YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

SACRED ABCHjEOLOGY
A POPULAR DICTIONARY

OF

ECCLESIASTICAL AET AND INSTITUTIONS,
irrom $rmutt&e to JHotjetn Eimts.

MACKENZIE E. C. WALCOTT, B.D.,
OP EXETEE COLLEGE, OXPOED ;
PTUECENTOE AND PEJEBENDARY OP CHICHESTEE.; MINISTEE OP BEEKELEY CHAPEL
LONDON ; M.A., P.E.S.L., P.S.A., P.E.S.N.A. ; MEMBEE OF THE ROYAL AECH.
INST. OP GT. BEIT. AND IEEL. ; MEME. COEE. SOC. PRANC.
d'AECHEOL., SOC. DES ANTIQ. DE NOKMANDIE,
ETC.

" Mutabuntur, Tu autem idem Ipse es."
" Catholicum, quod semper et ubique et ab omnibus
creditum est." — Vinc. Liein.
" In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibu
caritas." — S. August.
" Plus semper veueranda primorum saaculorum anti-
quitas quilm novella cujusquam institutio."

LONDON:
L. EEEVE AND CO., 5, HENEIETTA STEEET,
COVENT GARDEN.
1868.

PEISTEB HY J. E. TAYLOB AlfD CO.,
LITTLE QDEE1T STEEET, _nrcOLjr*S I„„ FIELDS.

TO ALL MEMBERS
OF
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DISPERSED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD,
WHO DESIRE THE DAT
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107, Victoria Street 8. W.

PREFACE.

The history of a book can hardly be without interest to the
reader. The present volume is an endeavour to render a
subject (which in all its departments has been investigated
by me during many years) intelligible and interesting to others
who have not the leisure for similar research, or who want
the opportunities furnished by a large and accessible library.
Even under the most favourable circumstances the advanced
student is liable to be at fault to find the volume which
contains the precise information of which he is in search on an
emergency ; and the earlier and greater part of a literary life
is spent in discovering the titles and the nature of the contents
of books. My pages, I trust, therefore, may be welcome even
to him, and, if interleaved, prove a convenient index for
annotation. ^-w,.
Wherever I experienced a difficulty in my own ordinary
reading, I at once sought for its solution and noted it down.
Every rare fact or curious illustration which I discovered was
added to my store, whilst conversation, inquiries, and the
current literature of the day suggested what were the require
ments of a large class of inquirers. As far as was practicable,
technicalities have been avoided, and explanations given which
are easy and popular. Those who are experienced in literary
labour will know that this volume is no mere compilation of

PREFACE.

fragmentary and disjointed extracts, but has been slowly, and
with critical effort, constructed out of a mass of conflicting
evidence, and has been elaborated as much amid historic
monuments and the archEeological wealth of museums as under
the shadow of bookshelves. It is not a doctrinal or polemical
essay, its purport and scope being purely archaeological. My
object has been to combine under one comprehensive and
systematic scheme, in the full and true meaning of the word
archaeology, and for the purpose of mutual illustration, the
varied information derived from the silent architecture and
material remains of ecclesiastical antiquity, with the written
records of the manners and customs of those who were their
authors, and to exhibit the religious and social condition of
our forefathers as if they lived again. To discuss one without
the other of these essential elements of information is to pro
duce an incomplete and unsatisfactory view of a subject which
must, when an author writes in the interest of no party,
embrace both. The history of dogma is thus studied by the
aid of direct and incorruptible evidence, whilst the changes and
diversity of ritual and discipline, the forms of popular super
stition, and lingering tradition, lend their visible or oral
testimony to the facts of the past for aU who would understand
the spirit of the Church, the shadow itself being but a
deepened light.
The subjects treated will be found to range themselves
under the two great classes indicated above.
I. The Arts. — 1. Architecture, religious buildings, the crypt,
the catacomb, chapels, basilicas, baptisteries, churches and
their various divisions, minsters, altars, tombs. 2. Sculpture,
statues, wood-carving, bas-reliefs, diptychs, sacred vessels,
effigies, gems. 3. Painting, mural fresco, and diaper, stained
glass, mosaics, iconography, symbolism, emblems, colour. 4.
Engraving, inscriptions, brasses, slabs. 5. Furniture and
plate, vestments, veils, hangings, apparel of the altar, ecclesias
tical ornaments of ministers, and divine service.
II. Practices, Ritual, Tradition, Customs.— 1. The orders

PREFACE. XI
of the sacred ministry, and the office of minor clerks. 2.
Ecclesiastical dignities, offices, and ministries in the service of
the Church. 3. Religious communities, rules, and conventual
arrangement of buildings. 4. Distinctions of the faithful,
catechumens, and penitents. 5. Divine service, sacraments,
rites and ceremonies in all their details, their administration
and accessories. 6. Discipline and ordinances. 7. Sundays,
festivals, and fasts. 8. Usages and institutions.
My great difficulty has been to compress my accumulated
notes within the compass of a single volume, to arrange them
under a methodical classification, to select carefully appro
priate headings for all points of primary and general interest,
as well as to avoid repetition. For the sake of conciseness,
although with extreme reluctance, as a matter of necessity,
references have been omitted, except to Holy Scripture.
Foot-notes would have seriously enhanced the cost of the book,
and increased its size beyond the conventional limits of a
single volume. Most readers, however, it may be fairly as
sumed, would choose to have concise summaries and definitions
which, after careful sifting and comparison of evidence, have
recommended themselves for final adoption, in preference to
the modern fashion of constructing catenae of names, which are
found on examination to be altogether conflicting. It is a
display of erudition and of error, as easy as the mere citation
of authorities only to refute them is ungenerous, and also dis
respectful to the reader. I have, however, given a list of general
authorities, and a subsidiary index of synonyms and words of
kindred or approximate import, which occur under the prin
cipal headings.
Another point which I have, above all, endeavoured to
secure, is the absence of all controversy. Facts are here stated
without the irritatmg adjuncts of those needless disputes which
have been so frequently raised upon them, that the most
sacred and solemn subjects, have been desecrated . by the
unchastened language of human passion. Whatever may be
my failures or shortcomings in other respects, I trust that I have

Xll PREFACE.
nowhere offended against Christian truth, Catholic doctrine,
or the spirit of charity ; and even in those matters of practice
or observance which, as a sincere and conscientious English
Churchman I could not recognize, and with which I had no
sympathy, I hope I have not marred a dispassionate and
candid statement by involuntary misrepresentation, or a single
line which, hereafter, I could wish unsaid.
Every publication of the archasological societies of this and
foreign countries which fell in my way ; the classified indices
of Migne's Patrology; the volumes of the Parker Society, and
the Anglo- Catholic Library ; 'Notes and Queries'; the works
of Cardwell, Strype, and Burnet, Masked, Rock, Palmer, Dr.
Neale, and Archdeacon Freeman ; local histories and topogra
phical illustrations ; all available MSS. in the British Museum,
the Public Record Office, and the University Libraries of Oxfor
and Cambridge, and the statutes of cathedrals — have been
consulted. The general list, which the student can consult on
particular points, is as follows, besides the weU-known works
of Bingham, Riddle, Augusti, Siegel, Herzog, Britton, Gally-
Knight, Hope, and Willis ; Couchaud, Texier, De Yogue, and
Gailhabaud ; Assemanni, Baronius, Thomassin, Du Pin, Mabil-
lon, Muratori, Morin, Renaudot, Catalani, Grasvius, D'Achery,
Martene, and the series of historians issued under the direction
of the Master of the Rolls : —
Albertis, ' De Sacris Utensilibus,' 1783.
Ame, ' Carellages Emailles,' 1859.
Andr£, 'Droit Canonique.'
Assemanni, ' De Ecclesiis,' 1766.
Beleth, 'Kationale Divinorum Officiorum,' 1562.
Beyerlinck, ' Magnum Theatrum Vitas Humana:,' 1678.
Binterim, J., 'Die Vorziiglichsten Denkwiirdigkeitien der Christ-
Katholischen Kirche.'
Blavignac, ' Histoire de 1' Architecture.'
Bock, P., ' Geschichte der Liturgischen Gewander des Mittelalters,
1856.
Boissonet, 'Diet, des Ceremonies etdes Kites Sacres,' 1847.
Bona, ' De Divina Psalmodia,' etc.
Borromeo, 'Instructions,' trans, by Wigley.

PREFACE. • Xlll
Bourasse, ' Diet. d'Archeologie Sacre"e, 1851.
Brand, ' Popular Antiquities,' ed. Ellis, 1853.
Brandon, ' Analysis of Gothic Architecture,' 1847.
Cassalio, 'De Veteribus Christianorum Kitibus,' 1645.
Cavalieri, ' Opera Liturgica,' 1764.
Colling, ' Gothic Ornament.'
Daniel, H. A., ' Codex Liturgicus,' 1847 ; ' Thesaurus Hymnologicus,'
1841.
Dansey, 'Hora? Decanicte Burales,' 1844.
David, E., ' Histoire de la Peinture au Moyen Age.'
De Caumont, ' Architecture Eeligieuse,' 1851 ; ' Architecture Civile,'
1853.
De Douhet, ' Dictionnaire des Mysteres,' 1854.
De Vert Claude, .'Explication de la Messe,' 1726.
Didron, ' Annales Archeologiques.'
Dollman, ¦ Ancient Pulpits.'
D'Ortigue, 'Dictionnaire de Plein Chant,' 1853.
Du Cange, ' Glossarium Medias et InfimseLatinitatis.'
Durand, ' Rationale Divinorum Officiorum,' 1484 ; and Neale and
Webb's Introduction.
Ellacombe, various publications on Bells.
England, Bishop, 'Ceremonies of Holy Week,' 1847, 'Construc
tion, etc., of a Church, Vestments of the Clergy, and the Mass,'
1845.
Expilly, 'Dictionnaire Geographique,' 1762-8.
Ferguson, 'History of Architecture.'
Ferrari, O., ' De Be Vestiaria,' 1654. B., ' De Bitu Ecclesise Veteris
Concionum,' 1713.
Ferraris, L., 'De Disciplina Ecclesiastica.'
Ferrarius, A., ' Bibliographia Antiquaria.'
Fosbrooke, ' British Monachism,' 1843 ; ' Encyclopaedia of Anti
quities.'
Frances, ' De Ecclesiis Cathedralibus,' 1665 .
Freeman, E. A., ' History of Architecture ;' ' Origin of Window
Tracery.'
Gavanti and Merati, 'Thesaurus Sacrorum Bituum,' 1749.
Genebrand, ' Traicte' de la Liturgie,' 1602.
Gerberti, * Vetus Liturgia,' 1776; 'De Cantu etMusica Sacra,' 1775.
Goar, 'Euchologium,' 1647.
Guenebault, ' Dictionnaire Iconographique,' 1850.
Habert, Is., ' Archieraticon,' 1643.
Haines, ' Monumental Brasses.'
Hallier, ' De Sacris Ordinationibus,' 1739.
Hampson, ' Kalendarium Medii iEvi,' 1841.
Hefele, C. J., ' Beitrage zur Kirchengeschichte,' 1864.
Helyot, 'Dictionnaire des Ordres Beligieux,' 1847.

PREFACE.
' Hierurgia Anglicana.'
Hittorp, 'De Diversis Catholicse Ecclesise Officiis,' 1624.
Hopkins, 'History of the Organ.'
Hurtaut, ' De Coronis et Tonsuris.'
Isabelle, ' Edifices Circulates.'
Jebb, ' Choral Service ;' 'Bitual Law.'
Kennett, ' Parochial Antiquities,' 1695.
Eing, 'Bites and Ceremonies of the Greek Church,' 1772. (T. H).,
'Medieval Architecture,' 1859.
Eugler, ' Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte,' Band II., 1861.
Labarte, ' Arts in the Middle Ages,' 1855.
Lenoir, ' Architecture Monastique,' 1862.
Lingard, ' History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church,' 1844.
Lipsius, ' De Cruce,' 1540.
Littledale, Dr., ' Offices of the Holy Eastern Church,' 1863.
Lorenzano, ' Liturgia Mozarabica,' 1850.
Lubke, W., ' Geschichte der Architektur,' 1865.
Lyndsay, Lord, ' Christian Art.'
Lyndwood, 'Provinciale,' 1679.
Macri, ' Hiero-Lexicon,' 1677.
Maillane, ' Du Droit Canonique,' 1776.
Maringola, ' Antiquitatum Christianarum Institutiones,' 1857.
Martigny, ' Dictionnaire des Antiquites Chretiennes,' 1865.
Martin and Cahier, ' Melanges Archeologiques.'
Martini Poloni Chronicon, 1574.
Merimee, ' L'Ouest de la France.'
Molanus, 'De Historia Imaginum,' 1771.
' Monasticon Anglicanum.'
Moreri, ' Le Grand Dictionnaire Historique,' 1740.
Muller, ' Manuel d'Archeologie.'
Paley, F. A., 'Manual of Gothic Mouldings;' 'Illustrations of
Baptismal Fonts ;' ' Manual of Gothic Architecture.'
Parker, J. H., ' Glossary of Architecture.'
Pascal, 'Liturgie Catholique,' 1844.
Petit, 'Eemarks on Church Architecture,' 1850.
Petrie, ' Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland.'
Polydore Vergil, ' De Eerum Inventionibus.'
Portal, ' Des Couleurs Symboliques,' 1837.
Pugin, ' Glossary of Ornament,' 1844.
Eheinwald, E. F„ ' Die Kirchliche Archajologie,' 1830.
Eocca, ' Opera Liturgica,' 1712.
Both, 'De Disciplina Arcani,' 1841.
Eubenius, ' De Be Vestiaria,' 1665.
Scarfanton,, ' Animadv ad Lucubr. Canonic. E. F. Cecoperi,' 1751
Schayes, ' Histoire de l'Architecture Belgiquc,' 1849
Sharpe, ' Decorated Windows,' 1849.

PREFACE. XV
Shavr, ' Ancient Tile Pavements,' 1858 ; ' Dresses and Decorations
of the Middle Ages,' 1840.
Sicard (1150-1215), 'Mitrale,' 1844.
Simpson, ' Ancient Fonts,' 1828.
Sivry, ' Des Pelerinages,' 1850.
Stephani, 'Thesaurus,' ed. Dindorf., 1848.
Street, ' Gothic Architecture in Spain,' 1865.
Texier, ' Dictionnaire d'OrfeVrerie;' ' Les Emaillons et les Argentiers
de Limoges.'
Thiers, ' Sur les Autels ;' ' Sur les .Tubes. '
Vice-Comes, J., ' Observationes Ecclesiastical,' 1615.
Viollet-le-Duc, ' Diet. Eaisonnee de l'Architecture Francaise,' 1854 i
' Du Mobilier Francais,' 1855.
Wakeman, ' Architectura Hibernica,' 1848.
Webb, B., ' Continental Ecclesiology,' 1848.
Whewell, ' Architectural Notes.'
Winston, ' On Glass Painting.'
Wilkins, ' Concilia Magna? Britannia?,' etc.
Wollhouse's ' Moller.'
Zaccaria, " Bibliotheca Eitualis,' 1776.
I trust that readers of chroniclers and medieval MSS. wiU find
their researches rendered more easy, and that many travellers
at home and abroad will be enabled to visit old minsters and
investigate the precious remains of antiquity with some better
result than that of a mere confusion of images, which vanish
wellnigh as soon as they are created, or of an ignorant belief
in a medley of arrangements in themselves perfectly distinct,
and the propagation of infinite mistakes and misapprehension.
I shall be still more glad if I have contributed my share
towards the spread of that knowledge which can alone (by
showing the true value of what has been bequeathed to our
keeping) protect the contents of muniment chests, and stay
the hands of irrational and ruthless destruction. A fury
which is more dangerous than the ravages of armies, mobs, or
fanatics, has recently, under the specious plea of restoration,
chiselled over the fronts of walls and defaced mouldings, swept
away ancient remains of woodwork and internal ornament,
and made of glorious fabrics a havoc, now, alas ! irreparable,
and a subject of lasting national shame.
I have so often been indebted to critics, hostile and friendly,

XVI PREFACE.
that I am quite prepared to receive their suggestions, advice,
and corrections with a grateful spirit. I will only remind
them, in the words of Lord Bacon, that a work of this nature
"is a thing of exceeding great weight, not to be compassed
without vast labour, and that which stands in need of many
men's endeavours; our strength, if we should stand alone, is
hardly sufficient for so great a province, for the materials arc
of so large an extent that they must be gained and brought
in from every place."

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Abacus (from aba.v, Gr., a tablet). The uppermost part or
crown of a capital.
Abbey. A community of men or women under the rule of an
abbot or abbess. In the middle ages the Abbeys were the
guardians of literature, science, and civilization; protesting
against force by learning, against corrupt morals by purity,
against the abuses of wealth by poverty, against the licence
of power by submission. Agriculture, music, and the arts
were all indebted to these houses of religion. Monasticism
commenced in the East during the third century. In Egypt
there were communities of thirty or forty monks hying in
one house, and a corresponding number of such dwellings
formed a monastery under the rule of an abbot ; the subordi
nate houses were governed by a provost or prior, and over
each ten monks a dean presided. From the fifth to the
seventh century in the West each monastery had its abbot,
who owed obedience only to the diocesan ; and its dependent
houses or cells were governed by removable priors. In the
tenth century the reform of Clugni took place ; one abbot
presided over the whole order, — all subordinate heads of
houses being called priors. The Cistercians in the eleventh
and twelfth centuries appointed an abbot in each monastery,
all of whom were required yearly to attend the General
Chapter ; but the parent Abbey of Citeaux preserved a large

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

amount of authority over her "four daughters/' La Ferte,
Pontigny, Clairvaux, and Morimond.
The Mitred Abbeys were-

Abingdon, St. Mary.
Alban's, St.
Bardney, St. Oswald.
Battel, St. Martin.
Bury, St. Edmund's.
Canterbury, St. Austin's.
Colchester, St. John.
Crowland, St. Guthlac.
Evesham, St. Mary.
Glastonbury, St. Mary.
Gloucester, St. Peter.
Hulme, St. Benet.

Hyde, SS. Peter and Paul.
Malmesbury, St. Aldhelm.
Peterborough, St. Peter.
Kamsey, St. Mary and Bennet.
Beading, St. James.
Selby, St. German.
Shrewsbury, SS. Peter and Paul.
Tavistock, St. Mary.
Thorney, St. Mary.
Westminster, St. Peter.
"Wmehcoinb, St. Mary.
York, St. Mary.
St. Alban's long claimed precedence, but at length West
minster succeeded in securing the first place.
At Rome there are nine Mitred Abbots General, Benedic
tines of Monte Casino, Basilians, Canons Regular of St. John
Lateran, the orders of the Camaldoli and Vallombrosa, Cis
tercians, Olivetans, Sylvestrinians, and Jeromites; they sit
on the left of non-assistant bishops.
Abbot. The Superior of a Monastery of Benedictines, Cister
cians, and some Clugniac and Preemonstratensian houses. In
the eighth century some presidents of secular colleges, with
the confusion of names all signifying simply jurisdiction,
were called abbots ; and about the same time in France there
were many intruders, lay-abbots, who usurped the revenues;
but Hugh Capet restored the election to the monks. In Eng
land the Crown frequently interfered, either by presenting its
nominee or withholding its consent to the elect of the con
vent. In France, parish priests were called abbes; the
religious took the name of father. At Westminster the
abbot was buried with an Indulgence and cross of candles
laid upon his breast. In some cathedrals abbots held stalls ;
as the abbots of Sion and Sherborne at Salisbury, the abbot
of Grestein at Chichester, those of De Lyra and Cormeille
at Hereford, of Athelney and Muchelney at Wells ; there are
other instances at Coire, Gerona, Palencia, Toledo, Valence,
and Auxerre ; and the priors of Nostell and Hexham were
prebendaries of York.
The abbot was the chief officer and president of the house :
where monastic churches were also cathedrals he was called

ABBOT. 6
a prior, the bishop being treated as the abbot, and at Ely
occupying his stall in choir. If a mitred abbot, as at Glou
cester, he wore the same vestments and ornaments as a
bishop, although originally it appears that the mitre was
made of less costly materials, and the crook of the staff
turned inwards, to mark that his jurisdiction was internal
over his house. At Abingdon he had his (1) abbey proctor,
who was his bursar, and alternately with the seneschal his
court-holder and man of business ; (2) keeper of courts,
who was granarer and larderer, and receiver of guests ; (3)
chaplain, who was one of the hebdomadarii, or weekly cele
brants, and his constant companion. At Durham the chap
lain was his chamberlain and comptroller. At Gloucester
the abbot might have five esquires : one to be seneschal ; the
second, marshal, to regulate the expenses as comptroller of
the household, and regulate the fare in hall and number of
guests ; the third, cook ; the fourth, chamberlain ; the fifth,
usher of the table ; one only to have a horse ; also a sub-
chamberlain, pantryman, butler, a cook as drysalter, farrier,
and messenger ; four palfreys for himself and his chaplains,
four grooms of the robes, a page, and a long chariot ; eight
dogs of the chase, four harriers, a groom, and page ; but the
hounds were to be driven out of the hall at meal-time by the
ushers. At Peterborough, in the twelfth century, they
swore in twelve seniors as electors, who assembled in the
abbot's chamber, while the prior and convent sang and
prayed in the chapter-house for their direction. Sometimes
abbots resigned; and one at St. Alban's then occupied a
chamber under the hall, and at Meaux another built a cham
ber on the east side of the infirmary.
There were two abbots at Toledo and Osma, one at Pam-
peluna, Valence, and Auxerre, and four at Palencia, capitular
members. Pope John XX., at the beginning of the eleventh
century, allowed abbots to wear pontificals ; in the twelfth
century, notwithstanding the opposition of the bishops, those
abbots received the grant of mitre, ring, and sandals : their
use is only by Papal indulgence, and the mitre must be plain
white, except in the case of exempt abbots, who may have
orphreys ; but they have a conventional right to use the
pastoral staff, as an ensign of authority and spiritual charge ;
but it was distinguished by a veil-banner, sudarium, or
b2

4 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
or avium, in token of subjection to the bishop, except
when the bearer was an exempt abbot. Abbots also claimed
to give the benediction, and confer the clerical tonsure and
minor orders within their churches : the Cistercian abbots in
Italy were permitted by Pope Innocent VIIL, and those in
Spain by Gregory XIII., to consecrate altars and plate
in their own minsters with chrism obtained from the
bishop. Pius IV. extended the right to the abbots of Monte
Casino.
Abbots, Lay. In the time of Charles the Bald, many persons
were allowed to hold, abbeys on terms of military service,
who were called field abbots, or abbot counts, and these
appointed clerical deans in their place (see Dean and Pro
vost) . The Duke of Cleveland is now Abbot of Battle, and
Earl of Kilmorey of Newry ; and by an arrangement at the
Reformation, each alternate Bishop of Osnaburg is a Pro
testant prince. James Stuart, son of King James V. of
Scotland, was Prior of St. Andrew's.
Ablution. Wine and water used by the priest after Com
munion to cleanse the chalice and his fingers. At one time
he was required to drink it; the water-drain was always
erected near the altar to receive the ablution.
Ablutions. (1.) Gapitilavium, head-washing ; a. Spanish rite,
adopted in France. It took place on Palm Sunday, the Sun
day of Indulgence, out of respect to the sacred chrism with
which the catechumens were anointed on the solemn day of
baptism. Possibly the custom ceased after the Council of
Mayence, in 833, required baptism to be celebrated after
the Roman manner. (2.) Pedilavium, ablution of the feet,
which see. (3.) Ablution of the hands. In the Tabernacle
there was a laver, and a brazen sea in the Temple, symbolical
of holy baptism, cleansing by the blood of Christ, and the
blessings conveyed by the stream of evangelical doctrine.
Washing of the hands before the Eucharist was received was
common to the whole Church from the earliest times ; as St.
Cyril of Jerusalem says, it is symbolical of the purifying of
the heart that should accompany the worshipper. The
priests, after receiving the offerings in kind, also washed
their hands before the consecration, so as to minister with
clean hands, and purified from all touch of earthly things ;
and the laity, who always received the sacred element of

ABRACADABRA — ACOLYTH. 5
bread in their hands, washed them beforehand, — a discipline
which died out between the sixth and ninth century, as ap
pears by a canon of Tours.
Abracadabra. An amulet used by the Basilidian heretics to
cure fevers ; connected with—
Abraxas. Little images of metal, with inscriptions and sym
bols, used by Gnostic and Basilidian heretics. The letters in
Greek make up the number 365, the days of the year, as St.
Augustine has pointed out. This figure appears on the ring
of a Norman Bishop of Chichester.
Accent. Grave accent is the fall of a perfect fifth in the Cantus
Collectarum ; the accentus mediiis, the fall of a note; the
accentus moderatus, or inter rogativus, the rise of a note ; the
acute accent the rise to the second note above it.
Acclamations. Set forms of address used by the early Chris
tians at funerals ; on the monuments of the dead [in pace,
vivas in Deo, etc.] ; or on inscriptions to the living, as bro
therly greetings, or to put them in remembrance of holy
things.
Acolyth. A servant ; follower : an order of subordinate min
isters mentioned by St. Cyprian ; and in the Greek Church in
the reign of Justinian. By the Fourth Council of Carthage
their duty was to furnish wine for the Lord's Supper and
light the candles, and at a later period to clear the way in
processions. In the Eastern Church the subdeacons ap
parently discharged the office of the acolyth. The name
was given to this minor order because the duty of such
clerks was to accompany bishops and priests. Pope Corne
lius is the first writer who mentions the order, and he enu
merates forty-two at Rome ; there they carried the eulogies,
and also the Eucharist to those absent from church. They
went up to the altar, each with his bag in his hand, some on
the right and others on the left, with the subdeacons, who
held the mouth of the bags open whilst the archdeacon put
into them the consecrated bread for the people. The aco-
lyths then presented the bags to the bishop on the right and
priests on the left, and the latter broke the bread on two patens
presented by the subdeacons. This ceremonial ceased in the
time of Gelasius ; then they were ordered to hold the paten
and calamus, assisted at the scrutiny of catechumens, and
recited the Creed with them. There were three orders of

6 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
acolyths at Rome : the Palatines, who assisted the Pope in
the palace and Lateran basilica; Stationary, who served in
the stations in churches ; and the Regionaries who assisted
the deacons each in his region.
Acrostics. (1.) The initials of several words, forming a sacred
word, as in the case of Ichthus (fish), representing the Divine
Sonship and attributes of the Saviour. (2.) Akroteleutia, end
verses; the final symphony alluded to by the Apostolical
Constitutions, Philo and Socrates. Eusebius of Csesarea
and St. Chrysostom mention that a single voice began the
Psalm, and the rest sang only a portion. Cassian says in
the monasteries a single voice sang the Psalms. In the
Book of Common Prayer, the verse and answer in the Preces
and suffrages in several cases make up one petition, the
answer being the end or part of the foregoing verse. St,
Augustine also notes the dipsalma (the Hebrew Selah), the
point in the middle of a verse where the reader preceded and
the people began to respond. At length the people became
so vociferous, that it was found necessary by the canons of
Laodicea and Carthage to provide an order of Singers.
Acts of Martyrs. The lives and acts of the early martyrs
were written at an early date on thin leaden tablets ; as
Gregory of Tours mentions. Dionysius of Alexandria and
Eusebius Pamphilus were the earliest martyrologists : they
were imitated by Anastasius the Librarian, in the ninth cen
tury; Metaphrastes at Constantinople in the tenth century;
Surius in the sixteenth; Ruinart in the seventeenth; and
the colossal compilations commenced by Bolland, and still
continued by laborious successors. The authentic acts are
divided into several classes : (1) proconsular or presidential,
founded on official documents; (2) original or autobiogra
phical; (3) contemporaneous; (4) memorial and abbrevi
ated ; (5) traditions recorded in sermons, hymns, and pane
gyrics.
Administration. The distribution of the Sacred Elements
in the Holy Communion ; during this time the organ continues
to play at Durham Minster.
Adult Age, by the canon law, is fourteen years. Infancy
terminates at the seventh year; childhood [pueritia], in the
fourteenth ; youth, in the twenty-fifth or twenty-eighth year ;
manhood [jtiventus] , in the fifty-fifth year; cetas senilis s.

ADVENT — AGAPE. 7
gravitas, middle-age, in the seventieth. Old age has no de
finition by years ; extreme old age [senium] ends in death.
Advent. The season called after the coming of Christ in flesh,
and instituted for the preparation of Christian minds for a
holy life and pious meditation on the Nativity of the Lord.
It commences always between Nov. 26th and Dec. 4th, and
includes a period of four weeks. It has been said to be
mentioned by Maximus of Turin in the fifth century, but is
certainly spoken of in the Council of Lerida, a.d. 524. For
merly the Sundays were reckoned inversely to our present
computation, that next Christmas being caUed Advent Sun
day. This is one of the four Ember seasons. At Mar
seilles, after matins and before lauds begin, the choir kneels
down, and the anthem is solemnly chanted until Christmas
Eve, " Send forth the Lamb, the ruler of the earth." In
France, in early days from the sixth century, Advent was most
rigorously fasted.
Advertisements of Queen Elizabeth, The, were put forth in
1564—5 to stop irregularities in divine service.
iEditui. Officers at Milan, who take charge of the fabric
Affusion. Aspersion, or sprinkling, although previously prac
tised, did not become general until the thirteenth century
in the Western Church, which permits it, although the ancient
practice of immersion, or dipping, has never been formally
abolished, in favour of pouring water on the person to be
baptized. Affusion was probably an indulgence to Clinics,
or persons baptized at the point of death, and then extended
to infants in delicate health. The Eastern Church retains
dipping, and insists on rebaptism by immersion in all cases
where it has not been observed.
Agapse. Love feasts ; a meal taken, in primitive times, as
supplemental to the Holy Communion on Sunday evenings,
when the candles were lighted ; after prayer, religious con
versation and instruction ; and followed by collections of
alms for widows, orphans, and the poor. It probably was
instituted in memory of that which was technically called the
Common Supper of the Lord and the Twelve, in distinction
to the Pasch, or Legal Supper, and the Eucharistic Supper,
and as a mark of brotherly affection and equality in the
Gospel. It is mentioned by St. Jude (v. '12) and St. Paul
(1 Cor. xi. 16, 34). The third Council of Carthage permit-

8 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
ted a supper after Holy Communion on Maundy Thursday.
Such feasts were kept also on martyrs' -days, at weddings and
burials, and dedications of churches in the daytime. The
Council of Gangra, in the fourth century, mentions them as
occasions of almsgiving to the poor ; but abuses crept in, the
original design was lost sight of, and St. Augustine at
Hippo, and St. Ambrose at Milan, suppressed the custom
altogether. St. Chrysostom and St. Gregory of Neo-Cae-
sarea, the Councils of Laodicea, III. ; Carthage in the fourth
century ; Orleans, 535 ; and that in Trullo, 692, forbade the
keeping of agapse in churches. Pope Gregory the Great
allowed the Kentish Converts of Augustin to observe the
dedication of a church as a holiday with festivities ; but the
repast was served under tents made of leaves, and not inside
the church.
The agape was long used before the Communion in Africa,
and the custom has been traced to apostolic times (Acts ii.
46; xx. 11). The Jews kept an agape after funerals, called
the bread of grief and cup of consolation (Ezek. xxiv. 1 7 ;
Jerem. xv. 5-7; Deut. xxvi. 14; Prov. xxxi. 6).
Agatha's, St., Letters. A superstitious charm against fire;
the heathen took her veil from her tomb to extinguish a con
flagration. When Frederic II. was about to lay Catania in
flames, the legend says that at the reading of the Gospel he
saw these words written in letters of gold on the book : —
" Harm not Agatha's birthplace, for she avengeth injury."
Agenda. The ritual of a church, with the books embodying it,
in contrast to the Credenda, or Articles of Faith.
Agnus Dei. A little round cake of perfumed wax, stamped
with the figure of the Holy Lamb bearing the standard of
the Cross. When these cakes were hallowed by the Pope,
a post came in haste, saying, " My Lord, my Lord, these are
the young lambs that have announced Alleluia; now are they
come to the font." They are distributed on the Octave of
Easter to be burned as perfumes, symbolically of good
thoughts, or in memory of the deliverance of men from the
power of the grave at Easter by the Lamb of God. Matthew
Paris says that the French shepherds used the agnus-dei
during the time of the Crusades.
The custom took its origin in the distribution of the ends
of the paschal of the past year, which the people burned in

AGNUS DEI — AISLE. 9
their own houses as a safeguard against evil spirits. At
Rome the archdeacon, instead of this plan, blessed wax
moulded with oil and stamped with a lamb on Easter Eve,
and these little medals were given out on Low Sunday to the
baptized. In the form of medals it dates from the sixth cen
tury, but in its earlier form from the fourth century. St.
Gregory the Great sent an agnus-dei to the Empress Theo-
dolinda.
Agnus Dei. An anthem in the Canon of the Mass, sung be
tween the fraction of the Host and the Pax. It occurs in the
Sacramentary of Gelasius, and was sung by the clergy only
until Pope Sergius I., c. 700, ordered the people also to join
in it. When Pope Innocent III. mentions that it was re
peated thrice, owing to the prevalence of a schism, it appears
that the words, " Grant us thy peace," had been introduced ;
but the ancient custom of saying three times only, " Have
mercy upon us," is retained at St. John's Lateran, except
when the Pope celebrates.
Aire. A hnen napkin, embroidered with coloured silk, used
as a chalice ved at Canterbury in 1635, and by Bishop An-
drewes.
Aisle (ala, a wing). A word used by Strabo in describing an
Egyptian temple ; the Greeks called the colonnades of their
sacred building diptera or periptera, with the same notion of a
wing. It is the collateral division or member of a church,
flanking the nave, choir, or transept. In many foreign ca
thedrals the aisle is doubled, as at Cologne, Ulm, Pisa,
Milan, Gorlitz, Strengnas, Seville, Toledo, Bazas, Amiens,
and Toulouse, and trebled at Antwerp. The earliest instance
of the double aisle is in basilicas and at St. Paul's Without,
Rome. At Chichester, Manchester, Edinburgh, Melrose,
Elgin, Amiens, Evreux, Rouen, Paris, Bourges, Troyes,
Beauvais, and in other places, the additional aisle was divided
into chapels. The nave, aisles were occupied by lay persons
to view processions ; and at Norwich the rings remain in
the pillars through which the ropes were drawn on such oc
casions. At Canterbury the only access to the east end for
lay people was by the south aisle, that on the north being
blocked up by altars : the additional aisle was a great relief,
both in capabilities of accommodation, and in furnishing
room for chapels. In Cistercian churches the eastern aisle

10 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
of the transept was divided into chapels, two or three in each
wing. In the Basilica, the aisle on the right-hand was allot
ted to men, as the women occupied that on the left side, ac
cording to the old arrangement of suitors for justice, when
the building retained its original character as a court of law.
Aisles, when enclosed with screens, were sometimes called
chancels, as forming memorial or gudd chapels ; the aisle
behind the high-altar was the processional path, serving
for the passage of the procession ; the aisles at the back of
the stalls were the retro-choir.
There are aisleless transepts at Carlisle, St. Mary's
Overye ; St. Bartholomew, Smithfield ; Christchurch, Hants ;
St. Alban's ; Sherborne ; Binham, Bromham, and Le Puy ;
but there are both east and west aisles at Winchester, West
minster, Ely, Byland, Wells, York, Milan, St. Denis (as
once in Old St. Paul's) ; and at Winchester, Caen, Upsala,
Pontigny, and formerly at Canterbury, an additional aisle on
the north and south. The Cistercian transept had invari
ably an eastern aisle divided into chapels.
Bolton, Brinkburne, Weybourn, Hulne, Bayham, Easby,
Carcassone, Angers, Wechselburg, Pforte, Geneva, and
Meissen have aisleless choirs. Solignac has an aisleless
nave; Lanercost and Hexham, had only a south aisle, and
Brinkburne only a north aisle. At St. Denis there is an in
ternal western aisle. At Leominster the parish church
formed an enormous south nave aisle ; the Dominican and
Franciscan friars had only one aisle, usually on the south,
which was allotted to the congregation at sermon times.
Their choirs were ordinarily aisleless. At Gloucester and
Ghent the friars' nave had two narrow aisles, barely suffi
cient to form passages. The arcade of the triforium opens
directly into the aisles at Rouen, Waltham, and Rochester.
AjuleiOS. Tiles of a blue colour, used in Spain ; there are spe
cimens in the Gaunt Chapel, Bristol.
Akephali. Bishops independent of superior jurisdiction.
Albe (white). A close, white linen garment, which was or
dered to be worn by deacons by the Fourth Council of Car
thage, 398, and iElfric's canons in 957. It is the "white
habit " [candtda vestis] mentioned by St. Jerome as worn
by all the clergy at the time of the Holy Communion ; the
Father also mentions the tunica mundior (the fairer tunic) or

ALBUM  ALLELUIA. 1 1
camisia, whence the modern word ' chemise,' or bed-gown,
worn " in camis." It reached down to the heels, and in the
twelfth century at St. Alban's was ornamented acu pluma-
ria : the sleeves were tight ; and on the cuffs and edges of
the skirt were pieces of rich work, called apparels. It was
bound with a girdle or zone, which was originally a rich,
broad belt, but gradually dwindled into a narrow cord. The
albe was said to typify the white robes which had been
washed in the blood of the Lamb, and the garment of right
eousness and salvation ; whilst the girdle symbolized discre
tion, and the constraining love of God and our neighbour.
Cranmer explained it as symbolical of the robe which our
Lord wore in the presence of Herod, and of the innocency of
life and purity of conscience which beseem the celebrant ;
and the girdle as suggestive of the close attention of mind
which he should exhibit at that time. An ancient albe is
preserved at Shrewsbury.
Album. The official register of a church.
Alchemy. Metal; a counterfeit of gold, as latten was of
brass.
Alexander. A stuff of Alexandria ; work Alexandrine is
mosaic.
Alien Priories. Cells belonging to foreign religious houses in
England; they were dissolved by stat. 2 Henry V. One of
the most perfect is that of Wilmington, Sussex.
Alleluia. The singing of this Hebrew word, meaning Praise
the Lord, like Amen and Sabaoth, has been derived from
the use of the Church of Jerusalem. It is attributed to Pope
Damasus. Pope Gregory allowed it to be sung out of Easter
tide. The alleluia) inclusio was the close of the time for
singing alleluia, from Christmas to Epiphany. The famous
Alleluia Victory-was won by St. Germanus and the Britons
chanting Alleluia, H^, at Easter time over the Saxons and
Picts. The Saturday before Septuagesima was called Alle
luia, because it was sung for the last time then until Easter
tide. The name Alleluia is also given to certain Psalms, the
XLV. and those following, of which the word forms the
close. St. Gregory ordered the alleluia to be sung not only
at Easter, but throughout the year. It was allowed at fune
rals. Alexander II. prohibited the alleluia in the liturgy in

12 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the interval between Septuagesima and Easter Eve ; and the
Fourth Council of Toledo forbade it on all fast-days. It was
used in the Mass to represent the Hebrew title of the Cross,
as Kyrie Eleison was a reminiscence of the Greek. Victor
of Utica called it the alleluiatic melody ; on the Circumci
sion, which was fasted as a protest against heathen revelry,
the alleluia was not sung. The people sang it together in
divine service, monks assembled to its sound, and the la
bourer in the field and the seaman on shipboard chanted it
in the early days. of the Church.
All-Hallows, i. e. All Saints. There are thirteen churches with
this dedication, eight of which are in London. In the time
of Elizabeth, bells were tolled during the whole night, com
mencing after evensong, and continued on the morrow on
All- Souls' Day.
All-Souls' Day. The morrow of All Saints, Nov. 2. In
Shropshire and Cheshire children go round the parish, sing
ing a peculiar song and collecting alms, — probably a relic
of the old custom of asking for money to pay for Masses for
the dead.
Almery, or Aumbry. The medieval hutch; a cupboard; oc
casionally used for keeping broken meat ; hence a confusion
was made in calling the almonry, the place of almsgiving,
the almery, where the dole of fragments from the conventual
tables was daily made. The word is derived from armarium,
and usually designates the wall-closet or locker for keeping
the church books or altar-plate, the chrism used in baptism
and confirmation, and the holy oil for the sick. In many
cases the Eucharist reserved for the last Communion was
stored in an aumbry near the altar, as is still the case in Italy.
In the cloister the books used in reading-time were kept in
an aumbry placed either within the church, close to the
door, or else in a locker adjoining it at the north-east angle.
At St. Alban's it was in the former position, and enriched
with colour. The Greeks had an aumbry for holding the
vestments of the religious, — a sort of hanging wardrobe Over
the altar; from the fifth century presses for the same pur
pose were erected in the sacristies of the Western Church.
There are sometimes two, but more generally one aumbry
on the Epistle side in French churches. At Chester there
are two on the Gospel side. The Carthusians had two aum-

ALMOND-TREE — ALMONER. 13
bries, one on the right for the vessels, and another for books.
Aumbries to contain processional crosses, the bier, taper-
stands, and burial furniture, occur in walls near the cloister
and cemetery. Three of wood, formerly behind the reredos,
are preserved at Carlisle, two of these of the fifteenth century,
and one of earlier date, and carved. Several of the fifteenth
century are remaining at Selby. Twro remain behind the
high-altar at Hythe and Sompting. At Salisbury there are
several good stone specimens, one retaining its original doors.
At Durham there are double aumbries on either side of the
altar platform, which held the ewer, books, cruets, chalices,
patens, and altar linen. All the keys were locked up by the
sacristan at night in a master aumbry until early in the
morning. Usually the aumbry is provided with a slab. At
Selby there are some good specimens of wainscot aumbries.
Up to the thirteenth century the piscina had a small upper
shelf for the chalice ; and even in later examples a little cre
dence for holding the cruets and vessels is found. Some
times a small ledge for the calamus appears ; and until the
thirteenth century the marks of holes for the hinges of doors -
are visible ; after that date, however, the aumbry became
common. The vestibule of the Franciscan Convent, London,
attached to the chapter-house, was provided with book
aumbries and water from the common conduit ; and at Wen-
lock there are three large arched recesses for aumbries at the
north-east angle of the cloisters.
Almond-tree. The symbol of St. Mary, in allusion to Aaron's
rod, which blossomed in a night ; but M. Montalembert
conceives the plant to be dedicated to the Holy Trinity.
Almoner. He distributed the alms, doles, and fragments, and
wine-leavings from the various halls, to the poor ; provided
the expense of the processions in Lent and on Rogations ;
found mats for the chapter-house and cloisters, dormitory
stairs and choir ; the necessaries for the Maundy, and a staff
of boxwood, which he gave to each monk at processions in
Rogations, before which his men cleared the way. At Nor
wich he found wine on certain feasts, and for the clerks of
St. Nicholas and boy bishop ; under the great almoner was
the sub-almoner. He had charge of the bridges at Durham
at an early date. At Gloucester the sub-almoner distri
buted the fragments from the refectory and halls of the

14 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
abbot, infirmary, and lay brothers. The almoner still re
mains at Metz. The office was founded at Segorbe in 1358.
At Lincoln the almoner was called the hospitaller. A minor
canon, after the Reformation, discharged the duties at Glou
cester, Rochester, Chester, Durham, and Ely.
Almonry (from Eleemosine, alms) . The place where the daily
dole was given to the poor, and therefore invariably adjoin
ing a principal entrance to the monastery. At Canterbury
and St. Paul's and Durham, the choristers lodged in it ; and
were called, as in St. Mary's College, Winton, the children
of the Almonry. At Rome, Pope Vitalian had the choir
boys of the Papal chapel lodged and boarded in the Parvise,
as, centuries after, the choristers of St. Mary's, Warwick, had
their sleeping-room adjoining the church. The almoner, one
of the minor canons of St. Paul, had charge of the eight
singing-boys.
Almsbox, or Poor Men's Box. A box in which alms for the
poor are placed at the entrance of churches ; there is a good
medieval example at Selby, and one of iron, of the fifteenth
century, at St. George's, Windsor.
Almsmen. At Gloucester there were thirteen St. Peter's-men,
or fraternity of the Holy Cross, founded 1516,. by Abbot
Malvern, who wore a black gown, hood, and scapulary, with
the arms of the monastery on their right shoulder, and a
cross of red and blue on their breast.
At Durham there were four aged women of the Infirmary
living without the south gate, maintained from the prior's
table ; the master of the infirmary said Mass for them on
holidays and Fridays in the infirmary chapel.
Almuce, or Amess. A habit of grey fur, worn in winter by monks
and canons. It was at once a cap and tippet ; the outside was
of cloth, and the inside was lined with fur, costly, and of a
silver-grey colour, as worn by dignitaries, or of dark -brown
hue, known as Calabre, from Calabria, whence it was im
ported, by inferior ministers. The canons' cloth was black,
that of the Doctor of Divinity scarlet, and covered the
shoulders. The vicars wore the black amess in England and
at Vienne ; but violet at Monte Regale, Cefalu, Mazzana, and
Messina ; and black with violet edges and ends at Otranto
and Palermo. At Langadoc the canons' amess was purple,
in honour of martyrs, with a hood [pcenvla] of lambs' fur.

ALTAR. 15
At Setabis it was of ermine ; at Syracuse, black or violet,
according to the season ; at Neti, of black silk ; at Vienne,
in summer, of green material; and at Otranto, violet, with
crimson edges. At Astley the canons' hoods were lined with
linen or fine taffeta from Michaelmas to Easter. In 1242,
the Benedictines of Canterbmy obtained the Pope's licence
to. cover their heads during divine service, owing to the
cold; the same privilege was allowed at Durham, Peter
borough, and Crowland. The Clugniacs and French and
Italian canons wore the amess either over the head as a hood,
or carried it on the left arm. It sometimes had a stole-like
form, as in the portraits of Archbishop Warham, Abbot
Bewforest, of Dorchester, and a famous wall-painting at
Chichester. Strype calls it a tippet, and, in 1571, it was pro
hibited by the Council of London, although Parker wore it
as " a collar of sables " at his consecration. In a medieval
miniature of a prascentor of Salisbury, preserved in the Book
of Life of St. Alban's, and on the brass of J. Courthope,
1 559, the shape is that of a cape with pendants formed of
the tails of animals. . But the habit in either shape is not
earlier than the thirteenth century, the cape being added
two centuries later ; its material, the skins of dead animals,
typified deadness of spirit to the world. It is the French
aumasse and Italian almutzio. In Italy, during summer
time, it is a convenient compromise for the large and heavy
cappa. At Cambridge the proctors wear the hoods
" squared " like a tippet on formal occasions.
Altar (Latin altare, from altus, elevated ; ara, from Gr. airo,
to raise) (St. Matt. v. 23; xxiii. 18; Heb. xiii. 10). Bishop
Ridley renders it Thusiasterion, the place of sacrifices. It con
sists of the mensa [lapis integer], or upper slab, which should
be of one piece, to denote the unity of Christ's person ; and
of a substructure composed of legs, shafts, slabs ; or a solid
construction, in front of which was an ornamental sculp
ture, called the tabula, or a hanging of rich material, known
as the pall, and recently as the ante-pendium [devant I'aidel],
parafront, or frontal. The true altar was reputed to be the
Holy Stone, being the seal of the place of relics, and large
enough to contain upon it the chalice and paten ; this was
let into the slab. The superaltar was a superb covering of
the upper slab, used on great occasions.

16 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Minucius Felix, Origen, and Arnobius, say that the Chris
tians had no altar, but their meaning was to distinguish it from
the Jewish and Pagan homos, whereon sacrifices of blood were
offered, as the Christian altar is spoken of by our Lord and St.
Paul. The first altars were, no doubt, tables shaped in me
mory of the Last Supper ; but the tombs of martyrs and con
fessors in the Roman catacombs were afterwards, during times
of persecution, used and covered with sacred sculptures or the
image of the Good Shepherd. When the Church had peace,
the form of these primitive altars was preserved, and the altar
itself built over the grave or confession of a saint, in allusion
to St. John's vision of the souls beneath the altar in heaven,
or, in lieu, the relics of a saint's body were placed within it.
The erection of the first permanent altar is attributed to
Pope Sixtus II., and the use of stone in their construc
tion, after the Oriental custom, to Pope Sylvester, c. 315.
Altars of wood are mentioned by Optatus, St. Athanasius, and
St. Augustine ; an example exists in St. Praxedes, at Rome ;
that of St. John's Lateran is of great antiquity, — wooden,
hollow, and tomb-shaped, resembling that of the Holy Cross,
at Poictiers, as described by St. Gregory of Tours. William
of Malmesbury states that St. Wolstan of Worcester first
introduced stone in England as the material for altars in
place of wood. St. Cyril speaks of British altars in his time
without mentioning their make. Erasmus saw one of wood
about the period of the Reformation in Canterbury Cathedral.
The material of wood symbolized the cross of Calvary.
About the beginning of the fourth century several Councils
required the employment of stone, which was preferred from
its symbolical reference to Christ, the Rock (Ps. cxviii. 22 ;
Dan. ii. 35), or, expanding the idea of the martyrs' memo
rials to the holy sepulchre of Him who was made perfect
through suffering. St. Gregory of Nyssa, c. 370, mentions
stone altars in the East, and, in the West, the Council of
Epaone, which was enforced in England in 740, and by Lan-
franc in 1071, confirmed the practice by ordering that only
altars of stone should be consecrated with chrism. The
earliest consecration was made by order of Pope Felix I.,
c. 276, in imitation of the anointing of Jacob's pillar. In
Belgium stone altars began to be erected in the sixth
century.

ALTAR. 1 7
The earliest form of the altar was a table, — a slab sup
ported on a single shaft, called the reed, like one still ex
isting in the crypt of St. Cecilia's at Rome, or resting on
several columns, such as Symeon, Bishop of Ptolemais, de
scribes, which varied in number, from four, six and seven, to
eight. To these fugitives clung ; and Pope Vigilius, when
pursued by the soldiers of Justinian, fled to St. Peter's, and
put his arms for sanctuary round the shafts of St. Euphe-
mia's altar, in the sixth century, and the people compelled
the preetor and soldiers to retire from the church. The
earliest form represented in the catacombs is that of a
table on legs, such as remain at Valogne, c. 693, St. John's
Ravenna, SS. Nazarus and Celsns in the same city, and St.
Vincent aux Trois Fontaines. In Belgium, from the sixth
to the twelfth century, the altars were composed of a slab
resting on five or seven supports ; in France they were of
the same form, and occasionally raised on mere brackets, but
in the thirteenth century they became oblong. In the Greek
Church the single altar was small and table-shaped, — a slab
supported on five shafts, one in the centre and four at the
angles, probably, as in the parallel instance of fonts, symbo
lizing Christ and the Evangelists.
The old Byzantine altars of Vienne and Spires are of un
usual form, being composed of a single block of stone. From
the thirteenth to the fifteenth century the tomb-like altar
appears ; there are ancient examples at St. Vitalis, Ravenna,
St. Francis Perouse, Avenas, St. Germer, and the Museum
Cluny, but formerly at Basle. In England we possess
similar instances of late medieval date, usually of solid con
struction and with panelled fronts at Arundel, Porlock,
Dunster, Abbey Dore, Christchurch (Hants), and Magdalen
Hospital, Ripon. In a side altar, at Jorevalle, the recess for
relics remains in the frontal. The tomb-like form in many
places was preserved with the primitive cavity for relics ;
the French sub-altars, carried on legs like tables, are believed
by some authorities to have served as credence-tables. At
Veruela the high- altar, of the twelfth century, is solid with
an arcaded front, whilst the sub-altars stand on five shafts.
In the Greek Church there is only one altar. At Milan,
according to the Ambrosian rite, the single altar stands de
tached from the wall ; the other altars are modern, having
c

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

been erected by Cardinal Borromeo. There was at first only
a single altar in a church, typifying the unity betwixt Christ
and His Church ; and the fact is recorded by St. Ignatius,
St. Irenajus, St. Cyprian, Tertullian, and Eusebius of Cassarea;
the tradition is still preserved in England with the necessary
modification of having an additional altar for early or addi
tional services as at Salisbury, Hereford, St. Paul's, Wells,
Chester, Lichfield, Norwich, Carlisle, Christchurch (Hants),
Romsey, and, till recently, at Chichester. In Sweden there
are usually two unused altars at the ends of the aisles. At
length altars were multiplied ; Constantine the Great erected
three altars in the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jeru
salem, and four in St. Mary's, in the vaUey of Jehosaphat;
in 326, Bishop Aventius consecrated three altars at Avi
gnon. Pope Leo the Great, in the sixth century, men
tions thirteen altars erected by Palladius, Bishop of Saintes,
in memory of the Apostles. St. Gregory of Tours speaks
of two altars in St. Peter's, Bordeaux, and celebrated on
three altars in the church of Brennes. St. Benet d'Anian,
in the time of Constantine, erected seven altars in his minster
of St. Guilhem du Desert. In the eleventh and twelfth cen
turies, when the aisles were continued eastward, and apses
were converted into chevets, with a processional path and
radiating chapels, altars necessarily were multiplied. In the
fourth century, there were seven in the Lateran; in the
fifth century, St. Ambrose mentions the soldiers, when leav
ing the basilica of Milan, embracing the altars to announce
peace accorded to the Church by Valentinian, and St. Hilary
dedicated three altars in the baptistery of the Lateran. St.
Gregory mentions two in St. Peter's, Bordeaux, and thirty
in another church. The Greeks retain a single altar in a
church, but build a number of external oratories for the cele
bration of Mass.
The primitive altar stood in the centre of the church as
at Tyre, described by Eusebius, on Mount Olivet, and still
later at Seligenstadt. The celebrant was thus distinctly
seen by the whole congregation, whom he faced, and the site
corresponds to that of the rood altar in a medieval church.
It had a passage all round it in allusion, to the words of the
Psalm (xxvi. 6), " I will compass Thine altar." St. Chry-
sostom mentions curtains which draped it about, just as the

ALTAR. 19
bankars on either side, and the dorsal at the back fenced in
the medieval altar. A curious relic of the ancient custom
of the celebrant to front the people is preserved in the re
markable altar of Bologna, which has two faces; and at
Canterbury, in Parker's time, when there was no commu
nion, the priest stood on the east side of the altar, facing the
people ; and Jewel mentions that it was also the custom at
Milan, Naples, Lyons, Mayence, Rome, and St. Laurence,
at Florence. It is still observed at St. John Lateran, St.
Peter's in the Vatican, St. Mary Major, St. Mary in Tras-
tevere, and St. Peter's at Cirate. By the Ambrosian rite,
the priest, in memory of ancient usage, does not turn to give
the benediction or say " Dominus vobiscum," as he is sup
posed to have the people in front of him. The high-altar
ought always to front the east in cathedrals and collegiate
churches ; minor altars and chapels might front any point of
the compass. The ancient altars had four columns at
the corners, which supported a domelike canopy, called
the ciborium or Baldacchino, to which were affixed large
curtains of silk, which fell at the moment of consecra
tion, and remained drooping during the Communion.
Sometimes the materials used in an altar were precious
marbles and porphyry resting on columns of the same
rich stone ; if the altar was of simple masonry, it was
covered with magnificent draperies of silk, with sumptuous
embroidery, and encrusted with gold and precious gems. Pope
Sylvester, at the beginning of the fourth century, erected
an altar of silver and gold, with rich jewelled work ; to it
Leo III. and Leo. IV. gave altar-cloths of tissue of gold,
with scenes from our Lord's life. There is a magnificent
altar, the Palliotto, in St. Ambrose's, Milan, which was exe
cuted by Wolvinius, in 835, and erected by Bishop Angil-
bert, with plates of precious metals and enamelling. The
altar of Basle, c. 1019, now in the Hotel Cluny, is of
gold; one at Monreale is of silver; that of St. Germer, near
Beanvais, of the twelfth century, is of bronze ; that of Ra-
tisbon is of silver ; and other examples of metal occur at
Aix-la-Chapelle, Pistoia, of the fourteenth century, and
Florence. A portable altar, cased with silver, of the tenth
century is preserved at Oviedo, and another of the twelfth
century at Munich. Whilst the altars of cathedrals and
c 2

20 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
minsters were overlaid with mosaics and enrichments of
great value, in the country churches the altar was of plain
stone, and covered with a cloth of pure linen or lace. In the
crypts of Spires and St. Savin there are five altars of this
simple character ; but sculptured frontals of the same date
have been preserved, which adorned the richer altars. At
Brussels, Amiens, Rouen, Abbeville, and other Belgian and
French churches, there are modern wooden altars.
Where the front of the altar is plain, it was intended to be
concealed with hangings. In Spain, Italy, and France,
owing to modern innovations, ancient altars are rare, but in
Germany they are common ; and of all varieties, the Baldac-
chino, or ciborium, remains at Prague, at Castle Transnichts,
of the thirteenth century, in Bavaria ; early fourteenth-century
altars, with rich ciboria, may be seen at Ratisbon ; at Erfurth
there are fronts of canopied images, or mere interlacing
arches ; and in the Alte Dom Chapel of the Cloisters, Ratis
bon, one of the ninth century has crosses within circles ;
another there, of the eleventh century, rests on four columns ;
another, in the cathedral of Brunswick, is Romanesque, and
composed of a marble slab resting on four bronze shafts ;
the superb high-altar of Cologne is of the earlier part of
the fourteenth century ; the materials are black and white
marble, and the frontal consists of canopied images. Trip
tych altars of wood of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
are preserved in the same cathedral, and superb examples of
the reredos at Lorsch and Erfurth. The fifteenth- century
type was^ a wooden altar and reredos, with a large triptych,
carving in deep relief and pictures as at Oberwesel. -
There were several altars in a large church : —
I. The High Altar, distinguished as the great, chief, or
principal, which stood at the east end of the sanctuary. It
was called also the chapter or cardinal altar, because used
for the high, cardinal, chapter, or conventual Mass, which
was sung after prime in summer and after tierce in winter.
Anciently, always isolated, and aloof from the waU, in dis
tinction to minor altars.
II. The Altar of the Rood, the Cross, the Crucified, or
Jesus, which was placed in the rood-loft, facing the nave,
and formed the high-altar of the parish or laity.
III. The Middle, or Matin Altar, which stood at Worcester

ALTAR. 21
and St. Alban's under a rood beam, at the east end of the
choir, before the entrance of the Presbytery. It was used
for the early or matin Mass of a convent ; it stood, however,
sometimes behind the high-altar, and, where there was an
apse, between it and the throne of the bishop. In Cistercian
churches, and at Pisa, Bourges, Chartres, and Rheims, it
was used for the reservation of the veiled cross on Good
Friday, which was borne in procession by two of the clergy
singing the anthem, " Popule Meus," " 0 my people." At
Canterbury, in 950, as in the old cathedral of St. Peter's,
Rome, there were three altars in a row, one behind the other,
— the high, matin, and rood altars.
IV. At the lower end of the choir was an altar at Toulon,
Orange, Noyon, Sees, St. Germain des Pres, Padua, Turin,
Verona, Bologna, Sienna, and several Roman churches, used
for the conventual Mass or as a rood altar.
V. The altar of St. Mary, usually in a chapel eastward of
the presbytery; besides other minor altars of saints, ar
ranged in chapels at the ends of aisles, or against the nave-
pillars. These were attached to chantries, and maintained
by the endowment of founders or at the expense of guilds
and brotherhoods.
At the Reformation, many altars were destroyed in Eng
land and tables of wood erected, but the demolition and
change were regarded with popular disfavour, and some
bishops, like Day of Chichester, refused to take any part in
the desecration. In some places, where the choir or chancel
was too confined to hold the communicants, the altar was re
moved, at the time of Communion, into the nave, thus oc
cupying the site of the old rood-altar, and afterwards restored
to its proper position at the east end of the chancel, standing
altarwise. In the first Prayer-book of Edward VI., it was
also called God's board, and the Lord's table. In the ' Con
secration Service,' the ' Statutes of Hereford,' and other au
thorized documents, it retains its ancient name of altar. At
Durham and Worcester in the reign of Charles I., at Bolton
in Craven in 1703, at Stratford on Avon in the present
century, stone altars were erected. That of St. George's,
Deal, was brought from Northbourne Priory ; there are other
examples at Westminster Abbey and New College Chapel,
Oxford.

