YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

A
NARRATIVE

OF A

JOURNEY INTO PERSIA,
AND
RESIDENCE AT TEHERAN:
CONTAINING
& Pescrfptibe JEtiturari?
FROM
CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE PERSIAN CAPITAL ;
ALSO
A VARIETY OF ANECDOTES,
ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE HISTORY, COMMERCE, RELIGION, MAN
NERS, CUSTOMS OF THE INHABITANTS, MILITARY
PpLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT, &C.

FROM THE FRENCH OF
M. TANCOIGNE,
ATTACHED TO THE EMBASSY OF GENERAL GARDANK.

EMBELLISHED WITH AN ACCDHATE MAP, AND A PLATE REPRESENTINO
THK INTERIOR OP A HAREM, FROM AN ORIGINAL DRAWING
BY A PERSIAN ARTIST.

One line written on the spot is, worth a thousand recollections. —
Anon.

LONDON:
PRINTED FOR WILLIAM WRIGHT,
46, FLEET STREET.
1820.

'tent

W. Sfaackell, Printer, 11, Johnson 's-court, Fleet-street, London.

TO
HIS EXCELLENCY
MIRZA-ABOUL-HASSAN-KHAN,
Sfc. fye. Sec.
AMBASSADOR EXTRAORDINARY
FROM
HIS PERSIAN MAJESTY FETH-ALI-SHAH, TO THE COURT OF LONDON:
¦&fie follofontg Hettm,
IN WHICH AN IMPARTIAL, THOUGH FLATTERING PICTURE,
OF THE PRESENT STATE OF PERSIA IS GIVEN,
AND, ABOVE ALL, AMPLE JUSTICE HAS BEEN DONE
TO THE VIRTUES AND TALENTS OF HIS
ILLUSTRIOUS AND ENLIGHTENED SOVEREIGN,
IS DEDICATED,
BY HIS EXCELLENCY'S MOST HUMBLE
AND VERY OBEDIENT SERVANT,
THE EDITOR.

PREFACE.

In giving publicity to the following Narrative
of a journey into Persia, performed in the
suite of General Gardane's Embassy, I do
not undertake to remind my readers either of
the political object or results of that mission,
as they are sufficiently known to all those
who have observed the progress of events ;
besides, such are the many important changes
which have taken place in the aspect of Eu
ropean affairs since the period of our visit to
the Persian capital, that the interest which
might have been then attached to a detail of
the diplomatic relations of France and Persia,
are now almost entirely removed, while that
which concerns the history, natural produc
tions, manners, and customs of the last named
country, has rather increased than diminished.
This arises no less from the enlightened po
licy of Feth Ali Chah's government, and the
progressive advances of his subjects towards

VI PREFACE,
European civilization, than the growing cu
riosity of the public for all that tends to illus
trate the condition of remote nations. Hav
ing thus shortly alluded to my motives for
appearing before the public, it remains for
me to give an outline of the plan pursued in
accomplishing the proposed object.
The first fourteen letters contain details of
our route from Constantinople to Teheran,
together with a description of the country
through which we passed. The three next
communications are intended to present an
abridged historical view of the various dynas
ties that have reigned in Persia, from the re-
motest epochas of the monarchy, down to the
reigning family. I have added some notes
taken on the spot during my journey ;
these contain occasional reflections, and my
opinion on the origin of various customs,
when it did not coincide with that of other
travellers. As to the accuracy of historical
fact, we can only know what we have read ;
while the science of the historian seems to
consist in being able to distinguish between
true or probable events, and those which are
false or unworthy of belief. If I have cited
the oriental writers, it was in order that their
assertions might be compared with those of

PREFACE. Vll
the Greeks and Romans, who had mentioned
the same nations. By taking from each all
that savours of partiality or exaggeration, a
fair chance is afforded of elucidating, if not
the whole, at least a part of the truth.
The succeeding letters contain a variety of
details relative to the climate, population, and
commerce of Persia ; as also on the religion,
manners, and customs of the people. These
are the immediate result of personal observa
tion. I have occasionally named Chardin,
the most accurate of all the French travellers
who have written on this country, for an Eu
ropean visitor might even at this day go all
over Persia with his book as a guide, except
as it regards the costume, which has under
gone a total change. Although Ta vernier
has fallen into comparative disrepute, I do
not think all our prejudices against him are
equally well founded. From the tone of per
suasion which runs through this traveller's
work, it would appear that his errors were by
no means intentional, but rather those of the
head than the heart: on the other hand,
many of his descriptions are remarkable for
their truth and fidelity.
The works of our learned orientalists ren-

Vlll PREFACE.
dered the attempt, were I even equal to it,
of composing a treatise on the language and
literature of Persia unnecessary ; but I thought
it might be agreeable to my readers tc^ see a
few extracts from the celebrated Gulistan of
Saadi. The sentiments and maxims con
tained in that singular production, are not
destitute of interest or merit, nor can it be
denied that all the poets of Europe have been
more or less indebted to the eastern wri
ters for allegorical illustration and poetical
imagery. The Itinerary, or table of distances from
Constantinople to Teheran, through Asia Mi
nor and Armenia, is calculated by hours of
march, according to the established custom
in Turkey ; that of my journey from Erze-
rum to Trebizond, and my return by the
Black Sea, is upon a similar principle. After
having appropriated a few pages to a descrip
tion of the Turkish capital, and an account
of the revolutions which occurred there in
1807 and the following year, the volume ter
minates with some desultory remarks made
on my route to the frontiers of Poland, through
Romelia, Bulgaria, Wallachia, and Moldavia.

CONTENTS.

LETTER I. PAGE
Preliminary Explanations, &c. 1
LETTER II.
Departure from Constantinople — Scutari — Road from that town to
Nicomedia,or Ismith — Kartal — Pentik, or Panticapea — Gheibize
— Herekai, or Heraclea — Description of Nicomedia, its com
merce — Visit to the Pacha, &c. 4
LETTER III.
Road from Nicomedia to Nicea, or Isnick — Karamousal, Kiz
Dervend, a village inhabited by Bulgarians — Lake Ascanius, or
Tehinizit Geuli — Poialidja — Description of Nicea, its anti
quities, &c. 8
LETTER IV.
Road from Nicea to Angora, or Engurie — The Sacharia, or Sangaris
River — Ak Serai — Balaban Zade, Dere Bey, a Prince tributary
to the Grand Signor — Gheive — Teraklu — Torbalu — Kiostebek—
Nalikhan — Sivri Hisar — Bey Bazar — Aias — River Aias — Descrip
tion of Angcra, its commerce, manufactures, Angora goats, its
antiquities, distrust of the Turks of strangers who visit them, &c. 14
LETTER V.
Road from Angora to Josgatt — Hairi Keui — Kilislar Keui —
Kouroudjilik Soui, a stream — The Iris, or Kizil Irmak (the
red river) — States of Tchapan Oglou — Aksakhan — Baltchuk
Kiatib Ounou, a rivulet, of salt water — Wandering Turco
mans — Description of Josgatt, its commerce — Tchapan Oglou —
Visit to that Dere Bey — His good administration and power. 23,

X CONTENTS. PACE
LETTER VI.
Road from Josgatt to Tocat — Dichlidge — Sourkoun — Hadji
Keui — Kizeldik — Zib— Bazar Keui — The river Tosanlu—
Description of Tocat, its commerce, castle, &c.

29

LETTER VII.
Road from Tocat to Kara Hisar — Ford of the Tosanlu — Rock
which seems to have contained a tomb — Neo Cesarea, or
Niksar. — ^Ermeni Keui, the first village of the Pachahk of
Erzerum — Robbers — Kizil Geurluk — Melleum — Janizaries —
Koule Hisar — Endres — Tchifflit, or farm of the Pacha of
Erzerum — Description of Kara Hisar — Good reception by an
old Armenian — Jealousy of the men. 35
LETTER VIII .
Road from Kara Hisar to Erzerum— Zile — Sabuhktan — Kerkif —
Adventure of the Persian ambassador — Lory — Tolos — Pekerik —
Ford of the Euphrates, called Trat by the Turks — Achkala —
Delis, a kind of light cavalry — Elidja, a fountain of hot water —
Anxieties relative to the plague — Description of Erzerum ; its
position and commerce, productions of its territory, wines 
Yousouf Pacha — Festival given by that governor — Game of
the Djerid, a sham fight — Second festhal ouiside the town. " 43
LETTER IX.
Road from Erzerum to Baiazid, the iast frontier town of Turkey
in Armenian Asia — Alvare — Hassan Kale — The river Araxes —
A spring of hot water — Jaian — Alarms relative to the plague
in that village — Deli Baba — Tomb of aPascha — Toprak Kale —
Mala Suleiman — Armenians, Catholics — Kara Kilisia, or the
black Church — Jandjalu — Curdes, origin of that wandering
people, their strolling and vagabond life — Arms and dress of
the Curdes — Robberies committed by them — Utch Kilisia, or
the three churches — Description of that convent, and of the
village of the same name — Mount Ararat, or Agri Dagh —
Diadin — Description of Baiazid — Visit to Ibrahim Pacha,
governor of that city . 52
LETTER X.
Road from Baiazid to Khoi, the first frontier town in Persia, in
that part of the province of Azerbaidjan — Entry into Persia —
Kilisia Kindi, or Havadjik — Curdes, more cautious in Persia
than in Turkey — The Curdes do not acknowledge the authority

CONTENTS. xj
PAGE
of the Grand Signor, but pay a tribute to the king of Persia 
Arab Dilesi — Kara Ini — Zorava — Death of Mr. Bernard, aid-
de-camp to General Gardane — Description of Khoi  Burial
of Mr. Bernard— Festival given by Hadji Muhammed Khan,
governor of Khoi — Persian dancers. 64
LETTER XI.
Road from Khoi to Tauris — The lake Ouromie, or Mouraga,
called by the Persians Deriai Chahi, or the Royal Sea 
Islands — Tesouch — New alarms relative to the plague 
Chebister — Maian, a salt desert and small river — Description
of Tauris, capital of the province of Azerbaidjan — The river
Spingteha — The Adji, a salt rivulet— Audience of the Chah
Zade Abbas Mirza, presumptive heir to the throne of Persia 
Festival given by that prince — Presents — Kizil Bach .signifi
cation of that word — Commerce and climate of Tauris — Bazars
— Ruins — Ahmed Khan, beylerbey of the city— His attach
ment to the French — Theriaki, signification of that word. 69
LETTER XII.
Road from Tauris to Zenghan — New caravan formed at Tauris —
Horses unshod in Persia — Seid Abad — Tikme Tash — Turk-
mann — Ruined villages and caravanseries — Miana, Miana flies —
Bridge over the river of Miana — Kaplan Kouli, or mountain of
tygers — The Kixil Ozzan, bridge on that river — Maiden's
castle — Akkend — Herman Khane — Description of Zenghan,
capital of Hamre, its population — River of Zenghan. 79
LETTER XIII.
Road from Zenghan to Kasbinn — Village of Sultanie, built on
the ruins of a large city, formerly the capital of Persia — Large
mosques — The king of Persia goes every year to pass the
summer, with several of his women, on the plains of Sultanie —
Amusements of the monarch in his camp — Splendor of the
Persian tents — Sankala — Ebher — Sia Dehen — Vines and fruit
trees in the plain of Kasbinn — Manner in which the Persians
make wine — Description of Kasbinn, its commerce, and manu
factures, illumination with coloured paper lantherns, fire- works
and puppet-shew at the house of Mehrab Khan, governor of that "
city — The king of Persia's predilection for astrology. 84
LETTER XIV.
Road from Kasbinn to Teheran — Hassan Abad — Kichla, a
pleasure house of the king of Persia — Kerbous Abad — Ali

*» CONTENTS. PACK
Chah Abbas — Entry of the French embassy into Teheran —
Description of that city, now capital of Irak Adjemi, and of
all Persia, its position — Mount Elvend — the Demavend, its-
summit almost always covered with snow — Internal distribution
of a Persian house— Portrait of Feth Ali Chah. 91
LETTER XV.
Historical summary of the various dynasties that have reigned
in Persia since the year 2400 before the vulgar era, down to
our time — Dynasties of the Pichdadians, or Elamites, the
Kaianiles, or Median kings, the Achkanians and Achganians,
or successors of Alexander. 102
PICHDADIAN KINGS.
Hoshing, or Hosheing Pichdad ; Djemchid ; Piurach ; Dehbahkt ;
Feridoun; Manoudjeher; Nodar; Afrasiab; Zab; Kichtab ;
Kersoman, Siamek, &c. KAIANITE KINGS.
Keikobad ; Kaikaus ; Kai Khousrew ; Lohorasp ; Gustup ;
Ardechir; Homai, or Khemani (a queen) : Dara I. (Darius I.);
Dara II. (Darius II.) dethroned by Iskender, or Alexander.
THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER.
This dynasty is divided into two branches :
1st. The Achkanians, or Parthians . . 12 king s
3d. The Achganians, or Seleucidaa . . 8 
LETTER XVI.
Continuation of the same subject — Dynasty of the Sassanians, or
Sussanidae, otherwise called Artaxerzidee. . 103
Ardchir Budegan, or Artaxerxes.
Schapour I. (Sapor I.) ; Hormouz I. ; Bairam I. ; Bairam II.
Bairam III. ; Narsi ; Hormouz II. ; Schapour II. ; Ardchir II.
Schapour III. ; Bairam IV. ; Yezdgerd el Essim ; Bairam V.
Yezdgerd II. ; Hormouz III. ; Firouz ; Cobad ; Khousrew
Nouchirewan (Kosroes the Great) ; Hormouz IV. ; Khousrew
Perwitz; Cobad Chirouie ; Ardchir III. ; Cheriar; Touran
Douhkt (a queen) ; Azurmi (a queen) ; Ferohk Zab ; Yezdgerd III. 1 18
LETTER XVII.
Sequel and conclusion of the same subject — Empire of the caliphs,
from the year 632 of Jesus Christ, to the year 820, other
Mahometan dynasties— Taherites — Soffarites, or tinkers— Sa-

CONTENTS. Xlll
PAGE
manides — Gaznevides — Gaurides — Dilemites — Beuides, or
Bovides — Seldjeucides — Seldjeucides of Iran, or Persia — Seld-
jeucides ofKerman — Seldjeucides of Iconium, or Asia Minor —
Seldjeucides of Aleppo — Seldjeucides of Damascus — Atabeks of
Syria ; Kharismians, or Kowarismians — Mogols, or Moguls —
Turkomans divided into Kara Kouiounlu (the black sheep), and
Ak Kouiounlu (the white sheep) — Mouhafferians — Mulouk
Couroches, or Curdes — Sephewies, or Sephies — Cheik Sephi —
Ismael — Chah Abbas, first, surnamed the Great — Anecdotes of
the Kalioun — Sephi Mirza— Chah Abbas U  Chah Sephi II 
Chah Hussein — Chah Tahmas — Thamas Kouli Khan, or
Nadir Chah — Ali Kouli Khan, or Adil Chah — Ibrahim —
Chuh Rouhk — Chuh Ismael — Kerim Khan — Vekil, or regent —
Ali Murad — Djaffer Khan — Louft Ali Khan — The eunuch Aga
Muhammed Khan, vekil or regent — Baba Khan, or Feth Ali
Chah, the reigning king. 134
LETTER XVIII.
Extent of modern Persia, or Iram — Its boundaries, provinces,
climate, productions, commerce, cultivation of flowers, waters,
game, fish, butcher's meat, bread, population — Warlike tribes —
Hiat, or Tadjik — Armenians, Jews, Guebree, or Parsees — Govern
ment of Persia — Titles of Mirza^Khan, &c. &c. — Chah Zadgs —
Selam of the king — Daily duties of the ministers and the
nobility to the king. 147
LETTER XIX.
Character of the Persians — their politeness to foreigners — their
religious toleration — their cunning and propensity to falsehood —
their avarice — their sagacity — facility with which they adopt
foreign customs that seem superior to their own — Nuned-
djims, or astrologers — Persian physicians — Musselmen casuists
— Manners of the Persians — their indifference to the fair sex —
Depravity — Marriage — Filthiness — Employment of time —
Cookery — Feasts — Solibets, or assemblies — Amusements —
Exercise of the Djerid — Cock and ram fight — Sportsmen. 169
LETTER XX.
Description of the palace of Nighiaristan, and of Kasri Kadjar —
Harem of the king of Persia — Ruins of Rhages — Village of
Rey — Holy village of Chah Abdul Azim — Religion of the
Persians — Their funerals — Cemeteries — Mosques — General
toleration of the Persians — Intolerance of the Mollahs — Der
vishes — Fakirs — Emirs — Public schools. 179

XIV CONTENTS. rAQB
LETTER XXI.
Ramazan — Bairam — Courban Bairam — Sacrifice of the Camel;
Tazies, religious festivals in commemoration of the martyrdom
of the Imans Hassan and Hussein. 175
LETTER XXII.
Shape and physiognomy of the Persians, their dress — Persian
women, their dress — Baths — Occupations in the harems —
Dancing and music — State of the arts amongst the Persians —
painters, engravers, enamellers, goldsmiths, &c. &c. 202
LETTER XXIII.
Festivals of Newrouz, or of the new year — Persian kalendar —
Khalats, or dresses of honour — Selam of the king — Ceremonies
with which it is accompanied at Newrouz — Offering of the
Chah Zades and governors of provinces — fire-works — Horse
races — the king's elephants. 217
LETTER XXI V.
Of justice in Persia — Punishment — Police — Rahdars, or guards
of the roads — Daroga — Mir Ahdas — Mouhtesib, &c. 233
LETTER XXV.
Diseases peculiar to the climate of Persia — Army, cavalry — Re
view of the troops — -Tufenktchis, or infantry — Artillery — Zem-
bourks — Military household of the king of Persia, goulams,
nasaktchis, chatirs and ferruchs — The king's eunuchs. 243
LETTER XXVI.
Persian language and literature — Translation of the first book of
the Gulistan of Saadi. 258
LETTER XXVII.
Departure from Teheran — Second passage by Kasbinn  Interior
of a harem — Return to Tauris — Stay at the camp of the Chah
Zade Abbas Mirza — French officers in the service of the king of -
Persia— New Persian troops disciplined in the French manner 
Audience of the prince — Presents. 32 j
LETTER XXVIII.
Road from Tauris to Erzerum — Entry into Turkey  Siege of
Baiazid — Timur Bey — Stay at the Camp of the Curdes —
Meeting of two Caravans — Conduct of a Persian named Souhan

CONTENTS. xv
PAGE
Kouli Khan — Fresh violences of the Curdes — Visit to Osman
Pacha, the new governor of Erzerum, &c 319
LETTER XXIX.
Road from Erzerum to Trebizond — Elidja — Kotchik — Baiboud —
Chebin Khane — Jaila — Mountain of the Ten Thousand —
Description of Trebizond — Lazes — Roadstead of Platana, &c. 332
LETTER XXX.
Passage by the Black Sea from Trebizond to Samsoun — Descrip
tion of Samsoun, Greek village called Cadi Keui, &c. 343
LETTER XXXI.
Passage from Samsoun to Sinope — Arrival at Sinope — Description
of that town — Guerze — Ruins of a gymnasium and of the
palace of Mithridates — Ak Liman, a little port at two leagues
from Sinope — Departure from that town, and return, &c. 344
LETTER XXXII.
Passage from Sinope to Constantinople — Arrival at Constan
tinople — Revolutions of 1807 and 1808 — Deposition of Sultan
'elimin. — Succession to the Throne of Sultan Moustapha IV. —
Entry of Sultan Moustapha Bairaktar into Constantinople —
Violent Death of Sultan Selim — Deposition of Moustapha IV. —
Elevation of Sultan Mahmoud II. 350
LETTER XXXIII.
New revolution of the month of November, 1808 — Death of
Moustapha Bairaktar and of Sultan Moustapha IV. — Destruc
tion of the Seimens, troops of the Nizami Djedid. 358
LETTER XXXIV.
Constantinople — Positition of this city — Environs — Shores of the
Bosphorus — Population — Turks — Raias — Armenians— Jews —
Europeans, or Franks — Hamals, or porters — Sakkas, or water-
carriers — Boatmen— Seraglio of the Grand Signor — Imperial
mosques of Santa Sophia and of Sultan Ahmed — Square of the
Hippodromus, or At Meidan — Obelisks and other monuments —
Imperial castle of the Seven Towers, or Jed Koule, &c. &c. 363
LETTER XXXV.
Excursion to Scutari, and the Grand Signor's Paper manufactory
(Hounkia Iskelesi) established by Sultan Selim, &c. &c. 380

XVI CONTENTS PAGS
LETTER XXX VI.
Journey from Constantinople to Lemberg, or Leopold, in Austrian
Gallicia — Aiolou Bourgas— Choumba — Roustchouk — Camp of
the Grand Vizir on the banks of the Danube — Chistow —
Rhova — Lorn — Widdin — Entry into Wallachia — Kalafut —
Russian outposts — Craiova — Bucharest — Rimnick — Entry into
Moldavia — Fokchan — Galatz — Yassy — Balabut — Chotzim —
Entry into Poland — Okop — Tarnopol — Zatchow — Arrival at
Lemberg, capital of Austrian Gallicia — Description of that
city. 386
Itinerary calculated by Hours of March from Constantinople to
Teheran, &c. 395
Biographical Sketches of his Excellency Mirza Aboul Hassan
Khan. 399

Tin Plat- should be bound in at page 202.

LETTERS,

LETTER I.

Preliminary Explanations, &c.

Constantinople, Sept. 8, 1807.
A residence of three years in this capital
having enabled me to-collect various observations
on the country, its manners and customs, I'was
preparing to put a finishing hand to the work
in order to forward it to you, when an event,
which I consider fortunate because it will permit
me to make new and still more curious researches,
has occurred to retard the execution of my pro
ject. General Gardane, minister plenipotentiary
from France to the king of Persia, arrived at
Constantinople a month ago, and I have this
moment received an order to prepare for accom
panying him to Teheran. I had for a long time
past been desirous of performing this journey, and
I have more .than once missed the opportunity,

EXPLANATIONS.

but I shall no longer have reason to regret that
circumstance, as it would have been extremely
difficult to undertake it under more favourable
auspices than the present. Determined that you
shall not lose by the change, I intend to commu
nicate all the circumstances which appear worthy
of notice, according as they present themselves
in the course of our journey. We are going to
traverse Turkey in Asia, Armenia, and Persia.
I need scarcely add that these interesting countries
are fertile mines for the observations of the Eu
ropean traveller.
My principal object is to depict the actual state
of the various countries which we visit, having
always considered this plan as the most likely to
excite interest : I shall touch very lightly on the
history of wars and revolutions, leaving a more
detailed account of these to other writers,
We travel in company with Mirza Muhammed
Riza, minister plenipotentiary from the court of
Persia to the French government. He comes
from Warsaw, at which place he found Napo
leon, and where his mission terminated, for the
events of the war did not admit of his proceed
ing to Paris. He is a fine-looking man ; wears
his beard long, and a very rich dress ; his whole
discourse with us is on the magnificence of his
sovereign, and the wonders which we are going
to see in Persia. In adopting the unfavour
able ideas of the Turks on that nation, I should
most probably imbibe some of their prejudices ;

THE CARAVAN.

but this would have destroyed the agreeable illusion
which enables one to support the fatigues of long
and painful journies.
Our ambassador has already ordered a consi
derable number of horses to be engaged for those
who accompany him, and a proportionate sup
ply of mules for our baggage. We shall form
a caravan of about one hundred persons, includ
ing the Turkish muleteers and their kervandii-
baschi, or chief of the caravan. A mehmandar,
an officer of the Porte, is appointed to conduct
the embassy to the frontiers of Persia, and to take
care that it shall be properly supplied with provi
sions. Finally, a konaktchi-bachi, under the orders
of the former, will precede us, one day's journey
in advance, to prepare accommodations, &c.
The General, finding so numerous a company
sufficiently formidable in itself, has not considered
it necessary to demand an escort ; we are, in fact,
all armed, as if we were going on a military expe
dition. These precautions should not surprise you
in a country where the roads are often infested
with robbers, and in which the very shepherds
guard their flocks with pistols, a poignard in
their belts, and a gun on the shoulder.

u $

DEPARTURE.

LETTER II.
Departure from Constantinople. — Scutari ; Journey from that Town to
Nicomedia, or Ismith. — Kartal. — Pentik. — Gheibize. — Herekia. —
Description of Nicomedia. — Visit to the Pacha.
Nicomedia, Sept. 13, 1807.
We left Constantinople three days ago. On
the 10th, in the morning, we crossed the Bos-
phorus, and landed at Scutari, a town situated on
the coast of Asia, opposite the capital : it is the
Chrysopolis, or golden city, of the ancients ; so
named, no doubt, from the magical effect pro
duced on it by the setting sun. We all assembled
at the house of Mirza Muhammed Riza, the
Persian ambassador mentioned in my last. He
inhabited Scutari, according to the usual custom
of his countrymen who come to Constantinople ;
and his konak, or hotel, was the general place of
meeting for the two embassies.
At half past four in the afternoon we caused
our baggage to be laden, mounted our horses, and
the caravan commenced its march to Kartal, a
large town five hours* distance from Scutari, in
a rich country, well cultivated and full of beauti
ful gardens.
* Distanoes are counted in Turkey by saat, or hours of march
of a horse or a caravan.

GULP Of NICOMEPIA. 5
Our second day's journey was terminated at
Gheibize, a handsome little tpwn, where there is
a bazar, and square ornamented with a neat foun
tain. During those two days we coasted along
the shores of the gulf of Nicomedia, and if we
suffered excessively from the heat, we were amply
compensated by the charming landscapes which
have been almost constantly in view.
On leaving the village of Pentik, the ancient
Panticapea, which is now inhabited only by Greek
fishermen, a large vine full of excellent grapes,
and completely ripe, seemed to invite us to take
some refreshment, and accordingly several of our
party did not fail to allay their thirst there.
Thus far nothing remarkable occurred ; we em
ployed the afternoon in walking about Gheibize,
and passed the night in a large khan or caravan-
sery, in a ruinous state. Our baggage remained
at the entrance of the town, under the care of
the muleteers of the caravan.
Previous to entering Nicomedia, where we
slept last night, the landscape was changed for a
few moments, but without being the less pictu
resque. A road cut into the solid rock rendered
the beginning of our journey more painful than
that of the preceding day, but we were soon
agreeably surprised to find, at the foot of a sterile
and parched declivity, the ruins of an ancient
town called Heraclea, on which is built the village
of Herekia. This place is not large, but its posi
tion on the banks of a stream shaded with beauti-

6 TURKISH TTRANNY.
ful fig and other fruit trees, rendered it very
agreeable, and induced us to halt there to break
fast. Here we saw the ruins of a castle which
belongs to more modern times, and is said to have
been built by the Genoese.
All the country which separates Heraclea from
Nicomedia, in a space of about six leagues, is
covered with wood. Nicomedia, or Ismith as
the Turks now call it, was the extent of this day's
journey; we arrived there in the afternoon, and
were lodged in a handsome house belonging to
one of the principal Greeks : I should add, that
our mehmandar caused the doors to be broken open,
on the refusal of the proprietor to receive us !
We could not have found any place to lodge
in, if abandoned to ourselves in a country desti
tute of inns and lodgings for travellers; and were
therefore obliged to confide in our Mahometan
conductors, merely endeavouring to mitigate as
much as possible the tyranny they exercise on
those poor people in the name of the Grand Sig-
nor. The ambassador was received on his arrival
by the Tersana-emini, superintendant of the arse
nal of this city, who presented us, according to
custom, with pipes and coffee in a kiosk on the
sea shore.
A bin-bachi, or colonel of the Nizami Djedid,
new troops trained in the European mode, came
this morning to conduct us to the Pacha, who had
taken the precaution of ordering the dead bodies
of a man that was hanged, and another beheaded,

NICOMEDIA.

which had been exposed in front of his palace, to
be removed previous to the General's visit.
The Pacha received the ambassador with all
the honours due to his rank : he informed us
that he was preparing to march against the rebel
Kara Osman, who occupies Sabandje, a neigh
bouring district to the- eastward. In fact, the
city is full of his troops, and what is more ex
traordinary in these countries, the inhabitants
have not much reason to complain of their indis
cipline. Sabandje being in our road, the Pacha
has deemed it his duty to recommend our taking
another direction, which will lead us some leagues
out of our way, in order to avoid meeting the
rebels. Nicomedia is eighteen leagues east of Constan
tinople, at the extremity of a gulf, to which it has
given its name. This city, the residence of a
Pacha, contains about twenty thousand inhabit
ants, Greeks, Armenians, and Turks, the latter
forming the chief part of the inhabitants. The
Armenians have their houses on a hill which
commands the town, and whence some ruins
are perceived. Its inclosure is full of the remains
of ancient monuments, which we had not time
to visit, and its environs pestiferous on the side
of the sea, from the stench of some salt pans, are
on the opposite side covered with fruitful gardens
of all kinds, the produce of which is transported
to Constantinople. The forests in the vicinity
contain excellent timber for ship building.

ROUTE CONTINUED.

LETTER III.
Road from Nicomedia to Nicea, or Isnick.— Karamousal. — Kiz Dervend.
— Lake Ascanius. — Poialidja. — Description of Nice, its Antiqui
ties, &c. Nicea, Sept. 15, 1807.
Two days have passed since our departure from
Nicomedia, and no disagreeable accident has yet
happened to disturb the gaiety which animates
our caravan : I consider this as a good omen, and
if we have not hitherto experienced many priva
tions, we shall have need of it when the hardships
usually incidental to travelling in those countries
commence. We left the walls of Nicomedia the day before
yesterday, at seven in the morning, escorted by
some horsemen of the Pacha. The first object
that presented itself to our notice on quitting the
city, was a permanent gibbet, which seemed to
await some new victim.
Having deviated from the usual road, to avoid
meeting the rebels, I do not think we lost by
the change, as it obliged us to coast the oppo
site shore of the gulf; it is impossible to wit
ness a more beautiful country : this was still
more rich than the one we followed in going to
Nicomedia. It is true that at first we were

PICTURESQUE SCENERY. 9
obliged to pass marshy fields, and sometimes even
wade up to the breasts of our horses into the
sea, to avoid the dangerous passes of the rocks
which impeded our progress ; but we could not
pay too dearly for the charming prospect of
numerous farms and handsome villages which we
saw at every step.
All this part of the country is very populous, fer
tile, and well cultivated; producing figs, quinces,
excellent melons, and various kinds of fruit, which
serve to supply the capital ; the grapes grown here
are also of a superior quality.
Karamousal is a small town of three or four
thousand inhabitants, nearly all Turks ; it is situ
ated on the borders of the gulf, nine leagues
from Nicomedia, and did not seem to be very
hospitable. The various lodgings offered to us
were so filthy, that the ambassador determined
on pitching his tent in the middle of a garden :
for my part, I went with some of my companions
to sleep in a Turkish coffeehouse, raised on piles
close to the sea. Some Janizaries who were
going to the army of the Grand Vizir, and who
at first mistook us for Russians, attracted by the
coolness of the situation, conspired to drive us
out and take possession of our beds ; but the
master of the coffee-house, expecting no doubt
to derive more advantage from us than the inter
lopers, defended our interests with so much warmth
that they were at length obliged to retire.
On the 14th in the morning, when we were

10 KARA OSMAN.
going to depart from this little town, an
agent of Kara Osman presented himself to the
ambassador, saying that he was commanded by
his master to express the regret he experienced
at the circuitous track we had been induced to
take ; particularly as he intended to have re
ceived him, with those marks of respect due
to the minister of a great country. The same
agent was the bearer of a compliment of another
kind for our mehmandar. Kara Osman threw
all the blame upon him, and threatened to cut
off his head if ever he should fall into his power.
The heat was excessive when we left the town,
and appeared the more insupportable, as on
quitting the shores of the gulf to continue our
journey inland, the country began to appear
naked and waste. We found, however, to our
no small satisfaction, some shady spots, and
arrived rather early at Kiz Dervend, after a
march of seven leagues and a half. Here
we were agreeably surprised to find women
walking with their faces uncovered, and men
whose manners formed a singular contrast to
those of the Asiatics. We were not less so in
seeing the costume worn on the banks of the
Danube, and on hearing the Sclavonian lan
guage spoken in a country to which we should
have supposed it quite a stranger. Some infor
mation soon cleared up this apparent mystery.
The inhabitants acquainted us they were of Bul
garian origin, and that the village was founded,

KIZ DER VEND. 11
about a century ago, by an emigration of their
ancestors, who had come to seek that happiness
and tranquillity in Asia which they could not
obtain in their own country. Their industry and
that of their descendants soon made this little
republic prosper : all the members of it appeared
happy and contented ; an air of comfort and
prosperity was seen in their houses, where we
met the most cordial hospitality. If it be true
that idleness is the parent of every vice, they
ought to be rare at Kiz Dervend, as all its inha
bitants, both men and women, were occupied in
useful labours : most of the latter were spinning
hemp ; and we learned from our hosts that
corn and this article formed their chief wealth, as
also their principal branches of trade.
The inhabitants of this village are Christians
of the Greek church ; on our approach they
shewed neither distrust nor jealousy. Their wo
men are handsome and well made, and we were
permitted to converse with them as freely as with
their husbands.
At a small distance from Kiz Dervend, on leav
ing a wood, we discovered the Lake Ascanius,
which the Turks call Tchinizit-Geuli, and on its
shore the little town of Poialidja. This lake dis
charges its waters into the sea of Marmora : its
length is about eight leagues, by three in breadth ;
further on it washes the walls of Nicea, and is said
to abound in fish. The borders of the Lake As
canius are marshy and covered with reeds, and its

12 NICEA.
waters, though fresh, are by no means agreeable
to the taste. The surrounding country produces
a great number of olive trees, the fruil of which
must be of ordinary quality, as this tree is better
suited to a dry soil.
The excessive heat which prevails in this season
obliges us to make short journies. We arrived
this morning, after a march of five hours, at Nicea,
or Isnik, and have already visited the most curious
antiquities in it : we traversed the whole of the
ancient boundaries of the city, and particularly
that of the citadel, which is in very good preser
vation. The space occupied by the latter is desert
and uninhabited; brambles and weeds grow
amongst the gloomy fragments of those monu
ments overturned by time and barbarity, and
which require only the hand of civilization to
raise them again.
This afternoon we went to the church, where
the first and seventh Oecumenical councils were
held, one in 325, and the other in 787. The em
peror Constantine presided at the former, and
the Greeks religiously preserve the marble throne
of that prince, which is to be seen in the sanc
tuary. With the exception of the principal en
trance, and two small columns of nero-antico
which support the baptismal fonts, this church
has nothing remarkable, being both small and
dark. The priest who acted as our guide made
us stop before an alabaster tomb, which, as he
said, contains the remains of the saint who founded

ANTIQUITIES. 13
this temple, one of the most ancient of the Chris
tians. We have also seen two beautiful columns of
porphyry at the door of a mosque, of which the
minaret is covered with tiles of various colours.
A lover of antiquities may find much to satisfy
his taste at Nicea. The people continually offered
medals, intaglios, and cameos, to which objects
the Turks and modern Greeks attach no value :
they may be bought here on very low terms, the
venders being usually contented with the first
price you offer them.
Nicea is a feverish and unhealthy residence ; the
exhalations from the- lake are putrid and deadly ;
paleness is visible in every countenance, and from
the languishing and sickly air of all the inhabi
tants, it gives" one the idea of being in a vast
hospital.

14 ANGORA.

LETTER IV.
Road from Nicea to Angora. — The river Sacharia — Ak -serai. — Balaban
Zade. — Dere Bey. — Gheive. — Teraklu. — Torbalu. — Kiostebek. — Na-
likhan, — Sivri-hissar. — Bey Bazar. — Aias. — Description of Angora.
—Angora Goats. Angora, Sept.' 26, 1807.
We entered the walls of Angora yesterday, but
previous to saying any thing of this large city, I
ought to indicate the road by whieh we came here.
On leaving Nicea we directed our course towards
Ak-serai, through charming woods of myrtles and
pomegranates ; but the sun being very powerful,
their scanty shade was not sufficient to preserve
us from the greatest heat we had yet endured.
After having passed, by a ruined bridge, the
Sacharia, which irrigates and fertilizes the fine
plain of Ak-serai, we arrived in that town towards
sun setting, having marched twelve hours.
Ak-serai, or the white palace, is so named
from a large white house, which is seen for a dis
tance of more than two leagues as you approach
it. This place is small, and belongs to a Dereby,
or feudatory prince of the Grand Signor, called
Balaban Zade. There are many of these petty
sovereigns in this part of Asia, and I shall soon

BALABAN ZADE. 15
have occasion to describe one of the most power
ful of them, through whose territory we are to
pass. The sovereignty of Balaban Zade extends
over all this fine plain, which seems to be gene
rally cultivated with care. It contains thirty-six
villages of various sizes, and in one of them there
is a bazar where all the traders of the country
assemble once a week. The Sacharia divides it
in several directions, and it is to this river that it
owes its wealth. Cotton, sesame (a plant that
gives a seed from which the Levant Jews press
an oil for using in their food), and the juniper berry,
are its most common productions. The cotton of
Ak-serai is very much esteemed in commerce,
a great quantity of it being annually sent to
Smyrna, and from thence to Europe.
On the following day our journey was much
shorter ; we travelled only three leagues, and
halted at Gheive, a village inhabited entirely by
Mussulmen : the heat was still excessive.
The aga of Gheive who lives in a good house,
had the civility to send the General some excellent
fruits and ice. The dress of the Turks here is no
longer the same as in Constantinople ; the turban
is very high, and flattened on the top ; the men
are armed with long pistols and poignards, and
not a single female face is to be seen.
Teraklu, a town seven leagues from Gheive,
where we rested on the 18th instant, is inhabit
ed by fanatics. The firmans of the Grand Sig-

16 A COLD RECEPTION.
nor were at first rather ill received, and our
mehmandar was obliged to go to the mehkeme
or tribunal of the cadi, to obtain two houses for
us, and from which the women were previously
dislodged. The following occurrence may give
you an idea of the disposition of the inhabitants
of Teraklu, and of the reception met with from
them by those who do not join in their religious
belief : a dealer in sherbet refused to serve us
with that beverage, although we offered him
money beforehand, and it was impossible to obtain
any thing from him but abuse, and the epithets of
dogs, infidels, &c.
The name of this village is derived from the
Turkish word terak, which signifies a comb, and,
in fact, that article forms the only trade of the
inhabitants, which, added to that of wooden
spoons and other utensils, cannot procure them
great wealth ; the environs, however, are well cul
tivated, and covered with orchards.
On the 19th we slept at Torbalu, after a
march of eight hours : before we arrived we had
to climb over steep rocks, and go along a path
of three feet wide, bordered on each side with
frightful precipices. Torbalu is a small town of
three thousand inhabitants, who are much more
tractable than those of Teraklu. Here we found
all the conveniences which could be reasonably
expected on such a journey. This country is rich
in corn and vineyards.
I shall not dwell long on the village of Kioste-

SIVRI HISSAR. 17
bek, nor on another place, called Nalikhan, where
we stayed successively on the 20th and 21st, nei
ther having presented anything worthy of remark.
In the first, one might suppose himself transported
into Poland, from the manner in which the houses
are built, composed of trunks of trees not squared,
laid horizontally upon each other, also from the
immense forests of firs and holm -oaks which we
passed before arriving there. Our manner of tra
velling is one of the most fatiguing : no high
road, always rough paths, and often mountains
and precipices, where the least slip of a horse may
cause instant destruction.
After a painful march of six hours, in a naked
and arid country, we arrived on the 22d, at Sivri
Hissar, a village where all the houses are built of
clay, presenting at first sight, an aspect of the
greatest misery ; which induced us to prefer lodg
ing in the stable of a large caravansery, near a
rivulet which runs at the foot of the mountain.
A more particular examination soon convinced
us, that the inhabitants of Sivri Hissar are not so
wretched as we at first supposed. They grow
wheat, barley, sesame, and manufacture small
carpets, which serve the Mussulmen for kneeling
on when at their prayers. Their territory pro
duces excellent melons, of which the inside is
green, and their goats resemble those of Angora.
This country is as dismal as that through which
we passed on the preceding days was smiling
and agreeable. The view embraces nothing but

18 ANGORA.
mountains of granite, whose dreary aspect is only
tempered by the variety of their colours. There
exists in the environs of Smyrna another village
of the same name as the above.
We marched seven hours before we arrived at
Bey Bazar. The populace of this town attacked
us with a shower of stones, and the physician of
the embassy had a narrow escape of becoming a
victim to their fanaticism. When we arrived at
the lodgings destined for us, it was necessary to
drive away the assailants with cudgels, and close
the doors to avoid farther insult.
Bey Bazar is twenty leagues from Angora.
The town is built on an uneven situation, and is
watered by a rivulet which runs into the river Aias.
Ten leagues further, and after having crossed that
river, we met a better reception in a town, to
which it has given its name, at twelve hours
march from Angora.
Here we are at length, having proceeded one
hundred and twenty leagues journey. We made
rather a long march yesterday, and the necessity of
taking some repose, no less than the desire of
visiting a celebrated city, have determined the
ambassador to take a day's rest.
Angora is the ancient Ancyra. Invested by
the Romans in the reign of Augustus, it passed
with all Gallacia, under the domination of the
conquering nation. The above emperor embel
lished Ancyra with a great number of monuments,
the ruins of which still remain, and the Ancy-

ITS SITUATION. 19
reans dedicated a magnificent temple to him, to
perpetuate their gratitude.
Tournefort estimated the population of Angora
at forty thousand Turks, five thousand Arme
nians, and six hundred Greeks. But it is by no
means so great at present ; I do not believe it
exceeds thirty thousand souls, including the
Armenians, whose number surpasses that of the
Mussulmen : there are also many Catholics and
some Jews here.
Angora is situated on the declivity of a hill, at
the extremity of a plain celebrated by the last
victory of Tamerlane over Bajazet in 1399. This
city is one of the most commercial in Asia; its ba
zars contain every thing that a traveller can desire ;
the most rare productions of the east, and a great
deal of European merchandize being exposed for
sale here. The shawls alone would be sufficient
to enrich it : these are made from the hair of the
Angora goat ; their beauty surpasses that of the
finest camblets. The valuable animals to which
it owes this branch of industry, soon degenerate
in other countries, as many experiments have
demonstrated. I would not, however, attempt to
assert, that with perseverance and continued care,
they might not be naturalized in our climates.*
But the inhabitants of Angora are so jealous of

* This is actually the case in France, where shawls made
from the hair of these animals bred in Europe, were exposed, at
the Louvre in August last, by Messrs. Ternaux and Son. — Ed.
c2

20 ANGORA SHAWLS.
what they consider with reason as the principal
source of their prosperity, that it would be difficult
not to say impossible to persuade them on this
point. Owing to the many unfavourable chances
which traders must encounter in such [an enter-
prize, there is very little hope of its ever being
attempted , so that the undertaking, if ever adopted ,
must be carried on in contraband.
Those shawls, of a softness equal to that of the
finest silk, are of all colours. The Turks make
summer dresses of them, and they seem to prefer
those of a white colour. The same material also
serves in the manufacture of extremely fine half
stockings. You would be surprised to see the numerous
flocks of goats scattered on the plains of Angora :
some are of an extraordinary stature for their
species : the sight is enchanting, from their clean
liness and the dazzling whiteness of their fleeces,
which often reach the ground. Outside a circum
ference of some leagues, every thing changes,
when nothing but the common goats are seen.
Other animals besides the goats of Angora,
divide the privilege of wearing a richer and more
resplendent robe than that of the common species.
Of this number are the beautiful cats so much
admired in Europe, where they have become natu
ralized. The crowd of curious persons, attracted by
the singularity of a dress quite new to them, be
sieged, us in a very inconvenient manner during

ARMENIAN WOMEN. 21
the first hours after our arrival; and the Turkish
guards who were appointed to take care of us,
were constantly occupied in throwing their clubs
at the legs of those who approached too near our
konak. However, when we walked through the
town, and they could look at us without re
straint, the people soon became accustomed to
our dresses, and we did not suffer so much from
their importunity.
The women of Angora appeared extremely
beautiful : I allude of course to the Armenians,
who walk about with their faces uncovered :
as to the Mahometan females, it was impossible
for us to discern their features, enveloped as
they were from head~to feet in a long piece of
white linen, which effectually conceals their face
and form from the sight.
We occupy an immense house, from which the
proprietors have, no doubt, been driven. I have
already given you notice that every thing here is
clone by violence, and each day presents new
instances of it, but we are obliged to suffer what
we cannot prevent.
The ambassador alighted at the house of a re
puted physician, who called himself a Venetian :
more recent information led to our knowing that
he was a native of the Island of Cefalonia, and
filled the office of British vice-consul. He is
dressed in the oriental manner, and speaks Turkish
tolerably well.
The Aga, or commandant of this city, has been

22 ANCIENT REMAINS.
very distrustful, and did not pay all that defer
ence to the embassy which we anticipated :
buried, like those of his country, in the preju
dices of fanaticism, he made a thousand difficul
ties in permitting us to visit the ancient monu
ments which cover the remains of Ancyra. The
Turks cannot conceive what interest there is in
examining the ruins of antiquity ; they only see
madmen, or a feeling of avarice in those who
dig up treasures from amidst such melancholy
vestiges. We could therefore only satisfy our
curiosity imperfectly in this respect ; for, being
watched as dangerous and suspected persons, we
merely gave a rapid glance at the objects which
required a more calm and leisurely examina
tion.

JOSGATT. 23

LETTER V.
Road from Angora to Josgatt. — Hairi Keui. — Xilislar Keui. — Kouroud-
jilik-soui a Stream. — The river Iris or Kisil Irmak. — Territories of
Tchapan Oglou. — Aksakhan. — Baltchuk.— Kiatib Oucou. — A Stream
of salt Water. — Wandering Turcomans. — DdiCripticm of Josgatt. —
Visit to Tchapan Oglou, &c. Josgatt, Oct. 2, 1807.
On leaving Angora we proceeded towards the
estates of this derebey, or feudatory prince, a
vassal of the Grand Signor, of whom I promised
you some information. From the 28th of last
month, we have been in the territory of Tchapan
Oglou. On the 27th, the day of our departure
from Angora, we slept at Hairi Keui, a miserable
village built of clay, ten leagues from that city.
On the 2Sth it was observed that three persons
of the embassy were missing from the caravan.
Our mehmandar, whose zeal had never once
relaxed from the beginning of the journey, im
mediately set out to seek them : after two hours
uneasiness and a fruitless inquiry in the village of
Kilislar Keui, situated on a rivulet which the
Turks call Kouroudjilik Soui, the ambassador
determined to pursue his way, recommending the
inhabitants to conduct the three stragglers to
our next station.

24 GOOD GOVERNMENT.
We soon discovered, from the top of a hill
covered with briars, the Iris, Kisil-Irmak, or
Red River, which flows into the Black Sea, at
four days journey from thence, and serves as a
boundary to the territories of Tchapan Oglou.
We forded it without any accident, and found a
village called Aksakhan, on the opposite bank ;
the inhabitants of which have aii air of prosperity
and affability which surprised us very agreeably.
We attributed these fortunate circumstances to
the good government of their prince, who en
courages agriculture and commerce, and does
not exhaust the means of his subjects by the
exactions of arbitrary imposts. The candour
and simplicity of the early ages, together with the
hospitable virtues, seem to belong to these worthy
people, who enjoy the fruits of their labours in
peace, without any fear of the rapacity and
tyranny of a Pacha and his creatures. Crimes
are never heard of amongst them, and the tra
veller may pass through this country without
fear, as it has been cleared of those robbers who
so generally infest the other roads of Turkey.
During the night we had the pleasure of seeing
our three stray fellow travellers arrive, accompa
nied by the mehmandar. He had gone more than
twenty leagues in search of them. One of them,
who studied mineralogy, carried away by his
favourite pursuit, had led the other two with
him: they wandered about until they arrived at
a large town, where our mehmandar succeeded

WANDERING TURCOMANS. 26
in finding them. It was now ordered that in
future no person should separate from the convoy.
We slept at Baltchuk on the 29th ; and on the
30th after having forded a small river, at Kiatib
Ounon, a village surrounded with rivulets of
salt water, we met in the morning, for the
first time, a horde of wandering Turcomans
encamped in the midst of a beautiful plain.
These people are originally from the eastern
shores of the Caspian Sea, and travel thus through
various parts of Asia, with their families and
flocks. It is asserted that they seize travellers
when they can, in order to sell them afterwards
in their own country ; but they are more circum
spect in these territories : however, from a pru
dent caution, we kept on our guard, closed our
ranks and defiled before their camp, as if pre
pared to resist any aggression they might offer.
On the 1st we passed through a parched and
arid country : no signs of cultivation were to be
seen, excepting in the environs of villages. The
heat is still great, yet less so than on the preced
ing days, and we have not had any rain from the
commencement of the journey. We travelled
fifteen hours and a half to reach Josgatt, where
the embassy was to pass the night, and part of
the next day.
At four leagues from tjiis town, towards sun
set, we met thirty horsemen well mounted and
armed with long spears, who were sent by the
Bey to compliment the ambassador. The Arme-

26 TCHAPAN OGLOU.
nian bishop and a physician, of Italian origin,
also made part of the company : the latter was
ordered to compliment the general in the name
of Tchapan Oglou. It was not yet night, and
the cavaliers never ceased capering round us,
brandishing their lances, as long as day-light
lasted ; at length we entered the city by roads
that were almost impassably. The inhabitants
had come to receive us at the gates, holding
torches of resinous wood, and thus conducted us
to the house of a rich Armenian, who had already
prepared a sumptuous feast in the manner of the
country. This is the first town in which we have
met with such a brilliant reception.
Josgatt is a recently established town, contain
ing three or four thousand souls : it is well built,
having bazars and caravanseries for travellers ;
it appeared also to have some trade. It is forty-
eight leagues from Angora, and one hundred and
sixty-eight from Constantinople.
It is truly pleasing to observe the happy effects
of a government more prudent and enlightened
than that of the other provinces of the Ottoman
empire. The air of prosperity which appears
in the town, the activity of its inhabitants, and
the liberty which the subjects who are not Maho
metans, enjoy, form an agreeable variety to the
afflicting pictures of despotism we have so often
under our eyes. But the satisfaction we ex
perience in seeing the most precious rights of
mankind less misunderstood and more respected,

A PRESENTATION. 27
can only be of short duration ; having still a long
way to go before we quit Turkey.
This day, at noon, we went to pay a visit to
Tchapan Oglou. The Bey had previously sent
his physician, several guards and horses to the
ambassador. We lost no time in proceeding to
his palace, all being anxious to see a Mussulman
prince, who was no less respectable from his
age, than from the prudence and justice of his
government. Having alighted from our horses in a large
court, between a double line of cavalry, we
were conducted up a handsome staircase into a
well-lighted gallery of more than one hundred
paces in length : a magnificent saloon terminated
it, this was wainscoted, gilt, and furnished with
sofas of Persian stuffs. Tchapan Oglou entered
at the same time with us ; he made the general
sit by his side, and very gracefully invited us to
place ourselves on the sofas. After the first
compliments were over, we were served with
pipes, sherbet, and coffee. The general pre
sented a case of pistols richly ornamented, and
many other productions of French industry to
the Bey ; and received two fine hoi*ses in return,
one of which was destined for his brother.
Tchapan Oglou seemed to be about sixty-six
years of age : his face, ornamented with a long
white beard, is full of mildness and dignity. He
can muster about thirty thousand cavalry, and
has been able to make himself formidable to his

28 tchapan's popularity.
neighbours, and the Ottoman Porte itself, which
caresses him and seeks his friendship ; but his
chief strength consists in a good and popular ad
ministration of the laws, the real support of his
power, and source of his subjects' affection.*
In another hour we shall remount our horses,
and continue our journey towards Tocat, from
whence I hope shortly to address you.

* Tchapan Oglou died the following year : his son succeeded to
him in the government of this part of Asia Minor. All those
derebeys or tributary princes of the Ottoman Porte, transmit
their dignities to their children.

DEPARTURE. 29

LETTER VI.
Road from Josgatt to Tocat — Dichlidje. — Sourkoun. — Hadji Keui. 
Kizildjik. — Zib. — Bazar Keui. — The River Tozanlu. — Description of
Tocat, its Castle and Commerce. Tocat, October 8, 1 807.
The attentions and politeness of Tchapan Oglou
to our ambassador, were not limited to the ho
nours he rendered him in his residence : he also
provided for his safety, and gave us another
proof of his esteem, by ordering an escort of
twenty of his cavalry, to accompany us to the
frontiers. We left Josgatt on the 2d instant in the after
noon : the weather was cloudy, and the coolness
of the wind began to make us feel the influence
of autumn. Towards the evening an abundant
rain, the first we had seen since our departure
from Constantinople, put our caravan in confu
sion. We dispersed in the midst of an unknown
country, and I went to pass the night with three
of my travelling companions, at the village of
Dichlidje, where we had a stable for our quarters.
The inhabitants of it could not give us any infor-

30 SORKOUN.
mation of the rest of the embassy, and it was
only on the next morning that we found them in
another village not far distant.
We saw nothing remarkable at Sorkoun, where
we ended our third day's journey, except a dog
of a prodigious size, considered a most formid
able enemy of the wolves in those parts. We,
however, contrived to insinuate ourselves into his
good graces, and though belonging to a race that
is difficult to be gained over by caresses, he wm
not insensible to ours. These animals are often
seen in this province, they resemble our mastiffs,
but are infinitely larger. We also saw some very
fine greyhounds there.
Hadji-keui and Kizildjik were our two next
stations. During the first of these marches which
continued eleven hours, we saw a great many
vineyards, and again met a band of Turcomans
encamped with their families. In the second,
which was for ten hours, we encountered others,
but without the occurrence of any thing disagree
able. You must not, however, attribute our
good fortune to the prudence or regularity that
prevailed in our caravan ; we are more fortunate
than wise, and better order would certainly have
been desirable in our march.
The country through which we passed before
we arrived at Kizildjik is fertile a^d well culti
vated. This village, inhabited entirely by Mus-
sulmen, is in a beautiful situation, on a hill co-

TURKISH HOSPITALITY. 31
vered with gardens and orchards. It is watered
by an abundant and limpid rivulet, which supplies
several fountains.
The manners of the inhabitants are mild and
patriarchal : a good old man, with whom we
lodged, invited us to enter his garden, and gather
as much fruit as we thought proper: we found ex
cellent melons, peaches, grapes, walnuts, and ap
ples of an exquisite flavour. On leaving his house,
we had great trouble in prevailing on our host to
accept the collection we had made amongst us,
in acknowledgment of his generous hospitality.
Never before had he taken payment for the plea
sure of obliging his fellow creatures. What
would this worthy Mussulman have thought of
us, had he known that in our more polished
countries, hospitality is only to be had for its
weight in gold !
On the morning of the 6th, at a short distance
from Kizildjic, we perceived a fortified town in
the distance to the left, which is said to be rather
large. It is called Zil, and belongs to Tchapan
Oglou, being the last strong hold on his territory.
All this province is covered with numerous vil
lages. In the evening the caravan unloaded its bag
gage at Bazar Keui, a tolerably well built town,
the population of which is about two thousand,
all Turks. There are scarcely any more Greeks
to be found in this district, the Armenians them
selves being very scarce.

32 TOCAT.
Bazar Keui,* is thus named from a bazar or
market which is held there once a week. The
inhabitants cultivate tobacco, and collect very
good honey. At the entrance of this town we
saw a vast caravansery built of stone, which
is falling to ruin : the apathy and negligence of
the Turks are every where the same ; they suffer
the greatest and most useful works to perish,
with a carelessness which can scarcely be believed,
if every step we take did not present new in
stances of it.
Yesterday, we followed the course of the Tos
anlu, a fine river which waters the plain of Tocat,
and runs to join the Kizil Irmak previous to its
flowing into the Black Sea. At a league from
the town, in a road bordered by gardens inclosed
between dry stone walls, the horsemen and drums
sent by the mutesellim waited for the ambassador.
We entered the walls of Tocat at noon, where
we shall remain the rest of the day ; we are
lodged at the house of a rich Armenian, from
whom we have met a very good reception.
Tocat is the appanage of a sultana, who ap
points the mutesellim or governor. It is a large
and handsome city, containing thirty thousand
inhabitants, Turks, Greeks and Armenians, built
partly in a valley, and partly on the declivity of
mountains which confine it on the north and
south. The houses are large and of a fine ap-
* In Turkish the word keui signifies a vilhgc.

MANUFACTURES. 33
pearance, but instead of glass windows, they
have only oiled paper pasted on the frames.
Tocat is six days journey southward of Sinope
two north of Sivas, and three south of Amasia.
Its bazars ¦ present every resource for supplying
our wants. It carries on a great trade in copper,
which is much esteemed throughout Turkey : this
metal is obtained from the mines of Gumuch
Khane and Costambol. Silk, stuffs, and beautiful
Morocco leather, are also manufactured here :
its markets are full of excellent fruits produced
in the surrounding country, and the Christians
make tolerably good wine.
There are fewer remains of antiquity to be
found here than at Nicea or Angora, but other
monuments, more modern, attract the notice of
the traveller. The most considerable amongst
the latter is a Greek Church, which was probably
once the Cathedral, although now converted into
a mosque. It is situated in the principal square of
the city, its cupola greatly resembles that of Saint
Sophia at Constantinople, but it is on a smaller
scale. On the summit of a rock which commands the
whole city, there is an old castle, where, during
the war in Egypt, twenty French prisoners were
confined, all of whom were officers and soldiers
who had formed part of the garrison at Zante.
Our unfortunate countrymen suffered a thousand
torments there, and one of them, exhausted with
the weight of chains he could no longer support,

34 TURKISH CRUELTY.
freed himself from slavery by embracing the
Mahometan religion. The rigour of the Turks
to their prisoners of war, is such as may be ex
pected from people who are strangers to every
sentiment of humanity ; and who set little or no
value on the life of man : the religious fanaticism
which directs them in their wars against the
Christians, justifies, in their minds, the most
barbarous treatment. Thrown into the bagnios
with criminals, or shut up in damp dungeons, few
Christians escape death, if they remain faithful
to their country, for it is only by embracing Isla-
rnism they can hope to recover their liberty.
The Turks of Tocat are harsh and ferocious :
I know not if their jealousy be more active and
restless than in other places, but their women are
covered with impenetrable veils. We were in
sulted several times in walking through the town
and bazars : they even threw stones at us, and,
upon the whole, we were never so much incom
moded by the crowd of intruders at any other
place.

ENCHANTING SCENERY. 35

LETTER VII.
Road from Tocat to Kara Hissar. — Ford of the river Tosanlu. — Neo
Cesarea, or Niksar. — Ermeni Keui. — Robbers. — Kizil Geuziuk. —
Melleum. — Janizaries. — Koule Hisar. — Endres. — Tchiflit, or farm of
the Pacha of Erzerum. — Description of Kara Hissar, &c.
Kara Hissar, Oct. 15, 1807.
At a short distance from Tocat we forded the
Tosanlu, and saw a curious grotto in a high rock,
which bounds the road on the left. The situation
of the place seems to indicate a tomb, which is
still farther manifested by a Greek inscription
engraved on the upper part of it. I ought
in this place to borrow the language of poe
try, to describe the enchanting scenes through
which we passed during the remainder of this
day ; charming woods, whose verdure was still as
fresh as in the spring ; winding paths shaded by
fine trees, which bent in natural arcades above
our heads ; the perfumes of a multitude of flowers
and aromatic herbs, and the soft murmurs of a
streamlet that formed cascades at every step, was
the almost constant scene which presented itself
to our view on the journey from Tocat to the
Neo Cesarea of Cappadocia. »2

36 NIKSAR.
This town, whose name has been disfigured as
usual by the Turks, is now called Niksar ; it is
situated on a very steep hill, eleven leagues east
ward of Tocat : an old castle which is seen on its
most elevated site, and the marshes by which it is
surrounded, might contribute to its defence in
case of need. It contains about one thousand
inhabitants, of which half are Armenians and
Greek Christians.
On our journey of the 11th, which was a march
of ten hours, we passed through continued woods
of firs, where there were also yews, wild apple
and pear trees : we tasted the fruit of the latter,
but found them very unpalatable. Here the
smallest objects often awaken the most painful
reflections : nature has done every thing for these
countries : a more industrious nation would have
taken advantage of her prodigality, and enriched
itself in a short time from the innumerable bene
fits she has conferred on the people.
We terminated our day's march at Ermeni
Keui, an Armenian village surrounded with rich
pastures : during the night the cattle are put into
inclosures near the houses, and guarded by dogs,
which are really giants of their species. In the
evening I was very near being the victim of their
vigilance : in looking for the ambassador's quar
ters, I entered by mistake into one of those in
closures, and had to sustain a vigorous assault
from one of these watchful guardians. I owed
my safety to the assistance I received from the

AN ESCAPE. 37
owners of the house ; for, had I taken to flight,
I should infallibly have been devoured.
Ermeni Keui is the first village of the Pachalik
of Erzerum. A thin rain, mixed with melted
snow, occasioned us much inconvenience the next
day, and made the roads very slippery : still it
was necessary to pass over some mountains, and
venture into large forests of firs. In one of these
we met with robbers, whose air and accoutre
ments would have spread alarm amongst a less
numerous and worse-armed troop than ours : as it
was, we were not without some uneasiness for
a part of our baggage that had remained in the
rear, under a weak escort : but the presence of
mind of our mehmandar contributed no doubt to
save it. He pretended to be acquainted with
the robbers, and to know whence they came:
and therefore made them responsible for our
effects, which he placed under their care ; by
this means they arrived, safely in two hours after
us at Kisil Guezluk, a village built on the declivity
of high mountains, then covered with snow. We
made large fires at this place to warm ourselves,
and dry our clothes deluged with the rain. But we
had not yet seen the last of our disasters : a heavy
snow fell in the afternoon, and did not cease
during the whole night and two following days.
As you have seen, it was but a short time
since we enjoyed a temperature equal to that of
the spring, so that you will be astonished to find
us now exposed to all the severity of winter.

