From the interior of Asia Minor is alfo
drawn a very, confiderable quantity of orpiment. This

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 353
This mineral fubftance, mixed with a bolary
earth, is employed throughout Turkey, at the
baths, as a depilatory for men and women of all
conditions. Independently of the great confumption
which is made of it in the country, there is an
nually exported to Marseilles to the amount
of about 2,000 livres. The Italians take of it
to a more confiderable value.
Hart's horn.
The flag is rather common in the forefts of
the environs pf Constantinople. There is
annually fent to Marseilles, to the value of
200 livres of its horns. Peltry. '¦"> >
The fineft furs come from Russia and Po
land : fome are likewife drawn from Georgia,
from Circa ssia, from the Crimea, from
Wallachia, and from all the north fide ofthe
Black Sea. Thofe of the black fox and the
fable martin are the moft efteemed : the former
are at a price which cannot be afforded by private*
perfons ; the latter coft fometimes aS much as
2 or 3,000 livres each. France fortunately
difpenfes with an article of merchandife which
would considerably injure its rrianufadories.
vol. 1. a a The

354 Travels in the
The few fkins of this fort which fhe confumes
come to her from the north of Europe and
from America. There is fent from the Le
vant little more than to the value of 4 or 500
livres of zerdova or common martin's tails.
Horfe hair.
Horfe hair is an article which amounts annu
ally to 4,000 livres (\66l. 13s. 4d. fterling).
It almoft all comes from Bulgaria and Bes
sarabia.
Galls.
Although the oak which produces galls be
gins to be found in the environs of Constan
tinople, this article more particularly con
cerns the commerce of Smyrna, Aleppo, and
Cyprus. I fhall fpeak of it elfewhere.
Corn.
The Ottoman government, which knows",
more than any other, how dangerous it is to
fuffer the people to be in want of fubfiftence,
|has at all times taken care to fupply the capital
with provifions, and even to make facrifices,
when neceffary, in order to keep bread at a low
price : before the reign of Selim, the oke coft
no mpre than three parats. But fince the go
vernment

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C; ^5$
verriment has imprudently made a monopoly of
corn, the oke is fold for five or fix parats;
which creates murmurs among the people, who
do not think themfelves well governed except
When commodities of the firft neceflity are at a
very moderate price.
The corn countries are obliged to furnifh the
capital with a certain quantity at their expenfe,
the price of which is fixed and paid by the
Porte, according to the harvefts and other
circumftances,; The govermrient alfo ferids commiffaries to
Volo, to Salonica, and into fome diftrids of
Greece, for the purchafe of fcorri. The firman
which fixes the price of it, and which regulates
the quantity that is to be delivered, is read pub
licly at the mekeme, and the proprietors are
bound to conform thefnfelves to it, each in pro
portion to his property. The commiffaries de
fray all the expenfes of warehoufe-room, car
riage, &c. as far as Constantinople, in con-
fideration of a determined profit : for inftance,
if they have orders to purchafe at 50 parats the
kilo, they are allowed 70, and fo in proportion.
They always receive in advance the money ne
ceffary for the purchafe which they are ordered
to make.
a a 2 The

356 '% TRAVELS IN THE - ¦"
The governing likewife fixes the price at
which bakers and private perfons are to buy
the corn which it caufes to be diftributed to
them, and itreferves to itfelf a profit of fifty or
fixty per cent. It is afferted that the produce
of this monopoly amounts annually to ten thou
fand purfes or 1 0^000,000 of our livres.
At Constantinople are made three forts
of bread : the one, called pide fodola, or Turkifh
bread, is flat, ill baked, and tolerably white; the
qiherfomoun or Armenian bread, is raifed, round
ed, worfe baked, more black, and of an inferior
quality to the other. The third is calledfrangeole ;
it is fmall, oblong, and kneaded nearly like that
which we eat in France. . The bakers of the
country add tp the iformer, barley flour ; the
fecond is a mixture of wheat, barley, rye, and
millet ; the third is feldom made with pure
wheat ; the European bakers who furniSh it,
eager to enrich themfelves, well know that thofe
who are accuftpmed to eat good bread, will pre
fer theirs, becaufe it is whiter, better baked, afld
above all better kneaded— It is fold for ten,
twelve, and even fourteen parats the oke. ¦' As
it is fuppofed to be made for none but the Eu
ropeans, the police does not tax it, but fufters it
to be' fold at the price which the baker chpofes ;
the latter only taking care to furnifh it of the beft
quality