22 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
The slab of the altar at its dedication was ensigned with
five crosses, one in the centre and four at the corners, in
memory of the five wounds of Christ, and also with the
name of the saint in whose honour it was raised, according
to an English council held in 816. It was divided into three
parts in front, medium altare, before the altar, and the right-
hand, or Epistle side, and the left-hand, or Gospel side, ac
cording to the English use ; but in Roman churches, since
145)3, the position is reversed, being assumed from the cru
cifix on the altar, and not as before, from the celebrant's
arms, facing the reredos. Altars were washed with wine and
water on Maundy-Thursday, in allusion to the blood and
water which flowed from the Saviour's riven side. The Em
peror was set upon the altar of Mayence on his consecration,
and the Pope on the altar of St. Peter's after his election by
the cardinal bishops. In England, in 896, slaves were
manumitted at the altar, and oaths of purgation made before
it, and donations of lands by the gift of a sword, or a horn
or cup laid upon it. Altars were required by English coun
cils to be anointed in 740, and hallowed in 960.
The Greeks, in the ninth century, charged the Western
Church with presenting a lamb at the altar on Easter Day,
with a symbolical reason ; and Sir Thomas More speaks of
the hallowing of the fire, the fount, the Paschal Lamb. At
Westminster Abbey, in the thirteenth century, a salmon
was yearly presented at the high-altar in commemoration of
the monks having succeeded in estabhshing their right of
the conservatorship of the Thames from Yenlade, below
Greenwich, to Staines Bridge ; and at the same date until the
reign of Elizabeth, before the altar of St. Paul's every year
a doe in winter time and a buck in summer, garlanded
with roses and flowers, was offered by the bequest of a
knightly St. Baude, in lieu of 22 acres of land granted to
him by the chapter. At York, a lamb was offered by the
tenants on Lammas Day, and a stag was annually presented
at Durham on St. Cuthbert's Day by the Nevdles. At Leon,
one quarter of a bull, which had been killed in the last bull
fight, was annually offered at the high-altar on August 27.
There is an altar-cloth at Emneth which was given in
1570, and exhibits a resemblance to medieval embroidery.
Some at York are of stamped leather.

ALTARAGE  AMBON. 23
Until the ninth century the altar was unornamented, but
in the tenth century the cross was put on it ; but before the
fourteenth century no candles or crosses were permitted to
be permanently set on altars, but were invariably brought in
by two acolyths when Mass was to be said. Until the
thirteenth century the bishops sat at the end of the apse,
but- in the fourteenth century altars were multiplied and the
throne was displaced. The next step was to bring in at the
time of Mass portable retables or diptychs ; and then, in the
fifteenth century, the contre-retable appeared, a wainscoted
decoration above an altar, designed to receive the altar-piece
or retable, either a picture or bas-relief of the saint to
whom the altar was dedicated, and at the end of that period
Germany was pre-eminent in the delicacy of the carvings of
such works of art.
Altarage. Altar-dues, the offertory-alms for a priest's main
tenance.
Altaristse, or Officiatores. Deputy chaplains appointed for
saying Masses.
Altar-piece. A picture over an altar. At Gloucester there is
a painting of the early part of the fifteenth century, repre
senting the Crucial Judgment, which is supposed to have
formed the altar-piece.
Alure. A passage, alley, walk, in a church or cloister ; a para
pet ; a gutter.
Ambon. (Greek, anabainein, to mount, because ascended by
stairs ; or ambo, because there were usually two ambons.) An
elevated desk or pulpit, used for reading the Holy Scriptures,
the Epistle and Gospel, and placed in the centre of the nave,
either in the middle or on one side. When there were three
ambons, the Epistle was read from the southern, and the
Gospel from the northern lectern. Where there was only a
single ambon, the Epistle was read from its lower step by the
subdeacon turning towards the altar, and the Gospel by the
deacon on a step higher, in the direction of the nave ; and a
large chandelier or candlestick, attached to the ambon, sup
ported the Gospel light. It usually had two flights of stairs,
one on the left, towards the east, for ascending it, and the
other on the right, facing westwards, for descending ; but
in some churches, to mark due honour to the Gospel, the
subdeacon and deacon used different staircases.

24

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

At the ambon were recited the diptychs, the acts of mar
tyrs, letters of peace or communion ; sermons were deli
vered; and the newly-converted made profession of faith.
Towards the nave were iron prickets for tapers where there
was no great chandelier or Gospel candlestick. Beneath it
was the privileged place for the choir, from the time of St.
Gregory, when the singers had their special duties, as the
deacon was always a Gospeller, and none but priests could
celebrate. The Council of Laodicea applies the word ' ambon ' to the
place of the singers ; the choir, not the lectern ; just as St.
Gregory Nazianzen contrasts the great bema of the readers
with the sacred bema, or sanctuary. This name of bema is
also occasionally transferred to the ambon, which was known
by other names, as, pulpit, lectern, purgos (tower), suggestus,
gradus (the step), auditorium, or ostensorium. St. Cyprian,
St. Gregory of Tours, and Prudentius caUed it the tribunal
of the church, as bishops like St. Chrysostom preached
from it ; and Walafrid Strabo, in allusion to the crowd of
hearers grouped around it, gives the derivation of the word,
ambire, to surround. The great royal, or beautiful gate,
the entrance to the ritual choir, rose over the ambon. The
most ancient ambon existing, that in the Holy Ghost Church,
Ravenna, is of the sixth century; the most modern, dated
1249, is preserved in St. Pancras, at Rome. At St. Sophia's,
Constantinople, the ambon was jewelled and hung with
lights. The ambon for the Epistle at St. Mary's Cosmedin,
St. Clement's, and St. Laurence Without, at Rome, is square,
and on the north side ; the Gospel ambon, on the south side,
is octagonal, and reached by two flights of stairs. Toledo
possesses ambons of bronze, and those of Seville are still
used for chanting the Gospel and Epistle. The ambons of
Toscanella, St. Mary in Ara Coeli, and St. Nereus, Rome,
and St. John, Pistoia, of the thirteenth century, have a large
eagle in front. The ambon was the original from which the
pulpit, the lectern eagle, and rood-loft were derived. A
pulpit on the north side of the chancel of Compton Martin,
Somerset, may have been used as the Gospel ambon.
Ambrosian Liturgy. A Mass used at Milan, and also by the
Cistercians.
Ambulatory. An aisle ; the processional path.

AMEN — AMICE. 25
Amen. The Puritans, according to Stapleton, had a trick used
by their preachers to make their audience cry Amen, which
was a poor imitation of the applause and clapping of hands
used in ancient times, and condemned by St. Chrysostom and
St. Jerome ; although Burnet, at a later date, sat down in
the pulpit of St. Margaret's, Westminster, to enjoy the
humming approbation of the congregation manifested at one
of his political discourses. It was a primitive practice to
answer Amen at prayers (1 Cor. xiv. 16), and St. Jerome
says, " In church, at the tombs of the martyrs, the Amen,
like the heavenly thunder, booms again." St. Chrysostom
says it took the place of the Greek acclamation of the ora
tor by his audience, and was uttered in a kind of chant.
St. Justin mentions that after the Holy Communion the peo
ple cried out together Amen ; and St. Augustine, St. Cyril
of Jerusalem, St. Ambrose, Tertullian, and Eusebius men
tion that the communicant, on receiving the Eucharist, used
the word to express that he had received the Body and Blood
of Christ. "With the same mouth," says Tertullian, "you
say Amen in honour of the King of Saints and to glorify a
gladiator." St. Athanasius speaks of the use of Amens in
the church of Alexandria, and St. Gregory Nazianzen bids
his mother speak only in church by replying with an Amen
to what the priest had said.
The word means True, or, according to Eusebius, So be it,
or, as Aquila explains it, Faithfully. St. Hilary defines it
to be the response to pious words.
Amice. An oblong or square piece of fine linen; a covering
of the head and neck introduced in the seventh and eighth
centuries to preserve the voice, as Am alarms suggests, and
also as a decent ornament. At a later date it was regarded
as the counterpart of the Jewish ephod or humerale, and was
made sufficiently ample to cover the shoulders and chest.
At Rome, about the year 900, it was used as a covering for
the head, and wound round the neck at the time of Holy
Communion. In the tenth century it received an ornamental
border, called the Apparel. The amice is not enumerated
among church vestments until the ninth century, and it was
not until the thirteenth century that the clergy covered their
heads during the sacred office ; it is probable that the
bishops also did not wear their mitres at such times previous

26 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
to this date. The other names of this appendage were
epomis, and, about the beginning of the ninth century, su-
perhumerale and anabologion. It was supposed by some
writers to symbolize the helmet of salvation; but Cranmer
considers it to represent the veil with which the Jews
covered the face of the Saviour at His mocking, when they
buffeted Him, and also faith, the head of all virtues.
Ampulla. (Latin, vas amplum, or olla ampla.) The cruet
for chrism oil, and holy oil, and sick men's oil. The most
famous was that preserved at Rheims, until broken by a
miscreant after the death of Louis XVI.; — a portion of the
oil was saved and used at the coronation of Charles X. ; — it
was made of glass, and used at the coronations of the kings
of France from the time of Clovis, who had been baptized
with it. An idle legend declared that it had been brought
from heaven by a white dove to St. Remi. The real fact
was, that the holy oil used at the baptism of Clovis was en
closed in the figure of a dove suspended over the baptistery.
2. A leathern pouch given in England to pilgrims to the va
rious greater shrines.
Amula. The ancient name for a cruet for the wine used at the
Eucharist. When personal offerings in kind ceased, the am
pulla, or burette, replaced the round amula, which was often
jewelled and of precious metal.
Amulet. A preservative ; from the Arabic hama-il, a small
Koran hung as a necklace, as a safeguard ; from hamala, to
carry. It was applied to the Holy Eucharist by Christians.
The Christian amulet, from being carried in the breast, was
often called encolpium, or philacteria ; sometimes they were
in the form of a medal of bronze, marked with a cross, and
of a hand, with the salutation Zekes, ' Mayest thou live ;' a
portion of the Gospels hung round the neck ; a relic ; or a
formulary within a box of precious wood, like one preserved
at Monza.
Analogion. A reading-desk.
Anaphora. In the primitive Liturgies, the Oblation, analo-,
gous to the Canon of the Mass ; and in the English Liturgy
to the portion following the words, " Lift up your hearts."
It commenced with the triumphal hymn.
Anchor. One of the earliest symbols used by Christians on
their rings, as by good George Herbert in later days, as the

ANCHOR  ANCHORET. 27
pledge of hope of safety against shipwreck, in allusion to
Heb. vi. 18. The mystic fish is often associated with it, and
its shape below the ring is cruciform, which, no doubt, con
tributed to its popularity. Other authors regard it as a
symbol of constancy or conscience ; or the wholesome effects
of poverty and tribulation on the soul.
Anchoret. A hermit, says Giraldus, is a wanderer ; an an
choret is a recluse. In the Middle Ages, there was a regu
lation, called the Ancresse Rule, for inclusi, men or women
recluses who lived immured in a peculiar chamber in or near
a church for life, as at Norwich, Westminster, Leicester, and
Peterborough ; in the churches of the Holy Innocents and
St. Medard, at Paris, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centu
ries. They were admitted by the bishop, and retained their
civil rights ; in certain cases the door might be reopened.
At Mas d'Azil, the chamber in which an idiot was confined
is still shown. At Westminster, the cell was in an aisle ; at
Peterborough, near the Lady Chapel ; at Durham it was ap
proached from the north choir aisle by a, staircase. At Nor
wich, a gallery still existing in the north choir aisle commu
nicated with the sanctuary men's chamber, which, before the
fifteenth century, was the reliquary chapel of St. Osyth, and
occupied by a recluse. At St. Peter's, in St. Alban's, there
was a recluse in the twelfth century, and at Mantes in the
time of William I. At Durham, the anchorage was a porch
with a rood standing between two pillars at the east end of
the north choir aisle. It contained an altar for Mass, and
was reached by stairs from the shrine. It had been, in an
cient time, the dwelling of an anchoret. There was an an
chorage at Leicester, and the Dominican Friary, in Norwich.
Frequently, the anchoret was a priest who was not permitted
to open any church door, but preached or conversed with
lay persons through a low grated window on the south side
of the chancel, which was also used to communicate lepers.
Sometimes the anchoret had a separate dwelling, with an
oratory attached to it. At Markyate, a recluse, Christina,,
lived in a cell barred with a heavy wooden bolt, provided
with a stone seat, and secluded from view by an inner screen.
Near it six hermits lived. Women who had renounced the
world were permitted to have a chamber within the church,
having only a grated aperture, which opened into- the build-

28 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
ing. One such inmate at a time only was permitted. Some
times the recluse was an involuntary occupant of a cell, ac
cepting it as a commutation for death due to a criminal offence.
These cells must not be confounded with the chambers of the
sacrist, chantry priests, or church watchers over chapels or
in parvises. Occasionally, the cells were wooden structures
in a cemetery, and provided with a garden.
Ancien et Nouveau Diacre. Two of the junior canons at
Cologne, Lubeck and Osnaburg; probably so called as of
two foundations for deacon canons.
Angelic Hymn. The " Gloria in Excelsis," so called because
sung by the angels in Bethlehem on the night of the Nati
vity.
Angelic, or Heavenly Hierarchies. St. Augustine professes
that he did not know the distinction between the orders
mentioned in the Apostolical Epistle to the Colossians. But
at a later date, nine companies have, been enumerated,
divided into three hierarchies : —
1. Seraphim (perfect love), cherubim (perfect wisdom),
thrones (perfect rest, and in contemplation as dwelling
nearest to God) .
2. Dominions, Virtues, Powers; holding the general
government of the Universe, the gift of miracles in God's
service, and the office of resisting and casting out devils.
3. Principalities, Archangels, Angels : intrusted with the
rule of nations, of provinces and cities, and individual man
as a guardian.
The nine choirs are represented in the glass of New Col
lege Chapel, Oxford, and at Chartres in the thirteenth cen
tury, Vincennes fourteenth century, and Cahors fifteenth
century, in sculpture ; on the roof of St. John's, Stamford,
and on the beautiful Pillar of the Angels, at Strasburg. At
Lincoln, the "Angel Choir" contains figures of angels in
the tympana of the triforium. They are often represented
in priestly vestments, but more correctly with unsandalled
feet, wings of gold, and robes of pure white ; sometimes
their wings, in the latter part of the fifteenth century, are
painted in various colours, as in the stained glass of Tatter-
shall, Warwick, Wells (Norfolk), and Southwold; or in ear
lier examples with peacock's-tail feathers, to represent the
eyes within and without, as on the chapter-house walls of

ANGELIC, OR HEAVENLY HIERARCHIES. 29
Westminster. St. Michael appears at first in an albe, but in
the fifteenth century, with far less propriety, in armour.
The conventional delineation is as follows : —
1. Angels: ministers and messengers of grace; with albes
flowing to the feet, with golden girdles [as they are repre
sented in the Apocalypse] , and green stoles ; they carry a
ring of gold in their right hand and the seal of God, ><, in
their left hand ; or they are in armour with girdles of gold,
battle-axes, and lances ; or they bear a book and ring; are
represented as in the bloom of youth, with white robes of
purity and golden ornaments of holiness and glory.
2. Archangels : angels sent as messengers on God's greatest
matters, as St. Gabriel at the Annunciation, and to Zacha-
rias, and St. Michael, the Archangel of the Doom, men
tioned by Daniel and St. Jude, ambassadors extraordinary.
They carry a cross-banner, the emblem of victory, and a
javelin or axe. v. i^^^il^c
3. Seraphim, whose chief is Uriel, chant for ever the
praises and love of God. Their spiritual swiftness is repre
sented by their wings, and their ardent love by a burning
heart, and are compared to pure fire. They have six wings :
two about their head, two about their feet, and two out
spread, as if to fly, and they carry in each hand a scroll in
scribed, " Holy, Holy, Holy " (Isaiah vi. 2).
4. Cherubim : angels, so called, says St. Jerome, from
their exceeding knowledge, or their swiftness (Ps. xviii.).
They are under their chief, Jophiel ; sometimes they appear
with four wings, to veil their feet and faces, and looking to
wards each other ; or are represented by winged heads ; or
of red colour, or standing upon burning wheels (Ezek. i. 19,
20). 5. Thrones : who stand always at the throne of God, as in
Ezekiel's vision. They appear as wheels of fire, with wings
studded over with eyes ; or they carry a palm and crown,
emblematical of justice and equity, and are kneeling. Their
chief is Zaphkiel. At Chartres, they have green wings and
sceptres, and are enclosed within a crimson elliptic aureole.
6. Dominations : whose chief is Zadkiel, carry a sceptre,
sword, and cross. By their ministry, God exercises His
power in the world.
7. Virtues : under Haniel, carry a crown of thorns in one

30 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
hand and a chalice of consolation in the left hand. At New
College, they have a battle-axe and spear, with a pennon
marked with the cross.
8. Powers : the host, from whom God is called the Lord
of Sabaoth; guardian angels under Raphael, who carry a
levin bolt and flaming sword. At New College, they wear
a jupon, sword-belt, an ermine tippet and furred cap, and
carry a spiked baton.
9. Principalities ; the guardians of princes, under Kamiel,
hold sceptres, and wear a belt with a cross over their breast.
Angels usually are vested in a white pall or tunic, and a
blue stole ; they are represented in human form as minister
ing to man (Heb. i. 14) ; winged, from their readiness to aid
man (Ps. xci. 11) ; with a censer, as offering the prayers of
men (Tobit iii. 24, 25, xii. 12 ; Rev. viii. 3, 4) ; as youths, be
cause immortal; beautiful, because holy (Exod. xxv. 18;
1 Chron. vi. 23, 27, 28) ; armed, in allusion to. 2 Mace. xi. 8 ;
girdled (Rev. xv. 6) ; white-robed, from their sinlessness ;
with jewels, as symbolical of their virtues (Exod. xxviii. 17) ;
barefooted, as God's ministers (Joshua v. 13, 16; Exod. iii.
5; St. Matt. x. 9, 10); and among clouds, as dwelling in
heaven. St. Clement of Alexandria taught a transmigration of
human souls into angels, and, by successive stages, into arch
angels. Like Justin Martyr, he believed that angels fell
from their first estate for love of earthly women. An angel
often crowned a spire, tower, or fleche ; for this reason, the
central tower of Canterbury was called the Angel Steeple;
and still a great angel with a cross stands over the Apse of
Rheims. After Arianism appeared, two angels were usually repre
sented on either side of our Blessed Lord, as witnesses to
the Divinity and Consubstantiality of the Word. Angels
were always represented round the choir, and especially in
the sanctuary and about the altar (eminently by the Carthu
sians), in allusion to their presence in divine worship (1 Cor.
xi. 10). Sometimes angels carry a measuring rod (Rev.
xxi. 15; Ezek. xl. 3); a sword, | as the ministers of God's
wrath; the instruments of the Passion, as executing His
mercy ; or scales, as performing His judgments. The trum
pet relates to the Last Judgment, and other instruments of
music recall the divine melody of their heavenly home.

ANGELUS  ANKER-HOLD. 31
Angelus. "Hail,. Mary !" the salutation of St. Gabriel to the
Blessed Virgin, is commemorated by a prayer said at the
sound of a bell called the Angelus, which is rung at dawn,
noon, and evening. The latter was ordered by Pope John
XXII. , 1316-34, the first by the Council of Bourges in
1369, and enforced by Archbishop Arundel in 1399, who
required a Paternoster and five Aves to be said. It was
often called the Gabriel Bell. The midday bell was insti
tuted by Louis XI. in 1472. The modern form was intro
duced into France in the sixteenth century. In the thirteenth
century, at St. Alban's, three peals were rung for the Lady
Mass ; and the Angelus has been attributed to Pope Urban
II., when he enjoined prayers to be made for the Crusaders ;
or Calixtus III. in 1455, when the Christian army was en
gaged in repelling the Turks. The Curfew, which is as
ancient as the time of King Alfred, was probably adopted
for the evening Angelus. St. Augustine and St. Jerome
say that our Lord went to His Passion at night, rose in the
morning, and ascended at noonday, and the three hours are
indicated in Ps. lv. 17.
Animals and living creatures are often represented in sacred
buildings within mouldings and on tombs, merely as orna
ments from early days; such as dolphins, doves, griffins,
monsters, birds, and the like. In the medieval period, ef
figies rest their feet on a lion or dog, the types of constancy
and strength ; but in the catacomb and church, the lion, the
horse, the lamb, the hart, the stag, the dove, peacocks, fish,
are emblems. The lion represented vigilance; the lamb,
innocence ; the hart, flight from sin ; the hare or the horse
alluded to the Christian course (1 Cor. ix. 24; 2 Tim. iv. 7) ;
the dolphin typified speed and diligence, and, from heathen
fables of -^EKan and Pliny, loving affection ; whilst birds,
amongst foliage and flowers, portrayed the deliverance of
the souls of the blessed from their earthly habitations (Ps.
cxxiv. 6). In the ceremony of canonization, the Pope is
offered, among other presents, caged birds, as emblematical
of the virtues of saints. Doves and serpents refer to St.
' Matt. x. 16.
Anker-hold. A cell of a recluse in a church. At Kilkenny
Cathedral, there was one at the north-east angle of the choir,
" through which, by a stone window placed on the right horn

32

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

of the altar, that is, the Gospel side, the anchoret could see
the mysteries ;" an account which fully describes the true
intention of those openings hitherto pedantically known, as
hagioscopes and lychnoscopes, words of recent coinage, and
erroneously explained. This cell was four feet below the
choir-floor, but the recluse was enabled to see the altar by
means of an open niche, to which he went up by stairs ; it
contained a fireplace and rude lockers or aumbries. In
Bavaria, each cell had three windows, one to see the Sacra
ment, a second for the admission of food, and a third for
light, being closed with horn or glass. Some of the women
recluses had also a servant in the adjoining chamber, and
three windows in their own cell ; one, of the parlour, for
conversation, curtained with a black ved, which was em
broidered with a white cross ; another, the home-window, for
light and ventilation ; and the third for communion. Several
anker-holds still exist : at Fore, in Ireland, in the church ;
at Wilbraham, in the tower ; at Stanton, Somerset, adjoining
the church; and in the south arm of the transept at Nor
wich : each had its altar, crucifix, and images. In Pembroke
shire, at Othery, Somerset, and several cruciform Cornish
churches, especially at Mawgan, the chamber or passage is
pierced through the wall at the junction of the transept and
chancel, or where the end of the rood-screen would terminate.
These all have their external low-side windows ; and at Els-
field it is provided with a stone book-desk and seat.
Annates. First fruits paid to the Pope when an ecclesiastic
was promoted. They were made a settled duty by Pope
Boniface IX. in the reign of Henry IV., but claimed many
years before by the Pope. Henry VIII. seized them. Queen
Mary refused to receive them, but Queen Elizabeth accepted
their restoration. Queen Anne nobly gave them up for the
better maintenance of the poorer clergy, as a fund called
Queen Anne's Bounty.
Annuals. Annals, yearminds, or obits; anniversary Masses
for the dead.
Annuellars. Chaplain priests who celebrated the Comme
moration Masses for the departed, on their annuals. Their
usual pay was three marks yearly. At Exeter there were
twenty-four, who acted as subdeacons in choir; at Wells,
fourteen : both corporations lived in a collegiate manner.
Tho name was preserved at Llandaff so late as 1575.

ANNUNCIATION  ANTHEM. 33
Annunciation. Lady Day. The feast is mentioned by St.
Athanasius, St. Augustine, St. Chrysostom, Gelasius, and
Gregory [and by the Council of Toledo, on December 18, in
654] ; it was confirmed by Boniface IX. in the fourteenth
century.
Ante-church. In some churches, as Vezelay, Clugny, Dijon,
Sherborne, Glastonbury, and Lewes, there was a large ante-
church, which corresponded with the ancient Prior Porticus,
or Pro-Naos. The ante-chapel is a transeptal approach to a
college chapel, as at Merton, New, Magdalen, All Souls',
and Wadham, at Oxford.
Ante et Retro. To bow before and behind in choir to the
abbot or dean, and to the altar, in entering or leaving the
choir. At Windsor and Durham and Oxford, a trace of the
custom lingers : in the Royal Chapel, the canons bow to the
Sovereign's closet, and in the cathedrals to the altar. At
Canterbury, the statutes prescribe bowing to the altar and to
the dean.
Ante-pane, or Ante-pendium. The front-cloth; frontal. (1.)
A curtain hung in front of the ciborium. (2.) An altar-cloth
covering the western face of an altar. Bishop Hacket calls
it a suffront.
Anthem. A corruption of the word Antiphon, an alternate
chant ; it is also used to designate a passage selected from
the Holy Scripture or the Psalter (according to the rule pre
scribed by the second Council of Braga), and sung to music,
either by a single voice or in chorus ; and it is employed to
mark the sentence prefixed to a Psalm or canticle, giving
the key-note to its meaning, pointing out in which of its
mystical senses it is at the time to be recited, as well as the
tone according to which what follows is to be sung anti-
phonally. The word ' anthetime ' occurs in the sense of a
text for Bishop Story's sermon, and another by Dr. Chad-
sey, at St. Paul's ; and in Edward VI.'s First Book for the
. sentences, " Remember not," and " 0 Saviour of the world,"
in the Visitation of the Sick, and " Turn Thou us " in the
Commination Service. It is still retained in the notice of
the Easter Hymn sung instead of the 'Venite,' and in the
rubric after the Third Collect at matins and evensong.
Anthems were sung in the steeple of St. Paul's after the
Reformation, and a metrical hymn, composed about the

34 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
same time, and another so lately as 1585, bear the same
name. On Easter Day the anthem is used in place of the ninety-
fifth Psalm, which was the usual invitatory of matins as
early as the fourth century, and also called an anthem, — the
name given at that date also to the verse which precedes the
intonation of a Psalm. In its modern sense, of a piece of
sacred music for the use of the Church, it first occurs in the
time of Elizabeth. In Queen Mary's reign they sang an
thems about the steeple of St. Paul's ; and to this day, in
memory of the battle of Neville's Cross, three anthems are
sung on the central tower of Durham on May Day, one side
being omitted owing to the fall of a chorister some years
since. The anthem was at first repeated before a Psalm,
but in later times also after it.
Anthony, St., of Egypt, Order of. Founded by Gaston Frank
in 1095, to attend on those struck with leprosy or erysipelas,
called the sacred fire; hence one of the symbols of the
Saints ; another is the hog, which suffers from cutaneous
disease. The rule is Augustine ; the dress a cassock, patience,
a black hood and plaited cloak, with a Tau cross in blue
cloth on the breast. The first monastery was at La Motte,
near Vienna.
Antilegomena. (Greek; controverted.) Certain books of the
New Testament, which were doubted before admitted into
the canon of Scripture, as, for instance, the Apocalypse.
Antiminsion. A portion of the covering placed on an altar
at its dedication, and used in the Greek Church for the
same purpose as a super-altar in the West ; that is, as a port
able altar for Communion where there was no consecrated
building.
Anti-pasch. The Sunday after Easter Day.
Antiphonal. Alternate singing (from anti, opposite, and phone,
a voice). Socrates attributes its introduction to St. Igna
tius in the Eastern Church ; but Theodoret says it was the
invention of two priests of Antioch, Diodorus and Flavian,
during the Arian heresy in 350. St. Ambrose brought the
custom into vogue in the Western Church at Milan. The
original idea, no doubt, was borrowed from Isaiah's vision,
where the angels are represented as crying one to another.
The Psalms, Responses, Suffrages, Gloria Patri, Kyrie,

ANTIPHONAR  APOSTLES' CREED. 35
Creed, Sanctus, Agnus Dei, and Canticles, are sung in this
manner.
Antiphonar. A Church-book containing the music for the
hours, anthems, hymns, Psalms, noted in plain chant. It is
divided, like the Gradual, which contained the chant for the
Mass, into the " Proper of Time " and the " Common of
Saints." Every French diocese had its own antiphonar ; at
Milan the rival Roman and Ambrosian uses, and at Toledo
the Roman and Mozarabic antiphonars, formed the subject of
a long controversy. As the anthems principally compose its
contents, they have given name to the book. Pope Gregory
the Great compiled the first antiphonar, which he called a
Centon, having selected an antiphon from the Psalms as an
introit, and others for the Responsory, Offertory, and Com
munion.
Antipopes. The rival occupants of the Papal Chair from
Urban VI., 1389, to Alexander V., 1409, respectively resi
dent at Avignon and Rome, and supported by the Italians
or French.
Apocalypse. (Greek.) The Revelation of St. John the Divine.
Apocrypha. (Greek ; hidden, obscure, spurious ; called also ec
clesiastical or deutero-canonical.) The Books not belong
ing to the canon of Scripture, being not regarded as au
thentic. They were, however, generally read in church for
religious instruction, as St. Athanasius, St. Jerome, and,
Ruffinus mention, and are used in the Church of England.
They include III. and IV. Esdras, Tobit, Judith, the rest of
Esther, Wisdom, Baruch, the Song of the Three Children,
Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, Prayer of Manasses, the
I. and II. Maccabees. St. Jerome first uses the term Apo
crypha, as Ruffinus explains, because they were not ordina
rily read in church. At a later date the Shepherd of
Hermes and the Epistles of Clement were included in the
term. The Third Council of Carthage in 401 ordered that
only the Canonical Books should be read as Scripture in
church.
Apokrisiarii. (1.) Legates of the Patriarch of Constantinople.
(2.) Commissaries of foreign churches in the Imperial city.
Apologia. The Confession and Absolution in the Gallican
Liturgy.
Apostles' Creed. " Svmbolum commune sive Apostolorum ;"
d 2

36 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY. •
is so called commonly, and by St. Ambrose, because it con
tains the substance of their teaching, and from the Latin
initial word, credo, I believe. It is given in substance by
Tertullian, referred to by St. Irenasus, Origen, Gregory of
Cassarea, and Lucian the Martyr, was summarized by St.
Ignatius, and in the old offices of Holy Baptism; and is
called the Canon of Right and Standard of Faith by St. Basil,
the Key of Peter by St. Ambrose, and the Rule of Faith by
St. Augustine. The words " life everlasting " were added
in the time of St. Cyprian ; " the resurrection of the body,''
in the time of St. Augustine ; " He descended into hell," in
the Creed of Aquileia ; and " the communion of saints," in
the sixth century. It was adopted by Charlemagne, and
in the eleventh century in Spain. Cranmer alludes to
" the painters showing the twelve articles," which an
old tradition (distinctly alluded to by St. Ambrose and
Leo the Great, and preserved by St. Augustine, Ruffinus,
Isidore of Seville, and Honorius) attributed to the several
Apostles, as they were often delineated holding scrolls con
taining each a distinct sentence. And certain of the Prophets
— for instance, Joel iii. 12, Amos ix. 6, Hosea xiii. 14, Is. vii.
14, Jer. iii. 19 — correspondingly held a parallel and anticipa-
tive text from their writings, foreshadowing it. The order
of the Articles, with the authors assigned at their last meet
ing in a grotto on Mount Olivet, are as follows : — St. Peter,
" I believe ;" St. John, " Maker ;" St. James, " and in Jesus
Christ;" St. Andrew, "who was conceived;" St. Philip,
"suffered;" St. Thomas, "He descended;" St. Bartholo
mew, " He ascended ;" St. Matthew, " from thence ;" St.
James, "I believe;" St. Simon, "the communion;" St.
Jude, "the resurrection;" St. Matthias, "life everlasting."
The Greek Creed adds the words, " and in one Lord."
It was called a Symbol, as a common test of the Apostles'
doctrine and fellowship. The ancient creeds of the Churches
of Jerusalem, Cassarea, Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, and
Aquileia, and that preserved in the Apostolical Constitu
tions, resemble it in every main particular. It was adopted
at Antioch.
Apostoli. Documents granted by judges in appeals to the
Court of Rome.
Apostolical Canons. A work first alluded to by name in the

APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS  APSE. 37
Council of Constantinople in 394, and probably compiled in
the third century ; they have been reckoned at ninety-five
or seventy-six, according to different arrangement and divi
sions. They represent, no doubt, Apostolic tradition, rules
of discipline established before the Council of Nice, and
decisions of synods or bishops made in the second and third
centuries. Pope Gelasius, in 494, passed a censure on them,
— mainly in regard to their claim to the title of Apostolical, —
with the exception of the first fifty, which Dionysius Exiguus,
a Roman abbot, published in the beginning of the sixth
century from the original Greek. These were accepted at
Rome and in the West ; and in England also, it is believed,
about the year 670. The Greek Church has also received
these, with an addition of thirty-five made by John, Patri
arch of Constantinople. The Council in Trullo adopted
them as Apostolical, and the second Council of Nice re
garded them with the same respect as the edicts of general
councils. With the exception of John Damascene and Pho-
tius, the Oriental writers generally referred them to an
Apostolic origin.
Apostolical Constitutions. A work in eight books, first men
tioned by Epiphanius at the close of the fourth century, and
probably composed during the third century, but embodying
remnants of earlier records preserved in the Greek Church,
which include a most interesting description of Church
ceremonial.
Apostolical Succession. The spiritual pedigree by which
bishops, priests, and deacons of the Catholic Church trace
their authority to minister back to the Apostles, according
to the Saviour's promise, that He would be with them
always, even unto the end of the world. The King of Hun
gary derives his title from St. Stephen's crown, which is
called Apostolical.
Apparitor. The medieval Sompnour or Summonitor; an
officer of an ecclesiastical or bishop's court, who summoned
persons to appear.
Appurtenances. (Pertinentice.) Appendages or complement
of the vestment, viz. the albe, stole, amice, maniple, and
girdle.
Apse. (From the Greek word, meaning an arch or vault.) The
semicircular termination of the end of a church, choir, tran-

38 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
sept, or chapel. The Council of Tours prohibited the en
trance of women into an apse. The form is borrowed from
the tribune of the Roman basilica, which was occupied by
the judges and their assessors. When the basilica was con
verted into a church, the bishop took the place of the pre
siding judge, the praator or quaestor, at the head of the apse,
which became the sanctuary, whilst the priests and deacons
occupied the semicircular seats on either hand, which had
formerly been tenanted by the assistant judges, and now
form the luna, or moon, of the Italian churches. By an au
dacious symbolism, derived from the apocalyptic vision of
the Elders seated round the Throne, twelve stone chairs for
suffragans were set on either side of the bishop's chair in
St. Ambrose's, Milan ; and in the majority of Italian churches
the stalls of the clergy are arranged in a semicircle behind
and eastward of the altar.
From its semidomical vault the apse was called the concha,
or shell, and when approached by steps, the bema. The
stalls were called synthronoi by the Greeks, and consessus by
Latins, and the whole space was called the presbytery,
sanctuary, or tribunal. The early symbolism imagined our
Blessed Lord stretched upon the cross in the ground-plan
of the church, His body in the nave, His expanded arms in
the transept, and His head laid upon the altar ; and from this
circumstance the apse was called the capitium,- or chevet, the
head ; and the east wall its front. The round and arched
apse represented the vault of heaven. St. Jerome calls it
-the apse; Procopius Paul the sdentiary, and St. Paulinus
speak of it as the concha, from its shell-like form. St. Au
gustine gives it the name of exedra. It seems that the un
roofed churches built in the time of persecution were of this
form, as St. Theodotus of Ancyra is said to have prayed
near the concha of the Church of the Patriarchs, where the
altar was ; the heathen having barred the doors.
Curtains — so lately as the time of Durand — or veds se
parated the apse from the rest of the building. In early
times the altar, like that of libations in the basilica, stood in
the chord of the apse, and the bishop's throne was placed
against the east wall, as at Canterbury, Norwich, Vienne,
Lyons, Autun, Rheims, and Monreale. The apse is gene
rally the most ancient portion of a church, as the choir was

APSE. 39
always the portion first built, and only reconstructed with
the greatest reluctance, being devoted to the most sacred
offices of religion. During the Early English period, when
the eastern ends were rebuilt, the altar was removed to the
square east wall, and the stalls of the clergy arranged on
both sides of the choir. Where the apse was preserved, a
circle of chapels was erected round it, introducing a new
symbolism of the crown about the Saviour's head. This
was after the eleventh century, when the aisles were con
tinued round the apse, and apsidal or radiating chapels were
built outside them, each usually maintained by some guild
or brotherhood, which, on certain holydays or in great cere
monials, posted themselves there under their banners or
attended a special service. Sometimes a principal chapel, — ¦
such as the Baptistery of Drontheim, the Becket's Crown of
Canterbury, and the Three Kings of Cologne, — approach
ing a circular form, were placed eastward of the apse ;
whilst in other places, in lieu of a coronal of chapels, a
transeptal form, — as at Lilienfeld, and like the Nine Altars
of Durham, the New Work of Peterborough, or the eastern
range of Bridlington, Hexham, and Fountains, — was
adopted. From an early date the great central apse had been
flanked often by two lateral apses, one forming the Sacristy,
and the other containing the Credence Table. In the Nor
man Period the apse was round at Peterborough, Norwich,
Waltham, Crowland, Haarlem, Lund, Strengnas ; but in the
Pointed Style it became polygonal, as at Westminster,
Tewkesbury, and Pershore, and in the Lady Chapels of
Lichfield and Wells. Apses were rare in Scotland, but were
found at Stirling, Leuchars, and Dalmeny. In the thirteenth
century the square end became common in England, and a
single window, as at Ely, Lincoln, York, and Carlisle, formed
its great eastern feature ; this form also exceptionally occurs
at Poictiers, Soignies, Bari, Laon, Dol, Angers, Sienna,
Prato, and Vercelli, and was adopted in the earlier churches
of Belgium. This was also the Cistercian arrangement,
with the exception of Beaulieu (Hants), Altenberg, and
Veruela. The Continental chevet is of various forms ; of three, six,
seven, or even, as at St. Anthony's, Padua, of eleven sides ;

40 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
it opens into three, five, or seven chapels ; in England there
were five at Tewkesbury and Pershore, seven at Westminster,
three at Norwich, Leominster, Waltham, and Gloucester, and
at Battle three polygonal chapels, under that of the Virgin,
in the crypt.
Each arm of the transept had usually in Norman times an '
apsidal eastern chapel, or sometimes two. One remains at
Christchurch, Hants, but most have been rebuilt. The
same arrangement occurred at Rheims, Marburg, and Flo
rence. Tournay had both north and south apses.
Some churches along the banks of the Meuse, Rhine, and
Moselle, possess both an eastern and western apse, as Ma-
yence, Treves, Bamburg, Worms, Spires, Laach, Nurem
berg, Oppenheim, Augsburg, Nevers, Besancon, some
churches at Cologne and Verdun ; that on the west was ori
ginally a baptistery. At Florence and Pisa the external
baptistery fronts the west door. The bronze font of Miinster,
of the fourteenth century, still occupies the western apse of
that Cathedral ; the same was the case at Worms originally,
and at St. Gall in the ninth century. At a later date the
eastern apse was reserved for the chapter services, and the
western held the parish high-altar. At the west end of the
old cathedral of Canterbury, the bishop's throne was in the
western apse, fronting the Lady Altar. In councils he sat
next to the Bishop of Ruffina, until the Pope called up St.
Anselm as the Pope of the other orb, or apse, to a seat next
himself at the Council of Bari. In the ancient cathedral of
Cologne there were two choirs, one on the east dedicated to
St. Peter, and that on the west, containing the altar of St.
Mary ; at Liege and Besancon there were also two choirs.
In churches dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul, the eastern
apse was consecrated to the latter, and the western to the
former saint, in allusion to the Pontifical throne of Rome
and the eastern labours of the Apostle of the Gentiles. In
cases where the original arrangement of churches has been
turned from east to west,— as at Nevers, St. Benoit (Paris).,
St. Lorenzo (Rome), and many German churches,— the ancient
apse will be found at the west, and the more recent apse at
the east end. When the high-altar was placed against the
east wall, or in the chord of the apse, the matin altar for
the lesser or conventual Mass stood at the east end of the
choir.

AQUE BAJULUS — ARCHDEACON. 41
AqU33 Bajulus. The bearer of holy- water. The priest's clerk
or assistant, who lived on the alms of the people, certain
fees on Sundays and festivals, and certain sheaves of corn in
harvest : the medieval parish-clerk.
Arabesques. Fanciful ornamentation used by the Spanish
Arabs, who were forbidden to delineate animal life.
Area. A name used by St. Gregory of Tours for an altar
composed of three marble tablets, one resting horizontally
on the other two which stand upright on the floor ; there is
one at St. Vitalis, Ravenna, of the sixth century.
Arch. The central voussoir in the component stones is the
key-stone ; the underpart of the arch is the soffit, or intra-
dos ; the outer side is the back, or extrados.
Archbishop. A title given in the fourth and fifth centuries
to the bishops of the chief cities ; it occurs, perhaps for the
first time, in the writings of St. Athanasius, and is applied
to the Bishop of Alexandria. The title was officially given
by the Councils of Ephesus, 430, and Chalcedon. In the
East it was simply borne as an honorary distinction by cer
tain prelates, but m the West all Metropolitans bore the
title; — Canterbury, York, Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, Tuam ;
St. Andrew's, Glasgow ; Rheims, Rouen, Dol, Tours, Sens,
Bordeaux, Bourges, Auch, Narbonne, Lyons, Besancon,
Vienne, Tarantaise, Aries, Aix, and Embrun ; Gran, Ham
burg, Cologne, Magdeburg, Mayence, Saltzburg, Treves,
Gnesen, Dioclea, Rome, Salerno, Grado, Ravenna, Milan;
Toledo, Oviedo, and Seville and Mechhn.
Archdeacon. This dignitary was probably at first simply the
senior deacon, chosen by the deacons with the bishop's sanc
tion, (as the archpriest was the senior priest,) and served as
his almoner and assistant at the altar, as primicerius dia-
conorum to the bishop, but afterwards was put forward, as
Origen says, as the bishop's man of business, and at one
time -was known as the bishop's eye, being his delegate.
This occurred about the fourth century, when the bishops
became jealous of the power of priests, and especially of
their chief, the archpriest. So late as the beginning of the
twelfth century in England the archdeacon was in deacon's
orders. Optatus mentions an archdeacon, the office havino-
been founded in the third century. By the canon law he
discharged the duties which afterwards devolved on the

42 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
chancellor, in having charge of the readers and regulating
the lections, and also, as the treasurer did in later times,
kept the plate and provided incense and the sacred elements;
he also announced the coming fasts and festivals. Between
the sixth and ninth centuries his precedence over the inferior
archpriest, or rural dean, was established, and after the year
1000 he was regarded as an ordinary, but within two centu
ries the bishops and the Council of Saumur and Tours
were compelled to restrict his jurisdiction, which was con
fined to the presentation of candidates for ordination, visi
tation, proving wills, institution to benefices, suspension,
and excommunication. At Rome, Liege, Constantinople,
and in many French dioceses his name was suppressed, owing
to the arrogance of the archdeacons. In England his office
dates at Canterbury from 798, and at Llandaff from 914; in
the eleventh century six, in the twelfth century thirteen, and
in the thirteenth century three archdeaconries were founded.
There were frequently, as at Salisbury, St. Paul's, and Lin
coln, several archdeacons in a cathedral ; at Toledo there are
six. In the cathedrals of the Old Foundation the arch
deacon had his own stall, but was regarded as a " person."
In some places, however, he succeeded to the superior arch-
priest's rank, as Llandaff, Conserans, St. Bertrand, St. Fleur,
Placenza, Rieti, Forli, Barcelona, Malta, Bergamo, Otranto,
and Aix, he was President of Chapter. At Lavantz there
was a provost archdeacon, and at Saltzburg, where he wore
pontificals ; and at Astorga the deaconry and archdeaconry
were held by one person ; in England the dean exercised
archidiaconal jurisdiction in the close city and commune of
prebends, another relic of the original system. In the East
the office ceased in the eighth century. St. Jerome de
nounced their immoderate pretensions, and mentions that
at Alexandria they were elected by the deacons. In the
time of Gratian they were invariably priests. They now
visit their archdeaconries, and present candidates for Holy
Orders.
Arches, The. A court of the archbishop, so called from hav
ing been held in the Church of St. Mary-le-Bow, or De
Arcubus. The dean has jurisdiction within thirteen parishes
in London, and fifty-seven others lying in various dioceses,
which are peculiars of the primate, that is, subject to his
jurisdiction.

ARCHIMANDRITE — ARCHPRIEST. 43
Archimandrite. A Greek abbot, who presided over one of the
Lord's Mandrai, or sheepfolds.
Archpriest. The protopapas of the Greek Church. There
were two kinds of archpriests ; one, urban, the superior of a
community ; the other rural, the superintendent of a district ;
the first merged in the capitular dean, the second in the
rural dean. An officer of this name mentioned by the
Council of Chalcedon, St. Jerome, Socrates, Sozomen, and
St. Gregory Nazianzen, who acted as the bishop's vicar-
general, and usually succeeded to the See when vacant.
Again, Pope Innocent III., it is said, subjected the arch-
priests to the archdeacon, but Isidore incorrectly refers the
subordination to the seventh century ; but these were clearly
rural deans, as Isidore speaks of them as " archpriests, by
many called deans." They were also called urban deans,
presiding in greater churches as the bishop's delegates over
the city clergy, and at Padua and Turin retain their presi
dency. By the fourth Council of Carthage the archpriest
had charge of the orphans, widows, and pilgrims, and in the
second Council of Aix is called the bishop's minister. From
the seventh to the ninth century the archpriest acted thus
as dean of the city clergy, and the bishop's deputy in matters
of jurisdiction and hearing confessions of priests, until his
powers were transferred to the archdeacon. At Louvaine,
Brussels, Vilvorde, Tene, and Mechlin, he stood in the same
capacity as the chorepiscopus of Utrecht, the dean of deans
of Liege, or the city prior of Seville, being dean of the city.
And no doubt the real distinction of the names, at first
common, but in later days attached to different persons, con
sisted in this, — the dean presided over the internal chapter,
ministers, and servants ; the archpriest ministered in the
close or city, and the provost attended to the secular affairs.
In Southern Europe the parochus corresponds to the Western
archpriest, the parish priest of the close, the French arch
priest, and the subdean of our old foundations. The true
archpriest, as a dignitary in some cathedrals and collegiate
churches, held the same power as a dean at Cremona, Ratis-
bon, Osma, Siguenca, Aberdeen, Bergamo, Ager, Motuca,
and in addition exercised episcopal jurisdiction during a
vacancy ; he also, within the precinct, administered sacra
ments and celebrated marriages. On the death of the de-

44 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
prived Bishop of Lincoln, Dr. Watson, in 1584, and before the
consecration of a bishop of Chalcedon in 1623, the Pope ap
pointed three archpriests for the Roman communion in Eng
land. At Ghent, Teruel, Jaca, Toledo, Osca, Forli, Milan,
Monreale, and in France, he was a dignitary ranking after
the archdeacon, and performing the duties of a parish priest
in the close. There were three at Saragossa and six at
Angers. At Lyons he celebrated in the archbishop's pre
sence, and then occupied the dean's stall. At Ratisbon he
was called provost-archpriest, as at Ely in 673, and had the
right of a mitre and staff, but a dean had the supervision of
divine service. In the Italian collegiate churches and in the
cathedral of Cremona, he was the chief dignitary, the
primicier usually ranking next to him ; at Forli his office
was founded in 1519; at Aire there are two archpriests.
By the canon law he clearly stood in the place of a dean, as
his duties were defined to consist in constant attendance in
choir, the supervision of all the priests, and the right of
celebration in the absence of the bishop ; and Lyndwood
distinctly says of the (urban) archpriest, " he is one with a
dean." The term " monk of Gloucester " seems to have
been the dean of this kind. He is called in the Councils of
Autun and Orleans a provost, and probably at that time
only exercised external jurisdiction in the cathedral city.
Like the penitentiary, he was a canon having cure of souls.
He also bore the name of Dean of Christianity", as his chap
ter was a court of ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and maintained
discipline within the precinct. The superior archpriest
generally merged in the capitular dean and provost, but oc
casionally the title was preserved abroad, and in England
also. There was an archpriest of Dunbar, as the dean's
junior, until the Reformation ; and in the thirteenth century
the collegiate archpresbyters of Ulcombe, Kent, and in the
fourteenth century those of Haccombe, Penkwell, Beerferris,
and Whitchurch, in the county of Devon, were founded, but
they were subordinate to the jurisdiction of the ordinary and
archdeacon. A late Rector of Haccombe absurdly tacked on
lawn-sleeves to his M.A. gown, and claimed precedence after
the bishop. The inferior archpriests were rural deans in
1188 in England, or rural archpriests, and are identified with
them in the 'Margarita Decretorum,' and the Reformation

ARCOSOLIUM — ASCENSION DAY. 45
of Laws Ecclesiastical of the time of Henry VIII., and by
the Council of Tours in 1163, when they are mentioned as
stipendiary delegates, or vicars of bishops and archdeacons
in causes ecclesiastical. The office in this sense did not
exist in Italy. At Bourges the archpriest, or city rector,
ranked before canons only during the life of the bishop who
appointed him. The canonists say the Parochus (the town
incumbent), Plebanus (the country incumbent), and rural
archpriests, differ only in name. In the Greek Church the
archpriest is the chief minister in a parish.
Arcosolium. A recess in a catacomb (from solium, a sepulchral
urn, and arcus, an arch), divided by little walls into family
burying-places in those allotted to the faithful, are ranged
lengthwise in the subterranean galleries ; but the tombs of
martyrs were made in the chapels where religious service
was held.
Armenians. Founded by Eustachius in Armenia in 320.
They adopted the Dominican rule in Italy, and came to Eng
land in 1258 ; their scapular was black.
Arms-Royal. These unauthorized additions in a church were
made before 1555, when we find the taunt made to Cranmer,
" Down with Christ's arms (the rood), and up with a lion and
dog" (the Tudor greyhound). Wolsey first changed the
arms of York into their present form, the keys of St. Peter
with the crown, instead of gules, a pall, and crozier or.
Ascension Day. A festival established in the latter half of
the third century, and mentioned in the Apostolical Consti
tutions as the Analepsis. St. Chrysostom speaks of it under
the name of Sozomene, implying that the work of man's re
demption was thereby" completed. It probably had been
simply included in the long pentecost of festivals between
Easter and Whit-Sunday, or else was thought to have been
sufficiently consecrated for observance by our Lord's own
great act. Sb. Austin includes it with the anniversaries of
the Passion, the Resurrection, and Descent of the Spirit, as
those days which were of apostolical institution, or by a
plenary council of the Church. At St. Magnus, London,
the clergy on this day are presented with ribbons, cakes,
and staylaces. The common name for the day was Holy
Thursday. In some medieval churches, as Durham and
Gloucester, the Ascension was represented by the elevation

46 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
of a figure of Christ by ropes, or a vice, through a hole in
the vault, whilst the priests stood together, like the Apostles,
and looked up. By a beautiful symbolism, in fine contrast
to this coarse parody, the Church of the Ascension at Jeru
salem was left without a roof. In the south of France it is
called Alms-Thursday, owing to the doles which were be
stowed, in allusion to the gift of the Spirit on this day.
Ascetics. (Fr. askesis, exercise of virtue.) (1.) Devotees who '
gave themselves to prayer ; so called from the time of St.
Anthony, imitating St. John Baptist and the prophets. (2.)
Confessors distinguished by extraordinary acts of charity, as
St. Martin is called. Probably in the ascetic we may see the
prototype of the monk.
Ashlar. Squared stone.
Ash- Wednesday. (Dies Cinerum.) The first day of Lent, or
Head of the Fast. Amalarius says that the singers used
the words, " We have changed our garb for haircloth and
ashes, let us fast and pray before the Lord." The ceremony
of the priest scattering ashes over the congregation, with
the words, " Dust thou art, and to dust shalt thou return,"
from which the day took its name, is attributed to Pope
Gregory the Great, towards the end of the sixth century,
and was established by Celestine III. in 1191. The morrow
was called Embering Thursday.
Aspergil. The sprinkler. A brush used in scattering holy-
water contained in the holy-water vat. It was made of
hyssop, in allusion to the prayer in the Miserere.
Ass-worship was attributed to the Jews by the Gentiles, ac
cording to Josephus and Tacitus, and afterwards to the
Christians, owing to the mention "of the animal in the history
of Balaam, the victory of Samson, the stable of Bethlehem,
the flight into Egypt, and the entry on Palm Sunday into
Jerusalem. At Beauvais, on January 14, the Feast of the
Ass was observed yearly : an ass bearing the image of the
Madonna was led in procession to St. Stephen's Church,
where an absurd prose was sung, with the refrain, " Hez,
Sire Asne," during the Mass. At Chalons-sur-Marne the
bishop of fools rode mounted on an ass. At Autun the
principal canons held the four corners of the golden housings
of the ass, and at Cambray a picture of the ass was placed
behind the high-altar from Palm Sunday to Maundy Thurs-

ASTER  ATRIUM. 47
day. Naogorgus says, that on Palm Sunday a wooden ass
with a rider was drawn upon wheels through the streets to
the church door, where the priest blessed the palms as talis
mans against storm and lightning, and then lay down before
it, and was beaten with a rod by another priest. Two
" lubborers " then alluded to the entry of our Lord into Je
rusalem, and the ass smothered with branches was drawn
into the church. In some places the ass was hired out, and
led through a town, whilst boys collected bread, eggs, and
money, half of which was given to the hirer.
Aster, or Asterisk. An instrument used by the Greeks in the
Liturgy ; a star of precious metal, surmounted by a cross,
which is placed on the paten to cover the Host, and support
a veil from contact with the Eucharist ; it recalls the mystic
star of the magi, which is commemorated as the priest censes
the aster.
Athanasian Creed. A hymn, or canticle ; called also the
Psalm " Quicunque vult," being pointed and divided into
verses. From the tenth century, at least, it has been sung
antiphonally ; and Abbo, in 997, mentions (as quoted by
Waterland), that he had heard it in alternate choirs in
France and England. It is not mentioned earlier than the
seventh century, and then by writers of the Latin Church,
and the Council of Autun in 677. It was probably the
composition of some divine in that Church about the fifth or
sixth century, and has been attributed to Vincent of Lerins,
Eusebius of Vercelli, Pope Anastasius, Hilary of Aries, Ve-
nantius Fortunatus, Vigilius Tapsensis (an African bishop), or
Victricius of Rouen. In all probability it is of Gallican origin.
The Abbot of Fleury, in 970, alludes to it, and Hincmar of
Rheims, in 850, required all priests to learn it by heart.
Atrium. Rendered by Eusebius, aithrion, open to the sky;
like area, it denoted the precinct in front of a basilica ; and
was also called Aule, the large outer open court of the Ba
silica, in front of the narthex, surrounded by screened colon -
nades, and containing a fountain, or phiala, often canopied
and enclosed in the centre. Penitents of the first class were
placed in the cloister of this court. The fountain in which
the faithful made their ablutions before entering church, was
blessed on the Vigil and Feast of Epiphany, but, at length,
the benitier at the entrance of churches took its place.