38 banditti.
These contrasts are very frequent in Asia, and
are generally met with in all countries covered
with forests and mountains. For several days
past we have been on a considerable elevation,
and have still to ascend. On descending towards
the valley of the Euphrates, we are led to believe we
shall find a milder climate, and perhaps even heat.
On the 12th, the ground was covered with six
inches of snow : when we left Kizil Geuzluk, it
fell in such abundance, as to prevent our seeing
objects only a few paces before us. The space
within our view resembled an immense sheet of
dazzling whiteness, and it had become impossible
to distinguish the roads. We lost our way se
veral times in the winding paths of the immense
fir forests which cover these mountains, and we
met some of those banditti, who, not deterred by
frosts, post themselves in detachments for sur
prising the caravans. They did not, however,
make any hostile attempt on us. I do not know
whether it was our European dress that led to
their forbearance, but it was often in their power
to have plundered our stragglers.
Mellem, eight leagues from Kizil Geuzluk,
was the termination of this march. It is a con
siderable town of Mussulmen, who are all en
rolled in the militia of the janizaries. They in
formed us, in the boasting manner so peculiar to
them, that they had furnished forty men in the
last war, (to the 31st orta or regiment) who were
considered the bravest of the whole corps.

TURKISH ARMY. 89
There was some truth, but much more exag--
geration in the relation they gave us of their ex
ploits, which at most could only have imposed
on children. Nothing can equal the abject state
into which this corps has fallen, though it once
formed the great strength of the Ottoman armies.
Originally composed of the children of Chris
tians, brought up in the Mahometan religion,
their number was limited, and never exceeded a
few thousands. The privileges that were either
granted to them, or which they arrogated to
themselves in the course of time, induced a great
number of Mussulmen to enrol themselves in
this corps, and by degrees nearly all the people
have ended by getting incorporated into it.
Amongst a civilized race subjected to discipline,
aDd instructed in military tactics, such a militia
would be invincible and formidable only to the
enemy. It is not so in Turkey : as cowardly in
war, as they are insolent and undisciplined during
peace, the janizaries make none tremble but their
sovereign, and the friends of order and tranquil
lity ; it is here that those who ought to be the
firmest supporters of the throne and the state
have become the terror of the one, and the arbi
ters of the other.
The snow increased during the march of the fol
lowing day : twenty- times, at least, were we dis
persed in the midst of a forest, without being able
to find our way out. When at length extricated
from this labyrinth, we found ourselves on the

40 dangers.
summit of a mountain. Surrounded on all sides
by thick clouds, we might be said to march over
thunder : our horses stumbled at every step, and
we had precipices on each side.
On leaving this disagreeable spot, a torrent rush
ing with violence through a ravine, threatened us
with new dangers. Rain had succeeded to the snow,
and the shoes of our horses, to whose caution we
had abandoned ourselves, elicited sparks from the
rocks : this was the only noise which broke the si
lence that now prevailed throughout the caravan.
At length, worn out with fatigue, and drenched to
the skin, we reached Koule Hissar, a town about
ten leagues from Mellem, and situated on the
bank of a river which bears the same name : all
its inhabitants are janizaries, but we had every
reason to be satisfied with our reception from
them. At the summit of a neighbouring rock is a
castle, which seems to be abandoned.
Endres, where we slept on the 14th, is ten
hours march from Koule Hissar. On leaving this
town, we crossed the river by a stone bridge, and
travelled along its right bank during several hours.
Endres is built in the bottom of a fine plain, and
backed by mountains which were then covered
with snow : this village is rather large, all
its houses are built with pebbles, and terraced.
Three fourths of the inhabitants are Armenians.
As for the Turks, they are intrenched on an emi
nence, round a tchiflit, or farm belonging to the

KARA HISSAR. 41
pacha of Erzerum. Some orchards, irrigated by
a small stream, are scattered here and there at
the foot of the hill.
When we had taken possession of our lodgings,
we thought ourselves for a moment transported
into Lapland : the peasants light their fires in the
middle of the room, and the smoke issues out as
well as it can, by a circular hole in the roof. While
here they brought us apricots preserved in water,
which were of a very agreeable flavour.
We were naturally impatient to leave the
smoky dens in which we had passed the night, and
very joyfully mounted our horses this morning,
to pursue the journey. At two leagues from
Endres, we again found ourselves in the region
of clouds, and on a marly mountain, still more
slippery than the former : owing to the damp air
having penetrated all our dress, we were chilled
from head to foot, and our horses could not take
a step without slipping to the edge of a precipice.
At noon, we descended into a valley intersected
by the Koule Hissar, which we crossed over a
handsome bridge, the two extremities resting on
the rock, while the middle is supported by two
piles of bricks. After having re-entered the
mountains, we at length arrived at Kara Hissar :
this march continued during nine hours and a
half. Kara Hissar, which signifies the Black Cas
tle in Turkish, is built in the form of an amphithe
atre, on a dark rocky mount, and at the summit of
which there is a citadel. The mutesellim inhabits a

42 JEALOUSY.
handsome house, surrounded with gardens, in the
lower town. This place contains ten thousand
inhabitants, amongst whom there are a few
Greeks and Armenians. All the houses are ter
raced, but the streets are badly paved, dirty
and narrow. There is a manufactory of sail
cloth here, that is sent for sale to the ports of
the Black Sea, which is not far distant.
An old Armenian merchant has received us
hospitably here : we have just supped with him.
The cordiality of this worthy man has made us
forget the fatigues of the journey, but he did the
honours of his table alone, as neither his wife nor
daughters were present. Well matched with the
Turks in point of jealousy, the Armenians sedu
lously guard their females from the sight of
strangers. We are, however, assured that we
shall be more fortunate in the Armenian villages.
where we may even contemplate female counter
nances without veils.

ROUTE CONTINUED. 43

LETTER VIIL

Road from Kara Hissar to Erzerum. — Zile.— Sabahktan. — Kerkif. 
Dilemma of the Persian Ambassador. — Lory. — Pekerik. — Ford of
the Euphrates. — Achkala.— Delis. — Elidja, source of hot water. 
Fears of the Plague. — Description of Erzerum. — Feast given by
Yousouf Pacha.— The Game of Djerid, a sham fight.— Second
Festival near the Town.

Erzerum, Oct. 20, 1807.
We departed from Kara Hissar, on the 16th
instant, and travelled eight leagues to reach a
poor village called Zile. On the 17th, after
having passed through forests of pines and firs
almost the whole day, we slept at Sabahktan,
having marched twelve hours and a half.
On the 18th, the caravan halted at Kerkif, a
large town of Turks and Armenians, where all
the houses are constructed of stone. Here our
baggage was encamped in a large square, under
charge of the muleteers.
On the 19th, we were already half a league
from Kerkif, when aservantof the Persian ambas
sador, who travels with us, came in a great fright
to inform us that his master's lodgings were at
tacked by the Turks, who wanted to murder
him and all his attendants. We immediately re-

44 AN AFFRAY.
turned to Kerkif, with the intention of endea
vouring by all means to appease the disturb
ance, and try to withdraw Mirza Muhammed
Riza, and his train, out of this dilemma. We
soon perceived him at the door of his konak,
surrounded by his servants, many of whom were
wounded. He informed us that he had been
refused horses, and that his suite had been ill-
treated without cause. But he took care to con
ceal from us that they had been the first aggres
sors, and that their imprudence alone was the
sole cause of his disaster. We were on the point
of having a serious quarrel with the Turks, who
would listen to no terms of accommodation, and
who were very glad of this opportunity for grati
fying their hatred against the Persians ; already
were new demonstrations of hostility displayed
on each side, when, to our great satisfaction,
peace was restored, and horses were at length
obtained for the Persians. It was then noon,
and this unpleasant affair was the cause of our
losing five hours march.
Tolos and Pekerik, our two following stations,
presented very different aspects. In the former
place we saw a picture of the most frightful
misery, and in the second, an air of comfort and
cleanliness which very agreeably surprised us.
The houses of this village are larger and better
built than in the other parts of the country ; and
a spring of excellent water, which rises from the
foot of a rock, procured us enjoyments which

THE EUPHRATES. 45
many persons, in a different situation from ours,
might perhaps have despised. About two leagues
on this side of the village, we forded the Eu
phrates, which the Turks simply call Frat.
On the 22d, we again forded the above river, and
travelled along its bank during part of the day :
we ended our day's march at Achkala, an Arme
nian town, in which are also some Mussulmen.
A detachment of delis, a kind of light cavalry,
came to levy contributions on the unfortunate
inhabitants : though it was said they had pillaged
several caravans on their passage, they offered
no violence to our party.
We passed the night at Achkala, two of my
travelling companions and myself, in the house of
a poor Armenian peasant, where we slept promis
cuously on the same carpet with his wife and
daughters. This honest villager had little idea
of the torments of jealousy, and we took good
care not to abuse his confidence.
We have marched sixty hours from Karar
Hissar. On leaving Achkala, the Euphrates is
passed by a bridge solidly built of brick. A thick
snow, brought by a strong north wind, benumbed
all our limbs from the beginning of this day's
march : we arrived half frozen at Elidja, three
short leagues from Erzerum. There is a source
of mineral water at Elidja, much celebrated for
the cure of rheumatism. It is not shut up, but
merely surrounded with a small circular wall,
and always open to the public. The water issues in

46 ERZERUM.
a considerable body from the center of the basin,
its heat being sufficient to boil an egg in a few
minutes. We have been two days at Erzerum. The
alarm we experienced from the report of the
plague, which we had been informed was ravag
ing this large city, induced the general to dis
patch an officer to obtain information on the
subject ; the result would have been a change
in the direction of our journey, if his report had
been unfavourable. We found the officer thus
deputed, near the gates, with a numerous escort,
sent by Yousouf Pacha to meet the ambassador.
We were now assured that the contagion had
almost entirely ceased, and that we might safely
take some days repose at Erzerum. Somewhat
encouraged by this news, which was not, however,
precisely in conformity to the truth, it was de
cided that we should halt here, and accordingly
the ambassador made his entry amidst an immense
crowd, who were assembled from all quarters to
see us pass. We were conducted in great state
to the house of a rich Armenian, where all the
apartments were placed at our disposal ; our lug
gage being deposited in magazines under the
usual care of the muleteers.
Erzerum, the capital of Turkish Armenia, is,
next to Bagdad, the largest city of Turkey in
Asia. Tournefort observes with good reason, that
it is not situated in the Euphrates, as many geo
graphers place it, but rather in a peninsula formed

DESCRIBED. 47
by the sources of this river. Erzerum is at the
extremity of a large plain, where there is not a
tree to be seen, and backed by high mountains,
which render its climate very severe. It is not
unusual to see snow fall here in May, and even
in June.
Erzerum is more than three hundred leagues
from Constantinople, and about sixty from the
Persian frontiers. It is supposed to contain
more than one hundred thousand inhabitants,
and is one of the most opulent cities in Asia, from
its commerce in copper, furriery, madder, drugs,
&c. which attract a great concourse of foreigners,
especially Persians. Its bazars are the largest
and best furnished of any we have seen since our
departure from Constantinople ; but, with the
exception of a very few, the streets are dirty and
badly paved, and the air in the neighbourhood
of the slaughter houses, must be deadly in times
of contagion. The plague carried off as many as
four hundred persons each day, previous to our
arrival ; and we now know, from good informa
tion, that it is not yet extinct.
This city is surrounded with high walls, and
deep ditches ; the seraglio or palace of the Pacha
forms a second fortress in the center of the first.
The suburbs without the ramparts are chiefly
inhabited by Armenian artizans.
The territory of Erzerum would produce all
kinds of grain in abundance, if better cultivated ;
in that case the severity of the winters would not

48 A FEAST.
be an obstacle to its fertility, merely causing the
harvests to be later than elsewhere. This plain,
where the land seems in general to be good, has
also the advantage of being irrigated by the wa
ters of the Euphrates, which, proceeding from a
chain of mountains, bounds it to the east and
west, and then takes a south-eastern direction.
Yesterday we dined with Yousouf Pacha : the
feast was long and splendid : the first course con
sisted of honied and sugared pastry ; the second
of meat and stuffed fowls, and the third of pilaw
of several kinds. The pilaw is nothing but rice
boiled in water, but without letting it lose any of
its substance ; it is then seasoned with a little
butter, coloured with saffron, and served up in a
pyramidical form on, large copper dishes tinned :
wine only was wanting in the pacha's excellent
repast : but his religion prohibited its use, and as
that of Erzerum is not drinkable, we lost little
bv it.
After dinner, the pacha invited the ambassador
and his suite to go into the next apartment, where
we placed ourselves at the windows, to witness
the exhibition of the djerid,* and a sham fight
* The djerid is a white stick, two feet and a half long, which
the Turks use at their military games, in the manner of a javelin.
The whole art of the horseman consists in throwing it at his ad
versary, who on his part returns a similar, whilst he endeavours
to ward off the blow. Though the djerid is not armed with iron,
this exercise is not without some danger, and there are frequent
occurrences of accidents in it.

YOUSOUF PACHA. 49
performed in the principal court of the seraglio,
with all the disorder and confusion peculiar to the
military exercises of the Turks.
Yousouf Pacha is about seventy years of age,
and by birth a Georgian ; he has been twice grand
vizier,* and in that capacity commanded the
Ottoman armies in Egypt and Syria. Although
Yousouf lost an eye in his youth, at the game of
djerid, this defect does not diminish the nobleness
and expression of his countenance, ornamented
by a long white beard. For two years past he has
commanded at Erzerum with absolute power. This
pachalik, one of the most considerable of Turkey
in Asia, or, indeed, the whole Ottoman empire,
is extremely productive from its trade, and of the
utmost importance by its vicinity to the frontiers.
I should add, that Yousouf Pacha is very popular.
There have been brought to us to-day, by his
order, similar provisions to those which were
served yesterday in his palace, and he sent an

* Yousouf Pacha has been a third time appointed grand vizier,
since our first passage through Erzerum. After a long and bril
liant career, he has been again deposed, and banished to Demo-
tica in Romelia. I do not know whether he is still living, but I
doubt whether his great age will permit him ever to re-appear at
the bead of affairs. Such is the fate of almost all the great men
in Turkey, the most important services rendered to their country
do not save them from the disgrace and caprice of their masters :
they often finish by yielding to the efforts of their enemies, and
exile or death are the^recompences of their long labours.
E

50 THE DJERID.
invitation for the whole of the embassy to meet
him outside the walls, to witness another festival.
We therefore went out of the town in the after
noon, and were received in a beautiful tent lined
with silk stuff, and pitched on the borders of a
rivulet. The Pacha arrived soon afterwards, sur
rounded by a brilliant escort of cavalry and
musicians. When he had taken his place on a sofa, the
general being on his right hand, and the Persian
ambassador on his left, the game of djerid and
the sham fight recommenced, and lasted more
than two hours. When the latter terminated,
the cavalry feigned an attack on the tent in which
we were, and setting out at full gallop with their
lances pointed, they stopped suddenly on the
bank of the rivulet which separated us from
them. The Turks are great admirers of this ex
ercise, and soon ruin the best horses, by checking
them thus by force when at full speed.
After the Pacha had caused a considerable
sum to be distributed amongst the actors in
these two shows, he mounted his horse, in order
to give the ambassador an idea of his own talent :
when taking a djerid, he threw it several times to
a great distance. An unfortunate circumstance,
however, diminished the pleasure he expe
rienced on renewing an exercise which he had
passionately loved in his youth : in the midst of
his efforts, a large diamond fell from the hilt of his
dagger, and it was impossible to find it again.

PRESENTS. 61
Our party afterwards separated from his, and
to give him time to return to the palace, we rode
round the city : the day was terminated by our
visit to take leave. Yousouf Pacha wished the am
bassador to remain several days longer ; but on the
general's observing, that his mission to Persia was
urgent, he no longer pressed him, and consented,
though reluctantly, to our departure.
On returning this evening to our lodgings,
each of us found a handsome horse, which was a
present from the Pacha. Such were the honours
rendered at Erzerum to a French ambassador.
If we have occasionally had to complain of the
little respect of the subaltern governors, we have
always had cause to be satisfied with the atten
tions of those in a more elevated rank.

e 2

52 DEPARTURE.

LETTER IX:
Road from Erzerum to Baiazid, the last frontier town of Turkey in
Armenian Asia. — Alvare. — Hassan Kale. — The Araxe3. — A Spring
of hot Water — Jaian  Deli Baba. — Tomb of a Pacha. — Mala
Suleiman. — Toprak Kale. — Armenians, Catholics. — Kara Kilisia, or
the- Black^Church. — Iandjalu. — Curdes. — Origin of that Wandering
People  Their Robberies  Utch Kilisia, or the Three Churches. —
Mount Ararat, or Agri Dagh  Diadin  Description of Baiazid. —
Visit to Ibrahim Pacha, Governor of that City. Baiazid, Nov. 3, 1807.
It was not without some regret we quitted a
city where we had been so well received. We
departed from Erzerum on the 27th ultimo, at
eleven in the forenoon, escorted by twenty-five
men of Yousouf Pacha's guard : towards noon,
a detachment of Delis, that we perceived in the
plain, sent two men to reconnoitre us. We
reached Alvare at three : this is an Armenian
village, not far from Hassan Kale, a strong town
of about five thousand souls, near the borders of
the Araxes, four leagues from Erzerum, where
there is a spring of hot water, like that of Elidja.
We halted the next day at Jaian, eight leagues
further. All the villages we passed through on the 29th
were infected with the plague. We, however,
consented to stop at Deli Baba, on the assurances

DELI BABA. 53
which were given that it had till then escaped
the attacks of a scourge which threatened us
from every side. This place, which is extremely
dismal in itself, presents nothing remarkable ex
cept the tomb of a Pacha : this is covered with
green and red veined marble. We found several
detachments of troops there, on their return
from Baiazid, and who asked us a thousand ques
tions on the state of the war in Europe.
The Turks of our escort obliged us to remain
a day at Deli Baba, under pretence of the danger
there would be in meeting the troops coming
from Baiazid. If we had taken their advice, we
should have remained there more than eight days:
fortunately the general determined otherwise, and
we resumed our journey on the 31st, early in the
morning. From Deli Baba to Toprak Kale, there are
fifteen hours march. It is at first necessary to
clear a very narrow defile, formed by rocks
which often serve as asylums for the Curdes. It is
dangerous to meet witfithem when travellers are
few, or badly armed, but we were not in that pre
dicament. The road becomes better, according as
you approach Mala Suleiman, a village inhabited
by Catholics, who are rather numerous in this
part of Armenia. At length we reached Toprak
Kale, a little town situated on the declivity of a
hill, crowned with a mud fort.
Toprak Kale, which signifies the earthen castle,

54 A COMMISSION.
contains six hundred houses, built in the same
manner, and terraced. The chief part of its
inhabitants, like those of all the towns and
villages of this province, are Armenian Chris
tians, who are mild and hospitable. A Curde
Aga, intrenched in the mud fort, which commands
the town, governs there, and makes the inhabi
tants severely feel his harsh and despotic autho
rity. We begin to find the weather hot again. On
the 1st, the ambassador gave another of the
legation and myself, a commission for Mala
Suleinam, through which we had passed the pre
ceding evening. We therefore took the direc
tion of that village, accompanied by a Tartar. I
have already mentioned, that the inhabitants of it
were Armenians and Catholics : the conformity
of our faith to theirs, obtained a very good recep
tion for us from the priest, who offered us break
fast. As poor as the first apostles, this worthy
clergyman informed us that the dearness of wine,
and difficulty of procuring it in a country where
it is very scarce, had prevented him, for three
months past, from celebrating divine service.
Sympathizing in his complaints, we with plea
sure gave him a small skin of Erzerum wine, and
departed loaded with his blessings. At ten o'clock
we reached Toprak Kale on our return ; but the
general had departed long before, and we in con
sequence redoubled our speed to rejoin him. We

AN ATTACK. 55
were well mounted, and never were the horses of
Yousouf Pacha more useful to us, than on this
occasion. At two hundred paces from Toprak Kale,
about thirty Curdes, who were in ambush behind
a little hill, fired a general discharge at us;
by the greatest good fortune, none of their
shots took effect : as there were only three of us,
badly armed, it would have been difficult to
escape them, were it not for the swiftness of our
horses. All this plain is fertile, well cultivated,
and coveredwith numerous villages, many of which
are inhabited by Catholics. An Armenian priest
of the Propaganda, who had lived several years
at Rome, entered into conversation with us at the
entrance of a little hamlet. Agreeably surprised
to find a man, in this country, who spoke Italian
much more purely than ourselves, we forgot that
we were in such great haste. He had quitted
Italy for voluntary exile in a country which is a
prey to anarchy, and the continual incursions of
robbers. We could not forbear admiring such zeal ;
but he was unwilling to admit the justice of our
praises, and his modesty seemed to equal his other
virtues. Honoured with the respect and esteem of
his parishioners, he could not conceive that it
was possible to enjoy more real happiness on earth.
We learned at Kara Kilisia, (the Black Church)
that the ambassador had passed through it some
time before, and would conclude his day's journey

56 THE CURDES.
at landjalu, two leagues further on, where we also
arrived soon afterwards.
landjalu, and all the villages of this plain, were
completely pillaged, two days before, by the
Curdes, who infest this unfortunate country. Op
pressed, like the Greeks, and like them incapable
of opposing the least resistance to the violence of
those barbarians, who prohibit them from possess
ing arms, the Armenians bear patiently, and
without daring to utter a complaint, the most re
volting outrages.
The Curdes are a wandering people, originally
from Arsacia : their usual residence is in Kurdis
tan, which comprises a part of Armenia Major,
Diarbeker, or Mesopotamia, and extends on the
east as far as Persia, and on the south to the envi
rons of Bagdad. According to some authors, the
Curdes are descendants of the famous assassin,
mentioned by William of Tyre, in his History of
the Holy War. Their primitive religion was that
of the ancient Persians : they adored the sun, and
prostrated themselves before that planet at its
rising and setting. They afterwards embraced
Mahometanism, according to the doctrine of Ali,
and for some time leaned even to Christianity, for
which they would have perhaps declared, were it
not for some causes of discontent they had with
the Christians, then masters of Palestine. Their
chiefs or sheiks are designated old men of the
mountains, by contemporary writers. It is as-

THEIR HISTORY. 57
serted that they had formed schools where youth
were taught only maxims of villainy ; and that by
means of the eternal happiness which was pro
mised to them as the price of their obedience and
devotedness, those young assassins found means of
penetrating the palaces and camps of Christian
and Mussulman princes, to destroy them. United
afterwards with the crusaders against Melek
Echraf, Sultan cf Egypt, they were involved in
their defeat. Obliged to quit Palestine and Syria,
they soon dispersed in the various countries where
we now see them. A great number went to esta
blish themselves in Diarbekir ; some mixed with
the Bedouin Arabs, and others abandoned them
selves to wandering and vagabond lives in the
parts of Armenia through which we travel.
Their spirit of plundering never permits them
to remain long in the same place : they live either
in tents, or the open air, carrying off women,
flocks and harvests, and reducing to slavery, or
murdering, without pity, the men of all ages.
Most of them are mounted, armed with a long
lance, a shield of osier covered wi^th leather,
sabre, carbine and pistols. Their dress varies ac
cording to the districts: here they wear large
trowsers of white cotton, a vest of the same stuff,
and a haba, or cloak of coarse woollen cloth,
striped black and white, which shelters them
from the rain. Their heads are covered with
a fez, or bonnet of red wool, that hangs over their

58 PLUNDER.
shoulders, and round which they generally wrap
a white turban.
On the 2d in the morning, and at a short dis
tance from landjalu, we met numerous and well
armed caravans. Further on, the remains, still
smoking, of several villages, would have been
sufficient to inform us of the fresh outrages of the
Curdes, had not a crowd of unfortunate Armenian
women, flying with their children, told us that
a considerable body of these robbers had just
murdered their husbands and sons, burnt their
dwellings, and pillaged a caravan on the road
which we had to pass. This intelligence was not
lost on us, as we immediately closed in upon our
baggage, and prepared for the worst.
We soon discovered in the plain, at a quarter
of a league on the right, about two hundred Curdes
on horseback : some of them advanced towards
us to reconnoitre, but they soon returned in a gal
lop to their comrades, and as they probably gave
them an account of what they had seen, we were
not attacked. We passed through the village,
whose unfortunate inhabitants we had met : it
was still in flames ; and we saw nothing on all
sides but pictures of death and desolation. We
afterwards proceeded to the Three Churches, or
Utch Kilisia, which we felt some curiosity to see.
The inhabitants, alarmed at the sight of a nume
rous troop, which they supposed to be a band of
Curdes, made a general discharge of their musketry

MILITARY MONKS. 59
at us; but fortunately no one was wonnded. We,
however, continued to advance, and our mehman
dar could not cause this running fire to cease, until
he had displayed a white handkerchief at the top
of along pike. The Armenians having at length
recognized, by our dress, that we were not enemies,
we were permitted to approach.
Utch Kilisia is surrounded with thick walls,
and defended by towers, where sentinels watch
day and night: on the least alarm, the whole
village assembles, and the fire of musquetry,
added to that of some small pieces of artillery, is
a terror to the Curdes, making them respect this
district. In the center of the little fortress is the
convent of the Three Churches, also surrounded
with walls : its gates are of iron of a prodigious
thickness. The monks who inhabit it, are about
forty in number, and in their exterior resemble
soldiers more than ministers of the gospel. Armed
with pistols and long carbines, they also keep
watch like the villagers, and are not the worst
defenders of the place.
We passed through the court yard of the con -
vent between a double row of these warlike
monks, who permitted us to visit their cells and
church. The latter, large and well built, is sur
mounted with a steeple, a rare thing in Turkey.
The interior is shabbily decorated : very indif
ferent pictures, representing various subjects
analogous to religion, compose all its ornaments.

60 MOUNT ARARAT.
Utch Kilisia was founded more than a century
ago, by a prince named Heraclius of Georgia,
who placed it under the protection of Saint
Gregory.* From the Three Churches is discovered, at seve
ral leagues distance on the left, the double summit
of Mount Ararat, called by the Turks Agri
Dagh. We finished this day's march at Diadin,
having travelled twelve hours. Diadin is a large
fortified town, inhabited by Turks and Armenians.
Its earthen ramparts had not preserved it from an
invasion of the Curdes very lately ; and our un
fortunate Armenian host had lost his wife a few*
days before, assassinated in an atrocious manner
by one of those villains,
To-day we have been enabled to contemplate
Mount Ararat in all its magnificence ; the sky
was clear and cloudless, and every thing favoured
our impatient desire to see this celebrated mountain.
Its head, covered with eternal snow, is most fre
quently hidden in the clouds, and no mortal has
ever yet been able to ascend beyond a third of its
height. The Armenians say that Noah's Ark
rested there, and if credit can be given to the

?There are two convents in Armenia of the name of Utch
Kilisia, or Three Churches. The principal is on the northern side
of Mount Ararat, at a short distance from Erivan. It is the
residence of the Armenian patriarch, who, in their language, is
called Ekmiazin.

BAIAZID. 61
assertions of the monks who inhabit a monastery
situated on the declivity of the mountain, its re
mains are still there ! This belief, carefully instill
ed by them into the minds of all the eastern Chris
tians, is said to produce considerable sums from the
numerous pilgrims who visit their convent. It
would be difficult to ascertain this fact ; but we took
good care not to raise the smallest doubt of its exist
ence in the minds of our worthy Armenians.
We have had very bad roads to this place,
which we reached at five o'clock. The Arme
nian bishop, and three or four hundred horsemen,
sent by the Pacha, came to meet the ambassador
a league from this city. The richness of their
dress and arms, the picturesque manner in which
they grouped around us, and the site itself, have
furnished Mr. Preaux, an able draughtsman in
the legation, with the subject of a sketch which
may some day form the groundwork of an inte
resting picture.
Baiazid is the last town of Turkey, in the Arme
nian portion of Asia : it is three hundred and sixty
leagues from Constantinople, and three from the
Persian frontier. Built like an amphitheatre, on
the declivity of a very steep rock, its position is
impregnable, and in proper hands could never be
taken, except by famine. This town contains
from twelve to fifteen thousand inhabitants, of
which the greater part are Armenians. All the
houses are built of clay, and it is impossible to

(52 IBRAHIM PACHA.
take a step in the streets without ascending or
descending at the risk of your neck. The Pacha's
palace is situated in the highest part of the town,
on a fortified rock. A mosque, built on the decli
vity of the hill, is the only edifice worth remark
ing. Baiazid is defended by four different forts, one
of which is at the foot of the mountain. The
Armenians have the privilege of bearing arms ;
and, owing to the small number of Mussulmen
who compose the garrison, some of the posts
have been confided to them. It was in one of
these forts that M. Jaubert was imprisoned for
eight months, by order of Mahomoud Pacha,
who commanded at Baiazid two years ago,
when that unfortunate envoy was sent on a mis
sion to Persia.
This evening we paid a visit to the governor,
Ibrahim Pacha : he received the general in a
large hall, by the gloomy light of two wax can
dles. The appearance of the place, and the
people who surrounded it, might have induced us
to suppose we were in a cave of robbers. Ibrahim
fears the Curdes, and seldom leaves his palace :
he is a Pacha of two tails ; but his power does not
extend beyond the town, as the robbers who infest
his pachalik, do not acknowledge the authority
of the Grand Signor, merely paying a small
tribute to the King of Persia, to avoid being
molested by that prince.

ANTICIPATIONS. 63
We have now accomplished more than the half
of our journey, andshallquitthe Ottoman territory
to morrow. Our Persian fellow travellers are in
raptures, so that we shall soon be enabled to ascer
tain how far we ought to believe the brilliant de
scriptions which they give us of their country.

64 M. BERNARD.

LETTER X.
Road from Baiazid to Khoi. — Entry into Persia.— Kilisia, Kendi, or
Havadjik, ArebDilesi.— Kara Ina. — Zorava.— Death of Mr. Bernard,
Aid-de-Camp to the General.— Arrival at Khoi. — Festival given
by Hadji Muhammed Khan, Governor of the Town.— Persian
Dancers. Khio, Nov. 8, 1807.
Our first steps on the Persian territory have
been marked by a mournful event, which we
were very far from expecting. We had supposed
ourselves completely free from danger of the
plague, when an aid-de-cam/p of the general's,
M. Bernard, suddenly fell a victim to that dread
ful disease. He died yesterday, and we have this
day performed the last sad offices to him.
On leaving Baiazid, we had to pass naked and
barren mountains : after four hours march, we
descended into a more level, but not less sterile
country. We were now in Persia: nothing
could have induced us to suppose we had passed

* Distances in Persia are counted by Fersenks or Parasangs.
The Fersenk is also in use in India, it is nearly equal to a league
and a half, of twenty-five to a degree. However, not to confuse
the estimate of distances, by employing two different modes
of measurement, I shall continue to indicate our progress on this
journey by hours of march or leagues.

ARAB DILESI. 65
the frontiers, if our guides had not taken care to
inform us of it. The first Persian village we saw,
is called Kilisia Kendi: it is inhabited by poor
Armenians and Curdes, who are under greater
restraint there than in Turkey.
Towards, evening we arrived at Arab Dilesi,
another village defended by a fort, erected on a
rock which commands it. Here we found wine,
and a considerable quantity of fruits and refresh
ments, sent to the legation of Prince Abbas
Mirza, governor of Tauris and the province of
Azerbaidjan, in which we now are. The cadi
had also come out about two leagues to meet the
ambassador. This day's journey was seven hours
march. Areb Dilesi is inhabited by a mixture
of Persians and Curdes.
On the following day we saw numerous en
campments of this wandering people. Notwith
standing their robberies on the territory of the
Grand Signor, they are moderate and circumspect
on those of the King of Persia. As already stated,
they pay a tribute to this monarch, who has taken
them under his special protection. The Curdes,
natural subjects of the Grand Signor, are too
distant from the capital of the Ottoman empire
to have any thing to fear from a weak govern
ment, the influence of which now merely extends
to a few leagues in circumference. Close to the
Persian frontier, they have every thing to fear
from the armies of the prince who governs in

66 ABBAS MIRZA.
this district ; and, by a compact equally advan
tageous to the two parties, they have placed
themselves under subjection to the king, who can
employ them with advantage in his wars against
the Turks.
On the same day we met an envoy from the
Pacha of Erzerum, who was going to Abbas
Mirza : he joined our caravan, and we shall travel
together as far as the capital of Azerbaidjan.
We slept at Kara Ini, eight leagues from Areb
Dilesi : there are still some Armenians to be
seen here. All the towns and villages of this
part of Persia, near the frontiers, are defended by
little mud forts : on advancing into the country,
there are many villages and ruined caravanseries
to be seen.
At two leagues from Khoi, on the border of a
stream which runs from the mountains, we found
a splendid collation, sent to the embassy by the
Khan, who governs this town. We soon de
scended into a magnificent plain, where we met
the Khan himself, who came to meet the ambas
sador : he was accompanied by a numerous suite,
and by M. Bontems, a French captain of engi
neers, who had been in Persia for some months.
We entered the walls of Khoi at three : two
hundred Persian soldiers, disciplined in the Rus
sian manner, by a major of that nation, were
drawn out in the principal square ; they presented
arms, and the drums beat when the general
passed their front.

KHOI. 67/
Khoi is situated in the middle of a well culti
vated plain, covered with trees and gardens ; it is
surrounded with high brick walls, and all the
streets have little channels of fresh water, which
produce an agreeable coolness ; they are also
bordered with plane trees or poplars : -the houses
are built of clay, and have generally but one
story. This town suffered much some years ago,
from an earthquake, which completely ruined
several of its streets : however, it still contains
twenty-five thousand inhabitants. Were it not for
this disaster, the beauty of its situation, and fer
tility of its soil, (one of the most productive in all
Persia,) would have, no doubt, attracted a much
greater number.
A magnificent feast was prepared for us at the
Khan's, in a saloon on the ground-floor, opening to
the garden ; and all the avenues were guarded by
Russian and Persian soldiers. The banquet was
long, and animated by music : Persian dancers
were also engaged to enliven the scene.
Lascivious postures, varied to infinity, com
posed all the art of those dancers, who are
generally boys — their profession, despised as it is
by the Persians, is however very lucrative. Cloyed
in very early life with all kinds of enjoyments,
the nobility know no better means of amusing
their satiety, and they never have a festival at
home without this brutal accompaniment.
Those dancers are dressed in female habits, and
hold metal castanets in each hand : they gene-
f 2

68 DANCERS.
rally begin their exercises by various feats of
strength and agility; then, changing their ges
tures and movements, they exhibit all that de
bauchery and luxury ever invented by the most
refined profligacy.

LAKE OUROUMIE. 69

LETTER XI.

Road from Khoi to Tauris. — Lake Ouroumie or Mouraga. — Tesoutch. —
Chebister. — Maian. — Salt River. — Tauris, the capital of Azerbaidjan.
— Audience of the Chah Zade. — Abbas Mirza.-r— Festival given by
that Prince. — Ruins. — Theriakis, &c.

Tauris, Nov. 15, 1807.
By the original arrangements at Constantinople
with our mehmandar and Turkish muleteers,
they were only to conduct us to the frontiers of
Persia : however, as Khoi did not afford all the
resources we could have desired, to remount our
new caravan there, we merely changed some of
our worst horses, and it was agreed that the
Turks should conduct us to Tauris.
We left Khoi on the 9th, in the afternoon,
escorted by a great number of Persians, who
accompanied us some distance : we soon lost
sight of the beautiful plain in which this city is
situated, to enter a range of mountains, whose
sterility can be compared only to those in the
neighbourhood of Baiazid. When we reached
their summit, the view of Lake Ouroumie, which
we perceived at our feet, caused a most agreeable

70 ROYAL SEA,
surprise : the Persians call it Deriai Chahi, or
the Royal Sea : in fact, this lake merits the above
name by its great extent, its circumference being at
least one hundred and twenty leagues : to the eye,
its limits are lost in the distant horizon. There are
several islands in this lake, the largest of which
is called Adai Chahi, or the Royal Island : our
Persian companions informed us that it was in
habited, and contained several villages. Another
called Kiasoun Kale, is not so large ; the remain
der of this little Archipelago is composed only of
islets or uninhabited rocks.
The waters of the Lake Ouroumie do not con
tain any fish ; they are fetid and bituminous, and
the surrounding countries must suffer much from
their noxious exhalations, which are so strong,
that our horses refused to advance, when we
wished to approach nearer to its banks, which
are very marshy. We could only satisfy our
curiosity by going on foot : the Persians also
told us that two small boats alone served for
communication between the islands and the main
land. After a march of seven hours, we arrived at
Tesoutch, a town surrounded with gardens, at a
short distance from the lake. The houses are
well built, and every thing bespeaks a degree
of prosperity which is not always found in Persia,
even in cities. The kalenter, a kind of mayor,
received us in his house, and gave us a good

CHEBISTER. 71
supper. Some houses in Tesoutch had been
thrown down a short time before by an earth
quake. We had new alarms in this place, but fortu -
nately they were unfounded. The death of M.
Bernard had renewed our uneasiness relative to
the plague, and though we had burnt all his
effects at Khoi, the least indisposition which
occurred in the caravan, seemed to be the effect
of that horrible disease. A relation of the am
bassador, oppressed for a long time with the ague
and fatigue, was delirious in the evening, and we
thought ourselves on the eve of again losing a
comrade ; but happily it was a false alarm : the
next day he found himself better, and even able to
continue his journey.
On the 10th we travelled seven leagues. We
found some refreshments under a tent, pitched on
the borders of the lake, by the order of the
magistrates of the country: wherever we passed,
these officers were anxious to render the gene
ral the same honours as to the princes of the royal
family and persons of the highest distinction. In
the afternoon we entered Chebister with a nume
rous escort of horsemen and musicians.
Chebister is a neat little fortified town, eleven
leagues from Tauris. It contains a quadrangle,
surrounded with a gallery supported by pillars of
wood, and covered with reeds ; the inclosure
is occupied by shops, the whole of which form a
bazar. The environs are well cultivated, and

72 TAURIS.
there are a great many trees and gardens about
it : this is, in fact, one of the most agreeable places
we have seen since our entrance into Persia.
On the 11th we were much surprised to find
the ground covered with a thick snow, which,
drifted by a freezing north wind, still fell in large
flakes : the temperature of the previous evening
had been very mild, and we thus passed suddenly
from autumn to winter.
From Chebister to Tauris, the road runs through
a mere desert, almost every where covered with
salt, nor is there any other than salt water found
there : we tried it at Maian, a village situated on
the borders of a small river. The magistrates of
Tauris, and principal personages of the court of
the Chah Zade, were in waiting for our ambassa
dor there, and we made our entry into the city,
in the midst of a brilliant train, at three in the
afternoon. Tauris, the capital of Azerbaidjan, the ancient
Media, is the residence of Prince Abbas Mirza,
third son of the king of Persia. It is at the foot
of Mount Orontes, in the bottom of a plain
watered by the Spingt Chah, a river which passes
through the city, and the Adji, a salt rivulet
that runs to the north : this is one of the largest
cities in Persia. Chardin reckoned fifteen thou
sand houses, and as many shops here. At pre
sent its population is very much diminished,
and does not exceed fifty or sixty, thousand souls,
including some Armenians. Several travellers

CONJECTURES. 73
have asserted that Tauris was the ancient Ecba-
tana ; but their opinion has been successfully com
bated by others, who agree in placing the capi
tal of Media in the modern city of Hamadan, in
Persian Kurdistan. Tauris is surrounded with
high walls, flanked by towers and defended
with ditches. A castle, called Kalai Rachidie,
served to protect it on the east, but it has fallen
into ruins, as well as others, scattered about
the neighbouring plains. The town is subject
to earthquakes ; to preserve it as much as possi
ble from those disasters, the houses have but
one story, and often merely a ground floor : the
edifices here are built of sun-dried bricks, and
their fronts do not turn towards its narrow and
unpaved streets. The palace of the prince is the
most remarkable building here, but even that is
very simply decorated. In the first court, which
is a spacious and regular square, there are some
old pieces of cannon mounted on bad carriages :
these serve to hold the inhabitants in awe, in the
event of any symptom of revolt.
In the environs of Tauris many ruins lie in
fragments, occasioned by a dreadful earthquake
which happened in 1559 ; the most interesting-
are those of a beautiful mosque, entirely en
crusted with jasper, alabaster and marble of
various colours. The continued devastations
and convulsions to which this country is exposed
must have discouraged the inhabitants from build
ing many similar edifices. It is for this reason, no

74 CLIMATE.
doubt, that there are so few monuments seen in
Persia, to perpetuate the glory of past times.
Tauris is one of the most commercial cities in
Persia: it contains manufactories of gold and
silk stuffs, cotton cloths, shawls, and printed cali
coes. Its climate is very cold, and the snows
with which the adjacent mountains are covered,
during almost the whole year, must tend greatly
to prolong the severity of the winters. The tem
perature, however, appears variable, and subjected
to frequent alterations : the north wind blew with
violence on the first days after our arrival, and
frost and snow are the consequences of it ; since
yesterday, the weather has become milder, and to
day the heat of the sun can scarcely be borne.
The first day of our arrival was destined to re
pose, or surveying the city and its bazars. The
ambassador had various conferences with the mi
nisters of the prince, in which they regulated the
ceremonial to be observed on each side in the visits
to be made and received. Etiquette is in Persia,
as everywhere else, a serious affair ; and it is often
more difficult to obtain the most trifling conces
sion on this frivolous point, than in the most im
portant negociations.
The day before yesterday, we saw for the first
time the Chah Zade Abbas Mirza. We went
on horseback in state to his palace ; the horses
for that purpose having been sent to us by his high
ness. Ahmed Khan, Beylerbey, or governor of
the city, was appointed to receive the legation in

THE CHAH ZADE. 75
an apartment of the first court. There, he at
first caused a mirza to write down our names and
qualities, in order that we should be individually
presented to the prince : we then entered, con
ducted by him, into the second court of the sera-
glia. All the ministers, ranged in rows, were
standing in the greatest silence before Abbas
Mirza, who alone was seated at the window of a
low room. The Chah Zade was dressed in a robe
of crimson satin : sparkling bracelets ornamented
his arms; the hilt of his sabre, which rested
on his knees, shone with the lustre of the preci
ous stones on it, and his head was covered with
the common head dress of the kizil-bach,* bound
round with a beautiful shawl of an amaranth
colour. By special favour, we were introduced into the
very interior of the apartment, after having made,
according to the instructions of our introducer,
three profound bows. Abbas Mirza received us
with much grace : the ambassador took a place
beside him, on a gilt arm chair, while we all form
ed a circle on seats in the French style. The
formal address was pronounced in French by the
general, and repeated in Persian by M. de Ner-
ciat, second interpreter to the embassy. The con
versation then became more familiar : it turned

* Kizil-bach, means red-head or golden-head. The Turks use
this word in a deriding manner in speaking of the Persians ; and
the latter, on their part, assume it as a title of honour.

76 AN INVITATION.
on the military art, and on the wish of the prince
to regulate and instruct his Persian troops in the
European manner. On taking leave we were
made perform the same ceremony as on our en
trance. Abbas Mirza is about twenty-two years of
age, of middle size, but well made, and his coun
tenance, though pale and without colour, receives
nevertheless great expression from his fine black
eyes, in which both kindness and pride seem
united. Abbas Mirza, is only the third son of Feth Ali
Chah, the reigning prince. He has, however, been
designed from his birth as presumptive heir to the
crown, by his father, from the circumstance of his
mother's belonging to the royal tribe of the Kad-
jars. It is to be feared that at the death of the
king, his two elder brothers, Muhammed Ali-
Khan, and Muhammed Veli Mirza, one of whom
commands in Lourestare, and the other in Kho-
rassan, will dispute the throne with him, and that
their dissentions may again cause a civil war.
We had scarcely returned to our quarters, when
the prince sent to invite the ambassador and his
train to a grand feast, for that evening. We
returned to the palace, therefore, at eight o'clock,
and took our places at a table magnificently de
corated, in the same hall where the Chah Zade had
received the legation. Abbas Mirza did not
appear, but his grand vizir Mirza Buzurk was
appointed to do the honours of the banquet. A
handsome cashmire shawl, and a piece of silk stuff,

AHMED KHAN. 77
embroidered with gold or silver, were given to
each of the suite on retiring. The ambassador
received on his part a. sabre of great value, and
other presents still more magnificent.
The general had a second audience of the
prince ; on this occasion he was only accompanied
by M. Verdier, captain of infantry, and three
non-commissioned officers of the line, who per
formed the French exercise in the presence of
Abbas Mirza. He received on the same day the
visits of the principal personages of the court, and
we accompanied him in the evening to the house
of the grand vizir, Mirza Buzurk, who had invited
us to supper.
This evening Ahmed Khan, Beylerbey of Tauris,
has desired to treat us in his turn. Ahmed Khan
is an old man of seventy, who has preserved all
the gaiety and animation of early youth : he is
very partial to the French, and is said to be the
first who gave the King of Persia the idea of enter
ing into a correspondence, with our court. By a
peculiar privilege, and contrary to the ordinary
custom of the Persians in advanced years, who
dye their beards in order to spare a young prince
the necessity of rising to receive an old man,
this Beylerbey has preserved his, blanched as it
is by age, in its natural colour. We found
Ahmed possessed of more information than the
rest of his countrymen ; he is, however, accused
of a fault, which has a deadly influence on his
memory and mental faculties. He is one of those

78 THERIAKI.
whom the orientals term, theriaki, or eaters of
opium*, and the abuse he makes of this dangerous
drug, throws him into a kind of delirium which
lasts for whole days. This pernicious habit has
already caused his disgrace with the Chah Zade,
who dismissed him from his employment some
months ago ; the grand vizir assured us that he
had been reinstated in it a few days previous to
our arrival, merely on account of his attachment
to France.
Four days rest at Tauris have somewhat
relieved us from our fatigues, and restored our
strength so necessary for proceeding on the
remainder of our journey.

* This vice is very common in Turkey and Persia, particularly
amongst the old men and dervishes. Early enervated by the abuse
of every enjoyment, they hope to revive their blunted senses, by the
use of a poison, which soon annihilates all their faculties. I have
never seen a more hideous sight, than that of a theriaki ; his colour
is livid, his eyes dull and hollow, his intoxication resembles a long
and painful agony, and his breathing that of a dying man.

IBRAHIM AGA. 79

LETTER XII.

Road from Tauris to Zenghan. — New Caravan regulated at Tauris. —
Seid Abad. — Tikme Tash. — Turkmann. — Ruined Villages and Cara
vanseries.— Miana, Miana fly. — Bridge on the River Miana. — Kaplan
Kouh, or Mountain of Tygers. — The Kizzil Ozzan. — Bridge on that
river. — Maiden's Castle — Akkend. — Herman Khane. — Zenghan,
River of the same name.

Zengham, Nov. 21, 1807.
On quitting Tauris, we separated from our
mehmandar, Ibrahim Aga, who I have fre
quently mentioned to you : it was not without
sincere regret ; for his zeal and attentions to us
were never once relaxed, during a journey of
more than four hundred leagues : and what is
still more rare amongst Turks, a sincere attach
ment, rather than interested motives, influenced
his whole conduct. Ibrahim Aga was not a
stranger either to our manners or customs; he
had travelled in several European countries, and
spoke German tolerably, with which language
the ambassador is also acquainted. This know
ledge was, on more than one occasion, of great
use to the general ; he could, when he chose,
address himself directlv to him, without the aid

80 NEBI KHAN.
of any intermediate person. We have now a
new Persian mehmandar,* who is named Nebi
Khan ; a nobleman of the court of Tauris, whose
manners are polite and obliging.
Our Turkish muleteers have returned towards
their own country, and our entire caravan is
newly remounted ; you must not, however, sup
pose it has gained by the change ; we are all
badly off, and our horses, according to the almost
general custom in Persia, are not even shod. The
ambassador and his brother are the only persons
amongst us who have at their orders several cour
sers from the stables of Abbas Mirza ; they may,
besides, when fatigued, repose in litters covered
with red cloth, and carried by mules, which the
prince presented to them before our departure.
On the 16th, we travelled seven leagues before
we arrived at Seid Abad, a village so wretched,
that the inhabitants themselves did not think their
houses worthy of receiving us. The greater part
of our company passed the night under tents,
though the weather was intensely cold : notwith
standing the large fires lighted in the camp, it
was impossible for us to sleep.
The next day's march was ten hours, on very

* Mehmandar in Persian signifies one who has charge of guests.
In Turkey and Persia this is an oilicer appointed by the govern
ment to accompany ambassadors, and other travellers of distinction,
to procure all (he necessaries they may require, and to superintend
the allotment of proper lodgings for them.

TURKMANN. 81
bad roads. The chiefs and principal inhabitants
of Tekme Tash, mounted on very handsome
horses, came with musicians, to meet the general.
This brilliant parade induced us to expect good
quarters ; but we found only miserable huts, and
straw instead of beds.
We were not more fortunate on the 18th at
Turkmann ; but the poverty there was so great,
that we could not require impossibilities: however,
rather than lie in the tents which were pitched
for us by the peasants, we preferred their smoky
hovels. All this district is uncultivated and mountain
ous : at every step there are to be seen ruins of
a great number of villages, and of those fine
caravanseries, of which Chardin has given a de
scription : they are no longer habitable, and their
vast enclosures, abandoned by man, are become the
haunts of reptiles and myriads of noxious animal*.
Miana, where we concluded our journey of the
19th, is a larger and better built town than the
preceding: it contains a square and bazar, while
the environs are fertile and well cultivated. We
were cautioned to beware of the bite of a small
insect, called the Miana fly, which is very venom
ous, especially during the hot season, and we
fortunately escaped it. There are also many ser
pents and black lizards of extraordinary size,
in the volcanic mountains which lie between
Turkmann and Miana.
At a short distance from the latter town, we

82 THE MAIDEN'S CASTLE.
crossed the river of the same name, by a hand
some brick bridge. The plain is soon left,
to enter a narrow pass, formed by the Kaplan
Kouh, or Mountain of Tygers, a branch of
Mount Taurus, which separates Media from the
country of the Parthians, now called Irak Adjemi.
The Kizzil Ozzan, a large and rapid river in
winter, divides this pass in two, and thence runs
northward into the Caspian Sea. We passed it
by a stone bridge of a great height, which like the
former, is falling to ruin. Near its banks was the
Maiden's Castle on the summit of a rock. Chardin
relates, that, according to the Persian historians,
Artaxerxes built it to serve as a prison for
a princess of the blood royal ; he adds that
Abbas the Great destroyed it, because it served
as a refuge for a gang of robbers, who had
made themselves masters of the mountain.
After ten hours march, we arrived at Akkend,
a town of considerable extent, surrounded with
walls, and situated en an elevated hill, whence
runs a rivulet, that falls in cascades. The Kalenter
of this place, Rehim Khan, received us at his
house, and performed the duties of hospitality
with a very good grace.
Yesterday we travelled nine leagues, to reach
Herman Khane, a handsome fortified village,
belonging to the Khan of Zenghan. The inhabi
tants made some difficulties before they would
receive us into their houses: this led to a liberal
distribution of the bastinado, inflicted by order

DESPOTISM. 83
of our mehmandar. If he had consulted us, we
should certainly have opposed this act of violence ;
but it was no longer in our power to preserve
the people from it, for Nebi Khan was before
hand with us. Thus it is that the most valuable
rights of mankind are respected in countries sub
jected to despotism ! If men make laws, these
may also be said to make men, while the charac
ter of the latter always savours of their good or
evil tendency. The inhabitants of this village,
accustomed to the tyranny of the great Persian
lords, who, when travelling, take possession of
their dwellings by main force, hesitated for some
time to receive us, because they were afraid ,of
finding new oppressors. Such are the results of
arbitrary acts, when they remain unpunished ; they
raise the people against the magistracy, and are a
public outrage both to the nation and government !
We arrived here at four o'clock to-day, and are
accommodated in the house of Terradj Oula Khan,
nasaktchi bachi, or commander of the king's
guards. This general is now at court, where his
duties retain him during the greater part of the
year ; but we have met the most friendly recep
tion from his son, who commands in his father's
absence. In the evening he gave the legation a
sumptuous feast, to which all the principal per
sonages of the town were also invited.
Zenghan is the capital of Hamze, a province
which forms part of Irak Adjemi : it contains
about ten thousand inhabitants, some of whom
are Armenians. g 2

84 SULTANIE.

LETTER XIII.
Road from Zenghan to Kasbinn. — Sultanie.— Sankala. — Ebher.—
Description of Kasbinn. — Illuminations with coloured Paper
Lanterns, Fire-works and Puppet Show at the House of Mehrab
Khan, Governor of that City. — The King of Persia's Predilection
for Astrology. Kasbinn, Nov. 29, 1807.
At three leagues from Zenghan are found the
ruins of Sultanie : a miserable village has suc
ceeded to that ancient city. We remained there
on the 23d. Sultanie was the capital of Persia,
and the residence of several of its kings, until the
reign of Chah Abbas I., called the Great, who
changed the seat of his empire to Ispahan. It is
impossible to take a single step in it without
treading on the ruins of fine monuments, which
remind the stranger of its past splendour. The
most remarkable are the magnificent remains of
three mosques built of brick, and surmounted
with their cupolas and minarets. The interiors,
once encrusted with jasper and alabaster, were
ornamented with rich arabesques, and verses
from the Koran, many of which still remain.
We visited the parts of these grand edifices
which time has spared, and that a more active
government might even yet save from total ruin.

ITS FORMER EXTENT. 85
When the sovereigns held their court at Sul
tanie, this city, if the Persians may be credited,
was not less than ten leagues in circumference,
and it was reputed to be one of the largest and
most populous in Asia :* at present it is nothing
more than a wretched village of about forty
houses, half excavated in the earth, the inhabi
tants of which are as poor as their ancestors were
opulent. This place, however, has not entirely
lost the honour of being a royal residence. There
is, on a neighbouring eminence, a small palace,
to which the present king goes every year to
pass a part of the summer, with some of his ladies.
The court leaves Teheran early in June, when
the heat begins to become insupportable in that
capital, and encamps in the plain of Sul
tanie, near a stream whose banks are shaded
by some trees, the only ones which are seen
in all the district. Feth Ali Chah does not re
turn to the city until the month of Septem
ber : his fourth son, Hassan Ali Mirza, fulfils
a part of the functions of sovereignty in his
absence. The princes of the royal family, and the khans
who govern the different provinces of the king
dom, leave their residences at the same time to

* Sultanie was still a city surrounded with walls, in the time
of Chardin. That traveller asserts that Ismael Khouda Bende,
father of Chah Abbas I. died there, and that he is buried near
the largest of the mosques J have mentioned.

86 PERSIAN LUXURY.
pass the summer under tents in the midst of the
fields. This custom, peculiar to the Asiatics,
originally a wandering people, depicts better than
any account we have, the primitive manners of
those fierce Tartars, who changed their residence
according as they advanced in their conquests.
It is in the camps of the Persians that all the
Asiatic luxury is displayed ; their tents, more
splendid and better ornamented than the finest
houses of the towns, may be compared, for mag
nificence, with all that historians have related
of the richness and pomp which attended their
renowned ancestors in war.
Though the plain of Sultanie be naked and
totally destitute of shade, the surrounding moun
tains render its climate extremely cool ; and it is
asserted that after the burning heat of the day
in August, it is necessary during the night to
close all the tents, and put on several blankets,
to provide against the intense cold. The govern
ment of the kingdom is not interrupted by the
king's residence in the camps ; where the vizirs
act judicially, and public affairs are conducted
as in the city. The amusements of the monarch
consist of frequent hunting parties in the plain
and mountains, and various military exercises
which he causes to be performed by his troops,
after the great heat of the day has subsided.
From Sultanie we proceeded to Ebher, a small
town situated ten leagues further on, in a more

NATIONAL HOSPITALITY. 87
fertile and better cultivated country. Ebher is
built on the banks of a small river of the same
name, and contains five or six thousand inhabitants.
We also passed through Sankala, a large forti
fied village, where the king generally halts for two
days, before he arrives at Sultanie : this part of
the plain is very populous, and ornamented with
handsome villages.
On the 25th, there was a fall of snow when we
mounted our horses. In spite of the very bad
weather and severe cold, the worthy peasants
came to meet us on our way, to offer us their
kettles filled with meat and rice, which we de
clined with many acknowledgments for such a
striking proof of hospitality. After eleven hours
march, we arrived half frozen, at Sia Dehen,
where we were lodged with an old man, whose
sincere and disinterested attention soon made us
forget our fatigues. Sia Dehen is a village sur
rounded by walls, as are almost all those in Persia ;
and the houses, instead of being terraced, are
covered in with domes.
We have been in Kasbinn since the 26th, and
are therefore near the termination of our travels,
having only thirty-six leagues to go, in order to
reach Teheran.
The plain of Kasbinn is rich in vineyards and
orchards : the vine here does not need props, as in
Europe; its own strength supports it ; the stem is
as thick as the trunk of a young tree, and grows
more than five feet high. The grape is excellent,

88 KASBINN
but the wine is of a very indifferent quality ; and
the Persians, for what reason I know not, have the
custom of leaving the stone, which gives it a dis
agreeably harsh and bitter flavour.
At aleaguefrom Kasbinn, we metMehrab Khan,
the governor. He was waiting for the ambassa
dor, with a numerous troop of horsemen and mu
sicians. Wrestlers, having their bodies covered
with grease, and whose whole clothing consisted
of a pair of light drawers, preceded us wielding
large maces ; but their ridiculous contortions did
not give us a high idea either of their talents or
agility. We entered the city in a confused man
ner, in the midst of an immense crowd of people,
quite stupified with the din of the music ; and
alighted at the khan's house, which had been pre
viously prepared for our reception.
Kasbinn, founded in the third century by Cha-
pour IL, is also called by the Persians, Djemal
Abad, or the beautiful city. It is a large plain,
at the foot of Mount Elwend, a branch of the
Taurus, which separates Irak Adjemi from the
districts of Hyrcania. Chardin, who should always
be quoted when Persia is mentioned, calculates
that there were in this city, twelve thousand
housesand one hundred thousand inhabitants. That
traveller also informs us, that the walls, by which
it was formerly defended, were in ruins when he
wrote the above : they have, however, been rebuilt
since that period, for it is now fortified with brick
ramparts and towers; but its population is consider-

DESCRIBED. 80
ably diminished, and does not exceed fifty thousand
souls. Kasbinn had also, for some time, the honour
of being the residence of the kings of Persia, and
there is still to be seen an ancient palace which was
once inhabited by several of those monarchs. Its
commerce is very flourishing, and nothing can be
more magnificent than its new bazars, where there
is a profusion of the richest commodities, and the
most exquisite fruits. It owed a part of its for
mer celebrity to its manufactories of sabres, the
temper of which surpassed those of all the rest of
Persia. Ispahan has subsequently usurped this
superiority ; and the Indian steel, which is em
ployed at present in the manufactures of the latter
city, is more esteemed by the Persians, and merits
this preference. In fact, it is impossible to see
more beautiful arms — they surpass even those of
Damascus in the excellence of the material, and the
delicacy of the workmanship. A sabre of Ispahan,
wielded by an able hand, easily cuts through a bar
of iron of half an inch diameter, and even a bale
of cotton of middling size. Our military compa
nions are very fond of these fine blades, and intend
to take some of them to France.
The water used at Kasbinn is limpid, and
very agreeable to the taste : it is an advantage
that this city possesses over nearly all the places
in Persia which we have yet seen. As to its pub
lic edifices, long vaulted galleries solidly built of
brick, which serve for bazars, and a few mosques,
are the obstacles that struck us as most remarkable.