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 357
quality to the ambaffadors whom they ferve,
and of whom they hold their privileges.
Iri the feraglio is made a fourth fort of bread,
with which we are not acquainted. It is faid to
be very White, tolerably good, not fo well knead
ed and lefs baked than the frangeoles. Private"
perforis are alfo in the habit of making bread, the
quality of which approaches more or lets to that
of the bakers.
The corn of Romania, of Bulgaria, and all
that which is drawn in abundance from the en
virons of the Danube, is reckoned to be of a
quality fuperior to all that ofthe Ottoman Em
pire : that too which comes from the Crimea and
from Taganroff, fituated towards the mouth'
of the Don is much efteemed. That, of Volo,
of Salonica, and ofthe More a is reckoned to
be of the fecond quality : next comes that of
Syria and Cyprus. The corn of Egypt is
considered as inferior to all the others.
Although the exportation of wheat is prohi
bited, means are found fometimes, in the Dar
danelles, to fhip one or more cargoes of it
coming fronWhe weftern and northern coafts of
the Black Sea : veffels alfo load with it at
Rodosta, in Troas, at Volo, and in the Gulf
of Enos. It may be procured in Egypt, in Sy
ria, on the coaft of NaTolia, and in fome other
a a 3 parts

35^ TRAVELS IN THE
parts of the Morea ; but pecuniary facrifices
muft always be made, and fuitable precautions
taken not to irritate the people or give too much
diffatisfadlon to the Porte.
France ought npt to forget that, during
the revolution, when fhe was threatened, from
all quarters, with the moft terrible famine,' the
Ottoman government permitted feveral cargoes
of corn to be Shipped, and tolerated a greater,
number, though wheat was not more plentiful
in Turkey that" year than others. This, per
mission, contrary to Ottoman cuftoms and
policy, proceeded, at that period, from the
good intentions of the government in regard to
us, and from the extremely wife condud of the
agent of the Republic refident at the Porte.
Alimentary fubftances.
Constantinople draws from Philopopot
lis a tolerably Jarge quantity of rice lefs,
efteemed than that of Egypt : it is alfo culti
vated in 'fome parts of Asia Minor, and Seve
ral cargoes of it arrive every year frpm Dami-
etta : the latter is the fineft and the beft of all.
Cherries, plums, pears, and apples arrive every
day from the fouthern coaft of the Black SeaJ
as well as chefnuts, hazel-nuts, and walnuts.
Apricots, peaches, grapes, figs, mufk-melons, cucumbers,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 359
cucumbers, water-melons, young pumpkins*
melongenas, efculent hibifcus, and various fpe
cies of herbs come from the neighbouring vil
lages, from the coafts of the Propontis, and
from the weft and . fouth parts of the Black
Sea. Thq Ifland of Scio furniShes oranges,
lemons, bergamot-citrons, pomegranates, and
fome, prunes ; it alfo furniShes conferves of
flowers of rofes and oranges, the ufe of which
is fo general and fo frequent inTpRKEY. The
beft raifins come from Natolia, thofe of the
Archipelago art, iri general, too much dried
up and of little value.. The raifins are brought
from the environs of Smyrna.
• The fruit of the diofpiros lotus or European
date-plum, cultivated in the environs of Con
stantinople, Cerasonte, arid Sinope, is
eaten frefh ; there is alfo made of it a marma
lade which thp Orientals efteem ; it appeared to
me not very agreeable. Mitylene furnifhes
the failed olive? whjch, with caviare and fait
fifh, the Greeks, the Armenians, and the Jews
make the principal ' article of their food. The
chick-pea and maize which are cultivated every
where, are ground into flour or fimph/ ro?.fted :
the women and children have almoft always
fome in their pockets. a a 4 FrPm