48 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Attrition signifies, says Aquinas, in spiritual cases, a displea
sure on account of sins done, but not perfect. Contrition is
when it is perfect, a first and full sorrow.
Audience. A court formerly held by the archbishops of either
province ; that of Canterbury was removed from the palace
to the Consistory Place of St. Paul's. All cases, whether
contentious or voluntary, which were reserved for the arch
bishop's hearing, were tried here, and the evidence was pre
pared by officers called Auditors. When the court was no
longer held in the palace, the jurisdiction was exercised by
the master and official of the Audience. He is now repre
sented by the Vicar- General, official of the Arches and au
dience, whose court was held in the hall of Doctors'
Commons.
Audientes. Hearers ; the second class of penitents, who were
allowed to stand in the narthex at the reading of the Scrip
tures and sermons, but were forbidden attendance at
Common Prayer or Holy Communion.
Auditor. The inspector of the house accounts in a monas
tery.
Auditory. (1.) A parlour. (2.) The alley of the cloister in
which the Clugniacs and Cistercians kept the school of
novices.
Aumbry (see Almery). Where there was no sacristy the vest
ments were kept either in a large coffer, or a niche cham
ber in the wall ; an example of the former remains at Notre
Dame de Valere. There is a remarkable relic aumbry of the
fifteenth century, and made of oak, at Chichester, containing
a slit in the cross-bar for the reception of alms.
Aureole. An extended nimbus. The representation of a
transparent cloud, or a field of radiance and splendour, en
veloping the whole body with a mantle of light. The nim
bus (cloud), which is of earlier date, is an aureole, or
luminous disk, which only encloses the head. (Ps. civ. 2.)
In later Italian art it is an equilateral triangle, or of lozenge
shape. The aureole, which is never found in the catacombs,
is usually an oval or elliptic in shape, and often filled with
stars or figures of angels. Where persons are seated the
aureole is circular, or a quatrefoil. Its origin has been
traced to the imagines clypeatce (images within bucklers) of
the Romans, in which a bust stands out from a shield-shaped

AUREOLE. 49
round or orb. This was imitated by the Christian architects
in early times, who placed a bust of the Saviour in a round
blind window in the west front of a church. The vulgar
name invented by Albert Diirer, and now exploded, for this
form, when resembling the intersections of two circles, was
vesica piscis. The aureole also assumes the form of a qua-
trefoil, sometimes is rounded, and occasionally foliated. In
Greek paintings of the Transfiguration rays extend beyond
the aureole. The Glory is the combination of the nimbus
and aureole, and is applied to the rays of gilded wood seen
over the altars of Amiens and St. Roch at Paris, or to the
appearance of fire, in which the Divinity was shrouded. (Ezek.
viii. 2, 3 ; ix. 3 ; Exod. xxiv. 17.) As the nimbus and au
reole are supposed to be a luminous irradiation of the head
and body, and take colouring, like the stars, of light under
different aspects, ranging from blue or red to white, — this
is often symbolically applied; thus Judas has a black nim
bus, virgin's have it of red, married persons of green, peni
tents of pale yellow, worthies of the Old Testament of silver,
and saints under the Gospel of gold.
The nimbus is a sign of saintliness, as applied to angels
and saints, or of power in the case of emperors and kings.
When of triangular form, it is used only in depicting the
Holy Trinity. From the fifteenth century it denoted God
the Father ; and, by the Greeks, is augmented with three
rays, inscribed with the letters sacred, 0 ON. It is of rare
occurrence in France, but common in Italy. Sometimes a
triangle is enclosed within a circle, to represent the Eternal
Trinity in Unity. When of square form it denotes a living
person, and is peculiar to Italian art. Virgins are distin
guished by a round nimbus.
When the nimbus encircles the Saviour's head, it is round,
and receives the mark of a cross upon it, and also when He
is represented as the Lamb of God, or the Lion of Judah.
The interstices sometimes are powdered with crosses, and,
by the Greeks, are filled with the letters 0 on, " Which is"
(Rev. i. 4, 8), or by the Latins with LVX, the light. The round
nimbus of saints and angels is without the cross, but is often
engraved with their names. The heads of the symbols of
the Evangelists' frequently have a nimbus. The Greeks
exceptionally give a nimbus to the heads of worthies of the
E

50 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Old Testament. The medieval artists put a circular nimbus
as the symbol of heavenly bliss about departed saints, and
one of square form (the symbol of earthly honour) around
living dignitaries in Italy. The nimbus does not occur
earlier than the fifth or sixth century; before the twelfth
century it was supposed to be transparent ; in the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries it became opaque, and after the
fourteenth still denser. The disk is often pearled, jewelled,
or represented as blossoming. It typifies the imperishable
crown of glory promised to the redeemed (1 St. Peter v. 4;
St. James i. 12 ; Rev. ii. 10; Ps. vi. 13 ; Wisd. v. 17), and
its brightness and rays allude to St. Matt. v. 14, as they are
the light of the world. After the fifteenth century the disk-
form disappeared, and for two centuries it became a circlet
or ring hovering over the saint's head ; in the seventeenth
century it fell into total disuse.
Auricular Confession. Pope Innocent III., in the fourth Council
of Lateran, 1215, ordered that the faithful of either sex
should confess their sins alone, and once a year at least,
under pain of losing Christian burial. Leo the Great, in the
fifth century, owing to some scandals in public confession,
also authorized the parish priest to receive confessions;
but the Council of Chalons in 813, and later authorities
left confession immediately to God or to a priest optional.
Austin Canons. Regular canons, who assumed their title
after the Council of Lateran in 1139, when Pope Innocent
imposed upon them the rule drawn up by St. Augustine of
Hippo in his cix. epistle. Lyndwood says some wore a
linen rochet and black open cope; some white linen or
woollen, and a close black cope and cross on it ; and some
wore all white and a cross ; some wore boots like monks,
and some shoes like seculars. They were introduced into Eng
land in 1105, through the influence of Athelwolph, confessor
to Henry I. at Nostell. They held 161 priories in England,
including the cathedral of Carlisle, and the churches of
Bristol, Hexham, Christchurch (Hants) ; Oxford, Waltham,
Dunstable, St. German, Lanercost, Cirencester, Cartmel,
Dorchester, Oxon, Walsingham, Newstead, Worksop, Bol
ton, Dunmow, Bridlington, St. John's (Colchester) ; Guis-
borough, Kirkham, Thornton, and St. Bartholomew's and
St. Mary's Overye, London. Their naves were also parish

AUSTIN FRIARS — BALCONY. 51
churches, and served by vicars. They held several cathe
drals, — Carlisle, St. Andrew's, Milan, Palermo, Patti, Cefalu,
Chiemsee, Tortosa, Pampeluna, Saragossa, and Saltzburg.
Austin Friars, or Eremites. Volaterranus and Alvarez place
the Augustinians after the Dominican and Franciscan orders ;
but Adrian of Ghent and Polydore Vergil give them the first
rank. Their earliest appearance as hermits has been re
ferred to a very early date, but according to the most trust
worthy authors, they were founded by William, Duke of
Aquitaine and Earl of Poitou about the year 1150, and
were known as Williamites. Alexander IV. gathered their
scattered communities into a single order, under a prior-
general, and removed them into cities and towns. In 1254
they settled in England at London, where the nave of their
church remains; and at Woodhouse, in Wales, in 1255, they
left the wild for towns. They wore a black robe and girdle,
and observed the so-called rule of St. Augustine, which was
adopted by all the other mendicant orders. They were
famous in disputation, and the " keeping of Austins " formed
a material part of the act of taking a M.A. degree at Oxford.
Avercom. Reserved rent, as corn, paid to monasteries.
Avoury (Avowes) . The picture of a patron saint depicted on a
square gilt vane of metal, which was attached flag-wise to a
staff, and carried in funeral processions.
Badge, Sepulchral. An emblem of the sex or occupation of an
interred person ; as, for instance, the comb, mirror, or scis
sors for a woman, as at Iona ; shears or a sword for a man.
Bailey. The court between the keep and outer defences of a
castle. Churches were sometimes built within these en
closures, as at London and Oxford, and retain the name of
" In the Bailey," although all traces of the surrounding
buildings have disappeared.
Balcony. A name introduced by the Venetians and Genoese.
It was originally a palcus or advanced tower over a gate
house, intended to carry the machicolations. In the fif
teenth century it was built as an ornament in front of private
houses. At St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield, there is a glazed
balcony ; in the south nave aisle of Westminster is one of
timber, and both communicated with the superior's lodge ;
at Durham, the old anchorage or porch in the north choir
e 2

52 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
aisle was used by the prior to hear High Mass ; it was reached
by steps ; and on the south side of the choir of St. Alban's
a similar raised platform was discovered, which was pro
bably used for the same purpose. At Westminster, proces
sions could be conveniently viewed from the projecting oriel.
Baldachino (from Baldacca, cloth of Babylon or Bagdad). A
small dome which overshadows a high-altar, and is usually
carried on four columns. It was formerly called the cibo-
rium ; it supported the altar- curtains, and was crowned with
a cross, which subsequently was placed upon the altar itself.
When there was no canopy of this kind, a covering of pre
cious stuff or plain linen, such as was ordered by the Council
of Cologne in 1280, adorned the altar. The baldachino was
ornamented with tapers on festivals, and composed of mar
ble, wood, stone, bronze, or precious metals. It was sometimes
erected over tombs. St. Chrysostom says the silver shrines of
Diana resembled small ciboria. Another name for the balda
chino was Munera. In 567 the Second Council of Tours or
dered that the Eucharist should be reserved not in a little re
ceptacle, like images, but under the cross which crowned the
ciborium. Wren designed a baldachino for the altar of St.
Paul's. In St. Mark's Cathedral at Venice is a beautiful speci
men, and another at Lugo ; that of Toledo is of blue velvet.
The Baldachino at Gerona, 1320-48, is of wood, covered
with plates of metal, and stands upon four shafts, supporting
a flat quadripartite vault covered with small figures. At
Brilley and Michael Church there are canopies of wood over
the altar. The word in Italian and German is used as a
synonym of the French crown and English canopy — an or
namental projection, which covers the tops of stalls, door
ways, niches, and windows. The canopy carried over the
sovereign in processions was called a ceele, from coelum.
Baldachino also designates the canopy which Italian bishops
have a right to erect over their chairs in church.
The ciborium was originally the receptacle of the host,
dove or tower-shaped, and suspended over the altar ; but as
luxury increased, under the name of tabernacle it extended
itself into an architectural erection above the altar, like a
canopy supported by four columns, forming four arches, over
which were hung rich curtains, reaching to the ground, and
only drawn aside at certain periods of the Mass. In the

BALDRIC  BANNERS. 53
centre hung the vessel containing the host. Latterly cur
tains were abolished, and the form became changed into that
now called the Baldachino. Justinian's ciborium at St.
Sophia was of silver gilt, with a canopy of silver, topped by
an orb of massive gold.
Baldric. Baudrey ; a bell-rope ; the leathern strap for suspend
ing the clapper from the staple in the crown of a bell.
Baleys. A ruby of an inferior kind.
Ball-Flower. An ornament of the " Decorated Period," like
a flower closed up into a ball, with three petals rounded
closely upon it.
Baluster. A small, round pillar, found in the windows of pre-
Norman towers.
Bands (in the Oxford University Statutes, rendered collare).
An introduction of the Tudor period, either a relic of the
amice, or an adaptation of the broad, flowing bands then
worn by all classes. In France and Italy the clergy wear
bands of a black material, edged with white. Lawyers in
England use very long bands. The small Genevan bands
are a tradition from the seventeenth century and the Puri
tans, for Dr. Hammond has in his portrait the broad cavalier
band. In 1566 the out-door dress of the English clergy
consisted of the square cap, tippet, long gown, and bands ;
and in church, of the surplice and cope. In the Statutes of
Hereford, 1630, they are defined as linen fragments, which
some bind about their necks.
Banker. A covering for a bench ; hangings of cloth ; the side-
curtains of an altar.
Banners in church and processions were adopted from Con-
stantine's use of the labarum — the cross-banner, — which
was carried in the van of his army. They were used to
commemorate the Easter victory of our Lord. The sacred
banner of the Maccabees had the initial letters of the He
brew words, forming the text Exodus xv. 11. The Empe
ror Heraclius, in 621, took a picture of the cross to battle
in his war with Persia, and carried the cross on his shoulders
up Calvary, as an act of thanksgiving, which was the origin
of the Festival of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross. The
earliest instances of banners in England are those of two
guthfana, war-vanes or standards, which were given by
Bishop Leofric to Exeter Cathedral. But St. Augustine

54 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
before had entered the gates of Canterbury with a banner
of the Cross carried before his procession, singing a litany.
The banner of St. Cuthbert was of white velvet, with a red
cross of the same material, and contained in the centre St.
Cuthbert's corporax cloth. It was fringed with red silk and
gold, and had three silver bells attached to it. It was of
great weight, and five men assisted the bearer when it was
carried in procession. Pope Gregory III. sent a banner
which he had blessed to the King of France. Leo III. gave
one to Charlemagne ; and Alexander II. sent another to
William of Normandy, for his invasion of England. Philip
II. of France also received a Papal banner. King Henry V.
carried a Cross banner in his expedition against the Lol
lards; and in the rising of the North in 1570 the rebels
carried a banner embroidered with the five wounds, a cha
lice, and a cross, with the legend In hoc signo vinces (" thou
shalt conquer by this sign ") . The banners of St. John of
Beverley, St. Peter of York, and St. Wilfrid of Ripon were
carried on a sacred car, crowned with a cross, by Arch
bishop Thurstan in 1138, at the Battle of the Standard, or
Northallerton, an imitation of the caroccio invented by
Eribert, Archbishop of Milan in 1035 ; and beneath the ban
ner of St. John, carried by a priest, Edward I. fought
against the Scots. Henry II. carried the banner of St.
Edmund of Bury to the Battle of Fornham, October 16,
1673. Round the shrine of St. Cuthbert at Durham, the
banners of the King of Scotland, Lord Neville, and other
noblemen were placed as ornaments and acts of homage.
The Earl of Surrey borrowed St. Cuthbert's banner (which
was carried at Flodden), and, as Skelton says, that of St.
William of York in his Scottish campaign. Ferdinand and
Isabella chased the Moors out of Granada, led by the Cross-
banner. Our own Henrys and Edwards fought beneath the
banners of St. Edmund the Confessor and St. George. In
later days, captured flags were suspended round the dome of
St. Paul's, and the banners of the Bath and St. George at
Westminster and Windsor. Henry VII. offered the banner
of St. George at St. Paul's after his victory at Bosworth.
The oriflamme or banner of St. Denis was always carried be
fore the kings of France in battle, as by Philip le Bel and
Louis le Gros; and regimental colours invariably receive

BANNS. 55
benediction by a priest before their presentation. Pope
Pius V., in 1568, " baptized" the Duke of Alva's babel, or
standard, by the name of Margaret. After the Reformation
in England, Cartwright mentions " bells and banners in
Rogations, the priest in his surplice saying gospels and
making crosses." In parish processions banners are still
carried in front of choirs at Peterborough, Southwell, and
other places. At Salisbury, before the Reformation, three
large banners were carried on Ascension Day — two in the
midst, of the Cross, and one in advance, representing the
Lion of Judah ; whilst in the rear was his trophy, the
image of a dragon. At Canterbury they included the arms
of noble benefactors. In some places, till recently, a linger
ing relic of banners might be seen in the garlands sus
pended upon the poles which were carried at the perambula
tion of parishes. Casalius says the procession resembles a ce
lestial host rejoicing in the triumph of Christ, and displaying
the sign of the Cross and banners to the discomfiture of the
powers of the air. And Cranmer said, " We follow His ban
ner as Christ's soldiers, servants, and men of war, for the
remembrance of Him, declaring our proneness and readiness
in all things to follow and serve Him;" — a thought which beau
tifully harmonizes with the admonition at Holy Baptism,
that we should serve under Christ's banner, and fight man
fully against His enemies, continuing His faithful soldiers
and servants unto our lives' end. (Psalm xx. 5.) Banners
were used at weddings and funerals ; the lesser guilds bor
rowed those of the parish church.
Banns. Proclamation ; public notice of marriage intended to
be solemnized. The first canons of councils which ordered
this publication are those of Lateran in 1139, and the Fourth
Lateran in 1215. Three publications were required by the
Canons of Westminster in 1200; and on three Sundays or
festivals distinct from each other, by Reynolds's Constitu
tions in 1322; that is, as Lyndwood says, on three several,
even if successive days, in Easter or Whitsun week, or at
other times with a break of a day : the intention being
that only a single publication should occur on one day. In
1328, Archbishop Meopham directed special attention in
the matter ; meaning, as Lyndwood says, at least publication
in the parish churches of the parents and kindred, as wrell as
those of the contracting parties.

56 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Baptism. The Fathers distinguish three kinds of Holy Bap
tism : (1) of water (St. Matt, xxviii. 19 ; St. Mark xvi. 16) ;
(2) of the Spirit (Acts i. 5 ; St. John iii. 3-5), in case of the
desire of baptism where it cannot be had ; or of penitence,
pains and tears; (3) of blood (St. Mark x. 38; St. Luke
xii. 50), where a martyr or confessor was prevented by death
or persecution from baptism by water (St. Luke xii. 24 ; St.
Matt. v. 10). "The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the
Church" is a sentiment of Tertullian in his Apology against
the Gentiles, and adopted by St. Augustine in his 109th
Sermon. The types of baptism are the Deluge (1 St. Peter iii. 21),
the Red Sea (1 Cor. x. 2), the water flowing from the rock
struck by Moses' rod (St. John iv. 14), water of Jordan
sanctified by the Saviour's baptism. Jordan is sometimes
represented as a human figure with a water -pot; the hart
desiring the waterbrooks, and a child mounted on a fish,
are also used in ancient monuments.
Baptism was called Indulgence by the" Council of Carthage;
remission or ablution of sins by St. Augustine and St. Gre
gory Nyssen ; regeneration by St. Cyril of Jerusalem ; unction
by St. Gregory Nazianzen ; illumination or the seal of Christ
by Clement of Alexandria ; the royal character, Christ's gift,
initiation, and consecration ; and, in the language of the
Discipline of the Secret, on many ancient tombs the day of
acceptance, that is, admission into the Church : and in some
cases, where baptism had been deferred, we find " he laid
down his albs at the grave ;" or " he passed away," or " fell
asleep in his alb."
In Apostolic times neither place nor time were prescribed
for the administration of baptism; but Tertullian mentions
Easter and Pentecost as the proper seasons, the first being
selected in memory of the death and rising again of the
Lord, with Whom we are buried in baptism, and by being
lifted up out of the water are reborn to the new life ; and
Whitsuntide, as the festival of the Holy Ghost, of Whom the
baptized are reborn. These times were enforced by the
Councils of Mayence 813, Gerona 517, Autun 578, Tribur
895, Macon 583, Cealcythe 785, Excerpts of Egbright 740,
Winchester 1071, and Otho the Legate in 1237. Othob.on
in 1268 mentions the eves of Easter and Whitsunday.

BAPTISM FOR THE DEAD — -BAPTISTERIES. 57
Epiphany was a baptismal season in Africa and in Asia, but
the Western Church repudiated the custom. At Christmas,
and on the festivals of apostles and martyrs, children were
baptized. Pope Felix IV. allowed private baptism only in
case of extreme necessity.
In medieval times the font was hallowed with special
solemnity on Easter and Whitsun Eves, but the practice was
forbidden in 1547. The usual hour for baptism was 3 p.m.,
the hour when our Lord gave up the ghost and the angel
appeared to Cornelius ; but at a later period, an hour some
time previous to dinner or noonday was prescribed, in order
to guard against intemperance.
If born within eight days of either Easter or Pentecost f
children, by Archbishop Peckham's injunctions, were to be
reserved for baptism at those times. In the Synod of Africa,
held under St. Cyprian, the second or third day after birth
was appointed, or at least one within eight days. By Ina's
laws, 693, baptism was to be administered within thirty
nights ; by Edgar's canons, 960, within thirty-seven nights ;
and within nine nights by the Northumbrian canons, 950.
The Church of England appoints no later day than the first
or second Sunday next after birth, or other holyday falling
between. The time for the administration is after the Se
cond Lesson at Matins or Evensong. There is only one
baptism for the remission of sins : to re-baptize is to commit
sacrilege.
Baptism for the Dead. St. Paul, to reprove those who de
nied the Resurrection, may have used the authority of here
tics like the Cataphrygians, who baptized the dead bodies,
not as approving the act, but quoting it as it served his
argument. The Marcionites baptized living proxies for the
dead; the Third Council of Carthage condemned those who
actually christened the dead : some heretics baptized chil
dren yet unborn; and in the primitive Church Christians
were baptized over the graves of the departed, in token that
the dead should rise again; possibly to this custom the
Apostle alludes.
Baptisteries. The early Christians were baptized in water by
the roadside (Acts viii. 36-38) ; or in a river (Acts xvi. 13-
15) ; or a prison (Acts xvi. 33) ; in a spring, or at sea, or in
private houses (Acts ix. 18; x. 47, 48); or in any place.

58 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Bede mentions Paulinus baptizing in the Swale; at Rome
there was an early baptistery in the house of Cyriacus, in
the Pontificate of Marcellus. Constantine erected baptis
teries in the suburbs, and on the Cselian hill. Gregory of
Tours says that baptisteries were introduced into France
under Clodovic. St. Cyril of Jerusalem mentions baptisteries
with an outer part for the preliminaries, and an inner part
for the administration. The Novels of Justinian prohibited
the administration of baptism in private houses, and the only
exceptions permitted by the Canon Law are in cases of ex
treme necessity, or children of the Royal family and princes.
Baptism was to be administered in church under pain of
deposal in the priest, and of excommunication in lay per
sons ; for many persons deferred their baptism until the hour
of death, that they might depart more undefiled out of the
world. Councils were sometimes held in the large Italian
baptisteries. In the fifth and sixth centuries baptisteries became com
mon, and were known as the Place of Illumination, the Bap
tismal Church, the Hall of Baptism : the terms Columbethra
and Font also occur. They were at first detached buddings.
The baptistery of Frejus is separated from the cathedral by
a porch; that of Aix was formerly isolated; St. Frort of
Poictiers is reputed to have been an ancient baptistery ; and
those of Constantine, at St. John Lateran, a modern restora
tion, and St. Constance, near the Church of St. Agnes Without
at Rome, are detached. One baptistery only was originally
allowed in each city or town, as until recent times at Parma,
Bologna, Pisa (1160, measuring 129 feet in diameter and
179 feet high) ; and till 1791 at Puy, Barbastro, Saragossa,
and Siguenca. There is only one baptistery, in accordance
with ancient rule, at Florence, Pisa, and Bologna. And at
Milan, by the Ambrosian rite, the parish priests went to the
Basilica on the eves of Easter and Pentecost, and carried in
procession to their churches the water which had received
benediction. The Councils of Auxerre and Meaux, in the
sixth century, first allowed the use of a baptistery in parish
churches. There are fine examples at Aix, Frejus, Florence
(90 feet in diameter), and Strasbourg, the latter dating from
453. At Lampaul, Brittany, the baptistery is domed, stands
on eight columns, and has innumerable decorations of the

BAPTISTERIES. 59
seventeenth century. In England, at St. Peter's Mancroft
(Norwich), Luton, Trunch, Aylsham, and Mellifont, there is
an octagonal building or screen, being an enlarged canopy,
or rather a reduced baptistery, within the church, to seclude
the font. At Luton it is of stone, and the Decorated period ;
at Trunch it is a rich covering of oak, with an hexagonal
closure carried on pillars outside the font ; at St. Peter's
Mancroft it is of wood, built in the fifteenth century.
There is a similar enclosure at Cividal de Friuli, of the
eighth or ninth century. The Becket's Crown of Canter
bury, and the eastern octagon of Drontheim, may have been
used as gigantic baptisteries.
They were always dedicated to St. John Baptist, as still
at Ravenna, Verona, Milan, and St. Restituta, at Naples ;
and the altar contained his relics. They were almost in
variably, as symbolical of the Regeneration, octagonal, as at
the Lateran, St. Tecla's (Milan), Aix, Florence, St. Zeno,
Verona, and Frejus; but polygonal buildings occur at
Canosa and Bologna ; hexagonal at Sienna, Parma, and
Aquileia; and circular at Pisa and Pistoia. One described
by St. Paulinus resembled a tower. At Bari, one of the
fourth century is circular without, and within of twelve
sides, once adorned with figures of the Apostles. The Lom-
bardic architects continued to build baptisteries in front of
the churches until the thirteenth century ; but, with this ex
ception, in other places they ceased to be erected after the
eleventh century, when parish churches were permitted to
have a font ; and in Germany they merged into the western
apse. At Tours the baptistery was used as a chapter-house,
as in the old cathedral of Canterbury, when archbishops
were buried in it. As infants were communicated imme
diately after baptism, altars were erected in the baptistery ;
and they remain at Pisa, Florence, and Ravenna, in the
latter case with a cross, dated 658. At Padua and Pistoia
the baptistery had a chancel, and one at Bonn has a nave
and porch. At Cambrai, in the fourteenth century, a large
piscina was added for the sponsors to wash their hands, and
to receive the rinsings of the vessel used for pouring the
consecrated water. The ancient baptistery of Vercelli con
tains two seats, one for the priest, and another for the
sponsor. In countries northward of the sunny South and

60 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Italy, the baptisteries were, at an early period, removed
within the church.
Barge Board. An ornamental board, used in the front of
gables, which became common in the fourteenth century;
in the fifteenth century they were cut in rich and beautiful
patterns.
Bartonar. A monastic officer ; the overseer of bartons, granges,
and farms ; a granarer.
Base. The lower part of a pillar, or wall.
Basilians. Students in religious colleges founded by St. Basil.
Basilica. The king's house. The word, adopted from the
Roman courts of justice, is said to have been at an early date,
not before the time of Constantine, applied to such buildings
when consecrated ; to churches which contained the bodies
or at least the relics of martyrs or saints; and to larger
churches, like the Lateran and Vatican. In the Council of
Gangra they are expressly named as the Martyrs' Basilicas,
and another title was Martyrs' Memorials. In 398 the
Council of Carthage prohibited the erection of churches ex
cept on such sites. In the fourth and fifth centuries Basilica
invariably implied a memorial church. In France small
mortuary chapels are still called basilicas, and in the sixth
and seventh centuries the word designated a minster in
France, but in 1237 an unconsecrated budding in England;
whilst all inferior houses of God were called simply churches.
In the Council of Cealcythe the basilica is a synonym for
parish church, that is, in 816. Basilica and oratory were
often used as the designation of churches other than cathe
drals. The only example north of the Alps remains at Treves.
Alby is a perfect basilica. Two pillars of that of Reculver
are preserved at Canterbury; and portions of others are said
to exist at Bosham, Lympne, and Stow. There were two
kinds of basilicas, the smaller and larger. The smaller basi
licas, like that of SS. Sixtus and Cecilia at Rome, were exact
copies of the little chapels of the Catacombs ; a rectangular,
aisleless nave, terminating in a central and two transeptal
apses, containing altars ; and the same plan is observable in
St. Petronilla, SS. Nereus and Achilles, and SS. Mark, Mar-
cellinus, and Tranquillinus.
In front of the larger basilica, both in the East and the
, West, was a forecourt (atrium, aithrion, or aula), surrounded

BASILICAS.- 61
by colonnades (tetrastulon, quadriporticus) , and containing a
covered fountain (phiala or cantharus) in the centre ; this
court served as a cemetery, and station of penitents, cate
chumens, and neophytes, whilst the faithful washed their
hands at the spring. We see here the origin of the cloister,
the galilee, and holy-water stoup. In front of the church
was the vestibulum, or pronaos, a narrow portico or porch,
which was supported on columns and fenced in with an iron
screen, on which were rings for the support of rich veils
on great festivals. The vault, usually covered with sacred
pictures, was called the impluvium. Here was the station of
the strati, or acroomenoi; and a water stoup, the malluvium,
phiale, or chernibozeston, was placed for washing the hands.
The central porch, when there were others on the north and
south, was called the narthex, or ferula, from its reed-like
shape and greater length than the others: This opened into
the naos, or atrium laicorum, or nave, with its aisles, the
andron on the right, which was larger than the other at St.
Sabina, at Rome, St. Sixtus (Pisa), and Narni Cathedral,
for men, and the matronikon on the left for women, as in the
old heathen court, the six entrances being restricted to the
different sexes, as the great west door was to the clergy.
The upper galleries and end of the matronikon were occu
pied by widows and young religious . women ; the western
portion of the nave was allotted to catechumens and penitents,
and the eastern to the faithful ; the monks sitting in the eastern
part of the andron. A marble balustrade, called the septum,
podium, or peribolos, breast high, formed the entrance of the
ritual choir (the choir of singers), which was raised on a tra
verse, or platform, and known as the suggestum lectorum, or
tribune, extending into the nave like the choir in a Norman
minster, and shut off by the chancel rail (cancelli), which
had a central door. The solea was the western part, outside
the door of the bema ; at Rome it was called the Senatorium,
being reserved to persons of rank. The word tribune is still
preserved in Italy and Germany. At Constantinople the
Emperor sat within the enclosure, but at Milan St. Ambrose
compelled Theodosius to sit outside among the laity. On
either side of the chancel-door was a pulpit or ambon ; one
on the south for reading the gospel, and a pulpit, the ambon
proper ; the other, the analogion, a lectern for the Epistolar,

62 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the reader of the Prophecies, and chief singer. The solea of
the clergy, eastward of it, was occupied by the minor clerks,
subdeacons, and singers. In the Carlovingian period these
desks were united. Martene also mentions an arrangement
of two ambons on the right of the entrance ; one facing the
altar, for the Epistle, and the other fronting the people, for
reading the prophets, whilst the Gospel ambon, still more
elevated, occupied the left side. The Paschal candlestick
adjoined the ambon. The use of the ambons ceased about
1309, when the Popes removed to Avignon. We observe
here the germ of the medieval rood-screen and loft. The
Secretarium of the Western Church was usually on one side
of the solea. The eastern end of the church formed the
holiest of all, the sanctuary, bema, presbytery, or suggestum,
reached by a flight of steps. It was fenced by a rail with a
central door ; but in larger churches with three entrances,
one facing each of the great alleys of the nave. In the chord
of the apse, concha, or semicircular end, stood the altar;
behind it was the bishop's throne, with the stalls of the
clergy on either side. The altar stood above a crypt, me
morial, or confession, the grave of a martyr or saint ; and
above it, until the thirteenth century, was a cupola, called
the ciborium, or baldachino, which has been preserved at
Rome, Venice, Brie, and in some other churches. In Eastern
churches, on the right side was the secretarium, sacrarium,
diaconicum, paratorium, or oblationarium, the credence table,
chamber and aumbry for plate; and on the left, gazophy-
lakion, skenophylakion, or vestry, library, and muniment
room, where the offerings of the faithful were kept. Some
of the principal Roman churches still retain the distinguish
ing title of Basilica, and John de Athon, the Canonist, applies
the term to great churches.
Basins. Before the high-altar, and above the steps *to it,
were usually three basins of silver, hung by silver chains,
with prickets for serges or great wax candles, and latten
basins within them to receive the droppings; these tapers
burnt continually, night and day, in token that the house
was always watching unto God. Basins were used for carry
ing the cruets and the ewers for the ablution of the priest's
fingers; they were usually in pairs, one being used for
pouring, the other for receiving the water ; thus we find one

BATH-HOUSE  BATON. 63
engraved with the mortal life and a second with the Divine
life of Christ. The material was sometimes enamelled copper
or silver gilt, and the embellishment was frequently of a
heraldic rather than religious character. At Durham one
basin and two cruets were used at a time. There is a beau
tiful basin of the time of Edward II., wrought with figures
of a knight helmed by a lady at a castle gate/ in St. Mary's,
Bermondsey, which once belonged to the abbey there. Two
enamelled basins of the thirteenth century at Conques are
called Gemellions ; one is used as a ewer, and the other as a
jug. There was also a large basin for alms, usually double
gilt, used upon principal festivals, and a smaller one of less
value for ordinary days. Alms-basins of Flemish manufac
ture and latten are preserved at St. Margaret's, Westminster.
Bath-house. A large building for bathing at certain times,
was a usual adjunct to a Benedictine monastery; at Canter
bury it occupied the site of the deanery.
Baths were used by the faithful before Communion, by cate
chumens before Baptism, with the use of the strigel and
perfumes, and by the clergy on the eves of festivals. The
latter had by the grant of Theodosius the right of sanctuary ;
and Constantine having built one at Constantinople, near
the Apostles' Church, St. Hilary Damasus, and Adrian I.
followed his example at Rome. Paintings and mosaics
adorned them, and bishops in their visitation enjoined their
use. One at Puzzuoli still bears the name of the Bishop's
Spring.
Baton (anciently Bourdon). The staff carried as the badge
of office by a prsecentor, chanters, chancellors, and choir
masters. Honorius of Autun mentions the prsecentor' s silver
staff and tablets. The wand was only carried at High Mass
and Second Vespers. At Dijon, Puy-en-Velay, and St.
Chaffre, the prsecentor used it to beat time and as an instru
ment to correct those who misbehaved; at Lyons batons
were carried by the choir-master and oldest vicar to keep off
the crowd in processions. At Angouleme on great days the
canon who sings the office still carries a silver baton. The
staff of the rector of choir and the prsecentor is frequently
mentioned in English inventories. It had no crook, but
usually a Tau-shaped cross-beam at the end for images.
There is a good silver staff in the Treasury of Cologne.

64 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Battels. Payments at Oxford for college expenses (called
sizings at Cambridge) ; from an old word signifying a coin.
Batter. To slope inwards.
Battlement. A crenellated parapet; in Ireland they are often
multiplied in graduation so as to form corbie steps. At Car
lisle Cathedral they carry upright crosses, — a very remarkable
feature.
Bawdkyn. Cloth of gold ; from Bagdad, Babylon, or Baldacca ;
brocade.
Beacon Turrets occur at Llandrillo yn Rhos, at St. Burian's,
Hadley, and St. Michael's Mount, under the modern name
of St. Michael's Chair ; they carried a light in a pot sus
pended on an iron frame, to guide travellers or ships. The
cage for the cresset remains at Hadley Tower. Octagonal
lanterns are found at Boston, in the west tower of Ely, at
All Saints', York, and other places which served the same
purpose. St. Hilary Tower was yearly whitewashed by the
port of St. Ives, to render it conspicuous at sea. At Bow
Church, Cheapside, and Winchester, there were beacons.
Beam-Light. The lamp which burned before the Holy Sacra
ment; so called, because set on the rood-beam above the
altar, in distinction to a, light set upon a perch or swinging
stand, or those placed in bowls suspended from the vault.
Bearing-Cloth. A christening robe or mantle, in which chil
dren were carried to the font. One of the sixteenth cen
tury, made of blue satin, and embroidered with silver lace
and fringes and gold vignettes, is preserved at Bitterley
Court, Salop.
Beauseant Avant. The war-cry of the Templars, in allusion to
their colours — black for their foes, and white for friends,
side by side ; for which the old French word was baucant
(piebald) . The Hospitallers' flag was red with a white cross.
Bede. A prayer. Bede-roll was a catalogue or list of the de
parted, who were prayed for every Sunday from the pulpit.
Beadman or precular is a prayer-man, one who says prayer
for a patron or founder, hence an almsman. In all the
Cathedrals of the New Foundation, there are several bede-
men on the Foundation, who wear the Tudor rose on their
breast, and serve as bellringers and assistant-vergers.
Beads of jet were regarded as having virtue to help ; beads
of mystill were mixed beads ; they were sometimes of wood

BEDEL. 05
and sometimes of stone, and, in England, often called a pair
of paternosters, or, by the common folk, procuhv, or Ave-
beads. A belt of paternosters is ordered to be said at the
death of a bishop in the English Council of Cealcythe, of
the ninth century. Abbot Paul, who inhabited the desert
of Sceta, according to Sozomen, recited the same prayer
three hundred times a day, and counted them by means of
an equal number of little stones, like the cubes used in
mosaic work, which he kept in a fold of his robe, and cast
away one by one. In a painting of the eleventh century, re
presenting the burial of St. Ephraem, the monks carry
chaplets in their hands, or suspended at their girdles. Alan,
Archbishop of Mechlin, in the sixteenth century, says that
such crowns lasted in England from the time of Bede until
the seventh century, and were hung upon church walls for
public use. The famous Lady Godiva, of Coventry, accord
ing to Wdliam of Malmesbury, bequeathed a threaded chain
of jewels, used by her at prayer-time, as a necklace to St.
Mary's image. A similar chaplet is mentioned in the Life
of St. Gertrude in the seventh century. Most probably
Peter the Hermit, c. 1090, introduced the fashion with the
Hours of our Lady among the Crusaders, having seen
the beads of the Mahometans. The Indians use beads, and
the Jews have a chaplet called Meah Beracot. The ascrip
tion of the chaplet to Venerable Bede is no doubt due to
the similarity of name ; but St. Dominic, in 1230, may be
regarded as the author of the permanent use of the beads.
The Rosary is a modern name. The Lady Psalter consisted
of fifteen Paternosters, and a hundred and fifty Aves, the lat
ter representing the Psalms of David, in place of which they
were recited. The name of Bede was translated to the
knobs on the prayer-belts, and when pilgrims from the East
introduced chaplets of seeds or stone, to round beads strung
upon a string, which were used in place of a girdle, studded
with bosses or notched on the part which trailed upon the
ground. "Hail Mary" was formerly unknown till 1229 or
1237, and then was used simply in the Angelic Salutation.
(St. Luke i. 28-42.) Urban IV., in 1261-4, added the rest
of the words to " Jesus Christ ;" but the prayer or invocation
is barely three hundred years old.
Bedel. A bidder, crier, or summoner. v . ~k. ir> F

66 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Belfry. A corruption of the Low Latin word belfredus, which
Ducange derives from bell-fried (peace) ! the French beffroi
is said to be only another form of effroi. Penitents were
placed here in England. Latimer speaks of " Poor Magda
lene under the board and in the belfry." The possession of
a bell-tower by the laws of Athelstan, 926, conferred on the
owner the thane's right of a seat in the town-gate, corre
sponding to a place on the grand jury. At Aberdeen and
Glasgow, in early times, the bells were hung on trees ; and
usually in England the belfries were detached when there
was a heavy peal of bells. See Detached Towers.
Belgian Architecture. There are three styles. 1. Primary
and transitional, tenth to thirteenth century ; the porches
are lateral, the towers mostly at the west end, and the choirs
small and apsidal. 2. Secondary, pointed, or rayonnant,
fourteenth to latter part of fifteenth century; distinguished
by the chevet, size of the windows, and elaboration in
towers. 3. Third, pointed, or flamboyant, latter part of
fifteenth to latter part of sixteenth century.
Bell (from pelvis, a bowl). The earliest mention of bells oc
curs in the descriptions of the dress of the Jewish High
Priest in Exodus and Ecclesiasticus. They were not un
familiar to the ancient nations, as they are alluded to by
Martial, Pliny, Suetonius, Porphyry, Zonaras, and Lucian,
in association with the public baths ; the chariot of Camillus
at his triumph, the rites of a Syrian goddess, Indian philo
sophers assembling for prayer, pyramidal towers, clocks,
and the covering of Jupiter's temple by the Emperor Au
gustus. The invention, of bells has therefore been errone
ously attributed to Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, by Durandus,
Honorius of Autun, and Walafrid Strabo. The word ' nola'
applied to a bell does not date earlier than the fourth cen
tury, and that of ' campana ' not until the eighth century.
Possibly Paulinus may have introduced the distinctive use
of church bells at Nola, and the famous brass of Campania
lent colour to the tradition. Pope Sabinian at Rome in 604
ordered the hours to be sounded on the bells ; and they are
mentioned in the Ordo Romanus about this date, as being
used to announce Tierce, Mass, and processions. St. Owen,
in the Life of St. Eloy, c. 650, speaks of the bell (cam
pana) ; and Bede mentions, about half a century later, Hilda,

BELL. 67
a nun of Hackness, whilst lying in her dormitory, hearing
the well-known sound of the bell for prayers ; and a monk of
St. Gall has recorded the casting of a bell for Charlemagne.
The Greeks employed a symbol — a wooden clapper — as they
still do ; but in 865 Patriciacus Ursus, Doge of Venice, sent
a present of a peal of bells to the Emperor Michael at Con
stantinople. In 874 a Venetian bell was forwarded to the
Emperor Basil. In 550, Odoceus, Bishop of Llandaff, is
said to have removed the cathedral bells during a time of
excommunication. In 740, Pope Zachary allowed the Bene
dictines of Monte Casino to use bells for the hours and
Mass ; but John XXII. , owing to the complaint of the se
cular clergy, allowed the regular communities to possess
only one bell. The Council of Lateran imposed a fine of one
hundred ducats upon any church which rang its bells before
the Cathedral on Easter Eve ; and at Bath, on Sundays, no
parish church was aUowed to ring before the Abbey had
chimed for High Mass ; whilst at Winchester the abbey of
St. Mary was removed to another site, owing to its bells
and organs clashing with one another. Bells were rung for
the canonical hours ; Masses ; the burial of the dead, accord
ing to old custom; to still storms, such bells bearing the
legend of Maria gratice plena or Verbum caro factum est ; at
the Angelus three times a day, under the invocation of St.
Gabriel during processions ; and by the ordinance of Pope
Gregory IX. at the elevation of the Eucharist. The tocsin,
or alarm-bell, was common to all countries ; but the passing-
bell, even in medieval times, was peculiar to England.
The uses of the church bells are summed up in the follow
ing lines : —
" Laudo Deum verum, plebem voco, eongrego clerum,
Defunctos ploro, pestem (nimbum) fugo, festa decoro (or que honoro)."
Their use was founded on the employment of the silver trum
pets, under the Law according to Numbers x.; and Joseplms,
describing these instruments, says, "They ended in a bell-like
' form." Cassiodorus called an organ a tower of pipes, and
Honorius of Autun and Walafrid Strabo give to bells the
name of the clangers or trumpets of the Church. By the Coun
cil of Limoges they were called the clamours of metal ; and
by the Ritual of Beauvais the messengers of God's people.
f 2

68 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Evigilans stultum (waking the unwise) was the monastic
nickname of the matin -bell, used also at Angers. At Char
tres, six large bells, the Commanders, gave the signal for the
after-peal to ring before service. At Bayeux, they were
called moneaux (the warners), and the death-bell is named
the mortuaise. At Strasburg, one which summoned the as
sembly of the Council, bore the name of magistral. Hex
ham possessed a foray-bell and a fire-bell. The fire-bell of
Sherborne Abbey- is dated 1652; one of the most ancient
church bells in use is that of Barcelona, dated 1293. An
other at Fontenailles was made in 1202 ; and one at Bayeux
has ears. In England the most common dedications of bells
were the following, arranged according to their relative
numerical proportions : — St. Mary, St. John, Jesus, St.
Catherine, Trinity, St. Margaret, and St. Peter. Great
Tom of Lincoln (1610) was dedicated to the Holy Ghost,
and that of Westminster to St. Edward the Confessor. The
Bell of Lambourne was rung nightly as a guide to travellers
over the interminable downs of Berkshire ; and one at York,
as a signal to persons traversing the Galtres Forest. The
Sanctus-bell was rung during the singing of the Ter Sanctus,
and the sacring-bell at the elevation of the Eucharist. Cam-
pana was a large bell ; nola, a smaller specimen. The squill
(or onion-shaped) or tintinnabulum, was rung in the Refec
tory, the cymbal in the cloister, the nola in choir, the no-
lula in the clock, the campana in the belfry, and the sign in
the tower. The Irish and Celtic bishops carried hand-bells,
a. campana, bajula, or clocca ; those of St. Kentigern and St.
Medan had hereditary custodians. The capped bell of St.
Cullan, c. 908, in a shrine of the twelfth century; the
bronze bell of St. Cuana, d. 650; another of St. Ruadhan,
d. 584 ; and St. Cummin's bell, d. 662, are in the British
Museum. In the time of Charlemagne, in Northumberland,
in 950, and even in the last century in Carthusian houses,
priests rang the bells. An ahbot, as a rector and vicar do
now, at his induction rang the church bell as a sign of his
new power. The pilgrims to St. Thomas's Shrine entered
the city piping, singing, and jangling their Canterbury bells.
The bell of Lincoln, Great Tom (grand ton) (1835) weighs
five tons eight cwt. ; Tom of Oxford (1680), seven tons;
and Peter of York (1845), ten tons fifteen cwt. Peter of

BELL. 69
Exeter has, perhaps, the finest tone of all. In 1099, Godfrey
de Bouillon set up bells at Jerusalem ; and the Crusaders in
troduced peals into the East ; but in 1452 the Emperor Maho
met prohibited their use to the Greek Christians after the cap
ture of Constantinople, so that again the use of the sign or
primitive bell, — a rude but not unmelodious clapper, — is again
practised. The sign is mentioned by St. Ephrem, c. 370, as
the call to Holy Communion ; and by St. Gregory of Tours, c.
570, and the Canons of Cealcythe, 816, as the call to prayers.
Charlemagne adopted the word when he mentioned the
ringing to Mass ; and in the Chronicle of Battle Abbey, in
the twelfth century, the familiar term again appears. In
830, Amalarius mentions that these clappers were, in his
day, called Little Rome. On the three last days of Holy
Week, at least from the time of Albinus and Beleth, the
bells are silent and wooden tablets employed in order to
mark the solemnity of the season, and in memory of the
tribulation of the early Christians, who met only by concert,
or by the oral summons of a public notice in their assem
blies on the previous evening. Even after the conversion of
Constantine, they were apprised of the hours of prayer by
a pratco, or runner, as St. Jerome says, or else by the sound
of a wooden instrument, according to Fortunatus and Me- _
taphrastes ; whilst in the monasteries, as St. Jerome men
tions, they were called with the cry of Alleluia. At Char
tres there was a belfry over the crossing-, which contained
a wooden instrument called the gnie, used in Holy Week,
when the bells were silent. Probably the first step to fixed
bells was made by the use of portable or hand-bells, which
are mentioned by Giraldus, speaking of the time of Germa-
nus, c. 430, and specimens of these are still preserved. The
hand-bell is still rung at Oxford, in front of funeral proces
sions of members of the University. At Congleton, on the
eve of the parish wake, St. Peter ad Vincula, a man in whose
family from time immemorial the belts have been preserved,
walks through the streets, shaking three belts covered with
bells, and this is called "Ringing the Chains" (of St. Peter).
A hand-bell is invariably used at funerals in Italy, Sicily, and
Malta, and commonly so in France and Spain, as a signal to
clear the way, and elicit a prayer for the departed. Criminals
were sworn on St. Evin's bell by the justices of Munster.

70 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Tin trumpets, preserved at Willoughton and Thorney, are
said to have been used to call the congregation together.
At Canterbury, by Lanfranc's Constitutions, the convent
was summoned to attend the dying by the blow of a mallet
on the cloister door.
Bell, Book, and Candle, By. The form of the greater excom
munication.
Bench-table (banc) . A line of stone seats occurring in churches,
cloisters, and porches. Medieval benches are found in
England and France, but nowhere in Spain or Italy, where
kneeling only was permitted, as in England even in the time
of Archbishop Arundel, when all persons sat on the floor
in sermon time. When permanent pews, or benches for the
purpose of hearing sermons, were built in the fifteenth cen
tury, the bench-table disappeared. In the latter part of the
seventeenth century the French began to use fixed seats.
Benedicite. The hymn of the three children, Ananias, Azarias,
and Misael, sung in the furnace on the plains of Dura, which,
in the first Prayer-book of Edward VI. is ordered to be sung
daily in Lent. Its use seems very appropriate to the First
Morning Lessons on Septuagesima and the nineteenth
Sunday after Trinity. The Council of Toledo, 633, ordered
it to be sung on all Sundays and festivals in the pulpit at
Mass.
Benedictines. Black Monks, founded by St. Benedict at Monte
Casino in 530, from whom monachism, hitherto without aim
and use, took life. There were six principal congregations or
branches of the order : the Clugniacs, Grandmontines, Vallom-
brosa, and Camaldoli of the eleventh century ; Carthusians
and Cistercians, Savigny, or Grey Brothers, and Tiron ; be
sides the minor and modern communities of Monte Casino
(1408) St. Maur (1621) and others. The order gave to the
Church 40 popes and 2000 cardinals, 7000 archbishops, 5000
bishops, 15,000 abbots, and most of its learned members in
all ages. They held all the cathedrals of the new foundation
in England except Carlisle, and also those of Monte Casino
and Monreale. The magnificent churches of Tewkesbury,
Battle, Pershore-, Glastonbury, Tynemouth, Selby, Sherborne,
Milton, St. Mary's (York), Crowland, Ramsay, also belonged
to them. A parish church for their labourers will always
be found adjoining their close ; which included workshops

BENEDICTION  BENEDICTION OF BELLS. 71
of every trade, and a mill, in order to render them inde
pendent of the outer world.
Their dress consisted of boots and woollen hosen, breeches,
a stamine, or linsey-woolsey shirt, a black tunic, or under-
robe with long sleeves, a leathern girdle, a black cowl, a frock
like a mantle, and, for manual work, a scapular, consisting
of a hood, and two pieces of cloth hanging down one behind
the other in front of the wearer. Richard I. said that
he would bequeath his luxury to Black Monks, his avarice
to the Grey, and his pride to the Templars.
Benediction. The Latin or Western form of benediction is
purely symbolical, and made by extending the thumb, first
and second fore fingers, with the third and fourth closed
upon the palm, as symbolical of the Holy Trinity ; but in
the Greek Church the first finger extended represents I ; the
third finger is bent towards the palm and crossed by the
thumb like an X (Ch) , at the same time the second finger is
curved inwards to form C (s), and the fourth finger is simi
larly bent into a C ; this arrangement gives the Greek mo
nogram for the four letters which begin and end the name of
Jesus Christ (JesuS CHristoS). It is also supposed to re
present the conjunction of A and II, Alpha and Omega, the
title of the Saviour ; or the aspiration of the soul to the
Holy Trinity, and faith in His eternal benefits, represented
by the circle made by the thumb and ring-finger. The rite
of Constantinople prescribes benediction by the patriarch
holding in his right hand a three-branched candlestick, as
emblematical of the Triune God, and in his left one with
two lights, symbolical of the two natures of our Lord.
Benediction of Bells. Bells improperly are said by Ivo of
Chartres and Alcuin, c. 770, and even by Durand and Martene,
to be baptized ; and Charlemagne in his Capitulars, 789,
forbade the baptism of clocks or bells. The canonical term
for the ceremony of consecration is Benediction. Pope
John IV., in the seventh century, gave his name to the great
bell of St. John Lateran ; and John XIII. , in 968, first gave
positive instructions for the benediction of a bell, the gift of
the Emperor Otho, in the same church, and oil and chrism
were used in its unction. Bells were named after some saint
or some distinguished person, and instances of this nomen
clature occur in the Hautclere, Douce, Clement, Austin,

72 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Mary, Gabriel, and John,— the Bonnie Christchurch bells ;
Mary and Jacqueline of Notre Dame, Paris, the George
d'Amboise of Rouen, the Rolin de THuys and Benet, the
Bauda of Vienne, and the Great Roland of Ghent, which was
the gift of Charles V. Recently the Bishops of Oxford and
Salisbury have dedicated bells, as in the parallel instance of
former prelates consecrating altar plate, and the font, and
other church furniture, including the names of Andrewes,
Lake, Wren, and Hacket. Dr. Tresham having had the
Mass-bell of Christchurch, Oxford, repaired, when Pro-Vice-
Chancellor, called it Mary. Baptism was simply a French
term which took its origin in sprinkling a new bell with
holy-water : and by some of the older canonists, churches
were said to be baptized when the rite of dedication only
was intended. The superstition against which Charlemagne
in 789 protested was an immersion of the bells in water
known as baptism ; a matter very different from a consecra
tion of the dull metal as an instrument of God's praise.
Benediction of Grapes. At Clugny there were numerous bene
dictions : of the new beans, the freshly pressed juice of the
grape, and on August 6th of the ripe grapes which were
blessed on the altar during Mass, and afterwards distributed
in the Refectory.
Benediction of Ships. The benediction of inanimate things is
founded on 1 Tim. iv. 4, 5. A relic of this ceremony remains
in the practice of breaking a bottle of wine over the bows of
a ship at its launch.
Benediction of Swords. On the Sunday in Lent called Lastare
and on Christmas Eve the Pope blessed a sword, which he
afterwards sent to some favoured king. Pius II. gave one
to the Duke of Burgundy, and another to Louis XL, King of
France, each with a suitable inscription.
Benedictus. The song of Zacharias at the birth of St. John
Baptist, which is not to be used as a Canticle when it oc
curs in the chapter for the day, or as the Gospel on St. John
Baptist's Day (Feb. 18; June 17, 24; and Oct. 15).
Benefice. The perpetual right of enjoying the fruits of eccle
siastical goods, accruing to a clerk from a special office.
About the ninth century, and towards its close, the clergy
no longer were paid from a common fund, but by a fixed
portion of land or income, as a title or usufruct. They were

BENEFIT OF CLERGY  BERYL. 73
divided into secular, held by secular clergy; or regular,
when occupied by monks. Doubles were benefices of popes,
bishops, and abbots ; intermediate doubles, those of capi
tular dignitaries ; and minor doubles parochial cures ; whilst
chapelries were designated as simple.
The right of Advowsons arose from the permission given
by bishops in early times to those who founded aud endowed
churches to nominate the incumbents. The word is derived
from advocatio, the reception of a client by a patron, who was
bound to be advocate or protector of the rights of the Church,
and the clerk presented. An advowson appendent is one
annexed to a manor ; that which has been separated from it
is said to be in gross. Nomination is the offering a clerk to
the patron. Presentation the offering a clerk to the bishop.
The donative invests the clerk by the patron's simple deed,
without presentation, institution, or induction ; and this was
the usual practice where the clerk was already in orders,
until the middle of the twelfth century, when the bishops
established a right to institution as spiritual investiture in
all cases, although formerly they had only claimed it when
the nominee was a layman.
Benefices are (1) presentative, in which the patron pre
sents the nominee for institution to the bishop, and the bishop
commends him to the archdeacon for induction; (2) col-
lative, those in the gift of ordinaries, who forward him to
the archdeacon to induct him ; (3) donative, exempt from
the jurisdiction of the ordinary, where the patron puts his
nominee into possession by an instrument under his hand
and seal, without institution.
Benefit of Clergy. Previous to the Act 28th Henry VIII.
c. 1, a clerk convicted of felony could not be condemned or
sentenced by a temporal judge, but was committed to the
bishop's prison on a bread-and-water diet, with the privi
lege of compurgation ; but if he failed to establish his inno
cence (or, as it was said, purge himself), he was given
over to the secular arm.
Berefellars. Seven persons in Beverley Minster, who acted
' as rectors of choir ; their amesses were probably lined with
bear-skin, or fells, whence their name.
Beryl. (1) A precious stone, or deep-red cornelian; (2) fine
glass-like crystal.

74 SACEED ARCHEOLOGY.
Bethlehem (Order of). Reformed Dominicans, distingnished
by a blazing star on the breast, who founded a house at
Cambridge in 1257.
Bid Ale. A feast where an honest man, being decayed in his
estate, was set up again by the contributions of his friends
at a common meal.
Bidding Prayer (bede, to pray). A form of prayer inviting
supplications in church for all estates of men, which may be
traced back to the people's prayer mentioned in the Council
of Lyons in Si 7. Similar prayers were made in Africa and
Germany, and are alluded to by Ivo of Chartres in 1092. St.
Chrysostom used the form, "Blessed be God/' St. Am.
brose had his own form, preserved by Ferrarius. Optarus
says sermons began and terminated with the name of God.
The Apostolical Constitutions enjoin the Pauline benediction.
Old forms of the Bidding Prayer occur at the time of the
Reformation, and these, or one at present used in cathedrals
and the Universities, were employed by Parker, Sandys, Gar
diner, Latimer, Jewel, and Andrewes ; but Fletcher, Ravis,
and Bracket used forms of their own.
Birretta (from pyrrhus, or purros, red). A cap so called from
the colour of the fur, its original material. The cappa was
also called a birrhus, and worn with a fur hood to cover the
head. Copes in 1281 were ordered by Archbishop Peckham
not to be worn birretted behind and before, that is, without
folds (another meaning of birrhus), and not slit down the
back or the centre in front. The earlier birrhus, a cloak, as
Sozomen explains it, loose and of woollen material, was usu
ally red in colour, and common to all the clersrv. St. Cyprian
wore a beros together with his tunic, and the habit is alluded
to under the same name bv the Council of Gangra. St.
Austin speaks of a precious birrus, probably made of rich
silk. At the coronation of William and Mary some of the
clergy wore square caps, resembling flat -topped birrettas.
The birretta, a scull-cap, is mentioned in 1298 as the instru
ment of investiture of a rector by the Archbishop of Can
terbury. Bums was also a tippet worn on the tunic, and
sometimes buttoned over the chest, or else flowing over
the shoulders : it was used by the clergy, of a ruddy black
or brown, or more usually fire-red colour, as its name, purros,
as an adjective implies; but as a substantive, indicating

BISHOP. 75
a dross, it was spelt bcros. It had sometimes a hood attached
to it, and is represented by the modern mozzotta.
Bishop. (Gr. fjiiscojios, an overseer or superintendent.) Tho
first of the sacred order of ministers ; to whom consecration
by three bishops is indispensable. Bishops are divided into
four classes : (1) suffragans, titulars, and in purtlbiis infi
del! urn; (2) archbishops and metropolitans; (3) primates;
(4) patriarchs. The bishop holds a stall at Lichfield, Lin
coln, Salisbury, Limerick, Cashel, St. Patrick's, and Doven-
ter, as formerly at Ross, in Scotland. At Durham ho was a
Count Palatine and Earl of Sadberg, until 3 & 4 Will. III.
c. 19. In several cathedrals, and in all of the new founda
tions, the bishop was abbot; and to this day tho bishop
occupies what otherwise would be the dean's stall at Carlisle
and Ely, and at Durham on certain occasions. At Carlisle
and Monreale, houses of Canons Regular, the superior was
the bishop ; and at Monte Casino and La Cava the Bene
dictine abbot was also tho bishop. Tho Bishop of Norwich
sits in the House of Lords as Abbot of Hulme, the barony
having been severed from the see in 1535. The sees of
Carlisle and Rochester are held in frank alms. In cathe
drals of tho old foundations he summons the Croat Chapter,
interprets the statutes, celebrates at the Holy Communion,
and gives the benediction. He has the right of visitation,
and confers the dignities and prebends, and in most cases the
residentiaryships. In many cathedrals of the new founda
tion he can celebrate when he pleases. The several sees
were founded or in existence in the following order : Can
terbury, 596 ; York, 314; London, 004 ; AVinchester, 63 t.
[Llandisfhre, 635-854; Hexham, 678-821. United in
Chester-le-Streot 854, and merged in] Durham 990. [Sher
borne taken out of Winchester, 705, including the sees of
Wiltshire, 920-1058 ; Bath, 1088 ; Wells, 909, united 1 130 ;
Cornwall and Devon, 904, united in Exeter 1041 ; Bristol,
1512; the see at Sonning and Ramsbury from 920, and at
Old Saruni 1058, removed to] Salisbury in 1075; Here
ford, 680; [Mercia, see at Leicester 655, at] Lichfield (or
Chester) c. 750, and Coventry 1102: the latter cathedral
was destroyed at the Reformation ; [Devon, see at Tawton or
Crediton, 905; Cornwall, see at Bodmin, St. German's, 850,
or St. Petrock, united in] Exetkr, 1056 ; [Dorchester oweu

76 sacred archeology.
636, Lindisse or Stow 678, Leicester 658, united at Dorchester
886, removed to] Lincoln, 1076; [Ely, taken out of Lincoln,
1109; [Selsea, 681, removed to] Chichester in 1085; Car
lisle, 1 133 ; Worcester, 680 ; Rochester, 604 ; [East Anglia .
630, Dunwich 673, North Elmham 673-870, East Anglia
955, Thetford 1078, translated to] Norwich 1094; Wells
909; Bath, c. 1088, united 1135 [called Bath and Glaston-
¦bury 1206-1218]; Peterborough, formed out of Lincoln;
Gloucester, out of Worcester; Chester 1541; Bristol,
out of Salisbury, 1542; [Osney, out of Lincoln 1542, re
moved to] Oxford, 1546; Sodor and Man, 360; St. Asaph,
560; Llandaff, c. 500 ; Bangor, 516; St. David's, 436.
In 1075 Lanfranc, in conformity with the Canons of
Sardica 347, and the decree of Pope Leo, gave order for the
removal of the sees out of villages into large towns : from
Sherborne to Salisbury, Selsea to Chichester, Lichfield to
Chester, and on the King's return Lincoln and Norwich
were made sees.
By the Act of 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, two archbishops, Tuam
and Cashel, and eight out of eighteen bishoprics were sup
pressed. Scotland had two archbishoprics ; Glasgow and St.-
Andrew's, eleven ancient bishoprics, and one, that of Edin
burgh, founded in 1633.
The archbishops of France are those of Besancon, Bor
deaux, Lyons and Vienne, Paris, Rheims, Aix, Aries and
Embrun, Alby, Auch, Avignon, Bourges, Cambray, Rennes,
Rouen, Sens and Auxerre, Toulouse and Narbonne, Cham-
bery, Tours, with seventy-three suffragans. Of Spain : To
ledo, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, Granada, Saragossa, Tarra
gona, Valencia, Valladolid, with forty-six suffragans. Aus
tria has one patriarch, four primates, and eleven archbishops :
Agram, Colocza, Erlau, Fogaras, Gran, Gueritz and Gradisca,
Limburg, Olmutz, Prague, Saltzburg, Udine, Venice, Vienna,
Zara, with fifty-eight bishops. In Belgium the episco
pate includes the prelates of Mechlin (archbishop), Bruges,
Ghent, Liege, Namur, and Tournai. In Greece there are
seven archbishops and nine bishops. In Portugal there are
three archbishops, those of Lisbon, Braga, and Evora, with
thirteen suffragans. In Russia are twenty-nine archbishops,
twenty-eight bishops, and eleven suffragans; two Roman
archbishops and ten bishops. In the kingdom of Italy the

BISHOPING — BLACK RUBRIC. 77
archbishops take their titles from Bologna, Cagliari, Ferrara,
Genoa, Milan, Modena, Orislano, Ravenna, Sassari, Turin,
Vercelli. In Holland, Utrecht, Haarlem, Bois-le-duc, Breda,
and Ruremonde, are episcopal sees. There were twenty-four
archbishoprics in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Pope
had eighty-nine suffragans. In Sicily the archbishoprics are
those of Palermo, Messina, and Montereale, with eight
suffragans. English bishops sign with their Christian names, and the
Latinized title of their see, as — Cantuar (Canterbury),
Ebor (York), Carliol (Carlisle), Exon (Exeter), Dunelm
(Durham), Cicestr (Chichester), Winton (Winchester), Oxon
(Oxford) ; which is a relic of the time when Latin was the
language of correspondence, and also a necessary distinction
from temporal lords deriving their title from a cathedral city.
Ely alone in England has never given title to a nobleman.
Bishoping. The vulgar name for Confirmation.
Bishopric (bishop and ric, region). When a See is vacant
in England a writ issues out of the Exchequer to seize the
temporalities into the hands of the Crown, leaving the
spiritualities to the archbishop, or dean and chapter, accord
ing to the custom of the place. Then the Crown issues the
Conge d'eslire, or licence to choose a bishop, to the dean
and chapter, with a royal missive containing the name of the
elect, who must be chosen under pain of prcemunire ; and
they, within a certain number of days, choose a bishop, and
certify their election to the Crown, sealed with the chapter
seal. The Crown then issues a commission under the great
seal to the primate or certain bishops to examine and confirm
the election, which is done at Bow Church, London, with
the assistance of the chief ecclesiastical judges of the realm.
After the confirmation, consecration follows within certain
days ; then the archbishop certifies the consecration under
his seal; the sovereign receives the new bishop's homage
and fealty, and commands him to be put in possession of his
See. He is then enthroned in his cathedral, and then enjoys
his spiritualities ; and, lastly, a writ issues out of the Ex
chequer to the sheriff to restore to him his temporalities. 1
Eliz. c. 1, § 7.
Black Rubric. The declaration on kneeling at the end of the
office for the Holy Communion.