90 ROYAL PREDILECTION.
The latter have cupolas externally covered with a
coarse earthenware of a green colour, which at a
certain distance, produces a very brilliant effect.
The house of the khan, with whom we are
lodged, consists of several courts surrounded by
apartments which have only a ground floor. The
rooms are painted in fresco, and the windows
are composed of small panes of coloured glass.
We did not expect to remain here more than one
day ; but the King of Persia, who has great
faith in astrology, causad it to be notified to the
general, that the 4th of December would be a
fortunate day for the embassy, and that he had
appointed it for our entry into his capital ! We
have been desirous to avoid displeasing a monarch
who is connected with the stars ; and placed as
we shall henceforth be under their influence, our
progress will of course be regulated by the de
crees of fate !
In the mean while, the khan of Kasbinn neg
lects no means of making our residence in this
city agreeable, and according to custom, he does
not spare good cheer. The day before yesterday
we had illuminations of coloured paper lanterns
and fireworks ; to-day a puppet-show has termi
nated the festivities of his palace.
My next letter will be dated from the present
capital of Persia. The ambassador not having
thought it offensive to the stars, to send forward
an officer to prepare the necessary lodgings for
the legation.

ROUTE DESCRIBED. 91

LETTER XIV.

Road from Kasbinn to Teheran.— Hassan Abad. — Kichla, a Pleasure
House of the King of Persia. — Kerbous Abad.— Ali Chah Abbas.—
Entry of the Embassy into Teheran.— Description of that City, its
Position. — Mount El vend. — The Peek of Demavend. — Interior
Arrangement of a Persian House. — Audience of the King. — Portrait
ofFethAHChah.

Teheran, Dee. 15, 1807.
We performed the journey from Kasbinn
to Teheran in five days, and have been in the
last-named place since the 4th. As I informed
you in my preceding letter, our march has
been regulated by the wishes of the king. This
capital does not in the least correspond with the
idea we had formed of the residence of an Asia
tic monarch. Before I inform you of what we
have as yet seen here, permit me to give you, for
the last time, the usual details of our march, from
the 30th ultimo, to the 9th instant. On the first
day we slept at Hassan Abad, above three hours
march from Kasbinn. The inhabitants, according
to the custom of the Persian peasants, received
us in their best style, congratulating us on the
happiness we should soon enjoy, in contemplat-

92 KICHLA.
ing their monarch and all his court. In this dis
trict the corrupt Turkish of Azerbaidjan is no
longer heard; the Persian language being in
general use amongst the people.
fOn the 1st we had, during the whole day, tole
rably good roads, a remarkable circumstance in
Persia. In the afternoon we were invited to halt
and partake of a banquet at Kichla, a pleasure
house of the king's, situated near a large village
better fortified than any of those we had previ
ously seen.
The castle of Kichla is not large, and contains
only three or four apartments : built on an emi
nence, it commands several terraces which rise
amphitheatrically one above another ; also some
fine gardens watered by numerous canals for
irrigation. We concluded the day's journey at
Kerbous Abad, or village of water melons, about
nine leagues from Hassan Abad.* The kalenter
received us in his house : the duties of this magis
trate correspond nearly with those of a mayor.
From Kerbous Abad to Kemal Abad, where
we arrived on the following day, the distance is
ten leagues. The latter village affords none of
-the conveniences that are required by travellers :
though its environs appear rather fertile, there is
no water to be had in it, excepting what is brack
ish and muddy.

* The word Abad is synonymous with the Keui of the Turl
and signifies habitation or village.

ALI CHAH ABBAS. 93
On the 3d, we had a fall of snow, and very bad
roads for proceeding to Ali Chah Abbas : our
march lasted seven hours. The last-named place is
alarge and fortified town; fine gardens, vineyards,
and numerous plantations, make it one of the
most beautiful spots in the neighbourhood of the
capital. Yet the houses are destitute of the most
necessary objects ; there are neither doors nor
windows to be seen in them. We stopped there
the remainder of the day and following night ;
and to guard us from the cold, it was necessary
to close all the apertures with carpets.
On the 4th, we rose at day-break : the general
was dressed in full uniform, and each of his suite
wore the distinctive costume of his station. We
departed in good order from Ali Chah Abbas :
the delightful weather added to the brilliant effect
of our entry, for an hour before we saw the much
desired city ; and when not more than a short
league from Teheran, the cavalcade halted at an
insulated mosque in the midst of the open country.
Here the Nasakechi-bachi, Ferradj Oula Khan,
received the ambassador under a beautiful tent,
pitched by order of the king, and complimented
him in the name of his majesty. We resumed
our march after having partaken of the feast,
and the embassy entered the capital at four in
the afternoon, escorted by fifteen hundred cavalry
and as many infantry. Nearly all the population
had gone out of the city to enjoy a spectacle so
new to them.

94 TEHERAN.
We followed Oula Khan to the residence of
the grand vizir, Mirza Muhammed Chefi, whose
palace was prepared for receiving the ambassador
and part of his train. The officers were lodged
in a separate house : I reside with M. Jouannin ;
and two others of my colleagues, at that of Mirza
Aboulkassem, son of Mirza Buzurk, grand vizir
of the Chah Zade, Abbas Mirza.
On the same evening the ambassador had his first
conference with Mirza Muhammed Chefi. This
minister is a man of advanced age, who has long
possessed the favour and confidence of the king :
the mildness of his disposition, and his good offices
towards us, have already gained him our grati
tude and attachment.
I shall now give you an idea of our new resi
dence, and then proceed to other details.
Teheran, the present capital of Irak Adjemi
and all Persia, is situated at the end of a large
plain, closed in by two ranges of mountains,
which serve as boundaries to Mazenderan. It is
built close to Mount Elvend, which separates
it from Guilan, and seems to raise an impene
trable barrier between it and the north winds. A
peak always covered with snow, which is called
the Demavend, crowns the eastern mountains,
about ten leagues from the city. The plain runs
narrowing to the northward : it is fertile in some
parts, but barren and sandy in many others.
Teheran is thirty leagues south of the Caspian
Sea, one hundred north from Ispahan, six hun-

POPULATION. 95
dred south-east of Constantinople, and nearly
twelve hundred from Paris. Thirty years ago,
it was but little known, and, with the exception
of Pietro della Valle, quoted by Olivier, no tra
veller of former ages has mentioned it. It only
begun to be a royal residence under the eunuch
Aga Muhammed Khan, uncle of the reigning
prince : he embellished, fortified, and built a vast
palace here, which forms a second city in the
midst of the capital itself. Since that period,
Teheran has continually increased, and now con
tains from forty -five to fifty thousand inhabitants.
This is certainly but a weak population for the
capital of a great empire. Ispahan, in the most
flourishing epochs of the Sophis, contained six
hundred thousand ; but Persia was then more
happy and tranquil, and sanguinary revolutions
had not as yet depopulated it.
By transporting the seat of royalty to Teheran,
Aga Muhammed Khan had an approximation to
Mazenderan, his native country, in view;
from having had a strong party, he continually
sent treasure there, and took every measure ne
cessary for securing a retreat, in the event of
fortune ceasing to be favourable. His nephew,
Feth Ali Chah, follows his example ; but he has
less to fear, and his government, more mild and
equitable than that of his predecessor, seems to
ensure him a throne which he has so justly me
rited by his estimable qualities.
Teheran is defended by a single enclosure of

96 PUBLIC EDIFICES.
earthen ramparts, and each of its gates is co
vered by a small round tower, furnished with
some artillery. Those gates, six in number, are
guarded by a detachment of fusileers and custom
house officers. The city does not contain any
public or private edifice worthy of fixing the at
tention : its streets, without pavement, resemble
those of a village more than a capital. No win
dow opens on the public road, and the stranger
at first deceived by the aspect of its high towers,
might long seek for the city in its own bosom, if
his sight had not been insensibly habituated to a
similar spectacle in the other provinces of Persia.
It frequently happens that considerable spaces of
ground are left waste from the houses having been
overthrown by earthquakes ; others are occupied
by baths, public squares, mosques and cemeteries ;
some by gardens and even cultivated fields : from
all this it is evident that the population of a city
in Persia, never corresponds with the idea which
you naturally formed of it, when its extent had
been taken into consideration.
f All the splendor of the houses at Teheran is
reserved for their interior ; whoever has seen one,
may be supposed acquainted with all; their con
struction is every where on the same plan, and the
king's palace is arranged like the most simple
dwelling of his meanest subject : the only diffe
rence consists in the greater or lesser extent and
decorations of the apartments, and the number of
courts and gardens attached to them^

A PERSIAN HOUSE. 97
The following particulars will give you some
idea of a Persian house. The principal gate is
arched, and leads at first into a spacious court, en
compassed by a pavement of bricks, laid flat ; the
two spaces that approach nearest to the center
form a garden planted with rose, jasmin, and
plane trees. An oblong bason, with some small
water-spouts, divides the court into two equal parts.
The principal edifice is at the end of this court ;
it usually consists of three rooms on the ground
floor, and two chambers on the first story. The
apartment in the middle, which is the largest,
is called divan khane, and has no windows; it
is closed only by a great curtain, that is raised
or lowered at will, by the aid of cords and
pullies : amongst persons of rank, this room is
the hall of audience and saloon for company.
The two lateral chambers are smaller, but
sometimes richly ornamented. The windows are
of joiner's work, very delicately executed, and
the panes of glass, which are never more than
four inches square, are of various colours, like
those in our old churches. In the houses where
there is not much wealth, its place is supplied by
white paper or linen slightly varnished, which is
stuck on the window sashes. The other three sides
of the court present only a plain wall, behind
which are built some small offices for the servants.
The harem, or apartment of the women, is. in
the second or third court, exactly similar to the
H

98 INTERIOR DECORATIONS.
first. In general their number, proportioned to
that of the main building, varies according to the
wealth of the proprietor, but the houses have
scarcely ever more than a ground floor, and ano
ther story is never seen except in the palaces of
the king and the chief nobility.
The interior of a Persian apartment contains
no other furniture than one of those beauti
ful carpets, so much esteemed in Europe, and
three felts of extremely fine texture, of which
the two narrowest run the length of the room :
the widest is placed at the end near the windows,
and is called mesned, or the place of honour. The
Persians have no other seats.
In the houses of the higher nobility, the cor
nices are decorated with flowers and birds painted
in fresco, with extreme delicacy : you sometimes
see compartments of seven inches in depth, which
serve to receive portraits or other pictures. The
chambers of the servants and those of private
persons in poor circumstances, are white-washed,
or simply plastered with a mixture of mud and
chopped straw.
Chimnies are rare in the Persian houses, and
they often appear merely for ornament; their
form is that of a canopy. Here the people gene
rally warm themselves as in Turkey, only with
burning charcoal, in a mangal or chafing dish of
copper, iron, or even of earthenware. All the
buildings are roofed as terraces, covered with

THE MEIDAN. 99
beaten earth, and in several towns they have small
cupolas. In the whole city of Teheran, there is but one
square which merits that name. This is the
Meidan, which is in front of the principal entrance
of the king's palace ; its form is that of a parallel
ogram, as long and broad as the Carrousel at
Paris. The ramparts and ditches of the royal
palace occupy one entire side of it ; the three
others are surrounded with low mud walls, having
a white moulding. Various apartments have been
attached to it, for the accommodation of theking's
household. Some small trees and green turf are
the only ornaments of this square. There is a long
pole erected in the centre, which serves for the
punishment of criminals.
|~A small rivulet crosses the square in its whole
length, and the public barbers have established
themselves on its borders. Here it is that they
shave the heads of passengers, bleed, and perform
operations ; for they are the only surgeons in this
country.j The Meidan is entered by two gates, one of
which is near the bazars. We have examined the
latter, which are very extensive, but not so hand
some as those of Kasbinn, where it would be far
preferable to reside, in every respect.
Near the same place, there is a mosque building,
which it is asserted will be magnificent. Nothing,
in my opinion, appears yet to justify this eulogy :
the cupola, already finished, is deficient in that
h 2

100 MOSQUES.
lightness so justly admired, in the ancient Per
sian monuments, and buildings of the same
class amongst the Turks. The mosques that
are built here, have no longer any minarets : it is
said that the Persians object to them from a refine
ment in jealousy, lest the muezzins, who announce
the hour of prayer from the tops of these elegant
shafts, should perceive their women in the inte
rior of the harems. It was necessary that jealousy
itself should be sanctified by religion, to be able to
obtain such a victory over it. The muezzins,
who are themselves husbands, now call the faith
ful to the mosques, from the platforms on the tops
of the gates.
The entrance of the Persian temples is not inter
dicted to strangers, as in Turkey. I shall have
occasion to mention them to you hereafter, and to
dwell on the difference of belief between these two
nations — also on the tolerant principles of the
Persians contrasted with the fanaticism of the
Turks. Four days after our arrival, we accompanied the
ambassador to the king's audience. Feth Ali
Chah had previously sent us the khalaats, or
dresses of honour, which he bestows on his guests
on such occasions. These presents consisted, for
the general, in a pelisse of gold cloth, of the same
shape as those of the chah zades, in arms richly
ornamented, cashmere shawls, &c. and for each of
his suite, pelisses similar to those of the court
nobles, girdles of gold cloth, and shawls.

FETH ALI CHAH. 10]
The ceremonial observed in our reception by
the king, was nearly the same as at Tauris, when
we were presented to Abbas Mirza. The intro
ducer of ambassadors made us wait half an hour
in an apartment, where we were served with tea
and coffee. The general was then introduced
alone into the hall of the throne, and we were
ranged in the garden with the vizirs, facing
Feth Ali Chah, to whom each was indicated
by his name and profession. When it came
to the turn of our chaplains, his majesty desired
that they should be informed he had recommended
his mollahs to pray for the prosperity of France,
and that he hoped they would, on their part, offer
up supplications to the Almighty for the glory
and welfare of his reign.
The throne is of white marble, and supported
by several small columns, placed on the ground
floor, in a large hall ornamented with paintings
and mirrors ; it is seen from the furthest extremity
of the garden, where, in conformity to the Persian
etiquette, the viziers, and even the chah zades,
were ranged each according to his age or dignity.
We are led to hope that at the festival of Bairam,
we shall see the king of Persia somewhat nearer.
I shall then give you more ample details of the
ceremonials of this court, and on the magnificence
displayed at it, especially before strangers.
Feth Ali Chah is about forty-two : his counte
nance is handsome and majestic, and his large
black eyes, surmounted with thick eyebrows, are

102 A POPULAR KIXG.
far from giving his physiognomy that harsh and
ferocious expression which one would expect to
find in an Asiatic monarch. He wears a long beard
which reaches to his girdle : this is a remarkable
beauty amongst the Persians, and it has often
inspired the muse of her poets, i The king pro
tects and encourages, by his liberalities, learned
men, but principally poets ; and it is said he him
self occasionally indulges in poetical compositions^
I shall again, more than once, return to a sove
reign, who merits in every respect the applause
and attention of foreigners. It is to the modera
tion and justice of his government that Persia
owes the happiness and tranquillity which, after
long convulsions, she has enjoyed these many
years. I conceive, therefore, that all which re
lates to such a prince must interest you.

HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 103

LETTER XV;
Historical Summary of the various Dynasties which hare reigned in
Persia, from the Year 2400, before the Christian Era, to the present
Time. Dynasties of the Pichdadians, Kaianites, and Achganians.
Teheran, Dec. 24, 1807.
Previous to informing you of the actual state
of Persia, I am about to ascend to the most
remote periods. In passing rapidly through the
several epochas of the Persian monarchy, I shall
endeavour to raise the veil of fictions, and avoid,
as much as possible, the fables of the oriental his
torians : and from the plan I have adopted, I hope
to succeed in discovering the truth.
The first dynasty of the Persian kings, was that
of the Pichdadians, called in the Holy Scriptures,
the Elamites. Its origin is lost in the obscu
rity of time ; but some authors have traced it in
the year 2400 before the Christian era. It is
asserted that the first monarchs of Persia derived
the appellation of Pichdadians, from Hosh
ing, the third king of this dynasty, a prince
celebrated for his love of justice, to whom his
subjects gave the surname of Pichdad, which
signifies the just. If true, his history deserves
to be better known : such a title is the most glo-

104 HOSHING.
rious a sovereign can aspire to ; it never causes
tears to flow : while that of great, generally
granted to conquerors, has been almost invariably
destructive to the human race. The kings, who
have received it from the transient enthusiasm
of nations, or rather from the flattery of their
courtiers, have unfortunately thought themselves
obliged to merit it by exploits little calculated to
secure the happiness of nations.
Hoshing, however, waged war against the
people called Ichtiophagi or Fish-eaters, who
inhabited the coasts of the Persian Gulf : he
was successful ; and his title should incline us to
believe he conducted it with justice. The
oriental historians attribute to him the honour
of having been the first who tamed a horse.
Diemchid, who reigned later, is a king whose
memory is still held in veneration by the modern
Persians ; and Feth Ali Chah himself, amongst
his titles, takes that of successor of Diemchid. He
instituted the Newrous, a festival, of which I
shall hereafter give you a description. The fol
lowing is an anecdote on this subject, related by
the Persian historians.
Diemchid, travelling through his provinces,
halted in one of the cities of Azerbaidjan, and
caused his throne to be placed so that it might be
seen by the whole population. Every one, struck
with the majesty of his person, and the splendor
of the jewels that covered his head, cried out,
newrous ! newrous ! which meant, this is a new

NATIONAL FESTIVAL. 106
day for us. The king seized this occasion to
institute a festival, when the nobility were to make
presents to the sovereign, and in their turn, receive
favours and dignities from him : prisoners also
were to be set at liberty.
This origin appears to favour rather too much
of the romantic, and I am not disposed to adopt
it. I should rather imagine the Persians, who
then considered the Sun, Mithras, as the emblem
of the divinity, or, indeed, as the divinity itself,
instituted this ceremony in acknowledgment of
the new benefits which that luminary disseminated
over their lands every spring. The most ancient,
as well as modern nations, have always regarded
the productions of the earth, as the richest
gifts of heaven : and it seems quite natural that
the Persians, since they saw the Creator himself
in the most glorious work of his hand, should
offer up a solemn homage to it at that period of
the year, when its influence is so strikingly mani
fested. This festival, though no longer consonant
to the religion now existing, is still renewed every
year, at the vernal equinox, and continues for a
certain number of days.
But to return to Diemchid. This prince presents
to our view a singular instance of human weakness.
He had for a long time contributed to the happi
ness of Persia ; nothing could resist his power, and
he might have terminated such a fortunate reign
in peace, when he suddenly fancied himself im
mortal, and that he ought to receive the same

106 KAOB.
adorations as the Divinity. This strange presump
tion, which was afterwards renewed by some of
the Roman Emperors, was the cause of his ruin.
One of his relations, named Piurach, who go
verned Sigistan, having raised the nation against
him, concluded by seizing on the crown. Nothing
was more capable of undeceiving his subjects on
the pretended divinity of their sovereign. A god
dethroned by a mere mortal ! What a lesson for
both !
Piurach, who had begun by a bold act, wished
to awe the nation by his cruelty : but it hurled
him from a throne of which he was unworthy : a
blacksmith, named Kaob, deprived him of the
crown, and refusing it himself, delivered it to
Feridoun, the son of Diemchid. Piurach, who had
been surnamed Dehbahkt (the man of ten bad
qualities), was imprisoned by his orders in a deep
dungeon. It is asserted that this monster, in
order to cure himself of two ulcers, applied the
brains of a man newly killed to them.*

* It was perhaps Piurach whom the poet Saadi had in view in
the following history — it is in the tenth book of his Gulistan.
A king of antiquity had long suffered a painful disease. The
whole faculty of Greek physicians determined that the liver of a
man just killed, was the only remedy which could relieve his dis
order. After many researches, there was at length found, in a vil
lage, a young child whose appearance bespoke the state of health
required by the physicians. The parents were called, and their
consent being gained by dint of money, the cadi declared by a fetva,
that the blood of a subject wa» necessary for the cure of the prince.

FERIDOUN. 107
In gratitude for the obligations he owed to
Kaob, Feridoun gave the government of Azer-
baidjan to the brave and disinterested blacksmith :
he further desired that his leathern apron should
for ever afterwards be the royal standard of Per
sia. This great prince, whose memory is still
honoured amongst the modern Persians, possessed
all the virtues which form good kings. Having
lived to an advanced age, he resigned the cares
of sovereignty to his grandson, Manoudjeher, to
whom he addressed these remarkable words : My
son, consider all the days of your reign as so

All was ready for the sacrifice, when the child raised his head,
looking towards Heaven, and smiled. " Why dost thou smile at
such a moment ?" the king asked him, with surprise. '• It is in
the bosom of his father and mother," he replied, " that a child
seeks caresses ; it is before the cadi that his cause is pleaded, and
it is from the king that justice is demanded, when refused else
where. Now that my parents have sold my blood for sordid gain,
that the cadi has given a fetva for my destruction, and that my
sovereign has deemed my death indispensable for his health, 1
have no other refuge than the beneficence of the Supreme Being.
To whom can I complain of thy severity ? Is it from thyself that
I should demand justice for thine own actions ?" This discourse
agitated the king, and tears were seen to flow from his eyes.
¦' My death is preferable to that of this innocent young creature,"
he cried, — he then embraced him, made the boy sit beside him, —
he was next liberated, and loaded with favours. It is said, that in
the same week, Heaven restored the monarch's health. I recollect,
in regard to this, two verses which a Kornac repeated on the banks
of the Nile. Knowest thou to what, may be compared, the fate
of the ant which thou crushest beneath thy steps? To that of a
man destroyed by the feet of an elephant '.

]08 RUSTEM.
many leaves of a book ; take care how you write
upon any page, except what you wish to have read
by posterity.
Manoudjeher, the worthy successor of his
grand-father, had a long and glorious reign. His
grand vizir, Souhan Zal Zer, (with golden hair)
was father of the famous Rustem, who may
be termed the Hercules of the orientals. Zal Zer
was also the prime minister of Nodar, son and heir
of Manoundjeher : he lost his life in a war against
the Turks, who invaded the kingdom. Nodar
himself fell into the power of his enemies ; and
Afrasiab, son to the king of Turkestan, caused
himself to be acknowledged sovereign of Persia.
Having possessed himself of the empire solely
by the right of conquest, Afrasiab thought he
might abuse his victory with impunity, by mak
ing the nation groan under a weight of despo
tism and cruelty ; but a son of Zal Zer soon
delivered Persia from a foreign yoke, and re
fusing for himself the crown which his talents
merited, he resigned it to Zab, who was descended
from the Pichdad ian kings.
The latter, instructed in the school of mis
fortune, and matured by long experience, was
no longer young when he mounted the throne.
He healed the wounds of the state, which had
long been afflicted with calamities, reconciled all
the conflicting interests, and became celebrated
for his beneficence. Historians only accuse him of
having been too much addicted to the pleasures of

MEDIAN DYNASTY. 109
the table. His death is said to have plunged Persia
into new disasters. Kichtab, his son, or according
to others, bis nephew, whom he had previously
associated with himself on the throne, survived him
but a short time, and died in arms whilst defend
ing the state against the Turks, who again invaded
the country. Thus terminated the dynasty of the
Pichdadians, which had given laws to Persia
during a period of nearly fifteen hundred years.
I have passed the reigns of several kings, such
as those of Kersoman, to whom the foundation of
this monarchy is attributed ; of his son Siamek, of
Tahmurat, surnamed Diwbend, (chainer of the
devil), because they belong more to fiction than
history ; and I should not have risked so much
in speaking of the others, had I not previously
warned you that the thick gloom which covers
those very remote times, is still more augmented
by the variety of opinions, and the fables of
romance writers.
The dynasty of the Kaianites or Median kings,
was founded by Keikobad, who some writers state
to have been the son of Zab, and others the ne
phew of Nodar. It was about the year 900, before
the Christian era, that this prince ascended the
throne. Like Zab, he also owed his crown to Zal
Zer, who refused it a second time. In gratitude
to this great minister, who, in concert with his son
Rustem, had delivered Persia from the iron sceptre
of Afrasiab, he maintained the former in his emi-

110 KAIKAUS.
nent post, and confided the chief command of his
armies to the other. The mildness of Kaikobad's
government soon caused all previous misfortunes
to be forgotten in Persia; and that prince occupied
himself entirely in protecting and encouraging the
arts of peace. To him are attributed the first
high roads that had been made in the kingdom,
and their division into fersenks.
Kaikaus, son or grandson of Kaikobad, and who
succeeded him, was engaged in new wars on the
death of that prince. A rebel had availed himself
of the circumstance to seize on Mazenderan : he
was reduced, however, and forced to submission.
But the king was less fortunate in another expedi
tion into Touran, against 4 Afrasiab, by whom he
was vanquished and taken prisoner. Being soon
delivered by Rustem, he was indebted to that hero "
for the conquest of Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor,
and thought he could not better testify his grati
tude to him than by giving him his own sister
Djehennaz, in marriage, and proclaiming him his
viceroy, with the title of Pehliwani Djihan, the
supporter of the world.
Kaikaus had taken possession of Yemen, when
fortune suddenly ceasing to be favourable, caused
him to fall into the power of Zubzogar, king of
that district, whose daughter he had formerly
married. Rustem again came to liberate him.
Peace was signed on each side, and a strict alliance
united for ever after, the father and son-in-law.

AFRASIAB. Ill
Afrasiab*, always ready to take advantage of
the troubles which distracted Persia, to aggrandize
himself at the expense of that kingdom, attacked
the city of Balk ; when Rustem, joined with Siavek,
son by a former marriage of Kaikous, arrested
his progress in that expedition, and succeeded
in negociating an advantageous treaty with him.
However, the queen Saudabah, to revenge herself
of the young Siavek, who she could not pardon
for having disdained her charms, succeeded in per
suading the king that his son had betrayed his con
fidence, and made a dishonourable treaty for the
empire ; accordingly that weak monarch sent
Thuus, the brother of Siavek, with an order to the
latter to resign the command of the troops. The
generous Rustem was included in this disgrace,
and the same order required him to retire, on
account of his advanced age, into his government
of Sigistan.
The above history has a great resemblance to
that of the wife and son of Theseus, except that
the Persian Hypolitus was less docile to his father,
as you will perceive by the sequel.
Rustem submitted without a murmur to the

* Many authors observe, with reason, that there must have been
several of the name of Afrasiab. Either the oriental historians
continue to give this name to several princes of Turkestan, his
successors, or their well known taste for exaggeration, and the
marvellous, induces them to make him live during a long series of
ages. It is impossible otherwise to explain this repetition, which
must add still more to the distrust we already entertain of their
accuraoy.

112 SIAVEK.
king's ingratitude ; but Siavek, far from obeying
the harsh mandate, remained for some time with
the army, and concluded by passing into the camp
of Afrasiab, with one of the principal Turkish offi
cers, named Piran Vischeh, whom he held as a hos
tage. The candour and simplicity of this young
prince, so pleased the king of Turkestan, that he
persuaded him to remain at his court, and gave him
his daughter Franghiz in marriage. The favour
which Siavek enjoyed, soon excited the envy of
Garsiavech, the brother of Afrasiab, against a
stranger whose influence and ambition he feared.
He was therefore assassinated by the orders of that
traitor, and his wife would have shared the same
fate, if Piran Vischezhad not arrested the hands of
the murderers. Siavek, who had long expected the
event, recommended Franghiz, then pregnant,
to send his child into Persia, should it happen to
be a boy.
This being actually the case, he was named
Kai Khousrew, and eventually succeeded to his
paternal grandfather ; but he did not return
to Persia, until long after the death of his
father : concealed in Turkestan by his mother,
who endeavoured to save him from the impla
cable hatred of Garsiavech, he was at length disco
vered by the address of a young Persian sent in
search of him by Kaikous. Meanwhile Rustem,
to revenge the death of his nephew, carried fire
and sword into Turkestan. The miseries of war
would have long continued, were it not that the

AN EXPEDIENT. 113
guilty prince lost his life in the first battle. Kai
Khousrew, though possessing the peculiar affection
of Kaikaus, found many enemies and envious per
sons in his grandfather's court. The most dan
gerous of all was Thuus, the king's own son, who,
in that capacity, considered himself as having a
greater right to the crown. In order to end
their dissensions, Kaikaus declared that it should
belong to him of the two who rendered him
self most worthy of it by his courage and talents
in war ; and to decide their claims, he sent
them in different directions, each to attack a
strong fortress, where a rebel had taken refuge ;
declaring, that the first who vanquished the traitor,
should receive the crown. Khousrew carried the
place, and the king kept his word. Worn out
by the double weight of years and royalty, he ab
dicated in favour of his grandson.
Following the example of his progenitors, Kai
Khousrew also made war on the people of Turkes
tan, and defeated them on several occasions : he
is represented as just, and having merited the
love of his subjects. Some writers assert, that
the Persian sage, Locman, so celebrated for his
ingenious fables, flourished under this monarch,
while others say he did not appear till a future
reign. Khousrew nominated his nearest relative,
Lohorasp, to succeed him, and finished his days in
retirement and tranquillity.
Severe on the nobles, who were never disposed
to recognise the sovereign authority; just and

114 lohorasp.
generous to the people,— such was Lohorasp. This
prince removed the seat of empire to. Balk, in
Khorassan, made war on Syria, and captured Je
rusalem. His eldest son, Gustap, impatient to reign,
revolted against him. After having failed in the
attempt, he retired amongst a neighbouring peo
ple, whose sovereign gave him his daughter in
marriage ; and the traiterous Gustap soon per
suaded his benefactor to declare war against
Persia. The conduct of Lohorasp, on this occasion,
deserves to be cited for its moderation. Sacrific
ing his personal resentment against an unnatural
son, to the peace of his subjects, he sent to offer
the crown to Gustap, who accepted it, intreating
his father to remain near him, to aid him with his
advice. Lohorasp consented to this for-some time,
and afterwards, following the example of his pro
genitors, went to terminate his days far from
tumult and greatness.
As bad a parent as he had been an undutiful son,
and fearing the fate which he had made Lohorasp
experience, Gustap kept his son Isfendiar for a
long time in prison. The rebellion of Rustem,
who had refused to submit to the new dogmas
introduced by Zoroaster, determined him at
length to liberate that young prince, who perished
in battle, defending his father's crown; and
Gustap, fatigued with the duties of royalty, de
livered the reins of government to his grandson,
Ardeschir.

DARIUS I. 115
The latter declared himself protector of the
new religion, which subsequently became that of
the Persian kings and nation, until the conquest
of this empire by the caliphs. — Tne reign of Ardes-
chir was a long series of great and generous
actions. He restrained the extortions of the pro
vincial governors ; and during his whole life, was
only occupied in promoting the happiness of his
people. This fine maxim of his has been pre
served : " A king should never listen to flattery,
nor be deaf to the calls of justice!" His age was
also that of the sciences and fine arts in Persia.
Historians place the death of the famous Rustem
at the same period.*
Khomani, the wife of Ardeschir, was pregnant
at the death of her husband. It is said, she took
possession of the government to preserve it for the
son, of whom she hoped to be delivered. A great
deal is related of her clemency, justice, and mag
nificence. She embellished the city of Esthekar,
better known by the name of Persepolis, which
was afterwards burnt by Alexander. At the end
of thirty-two years, she resigned the crown to her
son Dara I. or Darius, whose history has some
resemblance to that of CEdipus.
* The Oriental historians also give a long life to Rustem. This
is a general custom with respect to all their celebrated person
ages. It is probable there have been several conquerors of the
above name, and that they have made out of them one sole hero,
in order to make him appear more extraordinary; but I again
repeat, that I merely quote the principal epochas of Persian
history according to its own writers.
i2

116 PHILIP OF MACEDON.
The astrologers had predicted that this prince
would some day draw down the greatest mis
fortunes en the empire, if permitted to live.
Khomani not being able to determine on sacri
ficing Darius herself, had caused him to be ex
posed on a river : he was there rescued by a dyer,
and afterwards acknowledged by his mother. The
prediction of the astro1 ogers was falsified by the
happiness which the people enjoyed under his
reign. He carried on war against Fitikous
(Philip) King of Macedon, whose daughter he
married, and died after a short reign. Dara II.
accomplished the prediction which had been
made for his predecessor. Historians accused
him of having been addicted to every vice, a sin
gular circumstance as you will have seen amongst
the princes whom I have mentioned. He dis
honoured the close of the Kaianite dynasty, and
rendered it odious to the nation. Iskender, or
Alexander, availed himself of the circumstance to
carry war into Persia ; and Dara perished by the
hands of his own subjects, after having been de
feated. It is related, that, at the moment of his
death, he induced Iskender to accept his daughter
Rouscheng in marriage, and charged him to re
venge his death.
Alexander, whom the orientals elevate above all
the heroes of antiquity, is placed by them in the
number of the kings of Persia. I shall avoid
recounting all the fables which the Persians detail
of his exploits. There are, however, in their

ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 117
histories some real facts, and others which ap
proach the truth. They assert, that he effected
the conquest of Asia, three hundred and thirty-one
years before Christ ; and that he died at Babylon,
in the thirty-sixth year of his age, three hundred
and twenty-four years previous to the Christian
era. They praise his clemency, justice, and
generosity ; and add, that he was very subject to
fits of anger, but that he recovered from them
with the same facility they were brought on.
The third dynasty was that of the successors of
Iskender : it is divided into two branches, the
Achkanians and Achganians, which are the
same as the Seleucidee and Parthian kings of
the Greek historians. The first reckoned twelve
kings, and the second only eight. They each
reigned during a series of more than five hundred
years. As those monarchs were strangers to the
country they governed, and as their history is,
on that account, very superficially related by the
oriental authors, while it presents nothing re
markable, I shall, in my next, pass on to the
succeeding dynasty.

118 ARTAXERXES.

LETTER XVI.

Continuation of the same Subject. — Dynasty of the Sassanians 01
Sassanidae.

Teheran, Dee. 30, I80T.
The origin of the Sassanidae, who are the same
as the Artaxerxides of the Greeks, ascends, ac
cording to some authors, to the year 219, and to'
others, to the year 220 of the vulgar era. Ardchir
Babegan, or Artaxerxes I. laid the foundation of
this new dynasty. Descended from the Kaianites,
whom Alexander dethroned, he delivered Persia
from the yoke of foreign monarchs, the successors
of that prince ; he expelled the Achganians, and by
his conquests obtained possession of various parts
of Asia — he reigned fourteen years. Ardchir
was the first who took the title of Chahin Chah, or
king of kings.
Schapour I. son of Ardchir, ascended the throne
very young. His maternal uncle, who refused
the crown when offered to him by the nobility,
was at the same time his guardian and prime mi
nister. When he became of age, he traversed the
provinces of his vast empire, and founded several

HORMOUZ I. 119
cities in it, amongst others, that of Nichabour, in
Khorassan. If the Greek and Roman historians can be be
lieved, for they generally speak with anger and
contempt of the Orientals, whom they treat as bar
barians, Schapour was a monster stained with every
vice : he flayed alive the emperor Valerian, who
fell into his power. The Persian writers do not,
however, mention the circumstance, and without
giving much praise to this prince, they still say
his reign was very glorious.
According to Mirkhond, Schapour was mur
dered after a reign of thirty-four years, by several
of his courtiers, who feared the punishment due to
some unjust acts they had committed. Availing
themselves of a stormy night, they entered the tent
of the king, and killed him, together with all his
followers whom they found there ; they then set
fire to it, and spread the report that he was de
stroyed by lightning.
Hormouz I. his successor, was but a short time
on the throne. This monarch was much given to
the study of the sciences, and especially the ma
thematics. He is said to have rendered his people
happy by his wisdom and love of peace. Several
of his maxims are still quoted ; amongst others the
following ¦» "Kings are like fire, which warms
those who remain at a certain distance from it,
while it consumes all who approach too near to it !"
The reign of his son, Bairam I. was also of
short duration : he is accused of treachery and

120 HORMOUZ II.
cruelty to the heresiach Manes. This maxim,
however, is attributed to him, and forms a very
remarkable contrast with his reputed disposition.
" It is impossible to define the virtue called hu
manity, because all others are comprised in it."
Bairam II. who, it is said, was only the adopted
son of his predecessor, resembled him, at first, in
cruelty and tyranny, which obtained for him the
surname of Khalil, or unjust. It is endeavoured,
however, to excuse him, by saying that his inflex
ibility proceeded rather from an ill-understood
excess of justice and severity, than a natural incli
nation to vice, and that he improved himself by
the counsels of the magi, and became afterwards
one of the best of the Persian kings. He remained
seventeen years on the throne.
The reign of Bairam III. his successor, who had
been governor of Sigistan during the life of his
father, offers nothing remarkable : it continued
thirteen years.
Narsi, his son, merited the love of his subjects,
by the constant care he took of their welfare. At
tacked by the Romans, he was vanquished by
the troops of that conquering people, and lost
several provinces: this caused him to die of grief,
after a reign of nine years.
Hormouz II. his son, was an excellent prince.
Persia was indebted to him for the institution of a
sovereign court, where the lowest of his subjects
might bring a complaint against the principal no
bility of the kingdom : it is asserted that he often

ORMUS. 121
presided in it himself. He directed his attention
to commerce, and caused a city to be built in
Kerman, which, from his name, was called Hor
mouz, or Ormus. The inhabitants, in order to
secure themselves from the incursions of a nei^h-
bouring people, who were jealous of their prospe
rity, subsequently removed their residence to an
island in the Persian Gulf, to which they gave the
name of their first establishment. Hormouz also
built several other cities in Khousistan, or the
mountainous country, and died generally la
mented, after having reigned nine years.
Schapour II. is surnamed by some authors,
Zoul Aktaf (the breaker of shoulders), and by
others, Zoul Aknaf (the winged). According to
some of them, he merited the first epithet, for
having caused the right shoulder to be broken of
all the Arabs whom he found capable of bearing
arms, after a great victory in Yemen ; according
to others, he was called the winged, for having,
after that victory, taken the Arabs under his pro
tection. I prefer adopting this latter opinion, be
cause he is otherwise represented as a great prince
and renowned warrior.
Schapour having had the imprudence to leave
his states, and reconnoitre by his own observations
the forces of the Greek empire, was discovered
in Constantinople, and arrested by order of the
emperor, whose troops immediately attacked
Persia. This unfortunate prince would, no doubt,
have ended his days in slavery, had he not found

122 SCHAPOUR.
the means of escaping from his enemy. It is said
he owed his liberation to a lady of the court, who
fled along with him. When Schapour arrived in
Media, he soon surprised the Greeks, cut them in
pieces, and retook all the provinces he had lost.
To perpetuate the memory of this great event, he
built the city of Kasbinn in the very place he had
accomplished his designs.
This prince had other wars to maintain against
the Arabs, and Dilemites, a people that inhabited
the borders of the Caspian Sea. Already occupied
with the first, he was beaten by the latter, and
consented to pay them a tribute, until having van
quished the Arabs, he freed himself from that ob
ligation, and subjected the Dilemites to his own
power. Schapour also defeated the emperor
Julian, about the year 373 of the Christian era.
He died, after having given laws to Persia and
several other neighbouring nations, during a reign
of seventy-two years.
Notwithstanding his advanced age, Schapour
left a son who was still too young to govern the
state ; and the Persians, fearing the troubles almost
inseparable from a minority, requested Ardchir II.
his near relation, to accept the crown, on the con
dition of resigning it at a future day to the right
ful heir. He consented to it, and justified the
confidence of the nation during twelve years that
he possessed the throne.
Schapour III. governed only five years and
some months. He is represented as a mild and

BAIRAM IV. 123
pacific prince. Contemporary of Theodore, he
lived on good terms with that emperor, and the
two monarchs sent ambassadors to each other.
His son, Bairam IV. was the heir of his throne
and virtues. The events of his reign are but
little known : it is merely said that he lost his life
by the shot of an arrow, in the midst of an in
surrection of the nobility. He had a son named
Jezdgerd, who merited the title of El Essim, or
the wicked. During his father's life, his good
qualities had given the greatest hopes to Persia ;
but, when elevated to the throne, he manifested
both avarice and cruelty.
The extreme youth of his son, and the still
hateful memory of the father, induced the nobi
lity to confer the crown on a Persian lord named
Khousrew, worthy of it from his virtues, but
who is not included in the number of the kings
of Persia. He afterwards transferred it to Bai
ram V. son of Jezdgerd El Essim.
Bairam V. made himself beloved by his valour
and justice : he was surnamed Djihour, which
means a wild ass, on account of his vigour and
celerity in military expeditions. However, his
inclination for pleasures and festivals gave the
king of Turkestan an opportunity of invading
his territories ; and Bairam, though very brave,
not having sufficient forces to oppose him, was
obliged to fly into Armenia, with a body of one
thousand cavalry. The king of Turkestan, think
ing he had abandoned his states for ever, soon

124 JEZDGERD.
dispersed his troops all over Persia, and they im
prudently engaged in pillage, and all other ex
cesses supposed to be lawful in a conquered coun
try. Bairam, who was informed of it, coasted
the borders of the Caspian Sea, took the Turks
by surprise, completely defeated them, and with
his own hand cut off the head of their king. All
Persia was thus delivered, as if by enchantment,
from the presence of enemies, and recovered its
tranquillity and independence.
Bairam could not long lead an inactive life ;
once more abandoning the cares of government
to his brother Narsi, he departed for India, and
married the daughter of one of the kings of that
country. However, in a more advanced age, he
resumed the reins of royalty, and was ever after
occupied with promoting the happiness of his
people. He had also carried on war successfully
against the Greeks and Arabs. He died whilst
hunting ; but, according to some historians, during
a forced march.
Jezdgerd II. his son, restrained the excesses of
the nobility, and the licentiousness of the sol
diery, whom, however, he paid liberally. Ex
cepting in war, when he was too prodigal of the
blood of his subjects, he displayed great modera
tion in all his conduct. Persia was agitated with
long disturbances after his death, in consequence
of the preference he had given to his second over
his eldest son. He died, after a reign of eighteen
years.

COBAD. 125
Hormouz III. the youngest of his sons, held
the crown only one year : he was dethroned by
Firouz, his elder brother, who at first caused him
to be confined in a dungeon, and subsequently
ordered him to be decapitated, after having seized
the sceptre.
The reign of Firouz was fatal to Persia: it
commenced with a famine, which the nation con
sidered as a chastisement from heaven, and a di
vine vengeance for his barbarity to his brother.
Firouz himself, whether from remorse or policy,
became moderate for some time ; but soon led by
his natural inclination to evil, he ceased to restrain
himself, and resumed his original character. He
entered into war twice $8,th the king of the
Haithelites, who had assisted him to mount the
throne, and was killed in battle when fighting
against that nation ; but in „ spite of their ill-
fortune, the Persians obtained an honourable
peace. Cobad had every advantage of person joined
to all those of the mind in his favour ; but na
ture had denied him the qualities of the heart,
and those sentiments of humanity, without which
no sovereign can be really good. He caused
Saouk, who had been prime minister under the
preceding reigns, to be assassinated, and signa
lized his reign by a thousand extravagancies,
similar to those of Nero and Caligula. He wanted
to establish a community of property and wives,
and permit brothers to marry their sisters. The

126 KOSROES THE GREAT.
Greek historians were mistaken when they as
serted that it was a constant custom, and autho
rized by the magi, since it was this new law that
caused the nobility to dethrone Cobad, and im
prison him, after having given the regency to
Djamasp, a personage highly esteemed for his
eminent qualities. The queen, who alone could
speak to the dethroned prince, but without
seeing him, found means to gain over the officer
who had charge of him ; seduced by the charms,
of that princess, he often permitted her to see
her husband, and in consequence of this liberty,
she effected his escape by changing dresses with
him. Cobad reached the states of a neighbouring
prince, and regained, by his assistance, a throne,
of which he had rendered himself unworthy.
Djamasp himself went to do homage to him.
His subsequent conduct, however, caused his for
mer errors to be forgotten, and he died beloved
and regretted by his subjects.
I have now arrived at one of the most memo
rable periods of Persian history, and to name
a king more known to us than any other, and
whose memory is still the most honoured of all
the modern Persian monarchs.
Khousrew Nouchirewan, or Kosroes the Great,
mounted the throne about the year 531 of the
vulgar era. This is a name the oriental histo
rians never fail to quote, when they wish to
speak of a great sovereign. Kosroes united every

ZOROASTER. 127
species of glory — well tried valour, wise and
enlightened policy, and a philosophic mind. If he
caused the death of a leader to a certain sect
named Mahzdek, it was not from the latter's
principles of religion, but because he had dis
turbed the tranquillity of the state, by acts
of personal violence; he did not otherwise per
secute sectarians, who by this exertion of power
returned to their duty. Kosroes reconquered the
provinces lost by his predecessor ; he vanquished
the Greeks, transported the inhabitants of An-
tioch into Irak, and repulsed the Turks of Trans-
oxus, who were always ready to profit by the
distractions of the kingdom ; in short, he pushed
the boundaries of his empire as far as India and
Arabia. This prince espoused a Christian lady, cele
brated for her beauty : by her he had a son, who
was brought up by his mother in the prin
ciples of Christianity, and who, guided wholly
by his zeal for that religion, and aversion to
the doctrines of Zoroaster, would have excited
disturbances in the state, had not the king taken
the precaution to arrest him. He, however, suc
ceeded in escaping from his prison, and, de
ceived by the false report of his father's death,
he took arms for the purpose of seizing oh the
government. Being subsequently informed of
the falsity of that rumour, he refused to submit,
and perished in a battle, though his father had
ordered him to be spared : while dying, he sent

128 BUZURDJI MIHR.
a request to his mother that he might be interred
among the Christians.
Kosroes, in his old age, resigned the throne
to his son Hormouz, after having given him the
most prudent advice. He had for his vizir Bu
zurdji Mihr, one of the greatest men of his time,
who was also prime minister in the following
reign. He died at the age of eighty years, after
a reign of forty-eight. It is asserted, that in
his youth he once said to a lady whom he loved,
" Royalty is no doubt charming, but it would be
still more delightful, if possessed for ever." " Had
that been the case," she replied, " it would not
have come to your turn to enjoy it."
Hormouz IV. otherwise called Hormizdas, was
a weak prince without energy : guided at first
by the counsels of the vizir Buzurdji Mihr, his
beneficence and moderation obtained happy days
for Persia ; but when that great minister, worn
out with years, was obliged to retire from pub
lic affairs, Hormouz, surrounded by courtiers and
flatterers, abandoned himself entirely to those
propensities which were natural to him. Addicted
to the most licentious debauchery, he committed a
thousand cruelties and unjust actions, disgusted
every one, and destroyed a great number of the
nobility who were obnoxious to him. At length
he so far forgot the duties of sovereignty, as to
abolish the tribunals established by his father,
insisting that he alone should render justice ta
his subjects.

KHOUSREW. 129
Persia was at that time invaded by enemies,
always ready to take advantage of its internal
distractions. An able general, named Bairam,
repulsed them ; but, being soon after insulted in
the most degrading manner by the king, he took
arms against him, and engaged Khousrew Pervitz,
his eldest son, in the rebellion : Hormouz was
strangled, soon afterwards, but against the will of
Pervitz, who promised to revenge his murder.
This promise induced Bairam, who thought
he had claims to the gratitude of Khousrew,
to withdraw his support from him, that he
might act only for himself. He seized on the
royal authority, but the former having obtained
assistance from the Greek emperor, defeated
Bairam, and thus became tranquil possessor of
his father's throne.
Fortunate in his military expeditions, Khousrew
conquered Syria and several islands of the Me
diterranean ; but his vanity, taste for pomp, and
cruelty, rendered him odious to his subjects. To
wards the termination of his life, his prodigality
changed into sordid avarice, and it is said that
at his death, immense sums were found heaped
up in the vaults of his palace.
The oriental historians, whose imaginations are
never more fruitful than when they can exercise
them on the marvellous, give us a proof of exag
geration in their description of a palace built by
his grandfather, and which, according to them, he
caused to be embellished: "there were in it,"

130 COBAD CHIltOUIE.
they say, " forty thousand pillars of silver ; the
cieling was decorated with a thousand gilt mir
rors, so placed as to represent the planets and
different constellations; the walls were covered
with the most rich and" beautiful stuffs ; it was
under this palace that the treasures were kept.
There was, besides, a seraglio which contained
three thousand free women, and twelve thousand
slaves, all chosen from amongst the most beau
tiful females in the empire. The usual guard of
the king, was six thousand picked men ; and in
his stables were maintained for his service six
thousand horses, twelve thousand camels of large
size, eight thousand of middle size, and nine hun
dred and sixty elephants, which served only for
the army."
This description would make an admirable
figure in some of our modern romances; it might
also, if necessary, invigorate the genius of a
melo-dramatist, and assist the decorators of
such shows : but it is proper to inform another
class, that this magnificence of Khousrew Per
vitz, which could only be maintained at the
expence of his subjects, was the cause of his
ruin. He was therefore driven from the throne,
and his eldest son placed on it in his stead.
Cobad Chirouie, the name of his son, lest the
crown might be wrested from him, determined to
secure it by an atrocious crime. He caused his
father to be assassinated in prison by a young
Persian, whom he afterwards destroyed ; and in a

TOURAN DOUHKT. 131
tardy repentance ordered a magnificent funeral
for the unfortunate Khousrew Pervitz.
This monster, who had commenced with being
a parricide, subsequently put to death all his
brothers. He is said to have died of remorse.
Ardchir III. his son, succeeded him when only
seven years of age. This prince was dethroned
by Chehriar, a general who possessed the con
fidence of the troops.
Cheriar is not reckoned by historians amongst
the kings of Persia, owing to the shortness of his
reign. His ingratitude to the army, to which he
owed his elevation, lost him his firmest support ;
and his severity to the people, whom he over-*
loaded with taxes, drew on him universal dislike.
He was killed at the gate of his palace, by three
brothers devoted to Touran Douhkt, the eldest
princess of the royal family, whom they placed
on the throne.
Touran Douhkt was contemporary with the
Caliph Omar ; she lived too short a time for the
happiness of Persia, having, according to the
general belief, died by poison. This queen greatly
relieved the people, so tyrannically treated in pre
ceding reigns, and she also restrained the oppres
sions of the nobility. Her prime minister, Ferok
Zad, a very able general, made her respected
abroad, and defeated the Arabs in several battles.
The successor of this princess being found in
capable of reigning, he was deposed in the course
k 2

J32 AZURMI.
of a few days, when Azurmi, sister to Touran
Douhkt succeeded him.
This princess possessed wit and beauty ; her
pride made her reject the proposal of the governor
of Khorassan, who wished to marry her. En
raged at her refusal, he used threats, and the
queen had him put to death. This was the signal
for the revolt of his son, who defeated the queen
in a battle, took her prisoner, and in turn, de
prived her of life ; he then retired to his father's
government, and succeeded in maintaining himself
in it, the right to the throne having devolved
to Ferok Zad, a prince descended from the royal
blood. Ferok was not capable of governing a great
empire in such disturbed times. Possessing all the
qualities that render a private person estimable
nature had denied him those which are necessary
for sovereigns. He died, poisoned by one of his
slaves, after having reigned only one month.
He was replaced by Jezdgerd III. the last
vestige of the Sassanides, who was also the last
of the fire-worshipping kings. Jezdgerd took
the reins of government in the most difficult cir
cumstances : the Arabs had become powerful,
and all their efforts now tended to join Persia to
their numerous other conquests. It was in vain
that the king opposed Ferok, who had formerly
gained brilliant victories over them ; his day was
passed. After a desperate battle, followed by a

THE ARABS. 133
slaughter which lasted three whole days, the
Arabs, already possessed of all the strong places,
remained masters of the kingdom, and the monarch
was obliged to fly into Khorassan. During the
remainder of his life, he was only enabled to retain
that province, and those of Kerman and Sigistan.
In spite of the efforts made by some governors
to retain their independence in the districts con
fided to them, the whole of Persia was soon sub
jected by the followers of Mahomet, and united
to the new empire of the Caliphs.

134 CONTINUATION.

LETTER XVII.

Sequel and Conclusion of the same Subject. — Empire of the Caliphs;
other Mahometan Dynasties. — Taherites ; Soffarites ; Samanides ;
Gaznevides ; Gaurides ; Dilemites ; Bouides ; Seldjucides ; Atabeks
of Syria ; Kharismians ; Mogols; Kara Kouiounlu and Ak Kouinlu
Turkomans; MouhafFerians ; Courtches ; Sephewies or Sephis ;
Thamas Kouli Khan ; modern Revolutions in Persia down to the
reigning Prince. Teheran, Jan. 10, 1808.
You have seen by what a succession of events
Persia fell under the power of the Arabs. It was
about the year 632 of the Christian era that this
conquest was effected, and the Caliphs preserved
it during nearly two centuries.
In 820, or about that time, other dynasties suc
ceeded on the ruins of their power ; and though
the greater part of them only reigned over some
portion of Persia, yet their history is essentially
connected with that of the empire.
The Taherites were the first to revolt against
the Caliphs. They possessed Khorassan from the
year 820 until 864, when they were driven out
and replaced by the Soffarites, who commenced
aggrandizing themselves out of that province.
The Samanides, Gaznevides, Gaurides, and Dile-

SELDJUCIDES. 135
mites then appeared, and succeeded each other
rapidly in the short space of a hundred and forty
years. After having extended their power over
different parts of Persia, at the expense of that of
the Caliphs, the latter ceded to the superior force
of the Bovides, who expelled them about the year
933. Those princes again re-assembled the Per
sians as a nation, subdued their enemies, and gave
law as far as Diarbekir. The founder of this
new monarchy was a person named Ali, son of
Bovie, a poor fisherman on the shore of the Cas
pian Sea ; whom, however, several authors assert
to have been descended from the family of the
Sassanides. Bovie had three sons, Ali, Hassan,
and Ahmed, all of whom had at first entered into
the service of Mardavide, the last Dilemite king.
Ali revolted against that prince, defeated his
troops and the Arabs, divided his conquests with
his two brothers, Hassan and Ahmed, reserving to
himself the kingdom of Persia.
History affords nothing very remarkable until
the establishment of the Seldjucides, who, in
their turn, rose on the ruin of the Bouides. The
latter had reigned from 933 to 1056.
The family of the Seldjucides, originally of a
wandering Turkish tribe, formed five considerable
branches, which commanded a great part of Asia;
but the most powerful were those of Persia.
Their founder in Persia was Thogrul Beg, son
of Mikhael, one of the chiefs of the Turkish na-

136 THOGRUL DEG.
tion, himself the son of Seldjuk, who gave his
name to all the family.
Thogrul Deg was a great commander. He de
feated the Gaznevides in a bloody battle, deli
vered the Mussulmen of Persia from their op
pressors, conquered the Greeks, and caused him
self to be proclaimed king of the whole nation.
The caliph, Kaim Ben Illah, who sought the sup
port and protection of the Seldjucides, confirmed
him in the possession of his throne.
The empire of the Seldjucides terminated in
the person of another Thogrul about the year
1194. Other princes of the same family reigned in
Kerman, as I have already said, who are also
called Kaderites, from the name of their founder,
Kaderd. The Atabeks of Syria, were in the beginning,
only tutors to the princes of the royal family ;
like the mayors of the palace in France, they
seized on the sovereign authority, and remained
possessors of the throne, from the year 1195 to
1224, w hen they were expelled by the Kharis-
mians, princes of Kharisme, formerly tributaries
to the Seldjucides. Bousteghin Gurge, was the
first king of that country, situated to the east of
the Caspian Sea, between Oxus and Iaxartes.
The Moguls, Genghiz Khanians, and Turkomans,
(founders of the dynasties of Kara Kouiounlu,)
(the black sheep;) and of Ak Kouiounlu, (the
white sheep), the Mouhafferians, and Courtches,

CIIEIK SEPHI. 137
afterwards successively occupied the throne of
Persia. Towards the year 1500, commenced the reign
of the Sephis, who are improperly termed the
Sophis of Persia, by several authors. I should
here inform you, that Sephi is the family name
of this race, and did not signify king, as might
be supposed in reading the works of our old tra
vellers. The elevation of the Sephis to the Persian
throne is attributed to the noble conduct of Cheik
Sephi, who lived at [Ardewil, in Azerbaidjan,
during the time of Tamerlane. It is said that from
his great reputation, the above conqueror went to
visit him, and desired he would make some de
mand, upon which Cheik Sephi requested him to
spare the lives of thirty thousand prisoners of Ca- ,
ramania, whom he had taken after his victory over
Bajazet, Sultan of the Turks, and who he^ in
tended to have massacred at a grand festival. Ta
merlane consented, and the generosity of Cheik
Sephi, who sent the captives home, after having
distributed money and clothes amongst them, at
tracted universal admiration, gaining a great num
ber of friends and partisans for his family. One
of his descendants, named Ismael, availed himself
of this popularity, to seize on Tauris, where the
court was then held, dethrone the king, Alvand,
vanquish his brother Mourad Khan, and place the
crown of Persia on his own head.
The greatest monarch of this dynasty was Chah

138 CHAH ABBAS I.
Abbas I. surnamed the Great, the seventh of the
Sephewian kings, who ascended the throne in
1587. He began by delivering Persia from the
continual invasions of the Usbeck Tartars and
Turks, and afterwards returned to establish the
seat of his empire at Ispahan, the capital of Irak
Adjemi, which he embellished and enlarged. He
transported the Armenians of Julfa from the
banks of the Araxes, and established them in a
suburb, to which he gave the name of that town.
He also retook Tauris, Eriwan, C-urdistan, Ma
zenderan, and Guilan, from the Turks, crowning
those first exploits with a glorious peace which
lasted twenty years.
Historians whilst praising the great qualities of
Chah Abbas I. and extolling his love of justice,
cannot, however, avoid accusing him with the
death of his son Sephi Mirza, whom he caused to
be assassinated from jealousy of his merit. He
afterwards testified the greatest remorse at it, but
this crime is nevertheless an indelible stain on his
memory. Chah Abbas was not partial to courtiers ; he
liked to humble them, and the following anecdote
may give an idea of the little estimation in which
he held those who pass their lives in servile flat
teries to their sovereign, and in applauding all his
actions. The custom of smoking tobacco, was even
then common amongst the Persians, and dis
pleased him very much. In order to put an end

SERVILITY1.- 139
to that offensive and vicious habit, Chah Abbas
one day invited all the nobility of his court to
smoke some delicious tobacco which he had re
ceived from Chiraz :* no one missed attending
the invitation, and to each a kalioun or pipe was
offered, filled with straw. The king requested
their opinion on the quality of the tobacco, when
they all exclaimed that it was exquisite, and im
possible to find better ! " What," said Abbas,
laughing, " is then the flavour of that drug, which
cannot be distinguished from straw ?" and dis
missed the pliant courtiers, full of confusion.
Chah Abbas I. also conquered Georgia, and
took Bagdad from the Turks, in 1 622 ; but ac
cording to others, in 1524, he deprived the Grand
Signor, of Arabia, Bassora on the Persian Gulf, a
part of Anatolia, and advanced as far as Trebi
zond on the Black Sea.
This prince was more severe to the nobility
than to the people ; he degraded the former as
much as he could, and succeeded in annihilating
the military power of the Courtches, who com
posed almost the whole of the Persian armies :
these he replaced by troops composed chiefly of
Christians, and was the first who laid the founda
tion of that absolute power which the kings of
Persia have enjoyed to this day.

* The tambako, or tobacco of Chiraz, is reputed as being the
best in Persia,

140 MAR ZEHEK.
The Courtches were, according to Chardin, the
same as the Turkomans or Saracens, who extended
their conquests so far. Their families were so
united amongst each other, that they formed, as it
were, but one, whose strength and power com
manded the whole kingdom. Proud of having
enabled the descendants of Cheik Sephi to ascend
the throne, they had acquired a power as formi
dable as that of the Janizaries, and made the
kings themselves tremble. The Efchars, a valiant
and numerous tribe, who held the first rank
amongst that nation, had then a chief named Mar
Zeher Sultan, whom Abbas the Great wanted to
destroy. The mother, or one of the wives of Abbas, had
an intrigue, of which Mar Zeher Sultan was in
formed. Disgusted by such conduct, he went to
the tent of that princess, requested to speak to her
on an important affair, and • stabbed her through
the curtain, behind which she had placed herself
to hear him. Chah Abbas, then absent, tempo
rized at first, and deferred his revenge to a more
favourable opportunity. Seeing his despotism
consolidated by degrees, he one day ordered a
great cauldron to be prepared in the palace, and
sent for the criminal. " Mar Zeher Sultan," said
he, " I want your poison" — " I am going to
give it to myself," replied the intrepid Efchar .
and suddenly threw himself into the cauldron full
of boiling oil. The Chah, though struck with
such extraordinary courage, merely said, Adjaib

SEFI MIRZA. 141
kafir est ! " He is a strong fellow !" This death was
a signal of proscription for the tribe of the Efchars,
most of which fell soon after ; the remainder
found safety only in flight and emigration. Chah
Abbas, however, was obliged subsequently to have
recourse to them when he had to combat the
Ottoman forces ; but he divided and sub-divided
those tribes, to diminish their influence, and sow
jealousy and discord amongst them. The Efchars
still preserved the names, regulations, and divi
sions given to them by that prince. Chah Abbas
I. died at the close of the year 1629, at Fehra-
bad, a town in Mazenderan, which he had himself
founded. Sefi Mirza, his grandson and succes
sor, was a monster who wallowed in the blood of
his nearest relations. In his reign the Turks re
took Bagdad, of which Abbas the Great had
obtained possession twenty-six years before, and
they have ever since retained it.
Chah Abbas II. the son of Sefi Mirza, was
only thirteen years old when he came to the
throne. He is more known to Europeans than
the sovereigns his predecessors. Chardin and Ta-
vernier, who travelled in Persia during his reign,
have handed down several features of his charac
ter. He is accused of many acts of cruelty, and
a great inclination to drunkenness ; but his affa
bility to the Europeans has gained panegyrists
for him amongst the latter, who were admitted
to his intimacy, and even to sit at, his table.