360 TRAVELS IN THE
From all the coafts of the Black Sea are
brought honey, butter, and tallow. The firft
alfo comes frofti Greece, and from a few
iflands of the Archipelago :.fhe confumption
of the fecond is fo great, that the government
takes care that fome fhould arrive from- aU
quarters : European Turkey and Asia Minor
furnifh it in abundance. Mitylene and Can-
dia fend their oils : Tenedos alfo exports its
- wine to the "Europeans, Greeks, and Armenia
ans : the Jews make theirs at Scutari, at the
Dardanelles, and in the environs.
The almonds which are drawn from fome
countries of Natolia and from fome iflands of
the Archipelago, are not fufficient for the
great confumption of the capital ; ^-France makes
them an article of trade rather important,
But Syria and Natolia fend a vaft quantity
of the kernels of the Stone-pine tree which the
Orientals put intp moft of their ragouts, and of
which they make, with fugar, delicacies, in very
great requeft. From Damascus are drawn
dried apricots, very fweet, which are alfo put
into ragouts, or eaten boiled in the manner of
Slewed fruit. The dates of Egypt and the
piftachio-nuts of Aleppo are too dear to be
within the purchafe of the coirimon people ; the
latter

ottoman empire, &c. 361
latter efpecially are referved for children and for
the wives of the rich.
I Shall not here fpeak of fome fruits of little
value, fuch as the medlar, the cornil, and that
of the eleagnus or Bohemian olive-tree, which
come from the environs of the capital, or from
the interior of Asia Minor.
The belt cheefe of the Levant is that of
Candia : a great deal comes from Bulgaria,
Wallachia, and the environs of the Pro
pontis ; but it is, in general, bad and very
Jittle efteemed, becaufe it is made without Skill,
and becaufe the cuftom obtains of drawing the
butter from all the milk which is intended for
cheefe. The yo.ugourt or four curdled milk does
notat all pleafe ftrangers : it is, neverthelefs, a
wholefome food to which a perfon is foon re
conciled, and which he then eats with pleafure :
it is found in abundance throughout the
East. There comes from the northern coaft of the
Black Sea, a prodigious quantity of caviare
and falted fifh. Caviare is nothing more than
Sturgeon's fpawn falted and packed up in large
cafks. The confumption which is made pf it in
Constantinople and in all the towns of the
Ottoman Empire, is immenfe. It is the Greeks
and the Armenians who eat the moft, on ac
count

362 ..travels in the
count of their fafts and their lents. The Jews
alfo live on it 'very frequently, becaufe this ali
ment is of little value. The inhabitants alfo
make ufe of various falted fifties,' fome of which
come from the BlAck Sea, and the. others from
the environs of Patras. Thofe from the
Black Sea are cut into thongs, falted and
dried ; the others are whole, dried or placed in
cafks with pickle. Excellent mullets falted are
likewife brought from the Gulf of Enos,
At Constantinople there is, undef the
fuperintendance of the Porte, a confiderable
eftabliShment in which a great number of work
men are employed in burning Arabian coffee,
and in pounding it in large marble mortars. It
is diftributed in powder tp the Turkifh coffee-
houfe keepers and dealers, according to the
calls that they make for it. Private perfons alfo
have the power, in confideration of a trifling
tax, of carrying coffee to this eftablifhment, in
order to have it roafted and pounded : but it is
prohibited, under very fevere penalties to mix
with Mocha the West India coffee, which is
cheaper and lefs efteemed than the other. This
prevents not Marseilles alone from fur-
nifhing the capital to the value of a million of
our livres every year. True it is that iri Bul
garia, Bessarabia, and in the environs of the
Danube,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 363
Danube, West India coffee is preferred to
that of Yemen, and that a great deal of it paffes
into thofe countries by the way of Constan
tinople. Mocha cpffee is brought frpm Alexandria
every year by the caravels of the Grand Signior :
there arrives at the fame time a tolerably large
quantity of fugar from Egypt, which the com
mon people prefer to that of the Europeans,
becaufe it is cheaper, apd fweetens, it is faid,
better than the other : it is not fo well refined,
and it preferves a part of its mofcovade.
Cdmbuftibles ; wood for carpenter's and joiner's
work, and timber for Jhip-.building.
All the wood ufed for fuel and cooking in the
houfes of private perfons, in fome manufadories
and efpecially for the baths, comes from the
fouth part of the Propontis and the coafts of
the Black Sea, fituated from the Bosphorus
as far as Sinope. It is more particularly' oak
that is burnt : for this purpofe are alfo em
ployed the holm green oak, the arbutus, and al
moft all the trees of which I fhall prefently give
the enumeration. From thofe countries is
drawn a greater quantity of charcoal, becaufej
in Turkey, the inhabitants do not warm them felves