78 sacred archeology.
Bloodletting. Owing to the coarse and heating fare of the
monks, quarterly bloodlettings or minutions were in use,
during which the brethren were excused choir services, and
received indulgences and relaxations of diet. An abbot of
Peterborough was held in grateful memory because he
allowed the terms to be kept punctually.
Body of the Church. The nave, of which the transept forms
the arms, and the choir the head.
Bonhommes. Friars, introduced into England by Richard,
Earl of Cornwall, in the time of Henry III. They settled at
Berkhampstead, in the latter half of the thirteenth century,
and at Ashridge and Edgington.
Book of Common Prayer. The English ritual, founded on the
Salisbury use of St. Osmond, 1085, the Salisbury Breviary,
1 530, and Missal, 1533, reformed ; and adopted 1541 through
out the southern province. The English Litany was first
used in 1544; the Communion Service, March, 1548; the
first Prayer-book of Edward VI., June, 1 549 ; the Ordinal,
15-s-f ; the second Prayer-book of Edward VI., 1552 ; restored
Latin Prayer-book of Queen Elizabeth, 1560, with some
alterations, 1559. The Book of Common Prayer was revised
1661-2 : the present use, with the exception of the Form for
the Queen's Accession, a later addition of the time of Queen
Anne.
Book of Cries. The book used for entries of banns, proclama
tions, and the like.
Books. (1.) When books were rare they were often placed in a
public position in churches for use by students and the de
vout, and it is said the former occasionally slipt off the
margins to write their love-letters on the parchment. So
early as the twelfth century at St. Alban's a Bible with the
best commentaries was placed in a painted aumbry in the
nave; at Hereford, in 1369, Bishop Charlton bequeathed a
copy of the Holy Scriptures with Books of Devotion to the
Cathedral; in the sixteenth century Erasmus saw books
chained to the pillars of Canterbury for the use of the laity,
and at Lincoln a similar custom is on record. Books with
their chains attached are preserved still at Hereford, Wim-
borne, Stratford-on-Avon, Malvern, St. Mary Redcliffe,
Little Stanmore, Frampton, Cotterall, Hanmer, and Brid
lington. Upon the altars of great churches was placed a

BOOTS  BOWING AT THE NAME OF JESUS. 79
splendidly illuminated volume called the ' Book of Life,'
which, like the ancient diptychs, contained the names of
benefactors who were commemorated in certain Masses.
Those of Durham and St. Alban's are now preserved in the
British Museum. Probably these suggested the introduction
of the Bidding Prayer. (2.) The stalls at Chichester were
called books. In many of the monastic MSS. some curious
illustrations of the period occur in little pen-and-ink sketches
made at the foot of the pages by readers. It is observable
that the common types, Primer, Pica, Brevier, and Canon,
preserve the names of the ancient church books.
Boots were introduced' by the Benedictines, and worn by
masters of arts at their inception, until the doctors of facul
ties appropriated them to their own use, and masters were
reduced to pantables or sandals. The boot was buttoned up
the side of the leg like a gaiter ; hence, probably, the
modern use of the latter by the bishops, who have always a
doctor's degree. The Doctor of Divinity stood booted and
spurred at his act, as if shod with the preparation of the
Gospel, and ready always to preach God's word.
Bowcer. A bursar.
Bowing at the Name of Jesus. In harmony with the apo
stolic injunction, Queen Elizabeth and Archbishop Parker
ordered all persons to take off their hats in church, and bow
their knees at the pronouncing of the name of Jesus, and,
by the canons of 1603, no man is allowed to cover his head,
except in case of infirmity, when he may use a nightcap or
coif; and when in Divine Service the Lord Jesus is named,
due and lowly reverence is to be done by all present, as
had been accustomed. This is now usually made simply
by bowing the head. The monks of Peterborough, St.
Augustines, Canterbury, Crowland, and other minsters,
were allowed, by Papal indulgence, about the year 1243, a
covering for their heads in time of cold weather, and in 1343
black caps (pileoU) were worn in Exeter Cathedral. The
Bishop of Worcester, as commissioner of Cardinal Pole in
1558, enjoined in the Cathedral of Hereford that at the
naming of Jesus in singing or saying every man should give
token of reverence with vailing (removing) their bonnets
and bending their knees ; and likewise when the verse,
" Blessed be the name of the Lord " is sung, and the Psalm

80 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
" Praise the Lord, ye servants ;" also in the Creed, at the
saying of the verse, " Incarnate of the Holy Ghost," and
these words, " and was made man." See Ante et Retro.
Bowling-green. An ordinary adjunct of a Benedictine Abbey.
At Westminster it lay south of the infirmary garden, and
at Durham in the same direction, near the common house.
Bowls. The Glastonbury Bowl, standing on four, lions and
carved with figures of Apostles, is preserved at Wardour
Castle. At Waltham Abbey when they put the conventual
loaves into the oven, as many as drank in the bakehouse had
pardon, Latimer says. At Bury St. Edmund's, Becon relates
there was a pardon bowl, of which whoever drank received
five hundred days' pardon. The pardon bowl given by
Archbishop Scrope is preserved at York Minster. There
were two mazers -at Durham, Bede's Bowl and Judas's Cup.
There was also a famous St. Leonard's Bowl. The bowl of
St. Giles's, London, was also brought out and presented to a
criminal on his way to execution at the Elms of Tyburn. In
Aubrey's time, in Herefordshire, a large loaf and a mazer bowl
were brought out at funerals and given to a " sin eater,"
who thereby took upon himself all the sins of the dead.
Bowtell. A small pillar, or shaft.
Boy Bishop. The most deserving chorister or scholar was
appointed on St. Nicholas' Day, during the chanting of the
Magnificat, the bishop of boys until the day of the Holy
Innocents, and wore the ornaments of a bishop. The cus
tom prevailed in the great schools of Winchester and Eton,
and was perpetuated by Dean Colet in his foundation of St.
Paul's, no doubt as a stimulus to Christian ambition in the
boy* Just as the mitre-and staff are painted as the rewards of
learning on the school walls of Winchester, or in honour of
the holy child Jesus. The ceremony was observed at Tours,
Antwerp, Beauvais, Vienne, Toul, Senlis, Noyon, and Amiens,
at the Nunnery of Godstow, and in the Couvent aux Dames
at Caen, as in our own cathedrals, in many collegiate and
several parish churches tiny pontificals being provided for
them. At Rouen, the choristers in albs and copes and
tunics, holding tapers, on the eve of the Feast of Holy
Innocents, assembled in the sacristy, and there went in
procession, headed by the boy-bishop, mitred and pontifi-
cally vested, to the altar of the Holy Innocents, where the

BRANCH. • 81
child gave his benediction to the people. On the festival
Mass was sung by a canon, the boy-bishop singing the
Prose and Offertory. At vespers, at the singing of the
words, "He hath put down the mighty from their seat,"
he resigned his staff and office (the people giving money),
having first said Mass and preached in church. They were
called St. Nicholas' clerks. At Salisbury, in the procession
of the boy-bishop, the dean and residentiaries went first,
followed by the chaplains, the bishops, and petty preben
daries ; the choristers sat in the upper stalls, the residen
tiaries furnished the incense and book, and the petties were
taper-bearers. The boy-bishop gave the benediction. At
Zug the boy-bishop was preceded by a chaplain carrying a
cross, and followed by a fool in motley, whilst his fellows,
dressed like canons, brought up the rear. After going to
church he levied a tax on all the booths in the fair. In
England, in Henry VIII.'s time, the boys counterfeited
bishops, priests, and women, singing and dancing from house
to house, blessing and gathering. In many parts of France
the boy-bishop was master of the festival under an unpleas-
ing aspect, the day being called the Feast of Fools, and
kept on Easter Monday; May 1 ; or at Paris on January 1,
and on Holy Innocents' Day at Cognac. The chief actor
was dressed in bishop's robes reversed, with spectacles of
orange-peel; his companions, grotesquely dressed, placed
themselves in the stalls, parodied divine service, and burned
old shoes as incense; and the mummery concluded with
dances, buffoonery, songs, and a shameless procession through
the streets, with the sham bishop mounted on a car. Al
though these indecent levities were forbidden by the Councils
of Cognac, 1260, Nantes, 1431, and Basle, 1431, by the
Legate in 1198, and the Chapter of Troyes in 1445, they
did not die out until the sixteenth century. In England the
custom was suppressed in 1542.
Branch. (1.) A light consisting of three tapers, as an emblem
of the Holy Trinity, carried in funeral processions and set
upon the coffin when it rested. (2.) A large cumbrous
corona, consisting of branches of brass for lights, used in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in England ; few
specimens now remain; one still hangs in the sanctuary of
Chichester.

82 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Brasses. Monumental plates, representing the canopied effigy
of the departed, made of brass, or the mixed metal called
latten or Cologne plate, inlaid on large slabs of stone ; in
troduced owing to the inconvenience offered by raised stones
and effigies on the floors of churches. The earliest form
was the enamelled work of Limoges, about the middle of
the twelfth century ; the earliest instance occurring in this
country, however, in Rochester Cathedral, in the tomb of
Walter de Merton, 1277. The earliest recorded brass dates
from 1208; the indent of one c. 1246 remains at Salisbury.
The first brasses came from Flanders, and were introduced
in the thirteenth century. In England they consisted of
several plates, or pieces, having a background of stone;
round the edge runs an inscription with merchant's mark,
coats-of-arms, and evangelistic symbols at the corners, the
unoccupied portions being filled with an ornamental diaper.
About four thousand are preserved, more than exist in
any other country; and these examples are most common
on the east coast, from Kent to Norfolk and adjoining
counties, Surrey, Sussex, Middlesex, and Berks ; but are
rare in the north and west, being chiefly confined to the
cathedral and conventual churches, as in Herefordshire. In
Ireland, Wales, and Scotland they were also far from
common. North Germany and Belgium possess some good examples,
but in other parts of Europe they were either confined to
the upper classes, or have been destroyed.
Brattishing. A cresting.
Breviary. A name for the Office Book, not earlier than the
fifth century. In fact, Micrologus is, perhaps, the first writer
who uses it, in 1080; but the actual thing signified, the
breve orarium, or shortened prayer, is far older; as St.
Benedict abridged the canonical prayers, and directed the
Psalter hitherto said daily to be spread over an entire
week.
Bridget, the XV. Oes of St. Fifteen prayers (orationes, of
which oes is the abbreviation), composed by St. Bridget
(whose revelations were fervently credited in medieval
times), and used before the crucifix daily in St. Paul's
church at Rome. They were formerly very popular.
Brief. (1.) A mortuary bill or roll sent by a messenger to

BROCHE  BURIALS. 83
affiliated or associated religious houses to announce the death
of a brother, and beg the prayers of the inmates on his
behalf. (2.) Letters patent issued by the Sovereign, de
clarations and recommendations authorizing the collection
of alms for a specific work of charity, and read after the
Nicene Creed. They were abolished by 9 Geo. IV. c. 28
in 1828.
Broche. (1 .) A spit. A spire rising straight from the sides of
the tower, as was common in early English ; but the term is
not earlier than 1 521, and then applied to that of Louth.
(2.) The morse of a cope. (3.) A leaden ornament, with the
head of Becket, worn by pilgrims to Canterbury.
Bruges. Satin. Rich material of tissue from Flanders, often
spelt Bridges, the English medieval form of the town of
Bruges, used for vestments.
Budge. Fur of kids, employed in trimming robes.
Bulla (boule, bullet). A seal made of two circular pieces of
lead, and attached to Papal documents, which at length took
the same name. A beautiful bull, attributed to Benvenuto
Cellini, is preserved in the Public Record Office. Eccle
siastical seals were usually oval, until the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, when they became circular; and up to
the thirteenth century the seal was suspended by silk
threads or a slip of parchment, but was then attached to the
document.
Bull's Eye. The circular window in the west front of an
early Italian church, which became the rose of the Gothic
period.
Burials. The Christians paid great reverence to the body,
which had been the temple of the Holy Ghost, and was to
be raised from sleep into a glorious incorruption by an im
mortal change. They therefore assembled for vigil and
exequies before the funeral ; and, according to the tradition
of the Church, sang hymns and canticles, the service being
held at night Prudentius mentions the use of the Psalm
cxvi., and St. Augustine relates that Psalm ci. was chanted
with responses at the death of his mother, Monica. St.
Jerome says, that in his time Alleluia was sung on such
occasions by the whole congregation, shaking the gilded
roofs of the temple. The anthems sung on such occasions
are actually preserved to us, such as Psalm cxvi. 7-15, Prov.
g2

84 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
x. 17, and Wisdom iii. 1 in the Apostolical Constitutions,
and Psalms xxiii. 4 and lix. 16, by St. Chrysostom. The
exequies were kept on the third, seventh, ninth, thirtieth or
fortieth day after death, as appears from the Apostolical
Constitutions and the writings of St. Augustine; and St.
Ambrose attributes the custom to the mourning for Jacob
by the survivors for forty days, the lamentation at Atad
during seven days by Joseph (Gen. 1. 3-10), and the weep
ing for Moses in the plains of Moab thirty days (Exod.
xxxiv. 8.)
In former times, when a person was dying, he was laid on
ashes, and ashes were strewn upon his chest in the form of
a cross, with these words, " Thou art dust, 0 man." The
body was always washed until the tenth century, as a sign
that the soul was now cleansed from all stain and pollution,
and that its companion should at the last day be given
purity and eternal glory. It was the practice in apostolic
times (Acts ix. 37). St. Chrysostom thought that our
Lord's body was washed for His burial after the manner of
the Jews (St. John xix. 40). St. Gregory, Bede, and Gre
gory of Tours refer to the practice in their days; and at
Canterbury, in St. John's Chapel, there was a special stone
slab set apart for the ceremony. The eyes were closed
tenderly, perfumes were burned, and unction was also made
in imitation of the anointing of the Saviour's body (St. Mark
xiv. 8; xvi. 1). The bodies were steeped in aromatic pre
parations during two or three days, in which myrrh, balsam,
and honey were the principal ingredients, as a preservative
against corruption. The graves were closed with marble
slabs; and the dead laid upon two winding-sheets, which
contained a layer of lime, to prevent the escape of any offen
sive smell into the catacomb. The body was swathed in
rollers of pure linen, in allusion to the white garments of the
just, and a napkin wrapped about the face; and shrouds
also were employed, often tied above the head and below
the feet, like a child in swaddling bands; and there are
examples of this singular practice at Frampton, Dorset, and
in Dr. Donne's effigy in St. Paul's crypt. The persons em
ployed in these last offices were called the Fossarii, or diggers.
The Council of Auvergne forbids the covering of the dead with
palls or the fair cloth for covering the elements (ministeria

BURIALS.

opertoria) in the case of priests ; and the Council of Autun
also prohibited the employment of veils and palls, or the giv
ing of the Eucharist, or kiss of peace. The bishop or priest
anointed the dead with oil before the burial procession set out,
and said certain prayers, which were followed by chants of
thanksgiving to God; and lastly by funeral sermons, as St.
Melitius pronounced for Gregory of Nyssa ; Eusebius on Con
stantine, St. Gregory Nazianzen for St. Basil and St. Csesa-
rius, St. Ambrose for Valentinian, and others partially pre
served by Theodoret and Nicephorus. The usual practice was
to wrap the martyrs in precious stuffs ; but bishops, abbots,
and priests were interred in their sacred habits, as Nadab and
Abihu had been buried under the law (Levit. x. 5). St.
Augustine was buried in his mitre, and with his staff. St.
Cuthbert was laid to rest in his habit, his shoes on his feet,
and the chalice and oblata, a fragment of the Eucharist, on
his breast ; and when the body of St. Birinus was exhumed,
it was found with the doubled stole, the red mitre of silk,
and a metal cross upon his heart, with the chalice below it.
Martyrs were usually buried in the dalmatic or colobium,
and their severed limbs were carefully rejoined. Great
captains who died in battle were buried standing upright ;
so were the Claphams at Bolton Abbey, and Ben Jonson at
Westminster. The imposition of a fragment of the Eucharist
on the heart of the dead was forbidden by Councils. At
the head of a dead priest a seal of wax, stamped with a cross,
was placed : at Westminster and Hereford the abbots and
bishops were buried with a cross of candles, two tapers laid
saltier-wise on the breast ; a chalice of earthenware or pewter
was laid with a paten in the grave ; forms of formal absolu
tion on metal plates were also sometimes interred with the
dead ecclesiastic. The clapper was used to give notice of the
setting out of the funeral procession; but in the eighth or
ninth century bells were employed for the same purpose.
As early as the fourth century palm and olive branches, as
symbols of victory, were carried; and at a later date rose
mary was added, and sometimes inceDse was burned. A
cross occasionally during the sixth, and commonly in the
ninth century, preceded the bier. Laurel, or ivy leaves,
were often placed in the coffin, and lighted torches carried, in
allusion to the virgins' lamps burning at the marriage of the

86 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Lamb. At Durham, at the interment of a monk, his blue
bed was held above the grave, and became the barber's
perquisite. There was also a pretty custom of placing
crowns of flowers on the heads of virgins, which is alluded
to by St. Jerome, St. Augustine, and St. Gregory Nyssen.
A lingering trace of it was observable in England till very
recently in many places, and the stand on which a crown of
this kind was suspended is still pointed out at St. Alban's.
During the ages of persecution the dead were carried on
two-wheeled country carts to the grave, in order to escape
notice. The position in the grave was on the back facing
the east, after the manner of our Lord's burial, as Bede de
scribes it. " Entering from the east into that round house
cut in the rock, they saw an angel sitting on the south side
of the place where the body of Jesus had lain ; that is, on
the right side, for to the body lying with its head to the
west the south was on the right." The head placed to the
west, and the feet turned to the east, betokened the posture
of prayer in life, and the readiness of the departed to hasten
from the set of time to the day-spring, from the world to
eternity. Priests, however, were buried with their faces to
the west, as if waiting to follow the Lord when He rises in
the east, and so to lead their flocks as their joy and crown
of rejoicing when the Chief Shepherd shall appear. The
custom was introduced in 1614 by Pope Pius V. Owing to
the position of the faithful in their graves, as if expecting
their Lord's return, the east wind is called in Wales, " the
wind of the dead men's feet." The departed were placed
on their backs because death to the Christian is but a little
sleep, with their face to Heaven, whereon their hope relies,
and to the east in sure hope of the resurrection to eternal
life. In France, Durandus mentions that evergreens, ivy, and
laurel were spread under the heads of the faithful, in token
that though in the body they die, yet in the spirit they are
living unto God. Vases of holy -water and crosses ; cruses
with the oil of martyrdom; the instruments of passion; the
chain rings and haircloth of the ascetic were often interred
in the tomb. Sometimes the acts of a martyr, engraved on
leaden tablets, were placed inside; and his name or his
symbol, the palm (Ps. xcii. 12), which was said to flourish

BURIALS. 87
under weights and pressure (Rev. vii. 9), or the emblem of
victory, was carved outside the monument. Confessors
were indicated by the symbol of X, the monogram of Christ.
Every grave was to be kept for its own single tenant by the
Councils of Autun and Macon. Interments were made by the
primitive Christians always, when practicable, in daylight.
St. Chrysostom and St. Augustine have beautifully ob
served that funeral ceremonies are for the comfort of the
living, not for aids to the dead. They betoken the pious
belief that God's providence watches over the sleepers, and
that such good offices please Him because done in faith in
the Resurrection. Constantine the Great established a Guild
of Bearers, who were freed from all civil duties and dues, in
order to attend upon the burial of the dead. These under
takers were called collegiates and deans, from forming a
society, and Kopiatse, from a word signifying rest, and also
lecticarii, as carriers of the bier. In the seventeenth cen
tury, in England, sermons were commonly delivered at the
funerals of bishops and persons of distinction. The Holy
Communion was generally administered; and St. Ambrose,
Prudentius, and St. Jerome mention the graceful practice
of loving hands scattering flowers over the tomb, — the violet,
rose, lily, and purple blossoms, — and laurel or ivy leaves
placed in the coffin. To this day, in some parts of Wales,
women strew ivy leaves in the way of a funeral procession.
Lights, in token of victory and union with Christ at the
marriage of the Lamb, were carried before and behind the
bier at funerals which were celebrated in the day-time, as
St. Chrysostom, Theodoret, St. Jerome, the Gregories of
Nazianzum and Nyssa, Eusebius, and the Novels of Justi
nian record ; and the custom prevailed in. France in the
time of St. German of Auxerre. The Council of Elvira
forbade the placing of lights in cemeteries simply because of
some local abuses which had followed on the practice of
praying around graves at night. The Emperor Julian com
pelled Christians to bury at night. St. Gregory of Tours
mentions that interments were made within four days after
death. Interments were not permitted in the church, as Optatus
mentions, and the Councils of Braga 563, Tribur 895, and
Vaison under Leo I., and that of Winchester in 1071, dis-

5 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
tinctly prescribe. The Emperors were buried in the porches,
or forecourts, as Arcadius and Theodosius and Constantine
the Great, who, as St. Chrysostom says, lay before St. Peter's
at Constantinople, like the doorkeeper and chamberlain of
the Fisherman of Galdee. Sidonius Apollinaris says Chris
tians were buried outside the city suburbs. At length,
about the seventh century, the bodies of nobles, priests,
clerks, and men of eminence were interred within churches,
as appears by the Councils of Meldi and Mayence, and the
sole prohibition was that there should be no burial near an
altar ; and if the bones could not be removed from an altar,
then by Theodulf's Capitula, 994, the altar itself should be
taken down. In 960 burials in churches were permitted
in England as an old custom. In the fourth century the
atrium was not used generally for burial, but within two
hundred years the practice became general. At Canterbury
bishops were buried in the north porch, and kings .and
queens at St. Martin's porch, in the early minster, about the
seventh century. At Durham the bishop's chariot bore his
body through the nave to the choir door in the fourteenth
century, but noblemen were carried* on men's shoulders
from the entrance of the nave. At Glastonbury, for a very
long period, there were two pyramids, each of several stories,
inscribed with the names of benefactors in the cemetery;
but there were no other monuments, interments being made
simply under the turf, as the case was at St. Alban's in the
thirteenth century. From 1096 to 1311 bishops were buried
in the chapter-house of Durham ; but the first prior buried
within the minster was Fosser, in 1374; the first bishop
Anthony Bee; and the first laymen the Lords Neville, in
consequence of their defeat of the King of Scotland. In
Spain interment within a church was not permitted until
the thirteenth century. At Winchester, Stigand was the
first bishop buried in the nave. At Dunstable, Ourscamp
(there called the Hall of the Dead), and Gloucester, noble
men were buried in the chapter-house. At Hereford the
bishop, and at Westminster the abbot, was buried with two
candles laid crosswise on his breast ; at Chichester a bishop
was found to be buried with a leaden Indulgence. Burial
in a friar's coat was not uncommon, as if a passport to a
happy future ; pardons, cloths, and relics were also laid in
graves.

BURIALS. 89
One of the most singular and painful superstitions con
nected with this subject was that condemned by the Council
of Aries (and the canons of ^Elfric in 957) as devilish, un
christian, and inhuman, — singing of songs, dancing, jesting,
making merry, laughing, and being drunken. A vestige of
a somewhat similar practice is discernible in the funeral
baked meats and burial dinner, not yet extinct in England.
The Second Council of Tours found it necessary to suppress
the monstrous ignorance which delighted in offering meat
and wine in February and on the day Cathedra St. Petri on
the tombs of the dead. St. Augustine condemned it as
heathenish ; but even in the seventeenth century it survived
in France and Spain; and Casalius says, in the Spanish
Chapel of St. Ildefonso at Rome an inscribed stone recorded
that on a certain day — that of All Souls — an offering of a
carpet and two tapers was to be laid on the tomb, and at its
feet bread and wine of the value of four carlins, according
to the custom of Spain, were to be placed. In England we
find vigils, or memories of the dead, prohibited by the Arch
bishop of Canterbury, except when kept by priests and the
immediate relatives of the departed; and again by Arch
bishop Thoresby of York, in 1367, owing to the vile
abuses which turned the house of mourning into a scene of
merriment and excess. The monstrous impiety of placing
the consecrated elements within the lips of the dead was
forbidden by the Councils of Trullo, III. Carthage, and
Autun; and the superstition of giving the kiss of charity
was also abolished. But the celebration of the Holy Com
munion at funerals is as old as the time of St. Augustine,
and is mentioned by the Council of Carthage and Eusebius.
In the time of Alexander III., on the first day of Lent, the
Pope at his first station was presented with a roll of paper
dipped in oil by an acolyte ; the chamberlain afterwards took
it, and it was carefully preserved until the Pope died, and
then was placed under his head as a pillow, and buried with
him. No doubt, like the oil and thread of the heathens, it
conveyed a symbolism of life and death.
After the burials of princes, noblemen, and soldiers, their
coat, armour, flag, sword, headpiece, and recognizance were
set up in churches. Pardon letters were buried with the
dead; doles of provisions and money were made in their

90 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
name; black gowns and mourning cloaks were distributed
to all who attended their obsequies; and the body was
watched previously to the funeral with lights burning at the
head and feet, and then carried to the grave with torch and
taper, bells and banners. The month's mind, a Mass said
on the thirtieth day, was common in England ; and the day's
mind, or memorial, on the Continent; the anniversary or
annual was also kept; and the names of benefactors in
scribed in the Book of Life — a memorial laid upon the altar,
and read out during Mass. St. Augustine strongly condemns
the use of black mourning, in which he agrees with St.
Jerome, St. Cyprian, and St. Chrysostom.
The Cistercians, at the approach of death, were laid in
their blanket on the ground, which was strewn with ashes
in the form of a cross, and covered with a mat. In the
Benedictine houses the Passion was read out to the dying;
and when his body was carried into the chapter-house the
whole convent received it with dirge and requiem : while it
was in the infirmary chapel previous to this removal, two
monks nearest in kin or kindness knelt at the feet of the
bier, and the almonry-children, standing in their stalls, sang
psalms. One peal was rung upon the bells when the inter
ment was completed.
Bye-Altars, or Tables, as called by Bishop Ridley, probably
designate minor or secondary altars, in distinction to the
high-altar ; but in the primitive Church were two tables, one
for holding the vestments on the right side, and the other
on the left for the vessels ; and so the term may indicate a
credence.
Byzantine Architecture prevaded through Christian Asia and
Africa, and extended to Sicily. It was the modification of
Roman architecture by an Eastern element. There were
four periods of the art. I. 330-537: rock churches, and
round or octagonal churches. II. 537-1003: marked by
the multiplication of domes and polygonal apses. III.
1003-1453 : when the narthex became less prominent, and
choirs were made more important; frescoes were replaced
by mosaics ; the women's galleries, hitherto erected over the
aisles and .narthex disappeared; and the cruciform shape
lost its significance by the absorption of the aisles. IV.
1453 to the present time. The arrangement was originally

BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 91
an external square, containing a circular building within ;
but there are several modifications: (1) the round church;
(2) the basilica, with apsidal ends to the transept; and (3)
the cross of four equal arms, with a dome over the crossing
and each arm. The style penetrated to Provence, through
commercial relations between Marseilles, Greece, and Con
stantinople, and thence to the north and centre of France ;
and also to the banks of the Rhine, under the patronage of
Charlemagne. The dome took the place of the Western
vault, as most suited to a circular building ; and to Procopius
poetically seemed to be suspended by a golden chain from
heaven, and the whole style combined the basilica with the
round church of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem. Like
the Basilica, the Eastern Church had its colonnaded atrium,
or forecourt (peribolos), the narthex (propyla, pronaos), or
advanced portico; galleries for women over the aisles of
the nave or trapeza; the chorus cantorum known as the
solea ; the presbytery was in it ; the holy bema, a raised
stage, so called from its steps, or hierateion, or hagion;
and the sacristies (pastophoria) here called the paratrapezon,
or prothesis, on the north, and the skeuophylakium, or dia-
conicum minus on the south. Over the bema of the readers,
which resembled the basilican ambon, rose the royal door.
There was only a single altar, but in some cases parecclesise,
or side churches for daily services, with altars, were added ;
the chancel screen was called, from its pictures, the icono-
stasis, with its central door curtained, and two lateral doors :
the kiklis occupied the place of the podium ; over the altar
rose the dome, or trullus. There were four doors, the holy,
which were veiled, between the bema and solea, called the ' ^ €
holy; the royal, between the solea and nave; the angelic,
between the nave and narthex ; and the beautiful, great, or
silver, between the narthex and anterior porch (prothyrum) .
The influence of the style is seen in the cupolas of Russia ;
those of France, introduced by Venetian colonists and com
merce, the ornamentation of capitals, the polygonal apses,
and round churches of Western Christendom. A stream of
Italian art came to the south and south-west of France, and
thence moved northwards in course of gradual develop
ment, and also spread down the Rhine, diverging right and
left, influencing the border provinces of France; the two

92 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
developments meeting in the He de France; as they had
previously been combined at Torcello : the Byzantine modi
fication of the Basilica in Italy received a new form in Rhine-
land and again in France; and the turret-like treatment
of steeples, the huge triforium, and low central lantern, be
came common features. •
Calabre. A dark or ruddy fur from Calabria, used for the
almuces of minor canons and priests vicars in English
cathedrals.
Calamus. (1 .) The reed; the single upright shaftwhich supported
the table of an altar, called also columella. In the fifth century
there were, according to local rite, two or four pillars, and a
fifth in the centre, which supported the place of reliques,
was sometimes added, as in that of St. Martha at Tarascon,
St. Agricola's at Avignon, and one at Marsedles, formerly at
St. Victor's Abbey. The space between these columns served
as a sanctuary for fugitives. (2.) Called also Fistula, Siphon,
and Canna, a narrow tube or pipe of precious metal, which
was for some time used after the tenth century, or, as some
say, a still earlier date, in the Western Church by the com
municants for suction when partaking of the chalice. Bishop
Leofric, in 1046, gave a silfrene pipe to Exeter Cathedral;
William Rufus gave others to Worcester. The custom was
long retained at St. Denys, and Cluny, at the coronation of
the kings of France ; and the Pope still, at a grand pontifical
Mass, uses a golden pipe at communion when he celebrates
in public together with his deacon and subdeacon. The
Benedictines and Carthusians communicated the laity with
a reed in Italy, in memory of the bitter draught of vinegar,
gall, and myrrh offered in a reed to the dying Saviour on
the cross, and also to avoid any risk of spilling the conse
crated wine, and to indulge the insurmountable repugnance
of some persons to drinking of one cup.
Calefactory. Pisalis, or pyrale, called the Common House at
Durham ; a chamber provided with a fireplace or stove, used
as a withdrawing-room by monks, and generally adjoining the
refectory. It very often is a portion of the substructure of
the dormitory. Here the brethren met before the dinner
time, and in winter time for warmth. Canons regular
greased their boots in it, and were let blood. Where there

CALENDAR— CAMPANILE. 93
was no Galilee, processions were marshalled here. The
praecentor of Benedictines dried his parchment, prepared
the waxen tablets and liquefied ink, and the censers were
filled by the sacristan's servants in this room. At Win
chester a chamber in the south wing of the transept, used
for the latter purpose, still retains the name. At the Grey
Friars, London, it was furnished with aumbries and water
from the conduit ; at Kirkham it had a bench-table, and at
Thornton a series of stalls.
Calendar. (1.) Sculptures of agricultural labours within medal
lions, found in Norman churches and those of the thirteenth
century as ornaments over doors and porches. (2.) A
martyrology, a roll of saints inscribed on the days of their
festivals, called by the Greeks Menologium.
Calliculae (hallos, beauty) or Trochades, small roundles of
purple stuff or precious metal worn by the Christians on the
lower part of their dress, or upon their shoulders, as distinc
tive ornaments.
Caloyers. Greek monks of the order of St. Basil.
Calvary. A wayside crucifix.
Camail. (1.) A tippet of black worn by French clergy, but
edged, lined, or furred to mark canons. (2.) An aumusse,
or cape of fur, adopted by the English dignitaries, with edg
ing of the animal's tail, or pendants, and by canons in a
modified form in the fifteenth century.
Camaldoli. A reformed order of Benedictines founded by
Romuald of Ravenna, c. 1009. They wore a cassock, sca
pular, and hood of white wool, and a large-sleeved gown.
They lived in mountainous and solitary places.
Cameo (camahutum, camahuija) . A stone, usually onyx, carved
in relief. They were greatly prized in the Middle Ages,
and often set in the church plate and as ornaments of vest
ments, fetching enormous prices, and considered to be the
chief and most precious articles in royal treasuries.
Campanile. A detached bell -tower, of round or square
form, common in Italy. Those of Cremona, Pisa, Bologna,
Florence, and Venice are noble examples. At Bologna,
Pisa, Padua, Ravenna, and St. Agnes, Mantua, they lean
out of the perpendicular. In England they were not
uncommon, usually occurring on the north side of the close,
as still at Chichester and Evesham, and formerly at Salis-

9.4 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
bury, Lichfield, Worcester, St. Alban's, Ely, Westminster ;
but at Canterbury on the south ; and at Bury St. Edmund's
one still is standing on the west. These belfries were
expressly constructed for the bells in order to save the
church-towers from injury through the vibrations of enor
mous masses of resonant metal.
Candle-beam. A beam for holding the candles over an altar.
On it also were placed the crucifix, images, and reliqua
ries.
Candles. There is a marble candelabrum, taken from the cata
comb of St. Agnes, in the baptistery of St. Constante at
Rome. Prudentius mentions candlesticks of gold for tapers,
used at the nightly assemblies ; and in the Middle Ages
lights were, on festivals, lit about the graves of bishops and
the shrines of saints. St. Gregory of Tours speaks of a
-similar practice in France in his own day. Candles were
placed on prickets between the pillars of the ciborium,
carried at the administration of baptism, in translations of
relics, in processions, specially at the time of holy com
munion, during funerals, and during festivals, on rood
beams and in crowns. Bede alludes to the illumination of
churches on feast days. Perpetuus, Bishop of Tours in
475, gave lands to maintain a light round St. Martin's
tomb. St. Jerome alludes to the Eastern practice of
burning lights at the reading of the gospel; and at the
close of the fourth century Constantine gave a pendent
chandelier, to hang above the altar, for his church in the
Lateran. The acolyth's duty, by the Council of Carthage,
was to kindle the lights, the archdeacon at his ordination
making him touch a candlestick containing a taper. The
Greeks have two tapers on a side altar, which at certain times
are brought in by the lectors or acolyths before the celebrant
and deacon, and large candles before the iconostasis. In
the earliest times, until the eighth century, the book of the
gospels and the sacred vessels for holy communion only
were placed upon the altar. The next arrangement was,
after the Greek manner, to place at the corners of the
altar four lights at the beginning of the holy office, and
these were removed by the acolyths at the conclusion of
the service. In fact, it has been asserted by competent
authorities that candles have not been regarded as per-

CANDLES. 95
manent or indispensable accessories of an altar for more
than four centuries. In the catacombs lamps or tapers
were used, and set on stands called canthara and cerostata,
or suspended by chains. Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, speaks of
the bright altars encircled by many lights (lychni), burn
ing day and night, and of painted candles. But candles
were not set upon the altar until the tenth century, having
been previously arranged around it or on the ground, and
even long after that date the lights were suspended in
silyer basins in front of the altar, arranged in crowns
upon the candle-beam or over the altar, in standing cande
labra, and on the altar step, or round the altar, according
to the dignity of the festival. Tapers were also kept burn
ing before shrines and the altar of holy cross in the rood-
loft and round the Easter sepulchre. To maintain these
lights the treasurer in the cathedral found wax, as the
sacristan did in the monastery ; in some cases a special rent
being paid out of a dependent church in their patronage
and allotted for the purpose ; whilst in parish churches a
cow or ox was bequeathed to the wardens, who sold the
milk, or leased out the labour of these animals to furnish the
necessary funds. In 963 and 994 we find in England the
parishioners required to bring their lights with them at
evensong and matins, besides, as in 878 and 1017, paying
their light scot, a tax for the supply of church lights, — a half
penny-worth of wax for every plough land on Easter eve,
Allhallowmas, and the Purification. In the laws of Wales
altar candles were required to be of wax, "because bees
derive their origin from paradise." All the remnants of
wax which was unconsumed were carefully preserved and
sold to the chandlers who supplied the tapers. Immedi
ately before the Reformation there were three pairs of
candlesticks provided for the high-altar of Salisbury, but
there is no evidence that they were used at one time ; and
at Durham at the same time the high-altar had, we know,
only two tapers; and still earlier, at Bury St. Edmund's,
two candles burned between the high altar and shrine,
placed on a retable (tabulatus). At Gerona on doubles
four hghts, and on semidoubles two lights are used on the
high-altar. The modern Roman rule is to have two candles
at private Masses, six on Sundays and festivals, on ferials

96 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
four, and on great festivals eight or more, but any extreme
attention to numbers is regarded as superstitious. There
were only two at Durham up to the time of the Reformation
— two double gilt for festivals, and two of parcel gilt for ordi
nary days, on the high-altar. The first instance of several
candles being placed upon the altar occurs in the case of
the chapel of Henry VIII. on the Field of the Cloth of Gold,
which had five pairs of gold candlesticks. At William III.'s
coronation there were twelve lighted candles on the altar.
Durandus mentions only two as in use in his time. King
Edgar's canons, in 960, enjoined burning lights at the time
of Mass; and in the canons of iElfric, 957, it is said the
acolyth holds the candle or taper when the gospel is read or
the housel hallowed at the altar, — not as if he were to drive
away the obscure darkness, but to signify bliss by that
light, to the honour of Christ, who is our light. At Salis
bury in medieval times there were five lights attached to
the wall of the pulpit or rood-loft when the lections were
read. Candles — either five or seven, according to Gregory of
Tours — were carried before the gospeller proceeding to the
ambon in France. It is probable that the direction in
King Edward's injunction of 1546 providing "two lights
upon the high-altar before the sacrament, for the significa
tion that Christ is the very true Light of the world," was
worded from the old English canon already quoted, whilst
the expression before the sacrament seems to allude to the
hanging lights of a later date, suspended in front of the
altar. The candlesticks were always low, and the tall
candles now in use are of modern introduction. Two candles
were burning at the coronations of James I. and Queen
Anne, on the altar. Candlesticks standing upon a tripod
base are still preserved; that of St. Bernevald (tenth to
eleventh centuries) at Hildesheim, Hanover, of electrum;
another, formerly at Gloucester and Mans, of bronze gilt, of
the twelfth century, now at Kensington; two of iron at
Noyon ; one, a tree with seven branches, such as Dante saw
in the vision of Purgatory, still exists at Milan ; it is of
bronze gilt and the thirteenth century, and is called, from
its sculptures, "the tree of the Virgin;" the branches in
other instances were supposed to represent the seven virtues,
and reproduce the Jewish candelabrum of the Mosaic taber-

CANDLES. . 97
nacle ; the four rivers at the base typified the liberal arts,
music, rhetoric, logic, and geometry. It stood at the
entrance of the sanctuary, flanked by the great and little
paschal. The altar candlesticks of Bristol Cathedral are
of Spanish workmanship of the seventeenth century. At
York there were two large tapers for the altar, seven large
branches, and on certain vigils a branch of seven candles set
before the four grand dignitaries of the Church a century
since. At Bury St. Edmund's there was a procession made,
with tapers, through the wheat-sown fields, in order to pre
serve the corn from weeds and blight.
A Seven-branched Candlestick stood also before the high-
altar, in allusion to the seven lamps of the Apocalypse, as
at Long Melford. In the Gallican Church it was probably a
relic of Eastern ritual. It was in use at Rouen, Milan,
Clairvaux, and Rheims. One remains at Lichfield, and an
other, called the ratelier (rastrum, or harrow), at Lyons ; and
a third at Tours, still used on high festivals ; and a fourth
at Lund. In some churches there was a magnificent series
of branches grouped together, called the Tree. A superb
seven -branched candlestick was presented to Canterbury by
Prior Conrad in the twelfth century, and another to the
shrine of St. Birinus at Winchester by King Canute in
1035. At Bourges and Pistoia there were two placed on
either side of the entrance to the sanctuary. At Stockholm
there is one at the present time, and at Ribe a specimen
with only five branches. Martene mentions seven candles
burning before the altar at Eastertide. At the close of the
eleventh century Abbot Paul gave three precious candle
sticks to be lighted in front of the high-altar of St. Alban's,
and a silver basin for a light to be hung above it. At
solemn Masses the seven acolyths each carried a taper,
which they placed on the ground either behind the altar or
in the middle of the choir, or on the first step of the altar ;
and when the gospel was sung two, or sometimes all seven
accompanied the deacon to the ambon and ranged them
selves round him. At St. Clement's, Rome, the places for
the candles were marked on the pavement. In the south of
France, before the first communion, the seven-branched
candlestick is placed in a recess in the aisle, and the young
men and women holding tapers light them from it, symboli- H

98 sacred archeology.
cally of obtaining the graces of the Holy Spirit. A candle
stick is composed of a foot, a stem, a knob for handlmg it, a
bowl, and a pricket on which to set the taper.
The Tenebre Candles. The triangular candlestick — called
the herse in English cathedral statutes — used at the service
of the Tenebras, varied in its number of tapers, which were
nine at Nevers, twelve at Mans, thirteen at Rheims and
Paris, twenty-four at Cambray and St. Quentin, twenty-five
at Evreux, twenty-six at Amiens, and forty-four at Cou-
tances. Calfhill says that in England it was called the
Judas Cross. The Lady Candle was the single taper left
burning when all the rest, representing the Apostles, had
been extinguished one by one. Sir Thomas More says that
it symbolized St. Mary standing beneath the cross of Cal
vary. At Seville, entre-los-Coros is a tenebrario of bronze,
twenty-five feet in height, which was made in 1562.
The Paschal Candle was a type of the pillar of fire which
led the Israelites through the wilderness. St. Gregory
mentions the Exultet, the form of benediction of the paschal
attributed to St. Augustine or St. Ambrose. The deacon
either in the ambo or choir near the presbytery steps blessed
the paschal, which was enjoined throughout the Latin Church,
instead of in basilicas only, by Pope Zosimus in 41 7 ; and the
calendar of feasts was required to be attached to the paschal
by the Council of Nicsea. At Paris and St. Denis the
candlestick stood on the top of the sanctuary step ; that of
Gloucester, the gift of Abbot Peter c. 1115, and made of
bronze, is now in the South Kensington Museum. At Dur
ham it was nearly as broad as the choir, and the long square
taper almost reached to the vault. Below it were seven
flower-shaped branches for tapers. The light burned behind
the three pendent altar-lights from Maundy Thursday until
the Thursday after Ascension Day. At other times it was
kept under the stairs leading to St. Cuthbert's shrine. It
was lighted through the vault, at Coutances from the
clerestory, and in St. John's Lateran by a deacon, who was
wheeled up in a portable pulpit for the purpose. By the
Salisbury use it burned throughout the octave of Easter at
Matins, Mass, and Vespers, and from its light every taper on
the eve was rekindled. In the basilica the paschal candle
was set upon the top of a pillar, on the left-hand side of the

CANDLES.

99

ambon. A shaft of this kind, though not of undoubted
antiquity, remains in the church of St. Agnes at Rome.
There is a candlestick on the north side of the altar at St.
Anthony's, Padua, and another of the twelfth century, of
colossal size, at St. Paul's Without. At Durham the stand
was of latten, glistening like gold, and enriched with figures
of the evangelists, flying dragons, curious antique work of
archers, bucklermen, spearmen, knights, and beasts. The
weight of these high, ponderous tapers was very consider
able, being at Chartres of 72ft., at Rheims 30ft., at Rouen
40ft., and at Westminster, and Canterbury in 1457, of 300ft.
There is an orifice in the vault of Norwich choir, through
which the sacrament light was let down and the paschal
taper kindled. The paschal stand remains at St. Clement's,
Rome, and another in the atrium of the cathedral of Capua,
where three other lights, in honour of the Holy Trinity, are
kindled on a staff or paschal post below it. The paschal
contains five grains of incense, representing the five sacred
wounds, according to the Fourth Council of Toledo. Whilst
the canticle Exultet is being sung, a deacon, vested in white,
pronounces it blessed, in memory of women announcing the
tidings of resurrection to the Apostles. The candle is then
lighted with the new fire. Bede mentions that the date of
the year was inscribed on the candle; afterwards a long
label, the original of an almanack, inscribed with a calendar
of feasts, was attached to it. St. Stephania, Naples, was
burned down by fire caught from the paschal candle on
Easter night, during which it was the local custom, in the
eighth century, to leave it unextinguished. The paschal
candlestick still stands near the altar of Southwell, and the
socket for the post remains in the pavement of the Presby
tery of St. David's on the north side. The four superb
candlesticks which adorned King Henry VII.'s Chapel,
Westminster, and are marked with the Tudor rose, are now
in the Cathedral of Ghent.
In the transept of St. Alban's there was a tall candle set
before the image of St. Mary, called the Mariola, which on
great festivals was gracefully wreathed with flowers.
Processional Tapers. Seven or nine candles were carried
in procession in France, according to the dignity of the
festival.
h %

100 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Funeral Tapers. P. Gregory in 684, and Wheatley in the
last century, speaking of this practice in their times, express
the pious hope that the departed, having walked here as
children of light, are now gone to walk before God in the
light of the living.
As a lighted taper was placed in the hand of the newly-
baptized, baptism was called Illumination. On Christmas
Eye so many hghts were kindled that it was called the Vigil
of Lights, and the faithful sent presents of lights one to
another. An early instance of a perpetual light was that of
the firehouse of St. Bridget, at Kildare, which burned un-
quenched from the fifth century to 1220. It may have been
connected with a beacon, and the offerings made for its
maintenance in part supported the poor. From the number
of burning tapers which were used in churches on Easter
Eve, St. Gregory Nazianzen calls it the " holy night of il
luminations ;" whilst Easter Day was ailed the Bright Sun
day, in allusion to the tapers and white robes carried by
the neophytes. Tapers were also used at consecration of
churches. Candlemas Day, February 2, so called from the blessing of
the candles on that day, the anthem being " A Light to
lighten the Gentiles." Even at the close of the last cen
tury, Ripon Minster, on the Sunday before Candlemas, is
described as being ablaze, in the afternoon service, from
the multitude of hghts; and a similar custom apparently
was observed at Durham in the seventeenth century.
Herse Lights were placed round the bier of the dead in
church, upon a barrow-like structure of iron. These resem
ble the Hghts set before the tombs of martyrs in the cata
combs. Candlesticks, in Germany, were often placed upon shrines,
and some, of pyramidal shape and of the fifteenth century,
still remain. In Chichester Cathedral lights, on particular
days, were set round four tombs in the Presbytery. Candle
sticks of bronze remain at Nuremberg, Mayence, Aix-la-
Chapelle, and Leau ; at Bruges there are four of copper-gilt
in the Jerusalem church, and in the Louvre there are three,
with enamel-work of the twelfth century.
Cannibalism, or Infanticide, it appears from the writings of Jus
tin Martyr, Minucius Felix, Tertullian, and Origen, was at first

CANON. 101
attributed to the Christians, in depravation of the doctrine of
the spiritual communion of the Body and Blood of Christ.
Canon (from canon, or canna, a straight reed used for ruling
lines). (1.) A rule (Gal. vi. 6) ordained by the Fathers; a
Constitution of the Church. (2.) The Creed, as the criterion
for distinguishing a Christian ; the rule of faith of Tertullian,
St. Irenaeus, and St. Jerome. (3.) A clerk who observes
the Apostles' rule, or fellowship — koinonia (Acts ii. 42) ;
one borne on the list, or canon of a cathedral or collegiate
church, as the term is used by the Councils of Nice and
Antioch, and bound to observe its statutes or canons, and
the rule of a good and honest life. Hence, in later times,
when the names of benefactors were inserted in the rolls or
canons of numberless communities, the Popes confined the
term Canonization to those whom they admitted to the title
of Saint. The word is one of rank and precedence, and
should be prefixed in addressing a prebendary. Canons are
primarii among all others of the clergy of the city and dio
cese. The name is attributed to Pope Pelagius or Gregory,
and was certainly common in the reign of Charlemagne ; in
the sixth century it designated all clergy on the Church
register, affording a perfect example of liturgical obedience,
and receiving a canonical portion — a regular annual pension
— out of its revenues. This list is called Album by Sidonius
Apollinarius ; Matricula by the Council of Nicsea ; and by St.
Augustin the Table of Clerks. There were several kinds of
canons : —
I. Canons Secular. Those of cathedral and collegiate
foundations, who mixed more or less with the world, and
ministered the offices of religion to the laity. The title first
appears in 1059, when it was used by Pope Nicholas in the
Council of Rome; but the existence of such canons in
England, who had separate houses, may be traced back
three centuries earlier. Such are the canons of cathedrals
of the old foundation, and collegiate churches. Their oldest
title was in Germany, senior, retained in the ancien of some
Rhenish cathedrals ; or brother, then canon and lord ; and
lastly capitular, as being members of the chapter. As
Christianity spread, the number of the clergy augmented,
and the bishop chose from them some of the most learned
to live in common with him in the episcopium, or bishop's

102 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
house, as his assistants and advisers. In time similar col
leges were founded in other places, where the clergy hved
in a building called the canonica, minster, or cloister, and
performed religious worship, receiving food and clothes from
the bishop : they were termed canons, and the bishop's
vicarius was called prior, provost, or dean. From this
ancient arrangement of common habitation and revenues,
the custom survives in some parts of the collation to canon-
ries by the joint consent of the bishop and chapter. A
single trace remains in England at Chichester, where the
dean and chapter have six stalls in their patronage. Pre
bends at length were instituted, by a division of the common
fund; and although the canons lived apart in their separate
houses, yet, from their aggregation in one close, their daily
presence in choir and union in chapter, they were supposed
still to dwell together. After the Reformation the vicars
were required to occupy their college and halls, and the last
trace of the common life was only recently lost. In the eighth
century the Councils of Aix and Verne, and in the ninth
century those of Tours (813), Meaux (845), and Pont-sur-
Yonne (876), required clerks to live the canonical life in a
cloister near the cathedral, with a common refectory and
dormitory, observing the teaching of the Scriptures and the
Fathers under the bishop, as if he were their abbot. In
Germany the canons were called Dom-Herren, and in Italy
dom(ini), the masters of the cathedral; as at Lincoln, the
dignitaries were known as masters of the fabric ; at Liege
they were called trefonciers (terrce fundarii), lords of the
sod ; at Pisa, ordinarii, by special privilege of Nicholas II.,
owing to their jurisdiction as ordinaries over the inferior
ministers; at Constantinople, decumans; at Cologne and
Lyons, Counts ; and at Besancon, Compostella, and Seville,
cardinals ; at Evreux, barons. Sometimes, from their right of
electing the bishop and their president, they were known as
electors ; and as being graduates, and in recognition of their
rank, domini, or lords. Every canon is a prebendary— a
canon as borne on the church list, and a prebendary as
holding a prebend or revenue. In cathedrals of the new
foundation, residentiaries, by the new Act, are no longer
called prebendaries, but simply canons. In the old founda
tions all are canons and prebendaries, residentiary, stagiarii,

CANON. 103
stationarii, nati ; or non-residentiary ; the latter at Lichfield
were called exteriors, or extraneous. In the foreign cathe
drals were three classes : (1) capitulars, perpetuals, simple
or ordinary; numeral, or major canons in actual posses
sion of stalls; (2) the German domicellares or domicelli,
the chanoines bas-formiers of Angers, Sens, and Rouen;
bye-canons, minor canons, or lordlings in distinction to
the majors domini, or dom herren ; expectants of vacancies ;
honorary, or supernumeraries, elected by the bishop and
chapter, who augmented the efficiency of the choir and re
ceived small payments, but ranked after the vicars or
beneficiaries ; and (3) canons elect, not yet installed. Every
canon in England and France gave a cope to the fabric ;
in Italy, the Peninsula, and Germany they paid a stipu
lated sum. Canons had the right of wearing mitres at
Lisbon, Pisa, Besancon, Puy, Rodez, Brionde, Solsona,
Messina, Salerno, Naples, Lyons, and Lucca; these were
plain white, like those of abbots, as a sign of exemp
tion from the jurisdiction of the ordinary, and probably a
corrupt use of the end of the almuce. Some canonries are
attached to archdeaconries or livings, like St. Margaret and
St. John, Westminster, 1840; and some to university offices,
as those of Christchurch to the professors of Divinity, 1605 ;
and Hebrew, 1630; of Worcester to the Margaret Professor,
1627, now exchanged for a stall at Christchurch, 1860; of
Rochester to the Provost of Oriel; of Gloucester to the
Master of Pembroke College, Oxford; and of Norwich to
the Master of St. Catherine's Hall, Cambridge, by Queen
Anne. The Principal of Jesus College, Oxford, had formerly
a stall at St. David's. By a recent Act the Professors of
Greek and Hebrew at Cambridge have stalls at Ely, and the
occupants of the chairs of Pastoral Theology and Eccle
siastical History at Christchurch. James I. confiscated a
stall at Salisbury to endow a Readership at Oxford. The
Professors of Greek and Divinity hold stalls at Durham.
At Lisieux the bishop was earl of the city, and the canons
exercised the criminal and civil jurisdiction ; on the Vigil of
the Feast of St. Ursinus, two, habited in surplices, crossed
with bandoliers of flowers, and holding nosegays, rode to
every gate, preceded by mace-bearers, chaplains, and halber
diers in helmet and cuirass, and demanded the city keys ;

104 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
they then posted their own guard, and received all the fees
and tolls, giving to each of their brethren a dole of wine
and bread.
II. Regular Canons. Clergy at first not bound by vows,
but by canons derived from the Fathers and monastic rule,
yet at a later date confined to a cloister, and professing the
three vows of obedience, poverty, and chastity : in fact, the
monks of Canterbury in the eleventh century were called
canons, and their president was known as dean. The insti
tution of these canons has been attributed to St. Jerome or
St. Augustine : no doubt they were at first merely colleges
of priests and divinity students, having a common dormitory
and refectory, clothed from a common stock, and keeping
fixed hours of devotion, such as those established at Repifcz, J
and by Eusebius of Vercelli. In the first four centuries
clerks lived in the midst of the faithful, each in his family,
until St. Augustine established a monastery, and compelled
his clerks to reside in it. Such persons observing the com
mon life according to the canons, were called clerks canoni
cal. The custom spread from Africa to France in the time
of the Second Council of Tours ; Spain at the period of the
Fourth Council of Toledo; and England at the coming of
St. Augustine, the bishops and their clergy living to
gether. St. Gregory established the discipline of canons at
Rome. The common life for bishops and priests lasted until
the ninth century. The so-called " Three Rules of St.
Austin" were observed by the great order of Austin canons,
and their branches. In the sixth century, St. Gregory
of Tours mentions canons of Tours and Tournay : in the
latter half of the eighth century, St. Rigobert at Rheims
and Chrodegang at Metz introduced a modification of the
Benedictine rule, in a congregation of clergy living under a
stricter collegiate discipline and in common, like monks;
and so popular was this institution of Chrodegang, that it
was taken as the model for the foundation of collegiate
churches erected out of those hitherto simply parochial ; and
within two centuries, before 997, the canons of Spires, Arras,
Worms, Tours, and Mayence carried the change further,
and became secular canons ; whilst in Lorraine, and at Bay
eux after 1000, the common dormitory and refectory were
observed ; which in 1068 Pope Alexander, in a synod of Rome,

CANON. 105
reinforced, but Rheims and Paderborn in the thirteenth,
Liege in the twelfth, and Cologne and Utrecht abandoned
about the close of the eleventh century; when at Wells
and Exeter, regular Canons replaced Benedictines, and,
under a provost, occupied a common dormitory and refec
tory as in Lorraine, contrary to the English mode of secu
lar Canons, as William of Malmesbury states ; they soon
gave place to secular Canons; but for a time, in 1219,
at Exeter, Bishop Simon made the chapter have a com
mon table and steward; and in 1300 Besancon was the
last French cathedral which abandoned the common life,
having until that date daily read the rule of the Council of
Aix-la-Chapelle in chapter, after the martyrology. Pro
bably the grand distinction between canons regular and
secular was drawn about the middle of the eleventh cen
tury, when an abbot, Arnulphus, in 1066, is said to have
permanently founded the Canons Regular, who assumed the
latter name — in point of fact, a tautology — in order to express
that they held the rule of common life and income invio
lably, whilst the secular canons had their private households
and special revenues, called prebends. In Germany, until
this period, all canons were on an equal footing, the bishop
alone having a separate table ; but with the increase of
wealth they took the title of Dom Herren, hved apart, and
established vicars; the bishops then interfered, and bound
all those who continued to live in common by a vow of
poverty, under the name of regular canons : all those who
did not retain the common life were called seculars. At
Canterbury, Durham, Rochester, and Norwich the Benedic
tines ejected the regular canons at the end of the eleventh
century; but at Exeter and Wells the case was reversed.
The colleges of secular canons in cathedrals are not earlier
than the Norman invasion. Alcuin says, that in monas
teries the priests were called canons, and the rest monks ;
and at the same time colleges of clerks assumed the style of
canons. III. Honorary Canons. Canons exempted from observ
ing the hours. Sovereign princes and nobles were occasion
ally regarded as honorary canons of cathedrals ; as the Em
peror at Strasbourg, Liege, Bamberg, Ratisbon, Cologne,
Spiers, Utrecht, Aix-la-Chapelle, St. Peter's and St. John La-

106 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
teran, Rome ; the King of France, at Poictiers, Chalons, Sens,
Anjou, Tours ; being Warden of St. Quentin and Abbot of
St. Hilary ; the King of Spain at Burgos, Toledo, and Leon ;
and the Queen of England first Cursal of St. David's. The
prerogative was due to the unction of the sovereign at coro
nation. The Dukes of Bourges and Burgundy had stalls at
Lyons ; the Count d'Astorga at Toledo ; the Duke of Bra
bant at Utrecht ; the Count de Chasteluz at Autun ^and the
Counts of Anjou at Tours. The Princes of Mecklenburg
held four prebends at Strasbourg. The twenty extrava-
gantes at Toledo assisted only on certain anniversaries.
In cathedrals of the new foundation twenty-four honorary
canons, so called by a blunder, may be appointed by the
bishop, pursuant to a recent Act of Parliament ; they may
be called upon to take duty in church, but have no vote in
chapter. In foreign cathedrals they are called supernu
merary, fictitious, or improper canons, not being regarded as
of the body.
There are three classes in foreign churches. (1.) Ex
pectants, canonici in herbd, with right of succession to the
next vacancy. (2.) Honorary, canonici in aere, merely
titulars, without succession, but having a stall if the chapter
concede it. (3.) Supernumeraries, bye-canons, added by a
new foundation. The honorary canon is not bound to resi
dence, can retain a living requiring continuous residence,
and is not to be called canon, but always honorary canon.
Canon Law. A collection of the decisions of Councils, the
decrees of Popes, and Papal bulls and letters. In 520, Dio-
nysius Exiguus, a monk of Rome, compiled a Codex
Canonum, comprising Papal decrees from 398 to 1154, and
Charlemagne's Capitulars, which lasted until the twelfth
century, when Ivo, bishop of Chartres, in 1114, began — and
Gratian, a Benedictine, in 1150 completed — his famous "De
cree," in three books ; and containing the canons and deci
sions made from the time of Constantine the Great, in the
fourth century, to that of Pope Alexander III.
The next portion of canon law are the Decretals, rescripts
of Alexander III., Innocent III., Honorius III., and Gregory
IX., on all subjects coming within the cognizance of the
Ecclesiastical Courts, first published in five books by Rai-
mond de Renafort, chaplain to Gregory IX., in 1234. In

CANONICAL AGE.

107

1298, Pope Boniface VIII. added a sixth book of decisions,
; called the Sext. Clement V., in 1308, published the Clemen
tines ; and in 1317 Pope John XXII. added the Eidrava-
gants: These five portions constitute the body of canon
law. In the Ecclesiastical Courts, or Courts Christian, and
in the University Courts, canon law is still used, and in
force where it is not contradictory to the common or statute
law of England. It is based on the ' Provinciale' of Bishop
Lyndwood, of St. David's, who embodied in it all the Pro
vincial Constitutions applicable to England and adopted by
the Archbishops of Canterbury, sitting in provincial synods,
from 1206 until 1443, and afterwards received by the Pro
vince of York in convocation in 1463. To these must be
added the Legatine Constitutions of Cardinals Otho and
Othobon, legates of the Pope, put forth in the thirteenth
century. In the twenty-seventh year of his reign, Henry
VIII. forbade the University of Cambridge to confer degrees
in canon law; hitherto it had been common for English
jurists to graduate as doctors in both laws, canon and civil.
Canonical Age. For a bishop, 30 years ; for a priest, 24 ; for
a deacon, 23, unless he have a faculty from the archbishop in
the English Church. The canon law prescribes 30 years for
a priest, 25 years being regarded as a permissible year. In
417, the diaconate could be taken at 25 years, and the
priesthood at 30 years ; but Siricius, c. 390, made the ages
30 and 35 years; in the Roman Church they are 23 and 25
years, but in the Greek Church 25 and 30. The Council
of Ravenna (1314), defined 20 years of age as the lowest
for the reception of the diaconate; but 21 years are accepted
by the American and Scotch Churches, the age permitted
before the Reformation to monks of Westminster, and in the
Ordinal of 1552 : it is now the age required for the Roman
subdiaconate. The Councils of Adge (506), III. Carthage
(397), and II. Toledo (531), give the age for the diaconate at
25; that of Melfi (1089) at 24, and for priesthood at 30, the
age required in the old English laws and the Councils of Neo-
Csesarea (314), IV. Toledo (633), IV. Aries (524), and in
Trullo (691), as that in which our Lord began His ministry.
The age for a bishop was, by the Apostolical Constitutions
and Pope Boniface, in the eighth century, 50 ; in the Novels
30 or 35 ; and by Popes Siricius and Zosimus (417), 45.