142 THAMAS KOULI KHAN.
Tavernier acknowledges that he was often in
flamed with rage, and rather too fond of wine,
though in other respects beneficent, and courte
ous to foreigners.
Chah Abbas II. died in 1666, aged only thirty-
eight years. He was succeeded by his eldest son,
Chah Sephi. It was in the reign of this prince
the first symptoms appeared of those revolutions
that have so long ravaged Persia, and from
which she is even now scarcely released.
But the most remarkable period was that of the
succession to the throne of Thamas Kouli Khan,
in 1736. This prince was one of the principal
chiefs of the tribe of Efchars. He had already
vanquished the Afghans and Turks, retaking from
the latter all their conquests in Persia, when
he expelled Echref, the relative and successor of
an Afghan, named Mahmoud, who had seated
himself on the throne of Chah Hussein. He raised
Chah Thamas, the last scion of the Sephewie
family, a weak prince, incapable of wielding the
sceptre, in the violent convulsions which then
agitated the empire. He soon seized the person
of that prince, of whom he called himself the
slave, imprisoned him at Mechhed, proclaimed
his young son king, and caused himself to be de
clared regent of the kingdom.
Confiding in the strength of his army, whose ex
ploits had excited great enthusiasm in the nobility
whom he had gained over to his side, Thamas

OR NADIR CHAH. 143
himself proclaimed king by the chiefs of the
nation. As soon as he was master of the throne, he
destroyed, with the assistance of his troops, those
very nobles who had favoured his ambition, and
seized on the property of the mollahs, the revenues
of which are said to have amounted to a million
of tomans, to distribute them amongst the sol
diery. #
Nadir Chah was gratified in braving the hatred
and indignation of the Persians : he employed
them but little in his army, which was com
posed of Indians, Usbeck Tartars, and Afghans,
sectaries of the doctrine of Omar, which was also
his own ; but he could never cause this faith to
be adopted by a nation that he loaded with
taxes, and treated like a conquered country. He,
however, was the author of several very wise re
gulations in the civil and military administrations.
All his genius seemed to be especially directed
to this latter department. Being at first fortunate
in all his expeditions, he defeated the Great
Mogul Muhammed, seized his person and terri
tories, and caused himself to be proclaimed Em
peror of Indostan, at Delhi, from which city he
carried off immense treasures. His policy induced
him to replace that prince on the throne after-
Kouli Khan at length threw off the mask, and had
* The toman was then 1 1. 1 8.?. 9d. sterling ; it is now only
equal to 1 8s. 4rf.

144 ALI KOULI KHAN.
wards, on condition, that he should be tributary to
Persia, and he returned to Ispahan, in 1740.
The conclusion of his reign was marked with
reverses : he failed before Derbend, and the fury
with which this ill success inspired him, led to a
thousand acts of barbarity and cruelty. A 11 his latter
expeditions into Irak Arabe, Armenia, Diarbeckr,
to Bagdad, Bassora, Van, and Mosul, only pro
duced useless ravages ; his troops were repulsed
in all parts by the Turks, and Nadir Chah alarmed
at the progress of a rebellion that had already
spread over the whole empire, was obliged to
conclude a peace.
At length he fell under the weapons of his ene
mies, the number of whom was every day aug
mented by the ferocity of his disposition : he was
assassinated in 1745, by several conspirators, at
the head of whom was Muhammed Kouli Khan,
his nearest relation. He was then sixty-six years
of age, and had reigned thirteen.
Nadir Chah was succeeded by his nephew,
Ali Kouli Khan, who, on ascending the throne,
took the name of Adit Chah, or the Just King :
his reign was of short duration ; but he had suffi
cient time to revenge the death of his uncle, on
the traitor Muhammed Kouli Khan, one of whose
eyes, it is said, he caused to be torn out, and that
he afterwards delivered him to the wives of Nadir
Chah, by whom Muhammed was stabbed. His
brother, Ibrahim, who dethroned him, was almost

KERIM KHAN. 145
immediately overturned by Chah Rouhk, the
grandson of Nadir, and a descendant of the Sephis,
by his mother. But this prince, whose reign was
marked by fresh disturbances and new factions, was
soon obliged to give place to another descendant,
in a direct line, from the Sephi family, named Chah
Ismael, who owed his elevation to Ali Merdan
Khan, the commander of the troops.
Kerim Khan, of the tribe of Zend, one of the
officers of Nadir Chah, seized on the government
in 1749, and, according to others, in 1758 ; he
did not take the title of King, but contented
himself with that of Vekil, or Regent of the king-.
dom. He died in 1779, regretted by all Persia,
having contributed much to its glory and happi
ness. Ali Murad and the other successors of his
family, disputed amongst themselves, successively,
for the throne. All this part of the modern his
tory of Persia, until the elevation of Aga Mu
hammed Khan,. is merely a long series of horrors,
massacres, together with those disorders which
usually spring from anarchy.
Aga Muhammed Khan, having been mutilated
in his youth, by order of Kerim Khan, who ex
pected by that means to debar his access to the
throne, had succeeded in gaining the support of a
considerable party in Mazenderan, his native
country. He destroyed, by treachery, Djaffer
Khan, and the unfortunate Loutf Ali Khan, his
son, to whom the wishes of nearly all the nation

146 FETH ALI CHAH.
had granted the crown, and he himself grasped
the supreme power, but without taking the title
of Chah, he limited himself to that of Vekil, like
his immediate predecessor.
Persia groaned, during many years, under the
despotism of this ferocious eunuch, who was pre
paring to march to Teflis, and other parts of
Georgia, whence he wished to expel the Rus
sians, when he was murdered, on the 14th of
May, 1797, by one of his servants, the secret
agent of Sadet Khan, who had pretensions to the
crown, though he subsequently relinquished them.
At length Baba Khan, Governor of Chiraz,
and nephew of Aga Muhammed Khan, who had
long been designed by him as his successor, flew
to Teheran, in 1798, on the first news of the
death of his uncle, and caused himself to be pro
claimed king, under the name of Feth Ali Chah,
who is the reigning monarch.

MODERN PERSIA. 147

LETTER XVIII.
Modebn Persia; Climate, Productions, Commerce, Population,
Military Tribes, Tadjie, Armenians, Jews, Parsees, Government
Titles of Mirza Khan, &c. Chah Zades. — Selam of the King.
Teheran, Jan. 80th, 1808.
Iran is the true name of Persia amongst the
Orientals. The Turks give it that of Adjem,
or the country of fools, in contempt of the
Persians : it would therefore be an insult to them
to call it so in their presence, as it would be unin
telligible to them to term it Persia. The latter
name proceeds from the province of Fars or
Farsistan, which Europeans have probably found
more soft, and from which they have adopted
that of Persia.
Iran, in its present state, comprehends the coun
tries situated between the 25th and 42d degrees of
North latitude. It is bounded on the north by the
most eastern part of the range of Caucasus, Georgia,
and the Caspian Sea ; on the south, by the Persian
Gulf and the Indian Ocean ; on the east by In-
dostan ; and on the west by Asiatic Turkey. Its
extent is about 450 leagues from east to west,
and 360 from north to south. Often dismembered,
in consequence of the revolutions by which it has
L 2

148 PROVINCES.
been so long convulsed, it is still composed of
the following provinces : on the north, towards
the Caspian Sea, Giialan, of which the capital is
Recht ; Mazenderan, the principal towns of which
are Esterabad, Sari, and Fehrabad, built by Abbas
the Great ; Persian Armenia, the capital Eri-
van, to the east, three-fourths of Khorassan,
the capital of which is Mechked, and the most
considerable cities Nichabour, Kerat, and Merw.
Dilem, part of Irak Adjemi, the principal cities
of which are Teheran and Kasbinn ; to the north
west, Azerbaidjan, the capital Tauris ; to the
west, Persian Kurdistan, principal cities, Sine,
Hamadan, [Ecbatana], Kerman Chah ; in the cen
tre, Irak Adjemi, principal cities, Ispahan, Koum
and Kachan, to the south, Lourestan, (the moun
tainous country), principal cities, Chuchder,
[Suza] and Hafize ; Farsistan, capital of Chi
raz; Laristan and Denderat, or the country of
ports, on the Persian Gulf, known also by the
name of Dechtistan, the principal cities and ports
being Lar, Bender Abassi, Bender bou Cheher,
Bender Kongo, Bender Rik. Kerman, the ca
pital Kerman.
The climate of Persia is dry in general, but it
varies according to the provinces. Those of the
north enjoy a mild and moderate temperature
during the summer, and the cold is felt in winter;
whilst those of the centre, and principally the
south, are hot and burning. Often sandy and
barren, sometimes impregnated with salt, which

FRUITS. 149
communicates its taste to the streams, that irri
gate the land; the soil in many places owes its fer
tility to the numerous artificial canals which have
been cut with great art, and preserved with care
by the Persians. The most beautiful and produc
tive of all the provinces, is Tarsistan. The sweet
and high flavoured wines of Chiraz are famous
throughout the East ; and their reputation has even
reached European countries. Those of Ispahan,
limpid and transparent as the glass which contains
them, are stronger, and the red wine of Teheran,
and its environs, far preferable to that of Kasbinn,
which I have mentioned to you, would be found
an excellent table wine any where. Persia, also,
produces delicious fruits. I doubt if it be possible
to find such melons as those of Ispahan and
Kachan, which unite to the advantage of an exqui
site flavour, that of never disagreeing with those
who eat them. The peaches, apricots, and grapes,
are also of superior quality ; but the Persians cul
tivate neither cherries nor gooseberries ; and the
figs, though with a seducing appearance, are dan
gerous, especially to foreigners. As to vegetables
or pulse, I know of none that merits notice.
The Persians are very partial to the cultivation
of flowers, and are particularly fond of roses.
These, without being of perfect beauty, yet exhale
a delicious perfume, and have often inspired the
muses of their poets. Saadi has given the name of
Gulistan, or garden of roses, to one of his poems ;
and his Bostan, which means a garden, is another

150 WATER.
proof of the predilection of the Persians for all
those objects which can remind them of the beau
ties of nature.
The water in Persia is in general turbid and un
wholesome. As there is no navigable river here,
and but a very small number of rivulets, there is
none used but that of the conduits, or ditches
which surround the towns. The Persians are not
yet acquainted with the art of constructing aque
ducts ; they seem to attach little importance to an
object so essential to health, and merely fill their
vessels at the stream which is next at hand. Such
beverage often engenders pernicious fevers. We
accustomed ourselves to it with great difficulty in
the course of our journey, for it caused violent
gripings, and it was to the water we attributed
almost all the illness which happened amongst us.
However, since our arrival in the capital, we are
no longer subject to that inconvenience, the king
having had the goodness to appropriate a spring of
excellent water, at the orders of the ambassador.
Game is in great abundance and variety here.
The mountains and plains near Teheran, are full
of partridges and pheasants ; also of antelopes,
hares, wild boar, goats and asses. The Persians
willingly feed on the flesh of this latter animal,
which, though not firm, has a venison flavour
which is not disagreeable. The wild ass is of the
same size as the domestic one ; its hair is a very
light fawn colour, a broad stripe of beautiful
black runs along the back, and across his shoulders.

PROVISIONS. 151
Although stubborn, and caught with difficulty,
he is, however, sometimes tamed.
Fish is very scarce in this capital ; the little they
have, is brought from a small river at a short dis
tance from the city, and the muddy canals which
flow into it ; the flavour is very bad, and it is not
much used. The only large fish sold in the mar
kets, are dried and salted ; they come from the
Caspian Sea.
We had great difficulty one day in getting an
ox killed. The Persians do not make use of its
meat in their cookery, and employ this animal
only in agricultural labours ; its insipid taste
soon induced us to renounce it. The cattle here
are of small size, lean and without flavour, whilst
the other species of animals are of extraordinary
beauty, and excellent eating. The mutton is equal
to that of Constantinople, and is the only butcher's
meat that we use. Pigeons and rabbits are also
a great resource to us. You see that we are not
to be pitied on the score of good living ; but we ex=
perience a great privation, that of having no bread.
We engaged a German in Constantinople, who
called himself a baker : when set to work, he was
found quite ignorant of his pretended trade, and we
have been obliged to content ourselves with noun,
or Persian bread, if such a term can be applied to
lumps of dough, without leven, and which has
been baked for two or three minutes on a hot iron.
Nothing can be more insipid to the taste ; and yet
the excellent quality of the wheat of this country

152 HORSES.
would have made delicious bread, if we had a per
son capable of preparing it.
Persia produces great quantities of fine silk and
wool, drugs and cotton. Wheat, rice and barley,
are also cultivated here : the latter grain, and
chopped straw, serve as food to the horses, which
are superb. Those of Khorassan, as well as the
Turkoman and Arab horses, are the most es
teemed. The second are of a long and lank shape;
they have small and well made legs, a very long
neck, and are indefatigable in their course. The
Persians, who know no other gait than walking or
galloping, are good horsemen, and check the most
fiery coursers, with a curb and a simple snaffle ;
their saddles are smaller and less susceptible of
ornaments than that of the Turks, while their
stirrups have the same shape as ours.
The commerce of Persia is like that which must
exist in every state, where the arts and industry
are still only in their infancy ; the importations
greatly exceed the exportations. Turkey, Rus
sia, and British India, are the countries which have
most direct connection with this nation. From
Russia it receives leather, furriery, and many
other necessary articles. British India furnishes
it with Chinese and Japanese porcelain, English
chrystal, common glass and cloths. The export
ations, chiefly directed to Turkey, consist in beau
tiful carpets, cotton cloths, printed calicoes, mus
lins, gold and silver stuffs, and silk brocades ; but
Persia has a large export trade in its valuable raw

POPULATION. 153
silk, and 4he pearls found in the fisheries near the
island of Kharek, in the Persian Gulf. All the
internal trade is carried on by means of camels and
mules, which are united in numerous caravans.
The first of those animals, remarkable for their
beauty and size, serve also in the cities for the
conveyance of the usual merchandize, such as
grain, wood and charcoal ; their temperance and
strength render them as useful to the Persians as
to the Arabs. The Persians seldom leave their
country to travel, unless it be to visit India or
Turkey, in Asia. Some of them are found settled
in Bagdad and Erzerum. They have a decided
aversion to the sea, and do not like to trust them
selves on that element. This prejudice is the
reason of their not having a navy.
The actual population of Persia does not exceed
twelve millions of inhabitants. The chief part
forms fhe Schiasect of Mussulmen, which is that
of Ali, separated in itself into many sub-divisions,
such as the Soufis, in whose precepts some resem
blance has been supposed to be found with those of
the Pythagoreans ; the Sahis.and the Ali Oullahs,
who consider Ali as God himself, &c. The Per
sians, who follow the religion of Mahomet, are
divided into two classes : 1st, the descendants of
the old Turkish or Tartar tribes, Curdes, Arabs and
others, who subjected Persia at various periods to
their laws, and who may be termed the conquering
people ; their number doesnot exceed eight hundred

154 SECTS.
thousand souls ; 2nd, the indigenous inhabitants,
called Tadjik, descendants of the ancient Persians,
who formerly embraced lslamism, either by force or
persuasion. The first give them also the name of
Raia, which signifies subjects, and in all their trans
actions together, they treat and consider them as
such. There is a remarkable difference to be ob
served between the Persians and Turks : amongst
the latter, every man who becomes a Mussulman,
whatever might have been his origin, becomes by
that mere circumstance, as to political rights, the
equal of all those who profess the same faith.
The Sunnis Mussulmen, who acknowledge that
Aboukr and Omar were true and legitimate suc
cessors to the Caliphat, are still found in rather
considerable numbers in Persia, the provinces
nearest to Turkey, those which are contiguous to
the Usbek Tartars, and the frontiers of India ; but
the fear of being persecuted by the sectaries of
the predominant religion, who have expressed
more hatred and contempt for them than to the
Christians, and even the Jews, obliges them to
conceal their principles carefully ; and they ex
ternally affect, especially in the capital, to appear
as Schias. Since the last revolutions, great num
bers of the Armenians, despoiled of their wealth,
have emigrated to save themselves from the ex
tortions with which they were oppressed. The
Catholics, still more rare, are all foreigners, who
merely sojourn in the country, but never remain

PARSEES. 155
in it. As to the Jews, they are scarcely ever met
with. Not less degraded here than in Turkey,
they hardly dare shew themselves.
The Guebres or Parsees, are, perhaps, of all the
inhabitants of Persia, those most deserving of our
attention, both from their antiquity and charac
ter. Their number has diminished considerably
by the persecutions which they experienced at
several periods. However, there are still some
families of them in Teheran and Ispahan, and a
more considerable number at certain villages in
the environs of Yezd and Kerman. They are the
worthiest people of this country, and the Persians
themselves, notwithstanding the contempt in
which they affect to hold the Parsees, cannot avoid
doing them this justice. In general they follow
the professions of gardeners, masons, grooms,
&c. and the most faithful domestics procured,
here, are of this sect. It is very difficult to know
any thing certain of their tenets ; they seem to
make mysteries of them, and do not like to be
questioned on the subject. The following is all
I have been able to learn.
Sectaries of Zerdoucht, or Zoroaster, the Gue
bres, adore one only deity, and render a'species of
adoration to fire, because, of course, they consider
it as the first and most useful of the elements. It
is also said, that the origin of this veneration pro
ceeds from a pretended miracle effected by God,
in favour of Zerdoucht, whilst yet an infant.
King Nimrod, informed by his astrologers that a

156 UNITY OF GOD.
prophet would be born, who was destined at
some time to deprive him of his crown, ordered
that all the pregnant women should be put to
death ; one alone escaped that proscription, and
brought forth Zoroaster. The king caused the
child to be thrown into a blazing fire ; but the
burning pile was changed into a bed of roses.
Some sparks of that sacred fire, saved by the most
zealous partizans of the prophet, were carefully
preserved, and confided to the safeguard of the
priests of the new religion. However this may
be, the Guebres have great respect for that ele
ment ; they take care not to extinguish it,
and would rather suffer their houses to be con
sumed, than profanely raise a hand against this
vivifying principle of nature.*
The Guebres have a high priest, who is denomi
nated Cazy by our ancient travellers ; and who is
now known here by the appellation of Grand
Mollah. They consider the Mussulmen as im-
* This cursory notice of the Guebres, is not a little calculated to
excite curiosity and interest, at the present moment, when the
question of religion, like all others connected with human happi
ness, are agitated by such numerous sects, and various parties.
The sublime and beautiful doctrines of Zoroaster, have frequently
attracted the notice of philosophers both Pagan and Christian;
while many of those writers who argue in favour of the perfecti
bility of our species, do not hesiiateto proclaim that, as civilization
advances, there is a proportionate tendency in the minds of men,
to found their religious dogmas on the Unity of God. Though
so far beyond his humble comprehension, the Editor hopes to have
an opportunity of returning to the consideration of this momentous
question on a future occasion.

PECULIARITIES. 157
pure beings, and they dare not touch several kinds
of animals, without supposing themselves defiled
by the contact. The cat is that which they hold
most in horror and aversion. On the contrary,
they have a particular esteem for the dog. Ta-
vernier, who asserts he was in habits of intimacy
with them during three months, says, that they
apply the mouth of a dog to that of a dying per
son, to receive his soul, and then deliver it into the
care of an angel. He also declares, as well as many
others, that they do not bury their dead ; and that
they suspend them to posts, the head turned to
wards the east, in a place encompassed with walls,
where they become the prey of ravens. I cannot
attempt to verify those assertions, for I have not
been able to ascertain them myself; and I would
rather leave you in doubt on this subject, than offer
false or even dubious testimony.
1 The government of Persia is a completely des
potic monarchy, which is not tempered with any
intermediate power, nor counterbalanced, as in
Turkey, by any civil or military body, such as the
Oulemas and Janizaries. \ The poet Saadi, in one
of the histories of his Gulistan, makes a vizir say :
" He who does not think like the Prince, washes his
hands in his own blood. If the king were to say in
broad day that it was night, it would be necessary
to exclaim, behold the moon and stars /" These
maxims, worthy of being recommended to profes
sional courtiers and adorers of absolute power,
would find but few adherents amongst the friends

158 LAWS.
of constitutional government. They will depict
the immense extent of a Persian monarch's autho
rity, better than any reflections I can make ; nad
are more than ever applicable to the present time.
Since the reign of Chah Abbas I. and the annihi
lation of the power of the Courtches,' the will of
the king is in Persia the sole and supreme law ; it
frequently supersedes even the Koran, the only
religious, administrative, and judicial code of Ma
hometans. The king has full power to dispose of
the lives and properties of his subjects ; and he
grants but a very small portion of his authority
to his ministers and the governors of his provinces^
He alone can condemn to death in the capital;
while the sentences of death issued in other
parts of the kingdom, by the chah zades, and
khans, must be submitted to his approbation, be
fore they are executed, unless he should have in
vested the latter with extraordinary powers. At
Teheran, all criminal affairs are brought directly
before the king, and a prompt and severe justice,
always founded on the law of retaliation, is the
punishment of the guilty. The vizirs only take
cognizance of civil cases ; each party pleads his
Own cause, and he who shouts the loudest, or best
pays his judges, usually triumphs over his adver
sary. I shall hereafter return to this subject.
jit would be misapplying the word constitution,
to use it in speaking of Persia : every thing here
is done arbitrarily, or from custom. The order of
succession to the throne, is riot regulated by any

SINGULAR CUSTOM. 169
specific law : the sovereign chooses at will, one of
his sons, or even of his relations, whom he deems
fit to nominate for his successor.^ It is sufficient
to belong to the royal family to have the right of
succeeding to the throne. You may have seen by
my preceding letters, that this condition has not
been indispensable, and that many of the latter
princes have had no other title than their swords.
( The kings of Persia have, in almost all ages,
practised the barbarous custom of cutting or tear
ing out the eyes of their brothers, or those of
their relations, whose ambition they suppose they
had reason to fear: Feth Ali Chah himself is not
free from this stain : his only brother was de
prived of sight, in the fear, it is said, that he
might disturb him in the possession of the throne.
Since our arrival in this capital, that prince has
died of indigestion, or rather has fallen a victim
to the ignorance of a physician in bleeding him :
the king, on learning this event, shewed every
sign of the most profound grief, and ordered the
bazars to be closed for eight days, as a sign of
mourning. How is it possible to explain the
contradictions and caprices of the human cha
racter ?
The principal administration of public affairs,
is in the hands of a prime minister, or vizir, who
is termed Ittimad ud Dewlet (the confidence of
government) : his authority is much inferior to
that of the grand vizir of the Ottoman empire,
though he unites in his own person nearly all the

160 MINISTERS.
branches of the ministry ; but his functions are
merely civil, and he has not, like the latter, the
supreme, command of armies, nor the power of
life and death over the king's subjects. It is
Mira Muhammed Chefi, whom I have already
mentioned, that fills this eminent post. Hadji
Muhammed Hussein Khan, the son of a baccal,
or dealer in fruit and groceries at Ispahan, the
Beylerbey, or governor of this city, is the
favourite of the king, and occupies the second
place in the state, with the title of Emin ud
Dewlet (the prop of government). He is re
puted to be the wealthest subject in the empire.
The origin of bis immense fortune is stated in
various ways : some assert that he found trea
sures ; others, that he kept possession of a large
property which was intrusted to him, the real
proprietor having perished in the civil wars ; and
others, in short, declare, that when Aga Muham
med Khan pursued Loutf Ali Khan, the treasures
of the latter were given up to pillage, and that
Hadji Muhammed Hussein Khan and his father,
bought many articles at very low prices.
The following anecdote of this personage has
been communicated to me. About two years
since the king ordered that a despatch should be
sent to Ispahan, to procure three young women
worthy of his bed, for the harem. Those supreme
orders were executed, and Hussein had the au
dacity to raise his hand to those virgins, and
uncover their bosoms. When they arrived at

ANECDOTE. 161
Teheran, and were presented to the king, they
said, that they could not hope to be acceptable to
his highness, as a vile slave had presumed to
touch them. This threw the sovereign into a great
fury, and he ordered the criminal to be brought
before him. Mirza Riza Kouli, the actual fa
vourite, interceded, and informed Hussein of his
danger, recommending him to appease the king's
anger by presents, and to spare nothing, for his life
was in jeopardy. Hussein arrived, brought money,
presented jewels already seen and approved of by
the king, and his presents were accepted ; the
cause of his appeal was soon forgotten, and the
Chah granted him daily proofs of his confidence ;
at length Hussein Khan, forgetting what he owed
to his benefactor, Mirza Riza Kouli, determined
on his ruin, and concluded by supplanting him.
He is now in high favour, and his wealth has
accumulated to such an extent, that he has
monopolized every thing at Ispahan, where
scarcely any article is sold, except for his account.
A secretary general of state, and several under
secretaries, one of whom has the department of
the finances, compose the remainder of the pre
sent ministry. Lastly, a person named Ismael
Bey Khidmet Bachi, or principal valet de chambre
to the king, performs the functions of minister of
war. All the inferior employments in the civil
department are occupied by an infinity of mirzas
or clerks, and in the military, by khans of an
inferior class.

162 MIRZAS.
The title of mirza is as common in Persia, as
that of effendi in Turkey. It is understood in
two different senses, according as it is placed
before or after the name of the personage who is
honoured with it. In the first case, it belongs
to the whole class of literary men and lawyers,
and even to mere clerks or writers ; in the
second, it is reserved entirely for the chah zades,
or sons of the king, and the princes of the royal
family. Excepting the vizirs, and those who hold the
chief employments in the administration, or who
are attached to the court by some office, the
mirzas who merely owe this title to their pro
fession of mollahs, literary characters, lawyers,
or schoolmasters, enjoy no peculiar privilege.
The greater part of them are very poor and
extremely ignorant, and though they strut with
so much pride from a title which indicates an
illustrious origin,* it may nevertheless be said,
that their whole nobility consists in their writ
ing ; for they owe it entirely to that science,
which is limited to knowing how to read and
write. The title of khanf is more particularly attached

* Mirza is a corruption of emir zade, which signifies a noble
man's son.
t The word khan denotes by itself a very elevated dignity ;
meaning power, and even sovereignty. It is found amongst
almost all the nations of Asia. The Tartar mandarins are titled

KHANS. 163
to the chiefs of the warlike tribes, the great men
of the state who follow the military career, and
to the governors of cities and provinces. The
policy of the king, which tends to deprive, by
degrees, these personages of a part of their
power and influence, induces him to lavish this
distinction on men of all ranks ; but the high
military nobility, who esteem themselves as being
much superior to the khans that receive this title
from royal favour, are very much offended at w7hat
they term an abuse ; they wish much to establish
a line of demarcation completely distinct, be
twixt themselves and the latter. The royal com
mands will triumph over their efforts, and com
mon interest in the end will reconcile these two
orders, were it only for the necessity they have
for supporting each other. The title of khan
is hereditary, and placed after the name of the
person who is invested with it.*
Traders and citizens have the title of Aga,
which signifies master : servants and inferiors

with it in China, and in many other countries, and all the
Mussulman sovereigns, comprehending the Grand Signor, bear
it in their diplomas.
* I suspect Mr. Morier 'is mistaken when he says, that
in Persia the title of miiza may be borne in conjunction with
that of khan ; he quotes, for instance, Mirza Hussein Ali Khan.
It appears to me, that in this case, as in all those of a similar
nature, Mirza is merely a proper name. As such if is often in
use amongst the Persians, and I have heard it given even to
domestic servants.
M 2

184 ROYAL TITLES.
also use it to each other before their masters or
patrons. The Persians give to all sovereigns, without
distinction, the title of Hazret, which literally
signifies Presence, and which we translate by
Majesty or Highness. Thus, for instance, in
speaking of their sovereign, they say,Hazreti Feth
Ali Chah, his Highness King Feth Ali, &c. The
Turks, on the contrary, give this title in the
singular, and before the name, only to their
prophets ; as for example, Hazreti Muhammed :
they put it in the plural after the name of the
Grand Signor, and those of persons of high rank,
as in Sultan Selim Hazretleri ; Hussein Ali Ef-
fendi Hazretleri, &c. In Persia the title of
Djenab, which we translate by Excellency, is
given to vizirs and the chief nobility.
This digression on titles has appeared neces
sary to enable you in the sequel to estimate their
importance, according as you meet them in the
course of my letters, and I shall now return to
the original subject.
The provinces are governed by chah zades,
who have their peculiar ministers, and a court,
arranged like that of the king, or by khans,
who then take the title of Beylerbey, and
may be compared in some respects to the
pachas of Turkey, though their authority is
more limited. The cities have valis, or distinct
governors. These often abuse their authority, to
enrich themselves at the expence of those whom

TAXATION. 165
they govern, which is generally the case in coun
tries where despotism holds the place of laws.
The various degrees of power, from the beyler
bey down to the kalentar and ket khouda, who
commands in a village, are so many distinct ty
rannies to which the people resign themselves to
suffer patiently, in the dread of a still more mi
serable fate. But it is more especially in the exac
tion of the taxes, that absolute power and oppres
sion are developed : all the weight is placed on
the cultivator and artisan : merchants pay no
tax to the state, excepting the custom-house
duties, and the nobility a kind of tribute called
pechkech, or presents.
The king annually receives the pechkech of the
beylerbeys and the chah zades, when the latter,
being grown up, receive from their father the
government of a province. As princes, their
presents ought to be proportioned to their dig
nity, and more considerable than those of other
nobles. It is, perhaps, for this reason that he
gives the preference of those employments to his
sons ; and if all of them were of an age to serve
his policy, in this respect, the royal treasure
would gain considerably by it.
Feth Ali Chah has forty-two male children :*

The number of them has very much increased since 1808-
Mir Dawoud Zedour, sent on a mission to France, in 1816,
asserted that the number of Chah Zades amounted to above sixty,
at his departure from Persia.

166 ROYAL FAMILY.
the number of his daughters amounts, it is said,
to more than one hundred ; but that can be known
only to his women and eunuchs, as the most
impenetrable mystery covers all that passes in
the interior of the harem.
We have not seen all the sons of the king,
because several of them inhabit provinces which
he has placed under their command, and
others are still too young to leave the seraglio.
The following are the names of the oldest portion
of them :
Muhammed Ali Khan, the senior of all those
princes, may be about twenty-four years of age.
He inhabits Kerman Chah, and governs Loures-
tan. He is said to be very enterprizing, brave, and
but little disposed to cede his right of primoge
niture to his brother Abbas Mirza. Muhammed
Veli Mirza commands in Khorassan, and re
sides at - Meckhed ; he is nearly of the same age
and disposition as the preceding. Abbas Mirza,
younger by six months, the issue of a mother
of the royal tribe of Kadjars, has been, for that
reason, long designated by his father, as pre
sumptive heir to the crown. He is governor of
Azerbaidjan, and resides at Tauris. I have
already made this prince known to you, and shall
now merely add that he gives great hopes to Persia.
Hassan Ali Mirza, governor of Teheran, con
stantly inhabits the capital, especially when the
king is absent from it. Hussein Ali Mirza, bro
ther of the preceding, by his mother, is still very

CURIOUS CUSTOM. 167
young. He commands at Chiraz and throughout
Farsistan. Muhammed Kouli Mirza governs Ma
zenderan, the native country of the reigning
family. Ali Chah remains at Teheran, with the
king; he is brother, by his mother, to Abbas
Mirza, and the latter, by appointing him his
Naib, or representative, has confided to him the
care of his interests in this capital.
The other sons of Feth Ali Chah, still too
young to fill any important post, are under the
care of their mothers in the interior of the harem.
Some of them, by a very singular custom, which,
perhaps, is not to be found elsewhere, are adopted
by the principal nobles of the kingdom. We
have seen two of them in the house of the grand
vizir Mirza Muhammed Chefi, one with the
Nasakchi Bachi, Ferradj Oula Khan, chief of
the tribe of the Efchars ; one with Ismael Bey,
principal valet de chambre of the king, and others
with the principal personages of the capital. The
king thus saves the expences of their education
and maintenance ; and the nobility, like true
courtiers, take good care not to refuse an honour
which must increase their credit at court.
The king has a nephew, named Muhammed
Ibrahim Khan, who is also become his son-in-law,
by marrying a sister of the governor of Khoras
san. Though he is not a chah zade, he holds
that rank by his marriage, and enjoys the par
ticular affection of Feth Ali Chah, who has given
him the government of Kerman.

168 THE SELAM.
The chah zades exact in their respective resi
dences, the same honours as the king in the
capital. Their ministers and all the persons
attached to their courts, are subject to the same
duties and obligations as to their sovereign. The
daily functions of the courtiers are as follows :
twice each day, in the morning about eleven
o'clock, and in the evening at five, the vizirs and
all the placemen are obliged to appear at the
selam of the king. The selam or salutation is
an audience at which the sovereign requires an
exact account of all affairs of state from his mi
nisters. None of them dare be absent from that
assembly ; which, besides, obtains for those who
are not invested with important employments,
easy and frequent occasions of showing them
selves and paying their respects. The chah zades
themselves are subjected to it when at Teheran.
All are ranged standing and silent, according to
their ages or dignities, and the king only is
seated at the window of a room on the ground
floor. I shall very soon give you a description
of the ceremonial observed here on solemn fes
tivals, such as the Bairams and Newrous, taking
care not to describe any thing to you but what
passes under my own immediate observation.

REFLECTIONS. 169

LETTER XIX.
Character of the Persians — their Manners— Munedjims or Astrologers —
Physicians — Mussulman Casuists — Indifference of the Persians for
the Fair Sex— their Uncleanliness — Employment of Time — Persian
Cookery — Festivals — Solibets — Amusements — Exercise of the Dje
rid — Cock and Ram Fighting — Persian Sportsmen. Teheran, Feb. 10, 1808.
The most important object of travels, and the
greatest advantage which can be drawn from them,
is to learn a knowledge of mankind, and thence
be able to appreciate our species according to
their just value. Obliged to rely upon himself,
and judge of all from what he sees, the traveller
is no longer the dupe of those deceitful accounts so
frequently found in works of this kmoTfnor does he
permit himself to be seduced by the brilliant exag
gerations of national feeling, ever enthusiastic, and
solicitous of the stranger's admiration. Perhaps
he may lose some enjoyments by this, but he is
sure at least to gain a great deal in point of
instruction ; and if unguarded declarations are
often the reply of his adversaries, they ought not
to make him renounce a task which he has vo
luntarily imposed on himself. Fully sensible of
his duties as a narrator, and confiding in the
support of those who have seen the countries,

170 PERSIAN CHARACTER.
or become acquainted with them from a long
study of their history, the impartial observer will
not be deterred from an elucidation of truth,
by which he can alone hope to eradicate the
errors and prejudices too easily imbibed by
credulity. You will, perhaps, comprehend that I intend
to describe the character of the Persians to you.
In making this attempt, I promise to perform it
dispassionately, and with all the impartiality
whjch the subject requires.
\ If a people were to be judged from first im
pressions or by appearances, the Persians would
doubtless obtain the approbation of all : their
politeness carried to excess, their civilities and
attentions to a stranger would soon gain his good
will, and if he had neglected to study their man
ners, or had only ordinary communications with
them, he must return home very much prepos
sessed in their favour.' Such was the opinion
which we, ourselves, had first formed of the
Persians. Without failing to render them all
the justice they merit, or omitting the qualities
which so eminently distinguish their neighbours,
the Turks, I shall add, that! they are witty and
agreeable, that they are exempt from that bar
barous fanaticism, which in some respects in
spires us with a just aversion to the Ottomans^
that in Persia, a Christian, Mussulman, Jew,
and Guebre, enjoy at present almost equal pro
tection on the part of the government; that all,

PREDILECTIONS. 171
without distinction of faith, salute each other
with selam alekim;* that there is no degrading
distinction in the costume of the different secta
ries, and that, in short, there are examples of
Christians having received the titles of khan and
mirza, and arriving even to public employments
and dignities. But after having performed the
part required by justice, it is fit also for truth to
have her sway. It must be allowed, that under
the most affable and seducing exterior, the Per
sians are deficient in candour and good faith :
they are said to have a predilection for bombast,
dissimulation, and lying. I see nothing French
in these various qualities, or which can justify a
comparison too lightly, or unjustly asserted. To
return to lying, it might be almost supposed that
this vice forms an essential part of their education.
i In the most serious affairs, as in the common
transactions of life, they appear to have a de
cided antipathy to truth, and the foreigner who
would have the simplicity to believe their asser
tions, or give credit to their protestations, would
infallibly become the dupe of the most false and
cunning of mankind^ It is necessary, therefore,
under the penalty of falling into contempt, never

* Selam Alekim in Arabic signifies health be on you. It is the
ordinary formula of persons who meet or commence a conversa
tion. The Persians salute in this manner, indiscriminately, men
of all religions; the Turks, on the contrary, give this salutation
to Mussulmen only.

172 GOOD QUALITIES.
to appear fully convinced by their discourse ; and
to preserve with them a decided air of incredu
lity and even of superiority, is the only means
of eluding their deceit.
Let us, however, do them justice in another
point : you would be displeased with me if I were
to detail only their faults and defects. I The Per
sians are full of wit and comprehension ; they
adopt with facility and without any scruple of con
science, the foreign customs which appear to be
superior to their own ; and were it not for the
immense distance by which they are separated
from Europe, they would be susceptible of rapid
advances in civilizationA
This good inclination will appear very singular
in a people professing the Mahometan religion,
and who are still far from having shaken off all
their prejudices. But how much have they not
yet to acquire in this latter respect ! The very men
who load us with politeness and attention, term us
nedjis, or impure ; and believe themselves pol
luted by eating out of the same dish with us. iThey
avoid our touch, and by another species of super
stition, they undertake no business, either with us,
or amongst themselves, without having consulted
their astrologers. \ You have seen by the account
I have given you of our arrival at Teheran, the
degree of confidence they grant to that class of
men, of whom the king himself, no doubt, from
respect to the general prejudices in their favour,

ASTROLOGY. 173
seems to honour with his approbation.* j Their
profession, however, is highly censured by the
Mussulmen casuists, and condemned as in opposi
tion to the precepts of the Koran, which teaches
that destiny is immutable ; and that all fortunate or
disastrous events occur solely by the will of God.]
Custom, however^ in this case, has an ascendency^
over religion. [ The Persians never undertake a
journey, nor any enterprize, without consulting an
astrologer, who examines the stars, and weighs
with gravity all the chances of the enterprize, pre
vious to deciding if the thing be practicable^ These
muneddjims, as they are termed, practice physic
also ; and you may judge what must be the fate
of a patient in such hands. Astrology gives a
great latitude to medicine, puts it at ease, and dis
charges it, as may be said, from all responsibility.
If he knows nothing of the disease, as is generally
the case, the celestial doctor declares that the
chance is not favourable, and the unhappy victim of
ignorance perishes without uttering a complaint.
I have not remarked any thing in the manners
of the Persians which can justify the accusation of
ferocity made against them formerly, by a few
travellers. It is true they now enjoy peace
* I am inclined to believe that such a prince as Feth Ali
Chah, gifted with all the qualities of the mind, and who is sup
posed to be one of the most learned men in his kingdom, maintains
astrologers, and practices astrology himself, solely from motives
which it is not difficult to comprehend. It is, perhaps, with him a
political expedient rather than superstition.

174 WOMEN.
and tranquillity, that their long revolutions are, 1,
dare not say terminated, but at least stifled, and
that the population, engaged as it is in domestic
and agricultural labours, industry and commerce,
is no longer the same as in civil wars. I judge of
them, therefore, as I see them, and I would rather
bear the imputation of too much indulgence, than of
excessive severity.! I have, besides, still other vices
to reproach them with ; the most serious is their
injustice and indifference to a sex which elsewhere
forms all the charm and happiness of our existence.
Women are merely, in the estimation of these
men, beings created solely for their pleasures^
Preserved by their education and habits from the
pains and vicissitudes of love ; incapable, on the
other hand, by their religious prejudices, of appre
ciating its delights and enjoyments, they have
degraded that sentiment to the excess of reserving
it at times for their minions, and of turning it
into a crime against nature. Many of their poems
turn entirely on this inconceivable degeneracy ;
and their moral depravity is such,* that far from
making a mystery of this new species of amorous
intrigue, they appear, on the contrary, to take
pride in it ; and speak publicly of their minions,
as if they were speaking of their mistresses.
| Enervated in early life by the heat of the cli-

• The fifth Bab, or book of the Gulistan of Saadi, entitled, Der
Echk u Djivaui (on love and youth), is partly appropriated to this
subject.

MEN. 175
mate, and by marriages contracted previous to the
age in which man attains his full vigour, the rich
and powerful Persians spend their lives between
idleness, debauchery and effeminacy. Covered
with vermin under their dresses of gold cloth,
they might be, in some respects, compared to a
nation less distant from us, and which hac become
celebrated for its indolence and filthiness. But,
every thing in this world is in a state of contra
riety : as much as they neglect the cleanliness of
their persons, so much do they attach importance
to that of their houses ; their court-yards are kept
nicely swept ; their carpets and the felts that serve
them as seats, carefully beaten, and they never
enter an apartment without leaving their slippers
at the door ! 1
The Persian rises at day-break, and first recites
his morning prayer, generally aloud ; then, if a no
bleman or public functionary, he leaves his harem
and goes into the first court of his house, where he
gives audience, during an hour, to his vassals and
dependents. At eleven o'clock his breakfast is
served up, and consists of bread, cheese, raw herbs
or fruits, all on a tray of tinned copper. He after
wards washes his hands and beard, takes a cup of
coffee, smokes a kalioun, and goes to the selam of
the king. If he be a trader, or one who has
no public business to transact, he goes to the
bazars to attend to his profession, or remains
unoccupied at home. At noon he says his second
prayer, and at two o'clock, especially in summer,
he shuts himself up and sleeps until four or five.

176 COOKERY.
At sun-set he performs his third ablution and last
prayer, and places himself at table to dine. This
latter meal is composed of meats cooked in various
ways, vegetables and fruits : the solid or principal
dish is always the pilaw, which he eats without
bread. ' The Persian cookery is in general very plain,
and may be done at a trifling expense I in many
respects it resembles that of the Turks ; in others
it differs from it : like the latter, the Persians all
eat out of the same dish, and never use knives and
forks. They take up every thing with their fin
gers, even the pilaw, kneading with their right
hand a bit from each dish, which they make into a
ball of the size of a walnut, and throw it with
great dexterity into the mouth. They drink iced
liquids in summer, as in winter, and are great
lovers of sweetmeats and preserves. ' The confec
tionary department is what they manage bestA
Their formal entertainments commence with all
that is most exquisite in the above line, and they
mix without distinction, the highest flavoured and
spiced viands with the richest sweetmeats. The
great officers of state, and all the personages of
the court, have displayed their magnificence in the
dinners which they have given in rotation to the
ambassador, since his arrival at Teheran. A de
scription of them would interest you but little, and
I have thought it best to avoid troubling you with
it, as you would merely find a repetition of the
same circumstances. I shall merely inform you,
that as much from respect to our customs, as to

MODE OF LIFE. 177
have a pretence for not touching dishes polluted
by impure hands, we every where found tables
laid out in the French manner, covered with rich
silk stuffs embroidered with gold and silver, in
stead of table cloths. The general sent his plate
beforehand, and we were served in the European
style, whilst the Persians, squatted on their carpets
opposite to us, gave themselves up, according
to their own taste, to all the pleasures of good
living. The traders and persons of the lower classes lead,
from necessity, rather a less indolent life ; though
nothing but the obligation of labour prevents them
from indulging in repose like the others ; going
early to the places appropriated to commerce, they
shut up their shops to sleep during the great heat
of the day, and open them afterwards until nine
or ten at night, when they return to their houses.
From two to five o'clock, very few persons are
to be seen in the city, at which period the same
silence reigns there as in the night. The evenings
are devoted, amongst the opulent, to solibets or
assemblies, which sometimes continue until mid
night, or even later. It is needless to say that
ladies are not admitted to these parties, where they
smoke, take coffee, tea, and tcherbet ; the conver
sation sojnetimes grave, at others light and witty,
turns alternately on religion, poetry, and litera
ture ; nor is it divested of interest even for
foreigners, when limited to the two last named
subjects.

178 FIELD SPORTS.
In "the number of their pleasures and amuse
ments must also be reckoned sumptuous suppers,
enlivened by the performances of musicians and
dancers. On those occasions it often happens that
the Persians deviate from their usual temperance
and frugality, especially when they indulge in
wine and spirituous liquors : they are passionately
fond of the latter, which is supplied to them from
Russia, and we have seen them commit frightful
excesses while under its influence. Being a bad
spirit distilled from grain, worthy only of pleasing
the palate of a Cossack, they are surprised to find
that we do not participate in their taste, and they
cannot avoid laughing when they see us putting
water in our wine.
j The Persians are very fond of riding, also of the
djerid, cock and ram fighting, and above all, hunt
ing. They follow it in various manners, with birds
of prey, or dogs ; but they never dare to eat of any
game bitten by one of those animals: thus the above
amusement, already barbarous in itself, becomes
still more so amongst them, since it has no object
of utility in view.l
The Persian Huntsmen are armed with a very
long gun, of a large calibre : a parcel of cord
rolled above the stock, serves them for a guard :
when they want to fire, they are obliged to strike
fire with flint and steel, to light a match : never
theless, in spite of the imperfection of their fire
arms, they must be acknowledged to be very
expert marksmen ; as they often shoot birds flying,
a nd se ldom miss their aim.

NIGHIARISTAN. 17 9

LETTER XX.
Nighiaristan. — Palace of Kasri Kadjar. — Harem of the King. — Ruins of
Rhages. — Key. — Sacred Village of Chah Abdul Azim — Religion of
the Persians. — Funerals. — Cemeteries. — Mosques  Toleration. — In -
tolerance of the Mollahs. — Dervishes. — Emirs  Public Schools.
Teheran, Feb. 24, 1808.
We have made several excursions in the envi
rons of this capital ; I am going briefly to re
count what they presented most worthy of notice*
and shall then pass on to other objects.
Our first ride was directed towards Nighiaris
tan, a small pleasure house belonging to the Chah
Zade Abbas Mirza, and built for that prince by
his grand vizir Mirza Buzurk. This country-
house, which contains nothing very extraordinary,
is about a mile from Teheran. It is surrounded
by a mud wall, flanked on the eastern side with
a small tower, where there is a long culverine of
brass. Mounted on a clumsy carriage, this ap
pears to be rather an object of ostentation than
of defence.
Nighiaristan has the double signification of a
place from which there is a prospect, or where
an observatory is established. It is, no doubt,
n 2

180 PERSIAN GARDEN.
the tower of which I speak, that has caused this
name to be given to it. There is, in fact, from its
si mmit a view of all the city, and surround
ing country, and nothing is deficient in this exten
sive view, but to be more agreeable and varied :
for, on ali sides there is nothing to be seen save an
uncultivated plain, of great sterility.
The apartments of the Nighiaristan are not spa
cious, and present none of that Asiatic splendor
we expected to have found there ; their extreme
simplicity indicates the taste of the prince who is
proprietor of them.
The garden, about six hundred paces long, by
three hundred broad, is kept in good order : it is
in the shape of a long square, ornamented with
flowers, and planted with poplars,still very young.
A small canal about three feet wide, the bed of
which is entirely covered with beautiful stones,
divides it in its whole length : the water which
supplies it is excellent, and proceeds from a source,
of which we could not reach the bottom by sound
ing. It issues with impetuosity, and cools a marble
pavilion where there is a bason and fountain.
The same canal carries its waters to a fountain at
a short distance from the city, the reservoir of
which the king has retained to himself. I believe
I have already told you, that by a special favour,
his majesty had placed this fountain at the dispo
sition of the embassy.
Beyond the Nighiaristan, at a parasang (a
distance of four miles) to the north of Teheran, is

KASRI KADJAR. 181
the royal castle of Kasri Kadjar, which we visited
afterwards. It is built like an amphitheatre, on a
rock, and at the foot of the mountains bounding
the plain on that side.
This building, the elevation of which causes it
to be seen at a great distance, is formed of brick,
covered with white stucco. The principal gate is
of brass. To give you a better idea of the interior,
permit me, as it were, to introduce you into it
with me.
Two long dark galleries are first passed through,
and after leaving the bathing rooms, which are all
lined with marble, on the left we enter into a spa
cious court shaded with beautiful plane trees. This
is the harem, or apartment of the women. Their
absence having permitted us to satisfy our curi
osity, we inspected a place, inaccessible to other
mortals, except the king and his eunuchs : under
any other circumstances, we should have paid
dearly for our temerity. The ladies, during the
night, are separated into sets of five,_under the
care of one of those formidable argusses} but in the
day time they may associate together in the court,
and take the pleasure of bathing in a vast bason,
which divides it into two equal parts. To this are
reduced nearly all the enjoyments of those who
are not invited to the honour of sharing the royal
bed. I doubt whether their fate will appear enviable
to our countrywomen; but they are accustomed
to it from an early age, and were it not for the
jealousy or little intrigues which must often
agitate them, and the efforts they are constantly

182 FEMALE APARTMENTS.
making to supplant more beautiful or expert rivals,
perhaps they would find themselves happy. \ I do
not, however, take upon myself to decide this ques
tion, and therefore leave it to your better judgment.
The apartments of the king's women are desti
tute of that magnificence, which exists only in the
imaginations of our romance writers. They are
small square cells, at the end of which are raised
alcoves of wood, covered with mattrasses ; all the
furniture corresponds exactly with the simplicity
of the place. At the extremity of the court there
are two large saloons richly painted in fresco, and
decorated with portraits of several Persian kings
and heroes.
We next enter the sanctuary where the happy
mortals to whom the king of kings deigns to grant
his sublime attention are admitted ; in that temple
where beauty often triumphs over power:* I
allude to the king's bed-chamber.^ It is ascended
by a small stair-case of twelve or fifteen steps,
and must be visited to form an idea of that Asiatic
luxury, which a review of the preceding objects
would induce you to suppose had no existence. Let
not your imagination, however, induce you to fancy
you behold ceilings and cornices shining in pearls

* As I may here be accused of contradicting myself, after
what I said in the nineteenth letter, on the little regard the
Persians have for the fair sex, I am very happy in having this op
portunity of declaring that Feth Ali Chah is free from the general
accusation against that nation. It is even said, that he is passion
ately fond of women, and that he holds the infamous vice I have
mentioned in detestation.

KING'S BEDCHAMBER. 183
and diamonds : as it would then carry you beyond
the truth. The fact is, that this apartment, hav
ing several windows which open on the court of
the harem, and on the gardens, is inlaid with
mirrors, and ornamented with four portraits of
females in the Persian style. The ceiling and
other parts of the room are remarkable for some
most delicately executed paintings in fresco ; but
the freshness of the colouring excels the purity of
the design. Lastly, two magnificent doors of inlaid
cabinet work, are what principally attract the
attention ; they would not be misplaced in our
most beautiful palaces : the workmanship is ad
mirable, and appeared to us far superior to all that
we had hitherto seen in Persia. Ivory, ebony,
mother-of-pearl, and many precious woods are
mingled with so much art, that the whole presents
an appearance of the most perfect workmanship
and unity. I confess that I could not have
imagined the Persians capable of producing such
a master-piece. We were assured that the king, when he
went to Kasri Kadjar, often placed himself at the
windows of this pavilion, and, like David of old,
ordered the women to bathe themselves in his pre
sence in a large basin of the harem, and that this
spectacle seemed greatly to divert his majesty !*
Beneath the castle, on the opposite side from the
harem, is a beautiful terrace divided by a canal,
* What an enviable treat to certain princes of Europe !

184 THE GARDENS.
which falls in cascades under an arch, down to
the gardens. There is a descent by a covered stair
case, very steep, to a second and third terrace,
when we reach a beautiful kiosk, the interior of
which is ornamented with paintings and portraits.
Here we took our station for an hour, and
placed ourselves at table to partake of a breakfast
prepared for us by order of the king.
From the windows of this spot are seen all the
plain of Teheran, the gardens of Kasri Kadjar,
and still nearer a large sheet of water, on which
the king often sails in a boat with his favourites.
After breakfast we left the kiosk, when another
staircase let us into the gardens : these are not of
great extent, though very well managed ; there
is a considerable number of fruit trees and some
cypresses planted in them. A canal, formed by the
water of the cascades which fall from the upper
terraces, passes through their whole length, and
runs behind through a marble chamber, in the same
way as that of Nighiaristan, but larger. Lastly,
the palace and all its dependencies are surrounded
with mud walls, flanked by many towers, and is
entered at four different gates, all of them covered
with pavilions.
At a league and a half south of Teheran, and
on the road to Ispahan, we visited the ruins of the
city of Rhages, on which is raised a miserable
village called Rey. It appears now sufficiently
demonstrated, that there has been an error on the
part of those geographers and travellers, who

RHAGES. 185
supposed they had found them more to the
southward of Teheran, and near Koum or Sava.
An inspection of the spot, and the,name of the
village, which reminds us of that of the ancient
city, would, perhaps, suffice to fix the opinion of
the learned, in this point.*
If the Orientals were to be believed, Rhages,
at the time of the conquest of Persia by Alexan
der, was twenty leagues in circumference, and
contained several millions of inhabitants. To
judge of it by more rational accounts, and the
space covered by its ruins, scattered here and
there at great distances, this city must certainly
have been very large, but it is necessary to be
guarded against the exaggeration of the Persians,
relative to the extent and ancient population which
they attribute to it.
With the exception of some brick walls, that
probably belonged to a citadel, and which are seen
on a little hill on the eastern side, there remains
no vestige of any monument. The foundations

* Olivier places the ruins of Rey or Rai at a league to the
eastward of Pouli Tela, about twenty-four hours march to the
southward of Teheran, and four north of Koum. On the other
hand, Chardin supposes them to be nine leagues to the east of
Sava ; which would place them eastward of Pouli Tela. Lastly,
Strabo, quoted by Olivier, and who calls this city Regeia, says,
that it was five hundred stadii, or about ten leagues south of
the Caspian gates. The opinion of more modern travellers ap
proaches still nearer the latter ; but, according to the calculation
of the ancient geographer, it would still be fifteen leagues further
north of the ruins we have seen.

186 CHAH ABDUL AZIM.
of a great number of houses, excavations filled with
bricks and broken earthenware, are now the only
objects that indicate its inclosure and situation.*
Amongst the ruins of less remote times, which we
saw at Rhages, there is a brick tower, well built, and
about sixty feet in height. This monument seems
to belong to the dynasty of the Seldjeucidan kings.
It is of a round form, and supported by twenty-
four triangular ribs ; the solidity of which appears
likely to ensure it a long existence. An inscrip
tion in Cuphic characters runs round the cornice.
The village of Rey is quite close to this tower,
on the border of a pond abounding in fish, which
are exclusively appropriated to the king's use.
At a quarter of league further, we reached the
town of Chah Abdul Azim : it is a holy place,
where the king and his court often go to perform
pilgrimages to the tomb of an Imam Zade. This
monument is in the midst of a garden, and near a
mosque surrounded with several domes. A great
number of beggars posted on the road, wait for
the passage of the pilgrims, and invoke their
generosity in the name of the saint.
Chah Abdul Azim is one of the most consider
able towns in the environs of Teheran. It con-

* Rhages was the native country of Haroun el Raschid, and
one of the residences of that Caliph. In the tenth century it gave
birth to Rhases, a celebrated Arabian physician. It was during
the ninth century, one of the most wealthy, extensive, and popu
lous cities in Persia, and in the twelfth, it was destroyed by the
Mussulman Tartars.

RELIGIOUS ANIMOSITY. 187
tains a great many mollahs or Persian priests.
This place, devoted to religion, is, it may be said,
their domain, and they are at home there ; for
though the will of the sovereign frequently sets aside
the precepts of the koran, in points of justice and
government, yet with the exception of these two
cases, the religious dogmas have not less pre
served their empire, and the Persians are so
attached to the practices of their old superstitions,
that the long revolutions and violence of Thamas
Kouli Khan to lead them to the belief of the
sunnis, have only increased the attachment to
their own faith.
You know that the modern Persians are Mus-
sulmen, but they call themselves chiias, that is
to say, that Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, is,
in their opinion, the only and legitimate successor
of the prophet ; whilst the Turks, who are sunnis,
revere in that quality Aboubekr, Omar, and
Osman, placing Ali only in the fourth rank. It
is from this dissention that the hatred proceeds
which the two nations have mutually vowed
against each other. But ought we to be astonished,
when we recollect that during so long a time,
fanaticism deluged all Europe in blood and car
nage, from causes Dearly similar ? On reading
our history attentively, I do not think that we can,
in this respect, seriously reproach the Turks and
Persians. Fortunately those times are passed,
and become more distant every day : we are now
a little wiser, let us hope that they also will be-

188 BURIALS.
come so in their turn, and cease, at some future
period, to deserve the epithet of barbarians,
which we think ourselves still justified in applying
to them.
The Persians accompany^ their devotions with
some exterior ceremonies which are not in use
amongst the Turks. At certain periods they
make pompous processions, and in general cele
brate their religious festivals with all the splendor
that can render them imposing. I shall very
soon describe one of the most remarkable. Their
funerals are also performed with more parade than
those of the Turks. As soon as a person of distinc
tion has yielded his last breath, the mosque of his
parish and also his own house are hung with black;
while public mourners posted on the terrace of his
residence, commence long groanings, and sing his
praises until he is carried to the grave. The body
of the deceased, after having been washed accord
ing to the Mussulman custom, is placed on a bier,
preceded by several mollahs, who carry black
banners. The princes and nobles are usually interred in
the plain of Kerbela, close to the tomb of Ali,
which is near Bagdad, and consequently out of
the Persian territory. Others are buried in the
cemeteries in the neighbourhood of towns or
villages, and are even sometimes found within their
inclosures. These burial grounds do not resemble
those of the Turks : they are not as at Constan
tinople, vast and majestic forests of cypresses,

TOMBS. 189
strewed with rich mausoleums of marble, where
gold and inscriptions have been lavished. The
ashes of the sectaries of Ali repose in grounds
appropriated to them near the mosques, or on the
borders of the high road. Their tombs are in the
most simple style : pebbles symmetrically ar
ranged flat on the earth, sometimes a small square
of marble with a short inscription, and a repre
sentation of the instruments of the profession of
the deceased, or even a small triangular stone
raised a few inches, are their only ornaments.
There are to be seen, however, outside of Teheran,
other monuments surmounted with a small dome
of clay, resting on four brick pillars. That of our
countryman, Romieu, who died at Teheran, in
the course of last year, is built on this model ; it
is within the very precincts of the city, and near
the gate which leads to the Ispahan road.
In Persia they no longer build those beau
tiful mosques which were such objects of admira
tion to Chardin and his contemporaries. Those
which have escaped the ravages of time and
revolutions, now alone merit the stranger's atten
tion ; their cupolas, incrusted with tiles of various
colours, reflect the rays of the sun in a thousand
ways, and may give an idea of those porcelain
towers which are said to exist in China. The
minarets are also remarkable for their elegance :
their form is not the same as in Turkey ; they
resemble more the triumphal columns of the Ro
mans, which are crowned with a gallery. The

190 MOSQUES.
mosques of Saltanie, of which I have already
spoken, are the most beautiful monuments of this
kind existing in Persia ; those of Ispahan, Tauris,
and other large cities of the kingdom, have no
thing that approaches their magnificence. The
modern Persians, however, neglect those antique
edifices, and suffer works which were the glory of
their greatest kings, to fall in ruins. Disheart
ened by national calamities, they no longer build
for posterity, and seem to think only of the pre
sent moment. The modern mosques, destitute of
minarets, have nothing to distinguish them exter
nally from common houses. Figure to yourself a
small hall covered with mats, serving as a refuge to
the vagabonds and beggars of the neighbourhood,
who go there to sleep and eat their meals, and
you will have an idea of a Persian temple. I
attribute this sufferance to the habit which the rich
Persians have latterly contracted, of no longer
frequenting the mosques. It would appear that
their religion does not enjoin it as a strict obliga
tion, for neither the king nor the great nobility
ever appear there : they say their prayers at
home, in their own private chapel, thus abandon
ing public temples to the common people.
The mollahs of Persia like the imans in
Turkey, are doctors of laws, and each inter
prets in his own way, which gives rise to many
schisms. This class of men is in fact the only one
that has appeared to me inclined to fanaticism and
intolerance ; never have we received, even from

MOLLAHS. 191
the lower orders, epithets insulting to our religion ;
the mollahs alone have taken that liberty. The
hypocritical and devout air which they take care
to assume in public, the affectation with which
they constantly recite their prayers in walking,
no more deceive the Persians themselves than
their imprecations, in an under tone, intimidated
us. They do not seem, in general, to enjoy much
respect. Their chief, who, under the name of
Sadr, was once invested with extensive influence
and power, is now called Mollah Bachi, or Cheik
ul Islem : he does not maintain a very elevated
rank at court, and is far from having the same
degree of influence as the Muphti at Constan
tinople. The mollahs are distinguished from other Per
sians by the form of their kaba, a kind of robe
which crosses on the breast, and by a turban
which they twist round their heads in a manner
peculiar to themselves. They give exhortations
to the people in the mosques and public squares,
nearly in the same manner as the Italian preachers,
and they introduce into their sermons and dis
courses all the gravity and emphasis deemed
necessary to make them impressive. An Indian
philosopher has said, with reason, that gravity
was only the bark of wisdom. The application
of this maxim would agree perfectly, in my
opinion, with the ministers of lslamism ; who
are accused of being more severe to others than
to themselves. It is said, that they readily

192 DERVISHES.
enter into profligate habits; and this is not sur
prising, when it is known what a latitude the
religion of Mahomet gives them in this respect.
They have, however, the liberty of marrying ;
but you know that amongst the Mussulmen, mar
riage does not impose the same obligations as with
us ; it is a contract revocable at will, susceptible
of every favourable interpretation for the most
powerful party, and which, in reality, only en
chains the weaker.
The derviches are not found in cloisters in
Persia, as in Turkey : those who are some
times met in the towns and country, are fakirs,
natives of India or the southern provinces of
the kingdom, who live wholly on the alms of
the people and nobility. It would be difficult
to depict the whimsicality of their costume :
armed with a halberd and laden with amulets,
they dabble in medicine and astrology, perform
ing their operations, predictions, and slight of
hand in the public squares. Some of them wear
the green turban, because they call themselves
emirs, or descendants of Mahomet. Though
generally despised, yet it is not rare to find
in this class, men who are very learned in the
Oriental languages.
I have told you elsewhere that the Persians
often make religion the subject of their discourse.
They are very fond of controversy, and incite
us to it as much as possible. Their wish is to
convert us, but only by persuasion ; for they can-

TOLERATION. 193
not be accused of any rancour or bitterness in
conversations of this kind. One point;, which
essentially distinguishes them from the Turks
is, that they may be told freely and boldly what
is thought of their dogmas, without offending
them.* It often happens too, that Christians'
who had become Mussulmen in consequence of
unfortunate circumstances, had returned to their
former religion, without having been molested.
I leave you to judge, therefore, which of these
two nations is the most sociable and tolerant.
I It is to be regretted, that with such good natural
propensities, and those talents so easily recognized
in them, the Persians should be still so backward
in respect to useful knowledge : gifted with a keen
and penetrating wit, anxious to instruct them
selves, they require only to be illuminated with
the lights of philosophy, to rival Europe in the
arts and sciences, i.