364 travels in the
felves at the fire of chimnies, as I have faid elfe.
where, but at that of tandours and maflgals,
for which charcoal only is required. The
beft is made of the oak and the holm, fome
is alfo made of the pine, the fir, and the ar
butus. The countries of which I have juft fpoken,
covered with beeches, hornbeams, oaks, elms,
walnut-trees, cherry-trees, pear-trees, pines,
firs, chefnut-trees, plane.trees, and lime-trees,
furnifh the capital, in profufion, with all the
wood neceffary for joiner's work and for the
frame-work of the houfes which the inhabitants
are accuftomed to build with wood ; and, in
deed, the confumption pf it is prodigious in an
immenfe city, where frequent fires induce the
neceffity of rebuilding continually the houfes
which the flames have deftroyed. There are
daily arriving beams of oak, pine and fir, joifts of
oak and beech, for the frame-work, and planks
of chefnut-tree for the roofs of houfes ; thin
planks of walnut-tree, plane-tree, cherry-tree,
pear-tree, lime-tree, oak, beech, aSh, pine, and
fir for joiner's work ; pump-pipes and troughs
in elm, pine, fir, oak, &c. &c.
There alfo arrives from the fame countries, a
great deal of Ship-timber for the arfenal, and
Spars,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 305
-fpairs for malls and . yards which are not inferior
to thofe ofthe north of Europe. The Porte
alfo draws excellent timber for flap-building
from Moldavia, which is fhipped at Galas,.
There is a great deal in Poland and in South
Russia, of which the French government had
made trials fome time before the revolution,
with which it had been fatisfied, and of which.it
would, perhaps, have made ufe, notwithftand
ing the clamours of fome perfons interefted in
decrying it.
Sinope is the town of the Ottoman Empire
the moft within reach of fhip-timber, and that in
whofe dock-yards at prefent the greateft adivity
prevails. Oak is extremely abundant in the
environs : its wood, more handfome for joiner's
work, is as good and as folid for fhip-building,
as that of our fouthern departments.
The exportation of timber fit for the con
ftrudion of line-of-battle Ships is ftridly prohi
bited at Sinope. An officer of the Porte
is inceffantly employed in caufing to be felled,
fquared, and conveyed to the arfenal fuch wood
as he judges fit for the fervice of the navy.
For the conftrudion of merchant-veffels, private
perfons can difpofe only of that Which he re-
jeds or cannot employ. The

'366 TRAVELS IN THE
The fouth coaft of, the Black Sea alfo fur
niShes a very large quantity of tar, flax, and
hemp for the dockyard at Sinope, and for the
arfenal of Constantinople. Flax arid hemp
are alfo drawn from Wallachia and Mol
davia.

CHAPTER

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 367

CHAPTER XX.
Ofthe droguemans and bar ataires.— Of the mar
riage of the merchants. — Of the French work
men fettled in the Levant.— Of the caravan
or carrying-trade in the Levant.
¦A he clafs of droguemans deferves the moft
ferious attention on the part of the French go
vernment, fince it is on their probity, on their
intelligence, ahd on their. civifm that depend the
' fuccefs ofthe negociations which arc intrufted to
therp and the favourable iffue of the private
affairs with the management of which they are
charged. It has long been occupied about them
without ever having attained the objed which it
had in view. It had imagined, perhaps, that edu
cation was to fupply the place of other quali
ties, and that it was' fufficient for a .man, in
other refpeds intelligent, to' know perfedly
French, Turkifh, and Arabic, to be a good
drogueman. A preference was given to young
men born in Turkey, becaufe they had a bet
ter pronunciation of the oriental languages and
a greater