108 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY. ('
Canonicals. The dress prescribed by the Canons to be won n
by the clergy, and in actual use in Fielding's time. Ija
1 766 the Connoisseur alludes to the appearance in the street! s
of the doctor's scarf, pudding-sleeve gown, starched bands:,
and feather topgrizzle. George Herbert, when ordainedV.
priest, laid aside his sword which he had worn as a deacon,'
and adopted a canonical coat. ,v
Canonization. The declaration of a name as that of a saint,'
and its insertion in the catalogue of saints. The name of
" saint," used in the Apostolical Epistles as a synonym for
Christian, was, in lapse of time, restricted to those recognized
as eminent for holiness or martyrdom ; and in the several
dioceses the bishop, at least as early as the time of St. Cy
prian, appointed their names to be commemorated during
divine service on the day of their decease or suffering, called
their " birthday " (into immortality) . The recognition of
their sanctity was called their " vindication," a term used by
Optatus. In the time of St. Augustine reference was made
to the Primate of the province, who, with the College of
Bishops as his assessors, decreed the admission of the names
of such as were to be reputed martyrs. At length, when
certain bishops were found to be easy in the matter of in
serting names in the Catalogue of Saints within their dio
ceses, decisions of this nature were restricted to the See
of Rome. In the primitive Church all bishops might, with
consent of their metropolitan, propose to the veneration of
the faithful the martyrs who had suffered within their dio
ceses, having first approved the Acts, which were drawn up
in form and submitted to episcopal sanction, after which
their names were inscribed on the diptychs to be read.
Such was the simple process of canonization, from the time
of St. Augustine till the tenth century. The last recorded
instance of this mode occurs in the case of St. Gualtier of
Pontoise, raised to the honours of a saint by the Archbishop
of Rouen in 1153. The first formal act of canonization, or
insertion in the Canon or list of saints, was made in the case
of St. Swibert, at Verda, in Germany, by Pope Leo III., on
September 4, 804, at the request of the Emperor Charle
magne; and after fast and prayer, during the celebration of
Mass, the cardinals and bishops then present assenting.
Others say that the canonization of St. Ulrich, Archbishop

CANON OF SCRIPTURE  CANON OF THE MASS. 109
of Augsburg, in 993, by Pope John XV., was the earhest re
gular act. The doctors and Fathers of the Greek and Latin
Church, as Athanasius, Basil, Nazianzen, and St. Chrysostom,
— or Jerome, Ambrose, and Augustine, — are reputed saints
by tacit assent. In modern canonization, the following re
quirements are made : — that the life should have been blame
less throughout, eminent for good works, and adorned by
miracles. The Pope is thrice adjured to canonize, and twice
refers the petition back to the prelates assembled : on the
third application he yields. The prerogative of canonization
was first confirmed to the Pope in 1170, by Alexander II. ; but
at an earlier date the Papal sanction was required, whilst
the bishop still initiated. In still older times, down to the
tenth century, the saint was exalted by the suffrage of the
people conjointly with the bishop. It now consists of a for
mal process of inquiry into the acts of the person named,
followed by a decree of beatification. In case miracles are
proved, canonization follows. The Japanese martyrs were
canonized in 1862.
Canon of Scripture. The formal hst of books regarded as
composing Holy Scripture, written by inspiration of God as
the Rule of Faith. The Old Testament was divided by Ezra
into Moses, the Prophets, and Hagiographa, or Holy Wri
tings. Our Lord notices this arrangement, only using the
word Psalms apart for the whole of the last section. (St.
Luke xxiv. 44.) The first division included the Pentateuch;
in the second were comprised the Historical Books and
Prophets, except the Chronicles, Esther, Daniel, and Ezra,
which were included with Ruth, Psalms, Job, Ecclesiastes,
Canticles, and Lamentations in the third division, making
in all twenty-four books. To these was added the New Tes
tament. The Canonical Scriptures of the Old Testament
. are enumerated by Eusebius, Epiphanius, Gregory Nazian
zen, and the Council of Laodicea, held in the third century.
Eusebius gives us the first formal list of the books of the
New Testament. The word " canonical " is first applied to
the Scriptures in the third Councd of Carthage.
Canon of the Altar. A kind of triptych, containing in the
centre the Consecration, on the left the Gloria, Credo, and
Offertory, and on the right the Commemorations and Com
munion Prayers.

110 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Canon of the Mass. This portion of the service, commencing
after the hymn Ter-Sanctus, ' Holy, Holy, Holy,' and forming
a body of prayers before and after the consecration of the
Eucharist, was drawn up according to different authorities
by one Scholasticus Voconius, Bishop of Castellana ; Mu-
sasus, Priest of Marseilles ; Alexander I., Leo, Gelasius,
Gregory I., Gregory LTL, or Innocent III. ; the latter, how
ever, distinctly refers it to the Redeemer and His Apostles.
It has, however, been traced back to the time of Pope Celes-
tine, and, yet earlier, to a period apostolical, in irs essential
features — the prayer for the Church militant, the words of
institution, and use of the Lord's Prayer. It was said se
cretly by the priest, — Cranmer says, " not because it is un
lawful to be heard, read, or known of the people, but that it
is expedient to keep sdence and secrecy at the time of such a
high mystery, and that both the priest and people may have
the more devout meditations, and better attend about the
same." It was called by the Synod of York, 1195, the Secret
of the Mass, from this circumstance, which does not date
further back than the sixth century in the Latin Church;
although the term Secret shows that the practice was not
always uniform to say it in a loud voice, as Justinian en
joined at that date in the churches of the East. Gregory
the Great calls it the Canon. It is the Rule by which the
Eucharist is consecrated, and by some authors is called the
Mystic or Canonical Prayer, as by Pope Yigilius, Innocent I.,
Amalarius, St. Gregory the Great, and St. Augustine; the
Church Rule, by St. Ambrose; the Agenda or Action, by
Walafrid Strabo; the Secret, by Sr. Basd; the Order of
Prayers, by Isidore; the Lawful, by Optatus. The arch
deacons were required to see that the purity of the canon
was preserved intact. In the first three centuries martyrs
only were commemorated in it, and afterwards the names of
confessors were introduced.
Canonry. A special prerogative and an ecclesiastical benefice;
the spiritual right of reception as a brother, a stall in choir,
a voice in chapter, and receiving a prebend or canonical
portion annexed to it out of the Church revenues, in con
sideration of ecclesiastical duties performed in it. Every
canonry has of necessity a prebend, and every prebend of
necessity a canonry belonging to it.

CANONS — CANTICLES. Ill
Canons of Eusebius. Ten tables, composed by Eusebius for
the comparative study of the Gospels, indicating by numbers
the parallel passages of the Evangelists and those peculiar
to each.
Canopy. (1.) A tent-like covering for the pendent pyx at
Durham, on which was a pelican of silver. (2.) A sounding-
board of a pulpit, expressively called in French abat-voix,
from its use to hinder the preacher's voice from being lost
among the vaulting. Good specimens occur at Winchester
and Worcester of the sixteenth century ; but most of those
remaining are of the Jacobean period, one of the earliest
occurring at Sopley, Hants, 1604. There are much finer
specimens at Ulm, Mayence, Strasbourg, and Vienna. In
the centre of the under part is often a dove, in allusion to
St. Mark i. 10; and on the summit an angel called the
Messenger of the Word, or an incongruous ornament, often
nearly resembling a heathen Fame or Glory. At Beaulieu
and St. George Faye la Vineuse, the refectory pulpits being
partly corbelled out and partly set within the wall, the
vault overhead forms the sounding-board. The open-air
pulpit of Magdalen College, Oxford, is of similar construc
tion.
Cantatorium. A name for the Antiphonar.
Cantharus, Nymphaeum, or Phiala. (1.) A fountain, usually of
porphyry or marble, placed in the atrium or a laver in the
impluvium, where the faithful washed their face and hands
before entering the basilica ; sometimes called the Leonta-
rion, from standing on lion-supporters ; occasionally the
water flowed from a central figure ; and in fine examples it
was enclosed in a group of pillars and arches. St. Chry
sostom and Tertullian allude to the previous washing by
worshippers. (2.) An oil-lamp or torch held by the sub
deacon ; or at High Mass, by a deacon, whdst he waved the
censer with his other hand by the Ambrosian rite.
Canticles. The Te Deum, Benedicite, Benedictus, Magnificat,
and Nunc Dimittis. The Songs of Moses, Miriam, Deborah,
Hannah, and Isaiah are Canticles ; hymns inspired at the
moment on a special occasion. After the fifth century Can
ticles were added to psalmody. The Benedictus is mentioned
by Amalarius in 820, and by St. Benedict, nearly three cen
turies before, as the Canticle from the Gospel. Te Deum

112 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
was sung at Matins every Sunday before the Gospel-lectern,
by the rules of St. Benedict and St. Csesarius of Aries, c.
507. The Magnificat occurs in the office of Lauds in the
latter rule, and in the office of the Eastern Church ; in the
time of Ama.1a.TTns it was used at Vespers. By the Apostohcal
Constitutions the Song of Symeon, or Nunc Dimittis, was also
sung at that hour, that is, probably, in the fifth century.
Cap. A square-topped cap is worn in the universities, like
that of the theologists before the Reformation, except that
it has stiffening, and a tassel in heu of a tuft. In Flanders
the priest wore his cap at baptisms. A round, low cap,
sometimes having a broad brim, which was doubled down on
reaching the choir, was worn often by canons from the end
of the thirteenth century : at Antwerp the colour was purple ;
at Pisa and Cologne it was scarlet. The red cap was also
used by doctors of divinity at Oxford; it was square and
steepled, but just before the Reformation was worn square.
In foreign universities tassels served by way of distinction.
The D.C.L. and D.M. still retain the use of the round cap,
which in 1605 was worn by all undergraduates. When the
cap was worn in choir the upper part of the amess was
thrown back hke a hood, when it looked like a low mitre
and muffled the shoulders, having a fringe made of the tails
of the animals of whose fur it was made. Then the amess
was stitched in front, with a hole for the wearer's head, and
about the beginning of the fifteenth century became a tippet,
or short cape. In the early part of the next century it was
worn like a shawl, longer behind than before, and with two
strips like a stole narrowing to a point, but appearing as a
ruff over the shoulders. The use of the cap lined with fur
was permitted by the Pope Honorius III. at Canterbury, at
Peterborough, and Croyland, from Michaelmas to Easter,
in consequence of the cold. Canons were allowed to use it
in church, except during the Canon of the Mass, the verse,
" And was incarnate," and the Benediction. The assistant-
deacon and subdeacon were forbidden to use the cap. At
Stoke College caps and not hoods were worn. The golden
cap which Pope Sylvester sent to St. Stephen in 1000 is
used at the coronation of the kings of Hungary.
Capitilavium. Head washing. A" name for Palm Sunday in
France and Spain, because the heads of the Competentes,

CAPITULA  CARDINAL. 113
who were to receive the baptismal unction, were then washed.
In 813 the practice was abolished by the Council of Mayence.
At Mflan the feet of the candidates were washed.
Capitula. Little chapters ; sentences from Holy Scripture.
The Council of Agde mentions little chapters taken from the
Psalms.
Capuchins. Franciscan friars; so called from the form of
their round capuchon, or hood, unlike the pointed form used
by the Carthusians. A reformed order of the Observants,
founded by Matthew Basci, of Monte Falconi, in 1525. They
have a vicar-general and guardians, and were principally
found in France and Italy.
Carde, or Care Cloth. A fine linen cloth held over a bride and
bridegroom at their marriage until they had received the
benediction. It was usually made of rich silk, possibly of
the material known as Carde of Inde, whence its name. It
fell into disuse in the sixteenth century.
Cardinal. The word, when applied to an altar, means the
high or principal altar, and from their attendance upon it
two minor canons at St. Paul's are still called the senior and
junior cardinals. Their duties were to take charge of the
choir, to present defaulters to the dean on Fridays, to act as
rectors of the choir, to administer sacraments, enjoin pen
ances, hear confessions, bury the dead, and receive oblations.
Cardinals were the incumbents of the principal parishes,
suffragan bishops of the Patriarchate of Rome; to these
were added the deacons of the chapels of hospitals, and the
priests of ordinary churches. The incumbents of Angers, at
a later date, when assisting their bishop at solemn Mass
called themselves cardinals. In the eleventh century the
Roman cardinals established their superiority to bishops.
Their number varied, until in 1586 Sixtus V. fixed it at
seventy, comprising six bishops, fifty priests, and four deacons.
The priest-cardinals received the privilege of a mitre before
1130, and the deacons also previous to the year 1192. These
are said to have been of silver.
As applied to clergy, the title appears to have implied that
they were permanent and stationary, and not employed only
for a time; and we find that clerks expatriated or exiled
from their own countries were received into churches at
Ravenna or Rome, and were said to be incardinated or trans-
i

1 14 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
planted. The idea of the Church hinging on the prince car
dinals of Rome is not earlier than the Councd of Basle.
The origin of the latter dignitaries may be traced back to
the seven Curators or Regionaries, heads of quarters of the
city, who were appointed shortly after the time of Nero, like
the seven deacons, for the supervision of secular matters.
In course of time prebends or revenues were founded by
gift or legacy, from which these officials took their titles,
several using the same designation. The next step was a
nomenclature adopted from the names of saints and martyrs.
In 1125 Pope Honorius appointed seven cardinal bishops to
assist him when acting as the celebrant in the basilica of St.
John Lateran ; they bore the names of Hostiensis (his office
was to consecrate the Pope and carry the pall), Portuensis,
St. Rufinas, Sabinensis, Prasnestinus, Tusculanus, and Alba-
nensis. To these Pope Nicholas ILL added three priests
and four deacons. With the allegorical disposition of the*
middle ages, which was repeated among the Grandmontines
at Winchester College and St. Paul's School, Paul IV. en
larged the entire number of the College to seventy members,
in allusion to the seventy elders who assisted Moses, and the
seventy Disciples of our Lord. Their duties were to exercise
spiritual jurisdiction over their own churches, to act as the
Pope's privy council and household, to serve as envovs or
legates a, latere, to administer affairs in the vacancy of the
Popedom, to conclude synods and councils, and to elect the
Pontiff. From holding this important position they were called
Cardinals. Popes Clement V. and John XXII. elevated them
in rank above all bishops, and a series of honours were
showered upon them. A red cap was allowed them by Pope
Innocent IV. at the Council of Lyons in 1245, which was borne
on their armorial coat in testimony of their readiness to shed
their blood for the Church. Until this date only legates <i
latere had been thus distinguished, and Regulars who were
Cardinals retained the head-dress of their orders, until
Pope Gregory XIV. in 1592 granted the privilege to them.
In 1299 Pope Boniface gave the cardinals a purple dress, in
imitation of the Roman consuls ; but in 1213, Cardinal
Pelagius, as Legate a latere, wore it when ambassador at
Constantinople. Paul II., 1464-71, gave them the episco
pal dress, a white silk mitre with damask work, the red coif,

CARDINAL.

115

the right of using a white horse and purple housings, and a
red hood or cope. At the same time they received the
scarlet bonnet formerly reserved to the Pontiff, and resem
bling the causia, a purple, broad-brimmed hat, usually worn
as a sunshade by the Macedonians and sailors. It has been
suggested that red was adopted as the colour of supreme
dignity and royal purple by these heads of the spiritual
militia of the Church. Pope Stephen IV. gave into their
hands the election of the Popes. In 1586 Pope Sixtus de
clared men of any nation, and not Italians only, capable of
being raised to the dignity of cardinals, who, on January
10th, 1630, received the title of Eminence, in lieu of that of
Most Rlustrious or Most Reverend. They formerly rode on
mules with rich trappings ; but in the middle of the sixteenth
century adopted the use of carriages, until the Duchess of
Mantua and other ladies of fashion followed their example,
when they again, but only for a very short period, resumed
the practice of riding on horseback. The Pope appoints a
cardinal in a consistory, the chief ceremony being the delivery
of the scarlet hat, with the words Esto Cardinalis, " Be a
Cardinal ;" he is then presumed to be a brother of the chief
Pontiff. At first the hat had three scarlet knots, fringes, or
tassels on each side ; these were increased to five, while
archbishops had four of purple colour, and bishops three of
green material ; but during the last two centuries bishops
have worn four green ones ; and prelates, abbots, and pro-
thonotaries three of purple or black. Their dress consists of
a red soutane, or cassock, with a cincture with tassels of gold,
red caps and stockings, a rochet and a large cloak, with an
ermine cappa in winter. The large hat is depicted over
Sherborne's arms at Chichester, although he was a simple
bishop. The cardinals form the Pope's Privy Council and Senate of
the Roman Church. Six of their number are cardinal bishops,
ordinaries of the suburban churches, the Bishop of Ostia
being dean, and the Bishop of Porto subdean. There are
fifty priests and fourteen deacons ; the two seniors of the
latter class assist on the right and left of the Papal throne ;
the priests and deacons take their titles from the principal
parish churches and ancient stations of Rome, of which they
are titular rectors. Every cardinal has his chaplain, who
i2

116 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
wears a purple soutane and cincture, a surplice, and stole
like scarf, with which he supports his master's mitre when
not actually worn. When the Pope officiates, or in a pro
cession, the cardinals wear white damask mitres, red shoes,
and, if bishops, a cope, if priests, a chasuble ; if deacons, a
dalmatic. In times of penance the colour of their robes is
violet, and on a few particular days rose instead of red.
Their dress of state when not engaged in sacred functions con
sists of a large purple mantle called the croccia; on less im
portant occasions, of a mantelet, or short cloak, through
which they put their arms, and worn over the rochet, and
over this is a mozzetta, or tippet, showing only the chain of a
pectoral cross. _ Paul III. and Pius V. abrogated the title of
cardinal in the other cathedrals, but Compostella by special
indulgence retains the privilege. The curate of St. John de
Vignes was also called the Priest Cardinal.
The institution of cardinals was imitated in several foreign
cathedrals, — at Ravenna, Syracuse, Mdan, Orvieto, Salerno,
Naples, Orense, Oviedo, and Seville. In the latter church
there were four canons so called, and at Mdan twenty-fotjr
cardinal canons, twelve of them being priests, nine deacons,
and three subdeacons, who officiated weekly in their course.
Pope Leo IX., in 1054, appointed seven cardinal priests
canons, at Besanpon, Rheims, Cologne, and Aix-la-Chapelle,
who officiated pontifically at the high-altar, as at Magde
burg, Mayence, Treves, and Compostella. At Besanpon
they wore mitre, dalmatic, gloves, and sandals; and the
assistant deacons and subdeacons were called cardinals.
Carmelites, or White Friars. An order of friars who took
their origin in a congregation of hermits on Mount Carmel,
who were associated by Albert, Patriarch of Jerusalem, in
1122. During the Holy War they came over to Europe,
and were taken under the protection of the Popes. Honorius
IV. gave them the white cloak, which had hitherto been worn
only by the Prsemonstratensians, and called them Brethren
of St. Mary. Innocent IV. bound them under conventual
rule, and John XXIII. exempted them from the jurisdiction
of bishops. Eugenius VI. allowed them to eat flesh. They
were brought by Earl Richard de Grey from Carmel into
England, c. 1250, and established themselves at Alnwick;
when they first came into towns. In 1258 Alexander IV.

CARMELITES  CAROL.

117

allowed them to imprison all renegades from the order.
They usually had an image of St. John Baptist in their
cloisters, with the hope of gaining greater estimation as
under the protection of him who came in the spirit of Elias
of Carmel. Their chief was called the Provincial. They wear
a cassock, scapular, patience and hood of brown colour and a
white cloak. When the Saracens recovered the Holy Land
white as a royal colour was prohibited, and they adopted
grey; but when they came to England they resumed the
white over grey. Their house at Coventry remains in almost
complete preservation.
The Discalceates, or Unshod, were founded by St. Theresa
at Avila, and her rule was confirmed by Pope Pius IV. in
1562. They were nicknamed Kitchen Friars; they went
barefooted, and wore a very coarse habit. A portion of the
Carmelite Friary remains at Aylesford, near Maidstone.
Carnary. A " skull house," or charnel. A vault stacked with
bones and skulls of skeletons ; as at Grantham, Hereford,
Rothwell, Ripon, and Christchurch (Hants), and the Fran
ciscan church at Evora. A charnel chapel was built near
the west end of the Cathedrals of Worcester and Winchester,
over a crypt devoted to this pious purpose of preserving
human remains disinterred in the formation of new graves.
Carnival. [Farewell to flesh.] The week before the first day
of Lent.
Carol (quadril, from its square shape, quarree, through the
Norman word caro le) . (1.) A grille, cage, closure, or chancel;
railings round the tombs of martyrs or persons of sanctity
or importance ; a screen of wood or metal, designed to pre
serve them from indiscreet devotion by pilgrims, and from
injury by ignorant or mischievous visitors. They are men
tioned frequently in the Inventory of St. Paul's. The Con
fession in the basilica was always fenced with a balustrade of
this kind.
(2.) An enclosed study or reading-place in a cloister, used
by the scribes or ordinary monks and regular canons.
Carols of stone remain in the cloisters of Beaulieu, Melrose,
and Gloucester, the south and west walks at Chester, the
south and east walks at Worcester, and were in the south
alley of Canterbury. At Durham there are three carols in
each window ; at Worcester apertures for communication re-

118 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
main between the recesses. In foreign monasteries they are
usually placed in the little cloisters.
(3.) A spiritual song or hymn in English, sung in honour of
the Nativity. The French word Noel, which resembled it, is
said to be a corruption of Emmanuel. The famous carol,
the Boar's Head, is still sung on Christmas Day in Queen's
College Hall, and the dish is carried in procession to the
sound of silver trumpets.
Carthusians. A very strict order of monks for study and
prayer, founded, in 1086, under the Benedictine rule, by
St. Bruno of Cologne, at the Chartreuse, in the diocese of
Grenoble. They came to England in 1180, and established
themselves at Witham, in Somersetshire. They had also
houses at the Charterhouse (London) , Shene, and Mount Grace.
No woman was permitted to enter their gates. They hved
almost as solitaries, keeping the hours in their three-roomed
cells and copying books ; maintaining a perpetual silence ;
meeting in hall only on great festivals, and rarely speaking,
and then only from necessity rather than choice. They did
not have a daily Mass. Their habit was a hair-cloth shirt,
a white tunic, a black cloak, and a cowl out of doors. Their
houses were restricted to a prior, and twelve monks, and
eighteen lay brothers.
Cassock. The ancient caracalla of the Roman. A close linen
coat, with sleeves which came down to the calf of the leg,
and was worn by soldiers, and afterwards adopted by the
clergy. In its earlier ecclesiastical form it was fur-lined,
and called the pelisse. The Greeks button it on the shoulder,
the Roman clergy down the front. The habit of the Doctor
of Divinity at Oxford is scarlet ; and the same colour was
given for doctors to the University of Paris by Pope Bene
dict XII. ; as portrayed in old manuscripts, on the Continent
minor clerks and choristers still wear red or purple cassocks,
but priests now wear black. Roman bishops have purple,
cardinals scarlet, and the Pope a white cassock.
Catacombs. Rome stands on an alluvial soil, and also one
that is volcanic. Of the latter are three kinds, pure puzzo-
lana, from which sand was dug ; stone tufa, forming the
quarries for building materials ; and granular tufa, useless
for either of these purposes, in which the Christians exclu
sively excavated their catacombs, as burial-places for their

CATACOMBS.

119

departed, hence called cemeteries, and also as churches, —
the Christian catacombs having nothing in common with
their heathen prototypes. The latter contained large spaces,
and wide passages for the transit of loads, carts, and
horses ; whilst the former consist of narrow galleries,
straight pathways, and tiers of tombs. The heathen empe
ror had his mausoleum, which the patrician imitated ; the
wealthier provided the columbaria ; the ashes of the middle-
class man filled a small urn ; and the hideous puticellus re
ceived the poor. The Christian alone was buried in his own
separate chamber, like his Master (St. Matt.xxvii. 60), beneath
the soil which he purchased or the bountiful bestowed.
The word ' catacomb ' does not occur earlier than the time of
Pope Gregory I., that is, in the sixth century, but the use of
such burial-places dates from the first age of Christianity.
The Christians called their additions "new crypts to the
catacombs." Some caves near St. Sebastian are supposed
to have been the first occupied by Christian worshippers,
and the phrase ad catacumpas of the seventh century, and
juxta catacumbas of the thirteenth century is limited to the
space between that church and the tomb of Csecilia Metella.
Catacumbm was the title of an oratory built in the middle of
the fourth century, over the burial-place of SS. Peter and
Paul. The word is derived from kata, down, and kumbe,
the hold of a ship, or kumbos, an excavation. Kataiumbm is
another reading. Catacombs also exist at Chiusi and Milan,
and numerous other places. Steep stairs lead down to them,
some from amongst vineyards outside, as at St. Calixtus and
SS. Nereus and Achilles ; or from the church built over the
crypt in later days, as at St. Lawrence and St. Sebastian.
The catacombs present an intricate labyrinth of corridors ;
in the walls are graves ; the loculus, so called from the Vul
gate rendering of Gen. 1. 25 ; St. Luke vii. 14, the solitary
tomb of an individual; and the cubicula, groups of family
vaults, with a martyr's tomb and altar in one at one end,
forming the early churches of Christ. Actual chapels com
prised a chamber for either sex, for men on the east and
women on the west, with separate approaches ; a choir and
sanctuary ; and chancel seats ; and smaller stations for reli
gious meetings and the commemoration of the departed.
Shafts furnished light and a wholesome atmosphere, or

120 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
afforded a passage for the bier. Paintings on stucco adorned
the vaults; lamps of clay, set on brackets and in niches,
which yet bear the stain of smoke, lighted the Christian
through the maze of paths ; and wells supplied water for
holy baptism. Here St. Alexander, St. Calixtus, St. Caius,
Liberius, and St. Boniface sought sanctuary in times of per
secution, and St. Stephen and St. Sixtus died the death of
martyrdom. The catacombs, long the object of pious pil
grimages, ceased to be stations and places of devotion after
the incursions of Lombards, Goths, and Saracens in the
neighbourhood of Rome had induced the Popes to remove the
martyrs' bodies to the churches of the city ; and from the
eighth century, when these translations of relics became
common, few persons visited the crypts, and then only those
of the Vatican and St. Sebastian. The absence of Popes in
the fourteenth century at Avignon, and the extravagant
devotion to classical and pagan lore in the following age,
diverted persons from interest in the catacombs. The influ
ence, however, of these sacred places has never been lost ;
it appears in the Gothic crypt, and still more plainly in the
basilica, with its separate aisles for the sexes, and the
arrangements of the sanctuary, where the ciborium or balda
chino was copied from the arch which was hewn out over the
martyr's tomb, before which the worshippers nfet ; and the
tomb itself suggested a form for the altar raised over the
confession. There were many of these cemeteries outside
the city of Rome, as intramural interments were forbidden
by the Twelve Laws. They were known also as Areas., the
tomb, catacomb, and crypt in the sand. The names of up
wards of sixty are preserved. At length, by the edicts of
the Emperors, about the year 260, the Christians were for
bidden to hold meetings or bury within them ; but they were
again allowed these privileges, as appears from the writings
of St. Jerome and Prudentius, who picturesquely describe
the catacombs, then disused ; and the custom only ceased
when the bodies of the saints and martyrs were translated
into splendid tombs in the upper churches built above-
ground. The latest catacombs were excavated by Pope
Julius in the fourth century. Mass is said in the Kallixtan
catacomb yearly on November 22nd.
Catechumen. [Rom. ii. 18; Gal. vi. 6.] A novice or tyro. A

CATECHUMEN. ]21
candidate (so called from wearing a white robe at baptism),
to whom the mysteries of the faith were taught preparatory
to holy baptism. This course in the early Church lasted
from forty days to three months, or as many years. They
had finally to profess their belief from an elevated place
three times, in memory of St. Peter's confession, and, as if
made with heart, in word and deed, facing the East. Until
their reception, they left the church after the Gospel had been
read. There were three classes, (1) hearers ; (2) praying
kneelers, or prostrate, who attended prayers and received
the benediction ; (3) competents, seekers of the grace of
Christ, who were taught the mystery of the Trinity, the doc
trine of the Church, and remission of sins. They received
the appellation on Palm Sunday. The hearer placed in the
hands of the clergy a written desire for baptism, and then
received the sign of the cross on his forehead, with imposi
tion of hands, and permission to enter the church to hear
the Holy Scripture and homilies by the bishop. They were
not taught the Creed or Lord's Prayer. The next class, who
came to pray as well as hear, left church before the oblation,
when the Mass of catechumens ended ; and then the peni
tents followed, in order that the discipline of penitence and
ceremonial of reconciliation might not be divulged to the
-easons. But in order to maintain reserve in communicating
divine doctrine, the catechumens were not allowed invariably
to attend sermons, until the fifth century in France, and in
the sixth century in Spain. When the competents had been
accepted, and given in their names forty days before baptism,
they were called elect, and required to observe a strict peni
tential discipline. In the Western Church, on the fourth
Sunday in Lent, but on the second among the Greeks, the
names of the elect were inscribed on the church register,
and the name of an apostle or saint was given to them. A
special confession was made by them; and they passed a
scrutiny for seven days preceding their baptism, which con
sisted in exorcism, repetition of the Creed, — a custom dating
back to the third century. A catechist, or doctor audientium,
sometimes acted as the bishop's deputy, as Origen, though a
layman, did during eighteen years. In the catacombs there
are still lofty chambers, one for each sex, where the catechu
mens received instruction.

122 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Cathedral-Church. The See, or seat, of a bishop, who takes his
title from it; so called from his cathedra, throne or chair;
and it was also called parochia, the principal or mother
church, and in some places still the High Church. In it
coronations, ordinations, councils were held, manumissions
of serfs made, and academical honours conferred. The word
is confined to the Western Church, and is not older than the
tenth century. The caihedraticum, or payment to the bishop
for the honour of his See, called in Italy La chierica, was paid
in the time of Honorius III. by all the diocesan clergy ; and
in later days St. Richard's pence at Chichester, St. Chad's
pennies at Lichfield, Pentecostals and smoke-farthings else
where, were the tribute of the diocese to the cathedral
church, and a compensation for an omission to visit it at
Whitsuntide. A cathedral is composed of a corporation of
canons presided over by a bishop. In some rare cases, as
Pistoia and Prato, Lichfield and Coventry, and Bath and
Wells, a bishop had two cathedrals ; and occasionally a col
legiate church was united to a cathedral, as at Dublin. The
system was established in large towns for mutual aid, and
as a central station for missionary operations. They were of
two kinds : cathedrals served by a composite body of monks
and clerks under rule, and immediately governed by the
abbot-bishop as his family and household; and collegiate
churches, with chapters of clerks under an archpriest, but
having the bishop as the head of the capitular body. Gra
dually the itinerant clergy, who were sent out on Sundays
and festivals to the surrounding district, settled down as
permanent parish priests, whilst those who remained about
the bishop became his standing chapter. There were cathe
drals of regular canons in many places, of Prsemonstraten-
sians at Littomissel, Havelburg, and Brandenburg, and of
Austin canons, as already noticed, in nine cities. The cathe
dral of Alcala is called magistral, because all the canons
have the degree of D.D. Ramsbury, exceptionally, although
a see, had no chapter. At Canterbury and Worcester, two
minsters, occupied by the clerks and monks respectively,
' adjoined each other, till the bishop definitely assumed one
as his cathedral. At Winchester, and in London, at West
minster, the monks built a separate minster ; at Worcester
and Winchester they absorbed the canons ; at Exeter they

CATHEDRAL- CHURCH. 123
gave way to them ; at Canterbury, Durham, Rochester, and
Norwich,- they only gradually gained the ascendant when
the Norman policy removed sees from villages into towns, as
in the instance of the translation from Thetford to Norwich,
and Selsey into Chichester, as, about forty years earlier, had
been the case of Exeter removed from Bodmin, and Salis
bury from Wilton; and half a century yet earlier, in the
foundation of Durham. With the exception of Monreale
and Monte Casino, and some early foundations in Germany,
colonized from this country, in England only there were
monastic cathedrals. These were Canterbury, Winchester,
Durham, Bath, Carlisle, Ely, Norwich, Rochester, Worcester ;
and being refounded at the Reformation as secular cathe
drals, along with the newly- created sees of Chester, Bristol,
Peterborough, Oxford, Gloucester, and Westminster, are
known as cathedrals of the new foundation. Those of the
old foundation, which always had secular canons, are York,
St. Paul's, Wells, Chichester, Exeter, Hereford, Lichfield,
Lincoln, Salisbury, and the four Welsh cathedrals. The
bishops of Meath, Ossory, Sodor and Man, Argyll and the
Isles, Caithness, Moray, Orkneys, and Galloway, did not take
their titles from their sees. Some German cathedrals, as
Bamberg, Carnin, Breslau, Laybach, Meissen, Olmutz, like
those of Trent and Trieste, are exempt, that is, free from
visitation by the archbishop of the province, and immediately
subject to the See of Rome.
Cathedrals of the New Foundation. Those which were,
before the Reformation, held by Benedictines, or by Austin
canons, as Oxford, Bristol, and Carlisle, or as Ripon and
Manchester, had been collegiate churches. The chapter con
sists only of residentiaries, who, tdl the recent Act, were
called prebendaries; the corps of the prebend being the
dividend or yearly income of each stall. The minor canons
were originally equal in number to the major canons ; and
out of their number the precentor and sacrist are annually
chosen. Cathedrals of the Old Foundation. Those which have
always been held by secular canons, and underwent no change
at the Reformation. These consist of four internal dig
nitaries, — dean, precentor, chancellor, and treasurer; arch
deacons, in some cases of a subdean, and subchanter of

124 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
canons, and prebendaries and canons, residentiary or non
resident, internal or extraneous. Each was represented by
his vicar. Strasbourg, in France, alone retains its full com
plement of members and ancient organization; but in Spain,
Italy, Germany, and Austria, all are preserved intact. The
cathedrals of Elgin, Ross, Aberdeen, and Caithness were
modelled on Lincoln, which followed Rouen ; those of Dun-
keld, Glasgow, and St. Patrick's (Dublin), on Salisbury,
which followed Amiens ; as St. Paul's imitated Paris in its
constitution, and is now the model for Carlisle and Peter
borough.
Catholic. Universal. A term used by the Apostohcal Fathers,
and adopted by the Eastern and Western Churches ; and
from the third century all who retained the Apostolic faith,
and were members of the true Church, called themselves
Catholic. The Creed of the Council of Nicsea, a.d. 325,
gives the Church the name of Catholic.
Cautelae Missae. Certain regulations concerning the office of
Holy Communion, like those at the end of it in the Book of
Common Prayer, only more minute, and entering into ex
treme detail.
Celestines. A Benedictine Order, founded by Peter Molon,
Pope Celestine V., at Majella, in the thirteenth century ; or
by Peter Damian, c. 1078. They wore at first a blue habit,
whence their name, perhaps ; but afterwards a white cassock,
black patience, scapular, hood, and cowl. They were nu
merous in France, where they were remarkable for their
particular neatness of dress, and called the " pleasant Celes
tines." They came to England in 1414. The Order was
suppressed in 1778.
Cell. (Obediences, or Abbatiales.) Dependent religious
houses founded on Abbey estates, under the jurisdiction of
the Abbot of the Mother Church. About the middle of the
eleventh century, owing to the creation of a new dignitary,
the prior, in the Abbey of Clugni, these establishments re
ceived the designation of priories. (2.) The small dwelling
of a hermit or a Carthusian ; that of the latter contained a
bedroom, dayroom, and study. (3.) A cubicle, or partitioned
sleeping-room in a dormitory.
Cellarage. The store-chambers of the cellarer or house
steward were formed under the refectory at Kirkham, Saw-

CELLARAGE  CEMETERY. 125
ley, Lewes ; under the guest-hall at Chester ; but more
usually below the dormitory. It commonly was divided
longitudinally into two alleys by a range of pillars, and la
terally by wooden screens into separate' rooms. At Foun
tains one enormous range on the western side of the cloister
was filled with wool, with which the Cistercians supphed the
conventual market. At Chester, a similar vaulted space
was stocked with fish, which the Abbey boats brought up
the Dee. At Durham, it was divided into various apart
ments, and devoted to many uses. The substructure of the
refectory contained the food, and that of the dormitory the
materials for furniture and clothing. At Canterbury, in the
western range of vaults were the beer and wine cellars ; and
at the north end, as at the Charterhouse, the turn remains
in the wall — an oblique opening through which the cup
of wine asked for by a weary monk was passed to him.
At Battle Abbey two magnificent specimens remain ; one
under the guest-house, and the other on the west side of the
cloisters, as at Beaulieu, where a wall divides it from the
cloisters.
Cellarer. (1.) The same as the Economist. The office exists
at Aichstadt, Augsburg, Hildesheim, Wurtzburg, Bam-
burg, Halberstadt, and Basle. At Amiens he furnished
wine for Masses, but had been caterer of the common table.
(2.) One of the great monastic Obedientiaries, who acted as
commissary-general, manciple, purveyor, proctor, and bur
sar. He presided over the goods, hospital, granaries, cellars,
kitchens, and stables. He bought furniture, cheese, beve
rages, hay, fuel ; appointed the pittances, and ordered the
daily provisions. He found wine and minstrels on the great
festivals. He weighed the bread, and gave out beer for ink
to the precentor, and was excused frequent attendance in
the minster, owing to his onerous duties. At Canterbury
he was " father of the monastery," and kept a court-mote in
his hall.
Cemetery. A resting-place ; a churchyard ; because our Sa
viour has declared death to be only a sleep. Tertullian calls
it an area, when used for rehgious meetings. The enormous
Campo Santo, budt between 1218 and 1283, by John of
Pisa, is the most remarkable in Europe, forming a great
cloistered quadrangle. The burial-place of unbaptized in-

126 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
fants was called the Cemetery of the Innocents. In foreign
cemeteries, and commonly in the north of France, a light —
the dead man's lantern — burned in a phare, or tower, to
mark the resting-place of the dead ; one of the thirteenth
century remains at Fontevrault ; and it is not improbable
that in many cases a low -side-window contained a lantern, or
lych-light, in England for the same purpose. There are
sometimes two churches within one churchyard, as at Al-
trincham, Evesham, Willingale, Cockerington, Hackford,
Reepham, and Gillingham ; as formerly also at Fulbourne,
Trimley, and Staunton. The monastic cemetery was usually
on the south side ; and the laymen's yard, on the north of the
Presbytery in England, but in France eastward of it ; and
a light burning at night gave light both to the crypt and
this garth. At Durham, after dinner, the monks,' bare
headed, went in procession daily to pray around the graves
of their departed brethren. At Canterbury, the southern
close was divided into the outer cemetery for lay persons,
and the inner for ecclesiastics and religious. The cemetery-
gate, called at Gloucester and Worcester, until their de
struction, the Lych gate, remains at Ely and St. Augustine's,
Canterbury.
Censer (Acerra, thymiatorium, fumigatorium, succensum, or
thurible). A vessel for burning incense, which is supplied
by a spoon from one shaped like a ship or boat. Censers of
gold or silver were given by Constantine to St. John Lateran ;
and by Pope Sixtus III. to churches. An ancient sflver
censer is at Louvaine, and one of German work at St. An
thony's, Padua. The censer originally was, probably, in the
form of an urn, which the priest took by the base when in
censing the altar ; then the cover, full of holes, was added for
the escape of the perfumed smoke ; and lastly, in the
twelfth century, the idea of balance-chains suggested itself.
The ship after the twelfth century received a foot and
jointed cover. The censer was always round, and divided
into two halves; the lowermost, containing the charcoal-
fire and perfume; the upper, pierced with holes for the
escape of the scented air; three or four chains were fixed to
the lower portion, and a single chain to the cover. Censers
were sometimes made like a keep and towers, or like a
church with many apses, like those of the twelfth century at

CEREMONY  CHAIR.

127

Treves ; sometimes the New Jerusalem, or the Three Chil
dren in the Furnace of Dura, crowned the cover, as in the
copper censer of the twelfth century at Lille.
Ceremony. The derivation of this word has been much de
bated ; it has been traced from caritas ; from Caere, the town
where the Roman relics were preserved during an invasion
of the Gauls ; from cerus, sacred, or from carendo, because
those who observe it stand aloof from what it proscribes.
It is defined as usage by Cranmer, and implies the observ
ance of a rite : its administration and accessories, forms and
actions relating to the minister, place, time, and mode
of worship, which are appointed as pertaining to decent
discipline and godly order. Ceremonies, according to the
Injunctions of King Edward, " be no workers nor works of
salvation, but only outward signs and tokens, to put us in
remembrance of things of higher perfection."
Certain. A lesser endowment for a mortuary Mass; where
the person was prayed for with a number of others, and not
individually ; the names being written all together on a board
or plate above the altar.
Chain Gate. A not uncommon name for a gate protected by
a chain originally, as at Winchester, Wells, St. Paul's, and
Westminster.
Chair. In a chapel of the Catacombs at St. Catherine's,
Chiusi, the altar, a marble table on a column of travertine,
stands at the end of the apse, and the bishop's chair is
placed on the Gospel side. In the catacombs, the bishop's
chair cut in the tufa constantly appears in the apse. At St.
Agnes there are two, one possibly having been used at en-
thronization, and by a bishop assisting at Mass ; or per
haps the chair of some sainted Pope. Even at the close of
the sixth century, consecrations of bishops were held in the
catacombs at Chiusi. A bishop's chair has on either side a
priest's chair in the catacomb. In the crypts there were
also movable chairs, like one on which St. Stephen was
martyred, and taken out of the catacomb of St. Sebastian
by Innocent XII. as a gift to the Grand Duke Como III.
These are said to have been taken often from the Roman
Warm Baths. When they received steps at a later period,
they were called Gradatse, and, if curtained, Velatse. Some
times the back was ornamented with a dove — the emblem

128 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
of the Holy Spirit ; and the arms were decorated with lions,
unicorns, or griffins, typical of strength and vigilance, or
dogs of fidelity, as on the throne of St. Hippolytus, in the
Lateran. In France they sometimes buried bishops sitting
in their chairs ; and the latter were at length removed, as a
throne, to the upper church. A marble chair of the twelfth
century, formerly used by the Primates, is preserved at
Lyons. Another, called St. Gerard's Fauteuil, of the thir
teenth century, and of stone, is at Tours. There were others
at Rheims, Autun, Arras, and Metz. Several of the Roman
and Italian churches retain the pontifical chair in the apse,
as St. Ambrose (Milan), St. Gregory on Mount Caslius, St.
Stephen the Round, St. Mary Cosmedin, St. Clement, St.
Agnes, and St. Mary in Trastavere. Martene says that the
French bishops usually sat on a faldstool set upon the steps
or on one side of the altar ; but that at Lyons and Vienne
they, with their clergy, sat in stone chairs, as in the basi
lica ; and he mentions that the stone chair in which bishops
were enthroned then remained at Autun. The Pope's marble
chair of the fourteenth century is preserved at Avignon.
At Canterbury the primatial throne is of the twelfth century,
and made of marble ; formerly it was placed behind the high-
altar, and occupied by the archbishop until after the conse
cration of the elements. At Dijon and St. Vigor the thrones
were also of stone ; that of marble, in Palermo, stands at the
west end of the cathedral. Ivory was also employed. There
is a silver chair with pierced tracery, c. 1395, at Barcelona;
and the Coronation chair at Westminster, containing the
Stone of Scone, is of oak, of the time of Edward I., and was
used by the celebrant at St. Edward's altar. St. Peter's
chair of wood, in the apse of St. Peter's in the Vatican, re
sembles a curule chair. See Throne.
Chair Organ. The same as a choir organ. One placed be
hind the organist's seat, as in Winchester College chapel,
and facing the choir.
Chalice. (Calix, a cup; 1 Cor. x. 16, poterion.) The cup
used at Holy Communion to contain the consecrated wine,
and called the Lord's cup by St. Athanasius, and the mystic
cup by St. Ambrose. There were four kinds,— (1) Com-
munical, that used by the celebrant ; (2) the ministerial, large
and small, for communicating the faithful ; (3) offertory,- in

CHALICE. 129
which the deacons received the wine offered by communi
cants. Possibly the chalices found in tombs of the cata
combs were those into which the deacon poured the wine,
and were religiously preserved for burial with their late
owners ; (4) the baptismal, used for communion in the case
of the newly baptized, and for administering to them milk
and honey. It was formerly made of wood, as St. Boniface
said, when permitting its use : " Once golden priests used
wooden chalices ; now, on the contrary, wooden priests use
golden chalices." At St. Denys there was a medieval
chalice of sardonyx. Pope Zephyrinus, c. 202, ordered the
material to be glass ; and St. Jerome speaks of a bishop of
Toulouse who bore the Lord's body in a wicker canister and
His blood in glass. Tertullian also alludes to the latter
material. Wooden chalices were in use until the ninth
century. The Council of Rheims, in 226, forbade glass,
and in 883 the use of wood, tin, glass, and copper. Pope
Leo, in 847, prohibited wood or glass; the Council of
Tribur, in 897, proscribed wood ; the Council of Cealcythe,
in 785, forbade wood; but ^Elfric's canons, in 957, allowed
wood, probably owing to the devastations of the Danes ; but,
three years later, King Edgar's canons allowed only molten
metal. Honorius, Csesarius of Aries and St. Benedict used,
or at least mention, glass chalices, which certainly were not
disused in the eighth century. Glass was considered im
proper, owing to its fragility; horn, from blood entering
into its composition, by the Council of Cealcythe ; wood,
from its porousness and absorbent nature; and brass and
bronze, because liable to rust. In 1222 the Archbishop of
Canterbury forbade tin or pewter ; but tin was used in France
so lately as 1793, and by the canons of 1604 the wine was to
be brought in "a clean and sweet standing pot or stoop of
pewter, if not of purer metal." St. Columban used bronze
or tin, in memory of the nails of the cross. The most pre
cious metals and materials were, however, at an early date
used. Onyx, ivory, sardonyx, and agate are mentioned by
early French writers ; marble is spoken of by Gregory the
priest ; gold and silver are mentioned by St. Augustine ; in
227 Pope Urban required the latter; in the time of Pope
Gregory II. chalices were jewelled, and Tertullian mentions
that they had carvings of the Good Shepherd ; from the

130 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
sixth to the thirteenth century their handles were sculptured
with animals or foliage, and blue, red, and green enamel
was used in their ornamentation. At Clairvaux,'St. Malachy's
chalice was surrounded with httle bells ; one at Rheims, of
gold, was inscribed with an anathema, imprecated upon any
person who should steal it. Sometimes the maker's name
was engraved upon it. One, formerly belonging to St.
Alban's Abbey, is now at Trinity College, Oxford ; and an
other ancient specimen remains at Corpus Christi College in
the same University; and a third, of the twelfth century, at
Chichester. Three of early date are at York. Chalices of
earthenware or pewter were buried in the grave with priests.
There is a chalice, that of St. Remigius, of the twelfth century,
at Paris; St. Wolfgang's cup, c. 994, and the chalice of
Weintgarten are preserved at Ratisbon ; another is at May-
ence. St. Jerome's, in St. Anastasia's at Rome, has a copper
foot and earthenware bowl. There is a Jacobean chalice of
wood at Goodrich Court, and a German chalice, of the
fifteenth century, is in a case in the British Museum. Until
the twelfth century the communion was given in both kinds,
but subsequent to that date the chalice was administered
only to the celebrant and his acolyths ; the vessel, therefore,
which had previously been of large dimensions, for the use
of all the faithful, and was provided with two handles, shrank
into a cup-like form about that period in the Western
Church. The Greeks retain communion in both kinds, and
consequently the two-handled chalice. Several of this
shape are still preserved in the treasury of St. Mark's,
Venice. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the stalk was
short, the foot large, the knop in the centre thick, the bowl
wide ; after that the cup became small, the stalk long, and
the knop tall and flat, and in some cases enriched with
tabernacled figures of saints. In the fifteenth century it
underwent a further modification, the knop became diamond-
shaped in profile, the cup more long and shallow, and the
foot indented, like the petals of a flower. There are several
chalices still preserved, one of ivory and silver, of the four
teenth century, at Milan ; that of Rheims, of gold, with
enamels and gems, of the twelfth century, now in the
Imperial Library at Rome; that of Troyes, c. 1220; and
one of Cologne, of the thirteenth century, with the Apostles

CHAMBERLAIN. 131
under niches below the rim, — sometimes sacred subjects
from the life of our Lord adorn the base ; another at St.
Gereon's, of the fifteenth century, has only an arabesque
pattern; but a beautiful specimen at Hildesheim, of the
thirteenth century, represents, in compartments, the offering
of a lamb by Abel, and Melchisedech's oblation of wine, the
brazen serpent, and the bunch of grapes from Eshcol. The
pomel, or knop, and foot were usually covered with nielli,
gems, and elaborate chasings. The foot was indented
in order to keep it steady when laid down to drain upon
the paten, according to ancient usage, before the affusions
were drunk by the priest, or at the commencement of Mass.
At York the curves are wanting, but one foot has a crucifix.
The ansatce in the sixth century, being of great weight, were
often suspended by chains above the altar.
In 418 Pope Zosimus restrained the use of the chalice to
the cells of the faithful and of clerks. Pope Martin V. gave
it to the Roman people, and the Council of Basle permitted
it to the Bohemians. The Emperor of Constantinople, at
his coronation, partook of the chalice; and Clement VI.
allowed the King of Gaul to partake at pleasure, although
other princes were permitted the privilege only at their
coronation and at the hour of death. The Pope, at solemn
celebration, communicates the cardinal deacon with the
chalice. The monks of St. Bernard dipped the bread in the
wine. Pope Victor III. and the Emperor Henry of Luxem
bourg are said to have been poisoned by the chalice.
According to Alexander of Hales, and Leo of Chartres,
the chalice should stand on the right side of the paten, but
by the Salisbury use it is placed behind it.
The denial of the cup to the laity by the Roman Church
was introduced at the close of the twelfth century, and con
firmed in 1414 by the Council of Constance.
Chamberlain. In a monastery he was overseer of the dormi
tory, and purchased clothes, bed furniture, and other neces
saries. He received all considerable sums of money or
account. He acted as treasurer, having the charge of nearly
every considerable payment. At Durham his chequer was
near the abbey gates, under which was the tailors' shop for
making linsey-woolsey or stamyne shirts, and tunics for the
monks and novices, and whole and half socks of white
k 2

132 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
woollen cloth. His chamber was in the dormitory at Abing
don. He provided copes, albes, cowls, coverlets, hoods,
shoes, and boots, towels, combs, knives, beds, straw palli
asses, stools, bed-perches, hot water, tools for the tailors and
cordwainers, five lights burning in the dormitory from twi
light to dawn, and baths three times a year. At Canterbury
he provided mats, blankets, razors, all the monks' clothing,
horseshoes for the farriers, and glass for the dormitory.
The old clothing was distributed by him to the poor. Under
him were the laundry folk, peltmen or skin dressers, tailors,
shoemakers, etc. In a cathedral he was often called the
provost, and like the massarius in Italy, chamarier of Lyons,
Strasbourg, and Saragossa, was the receiver of rents and
paymaster of the stipends and money for pittances, and
general accountant of income and keeper of the common
chest. He was annually elected, and took precedence of
canons whflst in office. At St. Paul's he found the neces
saries for divine services and posted the summonses of pre
bendaries to chapter on their stalls, and at York acted as
punctator of the absences of the vicars. In the latter
instance he might be a vicar.
Chamfer. A slight splay in an angle of buttresses and
capitals.
Champleve enamels have the ground hollowed out to receive
the colours.
Chancel, as a division of a church, is a diminutive of the full
phrase infra cancellos, within the chancels. The word was
also applied, in England in the thirteenth century, to chan
tries, or side chapels next the choir. But usually the
chancel in a parish church corresponds to the choir of a
cathedral and minster, and is directed to remain as in times
past, that is, with its appropriate furniture and seats or
stalls for the clergy and singers. The old English name
is Theo- or Theofod- steal, holy or altar-place.
Chancellor of the Choir. The dignitary in a cathedral next in
rank to a precentor, who presided over the readers of the
lections in church, and the schools of the city and cathedral.
The office was instituted in England in the twelfth century,
but in France apparently not until the thirteenth century.
The dignitary bore the name in foreign chapters of Scho-
lasticus Scholarca cabiscol, that is, caput scholce, head of the

CHANCELLOR OF THE DIOCESE  CHANCELS. 133
school, magistral and theologal. Like the Greek charto-
phylax, he was the librarian and secretary of the chapter,
and sealed the capitular correspondences. He also acted as
the theological lecturer and reader in canon law. The
chancellor's name is derived from that of the law officer who
stood at the bar ad caneellos to receive the pleas of suitors,
and was keeper of the court seal. The chancellor of a uni
versity has the sole executive authority within the precinct.
Chancellor of the Diocese. The judge of the bishop's consis-
torial court, official and vicar-general of the diocesan. The
office does not occur earlier than the reign of Henry II., and
was instituted to supply a substitute for the bishop when
absent in parliament or attendance at court, and must be
held by a graduate with the degree of M.A. or B.C.L.
Chancels. Cancelli, — screens, often of great beauty and rich
ness, set round an altar, or the choir, or tombs of saints.
The original chancels were those which divided the choir
from the nave, forming a line of demarcation between the
clergy and laity. Leo III., in the time of Charlemagne,
erected a chancel of pure silver, and Stephen IV. placed
another of the same material round an altar. The Second
Council of Tours enjoined the people not to stand near the
altar among the clerks at Vigils or Mass, because that part of
the church which is divided off by chancels is restricted to
the use of the singing clerks. St. Gregory of Tours men
tions a chancel in the chord of the apse in St. Pancras'
Church near Rome, and at St. Sophia's, Constantinople; the
chancel fenced the entrance to the sanctuary.
The chancel-screens round the choir were called, in Spain,
rejas, and elsewhere pectorals, being a wall breast-high at
which the faithful communicated and received the palms
and ashes when they were distributed. It was identical
with the peribolos which was introduced when the Hours
were first sung in choir during the fourth century. The
solid and taller screen does not date earlier than the twelfth
century. Sometimes the chancels had a balustrade and
columns, called Regulars, placed at intervals; on these curtains
were suspended, so as to resemble the Greek iconostasis ;
St. Gregory of Tours notices that they were embroidered
and painted with sacred images in France. At certain
times in the service these veil-like draperies were drawn

134 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
back and again closed, unlike the modern custom of leaving
the whole vista of the interior and the altar in full view ;
this utter change from the more ancient idea of seclusion of
the sacred mysteries emanated from the Jesuits, and con
temporaneously with the introduction of the ceremony of
Benediction, and has resulted in a wholesale destruction of
the rood-screens. The latter, which is the true representa
tive of the primitive chancels, marked the separation between
the clergy and laity, and also symbolized the entrance to
the Church triumphant. For this reason it was painted,
as at Hexham, with figures of saints, or with the sentences
of the Creed, or with the destruction of the dragon, or the
Last Judgment. Two of these screens, of open work of the
time of Wren, exist at St. Peter's, Cornhill, and All Hallows
the Great, Thames Street, London ; whilst beautiful speci
mens of lateral choir-screens remain at Alby, at Paris of
the fourteenth century, at Chartres and Amiens of the
fifteenth century, and of tho thirteenth century at Canter
bury. The chancels mostly, however, have shrunk into the
mere altar-rail round or in front of the altar, dividing, not as
before, the nave from the choir, but the choir from the sanc
tuary.
Changeable Taffeta. A material like shot-silk used for vest
ments.
Chant, Ecclesiastical. Singing is mentioned in the Apostolical
times, Acts xvi. 25 ; 1 Cor. xiv. 26, just as our Lord and His
Disciples sang a " hymn," that is certain Psalms ; but what
the music was is unknown. The church song was probably
founded on Greek music; and antiphonal singing, alluded to
by Pliny, took its origin at Antioch, and was adopted by
St. Basil at Neo-Csesarea, in Egypt, Palestine, and Arabia.
St. Ambrose introduced it into the West at Milan, employ
ing the use of the East in Psalms and hymns, which were
responsively sung in the night hours during the Arian per
secution by the Empress Justina to relieve the weariness
of watching. Previously, in many times and in many churches,
single voices chanted whilst the congregation merely joined
in at the end, and meditated in silence. The people now
joined zealously in the chanting, until at length their extreme
vociferation necessitated the institution of a distinct order of
singers or choristers by the Councils of Laodicea and Car-

CHANT, ECCLESIASTICAL. 135
thage, and at length, despite popular opposition, in the
West. Milan became the school of music for Western
Europe, and the name of the old melody for the Te Deum,
the Ambrosian Chant, preserves the name of its originator,
although St. Gregory's name, as that of the later reformer,
is now more commonly associated with it. In the East, St.
Chrysostom, with melody and sweet harmony at night, — the
choral processions accompanied by tapers which were carried
in cruciform stands, — endeavoured to outvie the attractive
hymnody of the Arians. St. Athanasius, at Alexandria,
caused the reader to intone the Psalms with so shght an in
flection of the voice that it was more hke singing than
reading, and St. Augustine contrasts it with the agreeable
modulation used at Milan. St. Jerome complained of thea
trical modulations in singing. P. Gelasius, in 494, condemned
the abuse, and in the sixth century Pope Gregory introduced
the plain chant, a grave and natural tone which repressed
the caprice of the singers, and reduced them to uniformity.
In 705 Charlemagne enforced its observance throughout the
Western Church. The Gregorian school at Rome was imitated
by those of Lyons in France, and of Africa, mentioned by
St. Gregory of Tours : St. Patrick in Ireland, Benedict and
Theodore at Metz and Soissons, Augustine and Theodore at
Canterbury, Precentor John of Rome at Wearmouth, James
the Deacon at York, Eddi in Northumbria, c. 668, Putta at
Rochester, and Mabran at Hexham, were the founders of the
ecclesiastical chant in this country. The Councils of Cloveshoe
and Trent, St. Bernard and John of Salisbury, in the reign of
Henry II., reprobated a florid style in church, for as early as
the eleventh century Thurstin of Caen, Abbot of Glastonbury,
endeavoured to introduce a more pleasing melody than the
Gregorian tones. Trumpets, cornets, pipes, and fiddles in 1512
are mentioned in English churches by Erasmus; virginals,
viols, harps, lutes, fiddles, recorders, flutes, drones, trumpets,
waits, and shawms by Bale ; bagpipes, lutes, harps, and fiddles
by Whitgift. In 1635, lyres and harps were used at Hereford,
and two sackbuts and two cornets at Canterbury ; and at the
Chapel Royal, Lincoln, Westminster, Durham, and Exeter,
orchestral music accompanied the chant after the Restoration.
Country churches onlyrecentlylost such accessories. The early
Anglican single chant was founded upon the latter, and the