* Many persons consider the Turks as a tolerant people,
because they permit Christians and different sectaries scattered
throughout their empire, a more or less free exercise of their
religion. That is, however, a singular toleration which can only
be obtained by its weight in gold, and which authorizes the
strongest to load with injuries and outrages, those who do not
believe like himself; which excludes the rayas from all public
honours and employments ; which subjects them alone, to the
arbitrary tax of the kharatch, depriving them of all appeal against
the violence of their oppressors, and punishing with death the
unfortunate person detected in criminal intercourse with a Maho
metan woman. I confess that I cannot decide on esteeming
such a nation as tolerant !

194 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
Public instruction is in the hands of the
mollahs, and the colleges are placed in the
vicinity of the mosques : the children are taught
to read and write, and are also familiarized with
the works of the most celebrated poets. These
establishments are not numerous, while their ap
pearance may be compared to that of our meanest
village schools. A very emphatic pedant maintains
some discipline, and does not prevent the scholars
from venting all kinds of ill-treatment on the
passengers. If his dignity did not opposs it, he
would readily join them himself, especially when
curiosity leads a Frank to look in at the window.
Learning is more rare in Persia, at present,
than in the two last centuries. Poetry, for
which this nation has had a decided taste, is
still much cultivated, but it is on the decline.
Writing, which here forms an essential part of
science, is also less beautiful than formerly, and
it is very difficult to procure, even at high prices,
the worst specimens of those fine manuscripts so
much sought for by orientalists. Nearly all of
them were carried off during the revolutions,
and have been taken into Turkey, or purchased
for our great public libraries ; so that they can
be bought on cheaper terms at Constantinople
than in Persia.

NATIONAL FAST. 195

LETTER XXI.
Ramazan. — Bairam and Courban Bairam, Sacrifice of the Camel. 
Tazies, Religious Festivals in commemoration of the Martyrdom of
the Imans, Hassan and Hussein. Teheran, March 10th, 1808.
The Ramazan, or fast of the Mussulmen, is
observed with more exactness and rigour by the
Persians than amongst the Turks. You, perhaps,
know that during the whole of this moon, the ninth
of the Arabian kalendar, the sectaries of Mahomet
abstain from drinking, or eating, and even from
smoking or taking snuff, between sunrise and
sunsetting. I should add that they amply recom-
pence themselves, during the night, for such a
severe abstinence. The Turks, however, when
on a journey, or if they are deprived of the
necessary strength, by indisposition, to obey
the law, infringe it, for the time being, on the
obligation to fast afterwards, in the course of
the year, an equal number of days to those
of the ramazan. It is not thus with the
Persians : more strict than the Sunnis, no mo
tive can induce them to violate this precept,
of which we had many instances when travelling
with them.
The bairam puts an end to this austere fast :
o 2

196 COURBAN BAIRAM.
it lasts only one day amongst the Chiias, and
presents nothing remarkable ; but the courban
bairam, or festival of sacrifices, which occurs
seventy-two days after the first, is celebrated
with much more solemnity. The Chah Zade,
governor of Teheran, departs in great state
from the gates of the city, and goes to immolate,
with his own hand, a camel richly caparisoned.
The king's portion, and that for the royal family,
are first reserved ; the rest is distributed amongst
the principal personages and officers of the court.
This sacrifice is performed in commemoration
of that of Abraham, and it was formerly the
custom for the king himself to strike the
first blow at the victim. All the inhabitants
imitate the example of the prince, by sacrificing
on their part, lambs ; of which each reserve a
portion for the poor. They dress themselves in
new clothes, embrace each other in the streets,
mutually wishing a happy festival, and there
is a grand selam at the royal palace. This
feast, which also lasts but one day, takes
place the day after the courban bairam of the
Turks. But the most curious and extraordinary of all
those we have hitherto seen, is the Tazies, or
desolations, a kind of funeral games, instituted in
memory of the martyrdom of the Imans, Hassan
and Hussein, sons of Ali. It is very difficult to
give an exact description of such a spectacle,
even after having seen it ; I shall, however,

THE TAZIES. 197
attempt to give you an idea of the scene. We were
invited by the king to be present at their celebra
tion, and being placed conveniently in the shade
of a tent raised on one of the terraces of the
palace, it enabled us to enjoy a good sight of the
whole at one view.
According to the Persians, Hassan and Hus
sein were the second and third Imans, or suc
cessors of Mahomet, after their father. Both of
them perished at Kerbela, in a great battle
against the false caliph Yezid, defending the
law and the legitimate succession of the prophet.
They are considered as martyrs, and in that
quality highly venerated by the Chiias, who
look upon Yezid as an usurper. The object of
the Tazies is to remind the people of these
memorable events, and to preserve their hatred and
resentment against the Sunnis. The festival com
mences on the first of Mouharrem, and lasts until
the 11th of the same month.
During those days of mourning, all the mosques
are hung in black, the public squares and cross-
ways are covered with large awnings, and at
regular distances are placed stands, ornamented
with vases of flowers, small bells, and arms of
every kind. The Mollahs stationed in pulpits sing in
a mournful voice sacred hymns and lamentations,
and the whole auditory respond to them with
tears and deep sighs. Men almost naked run
through the city, striking their breasts rapidly ;
others piercing their arms and legs with knives,

198 HOW PERFORMED.
fastening padlocks in the flesh under their breasts,
or making wide gashes in their heads, invoke
their saints with frightful howlings, shouting out
Hassan ! Hussein !
It is in the great court of the king's palace
that the five last representations take place,
They might be, in some respects, compared to
those ancient spectacles, in which the miseries
of the passion were acted. The vizirs pay the
expences of the first day, and the city of Tehe
ran, which is divided into four districts, pays
those of the remaining four.
On a theatre erected opposite the king's kiosk,
is to be seen the family of Hussein, represented
by men in women's dresses. They are in great
agitation, seem to have a foreboding of the
dismal fate which that Iman must experience
in the plain of Kerbela, and make the air resound
with shrieks and dreadful groans. Horsemen
soon arrive, load them with chains and carry
them off. The two armies of the Iman Hussein
and the caliph Yezid then appear in the square :
the battle commences ; Hussein soon falls from his
horse covered with wounds, and Yezid orders
his head to be cut off. At that moment the sob
bings and lamentations of all the assembly are
redoubled ; the spectators strike their breasts, and
tears stream from every eye !
On the following days, the representation of
this tragedy is continued ; Yezid successively de-
troys Hassan and the two children of Hussein,

THE PROCESSION. 199
who had fallen into his power, and a general pro
cession terminates the fifth day.
The march was opened by a crowd of men of
the lower orders, carrying flags surmounted with a
hand of steel, and banners of Cachemire shawls,
the richness of which formed a singular contrast
with the poverty of their own dresses. Then
came led horses magnificently caparisoned, their
trappings shining with gold and jewels; litters
ornamented with foliage and verdure ; figures
of dead bodies covered with blood, and pierced
with daggers, round which aquatic birds moved*
Naked and bleeding men marched behind ; some
of them had a large scimetar stuck into a false
skull half open, fitted on their heads, or arrows
which seemed to pierce through their breasts.
They were followed by a long train of camels
mounted by men dressed in black, as. were the
female mourners, and an infinity of persons of that
sort, who threw ashes and chopped straw on their
heads in token of mourning.
A more pompous and imposing spectacle sud
denly came to variegate these hideous scenes. There
appeared two great mosques of gilt wood, car
ried by more than three hundred men : both were
inlaid with mirrors, ar,d surmounted with little
minarets : children placed in the galleries sang
sacred hymns, the soft harmony of which agree
ably recompensed the spectators for the frightful
shoutings they had heard just before. Several
Mollahs, magnificently dressed, prayed in the

200 FIFTH DAY.
interior, at the tomb of the two Imans. The re
presentation of the Kaaba, or house of Abraham,
at Mecca, appeared immediately after the two
mosques, and was not inferior to them in richness of
ornament. It was followed by Hussein's war horse,
pierced all over with arrows, and led at large by
his faithful slave, naked and armed with a battle-
axe. A great number of children with wings of
painted pasteboard, figured as angels or genii,
marched in the rear.
The procession was closed by two or three hun
dred of the common people in tatters, who struck
their breasts, and drove two round pieces of wood
with violence against each other, crying " Hassan,
Hossein ! Ali !" lastly, by Mollahs, each carrying
a large torch of yellow wax in a candlestick. The
latter stopped a moment under the windows of the
kiosk, where the king was ; and the Cheik ul Islam
addressed, according to custom, praises to his
majesty. We did not receive an invitation for the last
day of the festival : the king wishing to spare the
legation from witnessing the assassination of a
Greek ambassador, who Yezid caused to be put to
death, for having interceded with him for the
pardon of Hussein's brother. The Persians,
from what motive I know not, produce this am
bassador in the modern European dress.
All these ceremonies are also repeated in the
houses of the nobility. I give you only an imper
fect idea of them, for it would be impossible for

POPULAR DELIRIUM. 201
me to recollect the numerous peculiarities of
the representation : yet I can assure you of the
exactness of those I have related. We are not the
first travellers who have witnessed them. As ex
traordinary as such spectacles may at first seem,
they will cease to be surprising when you recol
lect that in France, the festival of the ass and that
of fools, were once celebrated.
Unfortunate would be that Turk, or any other
Sunni, who was discovered in the city during
these days of delirium ! He would be massacred
without mercy, by a populace then influenced with
a fanaticism happily but temporary. Impreca
tions against Omar and his sectaries are in every
mouth ; and the natural mildness of the Persian
character would perhaps end in ferocity, if these
dreadful spectacles were prolonged.

202 NATIONAL TRAITS.

LETTER XXII.
Figure and Physiognomy of the Persians. — Their Costume. — Baths. —
Persian Women. — Their Dress. — Amusement in the Harems. —
Music and Dancing. — State of the Arts in Persia.
Teheran, March 18th, 1808.
You may have probably seen those who com
posed the embassy from the king of Persia, in
Paris : if so, they will have- given you an idea of
the physical character and costume of this nation.
The Persians are, in general, of a middle size ;
their complexion is olive, their eyes large and
animated ; their beard and hair of a beautiful
black ; these are stained of a reddish colour, when
age begins to whiten them, or if they are natu
rally of a fair hue, which is however rarely the case.
They shave their heads completely, with the ex
ception of the young people, who leave two tufts
behind their ears, this they twist into curls. They
all wear beards, attaching great importance to
that appendage, considering it as the greatest or
nament of man. Differing in many respects from
the Turks their neighbours, who cut the beard in
the shape of a fan, they allow theirs to grow in
its natural form, and the longer it is, the more

COSTUME. 203
beautiful. In this particular, Feth Ali Chah is per
haps the best furnished man in his kingdom ; his
beard being the admiration of all his subjects.
Though like all the oriental nations, they are but
little subject to the changeable caprices of fashion,
the Persians of the present day have no longer
the same costume as when they were visited by
Chardin and Tavernier ; and if those travellers
returned now they would be unable to know their
old friends again. The Tartar dress of the royal
tribe of Kadjars has become that of all the na
tion : this, without being so rich as the ancient
costume, is certainly more elegant and conve
nient. The dress of Persia is generally composed of
the following articles ; a cap of black lambskin,
from Bucharia or Astracan : the Persians give
this an almost conical form by flattening the upper
part, generally terminated by a point of red cloth
or velvet, or simply of white skin. This head
dress is called Burk, or Koulah, and is
common to all classes, from the king to the
peasant. The nobility and officers of state wear,
on occasions of ceremony only, a cap of the same
skin, the wool of which is shorter, round this
is bound a Cachemire shawl of a palm pattern.
The shirt, or pirahen, is of linen, cotton, red
or blue silk ; being open on the right breast, it is
fastened at the same side, on the shoulder, with
two or three small buttons, and descends only to
the waist.

204 COSTUME,
The pantaloons, or zir-djame, are nearly of the-
same shape as the trowsers of our sailors, and
made of blue cotton cloth, or red silk, according
to the quality of the person ; they are bound on
above the girdle, by means of a string running
round the top of them. The alcalouk, is a kind
of tunic of calico wadded with cotton, and open
on the breast. It descends only to the knee.
The kaba, is a robe of gold, silk or cotton stuff,
likewise open on the breast, and ornamented
before with two pieces of gold or silver lace, and
buttons of the same metal : this falls as low
as the ancle. Next comes the shawl or girdle,
which is worn over the kaba. The king and
the chah zades alone enjoy the privilege of
wearing Cachemire shawls as girdles : those of
the nobility are of gold cloth. Lastly, a small
pelisse or poustin, which does not go below the
waist. The khans and mirzas are dressed, on occasions
of ceremony, each in a long pelisse of gold cloth,
with lace and large buttons of the same metal.
At all other times they wear a wide capote of red
cloth, which is called bala pouch, the cape of it
being quilted and embroidered with silk of the
same colour, garnished with large silk covered
buttons, and falling as low as the waist. On a jour
ney, or when with the army, they replace the bala
pouch by the tikme, a Tartar coat of green cloth,
fitted close to the shape, with sleeves open to above
the wrist, at which part they become narrower.

ARMS. 205
The tikme is also worn by the common
people. The undress consists of a little pelisse covered
with cloth or silk stuff, embroidered with gold
or silver, and which has the same form as
the tikme. It is not uncommon to see the
greatest noblemen, especially in winter, dressed
in a simple pelisse of sheepskin, similar to that of
the shepherds.
Cotton or woollen socks, djourab, or stockings
of red cloth are also worn. The first are of various
colours, and an attempt is made to imitate, in their
patterns, those of the striped Cachemire shawls, to
these are added, slippers of green morocco leather,
with high heels, for wearing in town : on journies,
or for military expeditions, they wear long boots
of brown leather, which rise above the knee.
Military men have always a kandjar, or large
poignard in their girdles, the hilt of which is of
enamelled gold, or ivory : they also carry a sci-
metar at their side which is called chomchir. The
lawyers, literary men, and all those who belong
to the civil departments, have a simple roll of
paper instead of arms.
The Persians reserve their luxury and magni
ficence entirely for those parts of their dress which
are exposed, for they attach no importance to such
as are not visible. Thus it is that their clothes
of gold cloth, or silk, are lined with the coarsest
linen ; in fact, they place no value on the fineness
of that article : great filthiness is the inevitable

206 FEMALE COSTUME.
result of this negligence. I The rich as well as the
poor are devoured with vermin ; they wear the
same shirt day and night during whole months,
putting it on again when coming out of the bath,
and never changing until it quits them by falling
into rags, j*
During summer, the Persian ladies, in the inte
rior of their houses, wear no more clothes than a
light shift of linen or silk, and large pantaloons of
gold cloth or Cachemire stuff, wadded with cotton.
If, as some assert, the jealousy of the Chinese
caused them to invent for their women shoes so
tight, that they at length deprive them of the
faculty of walking, perhaps the Persian females
owe the form and thickness of this part of their
dress to the same principle. Their legs and
a part of their bodies, imprisoned in those two
heavy columns, contrived so as to embarrass all
their movements, must necessarily be unfit for
long walks. \ Still more restricted than the
Turkish women, who freely traverse the streets,
half veiled, they never go out but on very
rare occasions, and merely to visit their rela
tions and friends. They then wear four
thick veils, and are covered from head to foot
with a long piece of white linen, having some
small openings opposite the eyes ; their faces,
nay, their very hands, are invisible^ A rich
woman never goes out without a kind of train ;
she is always' mounted on a horse or mule, the
bridle of which is held by an eunuch or slave.

PRECAUTIONS. 207
Old women of the lower orders, covered with a
blue check cloth, are the only females who are
seen walking in the streets of the city.
The Persian ladies are very particular in their
dress, when they have to receive the visits of their
friends ; and in this point their coquetry does not
yield, in its way, to that of the European fair :
it cannot, however, have the same object, that of
pleasing, as from being limited solely to the viewof
their husbands, they are inaccessible to the sight of
all other men. Self-love, and the vanity of desiring
to shine in the presence of friends and companions,
are their sole motives. They dye their hair and
eyebrows black, and make the latter join the nose,
in the form of an arch ; they also stain their nails,
the palms of their hands and the soles of their feet
with an orange colour, beguiling their slavery by
decorating themselves with pearls and diamonds.
I imagine that intrigue must be more rare here
than in any other part of the world : the Persians
have taken everyprecaution against it, and their jea
lousy is seldom over-reached. An adventure which
happened, a few days ago, to several individuals
of the embassy, and which was near being destruc
tive to them, will serve as an example of what I
have just said. Our friends were walking quietly
in a garden, without any notion of plotting against
the honour of the master of the house ; the door
of a bath being half open, excited their curiosity ;
they entered, and a few paces farther brought
them into the midst of a harem, which they had

208 ANECDOTE.
no idea of finding so near. Suddenly the women
uttered loud shrieks ; the eunuchs and slaves
armed themselves with axes and daggers, and our
comrades, who in their surprise had still sufficient
time to draw their swords to defend themselves,
finding all the entrances fastened, could escape
from the jealous fury of those menacing argusses
only by scaling the walls. This was more than
sufficient to cure a propensity to intriguing in
Persia ! As yet we know nothing of the harems,
except from pictures, one of which, representing
an interior, has been given to me by a native artist.
The Persians can marry four wives, and main
tain as many concubines as their fortune will per
mit ; while the children of each have equal rights
to the inheritance of their father. It is said the
king has more than two thousand slaves in his ha
rem ; and every wealthy individual keeps a num
ber of them according to his means. In a coun
try where it is so easy to gratify the passions there
cannot be much prostitution, women of the town
are consequently very scarce here, and they are
never seen in the streets, being only visited by the
very lowest classes of the community.
Arriving at maturity much sooner than in our more
temperate climate, the Persian women also decay
atan earlier age than those of Europe. At twelveall
their forms are developed, and they are married ; at
thirty, they appear to be more than fifty. The heat
of the climate, and an immoderate use of vapour
baths, greatly contribute to the fading of their

BATHS. 209
charms. These baths, which are called Hamam,
are as much frequented in Persia as in Turkey
they are particularly recommended by religion ;
while laziness and idleness also contribute to fill
them. Here the Mussulmen have thought proper
to reserve for themselves alone, the right of en
trance,- so that persons of all other religions are
excluded; but this prohibition does not pre
vent the rich Armenians from gaining admit
tance into them secretly by night, on paying
a sum of money, which removes all obstacles.
If discovered, both the intruder and proprietors
are exposed to heavy punishments, and the latter
lose their reputation, for having received persons
who are deemed impure.
In our capacity of foreigners, we enjoy some
privileges that are not granted to every one:
amongst the rest we were admitted into these re
ceptacles without much difficulty, and I am there
fore able to give you an exact description of them.
The Persian baths are composed of two princi
pal rooms : in the first the dress is left on alcoves
covered with mats or carpets which are spread
round the room ; then the second is entered, called
that of the stoves : the excessive heat concentered
here, and the vapour of the hot water which runs
down the walls, deprives those who may not have
been accustomed to such a temperature of their
respiration in the first moment : by degrees, how
ever, they become used to it. This room is
entirely lined with broad flagstones, or squares of

210 BATHING.
marble, and receives only a faint light from some
small skylights in the roof : it is heated by sub
terranean fires, and we may bathe at will in seve
ral basins of hot or cold water. Those who wish
to be alone, may retire into separate closets more
or less heated, at pleasure : they are washed, or
may wash themselves with water that issues from
cocks placed at regular distances.
When bathers are employed, they place us
recumbent on a large slab of marble, rub lightly
all the parts of the body with a small bag of hair,
and then rub the heels and soles of the feet with
pumice stone. This first operation finished they
deluge us from head to feet with a light suds,
wash us rapidly with hot water, and at length
wrap up the head and all the body in warm linen.
In this state we return into the first room and
lie down to permit the perspiration to subside,
after which we dress ourselves, having first
smoked the kalioun and taken a cup of coffee.
Used moderately, these baths are not without
their good effects, but when frequented to excess
they enervate the body, dry and wrinkle the skin;
their ruinous influence is particularly perceptible
on the most plump and best formed females.
The same] place is common to both sexes, but
at different hours : in the morning, a bather
mounted on the terrace, proclaims by sound of
trumpet that the men are gone away, and that
the women may enter in their turn.
The Persian ladies who have not baths in their

FEMALE MANNERS. 211
houses, never enjoy any pleasures or amusement
from home but the above.
I have in a former letter, mentioned the public
dancers who are engaged by the men to amuse
them at festivals and other parties of pleasure.
In imitation of these, the women also employ
female dancers in the harems : they are highly
diverted with the indecency of their gestures and
movements : such a taste, so contrary to all the
rules of decorum, must be attributed to the slavery
and constraint in which they are held : secluded
from the society of men, having nothing to fear
from their censure, and without the hope of pleas
ing them by modesty, they soon cease to blush at
any thing ; they are complete strangers to those
sentiments of delicacy, which amongst us form the
best title of the fair sex to our esteem, add to
which, their discourse often turns on very indecent
subjects. With respect to dancing, this exercise,
abandoned to slaves and profligate women, amongst
the Orientals, is very far from obtaining the
same favour as with us ; the dancers are despised
as vile mercenaries, and the Persians are astonish
ed when we tell them that in Europe the greatest
nobles and even kings themselves, do not disdain
this amusement. t
f~Music has many charms for them, but it is still
in its infancy, like most other arts : it is, how
ever, softer than that of the Turks; and the Per
sian singing, frequently accompanied with what
wc call the shake, has less monotony than that of
p 2

212 music

their Turkish neighbours. The nei, a kind of
flute, when played by an able musician, is not
deficient in a certain degree of harmony, and far
preferable to the soporific virtue of their stringed
instruments./! ["As to their military music, it is, I
believe, impossible to find any that is more truly
barbarous. Figure to yourself the united sounds of
many trumpets of eight or ten feet in length, in
which the performers blow until they are breath
less ; to this add drums and kettle drums, and
you will have but a slight idea of the horrible
din daily heard at the king's palace ; indeed all
the city resounds with it.\ These military con
certs, executed at the summit of a high tower,
are one of the prerogatives of the king and the
princes of the royal family ; they are renewed
every morning at sun-rise, and in the evenings
atjsun-setting. Vfn giving the above account, I speak as one
accustomed to the melodious sounds of European
music. In point of taste every thing is relative
and arbitrary^ A Persian would probably be
insensible to the ravishing concords of our orches
tras. You have heard of the Turkish ambassador,
who, when first present at a performance of the
opera, felt great pleasure in the confused noise
the musicians made while tuning their instru
ments, but who remained cold and insensible to
the charms of the music itself! The case, whe
ther real or imaginary, is in character with the
taste of his nation : I do not attribute it to fana-

FINE ARTS. 213
ticism, nor the repugnance which that sentiment
inspires for all that is foreign, but in reality
to national taste. I require no further proof to
justify the above assertion, than that the Franks
of the Levant and their wives, with very few
exceptions, prefer the Turkish and Greek music
and singing to our best concerts.
Amongst the Persians, it is nearly the same
with all the other arts, and industry in general, as
with music and dancing. Their natural sagacity
and good inclination, would, however, soon place
them on a level with us, if they could have more
extended means of instruction ; even now there
are found among them very able workmen in
more than one branch. I have already mentioned
these beautiful inlaid doors we saw in the royal
castle of Kasri Kadjar, and I do not believe that
better could be made in any part of Europe.
They have also painters, engravers and enamellers
on metals, goldsmiths, &c.
I Their painting has been for several centuries
past in the same state ; it is not deficient in a certain
vivacity of colouring which pleases the eye, but
their artists have no correct ideas of proportion or
perspective. The painters make full length portraits
of kings, fabulous heroes, and all those personages
who have been ornaments to their country, but
they employ themselves chiefly on indecent and
military subject^ We have seen pictures of an
enormous size, which represented battles, hunt
ings, the king on his throne, surrounded with his

214 USEFUL ARTS.
sons and courtiers, &c. Notwithstanding the imper
fection of their knowledge, the Persian painters
often take good likenesses. They excel in the
art of painting birds and flowers in fresco, and
the apartments decorated in that style have a fresh
ancL lively air that is very agreeable to the eye.
f They have very able engravers on metals and
precious stones, and their seals ornamented with
arabesques and flowers, are executed with great
delicacy ; but the gold or silver settings are coarse,
and far from corresponding with the principal
work ; yet the goldsmiths, when a model is given
to them, succeed easily in imitating it. The dia
mond cutters, and especially the enamellers, per
form very neat works, in which there is nothing
wanting but more taste : the bowls of kaliouns,
or pipes of great value, are the best that I have
seen of that kind ; the nobles and wealthy per
sons retain these as part of their luxuries. Bridles
of gold and silver, and trappings embroidered
and enamelled in. Persia, are also very much in
request throughout all Asia,.)
In the manufactories of Ispahan and several
other cities, beautiful stuffs of gold, silver and
silk, calicoes, cotton cloths, painted muslins, &c.
are prepared, and in those of Kashan, shawls
and webs of silk which imitate similar articles
from Cachemire.
\ The Persian artisans also make beautiful works
in steel, damasceened with gold, such as knives,
scissars, and other instruments which are placed

ARMS. 215
in valuable cases, ornamented with looking glas
ses and paintings. A Their inkstands are in this
taste : as the public functionaries always carry
these in their pockets, and often have occasion to
produce them, they like to have them as beautiful
and rich as possible.
Lastly, the arms of Ispahan and Khorassan,
especially the damasceened sabres and daggers,
maintain, as I have already stated, a reputation
superior even to that of the Damascus sabres.
We have just had a fresh proof of the talents
of the Persians, in the adroitness with which
they have imitated our muskets, for the new
troops, which the king is disciplining in the
European style : these might really be taken for
our own.

216 NEWROUZ.

LETTER XXIII.
Festival of Newrouz, or of the New Year — Persian Kalendar — Kha-
laats or Dresses of Honour — Selam of the King — Ceremonies in
which he is engaged at the Newrouz — Offerings of the Chah Zades
and the Governors of Provinces — Fireworks — Horse-races — theKing's
Elephants. Teheran, April 10, 1808.
I have already stated the origin several authors
have ascribed to the Newrouz, and that which I
attribute to it myself* I shall now give you
an account of this festival, and of the rejoicings
which have succeeded it, during the last days of
March and the beginning of the present month.
The king, whose attentions to us have not
yet diminished, has, in this instance, treated the
ambassador on an equality with the princes of his
own family, and every person of the legation has
received the same honours as the nobles of the
court. Newrouz, in Persian, signifies the new day :
it is the first of Ferwerdin, the first month of
the solar year, which, with this nation, begins
on the 21st March, at the vernal equinox.t

* See the 15th Letter.
t The Persians use the Arabic kalendar fof all that relates to
religion and public affairs; but, in certain cases, they follow the

PERSIAN KALENDAR.

217

At Newrouz the Persians make mutual presents
and visits, as in Europe on new year's day, while
the wealthy, or those in easy circumstances, dress
themselves in new clothes at the same period.

solar months of the ancient Persians, which were also those of
the Greeks and Egyptians, and By which, no doubt, the French
kalendar, adopted during the revdlution, has been drawn, with
this sole difference, that their year commences in the month of
March, at the vernal equinox, whereas ours began in September,
at the autumnal equinox.
The following are the names of those months; with those of
ours to which they correspond :

].

Ferwerdin, 21st

or 22d March, . .

. Germinal.

2.

Ardebehicht, .

. . April, . .

Floreal.

3.

Khordad,

. . May, . .
SUMMER.

. Prairial.

4.

Tir,

. . June, . .

. Messidor.

5.

Murdad,

. . July, . .

. Thermidor.

6.

Chehriwer,

. . August, . .
AUTUMN.

. Fructidor.

7.

Mihr,

. . September, .

. Vendemiaire.

8.

Aban,

. . October,

. Brumaire.

9.

Azer,

. . November, .
WINTER.

. Frimaire.

10.

Dei,

. . December, .

. Nivose.

11.

Behmen,

. . January,

. Pluviose.

12.

Esfendarmuz, .

. . February,

. Ventose.

Each of those months contain only thirty days, they add
to them five complimentary days for the common years, and six
for bissextile.

218

PRESENTS.

On the eve of Newrouz, the king sends tc
his ministers, courtiers, and to ambassadors who
may be at his court, a quantity of sweetmeats
and fruits, as also khalaats or dresses of honour,
in which they are expected to present them
selves on the following day at his selam.
The ambassador received the same kind of
khalaat as the chah zades, and similar to those
of the khans and mirzas.

The Persians still reckon time by the Alexandrine months,
according to the old style, previous to the Gregorian reform.
Those months are also in use amongst the modern Greeks ; but
the Persians have preserved them in the order that the ancient
Romans gave them.

1.

Mart or Azar, .

. March.

2.

Nizan,

. April.

3.

Mai or Ajar,

. May.

4.

Azivan,

. June.

5.

Temmouz,

. July.

6.

Agostos,

. August.

7.

Eiloul,

. September

8.

Techrin Ewel,

. October.

0.

Techrin Sani,

. November.

10.

Kianoun Ewel, .

December.

11.

Kianoun Sani, .

. January.

12.

Choubat,

February.

The following are the names of the week days in the order
which the Persians give them :

Sunday,

. . . Iek Chembe.

Monday,

. . Dou Chembe.

Tuesday,

. . . Se Chembe.

Wednesday, .

. . . Tchar Chembe.

Thursday,

. . . Pentch Chembe

Friday,

. Chech Chembe.

Saturday,

. . . HeltChembd.

ETIQUETTE. 219
On the 2nd March, at ten o'clock in the
morning, we repaired, with the general, to the
palace of Feth Ali Chah, and crossed the whole
of the first court on horseback. We were not
dressed in our khalaats, wearing only the Cache
mire shawls as scarfs, which formed part of the
present. Tchirag Ali Khan, the introducer of
ambassadors, received the legation in the defter,
or audience chamber of the Ittimad ud Dewlet,
and whilst waiting for the ceremony, we were
asked to sit down on European chairs.
A short time afterwards appeared the Ittimad
ud Dewlet, or grand vizir, Mirza Muhammed
Chefi, who seemed much surprised at seeing us
without our habits of honour. During more
than half an hour he employed all the resources
of the cunning and complimentary politeness of
the Persians, to induce us at least to put on
the pelisses of gold cloth over our uniforms. It
was in vain, his rhetoric was thrown away, and
could not succeed in persuading us. He was an
swered that we were desirous of appearing before
his highness in our national dress, that it was not
our custom to conceal it, that the Persian am
bassadors when they had the honour to be ad
mitted to the presence of our emperor, were
not obliged to dress themselves in French habits,
and that we had already put on the Cachemire
shawls which proceeded from the king's munifi
cence. We endeavoured to gain as much
time as possible in the discussion : at length,

220 PRESENTATIONS.
finding that the minister insisted, it was intimated
to him, as a last excuse, that our konaks being
very distant from the royal palace, the khalaats
would arrive too late, even if they should be sent
for. The vizir concluded by conceding the point,
and went out, saying, that it was necessary he
should at least inform the king.
He returned in ten minutes, and told us that his
majesty consented to receive us in our French
dresses.* At the same instant, three discharges
of artillery in the court, announced to the people
that Feth Ali Chah had ascended his throne, when
Mirza Muhammed Chefi again went out to re
turn to his post.
We followed the ambassador, and entered
immediately, under the guidance of Tchirag Ali
Khan, into the court where the king gives his
solemn audiences. This court, or rather garden, is
called the Gulistan, or Rose Bed. It is a parallelo
gram of about three hundred paces long, by one
hundred and fifty wide, shaded with beautiful

* If European ambassadors, accredited to the Grand Signor,
had, from the beginning, used more firmness, their successors
would not be still obliged to appear before that monarch in the trim
of a ridiculous masquerade. With the Orientals every thing
depends on the beginning : amongst them the least grant or
concession becomes an aclet, or custom, and that custom becomes
a law. But it is now useless to dwell on this subject ; as the
evil is without a remedy. The least acquaintance with the
Turks is sufficient to prove that no change can now be effected in
a ceremonial which has lasted more than three hundred years.

HALL OF AUDILNCG. 221
plane-trees, and planted with roses, jasmine, and all
kinds of flowers. An oblong basin divides it into
two equal parts. Several little fountains rise in
the centre, and its borders were covered with
fruits and refreshments in gold and silver dishes,
and in vases of Chinese porcelain. The nobles
were ranged standing and in silence, at distances
more or less near the throne, according to
their rank. The chah zades, to the number of
twelve, were also standing, and placed accord
ing to their ages. When we had made three
profound bows, we were requested to take places
below those princes, and the king then invited the
.ambassador to approach him, when the latter ad
vanced into the hall near his throne.
This hall is at the end of the garden, and almost
on a level with the ground ; it is lined all over with
looking-glasses, gildings, and Persian paintings.
The king wore a tiara sparkling with diamonds,
and was surrounded by all the attributes of roy
alty : his majesty seated on a pedestal of white
marble, enriched with gold, and supported behind
by a cushion embroidered with fine pearls : he
wore bracelets of precious stones, in the midst of
which shone the deriai nour, or sea of light, one
of the largest diamonds known, and smoked from
a kaloun shining with emeralds and rubies. The
principal officers of his household, ranged round
the throne, pompously displayed all the crown
jewels in gold and silver gilt dishes. I confess

222 PERSIAN SPLENDOR.
to you I had never seen a more magnificent spec
tacle. It was the first time we could contemplate
one of the most powerful monarchs of Asia in all
his glory ; and it was no longer possible for us to
entertain a doubt of those immense riches, of
which the Persians so often spoke to us. There
is not the least exaggeration in the description I
give you of this imposing ceremony ; add the
brilliancy of a beautiful day, and that of the sun's
rays at noon reflected in a thousand ways, from
this prodigious heap of gold, silver, and jewels,
and you will still have but a faint idea of what we
saw on this occasion.
The ambassador having pronounced a short
address in French, repeated in Persian by M.
Jouannin, principal interpreter to the embassy,
the introducer Tchirag Ali Khan came himself to
fill our hands with new pieces of gold and silver
money, according to an ancient custom practised
at this court. Its object is to remind the receiver
that the king is the sole dispenser of the wealth of
his kingdom, and that he distributes or withdraws
it at his pleasure. This is, in fact, the real triumph
of despotism. We were next served with iced
sherbet. Such is alfthat remains of the ancient
public festivals, formerly held at the Newrouz.
The ceremony was concluded by a long oration
addressed to the king by his chief mollah : the
most extravagant praises and hyperboles, which
are the common flowers of the oriental style,

ALI CHAIl's LIBERALITY. 223
were not spared ; so that his majesty, if fond of
incense, received a large supply, and might enjoy
it at his leisure.
We at length took leave, and left the garden,
after having repeated the three profound bows we
had been made to perform on entering. When
we returned through the first court, we saw the
king's elephants, covered with long trappings of
red cloth, and mounted by Indian kornacs.
The king did not shew any displeasure, at least
while we were present, at our refusal to assume
the khalaats. As this prince is greatly distin
guished by good sense and discernment, I should
be inclined to believe that this resistance has ra
ther contributed to give him a favourable idea of
our national character ; his affability to us on that
day being still more evident than at the two first
audiences. His countenance was open and gra
cious ; he sent to inquire how we were, if the
climate of Persia agreed with us, and if we were
satisfied in being at his court. I suspect it is im
possible to expect greater favours on the part of
a sovereign so absolute ; and if we remain much
longer here, the interest and kindness which he
manifests towards us, will most probably end in
alarming the courtiers, and perhaps make them
our enemies.
Six days after the Newrouz, the ambassador
and all the legation were again invited by the king,
to the festival, at which the governors of provinces
present their pechkechs, or voluntary tributes.

221 THE PECHKECH.
This ceremony takes place in the first court of the
royal palace, where we had witnessed the repre
sentation of the taxies, and we were placed on
the same terrace, not far from the kiosk of Feth
Ali Chah.
The Chah Zade Muhammed Veli Mirza, who
governs Khorassan, was the first that presented
himself: he bowed profoundly before the king his
father, and presented fifty superb horses of his
province, an equal number of mules and camels,
Cachemire shawls, several bags of turquoises, <fcc.
the latter objects were on broad wooden trays,
carried by the officers of his household. After
these presents had passed before the king, they
were sent into the interior of the palace.
Prince Muhammed Ali Khan, governor of Ker
man Chah, not being at court, sent the offering
by his vizir : it consisted of Cachemire shawls,
arms, such as lances, muskets, pistols, and a great
number of camels and mules laden with carpets
and fine felts.
The vizir of Muhammed Kouli Mirza, another
chah zade, who commands in Mazenderan, then
presented in the name of his master, more Cache
mire shawls, stuffs of gold, silver and silk, wooden
spoons of delicate workmanship, arms, camels,
and mules.
Those of the chah zade, Hussein Ali Mirza, who
governs the province of' Farsistan, were also re
markable in their kind. Amongst other objects,
we saw a great quantity of sugar and syrups,

PUBLIC GAMES. 226
mules and camels laden with coffee and tambako,
, or smoking tobacco, from Chiraz.
Eut the tribute of the Emin ud Dewlet, Hadji,
Muhammed Hussein Khan, Beylerbey of Ispahan,
surpassed all the former in magnificence. Besides
superb Turkoman horses and rich stuffs, it also
included that precious metal, so eagerly sought
by all mankind ; and for which the king of
Persia is said to have a very decided predilec
tion. Fifty mules, ornamented with Cachemire
shawls and streamers, carried each one thousand
tomans in money, a sum equal to about 45,0001. !
Every year at the same period, these presents
are renewed ; and by this an idea maybe formed
of the immense riches which the private treasure
of the king of Persia must contain. Games of
all kinds succeeded to the presentation of the
tributes, which were sent into the king's palace,
according as they passed in review before his
majesty. First came men running on stilts of more than
twenty feet high ; others performing feats of
strength and balancing, turning on the slack rope,
or carrying on their heads, a pile of earthen pots,
surmounted with a vase of flowers ; then dancers
and combats of rams that were excited against
each other. These exercises were followed by
rope-dancing, performed by two young children.
I am sorry for our performers on the rope, but
they are still very far from equalling the dexterity
of these, as you shall perceive. Q

226 ROPE DANCING.
The rope was of hair, and consequently less
flexible than a hempen one : being strained on
two trestles of more than forty feet in height, it
ascended almost imperceptibly as high as the
top of the king's kiosk. After having made
several gambols with the assistance of their
poles on the part of the rope which was horizon
tal, one of the two dancers, ten years old at most,
mounted completely as high as the terrace which
crowns the pavilion, and then descended back
wards from a height of more than eighty feet. We
remarked with pleasure, that several men placed
beneath the cord, followed all the movements of
the child, ready to receive him in a large blanket
if his foot had happened to have slipped. We did
not suppose the Persians were capable of such an
attention, especially in the king's presence. These
dancers are called in Persian, Djanbaz, mean
ing, him who plays or risks his soul. This ex
pression, contemptuous in itself, intimates that
games of this kind are discouraged by religion; and
is nearly synonymous with that of excommuni
cation, with which our actors were once compli
mented. The term of Serbaz, which signifies a
man who stakes his head, might have been applied
to them with still greater propriety ; but amongst
the Persians it has a more noble acceptation, and
is applied peculiarly to soldiers. But I shall have
occasion to mention this phrase hereafter.
The king's elephants came, fortunately, to
interrupt a spectacle which made us tremble

ELEPHANTS. 227
more than once for the life of the principal
actor. These animals, of a much larger size
than those exhibited in Europe, were richly capa
risoned, and mounted by Indians. Their bodies
were painted with various colours, while their
trunks^, tails, and tusks were gilded. We have
not as yet attempted to derive advantage from
their sagacity and docility, and it is a very
general prejudice amongst Europeans, that these
enormous masses can neither lie down nor even
sit : nothing can be more erroneous than such an
idea ; here a child makes them obey his orders,
and they are trained to kneel in the manner of
camels, to salute the king with their proboscis,
cry out and shake their ears when they are
ordered, in short, to raise themselves on their
hind legs,
You know that amongst the ancient Persians
the elephants were employed to advantage in
the armies, and that they carried towers filled
with combatants, who could pour showers of
arrows on the enemy, with scarcely any risk to
themselves. This custom no longer exists, the
invention of fire arms, and the cannon especially,
would render it too dangerous : elephants are
at present, at least in Persia, merely ob
jects of parade : the king maintains a certain
number in his stables ; these are under the
care of Indian kornacs. Far from imprisoning
them as we do in Eurrope, they are taken out
daily through the streets of the city, and there
Q2

228 TUMBLERS.
never has resulted the smallest accident from it.
The dealers in fruit and vegetables are the only
persons who have had cause to complain of those
promenades. It has been remarked that one of
these animals whenever he passes before the shop
of a baccal, who is established near the royal
square, never fails to carry off, in a dexterous
manner, a bunch of carrots from his stall : and he
adheres so closely to his old habits, that he never
applies to any other.*
A group of tumblers dexterously mounted the
largest of the king's elephants, and our young
rope-dancer came again for a moment to give
us new alarms, having made an extremely dan
gerous leap backwards from the crupper of the
saddle. Naked men armed with maces, and wrestlers,
appeared afterwards before the king. The first
resembled savages, they struck their clubs to-

* A curious anecdote is related respecting an elephant,
and which proves that these animals, naturally docile and grate
ful for the cares bestowed upon them, are also vindictive on cer
tain occasions. A kornac was accustomed to lead his elephants
to drink at a pond near the stall of a cobler, who had taken a
liking to one of these animals, and always gave hiin something
to eat as he passed. One day, the cobler being in an ill hu
mour, refused his usual pittance to his favourite, and instead
thereof, wounded him in his trunk with his awl. The elephant
withdrew and went on to the pond, where he filled his trunk
with mi'd and dirt, and on his return spouted it all in the
ooor coblci's hice !

FIRE WORKS. 229
gether, but without injuring each other. It
was not so with the second ; their combats have
something so revolting, and hideous, that I am
loth to mention it to you. The conqueror, that
is to say, he who succeeded in throwing his adver
sary on his back, went to the foot of the kiosk
to receive a piece of money which the king
threw down to him.
These spectacles, worthy of a nation of children,
though not more frivolous than many European
pastimes, but which are nevertheless full of attrac
tion here, were prolonged untill nightfall ; the
king retired during half an hour, to say his
evening prayer, and then returned for the fire
works. I have but seldom seen any equal to
these, even in France : they extended over all
the great court of the palace, which is three
hundred paces long, and five hundred broad,
also on some of the terraces that surround it.
They commenced with the Bengal flames,
which had a very fine effect; then they let off
in confusion a prodigious quantity of cases,
crackers and rockets. Suns, figures of men and
animals, trees and houses of fire, every instant
presented new scenes ; and there was nothing
wanting but more order and symmetry to render
the spectacle magnificent.
The next day was appropriated to horse-
racing. At six o'clock in the morning we left
the city, to proceed into tho plain of Tohcia;^
where the king's tent had been previously pitched.

230 HORSE RACES.
Feth Ali Chah soon appeared; he was in a
military dress, and accompanied by several of
his sons. The march was opened with zem-
boureks, small cannons carried on camels, and
by four elephants ornamented with red trim
mings, and carrying towers or pavilions, gilded
and lined with looking glasses.
When the king alighted, to enter his tent, a
general discharge of the zemboureks was fired,
and horsemen magnificently dressed and armed in
the antique style, started out into the midst of
the area, to perform a species of tournament,
until the races should begin.
The horses admitted to the- competition, had
departed the day before. Some of them had to
run a space of three fersenks, fifteen miles, in
an hour and a half; others two fersenks, three
leagues, in one hour ; others, one fersenk,
in half an hour. Prizes were reserved for the
winners; the first, amounting to one hundred
tomans; the second, to fifty, and the third,
to ten.
The horses of the three courses arrived suc
cessively: they were rode by children dressed
merely in a shirt, pantaloons and a handkerchief
on their heads. According as they reached the
winning-post, the names of the persons to whom
they belonged were proclaimed. The king's
horses gained, as they ought, the first prize. All
the nobility of the court enter theirs in the list ;
they are previously prepared for this violent ex-

ROYAL TENT. 231
ercise, by diminishing their food daily to make
them lean, a process by which the greater part of
them are ruined, or completely foundered.
After the races, his majesty sent an invitation to
the ambassador and his train to alight and go
into his tent, where we entered, conducted by
the grand vizir. Feth Ali Chah was seated on
a throne covered with gold and silver enamel
ed ; a vase of flowers ornamented each of the
arms of this seat. He wore a tikme of blue
velvet embroidered with fine pearls, and a cap
of Astracan black lambskin. The interior of
the tent was lined with stuffs of gold and silver ;
there were several mirrors in it, a rich cushion
embroidered with pearls, and a portrait of a female
in embroidery.
The chah zades, ranged in a line before the king,
according to age, were leaning on large nows,
and had leaden quivers on their shoulders : the
richness of the dresses, and their bracelets spark
ling with precious stones, produced a very im
posing effect, which was heightened by the bril
liancy of a beautiful day. Below these princes
stood two officers of the palace, one of whom
carried the mace, and the other the large shield
of the king, both enriched with emeralds and
rubies. Feth Ali Chah conversed with the general
more than a quarter of an hour: to show him
the expertness of his sons, he ordered one of
the chah zades, of seven or eight years old at

232 A CHAH ZADE.
the utmost, to shoot several arrows at an ob
ject he pointed out to him ; the young prince
obeyed, and discharged a score of them at the
running footmen ranged in a file, before the
elephants. Though his strength did not allow
him to reach them, the attitude and looks of the
servants did not the less betray fear and in
quietude : at each arrow they were seen bowing
the head, then raising and lowering it again :
but from respect to the king, none of them at
tempted to quit his place. This amusement,
though savouring rather too much of the prac
tical joke, was at length terminated. The king
intended to have amused us ; and this prince,
from whom a foreigner is sure to receive nothing
but marks of favour and kindness, wished to give
us a new proof of attention, by sending an order
to the kornacs to advance with the elephants, that
we might examine them more conveniently.
We afterwards separated from his majesty,
who soon remounted his horse, to return to the
palace. Thus ended this festival, which is the
last I have to describe.
Reposing our eyes a little, dazzled as they
are with the brilliancy of such oriental pomp,
we shall next direct them to objects, less splendid,
no doubt, but which are still worthy of inter
esting you.

CRIMINAL LAWS. 233

LETTER XXIV.
Of Justice in Persia. — The Police, &c. &c.
Teheran, April 20th, 1808.
( In Persia, all criminal justice, as I have already
said, emanates directly from the sovereign in the
capital ; and in the provinces, from the chah
zades, or khans, who govern them^kThe king
holds in his hands the lives and fortunes of his sub
jects ; and when his disposition inclines him to
cruelty or avarice, he may despoil them of both
at his pleasure. \ The Cheik ul Islam had formerly
a deliberative voice in criminal affairs, and his
fetwa, always grounded on the decisions of the
Koran, was necessary for the punishment of male
factors. For a long time past the power of this
high priest has considerably diminished, while the
little he retains is in reality only a form J The con-"
tinual increase of despotism has silenced religion
and its ministers ; at present the king's will is the
supreme law, and there is no intermediate power
to impede its progress^ It is therefore truly fortu
nate for the Persians, when they are governed
by a prince like Feth Ali Chah. This monarch,
though accused of an excessive love of gold,
does not, like some of his predecessors, enjoy the

234 PUNISHMENT.
capricious effusion of human bloody and if, as it
has been asserted, one of the first acts of his go
vernment on ascending the throne, was to order
the execution of twelve thousand rebels at Kas
binn, and to have their heads rolled into the bazars
of that city, the fault should be attributed rather
to the barbarous customs of kings of this country,
to impose respect at first on the people by terrible
examples, than to his personal character. Those
atrocities have not been renewed.
[xhe Persian punishments still savour of the
cruelty of the ancient kings, and they are derived
from the most remote times : in general they have
their origin in the lex talionis, which was at all
times, in the East, the basis of criminal justice. \
With money, however, justice and the relations
of the dead or offended person may be mollified,
and the penalty incurred by murder or theft
eluded, on payment of a sum fixed by the com
plainant or his family. The assassin who has not
the means of thus redeeming his life, is quartered
or embowelled alive ; he is carried about in that
state, until he expires, through the streets of
the city, and suspended by his feet, at the tail ofa
camel. Robbers are exposed, during several days,
at the pillory in the midst of the bazars, and then
trodden to death by elephants. Latterly, several
individuals who had committed a considerable rob
bery at the house of the Ittimad ud Dewlet, were
condemned to this punishment by the king ; they
had already suffered the first part of their sentence,

BASTINADO. 235
and were to receive the remainder in the presence
of his majesty, and of the injured minister, on the
day of the horse-races ; but their punishment
was commuted at the intercession of Mirza
Muhammed Chefi himself. Since our arrival, we
have been so fortunate as not to hear of any
capital punishment, which, in my opinion, is the
greatest eulogy that can be pronounced on the
reigning sovereign. How many others, in his
place, would indulge themselves in abusing an
unlimited authority!
i The khans or nobles, who have committed any
great crime, are punished differently from the
common people ; either their eyes are torn out,
or they are beheaded. \
The bastinado on the soles of the feet, is the
punishment for common crimes ; the criminal is
made to lie on his back, with his feet naked, and
strongly tied to a wooden bar, which two men
hold up, whilst two others strike alternately with
supple sticks as far as the number of blows ordered.
These sometimes amount to a thousand, and he
who has suffered this chastisement, if he does not
die, is often crippled for the remainder of his life.
It happens also, sometimes, that the sufferer bribes
his executioners, in which case the latter make a
great noise, and do little mischief: making their
blows fall on the piece of wood which retains
the feet of the victim, while the quickness of their
movements prevents the spectators from perceiv
ing the elusion of justice.

236 LEGAL PROMPTITUDE.
Chardin and other travellers, mention some ad
ditional punishments, from which I shall refrain
from reminding you ; perhaps I have already said
even too much on this subject. They also assert,
that formerly a triangular piece of wood was
placed about the necks of insolvent debtors, and
persons refusing to pay their creditors ; but they
were not deprived of their liberty for that offence,
and might go out and attend freely to their busi
ness. I do not know whether this custom still exists,
but we have never witnessed an instance of it.
All law-suits are decided at Teheran, by the
vizirs, and the Mollah Bachi, or Cheik-ul Is
lam, according to their nature. If it concerns
assaults, quarrels, or personal injury, the affair is in
the department of the former ; in matters of rights
of property, litigations, and pecuniary interests, it
appertains to the functions of the latter, j In the
provinces, the khans and ministers of religion,
who at the same time fill the office of cadi, are
respectively, each in his jurisdiction, the regular
judges of all disputes. The law-suits are never
procrastinated as amongst us : and a point of law,
or discussion, which in Europe would endure for
whole years, is decided in Persia in a single
hearing.^ The most impartial justice does not
always preside at these rapid trials, while the
more rich and powerful are almost sure to gain
their suit.\ As to the parties they plead their own
causes : but with all their defects cannot we profit
by such examples of promptitude inlegal decisions ?

SUMMARY JUSTICE. 237
Barristers and attornies are unknown to the
Persians, as also all that farrago of writings which
often render a law-suit ruinous even to him who
gains it. The judge orders a summary of the
cause to be drawn up on a sheet of paper, he hears
successively the plaintiff and defendant; and after
having reflected or appeared to reflect during
some minutes, he pronounces a sentence, from
which an appeal may be made to the supreme
commander of the province, or to the king him
self. When the latter is addressed, he seldom
refuses to do justice, as we have had an instance
lately. Several inhabitants of the country came
to complain at the foot of the throne against a
khan who tyrannized over and ruined them by
his extortions. The king summoned the unpo
pular chief to Teheran, and after having ascer
tained the truth of the accusation, caused several
hundred blows of a cane to be inflicted on the
soles of his lordship's feet, in his own presence.
Highway robbers are very rare in Persia ;
travelling is perfectly safe in this empire ; the-
police being more uniform in it, and better regu
lated than in Turkey. Though there is neither a
general police nor marshalsea, the safety of the
roads is maintained by a corps called the rah-
dars,* who are at the same time collectors of the
customhouse duties and town dues. Detachments

* From the Persian words, rah, road, and dur, having.

238 THE DAR0GA.
of these rahdars are met at regular distances,
posted so as to be able to lend each other assistance
in case of alarm ; they scrupulously examine all
travellers who appear suspicious, and are the
more interested in performing their duty properly,
as they are made personally responsible for the
robberies committed in the districts confided to
their care. It is the same in the towns and
villages. The inhabitants of the quarter where
the crime is committed, are required to deliver
the culprit up to justice, or to reimburse the
value of the objects stolen at their own expence.
I shall not examine how far such measures
agree with the principles of strict equity ; as we
should consider the nature of the country and
its manners, and think only of the results.
The daroga is, in all the towns of Persia,
an officer whose functions have some resemblance
to those of a commissary general of police :
he superintends the safety of the town, preserves
good order in the streets and bazars, inspects
the taverns, public houses, and other places of
resort ; he has the power of inflicting the bas
tinado on those who commit breaches of the peace,
and to imprison debtors who do not make good
their obligations ; as he has also the chief in
spection of the houses of ill fame, and can sup
press or tolerate them at will, he generally knows
how to derive advantage from that power, and
ransoms at his pleasure their inmates and visitors.
The daroga of Teheran has under his orders

M1RAHDAS. 239
another officer called mirahdas, who commands
the tufenktchis, or guards appointed for preserving
public tranquillity during the night. The latter
armed with a matchlock, or a mere cudgel,
are placed in detachments, at the cross ways
and squares; they sometimes patrole during the
night, and cry out to passengers to avoid ap
proaching them too nearly. They have not a
guard room, and retire to the first shed which
offers them an asylum ; where they hang up their
lantern, and place themselves in ambush to sur
prise vagabonds and disturbers of the public
peace. When they apprehend a robber, the
mirahdas sends him temporarily into one of the
city prisons, until the judge can pass sentence
on him. Those who have committed minor
crimes, appear the next day before the daroga,
or are judged by the mirahdas himself, who con
demns, according to circumstances, either to
prison or the bastinado. The cudgel is here, as
in Turkey, the grand specific for all evils, the
redress of every injury, and the true minister of
police. The nobility have also arrogated to them
selves the privilege of applying this punishment
to their servants and vassals.
The mouhtesib is an inspector who superin
tends the quality of provisions, fixes the prices
of them and prevents the dealers from selling
by false weights : to this effect he visits them
frequently, and punishes transgressors according
to the rigour of the laws, when he, himself,

240 MOUHTESIB.
is not in collusion with them ; for he is not
dways inaccessible to bribery, and often con
sents to sell his protection to the dealers,
and wink at their roguery. It is to be hoped,
however, that under the reigning prince, mal
versations of this nature are not frequent,
at least in the capital. The severity of the
king, his love of justice, and his facility of
access, ought to retain within the bounds of
duty all public officers who might otherwise
intend to deviate from them. It is to this salu
tary fear, rather than to the national character,
that may be attributed the good order which
now exists in Persia.
\ I do not believe that integrity is a very com
mon virtue amongst the agents of despotic
power, where the means of providing for their
own safety is generally the chief motive of their
actions. Under a weak and cruel monarch, they
abandon themselves boldly to their inclination
for rapine and tyranny ; because, with such a
master the greatest crimes are easily redeemed
by money, i If they serve a just and inflexible
prince, they will be, it is true, more circum
spect, but not less corrupt: kept within bounds
by their fears, the only good that can then
be expected from them is, the negative virtue
of their doing no harm.*
* Tavcrnier, who sometimes praises even to exaggeration the
good order and justice which prevailed in Persia, relates the

ANECDOTE. 241
One of the greatest reproaches that can be
made against travellers in general, is, in my
opinion, that of praising too highly, or vilifying
too much, the nations whose laws and manners
they investigate. It is thus, that from some par
tial examples, very often invented, some raise to
the skies the justice and uprightness of the Oriental
judges ; and others, on the contrary, treat them
with extreme severity. I do not pretend to offer
myself as an infallible authority, but you may
have observed, hitherto, that I have constantly
endeavoured to avoid those two extremes. If
I have blamed whatever has appeared repre-

following circumstance, which I cannot avoid inserting here,
as an honourable exception to the national character of this
people. A baker of the city of Tauris came to complain to the khan,
that the judge of the police would not raise the price of bread,
and that he could gain nothing by the sale of it. The khan
represented that it was not in his department, it being the magis
trate's office to regulate such matters ; but the other, flattering
himself that the khan could order what he wished from his
own authority, the judge of the police not being inclined to
do any thing, sent him a present of fifty tomans. The khan
perceiving the evil designs and roguery of the baker, who in-
fended to enrich himself at the expenee of the people, and who
had besides such a bad opinion of himself as to believe that he
was capable of selling justice, ordered that he should be taken
to the market place and receive blows of a cane on the soles
of his feet, until he consented to bring fifty more tomans, which
the khan immediately distributed to the poor, ordering the price
of bread to be lowered instead of raising it.
R

242 IMPARTIALITY.
hensible in the Persians, I have also been solicitous
to do them justice where they seemed to merit it.
Perhaps I may have fallen into some errors to
their disadvantage, but it has not been inten
tionally : I am inclined to believe that I have
observed them closely, without having deviated
from truth whenever I mentioned their good
qualities.