368 TRAVELS IN THE
a greater facility in fpeaking them corredlyV
They were made to fpend a few years in Paris,
in order to learn French, and the principles of
the Turkifh and Arabic languages. They were
fent to tinifh their Studies in a fchool of Capu
chins ellablifhed at Constantinople: thence
they were fcattered over the different fea-porr,
towns of the Levant, and thofe who fhewed
the moft capacity were afterwards fent for to
refide with the ambaffador.
Through an inconfidefate condefeenfion, al
moft all the French droguemans had been taken
from four or five families" originally foreign, or
for a Jong time paft fettled in the Levant.
Thefe men, born in Turkey, defcended from
Greek or Armenian mothers, fhewed us, at
the period of the revolution, how little reliance
ought to be placed on perfons of their flamp.
Although they were indebted to France for
their education, their profeffion, and their for
tune, they hefitated not to go over into the
fervice of our enemies, and to tranfmit to them
the knowledge which they had acquired among
us. Some even have been accufed of having
carried off the depots, and having plundered the
chanceries ; all, in a word, proved, on this
memorable occafion, that, in the fequel, the im
portant fundions of drogueman ought to be
8 intrufted

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 309
intrufted to none but real Frenchmen, to : men
born in the bofom of France, and brought up
and educated in her manners and cuftoms.
I do not think that one ought to affimilate
the man born in Turkey, of a father who has
long fince renounced his country, of a mother a
fubjed ofthe Grand Signior, of a Greek or Ar
menian woman who detefts our cuftoms, and ridi
cules our manners to him who. born in France,
Shall have imbibed with his milk, ideas of pro-*
bity, morality, and honour. Five or fix years
which the former fhall have paffed in Paris for
his education, will not be able to deftroy the im-
preffions that he Shall have received in his youth.
Accuftomed to live with degraded men,furround»
ed by relations whofe mind is tarnifhed by Sla
very, educated in the fchool of vice, five or fix
years will not be fufficient for elevating his mind,
for engraving in an indelible manner in his heart
the love of virtue, the thirft of glory, and devo
tion to his country.
The reader will$ perhaps, be furprifed that I
confider a man born in the Levant as lefs fitted
for the fecial virtues, as lefs qualified to dif
charge functions which require probity and ho
nour. In the firft place, experience too fre
quently informs us that the drogueman, born and
bred in Turkey, makes no fcruple of facrificing
vol. 1. bb the

370 travels in the
the interefts of private perfons, and thofe of the
government, when he finds any advantage in
fo doing. It would be fhameful to fay, but
perhaps not very difficult to prove, that the
agent falls fometimes into the fnares which the
drogueman ceafes not to fpread for him. Too
frequently the latter has forced , the other to
filence by his manoeuvres, or feduced him by
the gold which he has had the addrefs to prefent
to him opportunely and with caution. ,
Befides, what can be expeded from a man
brought up in a country where the idea of pro
bity and of duties is attached only to the exterior
pradices of a religious worfhip, where cuftoms
authorife a perfon to caufe himfelf to be paid for
the fmalleft fervice, the fmalleft undertaking ;
where juftice is fold, where falfe evidence is
paid for, where murder is redeemed, where
every thing, in a word, is trafficked for without
fcruple, without fhame, and without remorfe ?
The embaffy of Constantinople in no man
ner refembles that of the other courts. In thefe
the ambaffador conduds affairs himfelf : he can
develop all his talents ; he can bring into ac
tion all the refources of his genius : but, at
Constantinople, he depends folely on his
drogueman : if the man whom he employs be
weak or unfkilful, the ambaffador is no longer
3 any

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 371
any thing more with the Porte than a fool or
a common man. If the drogueman be a knave,
the ambaffador is deceived : he fees the cleareft
affairs take a perplexed turn, become confufed,
grow dark, and prefent every day new incidents:
their progrefs, according, to circumftances, will
be retarded by fuppofed obftacles. Difficulties
and embarraffments will arife at every Step, till
at length the ambaffador difgufted, will renounce
his projeds and" abandon his undertakings.
If the drogueman, on the contrary, had the
patriotifm, the great^ talents, and' the probity
which we fuppofe in an ambaffador, and if the
latter, with a pure heart and a found judgment,
had only ordinary abilities, the interefts of the
nation would be lodged in better hands. The pro
grefs of affairs would not be clogged: the Porte
would be feen to treat with confidence, loyalty,
and franknefs : the firmans for the punifhment
of delinquents, in the fea-ports of the Le
vant, would be expeditioufly delivered, and
would leave no doubf*, no ambiguity in their
difpofitions : our commerce would be effedually
proteded ; no Frenchman would ever be out
raged or intuited with impuriity : the commiffa-
ries and agents of the Republic would enjoy the
confideration which they merit.
B b 2 Is