136 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
double chant occurs first in Dean Aldrich's MSS. Several of
the Roman school rose to the Pontificate, as Gregory II.,
Stephen III., and Paul I., on the Continent, and in England
many of the precentors were raised to the episcopate or an
abbacy, and were usually recommended for their office by their
learning as well as for their musical skdl, like Eadmer and John
of Thanet at Canterbury, Symeon of Durham, Somerset of
Malmesbury, and Walsingham of St. Alban's. Monks in
their monasteries followed the example of the clergy in their
churches, and Lerins became the school of southern France.
Some conventual rules, such as those of St. Hilarius, St.
Macarius, and Serapion, allowed only the abbots to chant.
Women joined in the chant, as appears from St. Gregory of
Nazianzum, and Isidore of Damietta. The Capitulars per
mitted them to sing the rite antiphonally with men at funerals,
St. Augustine and the Council of Chalons and Aix-la-Chapelle,
in the nineteenth century, desired nuns to sing their office.
Chanter. 1. The Precentor. 2. A ruler of the choir. 3.
The Succentor.
Chapel. By Casalius the name is derived from huts covered
with goat-skins, capcllarum, like that in which .St. Apol-
linaris celebrated ; the Jewish tabernacle was in the same
manner roofed with badger-skins. It has also been sup
posed to come from capella, a reliquary chest or cabinet, or
cupella as it is termed in ancient inscriptions in the cata
combs, for a funereal vase, a grave or place of burial during
the fifth century ; capella, in the sense of cap or cop, a roof
or top, covering or canopy of an altar which contained relics.
The chape or cope of St. Martin was the ordinary covering
of his tomb in the Cathedral of Tours, and the Counts of
Anjou carried it to battle before the King of France. The
tent which contained it was called the capella, or chapel,
hence the name of chaplains for the priests who served with
the army, and also celebrated in the oratories of the palace,
in which during time of peace, these shrines were deposited.
Socrates mentions centuries before that Constantine carried
out to his wars a tent or tabernacle shaped like a church.
In Spain the choir is still called the capilla mayor.
There are several kinds of chapels. (1.) Isolated or de
tached buildings for religious worship annexed or affiliated
to mother churches, without the right of having a font or

CHAPEL. 137
cemetery ; called in the statutes of Canute, " a field church,"
and in modern times chapels of ease. (2.) Those attached to
a palace, castle, mansion, or college, less generally known as
oratories ; the earliest recorded in a college of a university is
at Paris in 1254. (3.) Chantries, or internal buildings within
a church. (4.) An aisle furnished with its own altar, chalice,
paten, cruets, basin, pyx, and sacring-bell. (5.) A set of
vessels and vestments used in the service of the church, as
when we read that a bishop bequeathed his chapel to a
cathedral. (6.) A well chapel, like that of the Perpendicular
period at Hempstead, Gloucestershire, or the still more
famous St. Winifred's at Holywell, where the bath, which
was a place of great resort, is star-shaped, and was formerly
enclosed with stone screens ; round it is a vaulted ambula
tory, and in front there is an entrance porch ; in the upper
storey there is a chapel. The chapels of the first class are
not permitted to contain a font, and usually have no ceme
tery. The Saintes Chapelles of Paris, Vincennes, Dijon,
Riom, Champigny, and Bourbon, so called as containing pre
sumed relics of the Cross, were peculiar to France. That of
Dijon is called the Palatine, from the palace of the Dukes
of Burgundy in which it stood.
In the eleventh century, when the practice of building
crypts or subterranean churches fell into desuetude, the
chapel became an integral portion of the upper structure;
usually there were three at the east end, one in the centre
dedicated to St. Mary, set between two adjuncts. In the
twelfth century, chapels were multiplied round the sanctuary ;
throughout the Norman style they were apsidal, but gradually
became polygonal. In the thirteenth century, the Eastern
chapels were added in still greater numbers round the choir ;
at Tours there were as many as fifteen. In this and the
succeeding century chapels were erected between the but
tresses of the nave-aisles. These are common abroad ; and
occur at King's College (Cambridge), and at Windsor, at
Lincoln in the presbytery, and formerly there was one in the
nave at Canterbury.
In England we have a group of chapels round the pres
bytery at Westminster, Tewkesbury, Pershore, radiating
from the main building, but it was an uncommon arrange
ment, like the external range of chapels in the naves of

138 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Chichester and Manchester ; and the lateral or transeptal
line (as at Gurk), of those at Fountains, Peterborough, the
Nine Altars of Durham, formerly at Bridlington, and that
recently destroyed at Hexham, and the second or choir
transept, as at Salisbury, Lincoln, and Canterbury. Chapels
were usually founded as sepulchral chantries and supported
by families of distinction, by the bequest of ecclesiastics,
and very frequently by confraternities and guilds. They
resemble in many particulars the cubicles or side rooms of
churches, which Paulinus of Nola says were allotted for
prayer, devout reading, and commemoration of the departed ;
but they were no doubt rendered indispensable by the multi
plication of altars which blocked up the nave and aisles, and
by the enclosure of the choir with screens, and in foreign
churches to strengthen the enormous stride of the buttresses
which was necessary to support the vast height of the walls,
weakened by being pierced with a large clerestory. In
order to provide still more room, aisles were added on either
side of the transept, and in some cases there were both upper
and lower chapels, as at Christchurch (Hants), and St. John's
(Chester), like that built over the Clugniac antechurches.
In conventual establishments there was a chapel of the
infirmary and a chapel of the guest-house. Occasionally
we find chapels in towers, as at Canterbury and Drontheim ;
in western towers the dedication was usually to St. Michael,
as the conductor of souls to Paradise. In Christchurch
(Hants) (7), and at Bury St. Edmund's (9), and Abingdon
(11), there were several chapels budt in the cemetery and
close, and this may have been a not uncommon arrange
ment, until such parasitical buddings were absorbed into the
central minster after its reconstruction with larger dimensions
on a grander scale. In the Eastern Church at Moscow, Blan-
skenoi, and on Mount Athos, and in several parts of Ireland,
there were similar groups, usually seven in number, probably
to preserve the principle of having only one altar in a church.
Chaplain. (1.) A priest who officiates in a collegiate or pri
vate chapel at a particular altar. (2.) A clerical vicar or
beneficiatus in a foreign cathedral. (3.) The domestic chap
lain of a peer. An archbishop may have eight, a duke or
bishop six, a viscount four, the Lord Chancellor, a baron, and
K.G., three, a marquis or earl five, a dowager, the dean of

CHAPTER. 139
the chapel, the Master of the Rolls, Lord Almoner, the Lord
Treasurer, and Secretary to the Queen, each two ; the Lord
Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench and the Warden of the
Cinque Ports each one. (4.) Chaplains in ordinary to the
Queen, priests who serve in rotation as preachers in the
Chapel Royal, the Dean of St. Paul's, if a royal chaplain, or if
no royal chaplain is present, presides at the opening of each
new convocation. The word chaplain designated an assis
tant priest, and generally an officiating priest. Their annual
wage was six marks in the fourteenth century. They were
called vice-curates in absence of the parish priest ; the assis
tant curate was properly called a conduct. They were re
movable by the rector. Chaplains at Pisa are divided into
two classes. (I.) Thirty-two participants in the daily distri
bution, wearing a violet robe, and called Chaplains of the
Quinterno, from the name of the register-book. They form
a college called the Chaplains' University, which is presided
over by four superintendents, and has its own chancery seal
and buddings. (II.) Twenty simple chaplains, without any
share in the quotidian, wearing a cowl on the left shoulder ;
they do not attend the Hours, and are incapable of promotion
into the staff of the cathedral ; but simply serve chantries.
Chaplains, Military, Aumoniers d'Annee. St. Boniface, in
his first council in Germany, ordered that every commander
should keep a priest to shrive his soldiers at the eve of a
battle. In the time of Charlemagne and before the Battle
of Hastings, it was the custom to confess and communicate
the troops before an engagement.
Chapter. (1 .) A paragraph ; a lesson from the Bible ; a statute
under one rubric. (2.) An assembly of persons for conference
on common business. (3.) As properly applied to a cathe
dral, a sacred congregation of persons set apart for the
worship of God in principal churches, and forming the
conned of the president of the foundation, from whom, as
their head (caput), the chapter (capitulum) derives its name.
As monks and canons regular had their chapters, so when
secular canons had their common table divided into separate
prebends, they were formed into chapters, " little heads," as
the bishop was the principal head. The monks and regulars
derived their chapter from the daily reading of the Httle
chapter, a portion of their rule, in their assembly, about the

140 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
seventh century, when the word occurs in the capitulars of
Charlemagne and the Councils of Aix and Mayence, instead
of the older term ' congregation,' employed by St. Benedict
and Bishop Julian of Marseilles in 480. Properly speaking,
a chapter was in a cathedral church ; a convent was a church
of regulars, and a college an inferior church, with its mem
bers living in common. A chapter cannot be composed of
less than three persons. Uusually it assembled on every
Saturday, and was then often called a parliament; now it
meets ordinarily once in every quarter. A curious complaint
was made in the fifteenth century at Lincoln that the dean
brought armed followers into chapter. At Rouen it was
convened annually ; at Mayence four times a year. In the
new foundations, fortnightly chapters are enjoined. The
bishop is the principal head; the dean the numeral head.
Its members are canons, having a stall in choir and a vote
in chapter, with prebends, a foundation and estate, and the
right of a common seal, being assembled under their head,
and convened by the" sound of a bell. Absent canons are
represented by proxies. It can enact statutes, which must
be ratified by the visitor, and has aU the rights of a parish ;
and before it and the dean all members of the body are to
be tried. It forms the bishop's council, and must furnish
assistants to him at ordinations, and on the vacancy of a see
exercises episcopal jurisdiction. There are various kinds of
chapters : —
I. A close chapter, where the number of members is limited.
II. The lesser or ordinary chapter, composed of residen-
tiaries only, at least two-thirds of the number, and meeting
under the dean.
III. The great or extraordinary chapter, consisting of all
the canons, resident or non-resident, convened by the bishop.
It was also called the Pentecostal chapter, because it met at
Whitsuntide, and continued to do so at Salisbury until 1811.
At Hereford it is convoked twice a year; and at Chichester,
and in other cathedrals, it is still convened on special occa
sions. Sometimes there were two regular chapters in one
church, as at St. Ambrose's, Milan, and St. Augustine's,
Pavia, each having its own superior ; or two churches con
stituted the bishop's collective chapter, as at Bath and
Wells, Lichfield and Coventry, Hamburg and Bremen.

ClIAPTKK, MONASTIC — CITA1 "f lili-IIuUSK. ] 41
Chapter, Monastic. This was held in winter after Tiorco, but
after Prime in summer. At tho sound of a boll, rung by
tho prior, the monks entered two-and-two, and bowed to a
cross in the centre of tho room, to tho superior's chair, and
to ono another. Tho ordinary business transacted comprised
roading tho martyrology, announcement of coming festivals,
rending tho rule, or, on Sundays and holy-days, a homily of
the leathers, commemoration of tho departed and living bene
factors, nomination of celebrants and tho officiating priost for
tho week ensuing, public confession of faults, infliction of
penance and discipline, and onco a year recital of charters.
Tho novico was admitted in chapter ; tho superior was
elected, and tho great ollioers of the house wore confirmed in
it; tho inventory of tho library was also carefully inspected
in chapter every Lont. In tho secular chapter, hold after
Prime, all business connected with tho church, tho services,
and lauds was transacted, and all disputes dotermined.
Every canon had his voico in chapter, and his stall in choir.
In 1279 thero were two general archidiaconal chapters, and
four quarterly rurideeanal chapters hold yearly in England.
Chapter-house. The conventual or capitular parliainont-house,
raro in Franco and Germany, was used daily by tlio regulars,
and ou every Saturday by tho secular canons. In it also
the bishop convened the community at his visitation or dio
cesan synod. It derived its name from the little chapters or
rubrics of tho statutes being read over in it in the monastery,
it is said. At Valencia and Hereford tho pulpit for tho
theological lecture stood in it until recently. In the ninth
century, the north alley served for the purpose of the chap
ter-house, as at St. (Jail; but in tho tenth century, a sepa
rate building was erected at Fontenolle, and Edward tho
Confessor built one of a circular form at Westminster. Tho
chapter-house in a convent was almost invariably an oblong,
sometimes terminating in an apse, and round or polygonal
in a secular establishment. Tho latter form may have been
suggested by tho column with radiating arches which is
found at the oast ond of an apsidal crypt, or by. tho Italian
baptistery, in which councils wero sometimes hold. The
rectangular form was moro convenient lor the judicial
character of the buildings, as tho polygonal was for synodical
meetings convened by tho diocesan. There are two apparent,

142 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
but not real exceptions, at Exeter, where the chapter-house
is oblong, and the Benedictines were replaced by canons ;
and at Worcester, where it is polygonal without and circular
within, and canons were superseded by Benedictines. At
Bari, the baptistery, round on the exterior, is twelve-sided
within, each compartment formerly having a figure of an
Apostle. ' At Wells, Lincoln, Lichfield, Southwell, York,
and Elgin, this council chamber stands on the north side of
the church, connected with it by a passage for marshalling
processions ; but at Salisbury it occupies its normal position
in convents, the centre of the east side of the cloister. At
Chichester and St. David's it is in an upper storey, adjoining
the transept. In the secular canons' chapter-houses a large
crucifix stood in the centre, near a pulpit for sermons and
reading; and stalls were ranged round the sides of the
walls ; the dignitaries occupying the east end, and the canons
sitting in order of installation, reckoning from the east to
the west. In the Benedictine houses the walls were gene
rally arcaded to form stalls, and a large coffer, called the
trunk, was placed at the entrance, as the place of offenders.
The abbot's or prior's chair fronted it, and every monk who
approached it performed the venia, an inclination of reve
rence. The apse of the chapter-house possibly contained an
altar, as the building was regarded to be only less sacred
than the church, and a Hght burned constantly in it, and
before the door. At Tongres the altar remains ; and at
Exeter the chapel of the Holy Ghost adjoins it in the usual
position of the slype. At Belvoir and St. Paul's, it stood in
the centre of the cloisters. At Bristol, Exeter, Beaulieu,
Haughmond, and Chester, a large vestibule, with a central
door and windows opening eastward, is built in front of the
chapter-house, in order to afford additional accommodation to
the general assemblies of the orders. The Cistercians had
sermons in the chapter-house ; and, like the other regular
orders, admitted novices, administered punishment, and
transacted general business in this room, which abroad was
known as the chapter-hall. It was a peculiarity with the
Cistercians to subdivide their chapter-houses into alleys by
ranges of pillars ; and between it and the transept they in
variably placed a large aumbry or cloister library ; and the
Clugniacs at Wenlock followed the example; but in the

CHAPTER OR CONVENTUAL MASS  CHASUBLE. 143
Benedictine houses the slype, or way to the cemetery, always
intervenes in this position. Burials were permitted in the
chapter-house to bishops, priors, and eminent laymen, before
interments within the church itself were suffered to be made.
At Durham and Norwich penitential cells adjoined the chap
ter-house, the offenders being at once taken to them, after
sentence had been delivered.
Chapter, or Conventual Mass. The High Mass or Mass of
the day, usuaUy sung before 10 a.m.; in France the hour is
8 or 9 a.m.
Chartulary. A book of charters and endowments. It was
kept in the cartaria.
Chasse. (Capsa.) (1 .) A coffer for holding the relics of a saint.
It formerly had the shape of a long bottle, with a little roof
like covering. It was made of copper, gilt, and sometimes
enamelled. From the thirteenth century it took the shape
of a httle church. (2.) An embroidered case or covering for
the book of the Gospels ; sometimes called the camisia.
Chasuble. [Casula, a little house.] So called, says Isidore
of Seville, from its covering the whole person. A garment
at first common to clerks and laymen, but in the former
case made of richer stuff. In the Fourth Council of Toledo it
was reckoned a sacred habit. Its old English name was Massa
hakele, the mass mantle. Its proper shape is a complete
oval, with a single aperture, through which the head is
passed. The word occurs first in the year 474, in the will
of St. Perpetuus, of Tours. The Greek chasuble was of
equal width all round, from the top to the bottom. The
Western form was that of pointed ends behind and before ;
and the early mosaics of the sixth century show it thus
sloping and hoUowed, but reaching to the feet ; but there are
other examples which portray it shorter, as it is worn at
present, the ends being frequently rounded. The other
names of this vestment were penula or phelone (2 Tim. iv. 13),
a thick upper cloak, and planeta, as Ducange amusingly ex
plains, owing to the many changes through which it had
wandered from its original shape ; of course the true deriva
tion is from its flowing folds. A remarkable vestment of
this kind at St. Apollinaris, Ravenna, bears the name of the
Chasuble of the Diptychs, as it is covered with an auriclave,
orphrey, or superhumeral, a band of golden stuff, like an

144 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
ancient archiepiscopal pall, sewn behind and before, and
divided round the neck, covered with the names and heads
of thirty-five bishops" of Verona, in succession, from the
foundation of the See to the middle- of the eighth century.
By the Second Council of Nice such representations were
permitted on ecclesiastical habits and sacred plate. The
name of auriclave, like orphrey, meaning the "gold-bor
dered," was given to the chasuble from its peculiar embroi
dery on the onophorion or laticlave, a band originally of a
different colour from the robe, and called the auriclave when
made of cloth of gold. One of this kind, of the fifth century,
is preserved in the cathedral of Ravenna. St. Stephen's
chasuble, made by Grisella, Queen of Hungary, in 1031, is
preserved at Buda, and worn by the Sovereign at his corona
tion ; its colour is green. That of St. Boniface is at Mayence,
and another at St. Rambert-sur-Loire. There are two at
Madeley, of the fourteenth century, which were probably
brought from Much Wenlock. One at Talacre is said to
have come from Basingworth. There is one at Salisbury in
green and gold, of the sixteenth century. The pall of an
archbishop was often called the superhumerale, or rationale,
in allusion to Levit. vni. 7, 8 ; so the orphreys of the chasu
ble were sometimes called the rationale, as being in front,
and the superhumeral as falling over the shoulders. The
chasuble called palliata had the pall sewn upon it. Until
the twelfth or thirteenth century the pectoral or front did
not differ in form from the dorsal or back. The superhu
meral dwindled into a narrow collar, and the cross on the
back of the chasuble is the last relic of the auriclave. On
the medieval chasuble this did not appear ; but from the
orphrey, called the pectoral or pillar, which covered the
breast, two bands, called numerals, sprang over the shoul
ders, forked like the upper part of a Y, and ended in a single
band of gold lace, known as the dorsal. From an early date
chasubles were ornamented with sacred designs, flowers, and
symbolical animals and birds, a usage permitted by the
Second Council of Nicaaa. The processional chasuble had a
hood, which was worn in France until the latter half of the
ninth century. In England the ends of the chasuble took
the shape of the reversed arch of the pointed style of archi
tecture. From being used specially at the time of celebra-

CHEF  CHEVET. 145
tion it was emphatically called the vestment. Cranmer says,
" The over-vesture or chesible signifieth the purple mantle
that Pilate's soldiers put upon Christ after that they had
scourged Him ; as touching the minister, it signifies charity
a virtue excellent above all other."
Chef. A reliquary head. There is a fine one of St. Candidus
of the ninth or tenth century, of wood plated with silver,
and preserved in a church of Geneva. One of St. Eustace,
from Basle, of the thirteenth century, is in the British
Museum. At Chichester there was a Chapel of St. Richard's
Head.
Chequer. The office of a monastic obedientiary.
Cherubic Hymn. In the Greek Church, a hymn sung by the
choir before the great entrance, " Let us, who mystically re
present the cherubim, and sing the holy hymn of the
quickening Trinity, lay by at this time all worldly cares,
that we may receive the King of Glory, invisibly attended
[literally, borne on the spears like an emperor] by the
angelic orders. AHeluia." The Greeks, in their liturgy,
distinguish between the many-eyed cherubim and the six-
winged seraphim.
Chests (Cope or Vestment) are of triangular shape, and remain
at Gloucester, York, Salisbury, and Westminster. In the
thirteenth century the synod of Exeter required a chest for
books and vestments in every parish. Such parish chests
of Early English date remain at Cryniping, Stoke d'Abernon,
Saltwood, and Graveney : of Decorated date at Brancepeth,
Huttoft, and Haconby ; and of the Perpendicular period at
St. Michael's, Coventry, and St. Mary's, Cambridge, and
Oxford Cathedral. A "Flanders chest" remains at Guest-
ling. Some very rude coffers, bound with iron, are pre
served in some churches, and others are enriched with
colour; these are probably of late date. The material was
often cypress or fir. Others are curiously painted, like one
in the vestry of Lambeth Palace. Several Early English
chests are preserved in the triforium of Westminster Abbey ;
one is at Salisbury ; and another was removed from the Pyx
Chapel to the Record Office. /> ^ > *
Chevet. [Cap it iu m .] The place representing where our Lord's
head appeared upon the cross on the ground plan of a church,
in which the altar represented His head, and the radiating L

146 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
chapels the glory about it. Like the apse, it took its origin
from the junction of the circular mortuary chapel with the
choir, by the removal of the intermediate walls in a basilica.
The tomb-house has been preserved at Canterbury, Sens,
Drontheim, Batalha, Burgos, and Murcia. The chevet
appears at Westminster, Pershore, and Tewkesbury. In
France its screen of tall pillars is very striking.
Chevron. An ornament of zigzag form used in Norman archi
tecture.
Childermas. The old English name for Holy Innocents' Day.
Chimere. [Zimarra, cymar.] A mantle with sleeves, made
with a sht at the armpit, like the gown of a B.A. of Cam
bridge, which could be put on at pleasure. Archbishop
Scroop, when led to death, wore his blue chimere with sleeves
of the same colour ; and Archbishop Warham, in Holbein's
portrait, is represented in a dress of this kind over his
rochet. It was the everyday dress of a bishop, and, as
Becon says, its " black colour signifieth mortification to the
world and all worldly things, as the rochet purity and inno
cency of life." It was made of velvet, grogram, or satin,
and was open down the middle, for convenience in riding.
It is now made of black satin, and has the lawn sleeves of
the rochet sewn on to it ; but really represents the scarlet
habit or sleeveless cope of a D.D., which was worn by
bishops in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., as
now in Convocation and at the opening of Parliament.
Hooper objected to the colour ; and late in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth the present hue was adopted. It has been said
that the Parliament robe of bishops represents the old Cam
bridge D.D.'s gown, which, having been worn by Parker
when primate, was adopted by his suffragans at the time.
Choir. From a passage in an Epistle of Isidore Pelusiota,
it appears that in early times men and women singers
sang together. " The Apostles of the Lord, desiring to re
strain unseemly talking in church, showing themselves to us
as masters of modesty and soberness, wisely permitted women
to sing in church." This custom was afterwards repealed,
and men placed on the south side and women on the north.
Durand says, that in secular churches the laity joined with
the choir, until the canons erected high screens as a shelter
from cold.

CHOIR. 147
The word " choir" is first used by writers of the Western
Church, and Isidore of Seville and Honorius of Autun de
rive it from the corona or circle of clergy or singers who
surrounded the altar, as in the Temple of Jerusalem : the
term occurs in the 18th canon of the Fourth Council of To
ledo. Other writers have suggested chorea or corona, fol
lowing Isidore's explanation ; or concordia, from the concord
of the singers, or the Greek chara, joy. But chors or cors (a
coercendo) is Latin for an enclosed place, and may be allied
with Cor in Corwen and Banchor, the Kirrock of Westmore
land, the Welsh car r eg, Gaehc carragh, and Breton chreach;
a circular form is said to be implied in the latter words, as
in the Greek choros, Latin corona, etc.
The choir proper did not exist until the conversion of the
Emperor Constantine, when the clergy were able to develope
the services of the Church. In the Norman period it was
very small, usually under the lantern, but was enlarged in
the twelfth century, and still more in the thirteenth century,
when it received a great expansion, from a length of two or
three bays into a size equal to half or the whole of the
western arm of the church. In the Norman period, the roof
is often lower than that of the nave, and usually the choir
itself is raised above the level of the western arm.
In the south-western districts of France and throughout
Spain, as in the Lateran, St. Clement, St. Laurence With
out, and St. Mary the Great at Rome, the choir occupies the
centre of the nave with an enclosed passage to the sanctuary,
the congregation being arranged between it and the sanctu
ary; this is probably an arrangement of modern times, as
at Westminster in our own time. In parts of Italy the
choir still retains its ancient position behind or eastward of
the altar. In the Duomo of Fiesole, and at Lucca, there are
two choirs, one behind and the other in front of the high-
altar. In the north of Germany choirs are usually elevated
upon crypts (as that of Milan stands raised over the confes
sion) , and shut in with solid stone screens : the same ar
rangements may be seen at Canterbury, Auch, Augsburg,
Alby, Chartres, Bourges, St. Denis, Amiens, and Notre
Dame, Paris ; whilst Christchurch (Hants), Rochester, and
Trebitsch Abbey are actually walled off from their aisles.
At Winchester and St. Alban's, stone parcloses serve the
l2

148 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
same purpose. The Jesuits only never had a distinct choir,
and the Franciscans and Dominicans severed their choirs
wholly by the erection of a tall thin tower before their en
trance. At one period, in France, Durandus mentions that
it was the practice to hang a curtain in front of the choir,
like the Lenten veil. In Continental cathedrals there is
frequently both a summer and winter choir. Ceccoperius
affirms that the bishop, in consideration of cold in winter,
may allow the sacristy to be used for divine service ; and if
it or the tribune has a window or door in the direction of
the high-altar, through which the people can hear and at
tend, the canons may use it without his licence, except upon
festivals. The place is then called the choir, if four canons
are present. At St. Peter's at Rome, the architectural choir
is not used, and is known simply as the tribune ; but, as in
parts of Tuscany, the choir is placed in front of the altar.
At St. Denis, a side chapel, as in other places a sacristy or
chapter-house, serves as the winter choir. The present Ru
bric allows Morning and Evening Prayer to be used " in the
accustomed place of the church, chapel, or chancel." At
Canterbury, at one time, the early morning service was said
in the chapter-house ; at Oxford, Durham, and Lichfield (and
formerly at Westminster), in the Lady Chapel; at St. Paul's,
Salisbury, Lincoln, Gloucester, and Christ Church, Dublin,
a side chapel was occupied for the same purpose; and the
custom in several of these churches has not yet become
obsolete. The Hours are sung at St. Peter's, Rome, in the
Clementine Chapel. The south side of the choir is the right
side, the left is that on the north, these positions being de
termined from the entrance on the west. The east walls of
many churches, otherwise destroyed, often were allowed to
¦stand, out of respect to their sanctity, even during the de
struction at the Reformation, — as at Guisborough.
Choir Transept. The choir transept is the Ala Superior of
Gervase, as Leland calls " the second transept of Sahsbury,
a light and division between the choir and presbytery." It
usually marks the termination of the sanctuary, as the main
transept marks the entrance of the choir. This additional
structure would not only accommodate altars, but also sick
and infirm monks and canons, who were permitted to attend
in the retro-choir. M. Vitet gives twenty-four examples of

CHORAL HABIT. 149
this transept on the Continent, and attributes its origin to
an Oriental source. M. Didron likewise refers it to the
influence of Byzantium. M. Martin found it ordinarily in
churches built before the Ogival period.
Choral Habit. In England the canons wore a surplice, a black
close, and sleeveless cope, and the grey almuce or hood : re
gulars used the rochet, and monks their proper habit, but
on the Continent the colours are more brilliant. At Pisa,
in winter, they wear a large red cope, and in summer a red
mozzetta over a rochet; at Salerno, crimson tunicles and
rochets, and the hebdomadary wears violet ; at Urgel the cope
was red, but at Tortosa and Gerona black ; at Valencia the
cope worn over a rochet is superbly furred, and has a violet
hood lined with ermine in winter, and with crimson silk in
summer; at Besancon the camail, or hood, is of blue silk,
lined with red taffeta ; at Strasbourg the cope of red velvet
is lined with ermine, and has gold guards ; at Catania the
mozzetta of black cloth is worn over the rochet ; at Syracuse
the mozzetta is violet, as at Malta, where it is used with a
rochet and cope ; at Vienne the cope was black, at Rouen
it was violet. At Burgos the canons wear in winter a
cope, mozzetta, and a surplice with sleeves elevated on the
shoulders. By the Council of Tortosa, 1429, the use of furs
was restricted to dignitaries and cathedral canons; but in
some special cases in England priests vicars, who repre
sented dignitaries or priest-canons, as at Exeter, and the
subdean of minor canons at St. Paul's, wore a grey almuce,
lined with black cloth; at Burgos the vicars' surplices
reached to the ground, and were rolled over the hands. At
St. Paul's the vicars wore a plain almuce of black cloth, and
lined or doubled cap. As early as 1386, the Council of
Saltzburg required a distinction to be made in the choral
dress of canons and vicars. Canons formerly wore violet
only in their robes, until the Council of Trent changed the
colour to black. At Ratisbon the choir-tippet, or mozzetta,
is of red silk; in France the camail is black, edged with
the same colour, in the diocese of Bayeux ; ' in the south, as
at Montauban, where it is crimson ermined, it is often rich
in hue. At Verona blue cassocks are worn ; in Normandy
they are scarlet for the choristers ; at Milan the scarlet cape
and mantle are worn by canons ; the vicars carry furred capes

150 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
on their arm, and the lay singers have hooded black mantles,
faced with green.
Chorepiscopus. (1.) In the primitive Church the periodeutai,
superintendents on circuits, as the Council of Laodioea calls
them, or rural bishops without territorial titles, existed at an
early date, certainly in the fourth century in the East, and
were common in Africa. They cannot be traced before
the fifth century in the Western Church; they acted as
vicars or coadjutors of the city or diocesan bishops, who at
length grew jealous of their authority, and the office was
suppressed in the tenth century in the East. By the writings
of St. Basil, it appears that they administered Confirmation,
consecrated churches, gave the veil, superintended the clergy
of the churches over which they presided, recommended can
didates for ordination, in the presence of the bishop or
dained deacons and priests, and, in his absence, clerks in
minor orders, by the Councfls of Antioch and Ancyra.
They sat in councils along with bishops, and subscribed
synodal acts at Neo-Cassarea, Nicaea, and Chalcedon. In the
West, from the seventh century, their rights were limited, as
by the Council of Seville ; in the eighth century Pope Leo
II. forbade them to ordain priests, consecrate churches and
chrism, or receive nuns; and at length, in the ninth cen
tury, their only authority extended over minor clerks, — the
Council of Ratisbon, in 800, being the first to restrict them;
until, in the tenth century, their powers were transferred
to archpriests, plebans, or vicars-general, and the dignity
and office of chorepiscopus had ceased to exist at the end of
that period. They appear, however, to have exercised their
functions in France in the twelfth, and in Ireland in the thir
teenth century; indeed, in the latter country groups of
bishops in one district or city were very common, and a
trace of the custom survives in the titles of the Bishop of
Meath, an aggregate of dioceses, and the Bishop of Ossory,
whose See is St. Canice's, Kilkenny. (2.) The precentor of
Cologne, as overseer of the choir, was called chorepiscopus.
At Utrecht there are four chorepiscopi, or arch-subdeacons,
acting as chief rural deans.
Choristers. Called in France children of the albs, or simply
children of the choir. Those of Pope Vitalian, 659-669, were
lodged and boarded in the parvise, as at Canterbury, Dux-

chrism. 151
ham, and St. Paul's, they were known as the boys of tho
almonry. It is recorded of Gregory the Great, St. Ger
man, and Nizier, Archbishop of Lyons, that they used to
attend the choir-boys' music school ; and children were re
quired to be church singers by the Councils of Aix-la-Cha
pelle and IV. Toledo. Pope Urban IV. was once a cho
rister of Troyes. We find them sometimes called clerks of
the first or third form, according to the manner in which
the rows of seats were numbered. They were usually under
the charge of the succentor ; but at Salisbury, where they
were endowed, were intrusted to a canon, called the warden
of the twelve boys. They carried the cross, censers, and
tapers, and were promoted to be thuriblers, to hold minor
orders, and, if worthy, advanced to the office of vicars.
Their numbers varied between four and sixteen in various
churches; all received the first tonsure, and were main
tained at the tables of one of the canons, whom they re
garded as their master, and attended. Probably the ordi
nary arrangement was, that a portion of the number acted
as singers, and the rest as assistants at the altar. In the
seventeenth century, at Hereford, they were required to be
taught to play on the lyre and harp in choir. In process of
time they ceased to subsist on the canons' alms ; and at
Lincoln they appear first to have been boarded in a house,
under a master ; and the excellent precedent was followed
at Lichfield at the close of the fifteenth century. Their
dress was a surplice.
Chrism and Holy Oil. By the Council of Melde, the priest
on Maundy Thursday had three cruets brought to him, in
which were the consecrated oil of the catechumens, chrism,
and oil of the sick. There were two kinds of holy oil.
(1.) Chrism, or myron, called principal, a compound of oil
and balsam, with which candidates for baptism were anointed
upon the head and confirmed on the forehead ; and clerks
to be ordained received unction with it. (2.) Simple : the
pure oil of olives; also consecrated by a bishop for the
anointing of the sick and energumens, and of catechumens
on the breast, shoulders, and forehead. Chrism at first was
made only of oil by both Latins and Greeks. In the sixth
century, balm brought from Judsea was mixed with it ; and
this kind was in use in the West until the sixteenth century,

152 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
when the Spaniards, by permission of Paul III. and Pius
IV., adopted balm from India. The Greeks use, instead of
balm, forty different kinds of aromatic spices. Unction was
regarded as the spiritual preparation of Christians to wrestle
against the devil, and in memory of the anointing of Christ
to His burial. A bishop is anointed on the head and hands.
The baptized was anointed previously with oil on the breast
and between the shoulders, and after baptism with chrism
on the head and brow. In allusion to 1 St. John ii. 17 ;
2 Cor. i. 21 ; 1 Peter iii. 9, kings at their consecration,
altars and churches at dedication are anointed. The bap
tismal unction is mentioned by Pope Sylvester in 324.
Priests anointed the breast, and bishops the forehead of
candidates. Chrism is called myrrh by the ancient writers ;
it was symbolical of the sweet savour of Christ, and of the
anointing of His members by the Holy Spirit to be His
peculiar people — a royal priesthood. (Exod. xxx. 25-30;
Numb. iii. 3; 1 Sam. xxiv. 6; St. Luke iv. 18; Acts iv. 27,
x. 38; 2 Cor. i. 21 ; 1 Peter ii. 9.) Consecration of chrism
was reserved to bishops only who distributed it to the parish
priests. In the fifth century this ceremonial was fixed to
Maundy Thursday, and during the second of the three
Masses celebrated on that day, which, in consequence, was
called the Mass of Chrism. However, in France, the Coun
cil of Meaux, in 845, permitted consecration on any day, as
in primitive times ; and the Greeks, although regarding
Maundy Thursday as the principal occasion, stiU follow the
same practice, but reserve it to the patriarchs, who perform
the office with great pomp. The vase for keeping chrism,
from its shape, was called the chrism-paten. In the tenth
century it was fetched by the priest before Easter, or by a
deacon or subdeacon in the thirteenth century. All that
remained over from the last year was carefully consumed by
fire. By the Council of Orange, 441, chrism was used once
for all in baptism. The chrism and holy oil were kept
under lock and key, to provide against any abuse to pur
poses of sorcery and witchcraft, in the thirteenth century.
In 1549 children were still anointed with chrism on the
forehead in England. In lieu of this ceremony, we now
invoke the grace of the Holy Ghost. Bale says that the
chrism was kept in alabaster boxes.
-<_ ,/.. bis

CHRISMARIUM  CHRISTMAS. 153
Chrismarium. The place where confirmation was adminis
tered at Rome and Naples ; called also consignatorium — the
place of sealing. Sacristies were frequently used for this
purpose.
Chrismatory. A vase for holding chrism ; that used by Wil
liam of Wykeham is preserved in New College, Oxford.
Christian Name. (St. James ii. 7 ; 1 St. Peter iv. 14-16.)
As the name of Jesus is incommunicable as that of the
Saviour, His disciples were called Christians, because they
receive of His fulness, and have the unction of the Holy
Spirit communicated to them. A name was given to chil
dren at baptism to remind them of their solemn profession,
and that worthy name by which they are called. A similar
custom prevaded at circumcision — the analogous Jewish
rite. Clement I. required candidates for baptism to go to
their priest, and give in their names, and then be taught
the mysteries. Heathen names were prohibited, and those
of apostles or saints usually adopted as memorials and ex
amples of godly living. This spiritual name was entered in
the Baptismal Register. In case of an immodest or un
comely name being given in baptism, the bishop at Con
firmation might alter it, by Peckham's ' Constitutions.' In
1549 the bishop mentioned the Christian name of the can
didate at Confirmation.
Christmas. The birthday of our Lord ; which Pope Julius I.
confirmed to be kept on December 25 ; and St. Chrysostom,
in the fourth century, speaks of the feast as of great anti
quity; Clement of Alexandria,- in the beginning of the third
century, speaks of it, but refers it to April 19 or 20, or May
20 ; and sermons of St. Basil and St. Gregory Nazianzen,
preached on this day, are still extant. St. Epiphanius
reckons it on January 6, but St. Augustine on December
25. From the West the observation of the day passed to
the Eastern Church in the fourth century ; as Chrysostom
says, the feast was unknown at Antioch ten years before
the time he was preaching, that is, probably as kept on
December 25, the day hitherto observed having been January
6. The Latins, and Africa, and the Greek Church, gene
rally, however, held the Nativity on December 25, as ap
pears from St. Jerome, St. Augustine, St. Chrysostom, St.
Basil, and St. Gregory Nazianzen. The Orientals in Egypt,

154 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Cyprus, Antioch, and Palestine, appear to have observed,
for a time only January 6, as the feast of the Nativity and
Epiphany, or Theophania, a name equally applicable to both,
as St. Gregory Nazianzen observes. However, about the be
ginning of the fifth century the Nativity was commemorated,
in the East, on December 25, and the Epiphany on the
later day. In the sixth century, beyond doubt, East and
West agreed in their observance. The Basque call it the
New Day, because all things are become new — old things
are passed away. Christmas Eve is called in Celtic the
Night of Mary ; in Germany, the Holy Night ; in Portugal,
the Pasch of the Nativity ; and in old English, Yule Merri
ment. In the Isle of Man the peasants bring tapers to
church, and sing carols ; and in Germany they beat with mal
lets on the house door, to symbolize the anxiety of the
spirits in prison to learn the glad tidings of the Nativity.
There were three Masses on this day, — one at midnight on
the eve [except in the Gallican, Mozarabic, and Armenian
rites] , commemorating the actual birth of our Lord; the second
at dawn or cock-crow, its revelation to man in the shepherds ; -
and the third at noon, the eternal sonship of the Holy Child
Jesus. Two Masses were said in France in the time of St.
Gregory of Tours ; but three Masses were not introduced
into Spain until the fourteenth century, nor at Milan until
the fifteenth century. In the Medieval Church there was a
representation of the shepherds, as at Lichfield, with a star
gleaming in the vault ; and so lately as 1821 the Flemish
preserved the same custom.) and the peasants entering with
sheep offered eggs and milk, whilst Midnight Mass was
being said at the high-altar. From the time of St. Augus
tine, Midnight Mass was said on the eve ; and the Councils
of Orleans and Toledo required all persons to attend their
cathedral church, under pain of excommunication for three
years by the Councd of Agde. The Christmas-box was a
box made of earthenware in the seventeenth century, in
which apprentices placed the rewards of their industry given
them at that season.
Chronogram. Words in an inscription, so placed that the
numeral letters give the date of a certain event thus re
corded. The earliest instance occurs in stained glass, c.
1062, at St. Peter's, Aix. There is another, of the time of

CHRYSOM — CHURCH. 155
Charles I., on the cieling of the lantern of Winchester. The
only letters which can be used are m, c, l, x, v, i.
Chrysom. A white Hnen vesture, tightly fitting and girdled,
which reached to the feet, was given to the newly-baptized
as a warning to put on the new robe of regeneration and
holiness, that they might hereafter, in the resurrection, walk
in white (Rev. vi. 11). The form of words was as foUows : —
" Take this white unspotted robe that ye may bear it with
out spot before the judgment seat of our Lord Jesus Christ,
and have life eternal." This albe having been worn seven
days, in recoUection of the sevenfold gifts of the Spirit, was
put off in the church or baptistery, and, having been washed,
preserved there. After the disuse of this albe children to
be baptized were brought in a chrysom, casula, or sabanus,
which was delivered to the sponsors as a token of the inno
cency given by God's grace in baptism and of that to which
the baptized should give themselves. At the churching of
the infant's mother the chrysom was presented to the priest
to be used for making surplices, or coverings for the chalice,
or for some similar purpose.
Church. In Greek hyriake, used by Eusebius, the Councils
of Ancyra, Laodicea, and Neo-Csesarea, like the Latin domini-
cum, the Lord's house ; in Germany a cathedral is called, by
a union of these terms, the Dom Kirche; in Italy simply
Duomo, as Mayence was known as the Dom ; and in Lanca
shire there is a Church-kirk. In Scotland and in the Danish
settlements in England the form " kirk " was adopted. We
have also the Latin word ecclesia preserved in Eccleston,
Eccleshall, Eccles, and Beccles. The earliest church property
so called dates from the reign of Alexander Severus, 222-235.
Optatus of Milevi mentions forty churches at Rome. From
the time of Gallienus (260) to the edict of Diocletian for
their destruction in 303, the Christians had their use ; and
the Acts of St. Theodotus of Ancyra, martyred by that
Emperor, allude to an apsidal church. The original Christian
churches were oblong, looking eastward, with the chambers
of the clergy on either side, and two western doors as
separate entrances for men and women. Afterwards churches
were built in various forms, — in the shape of a cross, square,
or round; the former were vaulted, and the latter had
wooden cielings. All were apsidal, and their orientation is

156 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
called by Paulinus "the more usual form;" but Stephen,
Bishop of Tournay, speaks of it as a peculiarity of St.
Benet's, Paris, in a letter to Pope Lucius III., and in some
Italian churches at his day, the celebrant at the altar faces
the west. About the year 1 000 — the fancied millennium of
some ancient writers — architecture came nearly to a stand
still. Churches were not repaired, much less rebuilt ; for,
as William of Tyre said, the evening of days seemed to have
fallen upon the world and the coming of the Son of Man to
draw near ; whilst charters of foundation, rare as they were,
bore the ominous heading, " forasmuch as the world's end
approacheth." But about the beginning of the eleventh
century confidence was restored, and an era of church build
ing so universal set in that Ralph Glaber says that it seemed
" the world was putting off its dingy vesture and donning a
pure white robe."
Churches, in their threefold longitudinal division of nave,
choir, and sanctuary, correspond to the arrangement of the
Temple, with its court of the Gentiles, the worldly sanctuary,
and holy of holies. They have also a triple elevation, con
taining the base-arcade, triforium, and clerestory, and also
three parts laterally formed by the main body of the struc
ture and its aisles.
Churches are distinguished into various grades, the patri
archal, primatial, and metropolitan, according to the rank of
their presidents : cathedral, as containing a bishop's cathedra
or See ; collegiate, which are composed of a chapter and
dean; conventual, if belonging to a religious community;
abbeys, those under an abbot, or priories, if governed by a
prior; minsters, when attached to a monastery or of impos
ing size ; parochial, if furnished with a font.
Church-Ales. Festivals at which the benefactions of the peo
ple at their sports and pastimes being collected, were
devoted to recast the bells, repair towers, beautify churches,
and raise stocks and funds for the poor.
Church Books were divided into several classes. There were
six reading books: the ' Bibliotheca,' a collection of the
books of the Bible by St. Jerome ; the ' Homilar,' the homi
lies used on Sundays and certain festivals ; the ' Passionar,'
containing the acts of martyrs ; the ' Legendary,' an account
of confessors; the ' Lectionary,' the Epistles of St. Paul;

CHURCH-REEVES  CIBORIUM. 157
and the ' Sermologus,' sermons of the Popes and Fathers
read on certain days. The song and ritual books are men
tioned under their titles. It was the custom till of recent
years for women-servants to carry their church books in a
clean white handkerchief, — a relic of the old custom in the
Western Church for women to receive the Eucharist in a
linen cloth. To this day the altar-rail at Wimborne Minster
is covered at the time of Holy Communion with a w-hite cloth.
Church Reeves (from g reef a, a steward). Church wardens,
officers chosen to maintain order during divine service and
as trustees of the church goods and furniture. In Spain
they are called operarii, and in France marguilhers (merl-
glerii), from the marel, or token of lead which was given by
them to the priests who attended service as a qualification
for receiving payment. They appear as Melinglerii at
Cefalu, Catania, and Monte Regale.
Churchyards. The dead were not bmied, in the earher times,
in the outer court of the church, but examples of the prac
tice occur in the fourth century, and after the sixth century
it became general. The churchyard, under the name of
atrium, is first mentioned with the garden near the church
in 740 in the ' Excerptions ' of Eegbright. Cuthbert, Arch
bishop of Canterbury, is said to have introduced the use of
churchyards as burial-places into England. So lately as
1791 the burial-yard of the cathedral only was used at
Hereford. Fairs and markets were prohibited in church
yards by Act of Parliament in 1285, and another Act of
Henry VI. proscribed the former in them on Sundays ; but
at the period of the Reformation they were often profaned
by the reveUings of summer lords in May, and by mummers
in winter time, and noisy revels and banquets were held
under tents in them on the former occasion. The indecent
practice was at length suppressed, and in 1623 the privilege
of sanctuary was taken from churchyards. The first re
corded instance of a formal consecration of a churchyard is
mentioned by Gregory of Tours in the sixth century.
Ciborium. (1.) A pavilion or dome-shaped canopy or cupola,
mentioned by St. Chrysostom, resting upon two, four, or
six pillars, with arched faces, erected over the altar of a
basilica. It resembled a little church, and so some medieval
churches were called cihoria. Its curtains were called the

158 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
four veils or circitorium (enclosure). These were raised at
the elevation only. The priest on entering within them used
the appropriate prayer of the veil. A curtain, called the
antependium, or frontal, hung before the tomb-like part of
the altar or sepulchre containing the relics of saints, a It
was usually surmounted with a cross, and under it was sus
pended a dove or cup of gold or sdver containing the
reserved Eucharist. Occasionally, the larger included a
smaller ciborium, which was called the peristerium, from
covering the dove in which the sacrament was reserved ; as
we often find mention both of the peristerium and dove
together. Sometimes, from its floral ornament, the ciborium
was called lilia or malum. The curtains being in memory
of the veil of the Temple, probably disappeared when palls
and corporals were introduced. Bishop Jewel calls it the
"meat tent;" and it took its name from the sacred food
(cibus sacer) reserved in it ; or more probably, from kiborion,
the outer cup-like covering of the Egyptian bean, which its
dome resembled. The Greeks stiU use it in this sense,
having a silver bottle in the tabernacle for the element des
tined for the communion of the sick. (2.) A pyx; a silver
vase, like a chalice, for the reserved host, — a modern use.
At Battle in 1140 a dove-shaped ciborium is mentioned.
The cross which had covered the ciborium, at length, was
placed on the altar.
The ciboria or domes were used until the thirteenth cen
tury, and Gothic examples remain at St. Paul's Without, St.
Clement, St. Agnes, St. John Lateran, St. Mary Cosmedin,
St. Cecdia Trastavere, Rome, Gercy Abbey, Brie, and Lugo.
They were imitations of the sepulchral recess of the cata
comb. The first silver ciborium was erected at Rome, with
four pillars, by Pope Symmachus, and another in 824 by Pope
Eugenius II. All the tapers round the ciborium on great
festivals, like those of the Gothic rood-beam, were lighted.
The Greeks have ciboria, with the calendar of feasts, in their
naves. In 1549 it was called "some other comely thing
prepared for the purpose" of holding the Eucharistic
bread.
Cieling. (del, caelum.) The under part of a roof. There are
painted cielings at Peterborough and St. Alban's. The
Norman cieling was usually flat. There are wooden cielings

CIMELIARCH  CISTERCIANS. 1 59
at Winchester and York with bosses, an Early Decorated
one of plaster at Rochester, and a very rich wooden cieling
at Cirencester. Ely has a superb modern specimen.
Cimeliarch. The muniment keeper in a foreign cathedral.
Circumcision. The octave of Christmas. Its present name
does not date earlier than the sixth or seventh century, and
commemorates the shedding of our Lord's infant blood in
conformity with the Mosaic law. The festival was esta
blished in the time of Leo the Great, but its occurrence of
January 1 is not mentioned before the Council of Tours, held
in 567. It is marked in the ancient calendars, and in the
martyrology of St. Jerome, Bede, and Usuardus. The
' Sacramentary ' of St. Gregory defines it " in the Lord's
octave." The day was fixed in order to efface the relics of
pagan superstition; and so in ancient missals two Masses
are appointed, one being called the Mass to divert from
idols. A fast was also observed at Mdan and else
where, until the ninth century. In 578 the Council of
Auxerre prohibited Christians from disguising themselves
as stags or calves on the kalends of January, and a peniten
tial of Angers enjoined three years' penance for a similar
offence. The Second Council of Tours, in 567, required all
priests and monks to have pubhc prayer in church on this
day ; and the Council in Trullo forbade the observation of
the kalends.
Cistercians. Grey or white monks ; a reformed order of the
Benedictines, founded by Robert of Molesme and Stephen
Harding, an Englishman, at Citeaux, in Burgundy, in 1098.
They came to England and settled at Waverley in 1128.
From their eminent refounder, Bernard of Clairvaux, in
1113, they were often called Bernardines. They were dis
tinguished by their silence, austerity, labour in the field,
their grey or white habit, and dislike to ornament in
their buildings. They erected their abbeys in lonely places,
usually well-wooded and • watered valleys, far away from
human habitation, and were principally noted by their suc
cess as graziers, shepherds, and farmers. The short choir,
the transeptal aisle, divided into certain chapels, the low
central tower, the grisaille glass in the windows, the solitary
bell, the absence of tessellated pavements, pictures, mural
colour, and many Hghts in their churches ; the regular and

160 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
almost invariable arrangement of the conventual buildings,
with the dormitory at the eastern side of the cloister, com
municating with the transept by a flight of stairs ; the refec
tory set at right angles to the cloister ; the chapter-house
divided into aisles, except at Margam in Wales, are unfailing
notes of the houses of the order. There were in later days
modifications of this extreme rigour in the towers of Foun
tains and Furness, and noble choirs of the former church,
Rievaulx, and Sallay; in the exceptional apse of Beauheu,
and the chevet of Croxden, with its crown of radiating
chapels and the use of stained glass and armorial tiles. But
in general the character of extreme simplicity, verging on
baldness, was preserved. Only one abbey church, that of
Scarborough, remains in use; the rest are in ruins or de
stroyed. At Buildwas, Jorevalle, Melrose, Byland Rievaulx,
Ford, Merevale, Boyle, Tintern, Lilleshall, Kirkstall, and Net-
ley, it is still possible to trace the ground plan, or recon
struct the arrangement of the ancient buildings. The
absence of an eastern Lady Chapel in England is always
observable. No such adjunct was ever built, because the
entire church was dedicated to St. Mary. The square east
end may be said to have been universal in this country, for
there were but two instances to the contrary ; but, with the
exception of Citeaux, which was square-ended, the finest
minsters on the Continent presented an apse or chevet. The
triforium story was rare in England.
Clamacteria. Little bells attached to crowns of light.
Claustrals, or persons of the house. In a Benedictine monas
tery, the abbot, prior major, subprior, third and fourth priors,
who held chapter and collation, celebrated Mass, and pre
sided in hall, the precentor, master of the novices, and suc-
centor.
Claviger. A canon who keeps the keys of the chapter seal
and chests. There are usually two or three such officers at
a time.
Clavus. A broad band of embroidery arabesque or rich stuff
of purple coloured, worn on vestments. The deacon wore it
narrow; the priest had a broad stripe. The laticlave of
the colobium was a wide band, reached from the neck to the
feet. In the chasuble it was pall-shaped, and called the
pectoral, dorsal, and onophorion, auriclave, and orphrey. It

CLEAR-STORY — CLOCK. 161
also occurs reaching no lower than the chest, where it is
covered with roundles of metal and edged with little balls.
Clear-story, or over-story. The upper range of windows in a
church, in contradistinction to the triforium, or blind-story.
Clergy. [From kleros, a lot or heritage.] God's inheritance.
The bishops, priests, and deacons of the Church, who are
called clerks in holy orders. As they were at one time the
only educated persons in the country, aH scholars were
known as clerks.
Clerk-ales. A feast in which, when the clerk's wages were
smaU, the richer parishioners sent in provisions for a banquet,
and gave him more Hberally than his quarterly payment
would amount to in many years.
Clerk of the Closet. The confessor to the Sovereign, whose
office it is to attend at the right-hand during divine service,
to resolve all doubts respecting spiritual matters, and to wait
in the private oratory or closet, where the chaplains in turn
said prayers.
Clerks of the Vestry or Vestibule. Men in charge of the
sacristy, with the furniture for High Mass, and the copes.
At Durham they slept at night over the west end of the ves
try, and, with two others, acted as bell-ringers. The latter
slept in a chamber opposite the sacristan's chequer in the
north alley. There were three clerks of the vestibule at York.
Clochier. A detached campanile. At St. Paul's it contained
the mote bell, which summoned the citizens to folkmotes, or
musters of arms, on their parade ground.
Clock. A mechanical clock at Clugny, made by Peter de
Chalus, is mentioned in the middle ef the fourteenth century.
A contemporaneous clock, with automata to strike the hours,
formerly at Glastonbury, is now preserved at Wells. In the
fourteenth century, Abbot Wallingford gave an astronomical
clock to St. Alban's ; and in 1324 T. de Louth, treasurer,
presented to Lincoln a clock " as was common in cathedrals
and the greater conventual churches." At Padua, Bologna,
and Paris, church clocks are mentioned of the same date.
At Dijon, Wells, and Strasbourg, there are curious proces
sions of little moving figures made at the hours, which are
struck also by automata. The invention of clocks with a
wheel and escapement is attributed variously to Pacificus, a
deacon of Verona, in the ninth century, and to Gerbert of

162 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Rheims, subsequently Pope Sylvester II., who died in 1003.
A clock to mark the hours in choir for commencing divine
service remains at Toledo, with automata ; at Rheims, in the
north wing of the transept; at Westminster, in the south
wing, near the vestry ; and at Beauvais, in the north choir
aisle. There is also a mechanical clock of 1508 at Lyons.
The choir bell, or nota, of Durand was formerly hung at the
entrance of the choir for the same purpose, of giving due
warning ; and then the great campana in the belfry and the
signa of the tower sounded the summons to the faithful. The
choir bell inside the church is also mentioned by Reginald
of Durham.
Cloissonne. The older method of enamelling, where the hol
lows in the ground were made by thin strips of metal sol
dered on to it.
Cloister. (Claustrum, an enclosure; Germ. Kreuzgang.) A
court surrounded by covered ways, called alleys'; the central
space, or garth, was planted with trees and flowers ; and at
Oseney, Chester, Durham, and other places had a conduit
and fountain in the centre. It was known as the laurel
court at Peterborough; the palm court, as connected with
the ceremonial of Palm Sunday, at Wells; and the Sprice
at Chester, a corruption of Paradise, as it was called at
Chichester and Winchester, having been either filled with
earth from the Holy Land, or, more probably, because it
was the Lord's garden, sown with the seeds of the resurrec
tion "harvest." The enclosed portion of the forecourt of
the basilica was also called the paradise, and from the sur
rounding porticoes the cloister took its origin. Each alley of
the quadrangle in a monastery was placed under the govern
ment of the obedientiary, or officer whose chequer or place of
business adjoined it ; it was considered to form part of the
church. The usual arrangement was this : the refectory
invariably on the side opposite or parallel to the minster;
the dormitory on the east, or otherwise on the west ; some
times the latter site was occupied by the guest house, or the
bedchamber of the converts, or lay brothers ; a large central
space for air, light, and recreation was thus secured in the
utmost privacy, whdst passages communicated with all the
principal buildings. The alleys were allotted to various
uses : that lying next the hall being forbidden to the bre-

CLOISTER. 163
thren at most times. The western alley was occupied by the
novices, and the northern aUey by the monks in times of
study; the eastern side was used at the maundy, and the
usual Sabbatical feet-washing. The abbot, or superior, sat
next the east door of the cloister, near the entrance of the
church. In some monasteries, as Fountains, Beaulieu, Jorevalle,
Netley, Stoneley, Wroxhall, Kirkstall, and originally at St.
Alban's, there were only, it would seem, alleys of timber-
work, which have long since perished. Other cloisters,
such as Durham and Peterborough, were enriched with a
superb series of stained glass ; and the fan-traceried vaulting
at Gloucester is a marvel of the most elaborate stone-work.
At night four lanterns were Hghted at the four angles of
the cloister, and in front of the chapter-house door. A pro
cession was daily made through its entire circuit. In the
eighth century abbots were frequently buried in the centre
of the garth.
Many secular cathedrals, as three in Wales, Lichfield, and
York, and most collegiate churches, as SouthweU, Ripon,
and Manchester, were unprovided with cloisters. In many
foreign minsters, as Maulbronn, Pay, Minister, Caen, Pon-
tigny, Puy-en-Velay, Braga, Batalha, Siguen9a, Leon, To
ledo, Gerona, Huesca, Mayence, and Toulouse ; the cloisters
were on the north side, to secure shade in a hot chmate,
or rather, perhaps, for water-supply and drainage, as at
Sherborne, Canterbury, Gloucester, Chester, Magdalen Col
lege (Oxford), Cartmel, St- Mary Overye, St. David's, Tin-
tern, Malmesbury, Milton Abbas, Moyne, Muckross, Adare,
Rilmallock, and the Dominican churches of Paris, Agen,
and Toulouse. In some other churches they occupied an
abnormal position on the north of the choir at Tarragona
and Lincoln, and southward of it at Burgos, Rochester, and
Chichester; and at Lerida, Olite, New College (Oxford), and
Brantome on the west of the church. At Hereford there was
a chantry of Our Lady Arbour, over the vestibule of the
chapter-house; and chapels, in the centre of the sward at
Winchester CoUege, Hildesheim, and Old St. Paul's, in
which Masses of Requiem were sung for the repose of the
souls of persons buried in the garth. The cloisters of Ve
rona, Pisa, and Subiaco, of Zurich, Batalha, Beauport,
m 2

164 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Fontenelle, and Caen are among the finest foreign examples.
At Bamberg there are two cloisters, one on the north and
the second to the south ; at Tarragona and Ratisbon, are two
on the north-east of the church ; at Hildesheim the cloister
is eastward of it. Sometimes the ordinary fourth alley of
the quadrangle is wanting, as at Wells, Toul, Canigo, and
Hereford. At Evesham there were, and at Norwich there
still exist, rooms over the cloisters. The infirmary in
England had often its separate cloister, as at Gloucester,
Westminster, and Canterbury; and in foreign monasteries
the subordinate cloister was allotted for the use of the
copyists and communication with the lodgings of the con
ventual officers. At St. Paul's there was a two-storied"
cloister, enclosing the chapter-house. There is another in
stance at St. Juan in Toledo. The Carthusians built round
their cloister cells of solitaries, containing three rooms, in
one of which missas, sicca} might be celebrated ; the Certosas
at Florence and Pavia still preserve the arrangement, which,
at the foundation of monasteries, was a necessity, as we find
the monks at Battle living at first in little houses, and at
Stoneley the Cistercians occupying " dwelling-places of
tents," whilst at Fountains the earliest brotherhood lodged
under the yew-trees that grew upon the slopes. Marburg
presents the remarkable type of two choirs, two rood-screens,
two towers at each end, and two cloisters, — one on the north
and another on the south.
The Eastern monasteries have usually a large central
space, round which is a colonnade communicating with the
houses of the inmates. In Ireland, Spain, Italy, and France,
the windows were unglazed, resembling open arcades.
Close. The enclosure of a cathedral, surrounded by a wall,
and bordered by the houses of the dignitaries, canons, and
minor members of the foundation. In the fourteenth cen
tury, Wells, Lichfield, Lincoln, and Exeter were enclosed
with walls ; and in the following century St. David's (Here
ford), and St. Paul's, owing to the acts of violence perpe
trated within the precinct by robbers, and the danger accru
ing to the canons on their way to church. In the twelfth
century the canons in English cathedrals had their separate
houses, and the dignitaries possessed oratories attached to
them. The close included also a chapter-house, library,