DISEASES. 243

LETTER XXV.
Diseasesin Persia. — Persian Armies, Cavalry. — Review of the Troops. 
Tufenktchis or Infantry. — Artillery. — Zemboureks. — King of
Persia's Guards, Goulams, Nasaktchis, Chatirs, and Ferrechs.—
The King's Eunuchs. Teheran, May 1, 1808.
I have not, as yet, mentioned the diseases
peculiar to the country we reside in at pre
sent, for during the winter we have passed here,
all our party has, thank God, enjoyed very good
health, and even those of our sick, who had at first
given us some uneasiness, are at length recovered,
in consequence of several months repose, and of
the improved quality of our food. But as it is I
shall not enter into long details on a subject of
this nature ; I am not a physician, and will not
therefore attempt to expatiate on a matter so
foreign to my pursuits. All that I can inform
you is, that diseases exist here as well as in other
places, and perhaps even more frequently than
elsewhere ; but, at least, there is nothing to fear in
Persia from that destructive scourge, which seems
to have established its seat in the Ottoman empire.'
If the plague be brought here by some stranger,
r 2

244 FEVERS.
as in the case in which we so unfortunately found
ourselves,* it is never propagated, and rarely ex
tends its deadly influence beyond a few victims :
to what can this be owing? Do not imagine,
however, that the Persians owe their health to
the salutary institution of quarantine, much
less to the prudent precautions which are taken
in Europe to guard against the attacks of con
tagion. They are, in that respect, as improvident
as the Turks, and owe their good luck entirely
to the climate, which does not permit, as it
would seem, the plague to be naturalized here.
On the other hand, the Persians are subject to
other diseases and infirmities, many of which they
have in common with the inhabitants of almost
every country, while others appertain peculiarly
to themselves. The first are putrid and malig
nant fevers, which the position of this capital
especially renders so frequent and pernicious, that
all the court, and a part of the inhabitants of the
city, as I have already stated to you, are obliged
to abandon this residence during the summer, to
go and encamp in the midst of the plains of
Sultanie. The second are opthalmias of a very
dangerous nature, which appear almost every
season : these I attribute, in a great measure, to
the excessive dryness of the air, the sands
that cover the soil of Persia, and to the almost
total absence of verdure. Since the heats have

* Sec the 10th Letter.

MILITARY FORCE. 245
begun, many persons of the legation have
complained of this indisposition ; I also have
suffered by it during several days, and the fear of
a relapse has induced me to solicit the ambassador
for permission to leave Persia, and return to
Constantinople. The Persians, whose uncleanlinesa
I have described to you, augment their distempers
by the means they employ to cure them. They
cover their diseased eyes with a small piece of
blue cotton cloth, often very dirty, and scarcely
ever change it ; thus rendering the remedy worse
than the disease ; but even experience does not
correct them, arid of a hundred inhabitants of a
town, nearly one half are met with similar rags
suspended from their caps.
Before I quit Teheran, it remains for me to
state the military forces of Persia, and to men
tion several other objects, of which I have not
had time hitherto to acquaint you. To these
shall be devoted the remainder of the present
letter. The whole strength of the Persian armies
consists in the cavalry. Each province, or rather
the great vassals of the king, that is to say, the
khans, who are at the head of the military tribes,
are obliged to furnish a certain number of them ;
and the total, when the number of those Jribes,
and the population of all Persia is considered,
cannot amount to above one hundred and fifty or
two hundred thousand men.
These military tribes, or taifes, to give them

246 divisions.
their true name, form four great divisions, the
names of which are taken from the language used
by them. The first is the Turkish tongue,
turk zeban ; the second, the Curdish tongue,
kurd zeban ; the third, the Arab tongue, areb
zeban : the fonrth, the Loure, or Laure tongue,
lour zeban.
The Efchars and the Kadjars who belong to
the Turkish tongue are the most numerous tribe
of the whole four. The first has been always
reputed the bravest, and was long the most power
ful : the second, to which the reigning prince
belongs, has latterly deprived the former of its
pre-eminence.* The pay of the Persian cavalry is trifling, and
even this they receive only in time of war :
they also receive premiums when they perform
any distinguished action, and they have, besides,
the benefit of pillage and booty, very accom
modating resources, which are admirably favour-

* On reading the Travels in Persia, by Morier, I have
remarked a very considerable difference in the calculation made
by that traveller of the number of men composing certain
tribes, and the informations taken on the spot by M. Jouannin,
who resided much longer in Persia than M. Morier. I think
the latter is mistaken when he asserts, for instance, that the tribes
of the Baktiars and the Tailis (who belong to the Loure tongue)
consist each of one hundred thousand families. M. Jouannin
gives the first thirty thousand individuals only, and the second,
thirty or forty ; whereas, he makes the Efchars alone amount
to eighty-eight thousand men, and the Kadjars to nearly forty
thousand.

CAVALRY. 247
able to their indiscipline ! They arm and mount
themselves at their own expenee, and are dressed
completely in the antique style ; a steel helmet,
a cuirass, or coat of mail, a lance and shield,
forming their usual accoutrements. Some of them
also carry a bow in their hand and a quiver on
the shoulder : in short, were it not for the pistol
and carbine, which several of them add to the
above equipment, they might still be mistaken for
the Persians of the time of Xerxes and Darius.
This brilliant cavalry does not know how to
fight in battle array : the degree of perfection to
which European military tactics are arrived,
would not permit the former, certainly, either to
withstand the impetuosity and regular shock of
our cavalry of the line, or to break our infantry ;
but they are excellent for turning the flanks of
an army, and in skirmishing ; the swords they
use, much superior to ours in temper, make
wide and deep wounds, which are generally
mortal. Every six months the king reviews the cavalry
stationed in the capital and its environs. This
review does not at all resemble the military parades
which we call by the same name. The chah is
seated in a kiosk at the end of the first court of
his palace, and the horsemen are confusedly
collected together at one of the two extremities.
The chiefs of tribes, placed beneath the window
of his majesty, call in a loud voice each soldier
in his tribe, when the latter replies by gal-

248 INFANTRY.
lopping across the court, before the pavilion,
and then places himself at the opposite side.
The review being ended, the men who are no
longer capable of service, and those who desire
to leave the army, are dismissed or discharged ;
measures are then taken to fill up the vacancies,
and each horseman returns home.
The Persian infantry is composed of tufeuktchis
or fusileers. This species of troops, the most miser
able that can be imagined, never amounts to more
than fifty or sixty thousand men ; it consists of the
unfortunate peasants, taken from the cultivation
of their lands, by the nobles, for the king's service.
These people are greatly despised by the cavalry.
Their pay is very trifling, and, I believe, they are
obliged to clothe and equip themselves at their own
expense. I have seen some of them who had no
other dress than a pair of blue linen pantaloons,
and a pelisse of sheep's skin. They are armed with
a matchlock, dagger, and sabre.
The infantry service has always been held in
little esteem by the Persians : it is still with them,
as it was in France during the feudal times, aban
doned to vassals and the lowest classes of the people,
whilst the cavalry alone is reputed a noble and
honourable service. There is every appearance,
however, that they will soon abandon a prejudice
as unjust as it is unfounded. At the desire of the
king, and especially of Prince Abbas Mirza, our
officers are actually regulating a new corps of in
fantry at Tauris, on the same plan as that of Europe :

ARTILLERY. 249
when the Persians are once enabled to appreciate
all the advantages of our tactics, and those of
military discipline, they will be obliged to acknow
ledge, as all civilized nations have, for a long
time past, that infantry ought to be the base and
principal force of armies. I shall soon see the new
troops, on my return by Tauris, and will give
you an account of them in a future letter.
The Persians are also equally backward in re
spect to artillery : it might even be said, that this
science, so perfect in Europe, is totally unknown
to them. It is true, that they have some pieces of
cannon of large calibre, which they captured from
the Portuguese, when the troops of that country
were forced to evacuate Ormuz, and some others
taken from the Russians during the last war ; but
they do not know how to use them. They are
either dismounted or placed on clumsy carriages,
in the principal court of the royal palace.The zem-
boureks, small pieces that carry balls of a pound
weight, are the only ones they use in their military
expeditions : these turn on a swivel on the pack-
saddle of a camel, the crupper of which is orna
mented with two flags, and the zembourektchi,
who is dressed in a fantastic manner, and wears
a cap more like that of a rope-dancer than an
artillery-man, turns and points it at pleasure. In
a battle, such artillery must be more destructive
to the cannoneers themselves than to the enemy :
when they have loaded their guns, they advance
their camels in a quick trot, confusedly, and return

250 MUHAMMED KHAN.
when they have discharged them. I leave you
to judge of the disorder that must result from
this method of fighting, and what ravages
such heavy animals as camels are likely to create
in the ranks. Thus the Persians have always
been beaten, whenever they were opposed to a
nation more expert than themselves in the art
of war : the Russians have constantly had the
advantage in the last campaign ; and must
always obtain it, until the Persians change their
system, and that period, perhaps, is not far
distant, as I shall soon have occasion to inform
you. The corps of the zembourektchis is commanded
by a khan of an inferior order, named Muhammed
Khan ; this officer seems to possess but little
influence at court, nor is his rank considered
very elevated : but what I can assure you is,
though, in other respects, a very brave man,
Muhammed Khan enjoys the reputation of an
arrant drunkard, and completely merits it. A
few days ago, he gave an entertainment to the
ambassador, and we were all invited to breakfast
with him. At the conclusion of the repast, after
having drank plentifully of Chiraz and Ispahan
wine, he wished to give us a new specimen of his
powers, by swallowing, almost at one draught, a
large bottle of Russian spirits, in which one of
our friends had maliciously put some pinches of
pepper. The beverage took effect, and it was
aoon necessary to carry off the zembourektchi

HOUSEHOLD TROOPS. 251
bachi on the shoulders of one of his servants.
This is one act of Persian prowess, and certainly
an odd mode of entertaining us.
There is also a toptchi bachi, or general of
heavy artillery ; but his title is merely honorary,
since there are no guns now in use, except those
of the zemboureks : hereafter it may become more
important, and apply to a real object. Several
French officers of distinguished merit, among
whom are Messrs. Tabvier and Reboul, have
established a cannon foundry at Ispahan, with
out any other aid than their zeal and talents;
and though they have long had to combat against
some intrigues, they have succeeded, by dint of
care and perseverance, in placing this establish
ment on a respectable footing, and Feth Ali Chah
owes to them the first field pieces which have
been seen in Persia.
This subject naturally leads me to inform you
of the military household of the king of Persia.
It is composed of a certain number of cavalry,
who are called goulams, or slaves. But it does not
follow from this, that they are really in a state of
slavery ; the term is figurative, like that of koul,
which is given in Turkey to the janizaries, and
relates to the origin of each of those two corps,
composed, in the beginning, of Christian children
captured in war, or sold by their parents, such
as were also the Mamelukes of Egypt. This
name has, no doubt, been continued, in order
to remind them of the passive obedience they

252 THE GOULAMS.
owe their master. The goulams always escort the
king when he appears in public, or when he
leaves the city to hunt: they do not surround
him so as to conceal from the people the view
of their sovereign, but, on the contrary, ride
behind him at a considerable distance ; some
tufenktchis or fusileers, better armed and clothed
than the rest of the infantry, also form a part of
the king's guards, which are several thousands
in number. As yet, they have no other arms than
a dagger and matchlock. Our officers have
also to form select companies, at Tauris, des
tined hereafter to compose the royal guard, and
replace the present tufenktchis.
The guards of the interior are called nasakt-
chis : their functions are to maintain order and
tranquillity in the various parts of the palace
where entrance is permitted. Armed with an
axe, sabre, dagger, and a large club terminating
in the shape of a mace, they mount guard more
especially near the king's person. Their number
is about three or four hundred, and they are
immediately known by their caps, which are
bound round with Cachemire shawls. Ferradj
Oula Khan, chief of the tribe of Efchars, and
lord of the city of Zenghan, is the commander
of this corps. He is a great friend to the French,
and very much respected at court ; he was in
tended at first to have been sent to France as am
bassador, but a state intrigue deprived him of
that mission, and substituted in his place a person

CHAT1RS. 253
named Asker Khan, who is now in Paris. Be
sides the nasaktchis, the king also maintains a
nearly equal number of mace-bearers, dressed in
the same manner, but who carry an iron mace
instead of an axe. The chatirs and ferrachs
ought not to be considered as belonging to the
military household ; they are men attached to
the domestic service of the prince ; the following
are their duties.
The chatirs are couriers who always precede
the king, on foot, even on the longest journeys :
their agility is such, that they run a march of
several leagues without halting. They wear a
very light dress, and a helmet of striped stuff,
surmounted with plumes of various colours. I
have read somewhere, that to be received as
chatir, it was necessary formerly to run a space
of thirty leagues in ten or twelve hours. This
account may, perhaps, be taxed with exaggera
tion, for I have never heard of such a thing since
I have been in Persia. Nevertheless it cannot be
denied that the Persian couriers greatly surpass
those whom the opulent amongst us used to have
preceding their equipages. They are indefatiga
ble : I have seen them several times at the head
of the escort of Feth Ali Chah, when that prince
returned from the country, and I can assert,
that they were always forty or fifty paces at
least in advance of his horse, which he rode at
full gallop. This species of luxury, which could
have been invented only by despots, to whom

254 FERRACHS.
the lives and health of their fellow creatures are as
nothing, is, in my opinion, one of the most debas
ing to poor human nature .• it is degrading mankind
uselessly to the level of a running dog, and if for
merly, as I believe to have been the case, we de
rived this custom and many others from the Orien
tals, we ought to congratulate ourselves, that with
out having entirely ceased to be ostentatious, it
now no longer exists amongst us than as an object
of parade, the folly and absurdity of which, will
doubtless soon cause it to be totally abandoned.
The ferrachs are another kind of servants : their
name, which proceeds from the Persian word
ferch, a carpet, translated literally, would signify
an upholsterer. Perhaps it denoted that employ
ment originally ; but it has no longer any thing
in common with their actual functions.
The ferrachs, armed with long poles, march
before the king, and with violent blows drive away
the crowd that happen to impede his passage.
Every one flies at their approach, and their very
name inspires a kind of terror in the people. It
is said that they are also the executioners of the
king's justice, and that at the least sign* from

* The kings of Persia, like most of the Oriental monarchs,
give their orders chiefly by signs called ciharet. These signs
are almost imperceptible to those who are not acquainted with
this custom. I remarked it at the last audience we had of the
king : he had scarcely turned his head, when one of his
officers placed a kalioun at his feet. I have still to learn
how that officer, placed behind the throne, and at a considerable

CONTRADICTIONS. 255
his majesty, they make those who have been
so unfortunate as to incur his displeasure, fall
under their daggers. You would never have
supposed- that men who bore such a pacific
name, were executioners : I give you this ex
ample as one of those in which it would not be
proper to translate literally, and by their exact
meaning in our language, the Oriental words ; for
it is not the first time I have remarked that,
amongst these nations, the name is not always
relative to the thing. Fortunately, as you are
already informed, Feth Ali Chah is not a sangui
nary prince, so that the ferrachs have not much
occupation in his reign.
The vizirs and all persons of distinction have also
their ferrachs, who march by their sides when they
appear in public ; but the latter are not so formi
dable to the people, as those of the sovereign :
they do not strike so heavily, and the slow and
regular gait of the Persian nobles, easily permits
passengers to avoid them. In short, we also
have our ferrachs, and these, as you may sup
pose, are the most gentle of all their brother
hood.

distance from it could have comprehended him. Il must have
been necessary carefully to study this kind of service, not
to have been mistaken. In other respects, every thing may
be understood by habit; but I believe that it is not without
some danger to hold such an employment as the above under
a cruel and capricious despot. The least error would be a crime,
and might be expiated rather dearly.

256 ROYAL HAREM.
The harem of the king of Persia, like that of
the Grand Signor, is guarded by white and black
eunuchs : but each are, I believe, less numerous
and powerful than in Constantinople : nor have I
observed that they obtain the same deference
and respect here as in the latter capital. The
black eunuchs alone can enter into the interior
of the women's apartments ; to the white is
committed the care of the exterior gates. When
the king's women go to the country, the eunuchs
run over the plain in every direction, firing
carbines loaded with ball, to drive the men
from their road. Unfortunate would be the person
who had not time to retire, for he would be killed
without mercy ; even the peasants themselves
are forced to fly from their villages : if one be
taken unawares, he has no other resource than to
turn his back and stand up against a wall, or to lie
down with his face to the ground, during the
whole time that the dangerous cavalcade is pass
ing, and he thinks himself very lucky if the
eunuchs are satisfied with that mark of humility.
It is but a short time ago that a friend and myself
were near finding ourselves in that predicament.
We had gone out to ride about the environs
of Teheran, when musket shots fired at a distance
on the plain excited our curiosity, and induced
us to proceed to the quarter whence they
came. Fortunately for us, our servants, who
were natives of the country, had time to warn
us, and prevent our committing an impru-

PROJECTED DEPARTURE. 257
dence which would have been the more danger
ous, as we were dressed in the Persian fashion,
and consequently expected to know the customs
of the country.
I shall address you but once more from Te
heran, as I leave this capital towards the end of the
present month, on my return to Constantinople.
Several of the legation have been successively
despatched before me ; every thing induces me
to believe that the mission of our "ambassador
approaches its conclusion, and that, in a short
time, he will himself quitPersia. My route shall
be the one by which I came, as far as Erzerum ;
and then, as much to avoid the great heats, as to
change the scene, I shall proceed towards Trebi
zond and the Black Sea.

258 PERSIAN LITERATURE.

LETTER XXVI.
Persian Language and Literature. — The first Book of the Gulistan
of Saadi. Teberan, May 15, 1808.
I am not sufficiently versed in the Oriental
languages, to give you a complete treatise on
Persian literature ; it would be presumption
on my part to undertake a task so difficult,
after those who have gone before me, .1 can
therefore only refer you to their learned works,
and shall merely present you with some parts of
the Gulistan of Saadi; it is all that my acquaint
ance with the language will permit, and also my
first essay in the study of the Persian. I hope it
may prove agreeable to you ; but if I have pre
sumed too much in offering this trivial tribute of
respect, 1 trust that my zeal and the motives by
which I am influenced, will induce you to excuse
my temerity.
Saadi is one of the most esteemed of the Persian
poets; he was a native of Chirac, and lived in
the fourteenth century of our era, an epoch in
which oriental literature was in all its splendor.
You will sometimes meet capricious ideas in his
writing, incoherencies, and a species of morality

SAAOI. §59
which savours of the character of his nation, and
the genius of his language ; but you will also
very often find a bold philosophy in his maxims,
veryremarkableforthe time in which he wrote, and
you may derive some reflections from his stories, in
support of my observations on the manners and
customs of the Persians. That which Saadi may be
accused of, and not unjustly in my opinion, isalarge
portion of the self love and maudlin egotism which
is but too often a failing of poets, whether ancient
or modern. After having said in his preface, that
the rose of gardens lasts but a moment ; and that
whatever is ephemeral merits no attachment, he
adds : " I can compose for the instruction of all, a
Gulistan,* of which the leaves shall withstand the
autumnal winds ; its eternal spring shall be exempt
from the revolutions of the seasons, and the
malignant influence of winter. Of what use is the
rose ? Pluck a leaf from my Gulistan ; the rose will
hve but five or six days, and the existence of the
Gulistan will be eternal." And further on : " This
work will live during a great number of years;
yet every part of my body will fall into dust.
It is a pieture which will remain after me, and of
whose duration I am ignorant." Such language
in an author's mouth would now be termed pre
sumptuous pride ; but we ought to excuse Saadi,

* Gulistan signifies a garden of roses, and may here be taken
in the sense of a rose bush.
8 2

260 GULISTAN.
since his contemporaries have passed it over, and
that it has appeared unimportant amongst the
oriental writers.
Previous to entering on the subject, I think it
necessary to acquaint you, that I have endea
voured to accommodate my translation to the
genius of our language, to render it more intelli
gible, and to avoid the frequent repetitions which
are found in my author. Wherever it has been
possible to do so, without incurring the above fault,
I have given it literally. Saadi's works are in prose
interspersed with poetry : but as I do not aspire
to any poetic talent you must be content with a
prosaic translation of his verses.
The preface or introduction to the Gulistan,
sufficiently long in itself, turns in a great mea
sure on the praise of God, that of Mahomet, and
the prince who then reigned in Persia. I shall
merely extract the passages which are remarkable
for the imagery alternately stern or soft that it
presents to us. They afford a fair specimen of the
oriental style, as also of the most familiar figures
of the Persian poets.*

* Nothing but the soundness of Saadi's morality, and the
extraordinary applicability of his political maxims, (founded,
as they are, on the immutable basis of truth), to the present
slate of Europe, would have induced the Editor to present
his readers with an English version of these extracts. In
thus apologizing to the critical world for an infringement
on literary propriety that required some explanation, the
Editor cannot help expressing an ardent hope, that aphorisms

GULISTAN. 261
After an invocation to God, Saadi exclaims,
still addressing himself to the Sovereign Ruler of
the Universe, " He said to the morning breeze
which embellishes all nature, spread out thy
emerald carpet ; to the beneficent clouds of
spring, raise up those tender plants from the
bosom of the earth. He has covered the trees
with mantles of verdant foliage, such as the
vestments worn at the Newrouz, and at returning
spring crowned the young branches with chap-
lets of flowers. The juice proceeding from the
sugar cane becomes from his goodness a delicious
honey, and the kernel of the date he permits by
cultivation to produce an elevated palm. Oh,
man ! the clouds, the winds, the sun, the moon
and skies, all contribute to thy sustenance ; but
he wills that thou shalt not enjoy it indolently ;
all bow the head in expectation of thy orders !
it would be unjust that thou shouldst be the only
one who receivest no commands  ¦
" A devotee abstracted from all mundane

such as those contained in the Gulistan, and which poi't
laureats of modern times would do well to inculcate, may be
pointed out to the rulers and ministers of these eventful days : for
they were never so truly in want of such salutary lessons as at
this awful crisis, when the struggle of new principles, arising
from an advancement in civilization and the progress of know
ledge, against the barbarism and bigotry of the " olden time,"
threatens society with all the accumulated horrors of anarchy
and bloodshed ! .

26J GULISTAN.
thoughts, in the chaos of an ecstasy, rested his'
head between his knees : when recovered from
his meditations, one of his friends said jokingly
to him, ' what hast thou gathered for us in this
garden V ' I fancied,' he replied, ' that I was op
posite a rose-tree, and that I filled the skirt of
my cloak with flowers, to present them to my
friends. When I had nearly reached them, the
perfume of the roses so overpowered me, that
my gown slipped from my hands. Bird of
the morning, learn what love is from the moth
that flies to burn itself at the lamp ; he has died
without uttering a complaint. How can false
devotees derive any benefit from their affectation,
since those who have known God for a moment,
never can behold him a second time."
Saadi next addresses some exaggerated praises
to his sovereign, and is not very scrupulous in
those which he gives to himself:
" All mankind, whether rich or poor, have
joined with him in expressions of kindness to me,
.merely because the people are always of the
same opinion with their sovereign. Since thy
notice hath been attracted by thy wretched slave,
the traces I leave behind me display a greater
brightness than that of the sun. Even if all
should be vice in the slave, any vice approved of
by the prince becomes a virtue !
" Being one day at the bath, an odoriferous
earth fell from a lover's hand into mine. ' Art
thou musk, or yet amber,' I exclaimed, ' thou

"6ULISTAN. 263
whose delightful perfume enchants me V ' I was
nothing,' it replied, ' but a clay without value.
I have been a moment with the rose, and it has
communicated this sweet odour to me : were it
not for that, I should have remained a common
clay as heretofore.' 
" One night, I reflected on past times, and I
regretted bitterly the days of my life that I
have mis-spent ; the tears I shed relieved my
mind, and 1 began to recite these verses which
alluded to my situation  „
" Oh, thou, who hast attained the age of
fifty years, and who continually passeth thy
life in indolence, avail thyself profitably of the
five days which remain to thee ! He who has
left this world, without having rendered himself
useful, is covered with shame ; death struck the
kettle-drum of departure, and he was unpre
pared. The morning's sleep, which refreshes the
traveller from his fatigues, induces him to for
get that he must continue his journey.
" The wise man never depends too much on life.
The good and bad, all must die ; he alone will be
happy who has performed good actions. Make
thy preparations beforehand to enter into the
tomb, because no one will make them for thee.
Life is like the snow which the sun of Temmouz
(July) reduces to water, and yet man remains
inactive ! Oh thou who goest to market without
money, I fear much that thou wilt return with an
empty basket ! He who consumeth his corn when

264 GULISTAN;
green, will be obliged to glean in harvest time*
Suspend all the movements of thy soul, to hearken
to the counsels of Saadi, thou becomest man, and
thou diest. In this human life consists.
" After having profoundly meditated on those
reflections, I resolved to withdraw from the
world, and to impose an eternal silence on myself,
to efface the vain works which I have written,
and, in short, to renounce those frivolous dis
courses (the deaf and dumb who retires to a
corner is preferable to him who has not the re
straint of his tongue,) when one of my friends,
with whom I had always lived, and who resided
with me, entered as usual. So long as he limited
himself to jokes and raillery, I made him no
answer, and solely occupied in worshipping God,
I did not even raise my head from my knees. He
was vexed, and said, ' now that thou may'st do it,
my dear brother, speak, for to-morrow, when the
messenger of death shall announce thy last hour,,
thou wilt be really forced to open thy mouth.'
Another friend informed him of the resolution I
had taken to remain in adoration the remainder
of my life, and of the perpetual silence I had just
prescribed to myself; ' and thou also, if thou canst,
bow thy head,' he added, ' and follow the path
which leads to heaven.' * I swear by the respect
and friendship which have always united me to
him,' the first replied, 'never to quit him for a
moment, nor to take a single step, until Saadi
shall have, as heretofore, delighted me with his

GULISTAN. 265
eloquent and precious speech ; it is wrong to afflict
friends, and nothing is more easy than to break
such a vow. It is contrary to the laws of justice
and wisdom that the sword of Ali remain in the
scabbard, and the tongue of Saadi in his mouth.
Of what advantage is thy tongue to thee, oh sage !
if thou keepest it closed ? If the door of the trea
sure of the virtuous man remain locked, who can
divine whether it contains diamonds or iron ?
Though silence be a virtue in the eyes of the sage,
still speech should be used when necessary. Two
things are indicative of a weak mind, to be silent
when it is proper to speak, and speaking when
silence should be kept.' I could no longer remain
silent, because it was a faithful friend who
addressed this expostulation to me, one who
had participated in all my griefs, at length I
spoke. " In the following spring, we went out one day,
the severity of the cold was passed, and the happy
season of roses had arrived. It was the first of Arde-
behicht (May,) the nightingale warbled, perched
on the highest branches ; the pearly dew-drops
scattered on the blushing rose, resembled tears on
the cheek of an enraged beauty. My friend and
I resolved to pass the night in his garden. The
situation was charming, in the midst of a smiling
landscape, the prospect of the trees excited an
enchanting joy in the soul ; it might have been
said that the earth was covered with enamel, while
the skies were sown with sparkling stars. It was

266

GULISTAN,

a garden of hyacinths of a thousand hues, in the
midst of which meandered a limpid stream ; it was
an orchard abounding in all kinds of fruits, where
the birds filled the air with their melodious songs.
The breeze had spread under a refreshing shade,
a variegated carpet, like the tints of the cameleon.
When morning came, and that we must depart,
in spite of our wish to stay, I saw my friend occu
pied in filling the skirts of his garment with roses,
sweet basil, and hyacinths."
Such is the manner in which Saadi leads the
reader on. He then says to his friend, that the
garden rose exists but a moment, and that he can
compose a Gulistan whose duration shall be eter
nal. He announces that at this assertion, his friend
emptied the flowers he held in his habit, into his
own, and that the Gulistan was terminated when
the season of roses had passed. He concludes his
preface with new praises to the king, and by
maxims, such as the following :
" Several wise Indians said on the subject of
Buzurdj Mihr, the vizir of Khousrew Nouchire-
wan, 'we know no other fault in him than that of
being slow in his discourses, of delay in speaking,
and of leaving his auditors too long in uncertainty.'
Buzurdj Mihr heard them, and replied : ' I would
rather reflect before speaking, than have to
repent of what I had said.'
" Reflection should precede speech. Previous
to the building of a wall, the foundation should b e
properly laid.

GULtSTAN. 267
" Lokman was once asked, who taught thee
prudence ? ' The blind,' he replied, ' who never
make a step without ascertaining the ground. To
enter with safety, it is necessary to have pre
viously come out.'
" Though the cock is valiant in the combat,
what can he avail against the falcon with brazen
talons ? The cat is a lion in comparison with the
mouse ; he is but a mouse when compared with
the tyger."
The Gulistan is divided into eight babs* or
chapters. The first treats of the actions of kings ;
the second, of the manners of dervishes ; the third,
on the utility of moderation ; the fourth, on the ad
vantages of silence ; the fifth, on love and youth ;
the sixth, on weakness and old age ; the seventh,
on the impressions of education ; and the eighth,
on the duties of society.
" Date. (It is Saadi who speaks.) It was in the
year 656 of the Hegira, that I found the occasion
favourable for giving these counsels. I spoke,
commended myself to God, and departed."
First story. " It is related that a king having
condemned one of his slaves to death, that unfor
tunate being, in a state of desperation, began to
utter all kinds of abuse and invectives against the
prince in a strange language, according to this
maxim, that he who is on the point of quitting
* Bab in Arabic signifies literally a gate. I give the transla
tion of the first bob only.

268 GULISTAN.
life, says all that he hath on his mind. ' What
doth he say ?' the king inquired. One of the vizirs,
a man equally powerful and compassionate, re
plied, ' sire, he has just repeated this Arabic verse,
He hath restrained his anger and pardoned man
kind.'' The king moved to pity, had already par
doned his slave, when another vizir who was an
enemy of the former, exclaimed ; ' men like us
should always tell our prince the truth. This
wretch has loaded your majesty with insolent and
injurious revilings.' At this declaration the king
turned about to him and said, I prefer his false
hood to the truth which you have told me ; he had
a laudable intention, and you have been instigated
only by the desire of doing evil. The wise have
said that a lie which has a good action for its
object, is preferable to a truth which will produce
misfortune,' &c."
Other maxims follow, the morality of which is
nearly the same.
2nd. " A king of Khorassan saw Sultan Mah-
moud Sebuktein in a dream, about a hundred
years after his death. Every part of the body of
that prince appeared to be dispersed and reduced
to dust, excepting his eyes, which rolled in their
orbits, and viewed him earnestly. The king sum
moned the seers and interpreters of dreams, none
of whom could explain his vision. At length a
dervish gave him this interpretation. ' He has not
lost sight of his kingdom, since it has been in the
possession of strangers. Many are the sages who

GULISTAN. 269
have been consigned to clay, they are no longer
themselves nor their greatness, and the earth has
so consumed them, that their very bones have dis
appeared. The revered name of Nouchirewan
lives still, though many ages have passed since the
death of that worthy prince. Whoever thou art,
oh, mortal, do good, and make thy life useful,
before the terrible cry shall be heard, he no longer
exists !' "
3rd. " A young prince naturally deformed,
had, it is said, brothers who were both handsome
and well shaped. One day, the king threw
looks full of hatred and contempt on the former;
the young, prince was distressed at it, and said,
' Oh, my father, a wise man of small stature is pre
ferable to an ignorant personthough well made.
Know you not what a very lean and learned man
said one day to a fellow whose fatness and stupi
dity were co-equal : an Arabian horse even when
foundered, is worth more than a stable full of
asses !' His father smiled, the nobles applauded
him, and his brothers became envious.*  So
long as a man has not spoken, his faults and good
qualities remain concealed. Think not that the
cavern is empty, perhaps a tyger sleeps there. —
Towards that time, a formidable enemy declared
war against the king ; when the two armies met,
the deformed prince was the first to engage in

* The passages marked thus  are in verse in the ori
ginal.

GULISTAN.

action, and shout the cry of war, 'thou shalt never
see my back on the day of battle ; but thou shalt
see my head in the midst of carnage. He who
fears not danger, plays with his own blood during
the combat ; he who takes a flight, on the con
trary, plays with the blood of the army.'' Say
ing these words, he rushed on the enemy, and
overthrew many warriors. When he returned to
his father, he humbly kissed the ground, and said,
' Oh thou, to whom I have appeared despicable,
think not that strength is a virtue ; a lean horse
on the field of battle performs his duty better than
an overgrown ox.' It is related that the king's
troops were on the point of flying before an
enemy far superior to them in number, when this
young prince re-animated their courage by these
words : ' Warriors ! beware of deserving to be
clothed in female habits !' This expression ani
mated the soldiers with their original valour, they
charged simultaneously, and it is asserted that
they gained the victory. The king affectionately
kissed his son on the forehead and eyes, placed
him by his side, and loaded him with so many
favours, that his brothers, inflamed with jealousy,
resolved to poison him. His sister, who discovered
it, warned him by tapping several times at his
window, the prince understood her, and would
not taste of the dishes which were served to him :
' it is not fit,' he said, ' that the virtuous man should
perish, and the wicked take his place : no one
would put himself under the protection of the

GULISTAN. 271
owl, if the phoenix were to disappear from the sur
face of the earth.' His father was informed of this
affair, summoned his sons to his presence, repri
manded them severely, and exiled them by assign
ing to each a retirement, until they should change
their sentiments, and that their jealousy was ex
tinguished. It is said that two dervishes can sleep
together on the same carpet, but that two kings
cannot remain in the same nation. The religious
man reserves the half of his loaf for the poor,
whereas a king, when he has conquered a pro
vince, wishes still to overrun another."
4th. " A horde of Arabian robbers desolated a
district ; they had intercepted the road of the
caravans, beaten the armies of the prince, and
intrenched themselves on the summit of a
mountain, which was made their retreat and
asylum. The ministers of the kingdom assembled
to consult on the means of stopping their ravages,
supposing that if they should delay that measure,
it would soon be impossible to resist those depre
dators. One man alone may easily pluck up the
tree which has been recently planted ; but if it has
been left to take root, the force of a camel will
no longer suffice. With a mere shovel a foun
tain may be stopped at its source ; but, when it is
become a river, an elephant can no longer pass
it. It was determined that emissaries should be
sent to watch the moment when the rebels would
leave their cavern, to ravage the country : several
able generals were at the same time placed in the

272 GULISTAN.
passes of the mountain. One night when the
robbers returned from an expedition after burn
ing a village, they laid by their arms, as usual,
and deposited their booty. Their first enemy
was sleep. Already had the sun replaced the
shades of night, and Jonas re-entered the
belly of the whale, when the brave warriors
quitted their ambush, and tied the miscreants'
hands behind their backs. On the following
morning they were conducted to the presence of
the king, who ordered them to be put to death.
Amongst those villains was a young man scarcely
arrived at maturity, and whose cheeks were yet
only covered with a light down. One of the
vizirs prostrated himself before the king, and
said, ' this young man is without experience, his
youth has been the cause of his being misled : I
intreat your majesty to grant his pardon to your
slave.' The king turned his head at first, and
refused to accede to the prayer of this generous
intercession.  Whoever does not follow the ex
ample of honest men, is of a bad disposition, the
education given to the ill disposed, produces as
little effect as a walnut for a cupola ; it is necessary
to cut down the last scion of the wicked, and ex
tirpate the roots of their family. To extinguish a
fire and forget to quench the embers, to kill a
serpent and spare its young ones, is not the con
duct of a prudent man.  If a cloud could scatter
the rain of life, never would the branches of the
willow be eaten. Beware of associating with the

GULISTAN. 273
worthless, for thou canst never extract sugar
from a common reed. The vizir listened to these
words with respect and submission, and though
he was grieved to the soul, he could not avoid
approving of their wisdom. He, however, added,
4 that which has been said by the master of
the earth's surface (whose reign be eternal,)
would be the exaet truth, if this young man had
been born amongst the wicked, and that he had
been totally corrupted; but your slave hopes
that he will be improved in the eompany of
worthy people, and that his manners will be
softened, because he is still but a child; vice
and ferocity are not rooted in him. It is seen in
the Koran that all men come into the world with
a disposition to lslamism, and that they subse
quently do not become Jews, Christians or Gue
bres, but through the fault of their parents.' . . .
The courtiers supported the intreaties of the
vizir so warmly, that the king, at length, pardoned
the criminal, saying, ' I remit his punishment,
though I do not perceive any great advantage from
it.' Knowest thou that which Sal said to Rustem the
Curde ? ' Never suppose thine enemy feeble and
without resources ; I have often seen the water
of a fountain scanty at its source, but at a dis
tance it hath borne away a camel and its load.'
The youth was led away, placed in the care of a
learned tutor employed to educate him, to in
struct him in eloquence, and in the art of serving
kings, and to render him, at some future period,
T

274 GULISTAN.
worthy of his equal. One day the vizir had
occasion to speak of his favourite to the king ; he
praised his good qualities and sense ; asserted that
his education had made him quite a different man,
that his manners were entirely changed, and that
he no longer retained any vestige of his former
vices. The king smiled and said : ' The son of
the wolf will end by becoming a wolf, even
though he should be some day powerful amongst
men.' A year or two passed. The young man
ran away to join a gang of robbers, and so iden
tified himself with them, that, at length, he mur
dered the vizir and his two children. In a mo
ment he forgot all that he owed to his generous
benefactor, rebelled and took the post which his
father held amongst the robbers. The king taking
the finger of astonishment between his teeth,
exclaimed, ' How can a good sword be made of
bad steel ? The wicked can never become good
by education. Oh, sages! rain, the advantages
of which are denied by none, gives equal nourish
ment to the tulip in a garden, and the brambles of
the marshes ! — Hyacinths are not produced in a
quagmire. Do not lose the fruits of thy toil.
It is as criminal to do good to the wicked, as to
injure worthy persons.'
5th. I saw the son of a serhenk* at the gate
of the palace of Elhamil. This young man had
great talents and penetration ; it could be seen in
* Serhenk, is an officer attached to the service of kings.

GULISTAN. 275
his countenance that he would some day or other
arrive at greatness. ... At length the beauty of
his face, and his wit attracted the notice of the
Sultan. The wise have said, that true riches consist
in virtue, and not in other wealth, and that
wisdom is the fruit of the mind and not of years.
His equals were jealous of him, accused him of
treason, and in vain endeavoured to ruin him.
How is it possible to destroy an enemy when his
sovereign is his friend ? ' What is then the cause
of their enmity towards thee ?' the king asked
him one day. ' With the protection of your
majesty,' he replied, ' I have satisfied all my
equals, excepting the envious persons who will not
be contented until you shall have withdrawn your
favour from me. It is not in my power to afflict
any one ; but what can I do for the jealous man
who invents misfortunes for himself? Perish,
envious wretch ; death alone can free thee from
thy torments. The discontented man earnestly
solicits place, and demands the degradation of
the great as if a benefit to himself. If the bat
sees not in open day, is it the fault of the sun ?
Oh thou ! who art an advocate for virtue, thou
knowest that it were better a thousand similar
eyes should be deprived of sight, than that the
sun were obscured.'
6th. ' It is related that a king of Persia having
despoiledhis subjects of their property, and treated
them with violence and cruelty ; to avoid op
pression and tortures, the greater part emigrated
t 2

276 GULISTAN.
to foreign countries. When the country was
deserted, the produce of the earth failed, the
treasures of the king were exhausted, and the
enemy, delighted, conquered his states. Tell him
who asks assistance of thee when he is unfor
tunate, to be generous when he may be in pros
perity. If thou dost not treat thy slave well, he
will fly from thee ; do so much good, that the
freeman shall render himself thy slave. There
was read one day to the king of whom I have
spoken, the chapter of the Chah Name,* which
treats of the fall of Zabak, and of the reign of
Feridoun ."f-' One of the vizirs inquired, how
Feridoun, who had neither treasures, nor king
dom, nor courtiers, could have contrived to arrive
at supreme power ? The king replied, that the
people assembled around him, and assisted him to
ascend the throne. Since, then, he owed the throne
to the people, continued the vizir, why has your
majesty obliged your subjects to fly from your
dominions ? Apparently you do not desire to
preserve the crown. He alone is worthy, who
provides well for the subsistence of his people, for
the sovereign is chief of his army. What are
then the means of assembling the soldiery ? the

* The Chah Name of Ferdousi is the most voluminous poem
that exists. It is a history of Persia full of fables, and embel
lished with all that an oriental imagination can invent of what is
marvellous. t Feridoun, the son of Djemchid, was placed on the throne by
the people, after the fall of tjje usurper Zabak, or Dehbahkt.

GULISTAN. 277
king inquired. ' A king,' replied the vizir, 'ought
to be generous and clement, if he desires that a
solicitude to serve and defend him be displayed ;
and those virtues, sire, are unknown to you.
Injustice can no more sustain a king, than the
wolf can become a shepherd. An unjust prince
saps the foundations of his own throne/ The king
was displeased with the advice of the vizir, and,
in a rage, sent him to prison. This vizir had a
son, who took arms immediately; the nation,
wearied by tyranny, joined the youth, and offered
to support him. The king was then obliged to
descend from the throne, and the son of the vizir
took his place. A violent and unjust king will
be abandoned by his subjects, and, sooner or later,
lose his power. Render thy people happy, and
thou shalt enjoy repose, even during war, because
the people are the real army of a just king.
7th. A king happened to be in a ship with a
slave, who saw the sea for the first time. This
unfortunate man, who did not consider himself in
safety,wept, groaned, and trembled in all his limbs;
the very efforts made to tranquillize him, were un
availing : the king, at length, lost patience. A sage,
who had embarked in the same vessel, said to the
prince, ' if your majesty should order me, I can rea
dily find means to silence this fellow. ' You will
render me a great service,' the king replied. The
sage caused the slave to be immediately thrown into
the sea, let him swallow a certain quantity of water,
had him afterwards drawn put by the hair, and

278- GULISTAN.
brought on board the ship. The slave seated
himself in a corner, and said no more. The expe
dient of the philosopher pleased the king, who
could notr however, avoid inquiring of him, what
there was so wise in his conduct. The following
was his reply; 'this unhappy man was not in a
state to appreciate the advantages of a ship, because
he had never fallen into the sea. Now that he
has learned it, he will be tranquil and contented ! —
Oh thou who art satiated, thou despisest a barley
loaf; that which is disdained by thee, is the object
of all my wishes. The azaff* would be hell for
the houries of paradise ; but interrogate the
damned, and they will tell you that the azaff is
paradise. 8th. It was asked of Hormouz "f what crimes
the vizirs of his father had committed, that he had
thrown them into chains : ' I know not of any
particular crime,' he replied ; ' but I have perceived
that they were little inclined to respect me, and
that they had no confidence in my youth. I feared
they might have conspired against my life, and I
have followed this philosophical counsel. Oh
sage! fear him who fears thee, otherwise he will
destroy thee in the combat. See the cat, when
he has no longer any hope of escape, he tears out
* The azaff is, according to the Mahometans, a wall which
separates paradise from hell.
t Hormouz IV. or Hormizdas, son of Khousrew Nouchireran
(Kosroes the Great,), a prince as vicious and cruel, as his father
had been great and virtuous.

GULISTAN. 279
the tiger's eyes with his talons ; so also the serpent
coils around the shepherd's feet, fearing lest he
should crush his head with a stone.
9th. A king was old and sick. An express
arrived announcing, that, with God's help, his
army had taken a fortress, and made a great
number of prisoners. ' This is not good news for
me,' he replied. ' For whom then is it V the mes
senger inquired. ' For my enemies, that is to say,
for my heirs. Alas ! I have passed my whole
life in the hope that all my desires would be
accomplished ; my wishes are realized, but what
benefit have I obtained from them, since I cannot
hope to regain my past time ! The hand of death
has struck the signal of departure on his drum :
oh, my two eyes, take leave of my head ! oh, palms
of my hands! oh my shoulders! oh my arms!
say all of you farewell to each other. The enemy
of happiness, death, is fallen on me. Oh my
friends ! ye will all make this passage ! I have
spent my days in ignorance, and I have not been
conscious of it. Think well of this !'
10th. I was in a meditation near the tomb
of Jahia, in the mosque of Damascus, when an
Arab king, notorious for his injustice, came to
the temple, and began to pray and request many
favours. — The poor and the rich are slaves in this
world, and the rich are those who have most
wants — ' Since it is the duty of dervishes,' said
he, 'join thy prayers to mine, that I may be
freed from a formidable enemy.'— It is a crime

280 GULISTAN,
for a powerful and strong man to oppress the
weak. Let him fear those who pardon not the
fallen, because if in his turn he should fall, no one
will assist him.-  He is wrong who has sown the
kernel of malice, and who expects from it good
fruit. Open thine ears to the people who demand
justice of thee; for if thou refusest it to them,
the day of retribution will arrive !
11th. There appeared in Bagdad a dervish
whose prayers were always fulfilled ; Yousouf
Hadjadj ordered him to be brought to him and
said ; ' Address a prayer to heaven for my pros
perity.' ' Oh Lord, receive his soul !' the der
vish immediately said. ' In the name of God, what
prayer is that?' exclaimed Yousouf. ' I have made
it for thy good, and for that of all Mussulmen,' the
devotee replied, — ' Oh, thou who in an elevated
rank makest thine inferior suffer, how far wilt thou
thus proceed ? What benefit is it to thee to tor
ment men's minds ? Thy death is far preferable to
the calamities of mankind.'
12th. A king well known for his injustice,
inquired of a dervish what was the best prayer
that he could offer up to heaven : this was
the answer he received from him ; ' Pray to the
Lord to grant thee sleep during one half of the
day, because that then thou canst not torment
thy people.  1 have seen a villain sleep the half
of the day, and I said, this man is the scourge of
the people ; therefore it is better that he should
sleep.'

GULISTAN. 281
13th. A king who had passed the night in
debauchery, amused himself in reciting these
verses : — ' In all my life I have never had a
happier moment ; I had then neither cares nor
vexations.' A dervish*, destitute of clothing,
happened by chance to be lying under the win
dow of his apartment ; he heard him, and ex
claimed : — ' Oh thou whose happiness exceeds that
of all mortals, thou hast no cares, I agree, but
have we not some?' The king wished to give him
a thousand pieces of gold, and called to him from
the window, to hold out his habit and receive
them. ' How shall I hold out my skirt, when I
have no clothes ?' the poor man replied. The
king then added a pelisse to this sum. The der
vish soon spent that money, and returned to the
same place. — Wealth cannot long remain in the
possession of a pious man, no more than patience
in the hearts of lovers, or water in a sieve. — The
king, who thought no more of him, was very
angry at seeing him again. It is said, that wise
and prudent men usually beware of the violence
and rage of kings, because the latter being
generally occupied in important affairs of state,
cannot bear with the importunity of ordinary
persons. Never will he obtain favours of a
sovereign, who knows not how to seize a pro
per opportunity. When thou seest one moment
unfavourable for thy request, do not expose

' Dervish or Dervisr, literally signifies a beggar.

282 GULISTAN.
thyself uselessly to an affront.  ' What,' said the
king, ' has this wretch been able, in such a short
time, to spend so large a sum ?' ' Who does
not know,' the dervish replied, ' that the public
treasure is the lot of the poor, and not the prey
of the agents of hell ?' — —He who lights his
lamp during the day, will lack oil for the night.
 One of the vizirs, a sensible man, said to
the prince, ' my lord, it appears to me that it
would be more advantageous to give the means of
existence in small portions to persons of this class,
in order that they may not lavish money in
useless expenses : the order which your majesty has
given to drive away this wretch, is unworthy of a
king who ought to be the father of his people,
and it is equally inconsistent with your dignity to
deprive him now of all hope, whom at first you
had. led to expect a large fortune.  Thou wilt
never perceive pilgrims assembled around a well
of brackish water : wherever a spring of sweet
water is to be found, thou shalt see, on the
contrary, men, birds and ants eagerly gathered
about it.'
14th. It is related that a king who studied
the happiness of his subjects, yet treated his
soldiers with severity which bordered on cruelty.
A powerful enemy having attacked his dominions,
he was abandoned by the latter.  If soldiers
be stinted in their pay, they will refuse to fight.
 One of those who had deserted the king's
army, and who was my friend, replied thus to the

GULISTAN. 283
reproaches I made him, for having betrayed his
ancient master : ' Put yourself in my place, what
will become of me when my horse is without
food, and my saddle pledged ? The prince who is
avaricious in his treatment of soldiers, will never
induce them to expose their lives in his service. 
Be generous to the soldier, if thou desirest that
he should risk his head for thee.'
15th. A vizir having been deposed, turned
dervish, and habituated himself so much to a
religious life, that he at length became quite
reconciled to it. A short time afterwards the
king changed his opinion of him, and offered
him a new place, which he refused. ' I have ex
perienced in my own case,' he replied, ' that
obscurity is preferable to greatness. He who
will be content with a happy tranquillity,
has nothing to fear from the dog's tooth, nor
from the tongue of man ; he has torn the paper
and crushed the pen of criticism, and he no
longer fears the censure of his species.'
16th. Some one asked thekarakal,* why he had
chosen to keep company with the lion. ' In order,'
replied the latter, ' to feed on the remains of his
prey, and to live under his protection safe from the
attacks of my enemies.' ' Why,' it was added,

• Karakal kara koulak, or sea kouch, in Persian, is a kind of
lynx or jackal, which always follows the lion's track, and lives,
it is said, on the remains of his meals. This animal is very
common in Persia ; it is the lynx of the aneient*.

284 GULISTAN.
since thou hast placed thyself under his protec
tion, and that thou boastest so greatly of his
generosity, dost thou not approach nearer to him ?
thou couldst then make thyself distinguished in
the crowd of his courtiers, and be remarked as
one of his most faithful slaves ?' ' By acting thus,'
he replied, ' I should no longer be safe against his
anger.' — —If the Guebre were to preserve the fire
even for a hundred years, he yet would burn
himself if he were to fall into it for a single
moment. It is said with reason that courtiers
amass wealth to-day, and to-morrow they lose
their lives. Remember this advice of the wise.
Beware of the caprice of kings, because
they may perhaps take offence from a mark of
respect, and clothe thee with dresses of honour
for a want of attention. If flattery be a virtue,
in a courtier, it is a crime in a sage. Take every
care to preserve thy reputation and credit, and leave
flattery and meanness to those who surround
kings. 17th. One of my friends complained to me
of the hardness of the times : ' I have scarcely
wherewithal to live,' said he, ' and I have a nume
rous family to support. Oppressed with misfor
tunes, I have often had the idea of going into other
countries, in order to live there unknown, and
that no one should be acquainted with my face.'
— Many persons have gone to sleep fasting, with
out its being known to any one. Others have died
of starvation, and not a tear shed for them. — I have

GULISTAN. 285
since reflected on the joy that my enemies would
experience at seeing me depart ; I have thought
that in my absence they would loudly blame my
conduct, that they would call my anxieties for
my family inhumanity, and would say, see that
barbarous man, he is not worthy of happiness, he
thinks of nothing but his own ease, and he aban
dons his wife and children. I have some know
ledge of arithmetic ; if, through your influence,
you could obtain for me a petty employment, I
should be the happiest of mankind, and you
would inspire me with eternal gratitude.' ' Oh, my
brother !' I replied, 'the elevated station of a king
has two sides, hope and fear. The hope of life
and the fear of death ; it would be madness to
fall from hope into fear.*  No one will enter
the poor man's cottage to demand of him the
taxes on his land or his garden. Endeavour to
bear with extortion and tyranny, or else leave
thy liver to be preyed on by ravens.'  'These
observations,' my friend replied, 'have no connec
tion with my situation, and are not an answer to
my request. I know as well as you that a pecu
lator trembles when he has to give on his accounts;
but integrity is pleasing to God, and I have
never seen any one lose himself in the paths of
virtue. According to the wise four kinds of
persons fear for others ; that is, the rebel, his

•A very fine and philosophical maxim, certainly; but which
would not meet with much success in our days.

28G GULISTAN.
sovereign ; the thief, his jailor ; the wicked, the
attorney general ; and a profligate, the censor.
But he who has never deviated from rectitude,
can he be afraid of rendering his accounts?
 Do not pique thyself on thy honours, if
thou wouldst not be annoyed by thy enemies in
adversity. Let thy heart be always pure, my
brother ! and thou needest not fear any one.
The laundress beats the linen which is to be
washed against the stone.' I replied to him with
the story of the fox, which, running away in full
speed, met some one who inquired what had hap
pened to him; 'it is desired,' he answered, 'to
employ the camels in hard labour.' ' Fool that
thou art,' it was said to him, what similitude is
there betwixt the camels and thee ? ' Hold your
tongue,' the fox added ; ' for if some envious
person were to say, with an intention of injuring
me, that I am a camel, I should be seized, and
who would trouble himself about my deliverance ?
who would claim me ?' Before the theriaca of
Yrac was introduced, a man bitten by a serpent
would have had time to die. ' As to thee, my
friend, thou hast really abilities, religion and
probity ; but calumniators are lying in wait, rivals
and envious persons are ever ready. In spite of
thy virtues, they will depict thee as an immoral
man, thou shalt be exposed to the anger of thy
king. Who will then dare to interest himself in
thy fate ? I advise thee, therefore, to remain in
mediocrity, and not to interfere in affairs of state.

GULISTAN. 287
 The sea, undoubtedly, presents innumerable
advantages ; but all the world will tell thee, that
true happiness is on the land.' My friend listened
to this discourse with a discontented air ; he
replied to me with much sourness : ' What wit !
what competency ! what knowledge and pene
tration ! It is only when in prison, say the wise,
that we know our friends ; at table, on the con
trary, enemies may be mistaken for friends.
There was reason to say, do not consider as thy
friend, he who, in thy prosperity, fatigues thee with
vain protestations of attachment and fraternity.
He alone merits that name, who runs to extend
his hand towards thee when thou art in misfor
tune.'  Seeing that he would not absolutely
change his intention, and that my ad vice seemed
to be dictated by hatred, I at length went to a
great nobleman with whom I kept up an old
intimacy ; I explained to him the circumstances
of the person for whom I interested myself, and
requested he would procure a small employment
for him, which he soon obtained. In a short
time he distinguished himself by his talents, and
merited the greatest praise. He succeeded by de
grees to other posts still more eminent and honor
able, and was so favored by fortune, that the
prince himself attached him to his person. Full
of joy at his success, I hastened to congratu
late him on it, and recited these verses to him.
 Never despair in adversity ; patience is bitter,

288 GULISTAN.
but its fruits are very sweet.  At that time,seve-
ral persons proposed that I should join them in a
pilgrimage to Mecca. On our return from the
journey, my friend came out to meet me, two
posts from the city. Every thing in his appear
ance announced wretchedness and misfortune,
and I expressed my astonishment to him. * That
which you predicted to me has happened,' he said.
' I created a crowd of envious persons, who
accused me of having betrayed the king, and he
has not even taken the pains to ascertain if I was
culpable, none of my old and most intimate friends
have dared to speak in my favour, I have been
abandoned by all the world.  When it pleaseth
God to overturn one of his creatures, all men
crush his head.— * — In short, I have suffered all
kinds of calamities ; I have been despoiled of my
patrimony, and it is only since I heard of your
happy arrival from your pilgrimage, that I
have been liberated from prison.' ' Thou wouldst
not follow my advice formerly,' I replied: 'I
warned thee that the service of kings, like the
sea, presents dangers and advantages, whence
either thou shalt derive treasures, or be swallowed
up by the waves.  Either the navigator returns
laden with gold, or the sea throws his carcase on
the shore.' — — I saw no necessity for further re
proaches to this poor man, it was useless to plunge
him into despair, and I limited myself to the re
cital of these two Verses to him.  Knowest

GULISTAN. 289
thou, Oh, mortal, that thou shalt be overwhelmed
with misfortunes, if thou closest thine ear against
the advice of thy fellow-creatures. If thou hast
not the strength to bear the pricking of a nee
dle, do not thrust thy finger into the scorpion's
nest. 18th. Several dervishes of my acquaintance,
whose exterior and conduct indicated piety, at
tracted the attention of a nobleman of distinction,
who conceived a very favorable opinion of them,
and granted them pensions. A short time
afterwards, it happened that one of those devo
tees committed a dishonorable action, the rich man
now lost the esteem which he had for the whole
party, and withdrew his favours from them. In
the hope of restoring to my friends the means of
existence, of which they had been deprived by
the fault of one member, I went to their former
patron, to intercede for them ; but his porter re
fused me admittance, and I consoled myself in
recollecting these words of the philosopher. 
The gate of the nobleman, the vizir and the
sultan, never opens to him who goes without
presents. When the dog and the porter attack
the stranger, one of them seizes his collar and the
other the skirt of his coat.  The servants of this
nobleman having learned who I was, introduced
me afterwards with great honours, and he him
self wished to treat me with much distinction ;
full of humility, I did but the more humble my-

290 GULISTAN.
self, in saying to him, when the Kahabi* became
the general house of prayer, people came from the
most distant countries to visit it ; thus it is that
you should listen to the prayers of my compa
nions, because I will not throw a stone against a
tree without fruit.
19th. The son of a king having inherited con
siderable treasures after the -death of his father,
employed them in liberal actions, and distributed
innumerable benefits to his subjects and to his
soldiers.  Aloe wood enclosed in a box, delights
not the smell : that amber may emit its perfume,
it must be thrown into the fire. Be generous with
thy riches, because, in order to reap, it is neces
sary to sow.  One of the counsellors of the
prince thought it his duty to caution him that his
predecessors had amassed that wealth with much
difficulty, and that they had always reserved it
for their own necessities. Beware, said he to
him, of being so prodigal, times may change,
your enemies may avail themselves of your em
barrassments, and you will then have nothing. 
If thou scatterest thy gold over all the world,
thou wilt not find even a grain of corn in time of
need.  The king was offended at this discourse,
and expelled his counsellor, saying : the Al
mighty in placing me at the head of this kingdom,
required that I should be generous ; he has given
* The Kahabe is the House of Abraham at Meoca.