37 i TRAVELS IN THE
Is there, in the Levant; a man of any judg
ment who has not a thoufand tirnes made the
fame refledions as myfelf? Is there one who
has not very frequently perceived that the
drogueman altered or modified at his plea
fure the words which he is charged to tranfmit ?
It is at Marseilles, and not atCoNSTANTi-
, nople, that we muft eftabliSh public fchools of
Greek, Turkifh, and Arabic, in order that the
young men who are. intended for the Levant
trade, and the mariners who are to pur file the
carrying-trade there, may learn the languages
bf which they will ftand in need, if they wifh.
hot to be deceived, if they be defiroiis bf con-
duding bufinefs themfelves, and bf ading ' ac
cording to their own pleafure and without ob
stacles. tt is expedient to eftabliSh another fchool at
Paris, more particularly deftined for the drogue-
manffeip, in which Should be received none but
young men born or brought up in France.
They fhould there learn not only vulgar Greek,
Turkifh, Arabic, and Perfian, but the language •
which is consigned in Greek and Arabic books,
the TurkiSh and Perfian which are fpoken at
court, and which are made ufe of in the ads
emanating from the government. A few

ottoman empire, $sc. 373
A few years' flay in Turkey, one or two
years' apprenticeship to the commiffaries and
agents, would be fufficient for the pupil in
tended for a drogueman to catch the pronunci
ation, and learn all the turns of the languages
for which he will have the moft occafion, ac
cording as he might propofe to ferve the capi
tal or the fea-port towns of the Levant,
Greece,' or Syria. Befides, there would be
no harm in his preferving a foreign pronuncia
tion : the Muffulman has almoft always for the
European the refped With which he thinks that
he may difpenfe towards the man who, born in
Turkey, appears to him no more than a flave
in difguife. An infinite number of advantages would re-
fult if the droguemanfhip were, in the Levant,
the nurfery of the agents and commiffaries of
the commercial relations : there would necef
farily be feen in them more zeal, more inform
ation, more attachment, and more probity #.
Bufinefs in the fea-port towns of the Levant
would be better tranfaded and much more.
* Citizen Ruffin, formerly drogueman, at this day
charge d'affaires ofthe Republic at the Porte, would fur-
nifh us, if it were neceffary, with an inconteflable proof
that the interefts of the nation could not fometimes be
placed in better hands.
^_ B B 3 quickly

374 TRAVELS IN THE
quickly terminated if the commiffary were ac
quainted with the language of the country, if
he had learned by a long- experience, to know
the Muffulmans and all the fubjeds of the
Grand Signior.
But, above all, it would be neceffary to ob
tain from the Porte that the French drogue
man fhould prefent himfelf in an European drefs,
in a particular uniform, and that he Should not
be fubjed to the Turkifh cuftoms and ceremo
nial ; for were the drogueman to continue to
humble himfelf before a pacha, a mutfelim, a
fimple writer ofthe Porte ; were he always to be
in fear ofthe baftinade ; were he obliged to offer
them fubmiffively his head, to kifs the fkirt of
their robe, how could he preferve that inde
pendence of opinion, that inflexibility of charac
ter, that elevation of mind fo neceffary to a
commiffary in the Levant ?
Current affairs of little importance would
continue to be tranfaded by the droguemans of
the country, creatures vile at this day, whofe
whole occupation is to avoid the Stick" of the
Turks and to pick up money from thofe who
employ them, but who might be eafily turned
to account by means of barats wifely granted.
I am not willing1 to have recourfe to thofe
Greeks, to thofe Armenians, to thofe opulent Jews