CLUGNIACS. 165
school, vicars' college, and, in some instances, a cloister,
as at Hereford, Chichester, Wells, Salisbury, St. Paul's,
St. David's, Exeter, and Lincoln. Large gate-houses at
various points gave access to the precinct. At Bury St.
Edmund's the precinct, in the tenth century, was marked by
four crosses, at the four cardinal points of the abbey-jurisdic
tion. Some of the ancient houses remain at Chichester, Exe
ter, Wells, and Bayeux. Markets, fairs, and every kind of
traffic were forbidden in the close, which usually extended
to a distance of 180 feet on each side of the church. The
well-kept close is peculiar to England.
Clugniacs. A reformed order of Benedictines, founded by
Berno, abbot of Gigny, in 912, at Clugny, in Burgundy.
In 1077 they came to England, in the time of Henry II.,
and established their first house at Lewes, under the patron
age of the Earl Warrenne. The parent house was Clugny,
and they had also noble minsters at Charite-sur-Loire, Ve-
zelay, Taunus, Bromholm, Meaux, Pontefract, Castle Acre,
Wenlock, Bermondsey, and Thetford. The chief peculiarity
of their churches in France was a large ante-church for
penitents. The transept was usually without aisles ; but St.
Bernard, in 1127, inveighed against their luxury, the enor
mous height, excessive breadth, empty space, and sumptuous
ornament of their churches. The dress of the order was a
black frock, a pelisse, a hood of lamb's wool, red hose, a
white woollen tunic, and black scapular : and in choir, copes
of linen : in cloister and refectory, a white pall ; and in
times of labour a white scapular. Their first churches, like
those of Cistercians, were dedicated to St. Mary ; their rule
was a composition of those of St. Benedict and St. Augustine.
They prohibited the use of organs, and all superfluous carv
ing and pictures, but allowed painted crosses of wood. In
England their churches were very irregular in plan. At
length they became the most luxurious order in their mode
of living : and Peter of Clugny upbraids them with their
extravagance in no measured terms. Some of their monas
teries were double, composed of men and women. The early
peculiarities of their rule were, the dipping of the Eucharist
in the chalice ; the use of furs for the sick or delicate ; ad
mission of novices before a year's probation ; the reception
of a fugitive monk after three cases of offence ; absence of

166 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
manual labour, and the custom for abbots to dine always
with the brethren. The Clugniacs wore a pelisse, a frock,
and a cowl of scarlet cloth, to show their readiness to shed
their blood for the sake of Christ ; they slept in their shirts.
They had three or four courses at dinner, two being regarded
as a caritas, and shared among two monks ; electuaries,
spiced and perfumed, and delicate cooking were used;
the abbot entertained his guests, and any monks whom he
invited, in the hall. Women might enter the monastery;
and convents of nuns were placed under the rule of the
abbots ; the bishop appointed and deposed them, and acted
as visitor in difficult cases. No manual labour was practised,
and conversation was freely aUowed. The churches were
beautifully and richly adorned ; incense was much used, and
the ceremonial was elaborate. The guests' feet were not
washed, but in lieu three poor men were admitted to the
lavanda. After vigils they returned to sleep in their dormi
tory. Their houses were built in populous places.
Clustered Column. A combination of several shafts to form
one pillar.
Coadjutor. An assistant to a bishop, or to a dignitary, or a
canon, called " fictitious ;" in the latter cases having the
right of succession, and taking precedence of canons in the
representatives of dignitaries.
Cock is -set on church-towers in Germany, France, and Eng
land, as a symbol of the resurrection at the dawn of the
great day, as Christ's rising took place at cock-crow; of
Christian courage ; of pastoral vigilance, and a warning of
St. Peter's fall. It occurred on the top of the Norman
tower of Winchester.
Coffin (cophinus). Joseph was carried from Egypt to Canaan
in a coffin, and the early Christians adopted the custom of
the heathens in using coffins. Stone coffins were ordered
for the interment of monks by Abbot Warin, of St. Alban's,
1183-95; they had hitherto been buried under the green
turf. In the tenth and two following centuries a low coped
coffin of stone, with a hollow for the body, and a circular
cavity for the head, was in use ; one palm deep in St. An-
selm's time. The boat shape is the most ancient, the ridge
being next in point of age. St. Richard of Chichester, in
the thirteenth century, was buried in a wooden coffin. Those

COLLAR  COLLECT. 167
of the Templars, in the Temple Church (London), are of lead,
decorated with ornaments of elaborate design in low relief.
An old legend represents St. Cuthbert, in his stone coffin,
floating down the Tweed.
Collar. The neck-cloth worn by the clergy does not date
earlier than the beginning of the eighteenth century. The
ruff of the time of Elizabeth fell into desuetude before the
falling coUars of the time of James and Charles I.
Collation. (1.) The free assignment of a vacant canonry or
benefice. (2.) Reading of devout books from the pulpit by
the reader of the week, followed by an exposition from tho
superior in chapter. (3.) A sermon after a funeral. (4.) A
lecture on the Catechism in 1622. (5.) The monastic sup
per. During the first four centuries there was but one meal
taken a day, and that was supper (ccena) . When the mid
day meal was adopted, a slender repast of bread, wine, and
dry fruit, not worthy of the name of supper, was taken
after Vespers, during the reading the Scripture or Fathers,
called the collation — and so the name was given to the meal,
and adopted by laymen and priests. The jentaculum, or
breakfast, was made on a basin of soup.
Collect. (1.) A church appointed as the starting-point and
place of assembly of a procession going to a station, as, for
instance, the collect was at St. Sabina, on the Aventine, when
the station was fixed at the basilica of St. Paul. (2.) A
prayer so called, because coUected into one form out of
many petitions, or from the people being joined in as one,
or because offered for the whole collective Church, or a par
ticular church. Most collects end " through Jesus Christ,"
because the Father bestows His gifts through the mediation
of Christ only. The five parts of a coHect are the invoca
tion, the reason on which the petition is founded, the peti
tion itself, the benefit hoped for, ascription of praise, or men
tion of the Lord Jesus, or both. The collects in the Mass
were composed by Pope Gelasius. At St. Alban's, in the
twelfth century, they were limited to seven. The collects
were included in the Collectar, and the collects at the end
of the Communion Service, Matins, and Evensong, etc., fulfil
the definition of Micrologus, as the concluding prayer in an
office, in which the priest gathers up and collects all the
prayers of the people, to offer them to God. Out of the

168 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
eighty-three used in the English Church, fifty-nine are
traceable to the sixth century.
College. (Many collected into one.) (1.) In the province of
Canterbury the bishops form a college, in which the Bishop
of London is dean, the Bishop of Winchester subdean and
chancellor, the Bishop of Salisbury precentor; since the
time of St. Osmund, in place of the Bishop of Winchester,
the Bishop of Lincoln is vice-chancellor, the Bishop of Wor
cester chaplain, and the Bishop of Rochester cross-bearer
to the primate. In the absence of the latter, the Bishop of
London presides in the provincial synod. (2.) A church
inferior to a cathedral, which is served by persons living in
common. At Oxford, Gloucester College was composed of
halls which were filled with Benedictine students of Glou
cester, Abingdon, St. Alban's, Tewkesbury, and Tavistock.
Collegiate Churches took their origin in the impossibility of
receiving all the applicants for canonries in cathedral, so
that it was necessary to turn parish churches into capitular
foundations. They were also attached to great schools, as
Winchester and Eton, and to hospitals. They are inferior
churches, with members living in common, and not pos
sessing a bishop's chair. They were always built in towns
or cities of importance, and their president was a graduate.
At Southwell and Beverley, the Archbishop of York was
head of the chapter ; at Bosham, the Bishop of Exeter ; at
Penkridge, the Archbishop of Dublin. St. Patrick's (Dub
lin) is united to the cathedral of Christchurch; and there
are similar combinations at Mantua, Cremona, Sisteron,
Montauban, Calahorra, and Calcada ; but Bath and Wells,
Lichfield and Coventry, were examples of Benedictines
united to secular canons, to form a combined chapter.
The Pope distinguished some of these churches by the title
of insignis, or eminent, when united to another foundation,
or by special favour; but the title was conveyed in com
mon report also, or by position in a town of great import
ance. In Italy, and by canon law, the chapter had the pa
tronage of the canonries.
Collet. The English name for an acolyth.
Colobium. [Gr. kolobos, curt.] A white tabard, or sleeveless
tunic, which was at length superseded by the use of the dal
matic. It was also called the lebitonarium, as proper to

COLOURS, ECCLESIASTCAL. 169
deacons ; was ornamented with the clavus, or purple band,
or with calliculoe, or the paragaudas, little disks, and a fringe
of balls.
Colours, Ecclesiastical. Festivals were distinguished by white,
as emblematical of the purity of the life of saints, and by red,
as symbohcal of the heroism of the death of martyrs. Vio
let, mentioned by Durandus, in addition to white, red, black,
and green, was used on common days and in Advent, Lent,
and on vigils, as the penitential colour nearest to black ;
and Green, the hue of hope and spring, from the octave of
Epiphany to Septuagesima, and from the octave of Pente
cost to Advent, in anticipation of the joys to which the doors
have been opened by the resurrection and ascension of our
Saviour, and by the descent of the Holy Ghost. At burials,
Masses of the dead, and on Good Friday, Black is worn ;
and by the Salisbury use. Crocus or Saffron, gold colour, on
feasts of the confessors, emblematical of the preciousness of
their faith ; but at Laon on Good Friday, in allusion to the
envy of the Jews. Red, by the Salisbury use, was used on
Ash Wednesday, Sundays in Lent, and the three latter days
of Holy Week, as the symbol of sin (Isaiah i. 18) ; as the
sign of majesty and might on Sundays (Isaiah lxiii. 1) ; and
of blood in the commemoration of the passion, death, and
burial of our crucified Lord; and so on Good Friday at
Bourges, Sens, Mans, and by the Ambrosian rite. The
latter uses it also on Corpus Christi, as the great mystery of
Christ's love, and, Hke the Church of Lyons, on the Circum
cision, in memory of the first shedding of His blood, and the
first act of His love ; whereas the Roman use employs white
on the former day, in allusion to the mystery of faith ; red
on Pentecost personifies the divine love of the Holy Spirit ;
and in funeral services of the Greeks, and the ancient rites of
France, and by the Pope on Good Friday, as showing that
love is the cause of their sorrow. Red is the ordinary colour
of the Salisbury and Ambrosian rites, as green is of the
Roman. Red was used in Lent, being the vigil of the Pas
sion, from Septuagesima to Easter eve, at Bourges, Nevers,
Sens, and Mans. Black chasubles with red orphreys were
used from Passion Sunday to Easter at Paris, and at funerals
in parts of Germany and Flanders. Red and white were
the Dominical colours in England. Blue (indicum, blodium)

170 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
was worn on the Continent, like violet, on All Saints' Day,
in Advent, and on Septuagesima, and on feasts of St. Mary,
as in England, in Spain, and Naples. It was probably
used at Salisbury on ferials in Advent. Our Lord and St.
Mary wear red and blue. In some foreign churches the
dignity of feasts was attempted to be shown by a graduated
scale of colours. A curious analogy has been traced between
the three common chord notes, the third, fifth, and eighth,
with the three primary colours of the solar ray ; and of the
seven notes of the major diatonic scale with the colours of
the solar spectrum, so that various instruments have been
ingeniously represented as colours, — :the oboe as yellow, the
flute white, the trumpet scarlet, etc. St. Jerome mentions
that one dress was worn in sacred ministrations, and another
in ordinary life ; and in 260 Pope Stephen III. enjoined the
ecclesiastical vestments to be used only in church. Possibly
about the sixth century the fashion of vestments became
fixed. Salvian, Pauhnus of Nola, and Pope Celestine, in
428, allude to the adoption of a distinct dress by priests. In
France it was the practice in the fifth century ; and the
monks, by the adoption of a habit, promoted the movement.
At Constantinople, in the fourth century, the Catholics wore
black, and the Novatians white out of doors. St. Chrysostom
celebrated in white, which he mentions as the church-dress.
In the early times of the Church white was used, certainly
in the fourth century, as appears from the writings of
St. Jerome, Gregory of Tours, Isidore of Seville, and For-
tunatus. Anastatius speaks of it in the lives of Popes Leo
III. and IV., Gregory IV., and Sergius II. ; and in the
mosaics at St. Paul's Without, at Rome, white robes, some
times adorned with bands of violet or gold, were worn by the
early Popes. From the ninth century red, blue, and green
were gradually permitted in vestments, but prescript colours
were not generally adopted until the eleventh or twelfth
century, white being retained for the amice, albe, surplice,
and the cope and chasuble on feasts of the Nativity', Epi
phany, All Saints, and St. John the Baptist. They are first
mentioned by the author of the 'Treatise on Divine Offices'
about the eleventh century, and afterwards, in the thirteenth
century, by Durand, Bishop of Mende, and Innocent III.
The Greeks, about the same period, adopted these colours,

COLOURS, ECCLESIASTICAL. 1 71
reserving red, however, for fast-days and memorials of
saints. The Greek Church requires white at Christmas,
Epiphany, and Easter; blue or violet in Passion Week, in
Advent, Lent, and at burials ; and white and green at Pen
tecost. Red is regarded as the symbol of ardent love ;
green of the Hfe of grace ; violet of penitence ; and white of
truth. No doubt the common colour for altar-cloths, — which
is red, and the ordinary colour of the Salisbury rite, — was
observed in England, owing to the Sarum use being pre
scribed for the whole southern province in 1541. The
national use differed greatly from the Roman, as in the use
of red instead of violet on Sundays in Lent, and from Sep
tuagesima to Easter, on Ash Wednesday, Maundy Thurs
day, Good Friday, and the Great Saturday or Easter eve,
on Sunday in Trinity, and in processions ; whilst gold colour
was used instead of white on confessors' days.
Colours, Emblematical. Colours have been called the
hieroglyphics of heavenly secrets, and the idea has been
carried out in the mosaics of churches, the paintings of the
catacombs, and in the ornaments of divine worship. White,
the union of all luminous rays, is the colour of divine truth
(Rev. xxii. ; Dan. vii. 9), as seen in the description of the An
cient of Days and the Great Throne of Judgment ; of angels,
who are represented appearing in white ;. of the Saviour as
God (St. Mark ix. 2; St. Luke xxiii. 11; Rev. i. 13) ; and,
therefore, worn on the festivals of Christmas, Easter, and
other holy days consecrated to Him; of purity, life, light,
joy, peace, and innocence. Saints are often represented in
white (Rev. vi. 11), and in a mosaic in St. Paul's (Rome),
they are thus portrayed casting down their crowns before
the throne ; the converts from paganism have their heads
bare, and those of the Jewish dispensation wear vefls (2 Cor.
iii. 14; Is. iii. 23). Catechumens wore white robes during
the octave after their baptism. The Pope wears white ; and
on great days the bishop's chair was draped in white to re
present divine truth. The dead were wrapped in white, in
memory of our Lord's winding-sheet.
Red, as that of fire, is the colour of burning love, as on
the wings of seraphim ; of the fiery tongues, at Pentecost ;
of power, dignity, and martyrdom, as worn on Good Friday ;
or the sacred fire of Christ's doctrine (St. Luke xii . 49) . Mar-

172 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
tyrs were buried in a scarlet colobium or dalmatic, the sym
bol of charity and blood-shedding. Cardinals wore red as a
type of love and the Passion of our Lord, which they should
have always in remembrance.
Green, the token of life in the vegetable kingdom, is the
colour of immortality, as in the robes of angels ; of the life
of grace (Ezek. xx. 47; Rev. ix. 4; St. Luke xxiii. 31),
just as evergreens and laurel were laid in the graves be
neath the bodies of the departed, in token that they shall
rise again ; of hope, as when a cypress is carved on a tomb ;
of the creation of life and the regeneration in the world to
come, when used in vestments on Sundays from Epiphany
to Septuagesima, and from the third Sunday after Pentecost
to Advent ; and of life in Jesus in the veil used in the Am
brosian rite to cover the altar after communion, and the
cloth which covers the holystone upon it. It also represents
bounty, youth, prosperity, faith, and, when palish in hue,
baptism. Violet, worn on Embers and vigils, being a mixture of
black for sorrow and red for love, betokens penitence, grief
for sins, inspired by the love of Christ. Our Lord wears
violet sometimes as a type of the Man of Sorrows. St. Mary,
in her grief, St. John as the preacher of repentance, and
angels sent on errands of warning are robed in violet. Nuns
wore violet ; so did Benedictine abbots until recent times,
and penitents in primitive times. Violet was the colour of
the parchment used for church books in the time of St.
Jerome and at a later date. Violet typified truth, deep love,
and humility.
Blue, the colour of heaven, used on feasts of St. Mary,
was the emblem of piety, sincerity, godliness, contemplation,
expectation, love of heavenly things.
Jacinth represents Christian prudence; purple royalty
and justice.
Yellow, worn on confessors' days, betokens brightness and
faith. Black is the symbol of death, humiliation, mourning, and
penance. Pale yellow, as in the dress of Judas, signifies deceit.
Comb. The comb of ivory or metal with which the first ton
sure was made and the hair was arranged in the sacristy, is

COMMANDERY  COMMUNAR. 173
sometimes found in the graves of medieval priests. That of
St. Cuthbert is of ivory, preserved at Durham ; and St.
Loup's, of the twelfth century, at Sens. The latter ' is
jewelled and has symbolical animals.
Commandery (commenda, a benefice), or Preceptory (praeceptio,
a first share) . A cell of the Templars and Hospitallers, for
collecting demesne-rents ; and a home for veteran members
of those orders; the president paid himself first his own
pension, and then accounted for the residue. These houses
remain at Swingfield, Clibburn, and Worcester.
Commemoration takes place when two double festivals concur,
and the office for the greater is used, whilst the collect only
of the lesser is said; or when a double coincides with a
greater Sunday ; or a double of the second class falls on a
greater week-day, and the same rule is observed. In Lent,
. Advent, on ember-days, and greater ferials a special collect
is used.
Commemoration of Benefactors. In colleges a form of prayer,
prescribed in Queen Elizabeth's reign, is used during term,
in pious memory of founders and benefactors. The proper
Psalms are cxlv., cxlvi., cxlvii. ; the lesson, Eccles. xliv.
The suffrages are : —
" The just shall be had in everlasting remembrance ;
He shall not be afraid of evil tidings.
The souls of the righteous are in the hand of God ;
Neither doth any torment touch them."
Then follows a collect. At Oxford the commemoration by
the university is caUed encsenia.
Commendatory. One having the grant of a benefice in trust
for Hfe, and enjoying the revenues.
Commissary. The judge of a bishop's court in a peculiar,
and holding jurisdiction in those parts of a diocese for which
he holds a Hcence.
Commixtion of the body and blood of Christ together, as Cran-
mer explained, signifies the joining together of His body
and blood at the resurrection, which before were severed at
the time of His passion. It consisted in the immersion of a
fragment of the Host in the chalice.
Common House, or Parlour. The calefactory. A common
room, with a fire in winter, for the monks.
Communar. (1.) The bursar in a cathedral, who distributed

174 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the commons or general capitulary fund, and paid stipends.
(2.) An officer, called the master of the common house, who
provided a fire in the calefactory and certain luxuries on
festivals.
Communion, Holy. In early times, after the Benediction by
the bishop, which followed the Lord's Prayer, the deacon
called the people to Communion, saying "Attend;" and then
the celebrant said, "Holy [things] for holy [persons] ;" to
which the answer was, " One holy, one Lord Jesus Christ,
to the glory of God the Father, blessed for ever, amen;"
followed by the Gloria in Excelsis. The Eucharistic bread
was broken before the ministration, and in the Greek
Church immediately after the consecration. The Latins
divided each bread into three, the Greeks into four parts.
The latter used two fractions ; one before consecration, into
three parts, at the words "He brake it;" and the second,
properly so called, when each part was subdivided, before
the Lord's Prayer and after the reading of the diptychs.
The Mozarabic rite prescribes nine parts to be made, in aUu-
sion to the nine mysteries of the life of Christ, the concep
tion, nativity, circumcision, transfiguration, passion, death,
resurrection, glory, and kingdom. The fraction was suc
ceeded by the mixture mentioned by the Councils of IV.
Toledo and Orange in 441. After the call "Holy for the
holy," the congregation communicated, the bishop, priests,
clergy, ascetics, women, deaconesses, virgins, widows, chil
dren, and then the rest present. The distribution was made
by deacons, but in later times the priest ministered the
bread, and the deacon the chalice. Deacons sometimes
administered the bread, with the restriction that he was not
to do so to priests or to the people without the order of a
priest. In Spain priests and deacons communicated at the
altar, minor clerks within the choir, and the people at the
chancels. The Greeks also allowed only the former within
the sanctuary. Persons in the East received either prostrate,
kneeling, or standing, bowing the head at the ministration.
In the West priests alone received in the latter posture.
The words of ministration were at first " The body of Christ,
and the blood of Christ;" to which the faithful replied,
" Amen." In the time of Gregory the Great they were
expanded thus, " The body of our Lord Jesus Christ pre-

COMMUNIONS  CONDUCT. 1 75
serve thy soul ; " and in the age of Charlemagne, " The
body of our Lord Jesus Christ preserve thee to everlasting
life." Men received in the hollow of the right hand, bare,
crossed over the left, throne-like, as St. Cyril of Jerusalem
says; and women in a Hnen cloth, called the dominical,
from which they raised the element to their lips. The
chalice was administered by the deacon, who held it by its two
handles, and at length the calamus was used by the people.
Communions. Ps. xxui., xxxiv., xln., cxvni., or cxlv., sung
during the administration in the Greek Church ; and men
tioned by St. Jerome, St. Cyril of Jerusalem, the Apostolical
Constitutions, and early liturgies.
Communion of the Sick. Although the church is the proper
place for a celebration, yet in cases of necessity the Holy
Communion was administered, in ancient times, in crypts,
at the tombs of martyrs, in a prison, on the celebrant's
breast, in the deacon's hands, in a tent, a hut, a house, in
the fields, at sea, by a bedside — anywhere, except in the
burial-places of the heathen. See Viaticum.
Compass, or Span-roof. One reaching from side wall to side
waU, unlike a lean-to roof.
Competentes, i.e. seekers of the grace of Christ ; an advanced
class of candidates for Baptism, who had received adequate
instruction. They received this name on Palm Sunday,
when the Creed was dehvered to them ; on the second Sun
day following the Lord's Prayer was explained in their
hearing.
Comprising Arch. The large exterior arch of a window which
encloses the subordinate Hghts and tracery.
Concha. An ancient name of the apse, from its shell-like or
volute form.
Conclave. The meeting of the cardinals for the election of a
Pope.
Concomitance. The Roman doctrine that, under the form of
bread the blood of Christ is also received, although the chalice
is not ministered.
Concordance. The first Biblical concordance was commenced
in 1236, by Cardinal Hugh de St. Cher.
Concordat. A treaty of agreement in ecclesiastical matters
between the Pope and some sovereign or church.
Conduct. (Conductitius, stipendiary.) A chaplain without en
dowment.

176

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Confederated Monasteries. Those in union for prayer for the
dead members, mutual hospitality, and admission to chap
ter. Westminster was confederated with Bury, Worcester,
Malmesbury, St. Alban's, Winchester, York, Colchester,
Wenlock, Reading, Bermondsey, Tavistock, Tewkesbury,
Rochester, Ramsey, Hulme, Canterbury, Shrewsbury, Ciren
cester, Malvern, Hurley, and Fecamp.
Confession. (1.) General; made by a congregation. (2.) Au
ricular; private to the priest's ear. (3.) Martyrdom, or
memorial to a saint ; a tomb beneath an altar containing a
window, called the jugulum, or cataract, through which the
pilgrim let down a cloth (called the pall, brandeum, sudary,
or sanctuary) to touch the body of the sleeper. It was sur
rounded by a screen of perforated marble, or a rail of bronze,
and was often closed in with pillars, covered with metal
plates, and illuminated by lights and candelabra. The
theory was, that every church was erected over a catacomb :
and where it was impossible to have a real confession, re
lics were enclosed within an altar, which was erected on
an elevated platform, and called the confession. The true
confession was the germ of the crypt; in old St. Peter's it
formed a subterranean Chapel of St. Peter. At the beginning
of the thirteenth century the steps to it were removed,
and the entrance closed. The altar built over the actual
grave was the lower confession; the upper confession was
the larger altar of marble, erected above it, in the church
itself, as at St. Prisca, St. Sylvester, St. Martin, and St.
Laurence at Rome.
Public confession of sins prevailed in the fourth century,
and lasted longer in the West than in the East. Private
confession is supposed to have been first appointed during
the Decian persecution, 249-51 ; but public confession in
the East was first given up at Constantinople, owing to
a scandal in 390. Theodulph, Bishop of Orleans (835),
ordered confession to be made once a year; and the rule
was made absolute by the Councd of Lateran (1215). It
was usual to confess on the first Sunday in Lent. Tertul
lian, Origen, and St. Cyril are supposed to allude to private
confession.
Confessional. A stone chair in the catacombs. A small recess
at the foot of the dormitory stairs of St. Alban's, and a stone

CONFESSOR  CONFESSOR OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 177
chair with two armed warders in the south arm area of the
transept at Gloucester, and two wooden structures at Bishop's
Canning and Tavistock, are said to have served as confes
sionals. The usual place was a seat in the chancel, in the
face of day, and open to all passers-by ; the modern closed
boxes are of recent introduction. aIh 1 378 women were con
fessed without the chancel veil, and in an open place, that
she might be seen though not heard by the people. Men
confessed at Easter, Pentecost, and Christmas. Bedyll,
writing to Cromwell, recommended the walling up of " the
places where the friars heard outward confessions of all
comers at certain times of the year." Probably these aper
tures were in friary churches in the form of low side win
dows. One of the fourteenth or fifteenth century remains
at Nuremberg. It consists of five canopied compartments ;
the central was occupied by the priest, and the two lateral
portions by penitents, who entered by the outermost doors.
An open metal screen fills the apertures only halfway up.
In England confession was ordinarily made openly in the
chancel, the priest sitting in the stall on the north-east side,
and the penitent kneeling before him. Roger Van der
Weyden, who died 1464, represents a confessional chair on
the north side of the nave, next the stairs to the chancel,
and outside the rood-screen. In Flemish churches the IV.
Coronati, still used by the Austin canonesses, and St.
Helen's, Bishopsgate, orifices in the wall served as confes
sionals.
Confessor. (1.) The name of a singer in the Councils of Carthage
and Toledo in 400, when anthems were forbidden to be sung
by nuns and widows with singers, except in the presence of
a bishop. Confession of God's name (Psalm cvi. 1 ) is synony
mous with its praise. (2.) Martyrs without bloodshedding,
who by a good life have witnessed to Christ. Their names
were first inserted in the diptychs in the fourth century.
Confessor of the Household. The subdean or one of the
priests in ordinary of the chapel royal, who read daily
prayers to the household, visited the sick, and prepared
persons for Holy Communion. The dean of the royal chapel
Stirling, who was always Bishop of Glasgow or Dunblane,
was the Scottish kings' confessor, and the Bishop of Chi
chester was confessor to the Queen of England. At St.
N

178 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Paul's the cardinals acted as confessors. The confessor of
the Papal family is a Servite. See Penitentiary.
Confirmation. (1.) A term first employed by_St._ Ambrose, and
adopted by Popes Leo and Gregory. This holy rite was also
called the seal, the perfection, conclusion, or complement [of
holy baptism] , and the sacrament of chrism, or, from the act
of signing on the brow, the reception of the cross. Chrism
was, in the fourth century, called the confirmation of con
fession of faith. In baptism we are made Christians; the
proper effect of Confirmation is the gift of the Holy Ghost.
In the former we are new-born to life, in the latter strength
ened for the conflict. The laying on of the Saviour's
hands upon the heads of little children, and the example of
the practice, of the Apostles, in the Acts, furnish the Scrip
tural warrant for this sacramental ceremony, which is men
tioned in the third century. St. Cyprian and the Council
of Meaux call it a sacrament in the wide sense of the term.
A bishop only can administer it. It seems from Tertullian
that confirmation immediately followed on holy baptism.
Tyndale and others, at the time of the Reformation say that
children were confirmed, at eleven or twelve years of age,
by bishops in their visitation, coming once in seven years,
and then, perhaps, only within seven miles of the appointed
place ; and Cosin mentions that it had been commonly ad
ministered in the streets, in the highways, in the common
fields, without any sacred solemnity. The change of the
baptismal name or an addition to it at confirmation was an
innovation of a later period. In medieval times adults went
to confession before confirmation ; and the rite was never to
be repeated, on pain of severe penalty to the parents, and of
irregularity and incapacity to receive holy orders in the
recipient, by English councils in the fourteenth century.
(2.) The ceremony or process of confirming a bishop at Bow
Church, London, including the citation of aU who have any
objection to advance against the Crown's nominee.
Congregation. The ancient name for a chapter, used by St.
Benedict. It designates some religious orders, and in the
University of Oxford the assembly of all regent graduates
mainly for the purpose of granting degrees.
Consecration. (1.) The ordination of a bishop. (2.) The
dedication of the sacred elements in the Holy Communion ;

consecration. 1 79
that the faithful, receiving these, God's creatures of bread and
wine, may be made partakers of the body and blood of
Christ, given, taken, and received verily and indeed, after
a heavenly and spiritual manner. The consecration is effected
by virtue of the words of the Saviour (1 Cor. xi. 23, 26).
Gregory the Great thought that the Apostles consecrated
with the Lord's Prayer. Amalarius simply says that it was
used at the same time. (3.) The dedication of a church to
God's service. St. Ambrose alludes to consecration of
churches as an immemorial and universal custom. Eusebius
says it was a sight full of beauty and consolation to see the
solemn dedication of churches and oratories rising on every
side, as if by enchantment, and attended by all the bishops
of a province. The Councils of Jerusalem and Antioch were
held on the occasion of consecration of churches built by
Constantine. Eusebius, in 315, preached at the dedication
of the basilica of Tyre. The ancient ceremonial consisted of
prayer, thanksgiving, and praise of the founders, as in the
discourses deHvered by St. Ambrose and Gaudentius. The
Holy Eucharist was then celebrated. The later ceremonial
and a form of prayer date from the ninth century ; but the
unction with holy oil, the crosses on the walls, and the
tapers burning before them are probably older; and the
Pontifical Mass, on the authority of Paulinus, is traceable to
the fourth century. The diocesan always consecrated, or at
least performed the preliminary rite of saying certain
prayers and erecting a cross on the site, according to the
First Councfl of Braga and that of Chalcedon. In the
vacancy of a See the nearest bishop officiated. Churches
were always dedicated to God only, as the name Dominicum
implies, when St. Jerome mentions the consecration of the
Golden Dominicum at Antioch, and Eusebius speaks of Con-
stantine's kyriakai. St. Augustine adduced the consecration
of churches in His honour as a proof of the Godhead of the
Holy Spirit. Churches buflt on the site of a martyrdom or
the tomb of a martyr were called memorials, and occasion
ally the founder's name was preserved, as in three at Car
thage, and some more at Rome and Antioch. A church at
Jerusalem was called the Cross, because built on the site of
the Passion ; or Anastasis, because the doctrine of the Holy
Trinity was definitely established in it through means of St.
n 2

180 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Gregory Nazianzen. Another church, at Carthage, having
been recovered from the Arians, was called the Restituta.
Sunday became the usual day for consecration only in later
times. The annual feast of dedication was observed in the
time of Sozomen. Gregory the Great enjoined its observa
tion in England. So sacred were churches after dedication
that the faithful washed their hands and faces before they
entered. The monks of Egypt laid aside their sandals on
the threshold ; princes put off their armour and crowns,
and dismissed their guard at the door ; loving worshippers
bowed down in the porches and kissed the very gates. St.
Gregory Nazianzen mentions that the devout never turned
their back towards the holy table, and St. Ambrose alludes
to the deep and reverential silence observed.
St. Cyril of Jerusalem says that the Apostles consecrated
the upper chamber of Pentecost ; and early writers record
the dedication of houses by the Apostles and their succes
sors. Evaristus divided the Roman churches among his
priests, and in the time of Cornelius there were forty-six
churches. Some of the earlier dedications, dating back to
the fourth century, were those of St. Saviour, St. John
Baptist, and St. Peter in the reign of Constantine ; St. John
Baptist at Constantinople, built by Theodore, and St. Peter
at Alexandria. St. Ambrose mentions a church of the
Apostles, and St. Jerome speaks of the basdicas of the
martyrs. St. Augustine calls the temples of God the me
morials of martyrs, because dedicated to God only, although
they bear the names of saints. In the ninth century conse
crations in England are distinctly mentioned. By the canon
law the site was first marked out by a cross, in token that
the ground was devoted to God. Hence it was called a title,
owing to the Vulgate rendering of Genesis xxviii. 18, where
the Authorized Version gives the word as " pillar." Round
the newly-built church twelve lamps were lighted, symboli
cally of the twelve Apostles, or the light of the gospel ; and,
according to Egbert's canons, on the exterior also. The
bishop knocked with his staff thrice on the door, saying,
"Lift up your heads, 0 ye gates;" and, the door being
opened, he went in with the clergy and people, saying,
" Peace be to this house." He then drew an alphabet on
the pavement, from east to west, in the shape of a cross

C0NSIGNAT0RIDM  CONVERSION. 181
saltier, to signify the rudiments of religion and the teaching
of the cross. He then consecrated the altar by making the
sign of the cross with holy-water on the four horns, as if the
four corners of the earth were purified by the laver of
regeneration and the suffering of faith. He then sprinkled
it seven times, to signify the gifts of the Spirit ; and then
the waHs of the church whilst the 68th Psalm was sung. He
afterwards made the sign of the cross with chrism on the centre
and four horns of the altar, and twelve crosses on the walls of
the church, in memory of the twelve Apostles, the teachers
of the Gentiles. Mass was then celebrated, and the deed of
endowment exhibited.
The dedication or wake-day was kept during an octave on
each anniversary. Our Lord kept the feast of dedication
(St. John x. 22) ; and Eusebius alludes to the practice in
his own time. Sometimes, as at Thorney, the choir and
nave had different dedications. Christchurch and the Holy
Trinity formed an interchangeable title for a church. This
anniversary was called Encsenia, a term formerly given to
the dedication of a heathen temple. In Ireland it is called
the Patron [saint's day] .
Consignatorium Ablutorum. Confirmation of the baptized.
Consistentes. Bystanders, caUed by the Greeks synistamenoi.
The third class of penitents, who were aUowed to be present,
but neither to make an oblation nor to communicate.
Consistory. The diocesan court of a bishop, in which are tried
causes of voluntary jurisdiction, that is, affecting visitations,
licences, institutions, and sequestrations ; and contentious
or judicial, touching probate of wills and hearing of cases
to be decided, the former by his vicar-general, the latter by
an official, but now by the chancellor of the diocese. Crimi
nal clerks were committed to the bishop's prison by this
court.
Consuetudinary. (1 .) Ritual or book of constitutions for cere
monials and official duties. (2.) A custumal or rental of
estates.
Convent. A house and church of monks, regular canons, or
religious women.
Conversi. Lay brothers of a monastery, who had forsaken the
world.
Conversion of St. Paul. Venerable Bede alludes to this festival.

182

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

In the twelfth century it appears to have been observed,
after an interval of desuetude; and in 1200 Pope Innocent,
and in 1250 a Council ordered it to be kept. Pope Clement
VIIL, in the latter end of the sixteenth century, distin
guished it as a double major. Formerly he was commemo
rated on June 30th, as his "birthday," and associated with
St. Peter on the day before and on February 22nd.
Convocation. (1.) A representative council of the clergy in
each province, convoked originally, in the time of Edward I.,
for the purpose of self-taxation, at the same time as the lay
Parliament, which gradually assumed synodical action. It
is assembled by writ of the Crown, but prorogued and dis
solved by the archbishop's mandate. The Lower House
consists of deans, archdeacons, a proxy or proctor from
every chapter, and two from every diocese in Canterbury;
and from each archdeaconry in York province, elected by
beneficed clergy. It assembles under a prolocutor or presi
dent. The Upper House is composed of bishops only, under
each primate. Convocation met at St. Paul's until the time
of Cardinal Wolsey, who assembled it in the exempt precinct
of Westminster, to free it from the jurisdiction of Canter
bury and the jealousy of York. Convocation lost the privi
lege of self-taxation when the clergy were allowed to vote
for knights of the shire in 1664. (2.) The Convocation in
the University of Oxford consists of aU persons admitted to
regency, who have their names on their college books,
and have paid all their fees. This assembly gives assent
to statutes passed in congregation, confirms leases of lands,
makes petitions to Parliament, elects burgesses, and confers
honorary degrees, or those given by degree or by diploma.
Cope. (Gappa; from cop, a covering, or caput, the head,
over which it was thrown, or capere, from taking in the
whole body.) There were several kinds of this cloak-like
vestment. A ceremonial cope, called the Pluviale, one worn
out-of-doors, whence its name, — a protection from rain in
processions ; the close cope and the choral cope. It appears
to have been modelled by Pope Stephen, in 286, on the
Roman lacerna, a large square-hooded cloak, fastened with
a brooch upon the breast, and worn by soldiers and by
civilians in the last age of the Republic, and it resembled
the Greek mandyas or chlamys, a habit of smaller dimensions

cope. 183
than the pallium. The lacema was usually sad-coloured,
purple or red. The latter were called byrrhi. The open
part of the cope represented that eternal life was offered to
the minister of holy conversation ; and the entire habit was
an imitation of the purple robe of mockery, or sakkos, which
our Lord was compelled to wear. It was also often called
the byrrus. The cope was originally a great cloak worn in
processions principally, which in time was gradually enriched
with embroidery and gems, so that in the thirteenth century
it had become one of the most magnificent vestments in use,
and was known as 'precious.' It frequently had superb
orphreys and a hood splendidly worked with figures of
saints and other patterns. In pre-Norman times they had,
in England, tassels and movable hoods of thin beaten gold
and silver, such as WilHam's stole at Ely. Some examples
had fringes of beHs, like one at Canterbury, which had a
Httle chime of 140 in 1108, and others sent by William I. to
Clugny, or presented by Lanfranc, Ernulph, and Conrad to
their minster. One is still preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle,
having silver bells round the hem, said to have been given
by Pope Leo III. at the coronation of Charlemagne. There
are three copes of the fourteenth century at Durham, one
given by Queen Philippa, 1346, another of crimson silk,
with the beheadal of Goliath, presented by Charles I. ; two
at Langharne ; one of green velvet of the fourteenth century
at Ely ; two at Carlisle of the fifteenth and sixteenth cen
tury ; one of crimson velvet, with crowns and stars of Beth
lehem, at Chipping Campden ; some of the date of James II.,
at Westminster ; several of the fourteenth century at Spires ;
one of the fifteenth century, found at Waterford Cathedral,
at Oscott ; some of Caroline date at Riseholme, worn by the
Bishops of Lincoln at coronations ; and others at Wardour
Castle, Weston Underwood, and Stonyhurst; some tradi
tionally being said to have been brought from Westminster.
The silken copes were distributed in choir by the precentor
to the various members upon great festivals ; at other times
they were carefully folded and put away in triangular cope-
chests. Every canon, at his installation, presented one of
these precious or processional copes to the fabric ; and every
abbot or bishop gave a cope of profession, on his appoint
ment, to Canterbury Cathedral. fv <='&

184 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
The Canonical or Choral Cope was a large, full, flowing
cloak of black woollen stuff, worn by canons and vicars in
cathedrals. It is mentioned at Chichester, in the twelfth
century, as without corsets and open. It opened downwards
from the breast, and was sewed up as far as the throat,
round which was a hood. In the fifteenth century, the
almuce was sewn on to the cope like a hood, except when it
was carried across the shoulders, or thrown over the left
arm. The Close or Sleeveless Cope, an ample hood lined
with fur, did not open in front, whence its name. The hood
was of ermine, like that of the proctors at Oxford. It is
seen depicted on the famous wall-painting of Chichester
Cathedral, — Bishop Sherborne being habited in it. In the
thirteenth century all clerks were required to wear close
copes in synods, and in the presence of prelates and parochial
clergy in their parish ; they were to be laid aside on journeys.
Black canons, Bauedictines, and nuns were to use black, and
not coloured copes, and faced only with black or white fur
of lambs, cats, or foxes. They were forbidden caps by H.
Walter's canons in 1200. In 1195 priests were forbidden
to wear sleeved copes. In 1222 monks and canons were
proscribed burnet or irregular cloth, or girdles of silk or
gold embroidery in their habit, and the nuns were to use no
veil of silk. At the close of the twelfth century, dignitaries
were allowed the use of sleeved copes ; but in 1222, it was
found necessary to forbid the gay colours of red and green
adopted for copes. The monk retained the sombre hue of
black. At Cambridge the D.D. still wears, on formal
occasions, a cope of scarlet cloth with ermine bands in
front. By the Laudian statutes of Oxford, Doctors of
Divinity on formal occasions are required to wear either the
close or open cope ; and Bachelors of Arts, when reading in
the Bodleian Library, were enjoined to be attired in " their
habit or cope, cowl, and cap."
The Gappa Magna, worn in processions and during certain
functions in Italy at this day, corresponds to the English
close cope. It is a large violet-coloured habit, with a train
and an ermine cape when worn by bishops, but only furred
when canons use it.
In England, at the Reformation, the precious copes were,

COPING  CORPORAL. 185
unhappdy, too often desecrated to garnish beds as coverlets.
Bishop Cosin wore a cope of white satin. Portions of copes
are still, in several English churches, used as altar or pulpit
cloths.
Coping. The capping or slanting cover of a wall, acting Hke a
large drip-stone.
Corbel (Fr. corbeau) or Source. A bracket. A projecting
piece of stone to carry a parapet, an image, or beam.
Corbie Steps. Graduated battlements up the side of a gable,
as at Caen, and on the towers in Ireland and Scotland and
Flanders.
Corner Stone. The first stone of a church, laid on the north
east side, as determined by the orientation of the sun on
the day of the feast, or patron saint. At Beaulieu only one
stone was found on the site on the ground, and it was in
this position ; that of Avranches, the solitary relic of a cathe
dral, is still pointed out.
Cornice. A corruption of the Latin term coronis; that which
crowns and completes a structure.
Coronation. The investiture of a sovereign. The Archbishop
of Canterbury crowns the king, and the Archbishop of York
the queen.
Coronet. This ornament first appears in the effigy of John of
Eltham, who died 1332. The addition of a marquis's coronet
to an archiepiscopal mitre does not date back before the time
of Sheldon. Edmundson speaks of it as a novelty. It has
since then been drawn as a ducal coronet. The Bishops of
Durham, who took their title by the grace of God or by divine
providence [in distinction to other bishops, who are styled
by divine permission], whilst still palatine, until 1833, used
the coronet by right, or in lieu of it a plume of feathers.
Corporal. A word used in the ' Sacramentaries,' by Pope Gre
gory, Isidore of Seville, and in the capitulars of the Frank
kings in 800, meaning a fine linen, or canvas cloth of pure
white, according to the Council of Rheims, on which the
sacred elements are consecrated, and hence called the cor
poral in aUusion to the body of Christ, of which bread is the
sacrament. Isidore of Pelusium called it the eileton, the
wrapping-cloth; and Isidore of Damascus speaks of it as
the winding-sheet. The centre, on which the chalice and
paten stood, were quite plain, the ends alone being of silk,

186 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
or worked with gold or silver. It was ordered to be used
by Pope Sixtus in 125, and Sylvester, c. 314, directed it to
be of linen and not of stuff, as before. It was also known
as the pall-veil, or sindon, and represented the fine Hnen in
which Joseph of Arimathea wrapped the Lord's body in the
garden tomb. The altar, by canon law, had two palls, and
one corporal of plain linen cloth. The removal of the cloth
from the consecrated elements typified the manifestation of
the mysteries of the Old Testament by the death of Jesus.
The earliest corporals covered the entire altar, and hung
down at each side ; two deacons were required to spread it.
Corporal Acts- of Mercy. (1) Feeding the hungry; (2) giving
drink to the thirsty; (3) clothing the naked; (4) harbour
ing the stranger; (5) visiting the sick; (6) ministering to pri
soners ; (7) burying the dead. (St. Matt. xxv. 35 ; Tob. i. 17.)
Corporax Cups. Vessels of precious metal, suspended by a
chain under a canopy, and used for the reservation of the
Eucharist for the sick. It sometimes took the form of a
tiara of crowns, in allusion to Rev. xix. 12, and was covered
often by a thin ved of silk or muslin, called the " kerchief of
cobweb lawn." At Durham it was of very fine lawn, em
broidered with gold and red silk, and finished with four
knobs and tassels. That used by St. Cuthbert formed the
banner carried to victory at the Red Hills.
Corpus Christi. (Fete Dieu.) The feast of the Body of Christ,
kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday (or the octave of
Pentecost), was instituted in 1264, by Pope Urban IV., for
a procession bearing the Eucharist, with an office and prose
composed by Aquinas ; the office is also attributed to Robert,
Bishop of Liege, in 1249. Colleges at Oxford and Cam
bridge bear this dedication. It afterwards became the chief
occasion on which the mysteries were acted by the clergy,
and the miracle plays by guilds. The mother churches be
gan the procession on this day, and subordinate churches on
or within the octave. It was an immemorial custom in Spain
for the priests to carry the tabernacle upon these occasions
raised upon their shoulders. In England, on Corpus Christi
Day, they carried the silver pyx under a canopy of silk and
cloth of gold, borne by four men, preceded' by a pageant —
Ursula and her maidens, St. George with spear and dragon,
the Devd's house, St. Christopher bearing the Infant, St.

C0RR0DY  COUNCIL. 187
Sebastian pierced with arrows, St. Katharine with sword
and wheel, St. Barbara with the chalice and cakes, followed
by banners, crosses, candlesticks, reliquaries, cups, and
images, which the priests lifted on high, whilst before them
went many sacring bells and musicians, St. John pointing
to the Lamb, upon which two clad as angels cast sweet-
smelhng flowers. The highway was strewn with boughs,
every wall and window was decorated with branches. In
vdlages the husbandmen went among the cornfields with
crosses and banners; and the priest, carrying the blessed
bread in a bag round his neck, read the Gospel at certain
stations, as an amulet against wind, rain, and foul blasts.
Corrody. (1 .) A payment, in kind or pension, in money made by a
monastery to the nominee of a benefactor, who had the right
of appointing often an indefinite number of such persons.
(2.) An allowance by a monastery to servants or outliers.
Corse. A platted or woven silk ribbon, used as an ornament
of vestments.
Corsned (from kur, trial, and snmd, a slice). An ordeal, men
tioned in 1015, which was made by eating barley -bread and
cheese, over which prayers and ceremonies had been used
by the priest, to discover whether the eater were guilty or
not. In Christian times the Host was used.
Cotta. An Italian, tunicle of linen reaching to the knees.
Ducange says it was a closed circular surplice.
Coucher. (1.) A register or accompt book. (2.) A church book
couched, or lying, on the chancel desk.
Council. A solemn assembly of the representatives of inde
pendent Churches, convened for deliberation and the enact
ment of canons, or ecclesiastical laws. The first ever held
was at Jerusalem (Acts xv.). Eusebius mentions synods in
the East in the second century, and Firmilian, in the middle
of the third century, speaks of them as annual in Africa.
These were provincial, held under the presidency of the
metropolitan. After the conversion of Constantine, the
Byzantine emperors exercised authority in convening coun
cils in the East ; and in the West, at a later date, the Pope
assumed similar powers.
The four general or oecumenical councils recognized by all
Churches are those of Nicaea, 325, held against the Arian
heresy; Constantinople, 381, against Apollinarius; Ephesus,

188 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
431, against Nestorius ; and Chalcedon, 451, against Euty-
ches and Nestorius. The four following words, in their
order, give a summary of these decisions with regard to
Christ : — alethos, perfect God ; teleios, perfect man ; adiai-
retos, one altogether; asynchetos, not by confusion of sub
stance. The Greek Church adds to these II. Constantinople,
553 ; III. Constantinople or in Trullo, 680, so called from
the domed chamber in which it was held ; and II. Nicaea,
787. To these the Church of Rome adds IV. Constantinople,
869; the Four Laterans, 1122, 1139, 1179, 1215; two
at Lyons, 1245, 1274; Vienna, 1311; Florence, 1439;
V. Lateran, 1512; Trent, 1545. Some add Pisa, 1409;
Constance, 1414; and Basle, 1431.
The acts of councils were read out from the ambon during
the time of Holy Communion, and during their tenure the
gospels were laid open on a throne covered with rich stuffs,
to remind all present to judge right judgment, as at Ephe-
sus, 1st Lateran; 3rd in the Vatican; Ferrara; Florence,
and Basle. It is so represented in Italian bronzes and
mosaics of the fifth century.
Counterpoynt. (1.) Counterpane. A coverlet composed of
counter-points or panes of different colours, contrasting with
each other. (2.) Music written in several distinct parts, so
called from the notes being placed over against or above
the other in the score.
Cowl. (From cucullus, an abbreviation of cucus or kokkos, a
helmet.) A hood sown on the cope, oblong in shape and
ending in a point, worn by monks. From its use to cover
the head it was also called capitium. Canons wore it
slightly different in shape from that of the monks, and from
them it passed into the universities.
Cramp Rings are attributed by Hospinian to the claim of
Westminster Abbey to the possession of the ring given by
St. John, in the guise of a pilgrim, to Edward the Confessor.
On Good Fridays the kings of England used to bless finger-
rings for the cramp, which were worn by sufferers in full
belief of recovery.
Cream Box. A chrismatory.
Credence. (It. credenza, a sideboard, or buffet.) The bystand-
ing table, called also the pro thesis, oblationarium, and minis-
terium; a bracket or recess by the Cistercians. It either

CREDENCE. 189
takes the form of a little table covered with a linen cloth, —
at Brabourne it is on the south side and formed of black
marble, with a cross in a circle carved on it,— or is made
like an aumbry in the wall. On it were placed the oblations
of the faithful; and in the Greek Church, at Tours and
Rheims, the offering is still made in procession. It also
carried the basin, cruets, and sacred elements. In some
churches a second table held the Mass vestments of the
bishop. The wall credence is often connected with a drain,
is rare in the twelfth [one occurs at Lausanne] , but is usual
in the following century. Sometimes it occurs on the north
and south sides of an altar; often it is divided by a thin
slab of stone. In the fourteenth century it is sometimes
doubled, as at Chester and Caen, one recess holding the
plate and books, the other containing the tapers and cruets.
There are beautiful specimens in the Sainte-ChapeUe, Paris,
and there is one on the south side in St. Antonio's, Padua.
Where there are two credences, that on the epistle side has
a drain and shelf, to hold the basin and cruets ; and that on
the gospel side, which has no drain, held the books, candles,
and ornaments of the altar, being, in fact, an open aumbry ;
but when it had doors attached, the Sacrament was reserved
in it. When the Pope celebrates on Easter Day, there are
three credences, — two on the epistle side, one containing
the deacon's plate, the second supporting two candles and
necessaries required by the sacristan. The third, or Pope's
credence, is on the gospel side, where, at the end of the
Creed, the sacristan washes the sacred vessels ; the sacristan
drinks of the wine and the water, and finahy at the offertory
tastes the particles from which the hosts are prepared, at
the command of the cardinal deacon, as a precaution against
poison. The French call the folding part of a stall a cre
dence. The table credence is sometimes a little table of
stone, as at St. Cross and Fyfield, carried on a shaft ; or a
moveable sideboard of Jacobean date, of wood, on legs, as
at Battle, Manchester, Queenborough, Cobham, Chipping
Warden, St. Michael's, Oxford, and one of the time of
Charles II. at Islip. A slab of stone under an arcade, of
the latter part of the thirteenth century, remains at Sees.
In the Greek Church there are two recesses in the east wall,
the aumbry being on the north and the credence on the

190 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
south. In England the credence is sometimes, as in Lin
colnshire, on the south, but ordinarily on the north of the
altar, as at Lyons and Mans. Side-altars were used as
credences for the preparation of the chalice at Soissons,
Amiens, Chalons-sur-Saone, and St. Germain des Pres; a
ministerium was used at Bayeux. At Lyons it was of stone,
and at Beauvais of wood. The name has been derived from
the ceremony of pregustation of the elements in the Ponti
fical Mass, but Bishop Hickes derives it from an old English
word, meaning the place of preparation. The first use of
credence in the Roman ritual occurs in the time of Leo X.,
in 1516, and apparently was introduced when the custom of
personal offering fell into desuetude. A fit place simply is
enjoined in an ' Ordo' of the fourteenth century. The Cister
cians used a recess or wooden shelf. The Cistercian " mi
nistry" held only the corporal veils and chalice, as, like the
Jacobins and Carthusians, they placed the elements on the
altar itself. |»-fc>«
Creed. (From credo, Latin, I believe.) The Belief, the form
containing the articles of the Christian faith.
Creeping to the Cross. Alcuin mentions that on Good-Friday
a cross was prepared before the altar, and kissed in succes
sion by the clergy and people. Sometimes it was laid on a
cushion in a side-chapel. By ^Elfric's Canons (957), the
faithful were required to pay their adoration, and greet
God's rood with a kiss. "We humble ourselves to Christ
herein," Oranmer says, " offering unto Him, and kissing the
Cross, in memory of our redemption by Christ on the Cross."
The practice was forbidden in 1549, but was observed at
Dunbar in 1568 by the congregation, barelegged and bare
footed. During the ceremonial the hymns " Pange, lingua "
and " Vexilla regis prodeunt " were sung, followed by the
" Improperia," or reproaches, an expansion of Malachi iii. 3, 4.
Crenellation. The fortifying of a monastery or close, per
mitted by the king only, or in Durham by the bishop palatine.
The earliest instance of the former is in Edward III.'s reign,
and of the precinct in the time of Edward I. at WeUs and
Lichfield.
Cresset. A stationary lamp.
Cresting. The ornamental brattishing, or finish, which sur
mounts a screen or roof, taking the form of a battlement;

CREWELL  CROSS. 191
open work of metal or stone, and of flowers. That of Exeter
Cathedral is of lead.
Crewell. Lightly-twisted worsted.
Crockets. (From the French croche, a bishop's crook.) The
curved projections on the sides of pinnacles, supposed to
represent the slipperwort. The earlier form is a leaf curved
down, the later of leaves returned, or pointing upwards.
Crop. The top or finial of a pyx.
Cross. The royal standard of Christians, as Fortunatus of
Poictiers caUs it, reminding us by its four arms of the
height and depth, the length and breadth of the love of
Christ. St. Ambrose, Tertullian, and Maximus of Turin
mention a custom of the primitive Christians to pray with
their arms extended in the form of a cross. St. Ambrose
speaks of the cross as the mast of the ship under the shadow
of which the Christian need fear no wreck. St. Jerome,
Origen, and Thomas Aquinas, foUowing Lucian and Ter-
tulhan, say that its earliest form was the Hebrew Tau.
The use of the sign of the cross is very ancient, and ex
pressly signifies the Passion of Christ as a strength against
unholy thought and sinful deeds. TertuUian says that the
Christians before they would undertake any work, at going
out and coming in, at sitting down and rising up, at
board, bath, or bed, at the bringing in of Hghts, — in all
occupations, in fact, made the sign of the cross upon their
forehead. St. Chrysostom recommended its use before
and after meals, and St. Jerome extended it to every act,
and especially in going out. Prudentius, in his hymns,
alludes to the custom ; and Ruffinus mentions that every
house in Alexandria had its doorpost, entrance, windows,
walls, and pillars painted with the sacred sign. The Second
Council of Ephesus required every private house to possess
a cross. St. Jerome says that it formed the military stand
ard, and adorned the imperial purple and the crown of the
diadem ; and St. Augustine exclaims, " Kings wear the
cross on their brow, of more price than aU the jewels of
their diadem."
With the cross the priest signed the Sacrament at conse
cration. Soldiers signed themselves with the cross when the
trumpet sounded for battle. Ships carried the cross ; the
martyr's tomb bore it; it glittered over the altar; Valen-

192 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
tinian III. and Eudoxia set it on their crowns. In the fifth
century it was carried in processions. In the sixth century
consuls carried the cross on their sceptres. The sign of the
Son of Man will be seen in heaven at the last day, and with
it angels seal the elect (Rev. xiv. 1). The ancients made
the sign with the hand extended, but with the thumb only.
The Greeks make it with three fingers joined, in honour of
the Holy Trinity, — towards the mouth from the forehead
downwards, in honour of the incarnation ; and from right to
left, in honour of the session at the right hand of God.
The Western Church makes the sign with the hand from
right to left, — with the right hand from brow to breast, and
from one shoulder to the other. The latter is probably of
monastic origin, and not earlier than the eighth century.
The cross, according to an old legend, was made of the
palm of victory, the cedar of incorruption, the olive for royal
and priestly unction. The fourth material is variously given
as the aspen, cypress, box, or pine. In medieval times it
was usually green, as the symbol of everlasting divinity.
Crosses, by the Council of Constantinople, 706, were for
bidden to be laid down on a pavement.
Justinian required that no church should be built without
haying a cross affixed to it, but the Emperors Valens
and Theodosius, in 427, required that every sign of our
Saviour Christ, whether engraved or depicted or painted,
should be effaced. By the canon law no one could build a
church except the bishop first came and set up a cross upon
the site ; and in the eleventh and twelfth centuries the whole
cemetery was marked out by boundary crosses. Crosses
were set at the head of graves as early as the time of St.
Patrick, and before the middle of the eleventh century there
was always a central cross erected in churchyards, to remind
people of the reverence due to the sacred spot. In Italy
the altar-cross is represented both in the eleventh century
and by Giotto and Fra Angelico. In the interval, it is
often omitted on works of art. Pope Leo IV. ordered
that the only ornaments which should be set on the altar
were the capsa or reliquary, the gospels, and pyx with
the viaticum. In France the stations, where processions
carrying the relics halted, were marked by a cross or calvary,
such as abound with magnificent sculptures in Brittany, or

cross. 193
as wayside crosses in many parts of the Continent. In Italy
they frequently mark the scene of a murder. There are
beautiful calvaries at Traon Houarn, Plougastel (1602),
Llanrivam (1548), Ploucomen, and at Lampaul and Grin-
nilHan (1581-88), in Brittany, consisting of a stone base
ment, surmounted by an extraordinary number of figures
representing the life and passion of our Most Blessed Lord.
At Lewes and Chichester the calvaries stood on large green
mounds. It is possible that the blue cross at the west end
of the nave of Durham (a line of demarcation to women), may
have marked the last station of processions. Grindal for
bade persons to "rest at any cross in carrying any corse
to burying, or to leave any Httle crosses of wood there."
The Eleanor crosses of Geddington, Waltham, and North
ampton commemorate the resting-places of the bier of Queen
_ Eleanor on her way to burial in Westminster Abbey, and were
erected by King Edward I. There is a beautiful church
yard cross, with a canopied crucifix, at Bitterley in Shrop
shire, and' another at Somerby. Remarkable crosses, with
runic knotwork or grotesques and monsters remain at
Hawkswell, Penrith, Bedale, Walton in Yorkshire, Kirk
Braddon, and Kirk Andreas. Those on the shores of Lough
Neagh are covered with sculptures of Scriptural subjects;
one at Kirkmichael (Isle of Man) represents a stag-hunt.
There are several cemetery crosses at Iona, and one with
sculptures at Gainton. h, L> ^
The use of the cross on the brow in holy baptism, as the
sign or seal of faith, is mentioned in the time of St. Cyprian.
It was made twice in the Eastern Church, but in that of the
West only once, with a triple afflation according to the old
rituals. It was made on the breast in love, on the forehead
as a profession, on the arm for work, says St. Ambrose;
and in baptism in England, by the first Prayer Book of
Edward VI., on the breast and forehead. The sign was
made with the right hand, according to Justin Martyr; or
with the whole hand, to signify the five wounds of Christ, as
Durando suggests ; or with three fingers, if we follow Inno
cent III., as invoking the Holy Trinity ; or with two, to
signify the two natures of Christ; from above to below, and
from right to left, to denote Christ's descent from heaven to
earth, and his passing from the Jew to the Gentile and from

194

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

death to life, as Gavanti and Merati inform us. The hereti
cal Jacobites, who refused to use water, invented a baptism
of fire by printing a cross with a hot iron on the cheek or
forehead of the baptized; and the Flagellants used "a
voluntary baptism of blood," produced by violent scourging.
Cross for Preaching. Crosses, at which sermons were delivered,
existed on the north side of Norwich and Worcester Cathe
drals and St. Paul's, and on the south at Hereford. A beau
tiful example remains in the Dominican friary at Hereford.
St. Oswald used to preach at the cemetery cross of Wor
cester.
Crossing. [Crocia; croix.] The intersection of the arms of
a church.
Cross, Market. A vaulted open structure, crowned with a
cross, usually built in the centre of the cross streets, for the
shelter of persons attending market. Examples remain at
Elgin, Chichester, Malmesbury, Congresbury, Salisbury,
Glastonbury, Shepton Mallet, and Cheddar. The cross of
Winchester is pyramidal, with statues. The staple cross
still remains near Christchurch (Hants). At the market
cross of Chichester, by Bishop Sherborne's endowment,
people were regaled with wine on St. George's Day, and
dismissed with the words, " All is over. Pray for Lord
Robert's soul."
Cross, Memorial. A beautiful structure of stone was erected
near Durham, in memory of the victory of the Red Hills,
and called Neville's Cross, whilst a humbler crucifix of wood
marks the spot on which the monks had stood, praying for
the rout of the Scots.
Cross of Absolution. A metal cross, inscribed with a Papal
absolution, buried in graves. Specimens have been found
at Meaux, Mayence, Perigueux, and Bury St. Edmund's.
One of a bishop, c. 1088, is preserved at Chichester.
Cross of Boundary, Wayside, and Sanctuary. Crosses en
graved on boundary stones are mentioned by Louis le
Debonnaire in 807; and standing crosses for the same pur
poses are frequently alluded to in old English cartularies.
Near Hereford, there is a good example, of the fourteenth
century. At Bury and Beverley, the whole precinct was
distinguished at the cardinal points of the compass by tall
crosses. In Cornwall and the Isle of Man crosses are very

CROSS OF CONSECRATION  CROSS OF PRELATES. 195
common; in the former county they sometimes have a
rounded head. One at Towednack has a curious double-
incised cross, like a patriarchal cross, which may mark the
boundary of a religious house. St. Burian's has a church
yard cross of the thirteenth or fourteenth century ; and at a
little distance a sanctuary cross, with a crucifix; At Battel,
as late as the seventeenth century, the boundaries were
marked by watch crosses. There is a wayside cross, of the
fourteenth century, in Burleigh Park.
Cross of Consecration. Twelve crosses were made by the
bishop with chrism at the dedication of a church, which were
afterwards cut in stone (usually within a circle or quatrefoil),
or distinguished by colour. Of the latter kind, one occurs
in the Palace Chapel of Chichester ; and, simply cut, in two
choir chapels of the cathedral ; and, of more ornamental
character, there are examples at Salisbury, Ottery, Uffing-
ton, Moorlinch, Tours, and St. Giles d'lle. At Exeter, two
of the twelve exterior crosses- remain. They do not occur
earlier than the eleventh century.
Cross of Prelates, or Crozier, which reminded bishops of their
duty, as the pastoral staff was for the direction of the laity.
The archiepiscopal cross of Canterbury was distinguished
from the processional cross (which had but one) by two
crucifixes, behind and before. The double-crossed patriar
chal cross, so called, formed by the addition of the scroll,
was used in Greece, but in the West is merely a conven
tional and arbitrary invention of painters (it resembles, how
ever, the cross of Lorraine) ; and the triple-barred cross of
the Pope is equally modern and unauthorized. The cross
was carried by a subdeacon in front of Pope Leo IV., when
he rode on horseback, according to the custom of his prede
cessors. The Archbishop of Ravenna was allowed to have
his cross borne before him throughout his province, and
within three miles of Rome. Augustin entered Canterbury
with a cross borne before him ; Thomas a Becket was pre
ceded by his silver cross ; and St. Anselm refused to allow
the Archbishop of Dublin such a privilege in England;
whilst Archbishop Peckham, in 1279, excommunicated all
persons selling victuals to the Archbishop of York, if the
latter persisted in having his crozier carried in- state within
the province of Canterbury. After the ninth century,
o2

196 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
legates apostolic were permitted to enjoy this distinction;
and in the twelfth century, it was extended to metropolitans
who had received the pall ; but in the thirteenth century,
it became common to all archbishops. Celestine III. and
the Council of Lateran, in 1213, granted the use of the
banner of the cross to be carried before the Patriarchs of
Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, except in the city of
Rome. The cross-bearing is a prerogative, not an act of
jurisdiction, but simply a sign of honour and reverence due
to a dignity. The Bishop of Lucca wears the paU, and, like
the Bishop of Pavia, has his cross carried before him by
grant of Alexander II., 1070; his canons walk mitred in
processions, like cardinals. The kings of Hungary also
carry the cross, in memory of King Stephen, to whom it
was granted, in 1000, by Pope Sylvester II. The Arch
bishop of Nazareth had the right of using the cross every
where ; and the Archbishop of Toledo throughout Spain.
In 1452 Booth, of York, by a compact made in 1353, gave
an image of himself to Canterbury, having carried his cross
within the province. The Bishop of Funchal, on certain days;
has a crozier carried before him, instead of the staff, in
memory of the See having once been metropolitan. The
Pope never carries a crozier, unless he should be in the
diocese of Treves, where St. Peter is said to have given his
staff to its first bishop, Eucherius. The reason is, that the
bend at the top of a crozier betokens restricted jurisdiction,
whilst the Pontiff claims unlimited sovereignty. It is cer
tain, however, that originally he received a ferula, or staff,
at his inauguration. The Bishop of Capetown was the first
colonial metropolitan who carried a crozier. There is a fine
crozier of the fifteenth century at Toledo, the guion which
Cardinal Mendoza, in 1492, planted on the Alhambra; and
another, with enamel work, at Cologne. Ragenfroi's cross,
of the twelfth century, with Goliath in the head, is at Good
rich Court ; a third, with enamel and figures, is in the
British Museum.
Cross on Spires. The usual crest of a spire is a cross set
upon a circle or mound to represent its empire over the
world. The cross of Amiens dates from 1526. Over
the cross is usually a cock. At Edinburgh and Newcastle
the tower is covered with an actual crown of stone.