GULISTAN. 291
me means of subsistence, and he does not intend
that I should be niggardly. Haroun had forty
treasures when he died, but Nouchirevan still
lives, because he left a venerated name.
20th. It is said that Nouchirevan when hunt
ing one day, ordered that a head of game should
be roasted ; as there was no salt, he sent one of
his slaves to seek it in a neighbouring village.
' Pay for that salt,' he said : ' I do not choose that
any one should acquire the habit of robbing the
poor, and that the peasants suffer by my presence.'
' This village will not be ruined by such a trifle,'
said several nobles. ' The commencement of op
pression is but trifling,' the king replied, ' but by
degrees, it at length ruins the world.  The
wicked dies, but the maledictions of the people
survive him. If the king should pluck an apple
in the garden of his subject, his slaves tear up the
tree. The prince who would take but five eggs,
would soon see his soldiers kill a thousand hens
with their swords !
21st. I have heard a story related of an unjust
vizir, who despoiled the subjects, to augment the
treasures of the prince, forgetting this wise maxim,
 Whosoever to please one only, fears not
offending God, shall soon be punished ; God will
send some one to cut the thread of his days. 
The lion is the king of animals, and the ass is the
most inferior ; and yet, the ass laden with his
pack, is worth more than the lion which tears
man in pieces.  The poor ass though lacking
v 2

292 GULISTAN.
sagacity, is valuable from the services it renders
to man. I should prefer an ox or ass laden, to a
bad ixian.*r  But, to return to the history of the
vizir. It is said that the king being instructed of
the oppressions of his minister, ordered him to be
punished, and commanded that he should undergo
a thousand tortures.  Think not to satisfy a
sovereign, if thou dost not render his subjects
happy. If thou wouldst be pardoned by God,
do good to God's people.-  A man who had
more particularly suffered by the cruelty of the
vizir, passed by chance before him, whilst he was
suffering his punishment ; he addressed him in
these words :  ' All who are powerful cannot
extort with impunity from others, by virtue of
their power. A bone may be thrust into the
throat, but when it enters the bowels, it tears
them.' 22d. A wicked man who had risen in life, threw
a stone at the head of a philosopher. The latter,
incapable of revenging himself, picked up the
stone and preserved it until it should be required.
It happened that a short time afterwards the king
withdrew his favour from the bad man, and con
fined him in prison. The philosopher then went
to seek him, and in his turn threw the stone at
him. ' Who art thou, and why dost thou commit
this injury on me ?" the other inquired. I am
such a one, he replied, and this stone is the same
which at such a period thou threwest at my head.
' Where hast thou been since that time ?' added the

GULISTAN. 293
bad man.  ' I feared thee much when thou wert
in place ; but the moment that I saw thee in
chains, I thought I ought to seize the opportu
nity to revenge myself.'  When a wicked man
is prosperous, it is wise to give way to him ; it
would then be dangerous to contest matters. Any
man who opposes merely his arm to a sword,
runs the risk of losing his arm. Wait patiently
to avenge thyself, until time shall enchain the
hand of the wicked, and then satisfy thy friends
and self by lowering his head.
The twenty -third story is given in a note to the
fifteenth letter.
24th. One of the slaves of Amrou Leis having
run away, he was pursued and brought back. A
vizir who detested him, ordered that he should be
put to death, that he might serve as an example
to others. The slave prostrated himself before
Amrou, saying : ' All that may be done to me, my
lord, will be conformable to justice, from the mo
ment that you command it. What can a slave
do ? His master has a right to dispose of his life.
Yet, as I have been maintained in your house, I
do not wish that at the day of judgment you
should be accused of having unjustly shed my
blood. Order me to kill your vizir, and then you
may cause me to be led to punishment, to suffer
a penalty of retaliation, but you will not have to
accuse yourself for an act of injustice.' The king
smiled and asked the vizir, what do you think
I ought to do? 'Sire,' the minister replied, ' I

294 GULISTAN.
think you ought to set this man at liberty, to
save me from a great misfortune, and because
he is innocent.' I perceive that I have not fol
lowed this counsel of the sage : it is presumptuous
to fight against cross-bowmen, when we know
not how to handle our arms. When thou hast
fired thine arrow against thine enemy, recollect
that thou art become the object of bis.
25th. King Zevzen had a treasurer of a dis
position equally noble and generous ; never did
he miss an opportunity of serving his equals in
his interest with the king, when they were pre
sent, and of speaking well of them in their
absence. This minister, by chance, committed an
action which displeased his sovereign ; his pro
perty was confiscated, and himself loaded with
chains. The officers who had charge of him,
and who were all attached to him by gratitude,
did not forget his former favours, and allowed
him every kind of indulgence, instead of treating
him with cruelty, as is the custom in prisons. If
thou wouldst live in peace with thine enemies,
do good in public to those who try to injure thee
in thy absence. Nothing impedes the tongue of
the slanderer ; to prevent him from harming thee,
it is necessary that thy kindness should deprive
him of the means. Not having been able to satisfy
the demands of the king, the treasurer re
mained long in prison. A foreign prince wrote to
him, that his sovereign not having appreciated the
great qualities of a nobleman like him, and having

GULISTAN. 295
treated him in such an unworthy manner, he
was very solicitous for his deliverance, and in
vited him to enter into his service ; that he should
have reason to be satisfied with it, be promoted
to the most distinguished stations, and that the
nobles of his kingdom already rejoiced in the
hope of seeing him arrive. This prince, at the
same time, requested him to send an answer.
On the receipt of this letter, the treasurer
reflected on the greatness of his danger, and
replied in a few words on the back of the same
letter. A courtier who was informed of it, went to
accuse him to the king, of holding a corres
pondence with his enemies. The king, irritated,
desired to ascertain the fact, ordered that the
courtier should be arrested, and read the letter.
The treasurer replied to the foreign prince, that
he had conceived an opinion of him far beyond
his merits, and that besides he ought not to
accept his offer, most honourable as it was,
because that having lived on the bounty of the
king his master, he could not, for a small pecu
niary gain, change his sentiments towards his an
cient benefactor.  Pardon him who has always
been generous to thee, if it should happen that
once in his life he had done thee an injury. 
The king, affected by such noble conduct, sent a
kaiahat (a dress of honour) to his treasurer, and
personally asked pardon for his severity. ' I am
guilty,' said he to him, ' of having punished an
innocent person.' 'Sire,' the treasurer replied,

296 GULISTAN.
' I perceive no injustice in the conduct of your
majesty; it was destined to be so. I had the
misfortune to displease you ; but I cannot com
plain of my punishment, as it proceeded from a
hand which had loaded me with favours.' The
wise have said : Do not afflict thyself for
the evil done to thee, for neither good nor
bad can come from the hand of man. Know
that God alone makes friends and enemies, be
cause it is God who is the only disposer^of hearts.
Since the arrow proceeds from the bow, the
prudent man should beware of bending it.
26th. A king of Arabia one day said to his
ministers : ' You will double the pensions of these
people, because they are the most faithful ser
vants of my throne, and the most assiduous in
accomplishing my wishes ; whilst my other slaves
are flatterers, who are occupied only in frivolities,
and who neglect their duties.' A devotee who
heard these expressions, uttered a deep groan.
' What is the matter with you ?' I asked him.
' All the slaves of God,' he replied, ' are equal at
the foot of his throne. Whoever has passed two
mornings in the king's service, will consent,
without hesitation, to remain in it a third. The
sincere worshippers of God, have hopes of going
to heaven at some period, into the presence of
the Lord. True greatness consists in submission
to his orders. Refusing to obey him will alone
be a cause of reproach.'
27th. It is related that an unjust prince had

GULISTAN. 297
bought wood of the poor, to sell to the rich at
an exorbitant price. A pious man approaching
him, said : ' Art thou a scorpion, that thou
woundest these who go near thee, or yet, art
thou an owl to ruin all places where thou stoppest?
We are obliged to bear thy injustice, but know
that nothing escapeth God. Do not oppress man
kind, if thou wouldst not that they raise their com
plaints to heaven. The wicked man was offended
at this language, and could not conceal his displea
sure. A short time afterwards, his kitchens were
on fire, which soon communicated to his store
house for wood, and consumed all his property ;
when instead of a bed, nought remained to him
but a heap of ashes. The same religious man
happening to pass by, heard him exclaiming
before his courtiers : ' I know not how this fire
could have happened in my palace.' ' It was,' the
dervish replied, ' a chastisement for thy cruelty to
the poor.' Beware of oppressing the unfortunate,
because that an afflicted heart will, sooner or la
ter, find the means of revenge. Do not irritate
a wounded mind, because a single complaint may
totally overwhelm the world . Kosroes caused
these words to be written on his throne. ' Of what
use is a long life ? what need have I of length of
years, since one man may crush my head on the
earth? Since wealth has passed through various
hands before it came into my possession, so it
may be transferred through other bands.'
28th. A wrestler had brought his art to such a

298 GULISTAN.
degree of perfection, that he knew three hundred
and sixty different means of attacking his adver
saries, and of which he employed a new one
every day to overcome them. He had a particu
lar esteem for one of his pupils, and taught him
three hundred and fifty-nine of those feats,
abstaining, for private motives, from instruct
ing him in the last. The young man soon be
came so expert in wrestling, that none dared
to oppose him, and he had the boldness to say
one day before the king, that his master had no
longer any superiority over him, than that of age
and experience, but that he wyas inferior to no
one in strength. The king, incensed at this lan
guage, required that they should oppose each
other, and therefore ordered vast lists to be pre
pared, to which all the principal personages of the
kingdom repaired. The pupil, like a furious
elephant, darted into the area with such im
petuosity, that he would have overturned a moun
tain of steel, if it had been in his way. As to his
master, as he knew him to be stronger than him
self, he made use, for throwing him, of the only
trick which he had deemed proper to reserve for
himself. The young man seized, without being
able to disengage himself, was agitated, and the
master, then raising him in his arms, threw
him over his head to a great distance. A shout
was raised, at the same instant, by all the assembly.
The king granted a pelisse of honour to the mas
ter, and dismissed the pupil in disgrace, after

GULISTAN. 299
bitterly reproaching him for having dared to com
bat against a man to whom he owed his education,
and for having failed in his rash enterprise. ' My
lord,' the young man replied, ' it is not by his
strength that my master has gained the present
victory, but merely by this trick, which he had
always refused to teach me.' ' I reserved it for a
day like this,' the master exclaimed ; ' because,
the wise have said, give not too much power to
thy friend, because, if he should at any time
become thine enemy, he may resist thee effec
tually. Knowest thou that which an ungrateful
pupil said once to his master : either gratitude no
longer exists in this world, or else it is no longer
practised. I have never taught the art of shoot
ing arrows, that I might not, at any subsequent
period, serve as a target to him.'
29th. A dervish was alone, on his knees, in a
solitary place ; the king happened to pass, and the
devotee, whose ideas of happiness consisted in
poverty alone, never raised his head, and did
not even take notice of the prince. As pride is
generally the inheritance of the great, the king
was offended, and said, ' Really these dervishes are
brutes : they have no ideas of duty and decorum.'
' Dervish,' said avizirto him, 'the kingof the earth
is passing before thee, why hast thou not paid
thy respects to him, and neglected those atten
tions which are due to him in such a case ?
' Tell the king,' the religious man replied, ' that he
may require obsequiousness from those who

300 GULISTAN.
expect benefits from him, and let him know
besides, that kings are created for relieving the
people, and not the people for rendering homage
to kings !  The king is the guardian of the
poor, and his beneficence alone can give lustre to
his power. Sheep are not made for the shep
herd, but the shepherd is made for serving them.
That man whom thou seest to-day proud of
his strength and prosperity, thou may est see
to-morrow plunged in misery. Wait a moment
until his head, full of vanity, be reduced to
dust ; there will be no longer any difference
between the king and the slave, w7hen their
course is run. Examine the ashes of a dead
man, canst thou distinguish the poor from the
rich ? ' — —This discourse pleased the king. ' What
can I do for thee ?' said he to the dervish. 
' I require nothing more than to leave me unno
ticed.'  ' Give me then, at least, some advice.'
 ' Know then,' said the dervish, ' that though
now possessing all the riches in the world,
power and wealth cannot ahvays remain in thy
possession.' 30th. A vizir went one day to request advice
from Zeno the Egyptian. ' I am,' said he, ' occupied
night and day in the king's service, and if I
expect favours from my master, I also fear his
anger.' Zeno wept, and replied to him ; ' if I had
feared God as much as thou dreadest thy king, I
should be the greatest of saints.  If the hope
of good and the fear of harm did not exist, the

GULISTAN. 301
prince would have one foot in heaven : and if
vizirs were to fear God more than the king, kings
would be angels.'
31st. A king having ordered an innocent person
to be put to death, the latter addressed these words
to him. ' Prince, beware that thy anger against
me do not bring thee remorse ! my punishment
will last but a moment, but repentance for thy
injustice will perpetually pursue thee.  The
vicissitudes of life pass like the wind of the desert ;
pleasures and vexations, humiliations and honours
have a termination.  Beit known to the villain
whose victim I am, that the injury he has done
to me, will always lie heavy upon him, whilst it
merely passeth over me. The king, satisfied with
these counsels, granted his pardon.
32d. The vizirs of Nouchirevan discussed
amongst themselves some affairs of state ; each
was of a different opinion, and the king himself
at length declared his own. Buzurdj Mihr was
the only one who approved of it. ' What then have
you found in the king's opinion so superior to
those of so many sages?' said the other ministers to
the king in private  ' Nothing,' he replied ;
' but I prefer adhering to that of the king, even
though evil should result from it ; by coinciding
with him, I shall at least be secured from his
reproaches. ' He who does not think with the sove
reign, washes his hands in his own blood. If the
king should say in broad day that it is night, it

302 GULISTAN.
is necessary to exclaim immediately, behold the
moon and stars /'
33d. An adventurer had trimmed his horses,
so as to make himself pass for a descendant of
Ali.* I have arrived,' he said, ' from the pilgrim
age to Mecca.' He presented to the king a copy
of verses, of which he said he was the author.
A courtier who had returned from a sea voyage,
said ; ' I saw this man at Bassora, during the
Courban Bairam :~f how could he have been one
of the caravan to Mecca?' ' I have known his
father, who was a christian,' said another ; ' how
can he be of the family of Ali ?' At length, the
verses, said by him to be his own composition,
were found in the Divani Envar. ' What hath
induced thee to utter such lies?' the king inter
rupted. ' Let him die, my lord,' replied the
impostor : * your slave must submit to all that you
command, even though your orders should be un
just.' 'What dost thou mean?' the king rejoined.
' I know not,' he added, ' if your majesty be
acquainted with verses :  When a stranger
brings thee sour milk, be assured that it contains

* It seems, according to this story, that the descendants of Ali
had a peculiar manner of dressing their horses, in order to make
themselves known.
t The Courban Bairam is the period when the pilgrims arrive
at Mecca. The march of the caravan is calculated in such a
manner as that they may make their entry into the holy city on
the eve of that great festival.

GULISTAN. 303
two parts of water for one of milk ; in the same
manne , if some inconsiderate words have been
uttered by thy slave, be not offended with him ; the
traveller is liable to lie'.*  The king smiling,
said, ' thou hast never told a greater truth.' He
then granted what he had requested, and pardoned
him. 34th. It is related that a vizir who had been
very kind to his friends, and who had been the
mediator in all their differences, happened sud
denly to lose the king's favour. His equals
then used every means to obtain his liberation,
and the officers who had charge of him, in
his prison, far from subjecting him to any ill
treatment, behaved with the utmost kindness and
attention to him. The nobility of the kingdom,
by dint of reminding the king of his former
services, at length obtained his pardon. A
dervish, who was informed of it, said on this
subject ;  ' to assure thyself of the hearts of
thy friends, sell thy patrimony. To feed respec
table persons, burn the furniture of thy house.
Do good to the wicked. It is necessary to
stop the dog's mouth with a piece of bread.'
35th. One of the sons of Haroun El Raschid pre
sented himself in a rage before that prince, saying
that the son of a serhenk had insulted his mother.

• This phrase corresponds perfectly with our proverb, which
is not, it is to be hoped, always justly applied; " He who comes
from a distance, may lie at his leisure."

304 GULISTAN.
' How ought I to punish him V Haroun inquired
of the nobles of state. One said he merited death ;
another, that his tongue should be cut out : a
third, that his property should be confiscated ; a
fourth, that he ought to be banished. ' It would
be more generous,' said Haroun to his son, ' to
pardon him : however, if you find that impossible,
go and say abusive things to his mother ; but
take good care that you do not exceed the bounds
I prescribe to the revenge ; because in such case
the injustice would be on your part, and the
right on the side of your enemy.  A malicious
person once uttered abuse against a worthy
man, who heard it without emotion, and merely
said ; oh most respectable friend, I am worse than
thou canst ever express, because I know all
my failings, and that thou dost know them. He
is not a man who would combat against a vigo.
rous elephant; he alone is worthy of that name,
who, feeling his anger rise, abstains from abusive
language. 36th. One day I found myself embarked in a
ship with several great noblemen, a boat hap
pened to upset behind us, and two brothers were
swallowed up in a whirlpool. One of the noble
men said to a sailor, ' if thou savest both, I will
give thee fifty pence.' The boatman saved only
one, the other was drowned. ' It seems,' said I to
him, ' that his destiny was to die, since thou didst
not give thyself the trouble to draw him out, and
that thou hast given a preference to the other.

GULISTAN. 305
The boatman laughed, and thus replied to me :
What you say is true in one respect, but you
have not comprehended the motive of my con
duct. What was it then ? I asked him. I pre
ferred saving this one, he replied, because when
I once lost my way in the desert, he took me on
his camel ; whereas, on the contrary, the other
often horsewhipped me in my childhood. 
Avoid as much as thou canst, offending any one,
because life is strewed with thorns. Compassio
nate the griefs of the unfortunate, for thou also
shalt have thy calamities.
37th. I was acquainted with two brothers, one
of them was employed in the king's service, the
other earned his bread with the sweat of his brow.
One day, the rich said to the poor brother, why
dost thou not enter into the king's service, and
free thyself from the hardships of labour ? The
poor man answered him ; why dost thou not
work, and free thyself from the shame of serving
the sovereign ?  The wise have said, to be seated
and eat the bread earned by ourselves, is better
than to wear a gilded girdle, and remain standing
to serve others. I would prefer to stir up quick
lime with my hands, than to attend with my arms
crossed in the presence of a king. The precious
time of life passes, by inquiring what shall I eat
this summer ? What shall I wear this winter ?
Oh, thou who art hungry, work to earn thy bread,
instead of bowing thy back like a slave,
x

306 GULISTAN.
38th. Some one went to inform Nouchirevan
the just, that God had delivered him from one of
his enemies. ' Knowest thou,' replied that prince,
' if the Almighty will permit me to live long my
self? — Are we then immortal, that we should
rejoice at the death of our enemies !'
39th. The ministers of Kosroes were one day
discussing state affairs near the throne ; the prin
cipal vizir Buzurhember alone was silent. ' Why,
my lord, do you not take part in our conferences?'
the others inquired. ' Vizirs,' he replied, ' re
semble physicians, the latter give medicines only
to the sick : it would not, therefore, be wise
in me to interfere in your conversation, while all
you say is just and reasonable. — When . I per
ceive that an affair does not require my advice,
why should I intrude ; but when I observe a
blind man on the brink of a well, I should be
criminal if I were not to warn him of it.'
40th. When the sovereignty of Egypt fell to
the lot of Haroun El Raschid, far from acting
like the impious wretch who, full of pride from
the possession of that fine province, aimed at
divine honours, he said, ' on the contrary, I would
give this kingdom only to the meanest of my
slaves.' Haroun had a negro named Khasib,
whom he made king of the country. The latter
had, it is said, so much wit and genius, that the
Egyptian labourers having gone to complain to
him, that by an unseasonable inundation they

GULISTAN. 307
had lost the crop of cotton which they had sown
on the banks of the Nile, he replied to them,
' Why did ye not sow wool ? so long as the lamb
grows, ye are sure of gathering it.' A religious
man of good sense, who was present, began to
laugh, observing : ' If the good things of this
world were to be adjudged to merit, the ignorant
would fare badly.  The ignorant are so happy,
that the wise are astonished at it.  Wealth and
power are given to the wise only through the
favour of heaven. It often happens in this world
that the ignorant is honoured, and the learned de
graded; the chymist dies in pain and vexation,
whilst the fool enriches himself on his ruin.'
41st. There was a Chinese girl brought to a
king one day, whom in his intoxication, he wanted
to violate. The maiden having resisted him,
the enraged monarch delivered her to an Ethio
pian negro, whose lower lip hung down to his
breast, whilst the upper extended beyond his nose.
The aspect of this man would have frightened the
deserts of China, and his pestiferous breath was
worse than a fountain of bitumen. You might
have said that at the day of the creation, ugliness
had been stamped on his face, as beauty was on
that of Joseph. Some historians have said of this
man, that he was such a horrible object, that his
ugliness could not be described, and that his
breath (God preserve us!) could only be compared
to the stench of a carrion exposed to the sun
x 2

308 (BULISTAN.
in the midst of summer.*  It is said that he
was not master of his passions, and the young
Chinese became his wife. Next morning, the king
having sought the girl, and not finding her, the
adventure of the preceding night was recounted
to him ; he was so much enraged at it, that he
ordered the hands and feet of the negro and the
young girl to be bound, and that they should be
thrown from the top of the palace into a deep pit.
A vizir, who was a compassionate man, prostrated
himself before his sovereign. ' The poor negro,'
said he, ' is not guilty ; all your slaves are accus
tomed to the generosity and favours of your ma
jesty.'  ' If he had waited but one night,' the
king replied, ' what trouble could it have been to
him ? I would then have given him much more
than the value of this girl.' ' Sire,' the vizir re
joined, 'the orders you give are executed imme
diately. Have you forgotten these words of the
sage : think not that a furious elephant can pre
vent a man with burning thirst from approaching
the fountain which may restore him to life ; nei
ther suppose that when placed before a table full
of provisions, the irreligious man thinks of the
ramazan."  This discourse satisfied the king.
' I pardon the negro,' said he, ' but what shall I

* I ask pardon of my more gentle readers, but these words are
the literal translation of this passage !

GULISTAN. 309
do with the girl ?' ' She should be given to this
slave,' said the vizir ; ' as he has already possessed
her, she is fit for him only.'  It is truly said,
that friendship should not induce thee to approve
of the faults of thy friend. He who is thirsty can
never resolve to drink water, when half of it has
been drunk by a filthy mouth. Shall the prince's
h-and pick up the orange which is fallen on a
dunghill! He who is desirous to drink, will refuse
it from a vessel which has been soiled by impure
lips. 42d. Some one asked Alexander -the Great,
' how did you contrive to seize on the nations of
the east and of the west, when that conquest was
always impossible to ancient kings, more potent
than you in treasures and armies?' This was his
answer : ' With the assistance of the Almighty,
I have never desolated the inhabitants of the
countries that I conquered ; I have never de
spoiled them of their property, and I have always
done honour to the name of kings.  The sage
desires not the elevation of him who degrades the
great.  The throne, fortune, power, liberality
and poverty, are nothing, since they pass away so
quickly. Do not suffer the names of those who
leave this earth to fall into oblivion ; when they
are dear to mankind, they should live for ever.
 -.It is better to leave a good reputation than a
gilded palace. 
I might quote a great number of other stories,

310 GULISTAN.
which would fully prove to you that with regard
to maxims, the orientals have been our first
masters, and that, in this respect, our best mo
ralists have borrowed and still frequently borrow
from them.
I shall now occupy myself entirely with pre
parations for my speedy departure ; and shall, no
doubt, have something to add to my former ob
servations on the countries through which I have
already passed ; I therefore intend to make a point
of communicating all that may be likely to inte-
i*estyou in the course of my journey.

DEPARTURE. 311

LETTER XXVII.
Departure from Teheran — Second Journey to Kasbinn — Interior of
a Harem — Return to Tauris — Stay at the Camp of the Chah Zade
Abbas Mirza — French Officers in the Service of the King of Persia —
New Troops disciplined in the French Manner — Audience of the
Prince — Presents, &c. Camp of Abbas Mirza, near Tauris, June 10, 1808.
I left Teheran on the 23d of last month,
accompanied by another person of the legation.
We had, according to custom, received a kalahat
from the king, and took leave of the Grand Vizir,
Mirza Muhammed Chefi; a mehmander of the
household of Feth Ali Chah is appointed to
attend us to the frontiers of Persia, and to avoid
the prying observation of the inquisitive, we
have assumed the Persian dress for the whole of
this journey.
During the first four days, we continually
met numerous troops of cavalry covered with
brilliant armour, who had assembled from all
quarters, to form the camp of Sultanie, where
the king was to be on the 15th of June. We
arrived at Kasbinn on the "27th of May, in the
morning. Mehrab Khan, the governor of i'iat
city, who had received the ambassador so well on
our former journey, thought he might use less

312 MEHRAB KHAN.
ceremony with two travellers of our description.
He received us at first very politely at his house,
then ordered his nazir or steward, to procure a
proper lodging for us in the city, and to supply all
our wants, meaning that it should be at our own
expense. We therefore followed the nazir, who,
after a long walk in the town, at length offered us
for our quarters, a little shop of the bazar which
happened to be vacant. We did not think proper
to accept his offer, and returned to the khan ; at
whose desire, we shewed the king's firman, with
which we were provided, explaining to him that
though we were not ambassadors, we were at
least the guests of his highness, and that it was
indecorous that in a large city, so happy as to
have such a governor, strangers should be exposed
to the curiosity of the populace in the midst of
the bazar.
The khan now promised to order his impertinent
nazir to be bastinadoed, and offered us a lodging
in his own house. We refused this, from a fear
of giving trouble, or of being ourselves incom
moded by the curious; he then caused us to be
conducted by the kalenter of the city, Mirza
Hassan, to a new house, where he exerted himself
to satisfy all our wishes, and induce us to forget
the trifling inconvenience we had suffered.
Here, for the first time, I have had the good
fortune to be able to contemplate a Persian lady
without interruption ; but this was only for the

A PERSIAN BEAUTY. 313
short space of a few minutes. From the ter
race of our house, there was a view of the in
terior of a harem, and we discovered a young
beauty there shining in all the charms of youth !
she was covered with diamonds, and wore a
blue Cachemire shawl on her head, the folds of
which falling gracefully on her shoulders, in
termixed with her beautiful hair. Only think of
the effects of Persian jealousy ; it was absent
but a moment ; for on the attendants perceiving
that our attention was constantly turned towards
the blessed spot, the consoling object was imme
diately withdrawn from our view.
Full of the pleasing ideas inspired by such a sight
we left Kasbinn the next morning. During the
whole of this day's journey and the following,
we met a great many Turcomans with their fami
lies and flocks ; they were going to pitch their
tents in the neighbourhood of Sultanie. These
wandering tribes may be considered the pur
veyors and victuallers of the royal camp; as they
sell their milk and other commodities there, re
serving for themselves merely what is necessary
for their own subsistence.
A nasaktchi of the chah zade Abbas Mirza,
who was going as a courier to Teheran, informed
us, near Sultanie, that the prince had already
left Tauris, and that we should find his camp
pitched at the gates of that city. We also met
a caravan of pilgrims proceeding to Mechhed

314 MIRZA BUZURK.
in Khorassan, to the tomb of the Iman Mehdi*,
for whom the Persians have a great veneration.
At length we arrived at Tauris, on the 6th of
June, after having rested at Zenghan, where
we were lodged in a harem, from which the
women had been sent. We passed successively
through Herman Khane, Akkend, Miana, Turk
mann and Tikme-tash, all which places I have
already described.
On the day of our arrival at Tauris, we were
presented in the afternoon to the grand vizir
Mirza Buzurk, for whom we had letters of re
commendation. This minister requested us to
delay our departure for some days, as he wished
us to take charge of several despatches. We
consented to it with the more pleasure, as we have
found some of countrymen here, and new objects
well worthy of attention. •
The French officers in the service of the Chah
Zade Abbas Mirza are two in number, M. Verdier,
captain of infantry, and M. Lamy, captain of engi-

* The Imam Mehdi is the twelfth and last Imam, or legitimate
successor of Mahomet, according to the Chias. The Persians
assert that he ascended to heaven, without having ceased to live,
and that he is destined to reign at some period over the whole world,
and to kill an And Muhammed, whose armies he will destroy
with the assistance of the prophet Jesus. The king Chah Abbas
the Great projected the directing of the devotees of Persians to
the tomb of this Imam, to hinder them from carrying their money
to Mecca, which is in the Turkish territory.

PERSIAN TROOPS. 315
neers. Three non-commissioned officers of infantry
of the line, assisted M. Verdier in his important
operations. One of my colleagues, M. Joinard,
resides at Tauris, in the capacity of interpreter of
the government.
The prince's camp is composed of about two
thousand five hundred men, regulated in the
European manner, and commanded by Persian
officers instructed and exercised in our manoeuvres
by M. Verdier. The soldiers, who are called
in Persian serbaz*, are armed with muskets manu
factured at Tauris on the model of ours, in a
most perfect degree of imitation. The uniform
of these new troops is a brown jacket, nearly of the
same cut as our military dress, with a row of
white metal buttons in front. The serbaz wear
pantaloons of blue linen, and half boots, but their
head-dress has not been altered ; this is a cap of
Astracan black sheep skin, common to the Persians
of all classes and stations. To give themselves
more of a military air, some ornament it with a
feather. A guard, composed of picked men, is
placed about the tent of the Chah Zade. In short,
the roll is beaten morning and evening, at regular
hours ; the guards are relieved every day, in the

* Serbaz literally means a man who stakes or risks his head.
This expression appears to be singularly well adapted to designate a
soldier.

316 ABBAS MIRZAf
morning, and the drums announce, as amongst m,
the retreat and various exercises.
From all this military parade, the order and
discipline which accompany it, one might suppose
himself transported into a French camp. It is to
M. Verdier, and the generous ideas of Prince
Abbas Mirza, that Feth Ali Chah will soon owe
an infantry, that will enable the Persian armies to
contend with advantage against their enemies ;
while it is to M. Lamy, who has formed a kind of
polytechnic school in the midst of the camp, that
he will owe his officers of engineers. It is also to
the gentlemen whom I have named, that he will
be indebted for his cannon and artillery-men.
If I obtrude these details on you, it is because
I know that nothing which relates to the glory
of our country, can be uninteresting: is there not
also something great in the reflection, that the
zeal and ability only of a few Frenchmen, have
sufficed to create in a short time, such extra
ordinary changes in a distant and almost barba
rous country ; that it owes to them already this
great step towards European civilization, that it
will, perhaps, at some future period, owe to them
the preservation of its independence, and that the
French name will henceforwards never be men
tioned there but with respect and gratitude ?
Abbas Mirza has incorporated about one hun
dred and fifty Russian deserters, with his own

AN AUDIENCE. 317
troops, and also a major of that nation. He re
quired that they should be subjected to the same
discipline, and adopt the French tactics ; like the
Persians, they are under the immediate orders of
M. Verdier. The artillery, which is but limited
as yet, is commanded by a Christian nobleman,
named Timurat Khan, of the family of the last
prince of Georgia.
Two days ago a party of troops left the camp,
to meet Ahmed Khan, Beylerbey of Tauris,
who returned from raising levies at Mouraga.
Yesterday myself and companion were admitted
to the presence of the Chah Zade. This prince
had sent me notice the previous evening, that
he had despatches to deliver to me. We were
introduced by the Mehmander Bachi, Feth Ali
Khan Rechti. Abbas Mirza was in his tent,
very plainly dressed, and seated in the European
fashion, on an arm chair of gilt wood. He re
ceived us, according to his usual custom, in a most
gracious and affable manner, repeated several times
that he had a peculiar partiality for the French,
and that he was desirous of committing a letter
for our government to my care. We retired,
much pleased with the condescension and kind
ness of the prince, and on returning to the tent of
our countrymen, we received new proofs of his
munificence : there being brought from him to
each of us, a beautiful Cachemire shawl, and a
tray laden with an excellent breakfast.

318 ASKER KHAN.
We expected to have departed this day, to
continue our journey, and had even sent forward
our baggage in the morning ; but it was necessary
to renounce that plan, because I have only
just received the letter of the Chah Zade ; it
is written on a fine paper, ornamented with gild
ing and rich vignettes, and enclosed in a bag
of gold brocade. Mirza Buzurk, ori delivering
it, also gave me three others, one for Asker Khan,
the Persian ambassador extraordinary at Paris,
the second for the resident of his nation at Con
stantinople, and the third for the French charge
d'affaires at the Ottoman Porte. Our departure
is therefore deferred until to-morrow morning,
and the delay has obtained for us another oppor
tunity of seeing Prince Abbas Mirza this after
noon. He was walking about for some time
near the camp, occupied in firing with a carabine
at the first mark that presented itself, and he
seldom failed to strike it. This expertness did
not surprise us in a prince, whose tastes and
studies are wholly directed to the military art.
If, when he ascends the throne, he limits himself
to resisting unjust aggressions on the part of his
neighbours ; with all the qualities he possesses,
Abbas Mirza cannot fail to be not only a good
monarch, but a great general.

DEPARTURE, 319

LETTER XXVIII.
Road from Tauris to Erzerum— Entry into Turkey— Siege of Baiazid
— Timur Bey — Stay in the Camp of the Curdes — Meeting of two
Caravan; — Conduct of a Persian named Souhan Kouli Khan — New
Excesses of the Curdes — Visit to Osman Pacha, the new Governor
of Erzerum, in the Village of Alidjeklek — Arrival at Erzerum, &c.
Erzerum, June 25th, 1808.
On the 11th of June, at four o'clock in the
morning, we left the camp of Prince Abbas Mirza;
on the next two days we returned through Che
bister and Tesouch, and previous to arriving at
Khoi, we again saw the lake of Mouraga, (Deriai
Chahi, or the royal sea), the fetid and bituminous
waters of which, owing to the heat of the season,
exhaled a more infectious and noisome odour than
on our first passage.
Khoi had just experienced another earthquake,
which caused great damage : a part of the city
had been thrown down, and the inhabitants had
scarcely recovered from the consternation created
by this disaster, so common in Persia. We
stopped on the 14th at Zorava, a place of mournful
recollections. This village was the place in which

320 THE CURDES.
M. Bernard met his death, amidst the dreadful
sufferings of the plague.
On the 15th, we met two numerous caravans,
one of which came from Bagdad, and the other
from Tauris, they were both" going to Erzerum.
The reason I mention them to you now is, that
they will soon make an important figure in the nar
rative of our journey. We heard at Kara Ini that
the Curdes held the city of Baiazid closely be
sieged. Some unfortunate Armenians, whom we
met the next day, confirmed this disagreeable in
telligence : their villages had been burnt by the
Curdes, and they were flying from the Ottoman
territories with their families, and the few effects
they could save from the rapacity of those robbers,
to seek an asylum in Persia. I consequently re
commended our mehmandar to make a circuit, and
avoid the roads to Baiazid ; you will soon see how
our intentions were fulfilled.
In the environs of the village of Kilisia Kendi,
otherwise called Havadjek, where we slept, the
same night, there was a considerable camp of
those very thieves. A Persian, named Bairam
Mirza Bey, was appointed to see that they
should not commit any depredations on the
Persian territory. That evening they struck
their tents, to go and fix themselves half a
league further, off.
On the 27th, we departed from Kilisea Kendi

DETENTION. 321
with an escort of twenty cavalry, quitted the
Persian territory at ten o'clock in the morning
to enter that of the Grand Signor. Soon after a
party of about thirty Curdes, that we had per
ceived on the left, at a short distance from the
road, sent some men to reconnoitre us. Our
escort assured us they had made us pass for
envoys of Prince Abbas Mirza, who were going
to Constantinople. Full of this idea, and of the
great confidence inspired by our mehmandar, we
thought ourselves sufficiently distant from the
Baiazid road, and beyond the reach of the Curdes
who besieged that city, when passing a defile
about five in the evening, we suddenly found
ourselves in the very midst of a camp of those
plunderers. I know not what could be the motive
of our mehmandar's conduct on this occasion, or
whether he was influenced by fear, but he deli
vered us into the hands of Timur Bey, the chief
of the Curdes. After having received his wages
and a silver watch, which I presented to him, on
the express condition that he should not depart
for Teheran until we were liberated by the rebels,
the wretch abandoned us to our fate during the
night after our arrival, in spite of all his protesta
tions of attachment. Thus were we left at the
mercy of the Curdes and their chief, whose repu
tation was not at all calculated to inspire con
fidence. Timur Bey is an old man of about sixty years
Y

322 TIMUR BEY.
of age : he besieges Baiazid on his own authority,
with the intention of dispossessing the present
governor, and replacing him by one of his ne
phews, a son of the former Pacha Mahmoud. His
army is about five thousand strong, composed of
Curdes ;* it is encamped opposite to Mount Ararat,
and he has two principal chiefs under his orders,
one of whom is called Abdul Aga, and the other
Hussein Aga. To save appearances, and give an
air of justice to this act of violence and rebellion,
he has drawn over three or four hundred Persians,
commanded by a man named Souhan Kouli Khan,
nephew of the governor of Erivan.
Timur Bey, who we already knew as inimical
to the French, received us in his tent, with a
coldness which, from the first moment, made us
fear we should be detained much longer than
agreeable, notwithstanding the fine promises of
our mehmandar. He, however, made us sit down,
offered us pipes and coffee, and a few minutes
after Souhan Kouli Khan, on whom all our hopes
were founded appeared. We reminded the latter
that we were returning from the court of the
king of Persia ; that we were attached to the

* The Curdes encamp in the open air, the chiefs alone having
tents ; the others dig a ditch of two or three feet deep, which
serves them for abed, and a Kaba, or coarse woollen cloak, is their
only cover when sleeping. Their lance is stuck into the ground
beside them, while their horses are attached to a slake.

SOUHAN KOULI KHAN. 323
French embassy ; and that we depended on him
alone to be restored to liberty, and obtain the
horses necessary for continuing our journey.
This application had the desired effect, for he not
only promised them for the following morning,
but conducted us to a tent which he had caused
to be prepared for our reception.
On the 18th, at day-break, I hastened to
remind him of his promise in the evening : he
continued for some time to repeat that the horses
were coming, but concluded, at length, by declar
ing, that it would be impossible to procure them,
and that we must wait until the next day. All
my in treaties were useless, and I could not obtain
satisfaction, except that he swore by his eyes to
give us the means of departing on the following
day. In the course of the morning we received
a visit from the two chiefs Abdul Aga and Hussein
Aga, and were very much incommoded during
the whole day by those of their Curdes, who
whilst recounting their warlike exploits, kept
their eyes fixed on our baggage in a manner by
no means agreeable. To give you an idea of their
bragging and ferocity, one of them boasted of
having killed ten Russians with his own hand in
th e course of a single day !
Returning to the tent of Souhan Kouli Khan,
on the 19th, I found him preparing to mount his
horse. He stated, with a triumphant air, that
they were going to attack a fortified village,
v 2

324 AN ATTACK.
situated at the foot of the rock on which the city
of Baiazid is built; and being desirous that we
should witness this brilliant enterprise, he intended
to detain us for that purpose, after which we
should depart.
We soon saw the Curdes leave the camp,
and proceed towards the village, which was
very distinctly seen from the place we were.
They returned two hours afterwards without
having derived any other fruits from their hec
toring, than cannon balls, which killed a number
of men and their horses.
Souhan Kouli Khan, and the other chiefs of
banditti, of whom I could no longer entertain a
doubt but that he formed one, then formally
declared, that it was not in their power to grant
us a single horse, because as each Curde had
only his own, they were obliged to keep them
for themselves, and to have them always saddled
and bridled, to obey the orders continually re
ceived from their chiefs. Upon this I offered
money, but new objections were started ; I pro
duced the firman of the king, which commands
all Persians to supply our wants, reminding
them that I was the bearer of a letter from the
Chah Zade Abbas Mirza ; and concluded by
threatening to complain of their conduct at
Teheran and Tauris. At length, after paying
a pretty large sum I obtained the liberty of
rejoining the two caravans of Bagdad and Tauris,

EXTORTION. 325
that we had met in the Persian territory, and
which had also been ransomed on their passage
by these freebooters.
We had already loaded our baggage early on
the 20th, when Souhan Kouli Khan sent to
request we would delay our departure for a few
hours, to wait for the chiefs of the two caravans,
who had some business to settle in the camp. This
demand being no more than what was reasonable
in appearance at least, we readily consented to it ;
but we soon found its sole object to be that of
making new claims on our purses. We therefore
mounted our horses, and ordered the muleteers
to proceed. The Khan sent hastily after us, to
represent the dangers to which we were going to
expose ourselves; and on his seeing that we were
determined, he wanted to retain us by violence. We
now forgot that we- were the weaker party, and
our patience, which had been put to such severe
trials during four days, was completely exhausted.
The khan was in consequence reproached with his
perfidy and falsehood, in such unqualified terms,
and we spoke of the Curdes, his friends and allies,
with so little regard, that we must have become
the victims of our rashness, had it not been for
the letter of Abbas Mirza, the mere sight of
which suddenly brought him to his senses. He
either felt or affected to feel his error, and wished
to atone for it by consigning us, without further
delay, to the care of the two chiefs of the cara-

326 RAPACITV.
vans, with whom we immediately departed. The
two latter, to whom we owed our liberation and
safety during that part of the journey which we
had to perform from Baiazid to Erzerum, told us
they were only enabled to obtain permission from
the Curdes to proceed, by paying them a forced
contribution of several loads of dates, coffee, habas
or Arabian cloaks, and five hundred piastres in
money, which they had been obliged to give, to
satisfy the rapacity of the khan. A short time
afterwards we arrived safely in a valley, two
leagues from Diadin, where we found the cara
vans encamped for the remainder of the night ;
the road was covered with numerous parties
of Curdes, who were carrying off stolen horses
and flocks of sheep. That evening we made our
agreement with the Bagdad caravan leader, to be
escorted as far as Deli Baba, where we expected
to engage post horses.
Our conductors, who had just formed an
arrangement with the Curdes, had taken an escort
from amongst the robbers themselves, in order
to be respected by those of their class whom they
might meet : this is an established custom in these
barbarous countries, though not always exactly
observed. On the following morning when we
were setting out, our new friends wanted to
extort money from the peaceable traders ; this
brought on a quarrel that was very near ending
in blows. Tt terminated, however, quietly, and

FRESH ALARMS. 327
though the six hundred loaded mules which
formed the two caravans, extending more than
a league in length, presented new temptations for
pillage to the Curdes, the formidable number of
muleteers, merchants and travellers, all well
armed, made them more circumspect. We had
only one alarm, which was in the environs of
Deli Baba. The rear of the caravan was attacked
on the 23d, at three o'clock in the morning, by
robbers who were placed in ambush ; but there
being very few of them, they were put to flight,
before those who led were informed of it.
The Curdish commandant of Toprak Kale
behaved much more politely. His son came at
the head of a troop of cavalry, to levy a contri
bution of thirty-three pares for each of our beasts
of burden, and the chiefs of the two caravans
thought they ought to acknowledge the modera
tion of this proceeding, by voluntarily presenting
him with several loads of coffee and dates, some
boots and habas of Bagdad.
We have again, and indeed during these three
days past, seen Mount Ararat and the Convent of
the Three Churches, where we had been received
with musket shot on our former journey. All the
plain, from Diadin as far as Toprak Kale, still
presented a picture of the utmost desolation. The
Curdes having just before burned one hundred and
eighteen hamlets and villages, which had been
inhabited by unfortunate Armenian Christians !

328 TURKISH POSTS.
On the 24th, several peasants whom we met,,
confirmed the news we had already heard, that
Yousouf Pacha no longer governed Erzerum :,
they informed us he had been replaced by his
Kiaya Bey, and that we should soon meet the
new Pacha, who was going to Kers, about some
affairs of his government. In the morning of the
same day, we parted from the Emin Aga, our
conductor, who had manifested innumerable cares
and attentions towards us throughout : we then
proceeded to secure post-horses at Deli Baba.
The posts in Turkey are not on the same foot
ing as in Europe. The menzils, or relays, are
placed at very unequal distances from each other,
and sometimes thirty leagues may be travelled
without seeing one. We had great difficulty
in procuring horses at Deli Baba ; the Pacha's
officers having put all those of the district in
requisition, and if we at last obtained them, we had
to thank the Tatar dress of an Armenian who I
had brought from Teheran as my servant. This
fellow in his borrowed costume, was greatly
respected by the masters of the Turkish posts, and
seemed at times to forget his natural cowardice ;
his large sabre and yellow kalpak* made the

* The Tatars, who are improperly termed Tartars, perform
the duties of couriers in Turkey. They wear as a distinctive mark
of their employment, a kalpak or cap of Astracan grey skin, the
top of which is rounded and covered with yellow cloth.

TATARS. 329
women and children fly ; and if I had taken his
advice, he would have been allowed to appropriate
the best horse to himself, in imitation of the real
Tatars who accompany travellers. He assured
me that by acting otherwise, I would betray his
disguise, and whenever I required the smallest
service from him, he trembled all over, lest he
should be detected.
At Alidjeklek, a village where we next arrived,
we learned that the Pacha was expected in an
hour at farthest. The Tatars in attendance,
after having addressed the post master, informed
us that they had orders to take horses wherever
they could find them, and in consequence of
this they seized on ours. My Armenian, who a
moment before, had urgently entreated me to
stop in this village, would have been happy to
sink a hundred feet into the earth when he saw
them alight at the door of our inn. Discon
certed at their unexpected apparition, the most
ridiculous pangs suddenly succeeded to his tone
of command, and in his fright, which was disco
verable in every feature, he found a thousand rea
sons for inducing us to proceed as fast as possible,
' forgetting that we had been just deprived of the
means. At length Osman Pacha arrived, when
we sent to request permission to pay our respects
and deliver a letter of recommendation that we
had for him ; this was granted without hesita-

330 OSMAN PACHA.
tion. We found him a very courteous old man,
and were received kindly ; he made us sit beside
him, ordered us to be served with pipes and
coffee, and commanded that horses should be
furnished to us immediately, to proceed to Hassan
Kale. He, at the same time, delivered to our
fictitious Tatar a letter for the musellim who
governed Erzerum in his absence, recommending
him to treat us with all the respect and attention
due to foreigners. We then departed, to the
great joy of my boaster, who began to resume all
his assurance. But he had not yet reached the
termination of his troubles. Our horses, already
fatigued with a long journey, were unable to
carry us far, and it was necessary to halt two
leagues from where we started. To mend matters
we were obliged to go without any supper in a
deserted village, from which the inhabitants,
seized with dread at the approach of the delis of
the Pacha, had all taken flight.
We have at length reached Erzerum, after
having rested yesterday at Hassan Kale, and
marched the whole of the night. During the two
last days we continually met Delis, Tatars and
Agas, who were going in great haste to join the
Pacha, and increase his train, already very nu
merous. I give you but few details of this road,
having fully informed you of them on my journey
into Persia.

CHANGE OF ROUTE. 331
To-morrow we shall depart, and change our
course. The excessive heats which prevail at this
season have determined us to take the road lead
ing to the Black Sea, we shall therefore go to
Trebizond. Before we can reach that city, we
shall have to pass through a mountainous country,
but as this will be new to us, the circumstance may
tend to make the journey appear less tedious.

332 TREBIZOND-

LETTER XXIX,
Road from Erzerum to Trebizond — Elidja — Kotchik — Baiboud — Che-
bin Khane — Jaila — Mountain of the Ten Thousand — Description
of Trebizond — Lazea — Roadstead of Platana, &c.
Trebizond, July T, 1808.
It is said to be more than sixty leagues from
Erzerum to Trebizond. We made our agree
ment in the first of these two cities with a Turkish
caravan leader, who engaged to conduct us here
in nine days ; and have been at Trebizond since
the day before yesterday. I depart to-night for
Sinope, and my travelling companion, who is not
desirous of again seeing the native country of
Diogenes, as he is already acquainted with it, will
wait here for an opportunity direct to Constan
tinople. Our first day's journey was six hours march.
On quitting Erzerum, we passed three leagues to
the left of Elidja, celebrated for its fountain of
hot water, and took a direction to the north-west.
Kotchik, a village of three hundred inhabitants,
Turks and Armenians, was our first station, on
the 27th ult. We there witnessed a very curious

NUPTIAL DANCE. 333
dance, on the occasion of the marriage of one of
the principal Turks of the place. The female
dancers, who had probably been brought from
Erzerum, had their faces half uncovered ; and
their lascivious gestures seemed to afford great
pleasure to the Mussulmen, who were tranquilly
smoking their pipes at the door of the house,
whilst the bride and the other females who at
tended the nuptials, saw this exhibition through
their lattices. On the 28th we marched eight
hours, and passed the night in the open air, ac
cording to the common custom of those who
travel in caravans. The heat was intense during
the whole day, and towards noon we made a halt
of some hours, in a valley shaded with fine trees.
Here we met a numerous company of Lazes, in
habitants of the borders of the Black Sea, whom
I shall have occasion to notice hereafter ; thev
marched with flying colours, headed by an Aga,
and were going to join the Pacha of Erzerum.
Although the day had been intensely hot, the
night was very cold. We ascended consider
ably in the afternoon ; passing mountains still
covered with snow, and it was even then thought
necessary in the midst of summer, to light large
fires. On the following day we experienced more
heat ; having descended again into the plain, in a
beautiful country covered with trees, and the
richest verdure. We again passed the night in

334 BA1BOUD.
the open air, in a meadow, on the bank of a rapid
stream, which we had crossed by a half ruined
bridge, although our guides were accustomed to
perform this journey several times in the year,
they could not tell us the name of it. This day's
journey lasted nine hours.
On the 30th, we marched eight hours, to reach
Baiboud, a town of three or four thousand inhabi
tants, mostly Mussulmen. It is built partly in a
valley, and partly on very steep rocks, and
divided in two by the river which we had seen
the day before : previous to entering Baiboud , it
is passed by a very handsome wooden bridge.
The Aian, or commandant, resides in a small cita
del which commands the town. The environs,
at the side by which we entered, on the south
east, are embellished with gardens and water-
mills. On the opposite side, towards the north
east, they only present a picture of sterility.
The Aian of Baiboud does not enjoy a very
good reputation with European travellers, who
have had any transactions with him. He had al
ready attempted to ransom one of our couriers,
and is a kind of rebel, who often presumes to
make extortions from strangers passing through
his district. Fortunately we had no cause of con
tention with him, and went on to encamp at a
quarter of a league beyond the town, in a valley
where we discovered a small fountain.
These fountains, very eoramon on the roads of

FOUNTAINS. 335
Turkey, are a great comfort in a country desti
tute of all the conveniences of life, and those
resources found elsewhere in travelling. As it is
a point of religion amongst the Turks to give
drink to those who are thirsty, the Pachas and
opulent individuals, to perform an act agreeable to
God, erect them at regular distances on the road,
wherever local circumstances will permit. A
similar custom would be very desirable in many
parts of Europe.*
We slept in the open air also on the 1st of July,
after a march of nine hours : our present plan is
to avoid all villages and inhabited places, a mode
of travelling which is very insipid; but fortu
nately it will not last long.
Entering the high mountains on the 2d, we
soon after reached Chebin Khane, a Turkish vil
lage built on craggy rocks, and rested there some
hours to breakfast, as well as to let the heat of
noon pass. This place was almost deserted ; during
summer all the inhabitants go with their flocks to
Jaila, another village situated at the northern side

* Were those public wells more general on our European
roads, they might, perhaps, be an obstacle to the progress of
hydrophobia, which disease often arises from the neglect of giving
water to the dogs. That scourge, so" common with us, is unknown
in Turkey, and, perhaps, it would not be hazarding too much
to say, that it is in some measure preserved from it by these esta
blishments.

336 JAILA.
of the mountain ; they remove in the great
heats to breathe the north wind, from which
this high ridge of mountains screens them, at
Chebin Khane during winter ; a very abundant
stream of limpid water irrigates Jaila. We ter
minated this day's march there, having travelled
seven hours.
At Jaila we saw some of those gigantic dogs,
which are often found in various parts of Asia ;
and whose ferocity equals their size.
After quitting the above place very early on
the 4th, we found a great deal of snow in the
mountains, in some parts it was eight or ten feet
deep. We ascended considerably, and were sud
denly enveloped on all sides by thick clouds.
Though not new to us, we enjoyed this scene
again with pleasure.
The sun, by dispersing the clouds, presented an
enchanting prospect which served to recompence
our fatigues. We were in the midst of a de
lightful country, diversified with numerous and
beautiful plantations. A magnificent wood formed
a curtain of verdure round this mountain, the
freshness of which was still that of spring, before
us was seen the entrance of one of the most beau
tiful valleys perhaps in the world. My com
panion, who had travelled over the whole of
Switzerland, had never seen any scenery there
that could be compared with what we now
surveyed.

A CONTRAST. 337
After a considerable halt, we mounted our
horses to enter the above valley; an improved
cultivation, woods, gardens, and houses, where
prosperity seemed to dwell, alternately decorated
it on both sides. A small river meandered through
the valley, and joined the Black Sea some leagues
further to the north. We crossed this stream
several times, either by fording or over bridges,
travelling sometimes on one bank, sometimes
on the other. The desire of admiring such a rich
picture more leisurely, induced us to make a halt
of two hours in a Turkish Inn on the border of
the river. All is contrast in this world ; you
would suppose, no doubt, that men perpetually
accustomed to see such fine views, are inspired
with mild and hospitable manners. But far from
being the case here, the people appeared fanatical
and barbarous, they are in fact Lazes. A man
named Karaman Oglou, the keeper of this Inn,
attracts strangers only for the purpose of extorting
money from them by force of arms. We were very
near quarrelling with him ; having settled our
bill, he wanted still to exact an additional contri
bution, which we refused to pay. Though almost
at the gates of a large city, he exercises his
depredations with impunity.
Delivered from this plunderer, we continued to
ascend, and soon discovered the open sea. We were
now on the Mountain of the Ten Thousand, and
traversed the same ground that was passed by the

338 TKEEIZONH.
Greeks under Xenophon : we returned from the
same countries ; and though we had no other re
semblance to them, we might, by our own feelings,
conceive a part of the joy which must have been
felt by those warriors, harrassed by a long and
dangerous march, on discovering that element
which was to terminate their fatigues. We de
scended the mountain, and at length arrived at
Trebizond. M. Dupre, the French consul, had
the goodness to receive us into his house, where
we have met several masters of merchantmen,
both French and Italians, whose ships are at
anchor either at "Trebizond itself, or in the road
stead of Platana.
The ancient and modern Greeks give Trebi
zond the name of Trapezontas, which is derived
from the word trapeza, a square or table, owing to
the form of this city. In fact, from the top of the
Mountain of the Ten Thousand, it presents that
of a long square. The Turks, who corrupt all
names, call it Tarabezoun. Its population is esti
mated at about twenty-five thousand inhabitants,
of whom a small number are Greeks and Arme
nians. The city is built in a rich and magnificent
country, on a low and smooth declivity, com
manded by hills, well wooded. This coast not
offering any shelter from storms, especially the
north wind, which blows directly against it, vessels
never come here, except to take in their lading ;
whilst waiting for favourable winds, thev anchor

COMMERCE. 339
at Platana, a fine and convenient roadstead, three
leagues westward of the city. The trade of Tre
bizond is very considerable ; it chiefly consists in
timber for ship-building, which is found in the
neighbourhood, and in copper and furriery brought
from Erzerum.
According to Pausanias, Trebizond was a
colony of Trapezunte, a town of Arcadia ; but
Xenophon says, it was founded by the Greeks
of Sinope, who were, themselves, descended from
the Miletians. Diodorus Siculus is also of this
latter opinion. After the several defeats of Mith-
ridates, it fell into the power of the Romans, and
subsequently formed part of the possessions of the
emperors of Constantinople, who erected it into
a principality. Alexis Commenes, surnamed the
Great, took possession of it in 1 204, with the title
of duke, when the French and Venetians became
masters of Constantinople, under Baldwin, earl of
Flanders. The city of Trebizond is defended by two
castles, the entrance of which is prohibited to
strangers, so that we can only see them at a dis
tance ; one of them is not far from the shore, on a
more elevated site than that of the city. It is said
there are a great many antiquities, and fragments
of monuments of the middle ages found here ;
but independently of the inconveniency that there
would be in visiting them, the short stay I make
here, does not admit of my doing so.
z2

340 INHABITANTS.
Neither the beauty of the country nor its com
merce, have been able to soften the manners or
humanize the disposition of the inhabitants of
Trebizond. The Lazes or Turks of this coast are
a barbarous and semi-savage people, whose phy
siognomy bears all the impression of ferocity:
even their look has something sinister in it.
Their complexion is tawney, and stature athletic.
Filthy and negligent in their dress, which is made
of a coarse stuff of dark brown, they reserve the
whole of their finery for their arms, which are,
amongst the more opulent, richly ornamented
with silver. They wear a cap of green cloth and
peculiar form, which falls on their shoulders ;
while their arms, legs, and breasts are left entirely
naked. They never go out, even in the city,
without enormous pistols, a sabre and dagger in
their girdles, and a loaded carabine on the shoulder.
Although constant assassinations are committed
in the day-time, they remain unpunished. The
authority of the Musellim, named Chatir Oglou,
is an absolute nullity. Tayar Pacha, who com
manded for some time at Trebizond, had suc
ceeded in suppressing a part of these enormities ;
he began to bring the Lazes to a sense of duty,
and his name alone made them tremble : unfor
tunately he has been recalled, and since his de
parture they have again shaken off the yoke ;
being now permitted to do as they please : it
would even be imprudent to make an excursion

PREPARATIONS. 341
out of the town ; owing to the great danger of
being robbed, or even assassinated.
I thought it best not to embark on board a boat
which is to depart for Constantinople in a few
days ; for besides the annoyance of going in com
pany with such people, I am desirous of seeing
Sinope, and all this part of the Asiatic coast of
the Black Sea. I shall therefore undertake this
voyage more commodiously in a ship belonging
to the island of Ithaca, the captain of which na
vigates under the French flag. Born in the king
dom of Ulysses, and professing the Greek reli
gion, he gave his ship the double appellation of
Telemachus and Saint Nicholas. A curious asso
ciation it must be confessed !

342 SAMSOUN,

LETTER XXX.
Passage from Trebizond to Samsoun — Description of Samsoun — Greei
Village of Cadi Keui, &c.
SamsmiD,, July 15th, 1808.
It is now three days since we anchored in the
port of Samsoun. We hoped to have arrived at
Sinope without meeting any obstacle, but fortune
has willed it otherwise ; and we are waiting for
an easterly wind, which can alone take us to our
destination; if it only blows from that quarter
twenty -four hours, we may safely calculate on
reaching Sinope.
We have never lost sight of land since our de
parture from Trebizond ; there has not occurred
any thing interesting to communicate in a navi
gation that has lasted six days ; having had con
trary winds continually, we merely anchored
once, previous to our arrival here, in a desert
roadstead, at a short distance from Kerasoun (the
ancient Cerasonte).
I have visited Samsoun and its environs : the
town is not large, containing at the most only
four or five thousand inhabitants, of whom a
small number are Greek, and Armenians. This
place is twenty-four leagues from Amasia, and

CADI KEUI. 343
thirty from Tocat. The Turks of Samsoun
are rather tractable, and not armed from head
to foot, like those of Trebizond ; with the
exception of some abusive language, we could
not complain much of our reception. It is verv
easy to obtain provisions here, but the water
of the town is turbid and unwholesome. We
therefore went to Cadi Keui, which is only a
quarter of a league from it. This village, where
I reckoned about fifty Greek houses, all of
wood, is in an agreeable position, on the de
clivity of a hill, covered with olive trees, to the
south-east of the town. We bought tolerably
good winC there. The Greeks of Cadi Keui,
like almost all their countrymen settled in Asia,
have forgotten their mother tongue, and only
understand Turkish : they are otherwise a better
people, and much less crafty than those of Eu
rope and the islands of the Archipelago. From
the air of prosperity that appears in their houses,
it would seem that they are not so much oppressed
by the Turks as many of their neighbours.

344 KIZIL IRMAK

LETTER XXXI.
Passage from Samsoun to Sinope — Description of Sinope — Guerz£,
ruins of a gymnasium and of the palace of Mithridates — Ak Li
man — departure from Sinope and return to Constantinople.
Sinope, August 6th, 1808.
Here I am, in the native country of Diogenes,
that uncourtier-like philosopher, whose discrimi
nation enabled him so justly to appreciate the
nothingness of mankind, and see through the
weakness of poor human nature. I cannot help
adding another reflection, suggested by the above'
name, which is, that a similar philosophy would
never succeed amongst the moderns. We are too
corrupt and servile, and an imitator of Diogenes
would now remain in his tub unnoticed, how
ever, I do not see why the story of the lanthorn
is not as applicable to the days we live in, as it
was in the time of the cynic.
At a short distance from Samsoun, we saw the
mouth of the Iris, which the Turks call Kizil Ir-
mak, or the Red River. Its yellow and muddy
waters, mixed with those of the sea, communi
cate their colour to the latter, ata distance of more
than four leagues ; but they do not make them lose
their salt taste. I arrived at Sinope on the second
day after that of our departure from Samsoun.

sinope. 345
Mr. Fourcade, our consul, has had the kindness
to show me ali that the town and its neighbourhood
contains in the way of curiosities, which enables
me to attempt giving you some account of them.
Sinope or Sinub, as the Turks say, is situated
on a narrow isthmus, which serve as a commu
nication between the continent and the peninsula
on which the ancient city was built. It is at an
equal distance from Trebizond and Constanti
nople, that is to say, about one hundred leagues
from each, thirty westward of Samsoun, and
twelve south-east of Cape Indje. Its port, or
rather roadstead, formed to the north-west, by
the town and peninsula, and at the south-east
by the continent, is the best and safest on the
Asiatic coast of the Black Sea. The Turkish go
vernment has made it one of the arsenals of their
navy, and they are now building a seventy-four
gun ship of the line here, but from the want of
artizans, the work goes on very slowly, and for
¦ more than a year past they have scarcely laid the
keel of the vessel. But still they are supposed to
be employed on it, and if they continue to display
the same activity, they may perhaps launch it
towards the end of ten years !
I estimate the population of Sinope at twelve
thousand inhabitants. The greater part are Turks,
all contained within the fortress. The Greeks
and Armenians are settled in a suburb at the sea
shore, on the southern side of the peninsula. It

346 climate.
is also in this quarter that the French consul's
house is situated. The Turks of Sinope are mild
and peaceable, and their manners present a strik
ing contrast with the ferocity of the inhabitants
of Trebizond.
The climate of Sinope may be compared to
that of Provence, for, in general, the same pro
ductions are found here as in the south of France ;
the country, however, is more wooded, and colder
during winter. The environs are pretty well
cultivated ; there are especially a great many
olive trees ; vines also succeed here, and a tole
rably good wine is made at Guerze, a small town,
six leagues to the south-east.
I traversed all the peninsula : it is mountainous,
and may be about four or five leagues in circum
ference. In the most elevated part, there is
a small lake of excellent fresh water, which
supplies the numerous fountains of the towTn, by
means of subterranean conduits constructed by the
ancient Greeks. According to their usual custom,.
the Turks suffer these useful works to fall into
ruin ; their avarice and apathy always prevent
them from repairing and maintaining them, at
least until the want of water forces them to do so.
At the foot of the mountain are seen the ruins of
the palaee of Mithridates, and those of a beautiful
gymnasium ; we entered into the halls of each.
An idea may still be formed of the extent and
distribution of these great edifices, from the state

ANTIQUITIES. 347
in which their ruins are . the walls built with fine
bricks, of a size at least triple those which are
made in Europe, are still standing. There is
nothing wanting but the marble and the roofs :
the Turks have carried off the former to decorate
their mosques.
Mr. Fourcade, who is well versed in the science
of antiquity, has made some very curious researches
relative to this city and its monuments. He thinks
that the ancient Sinope occupied the space be
tween the modern fortress and the mountain
which bounds it to the east, and that it was not
on the isthmus, but rather on the peninsula.
He also conceives the ground must have been
raised considerably in that part, by the earth
washed down during very heavy rains, and that
the forum was in front of the gate of the fortress,
at a short distance from the sea, on the north side.
He calculates, with reason, that under a more
enlightened government, it would be easy, by
making some excavations, to discover all the
boundaries of the ancient city, and a number of
valuable monuments ; what must give great
weight to his opinion is, that a step cannot be
taken in the peninsula, especially after long con
tinued rain, without finding some remains of
antiquity. He has already formed a well-chosen
and numerous collection of them, including
many rare medals, which the inhabitants sell by
weight.