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C $J$
Jews who purchafe a barat only in order tp
have a right to wear Slippers like thofe of
' the Muffulmans, or pay no more than three
, per cent, for cuftom-houfe duties, and who,
by that means, place their life and their for
tune under the fafe-guard of an European^
power. I confider it as very unbecoming and
very impolitic that an ambaffador has it in his
power to fell at a very high price his protedion
to fuch men, who very frequently expofe his
-credit, who always take up a part of his time,
and who bear towards the European merchants
a remarkable prejudice,
Barats ought to be given gratuitoufly to thofe
who fhall devote themfelves to the fervice of the
fea-pPrt towns of the Levant, who fball un
dertake all laborious and difagreeable fundions,
and who, poor and without intereft, will be al
moft always the agents ofthe merchants. Thefe
men, from whom the commiffaries of commer
cial relations Shall be able to caufe the barat to
be withdrawn becaufe they have not purchafed
it, Shall be obliged to condud themfelves ho.
neftly if they wiSh to preferve it and enjoy the
privileges which are. attached to it.
Long experience had formerly taught the go
vernment, hoW wife it was to prohibit the mer
chants and agents whom it employed in the
b b 4 Levant,

ty6 'TRAVELS IN THE
Levant, from marrying with the women of
the country. ' This law, which favour and pro
tedion fometimes filenced, ought to be re
ftored to vigour and rigoroufly executed ; the
intereft ofthe merchant and the advantage of
the State alike demand this, It is fo much the
more neceffary, as there exifts one in Turkey,
which declares ray as or tributary fubjeds the
children of the Europeans who are born from a
Greek or Armenian woman a fubjed of the
Grand Signior.
Independently of the woman, born in the
Levant, preferring oriental indolence to the
cares of a family, and confuming in nonfenfe,
in drefs, and in trinkets, confiderable fums, fhe
has generally fo liftle attachment and gratitude
to him to whom fhe is indebted for comfort and
repofe, that, following the example of the Muf
fulman women, fhe negleds nothing to purloin
from him his favings and deprive him of the
means of returning to his own country. The
hufband, not being able to prevail on his wife
to follow him, to renounce fofas, vapourrbaths,
and cuftpms which fhe has contraded from her
infancy, affumes by degrees the habits of the
country. Idlenefs gets hold of him, old age
takes him by furprife,' and death carries him;
off : his family renounce for ewer the mother-
cpuntry,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 377
country. They would even foon forget it, did
not their intereft invite them to preferve the
protedion which the father enjoyed.
Droguemans were not generally comprifed in
this prohibition, becaufe they w.ere, undoubted
ly, expatriated for ever ; while the merchant
was likely to return to France after twelve,
fifteen, or twenty years of labours, and bring
back with him the fortune which he would not
fail to make in the Levant when he conduded
himfelf with intelligence and economy *.
. On arriving at Constantinople and in the
fea-port towns of ,the Levant, we were very
much furprifed to find every where a great
number of French workmen who had brought
into thefe countries the arts of Europe, and
whb enjoyed, under the protedion of the am
baffador and the agents of the Republic, the'
produce of their induftry without either paying
taxes or imports. If thefe workmen and thefe
artifts expatriated themfelves only in order to
acquire riches and return foorier or later to bring
them back to their country, if they did not do a
* Young lads were fent to the commercial houfes of the
JLEVAN-rat the age of fifteen, or eighteen : the greater part
were book-keepers at twenty-five : ten years were fufficient
for htm to make a fortune which allowed them to return to
France and there marry. confiderable

378 TRAVELS in the
confiderable injury to the national commerce
and induftry by teaching the Turks to difpenfe
with us, by eftablifhing our workshops, our
manufadories among them, certainly they' de-
feived that an ambaffador fhould procure them
the enjoyment of all the advantages granted
to merchants.
But how far are they from refembling thofe
eftimable men who, removed from their natal
land, devote themfelves to a painful labour,
who confent to pafs the prime of their life
among barbarians, who fee themfelves expofed
to the poniard of affaflins, to fires, to the
plague, and to the malignant influence of fome
marfhy countries, with a view of eftablifhing
between Turkey and France a commerce of
barter extremely advantageous, a commerce
which enlivens our workshops, increafes our po
pulation, forms a great number of failors, dif-
fufes plenty in fome places, and comfort every.
where !
The French wbrkman, by doing a prejudice
to his cpuntry, drags on in the Ltv.ANT a lin
gering fcxiftence. His profits are very limited,
and he very feldom acquires, by perfevering la
bour, and the ftrideft economy, wherewith to be
able to return to his country. The workman, be
fides, hurried fometimes into gaming-houfes and
taverns,