348 TURKISH SUPERSTITION.
The interior of the modern town, or fortress, also
presents a considerable quantity of ancient ruins.
The ramparts are built in great part with columns
of white marble, bas-reliefs, and antique statues
piled in confusion through the gross ignorance of
the Turks, and which are now in a deplorable
state of decay. The consul pointed out to me,
near the gate which opens on the peninsula, one
of those bas-reliefs in which the figures are
inverted. He has made several attempts to obtain
permission from theTurkish government to remove
it from the wall, and has offered a reasonable
prjce for it ; but all his efforts have been useless.
Its removal might be sufficient to cause a revolt in
the country ! The Turks cannot comprehend why
any value should be attached to such objects ; the
curiosity of Europeans, in this respect, always
appears suspicious, and founded on other motives
than these which really influence them. They
suppose that we are instigated by the hope of
finding treasures, or by a snperstition which they
themselves would find difficult to explain. It
is necessary to be better informed than I am on
this subject, to give you a description of all that
Sinope contains worthy of interesting the curio
sity of an enlightened traveller. This place alone
might furnish the subject of a large work.
I am waiting from day to day for an easterly
wind, to continue my course towards Constanti
nople. I have already once left the port in a

DELAYS. 349
Turkish sacoleve, on the first of this month ; but
the wind having changed to the west, we were
obliged to return, and land at Ak Liman (the
White Port), a little desert bay two leagues west
ward of the town. Our consul having had the
goodness to send me a janizary and two horses
to take me to the city, I shall not leave him again
until the weather is decidedly favorable.

350 ARRIVAL.

LETTER XXXII.
Arrival at Constantinople — Revolutions of 1807 and 1808 — Deposition
of Selim III. — Succession to the Throne of Moustapha IV. — Entry
of Moustapha Bairaktar into Constantinople — Violent Death
of Selim — Deposition of Moustapha IV. — Elevation of Sultan
Mahmoud II. Constantinople, August 30th, 1808.
A steady easterly wind having constantly
favoured us from Sinope to this capital, our pas
sage has been effected in five days. Fortunately
I had engaged the principal cabin of a Turkish
sacoleve* for myself and servant ; but in spite of
my agreement with the master, it was so encum
bered with merchandize, that we could scarcely
find room in it for our luggage and beds. All
the other passengers were heaped in confusion on
the vessel's deck ; there were more than thirty
of them, amongst whom were women, children,
dervises, and Greek priests. It is necessary to have
sailed in such a crazy bark, to form an idea of
the annoyance and all the other inconveniences
experienced in such vessels: therefore, my first
care on entering the Bosphorus was, to take leave

* A sacoleve is a Turkish boat, carrying three square sails,
and a large latine sail astern.

SELIM III. 351
of my Turkish and Greek fellow passengers, whose
patience and .resignation I admired more than
once on the passage. I quitted the sacoleve at
the second castle of Asia, which is in front of
Buiukdere, and took a boat with two pair of oars,
which conveyed me in less than two hours to
Constantinople. I have been here since the 14th
instant, having arrived on the eighty-fourth day
after my departure from Teheran.
I had already heard at Sinope of the new revo
lution which had taken place in this capital, but
in a manner still too vague to be able to state
the particulars of it. Amongst the Turks, as
every where else, each relates the events of the
day according to his passions, and the bias of his
party ; so that before it reaches a distant province,
the news has passed through so many hands, that
instead of the truth, one often hears only the
most absurd and contradictory reports. Now
that I have obtained such correct information on
the spot, that I cannot admit a doubt of its ve
racity, I shall acquaint you in a few words of
these events, having previously reminded you
of those which preceded them in the month of
May of last year.
Selim HI. nephew and successor of Sultan Ab
dul Hamid, filled the Ottoman throne during
eighteen years. Superior from his learning and
the greatness of his views, to all his predecessors,
this prince, on observing attentively the other

352 SALUTARY REFORMS.
states of Europe, seemed to have comprehended
the causes of the decline of his empire. He was
desirous to communicate the benefits of civilization
to his empire, which alone remained in the midst
of ignorance and fanaticism. Great misfortunes
had marked the commencement of his reign ; the
aggrandizement of Russia at the expense of the
Ottoman empire, the revolt of the Servians, the
state of independence which many of the princi
pal pachas had assumed, in short, the insolence
and indiscipline of the corps of janizaries ; such
were the results of the existing system. Selim
deemed it necessary to commence the business of
reform by annihilating the janizaries ; an enter
prize the more dangerous, as the institution of
that militia is reputed holy, and as it had become
so numerous, that to attack its existence and
interests, was in a manner to attack those of
the whole nation. He, however, undertook the
task and with this intention, created the troops
of the nizami djedid, who were exercised in
the European manner, and subjected to the mili
tary discipline adopted by civilized nations. To
provide for their maintenance, it was necessary
to levy new taxes ; these were also raised. He
established at the same time a new mode of
administration, and surrounded himself with a
council of twelve ministers, who were all de
clared partizans of those innovations. During
some time, every thing seemed to succeed to the

REVOLT. 353
P
Sultan's wishes ; the janizaries confined them
selves to low murmurs, they did not yet dare to
let their rage burst forth ; but they gradually
found means to create an opportunity for doing
so, and paved the way for this revolution with
their usual means, that of setting fire to different
points: this is always a sure sign of discontent.
When they thought the favourable moment was
arrived, they at length openly revolted.
The revolution commenced on the 26th of
May, 1807. The janizaries of the garrisons of
Feneraki, and the castles which defend the en
trance of the Bosphorus on the side of the Black
Sea, were the first to give the signal of rebel
lion. They cut the Reis Effendi to pieces :
he had gone to them to notify the Sultan's
order to submit to the new regulations. On the
next day they marched to the capital, and in
a few hours made themselves masters of the
batteries there, at Tophana, and of some that
defended the Seraglio. Selim sent a firman,
which commanded them to lay down their arms
and separate ; this they tore with contempt,
and addressed a proclamation to the janizaries
and all good -Mussulmen, inviting them to pro
ceed within two hours to Et-Meidan (the meat
market) and to join them in the common cause of
religion. Before the close of day more than
eighty thousand men were assembled there. Their
insolence increasing with their numbers, they sent
V A

354 SELIM DEPOSED. ¦
to the Sultan, to demand the head of his favourite
the bostandji bachi. Selim being alarmed, had the
weakness to accede to their wishes; emboldened
by this concession, they massacred all the minis
ters of the new divan on the same day, in the
streets. On the 23d, their audacity no longer knew any
bounds ; they went in a body towards the sera
glio, and signified to the Grand Signor, by the
cheik ul islam (the muphti) that as he had not as
yet given an heir to the empire, and having in
fringed the prerogatives of the sacred militia, the
people no longer acknowledged him for their
sovereign, and required that he should imme
diately resign his throne to his cousin, Mousta
pha. Selim already deprived of his most faith
ful servants, abandoned by all his partizans, who
had fled from fear, could oppose no resistance,
and Moustapha IV. was proclaimed Sultan by the
rebels. A salute of artillery from the seraglio
announced this event, and the end of the revolu
tion, which had lasted only three days. On the .
following day, order and tranquillity were re
established in the city, and a week after the new
Grand Signor went to the mosque of Euib, to gird
on the sabre.*
Selim had preserved a great many friends. All
* This ceremony, called Taklidi Self, is instead of a coro
nation..

MOUSTAPHA BAIRAKTAR. 35g
the sensible part of the nation regretted his de
position, and Moustapha could not, without danger
to himself, have taken his life at a moment when
the public mind was still in a great fermentation.
The new sovereign was continually at the abso
lute disposal of the oulemas and janizaries: he
owed his elevation to them ; his first act was
to abolish the new taxes, and re-establish the inso
lent militia in all their privileges. The news of
what had passed in the capital, soon reached the
camp assembled on the banks of the Danube,
upon which the janizaries revolted against their
commander in chief, the Grand Vizir; they be
headed him, together with the principal officers
of the army, who were all partizans of Selim,
and the temporary command of the troops
devolved on Moustapha Bairaktar, then aga of
the town of Roustchouk.
Moustapha Bairaktar, who happened to act
such a distinguished part in the revolution of last
month, was in the beginning only a mere jani
zary, born in an obscure class ; he distinguished
himself by his courage and intrepidity in a battle
against the Russians, and was promoted to the
rank of bairaktar or ensign, for having captured
a standard from the enemy. By a succession of
events not necessary to be stated here, he subse
quently became aga or commandant of Roust
chouk. Bairaktar had for the last year entertained the
a a 2

356 SELIM MURDERED.
project of re-establishing Sultan Selim on his
throne. Thinking the moment favourable he
assembled the troops of his government, all
Bulgarians, and repaired to Adrianople, thence
he took the road to Constantinople, as if going
to do homage to the new sultan. Until then,
he had always appeared to serve Mustapha IV.
and the latter was easily deceived as to his
designs. It was on the 26th of last month that he
made his entry into the capital with several
thousand men, and the sandjak cherif, or sacred
standard of Mahomet ; on his arrival he marched
to the seraglio, demanding the person of Selim.
Moustapha surrounded in his palace, thought
he might preserve his sovereignty by causing
the unfortunate Selim to be murdered ; but that
crime did not prevent him from being deprived of
it. Bairaktar, who became furious, caused his de
position to be pronounced by the oulemas, and
proclaimed his brother Mahmoud II. in his place.
From that day, Bairaktar has been grand vizir ;
he rids himself by degrees of all the enemies of
Selim, and he has already restored the troops of
the Nizami Djedid, under the new name of
seimens. Such is the abridged history of those two
revolutions. Tranquillity is once more re-esta
blished in Constantinople, but it seems rather a
stupor than a real peace. The janizaries do not
consider themselves vanquished, and it will not

MODERATION. 357
surprize me if a new convulsion should soon imbrue
this capital with blood. One circumstance worthy
of remark is, that in those two periods of distur
bance and civil wars, the Europeans residing in
the suburbs of Pera and Galata, have not expe
rienced any violence or attack on their property.
The raias, themselves, have been unmolested. It
was very much to be feared that the rabble by
which the city is usually filled on such occasions,
would have taken advantage of the general terror,
to indulge their propensity to pillage and burn
ing. This moderation may probably be attributed
to the policy of their chiefs, who were desirous of
giving to their cause an appearance of justice
and legality.

358 THIRD REVOLUTION.

LETTER XXXIII.
Revolution of November, 1808. — Death of Moustapha Bairaktar, and
of the Sultan Moustapha IV.— -Destruction of the Seimens or
Troops of the Nizami Djedid. Constantinople, Dec. 22d, 1808.
It is to renew the subject of troubles and mas
sacres, that I again write to you : our forebodings
and fears were but too well founded ; blood has
again flown in this barbarous city, and a crowd of
unhappy families groan on the still smoking ruins
of their habitations.
The seditious spirit of the janizaries, restrained
during some months by the energetic measures of
Moustapha Bairaktar, was nevertheless inwardly
conspiring new crimes. The grand vizir dazzled
by his first success, and depending too much on the
courage of the seimens, a militia as yet but little
experienced, had the imprudence to send his Bul
garian troops to the borders of the Danube. The
janizaries waited with patience for this moment,
and they did not certainly flatter themselves, it
would have arrived so soon ; they were far from
foreseeing that their enemy, after having dis-

CONFLAGRATION. 359
played such great talents, would have committed
so palpable an error. He has paid dearly for his
fault as you will see by the following narrative.
On the 14th ultimo, after several skirmishes
between the two parties, the seimens were
attacked in the streets of Constantinople by the
janizaries. The latter went subsequently to the
aga, or commandant of the new troops, who was
a creature of Bairaktar, and murdered him. Em
boldened by impunity, they repaired on the fol
lowing night to the palace of the grand vizir, and
set fire to it. Moustapha Bairaktar was enabled
then to escape the danger which threatened him,
and had time to enter the seraglio, with a con
siderable number of his partizans. The 15th
was a dreadful day for the city. The janizaries
consigned all the quarters which separate the
seraglio from the square of the Hippodromus, to the
flames, and the fire lasted, without intermission,
three days and three nights. We were enabled
to contemplate this horrible spectacle from our
terrace, and to form some idea of the shocking
confusion that must have resulted from it. Ex
cept the seraglio, where Bairaktar's seimens were
inclosed, and the most distant suburbs, all the
interior of the city was in the power of the
janizaries ; they attempted, but unsuccessfully, to
cross the channel, and. render themselves masters ot
Pera and Galata, the cannon of the fleet moored
in the port, swept the shore whenever they ap-

360 DEATH OF BAIRAKTAR.
proached it. The waters of the port were dyed
with the blood of the killed on both sides, who
were thrown from the ramparts of the city and
the seraglio.
At the beginning, the janizaries spread a
report of the death of Bairaktar ; they said that
his body had been found half burnt, in a subter
raneous passage which leads from the palace of
the grand vizir to that of the sultan ; and as a
proof of their veracity, it was pretended that
they had seen the ring which contains the
impression of the great seal of the empire, on
one of the fingers of the corpse. This news
did not remain long uncontradicted. Bairak
tar, at the head of a small number of brave
men, made several sorties against the rebels, and
strewed the streets of the capital with their
bodies. At length, he met a glorious death, when
his ruin drew down that of all his party. The
janizaries remained victorious ; those of the
seimens who could not escape from their fury by
flight were cut to pieces without pity, and the fleet,
which on the preceding evening had fired grape
shot on the promoters of the revolt, very pru
dently joined their party. The triumphant rebels
passed the port, traversed the suburbs of Galata
and Pera in great numbers, and hastened to
Levend Tchiflit* to burn the barracks of the
* The barracks of Levend Tchiflit are on the road to Buink-
ilere, about a league below Pera.

SULTAN MAHM0UD. 361
Nizami Djedid. Returning afterwards, they
repaired to Scutari, to celebrate their victory
there by excesses of the same kind. The fine
barracks formerly built in that town by Sultan
Selim, were in a short time reduced to ashes.
The Francs were in the utmost terror during their
passage through Pera, but on this occasion also
we escaped all danger. I saw these wretches
march through the street in which we reside;
they appeared to be armed with clubs, pickaxes,
and any other weapons they could procure ; they
marched in pairs, as proud as if they had just
saved the state. I could not help being astonished
how such a rabble were capable of deciding the
destiny of an empire.
Deprived for ever of his supporter, Sultan Mah-
moud was still anxious to preserve hissovereignty :
he first deprived his brother Moustapha IV. of
life, and then opened the gates of the seraglio to
the janizaries. This prince is now the sole scion
of the Ottoman dynasty : and he owes the pre
servation of his throne merely to there being no
other heirs of this family.
I shall here conclude my account of those san
guinary events ; as they have passed under my
eyes, I can safely assure you of their authenticity.
Since their late successes, the insolence of the
janizaries is at its height; they are absolute mas
ters of the city, and they will, it is thought,
long continue so, as all the attempts the sultan

362 REFLECTIONS.
could make against them, can only increase
their strength and audacity. I think the an
nihilation of this militia impossible, so long as
the Mussulmen retain their religious prejudices.
To attack the janizaries is to attack the whole
nation, as most of the Turks now form part
of this corps. The Ottomans do not resemble
any other nation ; all their patriotism is founded
on a blind faith in their dogmas, the main
tenance of an absurd religion, and the institutions
which spring from it. It is only by destroying
this impulse that a sultan can reduce them. But
who would dare to do so ? If successful he would
at the same time destroy the illusion on which
his power is founded. It is therefore solely
through the lights of reason and philosophy, that
such a revolution can be expected ; and as this
nation is less disposed than ever to receive them,
while it obstinately repels the hand which would
prevent it from falling into the abyss, we have
only to conclude, that it will end, sooner or later,
by annihilating itself through its own folly and
perverseness.

CONSTANTINOPLE. 363

LETTER XXXIV.
Constantinople — Turks — Raias, Greeks, Armenians, Jews — Seraglio
of the Grand Signor — Mosque of Santa Sophia — Square of the
Hippodrome — Mosque, of Sultan Ahmed — Imperial Castle of the
Seven Towers, &c. &c. Constantinople, April 24, 1809.
Detained for some time in the midst of my
journey, and obliged by unforeseen circumstances
to prolong my residence at Constantinople be
yond the time I expected, you would certainly not
be pleased with me were I to preserve an absolute
silence with respect to this capital. However,
my intention is not to give you a complete
description, nor to enter into a very detailed
account of its monuments, and all that it fur
nishes worthy of curiosity. I can, in fact, do little
more than repeat what has been said before by
a great number of travellers. For twenty years
past the information we have acquired of this
city, seems to lessen its distance; from us; Con
stantinople being now almost as well known as
the other great capitals of Europe. As to what
regards the manners and customs of the Turks,

364 FINE PROSPECT.
I have already informed you that I had collected
some materials on the subject, during a residence
of- three years in this country ; they are still
scattered notes that require arrangement, but
which may form a new series of letters on a future
day. I shall, at present, limit myself to satisfying
your curiosity on the points which seem most cal
culated to create interest.
The position of Constantinople is admirable,
and the most beautiful, perhaps, that exists in the
known world. Nothing can be more rich and
striking than the aspect of this great city, on
approaching it by sea, and after having doubled
the Seraglio Point. The multitude of houses
which rise, like an amphitheatre, on seven hills ;
the various colours with which they are painted ;
the cypresses, and other trees ; the innumerable
gardens which seem to insulate them from each
other ; all these objects overtopped by the elegant
minarets and majestic cupolas of mosques, form
a truly enchanting scene, when perceived at a
certain distance. Placed between two seas, it
could not fail, in other hands than those of the
Turks, to be the sovereign arbitrator of both.
The Hellespont and Bosphorus seem to form
only one immense roadstead, where vessels of all
nations are in a perpetual motion of arrival and
departure. Its magnificent port would contain
thousands of them, and presents a safe refuge from
tempests ; the largest ships can anchor close to

POPULATION. 365
the shore. The people of Europe and, Asia,
separated by a mere arm of the sea, commu
nicate with each other at all hours of the day, by
means of innumerable boats, conducted by rowers
whose strength and skill have no equal. But all
this is beautiful only at a distance: enter the
city, and the illusion of its exterior magnificence
immediately ceases. Miserable habitations of clay,
covered with deal boards, filthy and narrow streets
crowded with wandering dogs, and heaped with
filth, steep and crooked ascents ; such is, in a few-
words, the capital of the Ottoman empire !
Nature has done everything for its environs,
in spite of the apathy and indolence of the Mus-
sulmen, for nothing can be compared to them ;
but what advantage would not a more industri
ous nation derive from such scenes ! How art
could embellish, at a trifling expense, the
picturesque sites of the two shores of the Bos
phorus ! They wTant nothing but to be vivified
by the beneficent breath of liberty and civiliza
tion. The population of Constantinople should not
be estimated by its extent. If the immense space
occupied by this, rich city was covered with
houses of four or five stories, it ought to contain
at least a million of souls ; but the most repectable
dwellings have only one story, or two at most,
and each family has a house to itself, as oriental
customs do not admit the letting of lodgings to

366 COMPARISON.
others. The city contains besides within its inclo-
sure, a prodigious number of mosques, cemeteries,
public baths, and gardens. The seraglio of the
Grand Signor alone, occupies almost all the site
of the ancient Byzantium. By different cal
culations, Eaton estimates the population of
Constantinople at less than three hundred thou
sand souls : I believe this number is below
reality. Constantinople is as extensive as Paris,
comprehending the suburbs of Pera and Galata.
By admitting, as an approximative calculation,
that there are in this city a thousand streets, in
each street a hundred houses on an average, in
each house a family composed of five' individuals,
there would result from it one hundred thousand
houses, and a population of five hundred thousand
souls. This calculation would therefore reduce
the number of the inhabitants of Constantinople to
a little more than half that of Paris, and I do
not think it any exaggeration when I say, that it
is very little above or below that number.
This population is composed of Turks and raias,
or subjects of the Grand Signor (who are Hot Mus-
sulmen) of various nations, such as Greeks, Arme
nians, and Jews. A great part of the Greeks of
Constantinople are islanders from the Archipe
lago, who are termed by the Turks, Taouchans, or
hares, no doubt from their agility in climbing
rocks and mountains. These Greeks wear a red
woollen cap, and follow the trades of shoe-

TRADES. 367
makers, fishers, dealers in tobacco and publicans.
The Armenians are architects, sarrass or bankers,
goldsmiths, bakers, barbers, tailors, house-painters,
&c. They are men of a patient and peaceable
disposition, bold speculators, and very indus
trious ; but they love money beyond all expres
sion ; their conversation constantly turns on the
means of gaining it ; their countenances, natu
rally as serious as those of the Turks, cheer up
at the sight of a para, and they are so accustomed
to count this small money on the little tables
which serve them for counters, that the thumb and
fore-finger of their right hand become crooked
from it.
The Armenians are otherwise very worthy
people, and though rapacious, they are in gene
ral reputed to be honest. There is a great num
ber of Catholics amongst the Greeks and Arme
nians of Constantinople. The latter are fervently
devout, and I believe there is but little bigotry in
their religious zeal ; the most wealthy form pious
foundations, and give a great deal to the churches.
The Jews are, of all the raias,the most insensible to
insult, for the very simple reason that they are the
most despised and degraded ; these people are ob
jects of raillery and insult, not only to the Turks,
but even to the Greeks and Armenians themselves.
Though many amongst them are very rich, they
never shew themselves in public except under a garb

368 jews.
of misery, so much do they fear the extortions of
the Mussulmen. They are known here by the same
signs which characterize them in all other coun
tries; viz. their dirty and neglected beard, the form
of their kalpak or bonnet, and their tatters. Dur
ing the holy week of the Latins and Greeks they
generally beware of appearing in the streets, for
they would be stoned by the children of the Chris
tians, without any protection from the police of
the country."* There are, however, some very
worthy persons found amongst them, and the best
proof that can be given of it, is that they exclu-

* It is a curious and undeniable fact, that in all ages and in
every country, no matter how enlightened the period, or liberal
the people, persecution and ignominy have been the portion of this
singular sect, which, with an extraordinary stock of ignorance
and effrontery would still persuade us, (unutterable folly!) that
they are the chosen people of God ! ! Leaving them to enjoy
this fond illusion, the Editor merely wishes to observe, that having
had frequent opportunities of witnessing the treatment experienced
by the Jews in Mahometan countries, and comparing it with
recent events in Germany, where popular resentment has again
overtaken them, he is decidedly of opinion, that religion has
infinitely less to do in their alleged sufferings than politics. The
Editor ventures to add, that it is to their isolated mode of life.
insatiable trading spirit, and studied estrangement from the rest
of mankind, so admirably commented on by Voltaire, in his
famous work on the Spirit and Manners of Nations, we ought
to look for that obloquy and insult they meet with amidst civilized
as well as barbarous communities, rather than to their method of
adoring the Divinity.

jews. 369
sively hold the situations of salesmen or brokers,
and cashiers to the European merchants, and that
several have been attached in those capacities, from
father to son, for a number of years, to the prin
cipal French commercial houses; some are also
auxiliary dragomen of the consuls in the ports
of the Levant; others are bankers, ortrade on their
own account. The poorest of them are dealers in
old clothes, carders of mattrasses, or they sell
thread, needles, pins and ointments in the streets.
Their usual language is a corrupt Portuguese.
This sect has, in the interior of Constantinople,
several separate districts, with small synagogues.
The most considerable are at Galata and Cas
Keui, behind the arsenal and near the palace of
the Capitan Pacha. There are some thousands
of them in this quarter. Constantinople also
contains many Polish, Russian, and German
Jews, and others from Wallachia and Moldavia ;
those are more cleanly and neat in their dress ;
they wear black gowns, long hair flowing on
their shoulders, with large flapped hats. The
Levant Jews are in general very strict, and
greatly attached to their religion ; they make an
excellent wine for their own use, known in this
country by the name of lawful wine: it is the
best and purest that can be procured here ; and
always unadulterated, as their religion prohibits
them from mixing any extraneous ingredient
with it. B B

370 EUROPEANS.
The Europeans, who are distinguished under
the general name of Francs, inhabit the suburbs
of Pera and Galata. The greater part of them
have been born in Turkey, of parents originally
of different nations, and there are to be found
in those two quarters a small number of real
Europeans, especially amongst the females. The
total number of both may amount to a thousand
or twelve hundred souls. The ambassadors and
other ministers of foreign powers have their pa
laces at Pera ; nearly all the merchants reside in
Galata. If we except their religious prejudices, and
the absurd fanaticism which is the natural
consequence of them, the Turks of Constanti
nople are, not without some good qualities: it
is impossible to deny them the reputation of
integrity in their dealings ; in business they
make -but one offer, and it very seldom hap
pens that they fail in their engagements. The
air of superiority which they affect towards
those who do not believe in their dogmas, when
it does not degenerate into insolence, is more
comic than imposing, and merits pity rather than
anger. By flattering their pride, taking advantage
of their natural carelessness and indolence, the
raias, who are more expert and cunning, obtain
almost all the profits of commerce and industry
from them. This is a kind of compensation for
that slavery to which they have so completely

TURKS. 371
resigned themselves. It is not either to liberty,
glory, or independence, that the Greeks, Arme
nians, and Jews look, but to gain money ; and
whilst they think and act in conformity to this
too general maxim, it may well be supposed
they will long remain the Helots of the Mussul-
men. The Turks adopt the trades and professions
which require least activity and exertion in pre
ference to all others ; they are dealers in tobacco
and glass, saddlers, tailors, shoemakers, mercers,
druggists, confectioners, &c. Seated on the
floor in the middle of their shops, they do not
attempt, like our calicots and men milliners, to
attract the attention of passengers, much less
praise their own merchandize. Immoveable on
a small cushion, they wait patiently for custo
mers, smoking their pipes, and sipping their cof
fee. If a purchaser appears, they are able to
reach from around them, and without stirring
from their places, the articles required, they
coldly mention the price, and receive it in the
same manner, without ever offering any thing
else for sale, than that which is demanded. They
seldom ask too much, and never abate from the
prices they previously fixed. If they cannot
agree with the customer, they replace their goods,
without pressing him to take them, or calling
him back. I do not believe that there exist
happier beings in the world than these men ; they
bb2

372 HAMALS.
never complain of their fate. As composed in
prosperity as they are reconciled to misfortune,
each condition appears to them as the inevitable
effect of their destiny ; they enjoy the former as
if it were their due, and patiently wait a com
pensation for the latter in that " better world,"
which their sanguinary and crafty prophet has
promised all true believers.
Notwithstanding what I have just asserted, the
poorest classes of Mussulmen lead a more pain
ful and laborious life than that of the traders.
In common with the poor Armenians, they em
ploy themselves as hamals, or porters, and as
sakkas, or water-carriers. These two classes of
men, especially the first, are very numerous at
Constantinople, and in general in all the ports and
commercial towns of the Levant.
The Turkish hamals are famous for their
vigour and skill. By means of a large pad, or
leathern cushion stuffed with hair, which they fix
on their shoulders like a pack, with woollen straps,
they carry the heaviest burdens with facility : a
single rope, which they hold with one hand, is
sufficient to preserve its equilibrium. They are
constantly moving, from the port to the extremi
ties of the city, and thus pass through the crooked
and uneven streets mostly without a stick, or even
stopping to rest themselves. They excel parti
cularly in conveying burdens which require the
united strength of several men ; such as casks of oil,

SAKKA. 373
or enormous cases of merchandize; these are sus-,
pended by thick ropes, and with the aid of poles,
strengthened with iron, which they bear on their
shoulders, ten or twelve of these porters, half be
fore and half behind, all march with the same step,
and incredible quickness. It would be very dan
gerous to be in their way, for having once started,
one cannot stop without the others, so that they
overturn every thing they meet. The sakkas or
water carriers do not use wooden or tin buckets,
like ours ; they carry the water which they draw
at the numerous fountains of the city, in large
skins, which they hang on their right shoulders
with a leathern belt. Others load a horse or
mule with two larger skins, and serve out water to
passengers in large cups of tinned copper. In each
company of Janizaries, there is a non-commis
sioned officer called sakka, whose functions are
to distribute water to the soldiers when on a
march. His rank corresponds nearly with that of
corporal. The calling of hamal and sakka, painful in
itself, become still more so to those poor people
during the fast of Ramazan, when the Mus
sulmen should abstain from all nourishment,
smoking and even taking snuff, between sun-rise
and its setting. If the Ramazan occurs in hot
weather, they must then feel more than ever
the miseries of their station. Whilst the weal
thy sleep away that time, turn day into night,

374 RAMAZAN.
and wait quietly on their sofas for the hour they
can give themselves up to the pleasures of the
table, the unfortunate man who groans under his
load, cannot drink a glass of water without com
mitting a crime ; and he must work, that he may
have wherewithal to eat at night. Sometimes he
vents his ill humour on the raia ; if he finds him eat
ing in public, accusing him of a wish to mor
tify him, often seizing that pretence for beating
or insulting the former.
This privation is not less severe for those who
act as boatmen. Exposed during the whole day
to a burning sun, exhausted by hard labour, with
out the liberty of recruiting their strength, I do
not think it even enters their minds to envy
the fortune of the great. Like all Mussulmen,
they console themselves by frequently exclaiming,
Allah Kerim .' God is merciful !
I have already stated that my intention was
not to give you a complete account, either of the
Turks or Constantinople. I shall therefore con
clude this letter with a few more observations on
the capital.
The most remarkable edifices of Constanti
nople, are the Seraglio of the Grand Signor, the
Mosque of Santa Sophia, and that of Sultan
Ahmed, in the square of the Hippodromus. It
would be great presumption on my part to at
tempt a description of the interior of the Seraglio;
the Sultan is not so accessible as the king of Per-

SUBLIME PORTE. 375
sia, I have therefore only seen those parts of his
palace, which are open to strangers; that is to
say, the first and second courts, and the hall of
the divan. On this head I refer you to the
descriptions of M. Poucqueville, who was lucky
enough to penetrate into the interior of the
Harem, in the absence of the Sultanas and oda-
liques. You will find .in his work details both
curious and interesting, on those scenes till then
unknown, .and of which the truth cannot be
doubted.* The principal gate of the Seraglio has given its
name to the Ottoman government, viz. the Sub
lime Porte ! The Turks lavish the most pompous
epithets on it, and I really know not why ; for
nothing is less deserving of such an honour. It
might be supposed the gate of an hospital or a
prison, rather than that of the palace of a sove
reign. The gate presents a heavy mass of stone,
whose whole ornament consists in two columns of
verd antique ; but the Turks have changed their
capitals and bases, to substitute others correspond
ing with their own barbarous architecture. The
foldings of the gate are covered by plates of
* The learned and amusing work of Mr. Hobhouse, also con
tains a very full and entertaining account of the Turkish capital.
An English edition of M. Poucqueville's book, from the pen of
the late Miss Plumbtree, appeared in 1812, published by Mr.
Colburn, and though principally circulated amongst our larger
literary establishments, it certainly deserves to be much better
known. — Ed.

376 SERAGLIO.
iron, and garnished with enormous nails. On the
right and left are two niches worked in the wall,
where the heads of rebels, or of great men be
headed by order of the Sultan are placed ; and
which usually remain exposed there for three days.
In the middle of a small square, there is a
neat fountain in the Turkish taste, with inscrip
tions in gilt letters, and on the right, the Mosque
of Santa Sophia, which forms the corner of the
square, and of a street that runs into it. If I do
not name this street, it is because in Turkey the
streets have no names, nor are the houses num
bered. The districts alone are designated by the
name of the mosque or monument most con
spicuous in them, so that a stranger is left to find
his way as well as he can.
After having passed through the great gate of
the Seraglio, the first court is entered. In this,
are the Sultan's stables, and the hospital of the
pages, and other officers of his household. A
narrow paved path-way leads to the Orta Capon,
or middle gate. This is guarded by capidjis, and
leads to the second court ornamented with a
green plat, and richly planted. The nobility of
the Porte, and the ambassadors admitted to the
audience of the Grand Signor, cannot enter it on
horseback ; that honour being reserved for the
Sultan alone. The kitchens of the Seraglio are
on the right, and the hall of the divan on the left.
The latter is neither remarkable for its riches or

IMPERIAL MOSQUE. 377
elegance, it has a cupola and is covered with
lead. Here the grand vizir administers justice
in person, on Tuesdays and Fridays of each
week. Above the sofa of this great digni
tary, there is a small window latticed with gilt
wood, from behind which the Sultan often ob
serves what passes, without being seen. We en
tered this place the day on which our last ambas
sador had his audience of Sultan Selim; there was,
as usual, a splendid dinner served up to the lega
tion. The ambassador sat at the same table with
the vizir ; all the dishes were in fine Chinese por
celain, and were replaced by others with amazing
dispatch. A third gate, at the bottom of this court, on
the right, leads to the interior of the Sultan's
apartments ; it is also there that the hall of au
dience is situated. These places have been so
often, and so well described, that I shall abstain
from adding any thing to what has been said of
them by other travellers.
The imperial mosque of Sultan Ahmed, built
on the model of that of Santa Sophia, is in the
square of the Hippodromus, of which it occupies
almost the whole of one side. This is a very
beautiful edifice, remarkable for its lightness,
and the elegance of its minarets, which are six
in number, each with three tiers of galleries. It
is to this mosque that the Grand Signor goes in

378 HIPPODROMUS.
great pomp to pray on the first day of the two
Bairams. The square of the Hippodromus, which the
Turks call At Meidan (the horse square,) is nearly
of the same size as the Place du Carrousal at
Paris. It is the only resemblance that exists be
tween them. Excepting the part occupied by
the mosque of Sultan Ahmed, and by its large
court, the remainder is surrounded with irregular
wooden buildings. At one of the extremities of
the At Meidan are seen a stone obelisk falling in
ruins; and further on in the square, another Egyp
tian obelisk, of one piece of red granite, covered
with hieroglyphics. The height of this monu
ment is about fifty feet ; it stands on a pedestal of
white marble, half covered with earth, on which
are still seen bas reliefs, representing saints and
martyrs, with Latin inscriptions of the lower em
pire. Between these two obelisks, is a bronze
column formed by three serpents entwined, the
heads of these formerly served for its capital ; but
they are broken, and it is not well known when
or by whom : the Turks assert that a former
Sultan cut them off with a single blow of his
scimitar. The imperial castle of the Seven Towers, or
Jedi Koule, is at the western extremity of Con
stantinople, on the border of the Sea of Marmora,
and forms, on that side, one of the three angles of

•SEVEN TOWERS. 379
the city. It seems to be in a complete state of
abandonment and dilapidation, and no longer
serves to confine state, prisoners, as people gene
rally believe, but rather the ambassadors of powers
at war with the Ottoman Porte.*
Constantinople also contains other curious mo
numents of different ages ; but I fear that in
dilating further on this subject, either to repeat
what others have said before me, or to anticipate
that which I propose to give you more in detail
hereafter. Permit me, therefore, to conclude this
letter here, and if it has not presented much no
velty, it will, at least, serve to prove my solicitude
to contribute to your amusement.

* M. Poucqueville has given, in the second volume of his
work, a complete and very curious description of "the Castle of
the Seven Towers, where he was imprisoned for twenty-five
months, with M. Ruffin, charge d'affaires of France, during our
last war with the Ottoman Porte.

380

EXCURSIONS.

LETTER XXXV.
Excursion to Scutari and the Grand Signor's Wharf (Hounkiar Isk«-
iesi) — Manufactory of Paper established by Sultan Selim III. &c.
Constantinople, July 15,1809.
My departure for France is at length fixed;
in another month I shall quit Constantinople to
return to Paris. It is necessary to have passed
five years distant from one's country, to conceive
the joy inspired by the mere idea of again seeing
our family, and the objects of our affections ; but
why should this happiness be of such short dura
tion ? It will be necessary to return to this bar
barous country, and the regrets of a second sepa
ration will be softened only by new recollections.
I am now going to collect my ideas for a moment,
to give you an account, before my departure, of
two excursions I have made with some friends in
the environs of this capital.
We first went to revisit Scutari : it was from
this town, that I departed last year for Persia, and
as I mentioned it but very superficially in my first
letter, it merits a more detailed description.
Having formed one of a party to dine there, the
Francs were unable to venture alone into Asia,
without running the risk of being insulted, we

SCUTARI. 381
therefore took one of the Janizaries of the French
embassy. On landing at Scutari, we deposited
our provisions in a large Turkish coffee-house
on the sea shore, and then went to walk about
the town.
Scutari is built on the coast of Asia, at the en
trance of the Bosphorus, opposite Constantinople ;
it is a tolerably large town, built of wood like
the capital, and containing a population that
may be estimated at twenty, or twenty-five thou
sand souls. A great fire had lately burnt one
entire quarter of it, over the ruins of which we had
to pass. We went to see the cemetery, to which
those of Constantinople are not to be compared for
beauty or extent. It forms a large forest of cy
presses, pierced with irregular alleys, where many
well preserved remains of Roman roads are seen.
Most of the wealthy or powerful Turks direct
that they shall be buried there, that their tombs
may be safe from the profanation of infidels, who,
according to an old prophecy very much believed
amongst them, will at some period seize on their
European possessions. Close to these burial
places is an extensive meadow covered with
the finest verdure. The howling dervishes, at
tracted, doubtless, by the beauty of the scene,
have had a tekke. or convent built here. These
howlers belong to a very fanatical order, and
they seldom suffer Christians to pass, without
some abusive language. They wander all over

382 BARRACKS.
Asia, and go from town- to town, putting -the
good Mussulmen under contribution ; in return,
they amuse them with feats of strength and slight
of hand, like our jugglers. We subsequently
visited the new buildings of Scutari, on the sea
side. All the streets are built on the same plan,
in straight lines, wider and cleanlier than in the
old town. There is also a magnificent mosque,
built by Sultan Selim III., who gave his name to
it as well as to several manufactories. The only
printing-press that existed in the whole Ottoman
empire, was in this spot ; but it has been closed
since the last revolution ; and the barracks of the
Nizami Djedid, at a short distance from it, were
reduced to ashes at the same period, as men
tioned in a preceding letter. The latter had
on the sea-shore, a small exercising ground,
surrounded with palings; and the Grand Signor
had constructed a kiosk there, to which he
sometimes repaired to see the military evolu
tions which took place every Thursday. The
Sultan has similar kiosks in all the public esta
blishments. After this walk, we returned to our coffee
house, and dined in a small room that looked
into a fine garden, and soon after crossed the
Bosphorus, to return to Tophana. — While cross
ing, we passed the tower improperly termed
that of Leander by Europeans. The Turks
call it Kiz Koule, which means the Maiden's

TOPHANA. 383
Tower; it is on a rock in the midst of the
channel, at less than a mile from the coast of
Asia. The garrison consists of five or six bos-
tandjis, whose duty is to salute the Sultan by a
discharge of artillery, when he goes to sail on
the Bosphorus.
Some days afterwards we went on a new ex
cursion to the Grand Signor's wharf, or landing
place, (Hounkiar Iskelesi.) We embarked at
Tophana, a suburb situated on the borders of the
sea, in the neighbourhood of Galata, which con
tains a cannon foundry, and the. grand park of
artillery of the capital. The square of Tophana
is decorated with a fine mosque and fountain ; the
Turkish boatmen attend there for persons who
wish to visit the country by water, and are in the
habit of annoying them to have the preference,
nearly in the same manner as the drivers of hack
ney vehicles in the environs of Paris.
We crossed the European shore of the Bospho
rus, with delightful weather ; the canal was co
vered with numerous vessels and elegant caiques ;
and however accustomed one may be to this
charming spectacle, it is always viewed with new
pleasure and increased admiration. At first are
seen the summer palace of the Grand Signor
at Bechik Tach, and its gardens surrounded
by a wooden trellis, painted in various colours,
which at a distance, produces the effect of trans
parent lace ; afterwards, those of the Sultana

384 HOUNKIAR ISKELESI.
Valid^, the Grand Vizir and of the former Reis
Effendi. To which ever side the view is di
rected, whether towards Europe or Asia, hand
some country-houses, gardens, and beautiful vil
lages are seen ; for both shores are thickly strew
ed with them. About half way, we passed
between the two castles of Europe and Asia,
situated in the narrowest part of the Bosphorus.
At length we arrived in Asia, at the landing-
place of the Grand Signor ; this is a charming
spot, opposite the town of Therapia : two large
meadows, shaded by beautiful plane trees, attract
a large concourse of Mussulmen and Europeans.
The first pass their time in smoking and taking
coffee in the cool and delightful shade, while
the second go there on parties of pleasure. The
adjacent forests are also very much frequented by
sportsmen. On a little eminence is to be seen a
fine manufactury of paper, the only one, I believe,
which exists in the whole Ottoman empire. I had
already visited this establishment, with several of
my friends, two years before. A Turk of Con
stantinople had given us letters of recommenda
tion, one for Emin Effendi, and the other for Se
lim Aga, both directors of this manufactory, one
of the most useful monuments of the unfor
tunate Selim's reign. The first being absent, we
were received by Selim Aga, an Englishman,
formerly a merchant in India, who had turned
Mussulman, in consequence of a long series of

PAPER MANUFACTORY. 385
misfortunes. Very learned, and possessing a
perfect knowledge of our language, he received
us in the most obliging manner, and under his
guidance we visited every part of that establish
ment, which is indebted to him for numerous im
provements. The paper made in the manufactory
of Hounkiar Iskelesi is very strong and thick : it
is polished with a round stone, for the use of the
Turkish scribes, and is not inferior, in any respect,
to that which is usually brought from Venice.
This manufactory, built about four years ago, is
in the European style ; the edifice is of stone, and
divided into three wings ; in front is a kiosk or
pavillion reserved for the Grand Signor, and the
whole presents an appearance both agreeable and
regular. Before entering into the principal court,
we passed through two gates, ornamented with
the arms and cypher of the sultan, and verses in
letters of gold, relative to the formation of this
establishment. There was formerly another manufactory of
paper near the village of Kiaghad Khane, or the
Fresh Waters, on the border of the little river
Cydaris, which runs into the port of Constanti
nople ; for some years past it has been disconti
nued.

c c

386 DEPARTURE.

LETTER XXXIV.
Road from Constantinople to Lemberg, the capital of Austrian
Gallicia. — Aiolou Eourgas — Choumla — Roustchouk — Camp of the
Grand Vizir, Yousouf Pacha, on the banks of the Danube — Chistow
— Rohva — Lom — Widdin — Entry into Wallachia — Kalufut — Rus
sian Outposts — Craiova — Bucharest — Rinnick — Entry into Mol
davia — Tokehan — Galatz — Yassy — Balabat — Chotzim or Chottin 
Entry into Poland — Okop — Tarmapol — Zatchow — Arrival at Lem
berg — Description of that City. Lemberg, October 2nd, 1809.
I departed from Constantinople on the 14th
of August. After having waited two days for
favourable weather at the village of Buinkdere,
on the Bosphorus, I embarked in a Greek boat
with four pair of oars, which I had engaged to
take me to Varna, by the Black Sea. This town
is in Europe, about fifty leagues from Constanti
nople. The persevering violence of the north
wind, soon forced me to renounce this project. —
We made sail in the night of the 15th, and it was
not without great difficulty we could reach the
village of Feneraki, situated on the European
- ide of the Bosphorus, at the entrance of the Pont
'^uxine ; the storm detained us there two days
longer. When it was a little abated, we again

romeeia. 387
ventured on that tempestuous sea, but a squall of
wind drove us to a considerable distance from land,
and our crazy vessel, without a deck, and open to
the waves on all sides, would have foundered, had
it not been for the courage and vigour of the row
ers, who made incredible efforts to gain the shore,
and fortunately landed me at the castle of Kila,
two leagues from Feneraki : from this I repaired
to Domouzdere, a village inhabited by Bulgarian
Greeks. The storm continuing, and there being
no appearance of a speedy change for the better,
the last resolution I formed was to go by land to
Aiolou Bourgas, a small town at a short distance
from Varna, and I agreed with my boatmen to
meet them there. I took two days to make
this journey, by travelling along the coast : on
the first, I slept in a place called Midia, at the
house of the Greek Bishop, and the second at
Aiolou Bourgas ; there I again changed my plan,
and decided on continuing my journey by land to
Roustchouk, by passing through Choumla. The
Grand Vizir had lately left his entrenched camp
near the latter town, to remove it to the banks of
the Danube. All this part of Romelia was in
fested with the Asiatic troops, who committed a
thousand enormities; wherever I passed, I was
supposed to be a Russian prisoner, and abuse was
not spared on me. I escaped, however, with
words, and arrived at Roustchouk in one of those
c c 2

388 YOUSOUF PACHA.
little carts drawn by a single horse, which are
called talikas. On passing through this town, I
was very near being again assailed by the Turkish
troops, though the Janizary who accompanied
me took care to declare every where that I was
a Frenchman. I caused the guide to conduct me to the camp of
the Grand Vizir, Yousouf Pacha, the same whom
I had seen as governor at Erzerum, two years be
fore. It was impossible for me to see him, and
he would not take upon himself to permit me to
pass the Danube, giving as a reason, that the Ja
nizaries of the fortress of Giorgiova, on the other
bank, were in a state of insurrection, and that he
could not answer for my personal safety. I could
only obtain, through the influence of an Italian
physician in his service, a bouiourdi, or order, ad
dressed to the Pachas of Nicopolis and Widdin,
to permit me to pass through one or other of those
two towns. The first alledged the same motives
as the Grand' Vizir, for refusing me permission to
cross the river, and I was obliged to coast the
Danube as far as Widdin, in passing by the towns
of Chistow, Rohva, and Lorn. The Greek Arch
bishop of Widdin received me very hospitably ;
after two days passed in negociations with the
Pacha, I at length obtained permission to quit the
territory occupied by the Ottoman troops. I
crossed the Danube, in a miserable ferry-boat, ac-

BUCHAREST. 38&
companied by an officer, as a flag of truce from
the Pacha of Widdin, who was to deliver me to
the Russian outposts, and I landed at Kalafat, a
village burnt and abandoned, in Little Wallachia.
Two leagues beyond Kalafat, four Cossacks, who
scoured the country, approached with their lances
poised to reconnoitre us : my poor Turk had
hoisted a white handkerchief at the end of a long
pole, and trembled all over. I showed my pass
ports to the Cossack non-commissioned officer,
who made a show of reading them, but held them
upside down, and detached two men of his troop
to conduct us to the first Russian outposts. We
there found a major who spoke French very well,
and who received us in the best manner ; he had
been taken prisoner at the battle of Austerlitz,
and resided for some time at Nancy. We supped
together, and I removed, as well as I could, the
fears of the Turkish officer, who had a constant
dread of being detained as a prisoner.; he was,
however, sent back the next morning, with an
escort as far as Widdin.
Pursuing my journey, I first went to Craiova,
the chief town of Little Wallachia, and thence
to Bucharest. It is needless to detail some trifling
difficulties and obstacles I experienced on this
journey. All the country is occupied by the
Russians, and I was subjected at every step to
visits and interrogatories, from which no traveller
is exempted. The same ceremonies recom<

390 A RECEPTION.
menced at the gates of Bucharest'; a fusileer
had been appointed to conduct me to the com
mandant of the town ; but the Janizary who had
obtained permission to accompany me as far as
that city, and who was perfectly well acquainted
with it, seized the moment our escort and guide
had turned down a street, to escape his vigilance,
and lead me directly to the house of Mr. Ledoulx,
French consul, and an old friend of mine. I had
great need of repose, for I had caught a tertian
ague in Bulgaria, and was exhausted with a jour
ney of sixty leagues, performed in the little carts
of Wallachia. Mr. Ledoulx had the goodness to
receive me into his house, and offered to entrust
me with a mission for the minister of foreign
affairs, who was at Vienna, at that period oc
cupied by the French troops. I accepted this
proposal with gratitude, as it was calculated to
afford me great facilities for completing the rest
of my journey.
I remained five days at Bucharest. This city,
the capital of Wallachia, is very large ; it is
built on a marsh, which must render a residence
there very unwholesome. The greater part of the
houses are of wood, and the streets, instead of
being paved, are covered with large squared
beams of timber, which cross them in their whole
breadth. The use of carriages is general there ;
the lowest boyard, and the traders themselves
never go out, except in a carriage or chaise ; and

YASSY. 391
since the occupation of the city by the Russians,.
the military of that country have even exceeded
in this luxury, which has almost become a necessary
of life. Bucharest, like all the towns of Wal
lachia that I have seen, is filled with a prodigious
number of convents and churches : it would be
difficult to enumerate them. Every boyard or
wealthy individual seeks to immortalize himself
by forming pious foundations ; so that nothing is
heard on all sides but bells and chaunting.
On the 23rd of September, I departed from
Bucharest. The war with Austria not permitting
me to pass through Transylvania or Hungary,
which are the usual and shortest roads for going to
Vienna, I directed my course towards Yassy, pass
ing through Rimnick, a town that separates Wal
lachia from Moldavia, and which has become cele
brated from a victory gained there by Suwarrow
over the Turks ; it obtained for that blood-thirsty
and ferocious chief, the surname of Rimininsky.
From thence I passed successively through the
towns of Tochan and Galatz: in the latter I
saw the admirable scene which the breadth of
the Danube presents ; but I could not stop there :
being bearer of a letter of recommendation to a
Russian senator, president of the divans of Wal
lachia and Moldavia, whose usual residence it is ;
he had just departed for Yassy, and I immediately
returned to follow him.
Yassy, the capital of Moldavia, is a handsome

392 A CONVERSAZIONE.
town, smaller, but better built than Bucharest.
The streets are planked like those of the latter.
The palace of the princes of Moldavia is a fine
edifice, and there are besides a great number of
neat private houses. There are a great many
Jews amongst the inhabitants, and several villages
in the neighbourhood are entirely peopled with
them. Their women, who are generally pretty,
are distinguished by a costume equally rich and
fantastic. At Yassy I found the Russian senator to whom
I was recommended, and met a very good recep
tion from him ; on the following day I continued
my journey by Balabat, to Chotzim and Chottin,
the last town of Moldavia, situated near the
borders of the Dniester, in front of Russian Po
land. I had the pleasure of meeting with a
Frenchman there, who was employed in the
capacity of secretary to the Boyard, the civil
governor of the town ; in the evening he con
ducted me to the military commandant, a Ger
man colonel in the service of the Emperor of
Russia. His saloon for receiving company was
not much unlike a guard-house ; sabres, muskets,
and arms of all kinds were hung against the walls,
being their chief ornaments, and reminded us
that we were in the midst of soldiers on a cam
paign. Most of the men were in an adjacent
room, occupied in gaming or smoking; some
played and endeavoured to prevail on the Russian

THE DNIESTER. 393
ladies to dance, these offered us punch on our ar
rival. We retired at eleven o'clock, as well satis
fied as might be expected with such an enter
tainment. Chotzim was the residence of a Pacha, who,
at the commencement of the present war, surren
dered to the Russians by capitulation. He was
permitted to withdraw, with all the Mussulmen
inhabitants. The Russians have now converted
the mosques into churches, and raised the Cross
on the minarets in place of the Crescent !
On the 28th I crossed the Dniester in a ferry
boat, and landed in Poland at Okop, a small for
tress occupied by the troops of the Grand Duchy
of Warsaw. Wherever I found Poles, the mere
circumstance of being a Frenchman caused me to
be received as a brother and a friend.
The most considerable towns I have yet seen
in Austrian Gallicia, are Tarnopel and Zatchow.
I reached this place, the capital of the province,
yesterday. It is a very handsome and large city,
at present garrisoned by the Russians : the houses
are well built, and have a fine appearance ; the
streets too, are wide and straight, but so miry,
that it is difficult to pass through them. Lem
berg is situated on the river Pierewa, sixty-four
leagues from Cracow. To-morrow, I shall conti
nue my journey to that city, and thence proceed
to Vienna by way of Moravia, where I expect

394 CONCLUSION.
to find the French out-posts. All this country is
so well known, and I have besides traversed it so
rapidly, that it would be presumption in me to
attempt giving you a description of it, and I
therefore terminate a correspondence that can no
longer interest you.

END OF THE LETTERS.

TABLE OF DISTANCES; OR,
ITINERARY, FROM CONSTANTINOPLE TO TEHERAN,
By Hours of March of a Caravan.

TURKEY IN ASIA.

)ays.

Hours of March

1

Kurtal ,

5

2

Gheibize' ....

6

3

Nicomedia, or Ismith .

10|

4

Kara Mousal

94

5

Kiz Dervend

1\

6

Nicea or Isnick

5f

7

Ak Serai .

9*

8

Gheive ....

3*

9

Teraklu ....

7

10

Torbalu

?i

11

Klostcbek .

10

12

Nalikhan ....

H

13

Sivri Hisar ....

6J

14

Bey Bazar ....

?5

15

Aias 

10$

16

Angora, or Engurie

10£

17

Hairi Keui ....

9I

18

AskaKhan .

8

19

Baltchuk .

H

20

Kitaib Ounou

• 'I

21

Iosgatt

155

22

Dichlidje .

¦ «S

23

Sourkeun .

¦ «$

24

Hadji Keui .

11

25

Kizildjik . ,

9

26

Bazar Keui .

, 9

396

Days.

TABLE, kc.

Hours of March

27

Tocat ....

¦ «i

28

Neo Cesarea, or Niksir .

. ii

29

Ermeni Keui

. iot

30

Kizil Geuzluk

6*

31

Mellam

7I

32

Koule Kisar

. 9|

33

Endres

. 10

34

Kara Kisar .

. 9i

35

Zille ....

8

36

Sabahktan .

. 12*

37

Kerkif

• 6*

38

Lory ....

- 83

39

Tolos ....

5

40

Pekerik

6

41

Achkala

. 11

42

Elidja

• Ti

43

Erzerum

3

44

Alvare

• 4J

45

Iaian ....

8

46

Deli Baba .

9

47

Toprak Kale

. 15

48

Jandjalu

7

49

Diadin

12

50

Baiazid PERSIA.

9

51

Areb Dilesi . ,

7

52

Kara Ini .

8

53

Zorava

8

54

Khoi ....

• H

55

Tesouch

7f

56

Chebister

7

57

Tauris

, 7

58

Seid Abud . . ,

61

59

Tikme Tuch

. 10

60

Turkmann .

. 10

61

Miana

• »i

62

Akkond

. 10

63

Hermaan Khane .

• 9i

64

Zenghan

• 8J

65

Sultanie

• 53

TABLE, &c.

Days.

Hours of March.

66

Ebher

. 10$

67

Sia Dehen .

. 10|

68

Kasbinn, or Kaswinn .

• 6i '

69

Hassan Abad

¦ H

70

Kerbous Abad

¦ 9|

71

Kemal Abad

. 10

72

Ali Chah Abbas

6

73

Teheran

• 7*

397

Total Hours of March

602?

ITINERARY FROM ERZERUM TO TREBIZONDE.
TURKEY IN ASIA.
Kotchik

Baiboud

Jaila

Trebizonde

6 89
8 9 7
8 7

Total Hours of March

62

MEMOIR OF THE
PERSIAN AMBASSADOR.*

The family of Mirza-Aboul-Hassan-Khan enjoyed the
highest degree of royal favour during the reign of Aga-
Mehemmed-Shah, the uncle and predecessor of the pre
sent sovereign, Feth-AIi-Shah. The subject of the present
memoir, is the son of a distinguished military commander,
who perished in the service of Kerim-Khan, regent and
governor of the province of Fars, (Persia proper.) His
uncle Hadji-Hibrahim-Khan held the most important post
in the state, that of Ittimad-eddewelt, which corresponds
with the office of Grand Vizir in Turkey. Aboul-Hassan
became at a very early age governor of Xhurter-Dersoul,
a part of Persian Arabia, on the confines of the Persian
Gulf. One of the Shah-Zades, or sons of the sovereign,
Prince Mehemmed-Tahi-Mirza, governor of Shiraz, mar
ried a daughter of Hadji-Hibraham, the uncle and father-
in-law of Aboul-Hassan, and another of his wife's sisters
was united to the Nizam-eddewelt, a dignity correspond
ing with that of Ittimad-eddewelt (Grand Vizir.)
Such was the situation of this distinguished family,
when one of those changes of fortune, so common in orien-
• From the Litebarv Gazxtti.

400 PERSIAN AMBASSADOR.
tal courts, hurled them from the very pinnacle of glory
to the most dreadful adversity. Hadji Hibraham Khan,
whose advancement of fortune excited the envy of the
courtiers, fell a victim to unfounded calumny. He was
accused of having conceived the design of seating himself
on the throne, and of carrying on a plot in which the
principal members of his family were implicated. The
unfortunate minister was put to death, and his property
confiscated : several of his relatives experienced a similar
fate, and others had their eyes put out. Aboul-Hassan
himself was stripped of his dignities and thrown into
prison ; but after suffering three months confinement, he
was restored to liberty.
He employed the period of his misfortune in visiting
remote countries. He travelled to Mecca and Deria, the
residence of the chief of the tribe of the Wachabites. At
length he embarked at Bassora, on board of an English
vessel, and proceeded to Calcutta, to Lord Wellesley,
who was at that time governor-general of India. He
spent three years in visiting various parts of India, par
ticularly the province of Deccan. He then arrived at
Bombay, where he learnt that the King of Persia, being
convinced of his innocence, had pardoned him, and in
vited him back to his native country.
In the year 1809, Aboul-Hassan, through the interest
of his uncle, the Emin-eddewelt, was sent as ambassador
to England. Mr. Morier, then secretary to the English
embassy at the court of Theran, was appointed to accom
pany him in quality of Mehmander.*

* Mehmander, a kind of commissioner of the government, ap
pointed in the East to provide for the maintenance and escort of
ambassadors.

THE PERSIAN AMBASSADOR. 401
On his arrival in London, Mr. Morier was succeeded
by Sir Gore Ouseley. Aboul-Hassan remained but seven
months in the British metropolis ; when he returned to his
native country, accompanied by Sir Gore Ouseley, who
was appointed ambassador to Persia. During the voyage,
which lasted nine months, they put into the harbour of Rio
Janeiro ; thus Mirza-Aboul-Hassan may be regarded as the
first Persian who has visited the New World. On his return
to Persia, the King, to requite his services, raised him to
the dignity of Khan,* which is nearly similar to that of
Pacha in Turkey. In 1813, he was sent to Gulistan near
Tauris, where he concluded a peace with Russia. In the
following year, he was sent on an embassy to St. Peters-
burgh, here he resided three years, after which he returned
to Persia, accompanied by M. Yerenerslof, ambassador
to the court of Teheran.
Mirza-Aboul-Hassan is not merely known throughout
the East fox his diplomatic services, but is also ranked
among those individuals who has successfully cultivated
literature ; he speaks Arabian, Persian, Turkish, Russian,
Hindostanee, and English. During his travels, he has col
lected general ideas respecting the customs and manners
of the nations he has visited, and the arts cultivated by
them : he has written an extensive narrative of his travels
in India, Turkey, Russia, and England, to which the
King of Persia has given the title of Hairet-nameh (the
book of wonder.) Mirza-Aboul-Hassan proposes to en
large and improve this work by his recent observations on
Germany and France. Feth-AIi-Shah has conferred pe
culiar honour on his ambassador, by presenting him with
his portrait set in diamonds, which the latter constantly
wears round his neck.
* See Literary Gazette ; Review of Morier's Travels.
D D

402 THE PERSIAN AMBASSADOR.
His Majesty has also presented him with an ode which
he composed in his praise,* and which he accompanied
by a superb standard. From this poetical composition, it
would appear that Mirza-Aboul-Hassan is very high in
the estimation and favour ,of his sovereign. All the
relatives of his excellency occupy important posts, either
at the court of Teheran, or about the person of the here
ditary prince, Abbas-Mirzas, at Tauris. A nephevy of
Aboul-Hassan received in marriage the hand of one of
the King's daughters, but the princess died at an early age,
and Feth-AIi-Shah, to prove his attachment for the family,
united him to another of his daughters.
Mirza-Aboul-Hassan is about forty-four years of age,
of the middle stature, with a dignified and agreeable
figure. His mind is cultivated, and his manners easy and
polished. * This ode was translated by Von Hammer, during the ambas
sador's visit to Vienna.

THE END.

W. Shackell, Printer, Johnson's-Court, Fleet-Street, London.

YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

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