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C 379
taverns, may, in the fea-port towns of the Le
vant and even at Constantinople, expofe
the fate of' all the French, in a moment of
ebriety, or in one of thofe fits of paffion which
Shall lead him to the commiffion of an offence
fomewhat ferious.
For his own advantage, the workman ought
to be fent back to his own country, unlefs his
flay in the Levant be found aleful to the am
baffador and to France, and if he refufed to
depart, he ought, without his having a right to
complain, to be refufed a protedion which he
does not merit.
The ignorance of the Orientals in the art of
navigation, and, above all, the fear of Maltefe-
privateers, had in all times induced the Turks
to make ufe of Venetian, Ragufan, and French
venels for the conveyance of their merchan
dife from one town to another. They alfo
had recourfe to the boats of the country ; but
they then preferred thofe belonging to the
Greeks who had obtained a pafs from the arch-
bifhops of Syra and Naxos.
The French had always in the feas of the
Levant a great numt>er of veffels folely em
ployed in carrying from one echelle * or lea-port town
* Echelle comes from the Italian word fcala, becaufe there
exift in all the harbours and roadfteads of the Levant, in
f lieu

380 TRAVELS IN THE
town to the Other the merchandife with which
they were laden, and from which they derived
a tolerably advantageous freight. This carry
ing-trade, known in the South of France under
the name of caravane, was a pradical fchool of
navigation, and a rather confiderable fource of
wealth to fome towns of ancient Provence.
No one was better acquainted with the feas of
the Levant than the Provencal mariners, ufed
greater expedition in their voyages, and navi
gated with greater advantage for the traders..
The navigation of the Venetians, and Ragufans
was extremely flow and timid : it prefented
more dangers, becaufe they fometimes ran their
veffels afhore, by wifhing, on the fmalleft fign of
bad weather, to gain a harbour or roadftead.
Independently of the freights which yielded
profits to all thofe who had concurred in the
conftrudion, purchafe, and outfit of the veffel,
the captain never failed to enrich himfelf fooner
or later when he was adive, intelligent and
frugal, and the failors themfelves, befides their
wages, gained a great deal by the fmall parcels

lieu of quays, ladders or wooden fteps, which projeft into
the fea for the accefs of veffels and boats, and for facili
tating the embarkation and debarkation of perfons and
goods. ' of

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C. 38 1
of goods which they carried from Marseilles,
or which they made up in the Levant in going
from one fea-port town to another. This laft-
mentioned profit is very confiderable : there is
twenty-five per cent, to be gained by choke
merchandife. The intelligent feaman who was
well acquainted with the Levant, did not fail
to avail himfelf of the circumftance. This gain,
repeated five or fix times in the courfe of the
year, foon doubled and tripled the capital. I
have known a great number of failors who
fupported at Marseilles, at La Ciotat, at
St. Tropez, or at La Seine, a numerous fa-.
mily, and who, befides, procured themfelves
early in li "e a competence for the remainder of
their days.
, A veffel was divided into twenty-four Shares
or kirats, and each fha*e might be fubdivided
according to ihe intentions of the fhare-holders.
The veffel was to return at the expiration of
three years. The profits were divided, ac
cording to the' account of the captain, between
the parties interefted, after deduding the>ex-
penfes which had been incurred for the wages
of the crew, and fuch repairs and refitting as
were found neceffary.
For fome time paft it had been perceived that
the Share-holders gained fo much the lefs, as
the

382 TRAVELS IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &C.
the captains enriched themfelves the more
quickly ; however, though diShonefty had found
its way among the greater part of them, the
moft fhamelefs even ftill brought wherewith to
keep up in the Share-holders the confidence
which has always been placed in this kind of
fpeculation. The fmall towns which I have juft
mentioned, had by this means acquired a con
fiderable increafe; there exifted among the inha
bitants a degree of comfort which was not to be
feeri in thofe that were merely agricultural.
There were reckoned upwards of a hundred
veffels employed in this carryingTtrade, gene
rally manned each by eight or ten hands, in
cluding the captain and mate. The trade which
was regularly carried on from Marseilles
with all the fea-port towns of the Levant, em
ployed four or five hundred. The caravane,
as is feen, ought therefore to be encouraged
at the peace, as well on account of the profits
which it procures, as of the pradical knowledge
which our feamen acquire in the feas of- the
Levant. end of the first volume.

YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

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