CROSS, OR ROOD CLOTH — CROWN. 197
Cross, or Rood Cloth. (1.) A veil or hanging drawn in front
of the rood-loft. (2.) A cloth to cover the images of the rood
in time of Lent, that could be raised, lowered, or drawn
aside by a rope.
Cross, Pectoral. (Crux collaris, enholpion, periama.) A cross
worn by a bishop on his breast, in imitation of the high-
priest's heart-plate, or the gold plate upon his brow, ac
cording to Innocent III. The Greeks call it the enkolpion.
It is not reckoned among the episcopal ornaments by that
Pope, Aquinas, or Durand, although it was worn in their
time, and at an earlier date by St. Gregory of Tours, Rottard,
Bishop of Soissons, at a council in 863, Pope Leo III. in
811, and St. Alphege of Canterbury in 1012. In the four
teenth century prayers were enjoined to be said when it was
put on ; and probably at that date it became an ordinary
mark of a bishop, worn on his breast, as the stole, which
symbohzes Christ's cross, is laid on the shoulders of a
priest. St. Cuthbert's crosses are still preserved at
Durham.
Cross, Red or Blue. The mark set on houses infected in times
of plague.
Cross Week. The days of the rogation were so called in
1571 ; the name formerly designated the week in which the
Invention of the Holy Cross, May 3, was kept.
Cross, Weeping. One at which penance was performed.
Crown. The symbol of victory and recompense (Rev. ii. 10 ;
2 Tim. iv. 8) was the emblem of martyrdom : first the cross
was crowned, and then crowns of laurel, flowers, palm, or
precious metal were suspended or carved over the tombs of
martyrs and confessors. Sometimes the Divine hand offers
the crown; sometimes two crowns are represented for a
virgin martyr; or doves carry crowns of olive, emblems of
peace bought by the martyr's triumph; or the palm and
cross are associated, to represent the merit, the labour, and
prize. Hence came the hanging crown of light ; and the
" oblations," the representation of the Blessed offering their
crowns to the Redeemer. The Christian emperors gave
their soldiers crowns of laurel, adorned with the monogram
of Christ. Clovis II., in 508, Canute at Winchester, and
Henry II. offered their crowns at the altar, and never wore
them again. Two of the most ancient royal crowns now

198 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
extant are those of Charlemagne of the ninth century, at
Vienna, and St. Stephen of Hungary, consisting of two
parts; one sent by Sylvester II. to that king in 1000, and
the other, of Byzantine workmanship, the gift of the Em
peror Michael Ducas, and about eighty years later in date.
The famous iron crown of Lombardy, long preserved in the
Treasury of Monza, the gift of Theodolinda, c. 616, is of the
sixth century, and remarkable for its enamels and the thin
rim of iron, said to have been made out of a nad of the true
cross, which is attached to it on the inside, and is the origin of
its name. A number of gold votive crowns, of the seventh
century, found at Guerrazar, are now in the Museum of
Clugny. The Archbishop of York always crowns the Queen
Consort.
Crown of Saints. The origin of the aureole, which was at a
later period placed about the head, instead of being carried
by a dove, or laid on a pillar ; sometimes two are repre
sented — one for chastity, the other for martyrdom.
Crown of Thorns. In the catacombs the triumphal sentiment
rather than that of suffering is often seen ; as, for instance,
the Roman soldiers are seen crowning the Saviour's head
with flowers, as though the thorns had blossomed. The
Saviour's head is said to have been bound with the buck
thorn, rhamnus nerpruna, the Arabic alhausegi, and the
spina sancta of the Italians. St. Louis IX. was believed to
have brought it to Paris, where it was preserved in the
Sainte-Chapelle.
Crowns of Candles and Tapers, or, as they were often called in
France and Greece, phares, in distinction to canthari, or oil
lamps, were at an early date suspended in the choir; they
were circles covered with tapers or lamps, hung by chains
or ropes from the vault. At Tours a standing lamp, with
three tapers, is a lingering relic of the custom in France,
where glass lustres are now common, but the hanains' crown
has been revived in England. At Aix-la-Chapelle there is
an octagonal crown of the latter part of the twelfth century,
which was the gift of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa ;
it is made of bronze, gilt, and enamelled, and supports small
circular and square towers, which serve as lanterns, sixteen
in number; between them are courses of tapers tripled,
making in all forty-eight lights. It appears to descend from

CROWNS OF CANDLES AND TAPERS. 199
the dome, as from the vault of heaven, over the tomb of
Charlemagne. Another crown of great beauty, the gift of
Bishop Odo, brother of William of Normandy, adorned the
choir of Bayeux, until its destruction in 1562. The earliest
on record is that given by Pope Leo, which was made of
silver, and- had twelve towers and thirty-six lamps. An
other, of cruciform shape, was hung before the presbytery
of St. Peter's at Rome, and lighted with 1370 candles, by
Pope Adrian. Constantine gave a pharus of gold to burn
before St. Peter's tomb ; and Leo III. added a lustre of
porphyry, hung by chains of gold, to burn before the con
fession of the Apostles. Sixtus III. gave a silver pharus
to St. Mary Major; Hilary presented ten to St. John La
teran ; and Walafrid Strabo mentions one hanging by a cord
before the altar at St. Gall. At Durham, in the twelfth
century, we read that in honour of St. Cuthbert lights were
arranged like a crown round the altar, on the candelabrum,
and lighted on greater festivals. This is the earliest in
stance in England. Crowns had little bells, called clamac-
teria, pendent from them. The corona, the luminous crown
or circlet of lights, whether a single hoop or a tier of many,
is the most beautiful of all modes of lighting, — hanging and
flashing Hke a cloud of fire before the sanctuary in some
grand cathedrals, such as those suspended in the midst of
the choir of St. Remi at Rheims, Clugny, Toul, and Bayeux,
and representing the heavenly Jerusalem with its gates and
towers, and angelic warders. The crown of Hildesheim, of
the thirteenth century, is of large dimensions, and is en
riched with statues ; thirty-six oil lamps burn upon the
double gateway towers; seventy-two wax tapers, arranged
in threes, blaze on the intermediate battlements ; when
these hundred and eight lights, like diamonds of living fire,
are seen from a distance, they fuse into a disk -Hke glory, or
a sun to which the inscription alludes, being as beautiful as
the marigold windows of brilliant glass, which are, in point
of fact, crowns in the form of a nimbus, set vertically, and of
another kind. In the Greek churches now there is often a
wooden cross, hung with ostrich eggs, suspended from the
dome, which, almost in mockery of ancient splendour, is
furnished with lights upon festivals. Formerly hanging phari
burned before the altar ; a. lustre of seven branches in the

200 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
centre of the church, and twelve lights on the sides of the
chancel-screens. The Hghts arranged along the rood-beam
were only another form of the crown, in a right line instead
of a curve. Three or seven lights typified the divine graces,
and twelve the Glorious Company of the Apostles. At the
Temple Church (Bristol), there is a beautiful crown, with
twelve branches ; on the top is the Blessed Mother and the
Holy Chdd, and under them are St. Michael and the dragon.
A luminous cross of copper, with intersecting arms, and oil
lamps hanging by chains, of the thirteenth century, is sus
pended under the dome of St. Mark's (Venice), and is lighted
on great festivals. A Perpendicular crown, formerly at VaUe
Crucis Abbey, and now at Llanarmon, has a figure of the
Blessed Virgin, canopied, and four tiers of branches for Hghts.
Crucifix. No existing monument at Rome, it has been said,
before the fifth century, exhibits a cross either of the Latin or
Greek form ; one of Tau shape occurs in 370. The bare cross
never appears before the middle of that century ; and those
found in the catacombs were the work of pdgrims, more
pious than intelligent, in comparatively recent times. A
portrait of the Saviour in the middle of a church, is men
tioned in Lactantius. It was necessary to be very guarde d
in the use of the cross, and its earliest form is that of four
gammas united in the centre like a rude saltier ; but pos
sibly, about the fourth century in Africa and distant coun
tries, the cross may have been used more freely. It ap
peared as the ansata of Egypt on the coinage of Valen-
tinian I., who died in 375 : and on that of Constantine,
struck at Aquileia and Treves ; and as a cross on some
Italian monuments of the fourth century. In the time of St.
Paulinus of Nola it was painted amidst crowns, and is re
presented as jewelled on mosaics at St. Vitalis (Ravenna) ;
and in the Papacy of John I., who died 400, was carried in
procession. The next step was to exhibit the allegorical
Lamb, with the attributes of the Saviour, the monogram,
and the bare cross, which, in the sixth century, received a
development ; first the Lamb carries the cross-banner, then
as it had been slain, is lying at the foot of the cross ; next,
bleeding from the riven side and pierced feet; at last,
painted in the centre of tho cross, only to give place to the
figure of the Redeemer. In the famous Vatican cross the

CRUCIFIX. 201
Saviour appears in half-length, holding a cross ; on the cruets
of Monza, the gift of Gregory the Great, the Saviour's head,
with a cruciform nimbus, and a cross, flowering, are hesi
tatingly represented ; in another He appears with extended
arms, the cross only being wanted. Then the cross,
jewelled or flowering, was portrayed below the Saviour's
bust or above a lamb. Ou the pectoral cross of Monza of
the same date, the actual crucifix appears in enamel ; at first
it was simply etched in outline, then it was painted on
wooden crosses ; at length, in the ninth century, in the
pontificate of Leo III., it became a bas-relief St. Gregory
of Tours mentions a painted crucifix which had a loin-cloth
at Narbonne, c. 593 ; and Fortunatus speaks of one in relief
— the first on record — in 560. In the East the Council of
Constantinople, in 680 and 692, prescribed historic repre
sentation in lieu of emblems, and then, probably, the Greeks
first used the crucifix even in delineation, and its use was
confirmed by Adrian I. The earliest crucifix in the cata
combs is said to be of the end of the eighth, though others
refer it to the seventh century. There is a painting of one
in a Syrian gospel, c. 586, preserved at Florence. In 706
Pope John VIL, a Greek by birth, consecrated the first
crucifix in mosaic in St. Peter's at Rome, although an
earlier portraiture of the kind has been alleged to have been
traced to the time of John V., c. 686. However, it was not
generally admitted into the sanctuary until the pontificate of
Leo III. It occurs on the marble pulpits of Pisa and Si
enna, wrought by Nicolo Pisano in 1260-7. Benedict Bis-
coss brought back from Rome to England a picture of the
crucifixion ; but St. Augustin, when he entered Canter
bury singing litanies, was preceded by a silver cross and a
picture of Christ. The crucifix was set on the altar at King
Charles I.'s coronation. There is a Norman crucifix still
remaining on the west waU of the transept of Romsey, near
the south cloister door. There is a crucifix upon church
crosses at Sowerby, St. Burian's, and Bitterley. A very
remarkable specimen of a raguly cross exists in a hermit's
cave at Cardiff Tor, with a lamp-niche near it ; another in
stance of the raguly cross and crucifix, with a dove on the
top, occurs on a monument at Bredon. The altar crucifix,
paten, and a portion of the processional cross, with a lantern

202 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
carried before the viaticum and in funerals, are preserved at
Malen, Isle of Man. At first the Saviour was represented
in a colobium, with sleeves, and reaching to the feet, as in
those of Lucca, Louvain, Ratisbon, Rheims, St. Denis, Sen-
lis, and Langres. In the ninth century the gradual baring
of the figure commenced ; it was portrayed always as living
until the eleventh century, but as dead, or with agony de
picted in the face, afterwards. The earliest extant example
of this occurs in a fresco of St. Urbino, above the valley of
Egeria, c. 1104. No crucifix in bronze dates before the
tenth century ; and possibly the rule of the Councd of By
zantium, in 692, enjoining historic rather than symbolic
treatment of sacred subjects in art, may have led to their
adoption; but it was not until 1754 that Benedict XIV.
made them an indispensable accessory of the altar. Few
Italian crucifixes are more ancient than the fourteenth cen
tury, except that painted on cloth, stretched on a wooden
cross, c. 1020, in the Vallombrosans' Church at Florence;
another in the Dominican Church at Naples ; and the wooden
crucifix of Nicodemus at Lucca, which is clothed like
that of Sienna, and said to have been carried before the
army at the battle of Montaperti, in 1260. A crucifix in
relief, c. 888, on an ivory triptych, given by Agdtruda to
the monastery of Rambona, is now in the Vatican Museum.
The Saviour is supported on a tablet called the suppedanea
(footstool), and His hands and feet are affixed to the cross
with four nails, the number indicated or expressly men
tioned by St. Cyprian, Gregory of Tours in the sixth century,
and Innocent III. ; and it is borne out by the ancient spe
cimens at Monza and Pisa ; but in and after the thirteenth
century, three only are depicted. Cimabue and Marga-
ritone at Florence first represented the Saviour's feet laid
one on the other; an ancient medal portrays His legs
crossed. The famous Vultum de Lucca, by which Rufus
swore, is a crucifix of the eighth century, clothed in a dark
priest's robe ; it may be of Byzantine workmanship.
Cruet. (Urceolus, amula, burette.) A vase for holding the water
and wine used at Holy Communion. John de Garlande,
writing c. 1080, says there should be two cruets — one for
wine, the other for water. The ancient cruets were very
rarely of crystal or glass, and generally of enamelled copper,

CRYPT. 203
and, in consequence, about the fourteenth century, were
distinguished by the letters V and A to mark their contents.
Several ancient examples are preserved, — one of the thir
teenth century at Paris ; one, in the form of an angel, of the
fourteenth century, at Aix-la-Chapelle ; and another of the
fourteenth or fifteenth century in the same cathedral, silver
gilt. Sometimes the handle was made in the form of a
dragon. After the time of the Renaissance the cruets were
made of "transparent material ; there was one at Grandmont
Abbey, however, of crystal, mounted in silver, of the thir
teenth century, with an eagle engraved upon it. A cruet
for od, in bronze, used at the coronations of the emperors,
and shaped like an antique bust, is preserved in the Trea
sury of Aix-la-Chapelle. Four of silver, of the ninth cen
tury, are preserved in the Vatican ; they are of classica
form.
Crypt. The earHest crypts which we possess are those of
Hexham and Ripon. They contain entrances ; one used
exclusively by the priest serving at the altar, the others for
the ascent and descent of the worshippers, and opening into
a chapel containing relics and recesses for an altar. In the
wall are niches, with funnel-headed openings for lamps. At
Winchester, a low, arched doorway, below the screen of the
feretory, led down to the relic chamber, which was in con
sequence called the Holy Hole. ^ In later times, aumbries
and secret hiding-places for plate and treasures were gene
rally provided. In the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth
centuries, crypts became developed into magnificent sub
terranean churches, like those of Canterbury, Gloucester,
Rochester, Worcester, Winchester; St. Peter's, Oxford;
Bayeux, Chartres, Saintes, Auxerre, Bourges, Holy Trinity,
Caen ; St. Denis, Ghent ; Fiesole, Padua, Florence, Pavia,
Palermo, and Modena. The earlier examples are of mode
rate dimensions, resembling cells, as in the pre-Norman
examples at Lastingham, at St. Mellon, at Rouen, of the
fourth century ; St. Maur, and Faye la Vineuse. After the
fourteenth century the crypt was replaced by lateral chapels
built above ground. In fact all crypts — called in some
places the crowds, — -the shrouds or undercroft, were built to
put Christians in remembrance of the old state of the Pri
mitive Church before Constantine. The crypts of the

204

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Duomo and St. Ambrogio, Milan, Parma, and Monte
Cassino, are still used as a winter choir; and the parish
church of St. Faith, in the shrouds of St. Paul's, was oc
cupied until the Great Fire. Several of our largest cathe
drals, built on unfavourable sites for excavation, as Durham
and Chichester, have no crypt. The crypts of Winchester,
Rochester, Gloucester, Worcester, and Canterbury were all
made before 1085 ; and after that date the construction of
crypts was laid aside, except where they were a continuation
of existing buildings, as at Canterbury and Rochester.
There is, however, an exceptional Early English example
under the Lady Chapel of Hereford, and one of Decorated
date at Waltham. A curious Decorated contrivance for
erecting a crypt in an earlier church, which was never de
signed to have one, may be seen at Wimborne Minster,
where the crypt under the presbytery lies open to the aisles.
At.Bosham and Dorchester (Oxon) there is a small crypt in
the south alley of the nave, under a raised platform, for an
altar or chapel, which is only another specimen, on a much
smaller scale, of the same principle which, at Lubeck, Hil
desheim, Naumberg and Halberstadt and Rochester and
Canterbury, left the crypt floor on a level almost with the
nave, and raised the choir level to a great height, enclosing
it with stone screens. At Christchurch and Gloucester
there was a crypt under each arm of the cross, except the
western one. At Auxerre and Bourges the crypt, like the
subterranean church of Assisi, was useful as a construc
tional arrangement to maintain the level of the choir. Oc
casionally the crypt assumes rather the character of a lower
church, as in the Sainte-Chapelle, Eton, and St. Stephen's,
Westminster. There is no example of a crypt in the Pe
ninsula or Ireland, and Scotland possesses only one at
Glasgow. At Westminster, Glasgow, and Wells, there is a
crypt under the chapter-house, which contained an altar.
The crypt was frequently brilliantly lighted on great fes
tivals, and its chapels were constantly thronged with pil
grims and visitors, so that at present we can hardly por
tray to ourselves, in their cheerless desolation, that once
they were much frequented places of prayer.
Culdees. (Golidei, as Giraldus Cambrensis Latinizes the word
when speaking of those of Bardsey and Tipperary ; or rather

cup — curate. 205
gille-de, God's children ; or kyll-dce, the house of cells.) Wor
shippers of God ; communities of secular priests and canons in
Scotland, mentioned first in the ninth century. They held
the cathedrals of St. Andrew's, Dumblane, and Brechin until
the thirteenth century, and until Henry I.'s time survived at
York ; and at Armagh till the reign of Elizabeth, where they
were vicars choral, their chief or prior being the precentor.
Fordun, in the fourteenth century, invented the legend of
the Culdees being monks and priests without bishops. In
the Columban monasteries the resident bishop exercised all
episcopal functions, but was subject to the abbot, being
under monastic rule. But this subordination lasted only
whilst the whole Scottish Church was monastic ; whereas in
the Roman Church everywhere the episcopate was supreme,
but the monasteries were always seeking exemption from
the rule of the diocesans.
Cup. The English name for the repository or vessel contain
ing the Host in the pyx, used by Matthew Paris and in the
inventories of St. Paul's and other churches.
Cupella (from cupa, a cinerary urn) . The smaller loculi, used
for the burial of children in the catacombs.
Cupola. A small dome. From the same root as cup, meaning
hollow, and cap or cop, high.
Curate. A clerk having cure of souls. Until the fourth and
fifth centuries in the East there were country curates, and
St. Cyprian mentions town clergy. In the large cities, from
the fourth to the fifth century in the East and at Rome, the
churches had their ow-n priests, who instructed the people,
the communion being given only in the cathedral. In the
beginning of the fourth century Pope Marcellus established
twenty-five titles for preparatory instruction before baptism
and reconciliation of penitents. In the Greek Church cardi
nal priests discharged the same duty. In the beginning of
the fifth century the bishop sent the Eucharist for distribu
tion to the parish priests : then by degrees the latter
received power to reconcile penitents in case of necessity
and heretics in danger of death, in the absence of the bishop ;
to visit the sick, to administer extreme unction, and to
choose singers. In the seventh century they augmented or
diminished the number of assistant clerks according to the
condition of the church revenues, as in the sixth century

206 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
they had received authority to celebrate in their churches
and oratories, chapels of ease required by the increase in the
numbers of the faithful. The bishops gradually regarding
them as fellow-workers, subordinated their assistants to
them in all touching divine worship and burial. It was not
until the close of the sixteenth century in England that the
word was restricted to assistant clergy, deputies, or substi
tutes. In France the latter are still called vicar.s,. In Eng
land in the Middle Ages the distinction was drawn between
temporary and perpetual curates.
Cusp. Guspis, a spear point ; or genesse, the projecting part of
the foliation or curve in Gothic tracery.
Custos. (Warden.) The treasurer or chief sacristan in a
foreign cathedral. There were also various custodes : the
custodes ordinis, the great monastic officers, the third and
fourth priors, who acted as the rounds ; the custos feretri,
the shrine keeper; the custos operis or fabrice, the canon
in charge of repairs of the building in secular cathedrals ;
the four custors at Exeter, attendants in the sacristy, bell-
ringers, and marshalmen in processions ; and the custos
puerorum at Salisbury, a canon wJbo had the supervision of
the choristers.
Daily Celebration of the Holy Communion is mentioned in
Acts ii. 42-46 ; and by Tertullian, St. Cyprian, St. Ireneeus,
St. Ambrose, St. Gregory, and Stephen of Autun, and is pro
vided for in the Church of England.
Dais. (I.) Tabernacle work, canopies. (2.) The raised plat
form for the principal table in a hall, hence called the high
table. (3.) The canopy over a president's chair. The stall
like seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury remains at May-
field, and forms the centre of the table.
Dalmatic. A tunicle, originally reaching to the feet, with
large sleeves as long as the elbow, introduced authoritatively,
according to Alcuin, by Pope Stephen in place of the
colobium (kolobos), which was sleeveless but had a cowl, being
a tight scanty tunic worn, by effeminate civilians and senators,
and resembling the Greek sakkos. The dalmatic has the
form of a cross ; and is white in colour, in memory of the
Incarnation. It was sometimes decorated with calliculse.
It has two red bands behind and before, as symbols of Chris-

DALMATIC. 207
tian love, and two purple stripes to represent the blood of
Christ. The sleeves originally had double stripes at the
wrist. Each side has large fringes, symbolizing the active
and contemplative life. It derived its name from Dalmatia,
where it was first made in the second century, and was a
royal vest worn by Commodus and some other emperors.
It resembles the Greek stoicharion. It was formerly re
stricted to the use of deacons at Rome, but about the tenth
century it was adopted as the proper habit of deacons on
Sundays. Ferrarius says the white tunic or camisia was
girdled, and was replaced by this dalmatic ; and Amalarius
informs us that it was originally a military dress ; but it was
worn by bishops in the time of St. Cyprian, and the body of
St. Cuthbert, buried in 687, was found clad in a purple dal
matic. It was at first the vestment of the Pope when he
officiated pontifically, as in the time of St. Gregory the Great.
At an earlyperiod its use was permitted to bishops as a distinc
tion and reward of service, and at their request to deacons.
Vienne in the time of Zacharias, and in the pontificate of
St. Gregory, and Orleans in that of Symmachus, received
the privilege as the pledge of communion with Rome. Until
the time of Adrian I. deacons of the Gallican Church used
only the albe and stole, and up to the fifth century it was
reserved to bishops and priests elsewhere than at Rome,
where it was the mark of deacons. In the following century
it was granted generally to deacons. Strabo, in the ninth
century, mentions that priests, in imitation of bishops, wore
dalmatics under their chasubles ; and until the close of the
last century the celebrant at Orleans preserved the custom.
Kings, being consecrated with chrism and permitted to bear
their part in religious services, were aUowed the use of the
dalmatic. It is stiU worn by the sovereign of England at a
coronation as a supertunic over the tunic surcoat or colo
bium. In this country there appears to have been no per
ceptible difference between the dalmatic and tunicle, although
the latter, which was appropriated to subdeacons, is said to
have been shorter and less full-sleeved than the former.
Probably as the gospeUer and epistoler were ranged on
either side of the celebrant, for the sake of uniformity it was
considered desirable to permit no marked dissimdarity in
costume. The hanging plaits now worn represent the an-

208 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
cient full-sleeves. Several tunicles and dalmatics of the
fourteenth century are preserved at Spires, and some, for
merly at Waterford, are now at St. Mary's, Oscott. The
dalmatic of the time of Leo III., or at least of the ninth
century, and of Greek manufacture, at St. Peter's, Rome, is
vulgarly called the cope of Pope Leo, whereas it was worn
by the emperors when created, at their coronation, canons of
that basilica. It is of blue sdk, embroidered in silver, gold,
and silk thread of various colours, with figures, groups, and
sacred subjects. The emperors at their coronation, being
created canons of St. Peter's, put on dalmatic cope, sandals,
and mitre ; and, after receiving the crown, officiated as sub
deacon at the Mass which followed. All the ancient speci
mens had orphreys, apparels on the breast and shoulders,
and ornamental fringes.
Damascene. Ferruminatio, the ornamentation of iron or steel
with designs made with the use of acids, and afterwards
filled up with gold or silver. The name of this art is derived
from Damascus, which was famous for workers in this art.
Dance. As early as the ninth century Pope Eugenius II. pro
hibited dancing and singing base songs in church ; and St.
Augustine mentions that dancers invaded the resting-place
of St. Cyprian at night and sang songs, but that, on the
institution of vigils, the vile practice ceased. In 858
Gautier, Bishop of Orleans, condemned the rustic songs and
women dancers in the presbytery on festival days. In 1209
the Council of Avignon prohibited, on the vigils of saints'-
days, theatrical dances and secular songs in churches. After
the capture of Constantinople, in the fourth crusade, the
Latins danced in St. Sophia. Sir T. More speaks of women
dancing and singing ribald songs in English cathedrals. At
Seville still, on the Immaculate Conception, the last three
days of the carnival, and the feast of Corpus Christi, the
ten choristers or Seises, dressed in the costume of pages of
the time of Philip III. and plumed hats, dance for half an
hour, to the clinking of the castanets, a grave measured
minuet within the iron screens in front of the high-altar, in
blue and white for the Blessed Virgin, and red and white
for Corpus Christi. At the conclusion the organ peals out,
the bells ring, and the veil is drawn before the Host. At
Christmas, in Yorkshire, so lately as Aubrey's time, there

DANCE OF DEATH. 209
was dancing in churches with songs of Yule, Yule. The
custom may probably be traced to King David, as recorded
in 2 Sam. vi. 14, which is more than can be said for the monks
of Peterborough, who were delated to the Bishop of Lincoln
for dancing in their dormitory at late hours of the evening,
in the fifteenth century. In 1212 processions danced round
the churches of Paris, and women danced in the cemeteries.
A councd at Bayeux, in 1300, and another at Bourges, in
1286, condemned dances which took place in churches and
churchyards. There was a curious custom in France for
priests to dance with women after celebrating their first
Mass. On the Feast of Fools dancings were made by the
vicars in the porches of French cathedrals. In the fifteenth
century the faculty of theology branded as bad priests
those who danced in the choir masked and disguised in
women's dresses during the divine office, whilst the clerks
indulged in coarser levities. About the same time, in private,
they laid aside their scutaries before putting on pourpoint
and dyplers. Cardinals joined in the dance : those of Nar-
bonne and St. Sauveur, in 1501, at Milan before Louis XII. ;
and the Cardinal of Mantua, in 1562, in fetes given to Philip
II. at Trent. In 1687 the Jesuits mingled characters sacred
and profane, and entertained the Archbishop of Aix with a
ballet. In 1 702 the nuns of Artois and Cambrai used to put
on men's clothes and dance in their cloister. In England, after
the Reformation, in Queen Elizabeth's time, the lords of mis
rule, between All-haHows Eve and the Purification, and the
summer lords and ladies in May, used to flock on Sundays
and holidays to churches and cemeteries with pipes and drums,
dances, mummings, and masks, bells, and hobby-horses in
the midst of divine service, and then feasted all night in
arbours and bowers. In the seventeenth century the appren
tices and servants of York used to keep a sort of saturnaHa
in the old minster on Shrove Tuesday. ^ (• i S
Dance of Death. A series of pictures in which Death, por
trayed as a skeleton, is the principal figure, and represents
all the animation of a living person, sometimes amusingly
ludicrous, and at others mischievous, but always busily em
ployed. It is interesting, as it exhibits the costumes of all
ranks and conditions of life at the period. Hans Holbein
painted a dance of death in the royal galleries at White-

210 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
hall. There was also a fine example in the cloisters of the
chantry chapel of St. Anne, called the Pardon Church House,
on the north side of St. Paul's in London, which dated from
the reign of Henry V. ; and others were painted in the
cloisters of the Holy Innocents at Paris ; at Basle and Lu-
beck in the fifteenth century, at Minden in the fourteenth
century ; and at Dresden, Leipsic, and Annaberg. In the four
teenth century it is alluded to in the " Vision concerning
Piers Ploughman," and has been said to have been acted as
a spiritual masque by clerks. Prior speaks of "imperial
death leading up Holbein's dance." Possibly it was at
once a memorial of a fatal plague as well as a moral lesson.
It was known also under the title of the Dance Machabre,
either from an imaginary poet of Germany called Macabar,
who was said to have written the appropriate distichs placed
under each set of figures, or more probably from the hermit
saint of Egypt, Macarius, who is still portrayed on icono-
stases of Greek monasteries, as he was frequently introduced.
The English name was Dance of Pouli's (St. Paul's).
Deacon. (Diaconos, a server or minister.) The lowest of the
three sacred orders : his office is to assist the priest in divine
service, and especially to help in the distribution of the Holy
Communion ; to read the Holy Scriptures and homilies in
the church, to catechize youth, to baptize infants in the
priest's absence, to search out the poor and sick, and preach
if admitted thereto by the bishop. The priest only is named
in the latter part of the Litany, and the office of matrimony
and burial. The canonical age for the diaconate is twenty-
three years, unless he have a faculty, and then he must con
tinue a whole year, to the intent he may be perfect and well
expert in things appertaining to the ecclesiastical adminis
tration, except for reasonable causes it shall otherwise seem
good to the bishop. The first deacons (Acts vi. 1-7) were
appointed as almoners or overseers of the poor, and preachers
(Acts viii. 27); but in the Philippians i. 1, and 1 Tim. iii.
8-13, they appear as an ecclesiastical order. By the Fourth
Council of Carthage they were regarded as assistants to the
priest, and their ordination was reserved to the bishop alone
on this ground. In the third century, c. 251, there were
only seven deacons at Rome, and at Saragossa in the time of
Diocletian, — the complement appointed in large cities by the

DEACONESS  DEAN. 211
Council of Neo-Cassarea. In the time of Justinian they were
numerous at Constantinople; and Sozomen says their num
bers varied in other cities. Besides those duties which they
discharge in the Church of England, they also absolved
penitents, acted as the bishops' representatives in councils,
reported to him of the lives of the clergy and laity, collected
alms, and had charge of the martyrs' tombs. They were
called often Levites, and their dress was alb and stole, then
the colobium, and latterly the dalmatic.
Deaconess. (Rom. xvi. 1.) A woman who prepared candi
dates for baptism, watched the women's door and the con
duct of women in church, and visited the sick and poor, like
a modern Sister of Charity. Their chairs, cut in tufa, remain
in the crossway of the catacombs. The usual age of appoint
ment varied from forty to fifty years of age ; occasionally,
in earlier times, it was fixed at twenty years, and usually a
widow was appointed ; imposition of hands and benediction
were employed at their ordination. In the fifth and sixth
centuries the office was abolished in France, and died out
in the Western Church between the eighth and eleventh
centuries, but was retained in the Greek Church for a hun
dred years later. In 1 73 Pope Soter prohibited them touch
ing the sacred plate or incensing the altar.
Dead Man's Chamber. The room in which a dead monk was
laid previous to removal into the infirmary chapel, from
whence he was carried into the chapter-house, where the
last service was said.
Dean. I. By the Benedictine rule deans in monasteries were
subordinate officers presiding over groups of ten monks,
and they are mentioned by St. Augustine and Cassian ; the
canons subsequently adopted the arrangement, which re
sulted in the single dean with cure of souls. Whence we
observe, in order to avoid confusion, that in every Bene
dictine house the prior was the provost, and under him were
the several deans : in the German cathedrals the provost,
as president, was charged with the administration of the
property, whdst the dean was head of the chapter which he
convened, and had the control of the choir and services,
being the spiritual chief, as the other was the head in mat
ters temporal. In the Continental churches, where there
were provosts, the deans, as their inferiors, like those in the
p 2

212 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
colleges of our universities, exercised supervision over the
internal discipline. Lyndwood gives the terms dean, archdea
con, archpriest, provost, as applicable to one office. The
canonists say the various terms of prior, dean, and provost
all mean one thing — a president charged with jurisdiction ;
and in 1126 the provincial canons of Canterbury apply the
designations priory or deanery to the same office.
The word " dean " was a military title, denoting the officer
in command of ten men ; at Constantinople the canons were
called decumans, and the chief cardinal and the highest
auditor rotse are called deans. In conformity with the de
cimal system of tithes and tithings, dioceses were divided
into divisions, or districts of ten churches or parishes, pre
sided over by deans urban and rural ; and the titles passed
into chapters. The transition from dean to provost, or of
provost to dean was smoothed by the fact that the monastic
deans, superintendents of ten monks, praspositi denis, " pro
vosts of tens," furnished food and clothing to them. In
813 the Council of Mayence substituted deans for provosts ;
in 817, by the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle, the provost was
made subordinate to the dean. Chapters having gradually
emancipated themselves from the absolute presidency of the
bishop, changed the name of his immediate vicegerent, till
then known as the provost ; and at Lichfield, until 1222, the
deanery was in the bishop's nomination ; or when princes
and nobles assumed the revenues and title of lay provosts,
abbots, and priors, the word dean was adopted to denote
the spiritual head; and the provosts became financial offi
cers. At Liege there was a " dean of deans." The change
was gradual ; at Rouen in the tenth century, at Upsala and
Urgel it occurred in the thirteenth century, and at Solsona
in 1409. In England the deanery was founded in three
cathedrals in the eleventh century, in five during the twelfth
century, and at Brechin, Dunblane, and Exeter in the thir
teenth century. The Dean of Salisbury held Heytesbury,
and the deanery of Windsor and Wolverhampton were held
together. The dean in England was often the first residentiary, as
at St. Paul's, Salisbury, Lincoln, and Wells ; and at Wells,
Chichester, and Lichfield held a prebend. His seat is on
the right-hand side on entering the choir ; every member on

DEAN. 213
coming in or going out bowed to him in his stall. He cele
brated in the bishop's absence on the great festivals, and
preached on certain occasions ; had the cure of souls, and
supervision of morals ; presided in chapter ; installed digni
taries and canons ; exercised archidiaconal jurisdiction with
the chapter in the prebendal churches, and personally within
the precinct and in the city. He gave leave of absence to
residentiaries for certain times. Untd the Reformation he
was elected by the collective chapter, and the right lasted
at Exeter even in the present century. If he visited a pre
bend he received entertainment for a limited period ; and at
York blessed the ashes on Ash Wednesday, the palms on
Palm Sunday, and the candles at Candlemas, and entertained
forty poor folk dady. A dean is now bound to reside eight
months in the cathedral ; and the recent Act (3 & 4 Vict.
c. 113, s. 3) placed all the deaneries of the old foundation,
except the Welsh, which are in the bishop's patronage, in
the gift of the Crown. Deaneries of the new foundation were
donatives of the Crown. By the Canons of 1603 a dean was
to reside ninety consecutive days in a year. In the new
foundations the dean has the exclusive control of divine
service " cum decoro," i. e. with befitting propriety and ma
jesty. There can be no dean without a chapter ; at St. Burian's
the deanery was preserved when the chapter was extin
guished; at Southwell and Beverley, the Archbishop of
York was virtuaHy, though not nominally, the dean, and,
like the Bishop of Durham, at Bishop's Auckland and
Chester-le- Street, occupied his ordinary stall on the south
side of the choir.
II. Rural Deans. Subordinate, temporary officials, under
an archdeacon, appointed by the bishop, removable by him
and the archdeacon, and holding office only during the life
time of him who nominated them. They are inspectors of
morals and churches, and referees in disputed matters, within
certain assigned districts. In former times they acted as
penitentiaries to receive the confessions of priests, and held
a seal of office in 1237 : a meeting of the clergy under their
presidency is called a rural dean's or ruri-decanal chapter.
In 1571 they were required to instruct the people in sermons.
The rural deans held a similar office to that of the chor-

214 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
episcopus, the rural or inferior archpriest of the seventh and
eighth centuries ; but he is not mentioned until the eleventh
century in England, and then in the laws of King Edward
the Confessor as the bishop's dean with his chapter, in 1064.
The Councd of Tours in 1163 mentions, that in some dio
ceses there were paid deans, or archpriests, vicegerents of
bishops or archdeacons, in matters delegated to them, and
judges in ecclesiastical causes. In Italy the office is un
known. Citations were committed to their care in the thir
teenth century, and in 1281 they were sworn annually in
the bishop's synod not to be guilty of abuses in such mat
ters. In 1222 they were forbidden to demand aid or subsi
dies from the clergy; and in 1200 were desired to visit with
only two horses. By Canons made in 1195, if any person
was suspected of crime he was to be admonished privately
by the dean-rural, then in presence of two or three persons,
or lastly in the chapter, where he might be punished. Some
times they were beneficed within their deanery, but not
in all cases. These deans collected the taxes imposed upon
the clergy.
III. Deans of Christianity. (1.) Delegates of the bishop
in priest's orders, afterwards or otherwise known as officials,
judges ecclesiastical, delegated by the bishop or archdeacon
to hear causes in their courts. From this exercise of eccle
siastical or spiritual jurisdiction, their courts were caUed
Christian Courts, because the bishops were called in the
ancient edicts Christian, and their jurisdiction and courts,
being founded on the law of God and the Church, bore the
same name. (2.) Rural deans. (3.) Capitular deans in the
cathedral cities or prebendal churches and estates.
IV. Deans of Peculiars. There are only two deans of
spiritual promotion — the Rector and Dean of Bocking a
PecuHar of Canterbury, and the Dean and Vicar of Battle —
nominated by the abbot of the monastery as the parish priest,
with archidiaconal power within the leuga or"precinct. There
were similar deans, members of their houses, in the convents
of Carlisle, Evesham, Canterbury, Waltham, and Worcester.
The town monk of Gloucester had similar duties ; and in a
Clugniac monastery the dean was the prior's suffragan and
villse provisor. In Cenignola, in Italy, the archpriest of the
collegiate church claimed similar privileges within his terri-

DECADE — DECORATED. 215
tory. There are several deans in covenant or condition,
some of lay promotion, presiding as commissary or principal
official, having jurisdiction but no cure of souls, within
peculiars of the Archbishop of Canterbury — those of Croy
don, Mailing, Pagham, and Tarring, and the Arches.
V. Dean of the Province of Canterbury. The Bishop
of London, who was so called because he executed the arch
bishop's mandate summoning the bishops to Convocation ;
he is also honorary dean of the chapel, so styled on account
of the dignity of the sovereign, whose oratory it is.
Decade. The tenth bead in a rosary. One formed of brass,
having a disk carved with the sacred monogram, a cross,
and the three nails, was found at Huntingdon.
Decorated Architecture is divided into two periods: (1.)
Early, with geometrical tracery (1300-1325). (2.) Late,
with flowing tracery (1325-75). The characteristics of the
style consist in tracery, which, in the reign of Edward II.,
was reticulated like network ; under Edward III., flowing ;
and, in the time of Richard II., gradually changing into
Perpendicular. At Gloucester, the work resembles the later
style, but the mouldings are still Decorated. The tracery
appears in the orbs, or ornamented spaces upon walls. The
circles become pointed and flowing ovals ; crockets and
finials receive a more undulating outline ; buttresses support
angles obliquely ; pinnacles are square or polygonal, with
crockets and finials ; the vaulting has the main ribs tied
together by transverse, diagonal, and cross ribs ; diaper-
patterns cut in stone are profusely used ; the triforium is a
mere gallery ; bosses are multiplied, and the ribs entangled
on the vaulting. The windows are of large dimensions ;
their tracery formed of geometrical figures ; and, later in the
style, flowing in wavy lines ; while mullions divide the win
dow below into many compartments. The doors resemble
Early English doors, but are not so deeply recessed ; the
arches in large examples are pointed, in smaller of ogee
form ; niched statues are introduced in the jambs ; and win
dows and doors have often triangular or ogee canopies.
The feather mouldings are seldom found wanting. Iron
scroll-work is still employed on doors. Mouldings have
usually large shallow hollows, ovolos, and ogees, the curve
of contra-flexure ; fillets and splays are often used ; round

216 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
mouldings have generally a sharp edge, or are convex in the
middle and concave at the ends ; enrichments are fanciful,
leafage, heraldic, or masks ; arches are drop, equilateral, or
ogee. Stone-work is foliated, i. e. cut into small hollows
like spear-heads ; buttresses are niched, and have triangular
pediments or pinnacles ; pillars, in plan like a lozenge, have
clustered shafts; walls are diapered, and hollows enriched
with ball-flowers — a three-petal flower, enclosing a grenade
or ball (the pomegranate of Castile, or the Temple of Jeru
salem, or, possibly, copied from the bells on the hem of the
priest's robe), or a flattened blossom of four petals ; arches
form equilateral triangles ; and the Lady Chapel is a promi
nent building. The scroll moulding is freely used. Tombs
began to have canopied effigies introduced in the sides ;
slabs to be inlaid with brass, and sepulchral inscriptions
added to them; and later, the sides were enriched with
quatrefoiled panels.
Decretals. Decisions of the Pope in ecclesiastical matters of
law. They were in force until the fourteenth century, when
the Papal influence began to decline.
Defender of the Faith. A title given, October, 1521, by
Leo X. to Henry VIII. The King of France is called the
Eldest Son of the Church and Most Christian ; and the King
of Spain the Most Catholic.
Degrading. To deprive a clerk of holy orders. In 1529
there is a curious ceremony on record, when a bishop scraped
the finger nails of both hands of one Castellane with a piece
of glass, saying that by it was taken from him all the power
which had been conferred by the anointing of his hands at
Ordination. From a priest, the paten, chalice, and chasuble ;
from a deacon, the New Testament and stole ; from the sub
deacon, alb and maniple ; from the acolyth, the taper and
cruets ; from the exorcist, the office of his order ; from the
reader, the lectionary; and from the ostiarius, the church
keys and surplice were taken ; and in all cases the tonsure
was shaven off.
Degree. The steps of an altar, which ought always to exceed
two ; three is the most common number.
Deodand. A gift to God. A personal chattel forfeited to the
king, and applied to pious uses, having been the immediate
cause of a man's death.

DE0SCUIAT0RY  DIACuNICUM MAJUS. 217
Deosculatory. The pax bread.
Deposition. (1.) Death. (2.) Burial of a saint or ecclesiastic,
in the sense of consignment, — the temporary trust of a
treasure to the tomb, in sure hope of another life.
Desk. A low desk for the Litany, erroneously called a ' fald
stool ;' is often placed in the central alley of the church,
before the chancel door, or in the choir of a cathedral or
collegiate church. It is, no doubt, a modification of the
ancient lectern, at which the cantors stood. A small prayer
desk and seat are in a side chapel of King's College, Cam
bridge. At St. Ruan Major there are two carved desk-ends,
for gospeller and epistoler, within the rood-screen, one of
them supported by an angel kneeling. The bishop's desk,
of the early part of the sixteenth century, remains at Palencia.
Despotica. Great holydays in the Greek Church, — Christmas,
Easter, Ascension, Pentecost, Good Friday, Annunciation,
Presentation, Palm Sunday, Transfiguration, Raising of
Lazarus, and the Lord's Baptism, answering to our Trinity
Sunday.
Detached Bell-towers occur at Spalding, Fleet, Berkeley,
Torrington, Pembridge, Bosbury, Richard's Castle, Ledbury,
and Yarpole; Beccles, Walton, Woburn, Mylor, Brynnlys,
Hennlan, Llangyfelach, Gunwalloe, East Dereham, Marston-
Morteyne, Lapworth, Elstow, Magdalen and New Colleges
(Oxford), Dunblane, Kilkenny, Evreux, Groningen, Namur,
and the Jesuits' Church (Antwerp). At Talland a covered
way connects it with the church.
Deviation. An inclination of the direction of the ground plan
of a church to the right or left, symbolical of our Lord's
drooping upon the cross. In some instances, the cause may
be, at first sight, attributed to the inequality of the site, in
very rare and peculiar instances, as at Eastby and Auxerre ;
but even this doubt disappears in view of the fact that De
Caumont found that in one hundred French churches of the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there was invariably a
northward inclination ; whilst in most English churches, the
deflection Hes southerly, as at Geneva and Nevers.
Diaconicum Majus. (1.) The Greek sacristy for keeping the
books, vestments, and plate. It was also called the aspa-
storion or salutorium, because bishops received guests and
visitors in it. (2.) Diaconicum Minus. A vestry with a

218 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
little sub-altar, placed on the right of the high-altar, to hold
candles, fire, incense, vestments, and the eulogies or blessed
bread. Here the celebrant and assistants robed. It was
called also skeuophylakion and bematis diakonikon.
Diadem. An ornamental band round the head.
Diaper. From Ypres or diaspro. (1.) Cloth with a pattern
woven into it. (2.) An ornament of flowers for walls, which
came into use in the eleventh century. Good specimens
occur at Bayeux, Canterbury, Gloucester, Rochester, and
Westminster. In the fifteenth century it passed from the
sculptor into the hands of the painter. At St. Alban's we
discover traces of successive stages of mural enrichment ; —
representation of joints of masonry in the thirteenth century ;
rich diapering of the fourteenth, in imitation of stained
glass ; and in the fifteenth, Scriptural or legendary illustra
tions. At Worcester and Bristol the chapter-houses have
courses of green and white stone, after the Italian fashion of
using particoloured marbles. The chapter-house of West
minster has rich colouring ; and at Gloucester, the great
arcade of the nave was elaborately painted. At Rochester
the shafts and arches were painted red, green, and yellow ;
the whole face of the stone-work was filled with the same
tint, not distinguishing the moulding, both in the nave and
transept. At Carlisle the choir pdlars were painted white,
and diapered with red roses nearly a foot in diameter, with
a gold monogram, "IHC," or "J.M." of the fifteenth
century. In Conrad's "glorious choir" of Canterbury, the
vault was painted like a sky. At Peterborough the Nor
man cieling, — that of Abbot Wheathamstead, at St. Alban's, —
and those at Chichester, and Bolton, of the Early Tudor
period, are good specimens of their style.
Dignity. A term, not earlier than the eleventh century, im
plying pre-eminence in rank, administration with jurisdiction
for life, superior place in choir and chapter. Besides arch
bishops and bishops, deans, by pontifical right, and the
precentor and archdeacon, by common law, are dignitaries ;
so also, by custom, are the chanceUor and treasurer of a
cathedral. Canons are quasi- dignitaries. Dignities were
founded for the preservation of church discipline. In foreign
churches, they are called prelacies. In Spain, dignitaries
had a special stall, but no voice in chapter. Dignities are

DIMITY  DIPTYCHS. 219
conferred by collation. Between the thirteenth and fifteenth
centuries, the dignitaries in Germany prefixed the noble
"Von " to their names.
Dimity. Stuff from Damietta. A kind of fustian.
Diocesan Synod. An assembly of the bishop and his priests
to put in force the canons of general councils, national and
provincial synods, and to agree upon rules of discipline for
themselves.
Diocese. (Greek dioikesis.) (1.) A district subject to the juris
diction of a chief Roman governor. In the Byzantine empire
a union of several provinces or churches under a supreme
viceroy, prsefectus prastorio, who resided in the chief city.
There were four of these divisions. An ecclesiastical dis
trict, in the third and fourth centuries, corresponding with
the civil district, under the rule of the metropolitan arch
bishop, and comprising sees or parochial, parishes of bishops.
(2 .) The district of an individual bishop, including the parishes
presided over by priests. In the Roman empire every city,
with its proasteia or suburb, had its senate and president.
In imitation of this plan the Church had its presbytery and
chief, called apostle, angel, or bishop, with jurisdiction over
the paroikia, corresponding with the civil circuit (Titus i. 5).
A term used during the first three centuries, as by St.
Jerome, St. Epiphanius, and the Councils of Antioch.
Parish priests were established in the towns which had civil
magistrates. The whole empire was divided, at first, into
provinces, under a prsetor or proconsul living in the metro
polis, and then into dioceses, comprehending many pro
vinces, under an exarch, vicar, or imperial prefect. To these
corresponded the metropolitan or primate in the ecclesiasti
cal metropolis and province, and the exarch or patriarch in
the chief city of a diocese. At length the paroikia became
the parish of a priest, the diocese the district of a bishop,
and a province remained primatial.
Diptychs. (Greek, dis, twice, and ptussein, to fold.) (1.) Two
writing tablets joined together. On one were inscribed the
names of the living, and on the other those of the dead ; or
when the leaves became numerous, enclosed within two
covers of ivory ; thus forming the church roll or catalogue
of benefactors and worthies, with the names of the magis
tracy, the clergy, saints, martyrs, confessors, and the faithful

220 • SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
dead, to mark the strict tie and communion that binds in one
the Church triumphant and militant. It was read out by the
deacon during the Holy Communion from the fourth century,
until the names became too numerous for recital, and only a
general commemoration mentioned by St. Augustin was made.
The use of the diptych, if not of apostolical date, is to be traced
to the second century. St. Cyprian alludes to it in the third.
The practice was continued until the twelfth century in the
Western Church, and until the fifteenth century in the
Greek. It is clear, however, that a book of life stood on the
altar at Durham and St. Alban's until the Reformation ; and
even in the seventeenth century, at Chichester, SS. Wilfred
and Richard were commemorated, and a Hst of benefactors
set up in a public place in the cathedral. The diptychs of
Fulda, Amiens, Treves, Aries, and Rambona are preserved.
(2.) A picture which folds together, with ivory sculptured
covers, such as those preserved in the Vatican, at Vercelli,
St. Maximus, Treves, Besanpon, and the Barberini Library.
Sometimes the tablets, according to their number, were
called triptychs, pentaptychs, or polyptychs ; or, from their
use and contents, holy or mystic tablets, ecclesiastical cata
logues, anniversaries, the matriculation roll of the church,
and the book of life or the living. There are several classes
of diptychs : — (1) diptychs of the baptized, a baptismal
register of the citizens of heaven, corresponding to the
Roman fasti, or roll of new citizens; (2) diptychs of the
living, containing the names of the sovereign, clergy, and
benefactors, each in its own column, the titles of oecumenical
councils from the time of Justin I., and names of saints.
The last entries became the origin of calendars and also of
hagiologies or legends ; (3) diptychs of the dead, containing
the names of bishops and other worthies. After the recita
tion of the names by the deacon, the celebrant said the
" Prayer after the Names," or " On the Diptychs," " 0 Lord
and Master, our God, grant these souls rest in Thy holy taber
nacles ; " and in the case of bishops the people replied, " Glory
be to Thee, 0 God." The diptychs were usually read at the
time of commemoration of the dead in the Canon of the Mass,
but in some churches of Gaul and Spain after the Offertory,
where the " Collect after the Names " followed the oblation
by the people. In some places the deacon read out of the

DIRGE  DIVERSITY OF CEREMONIES. 221
diptych from the ambon, or at the foot of the altar; in
others the subdeacon recited it softly to the celebrant, or
behind the altar. In private Masses the celebrant himself
read them. Sometimes names were erased, and heretics in
this way retorted on Catholics. So Theodoret attributes the
reconciliation of the Churches to the restoration of St. Chry-
sostom's name upon the diptychs of Constantinople thirty-
five years after his death.
Dirge. (Dirige.) The use of the Psalm from which the words
dirige gressus meos, " direct my steps," (Psalm cxvi. 9) are
taken has been ascribed to St. Isidore or Gregory. It was
daily said in choir during Lent after the Hours, except on
the three last days of Holy Week ; and frequently at other
times, with the exception of Eastertide. It is now said, by
obligation, in the Roman communion, yearly, on November 2.
It occurs in the Office of the Dead, and was often called the
Placebo, from the antiphon (Ps. v. 8, Vulgate version), or
the vigd of the dead. The word dirge, a funereal song, is
derived from it. The price paid for singing a dirge was a
groat, or fourpence.
Discant. Measured music, pure and simple. (1 .) Two chants,
a double chant, the Greek diaphonia. (2.) The accompani
ment to a chant or melody, — harmony. Part singing with
the principal or leading voice, the tenor, called often the
motet, triplum, and quadruplum, according to the number
of additional voices.
Discharging or relieving Arch. A blind arch built into the
wall in order to relieve the masonry or opening below from
the superincumbent weight.
Disk. The Greek paten, which is larger than that of the
Western Church. At the time of the communion it con
tains the wafer for the priest, with the seal (sphragis) and the
letters ic xc ni ka, the abbreviation of Christ the Conqueror,
within four compartments, of the shape of a Greek cross.
Round the hollow of the disk are the small altar-breads for
the communion of the clergy and laity.
Diversity of Ceremonies. In the Holy Communion different
countries had diverse rites, as the ancient liturgies were
drawn up independently, and bishops added to them what
appeared to be edifying. At length the use of the metro
politan church was ordered to be followed throughout the

222 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
province ; and the Fourth Council of Toledo prescribed one
order in the Mass, Vespers, and other offices to be observed
in Spain and Gaul. About the year 800 Gaul and Germany
adopted the singing of the Nicene Creed from Rome, and
in 1073 Spain adopted the Roman use in great part. In
England the uses of York, Lincoln, Hereford, Bangor, and
Salisbury did not exhaust the diversity of rites; and in
France the various customs are hardly extinct. For instance,
at Lyons as at Milan and by Maronites the amice is worn
outside the alb in Holy Week. The Ambrosian rite at
Mdan, the Mozarabic rite of Toledo, the Benedictine and the
Cistercian uses stand apart from the forms observed by other
Churches.
Divine Liturgy, The, representing the Saviour saying Mass
and served by angels is represented on the walls of the apse
and the drum of the dome in Greek churches, and was imi
tated at Lyons and Rheims. In the latter cathedral the
ideal passed into a ceremonial, for at grand Masses, before
the Offertory, the choristers, dressed like angels, came out
one by one with measured steps from the sacristy and laid
upon the high-altar or a side credence the vessels for divine
service.
Division of Sexes. In 1549 the communicants were "to tarry
still in the choir, or in some convenient place nigh the choir,
the men on the one side and the women on the other side,"
and " all other " were to " depart out of the choir except
the minister and clerks." And in the existing Rubric the
communicants are invited to "draw near." In 1633 Arch
bishop Abbot also desired the communicants after commu
nion " to return' to their seats and places in the church."
In the Jewish Temple the men occupied a different place
from women, and the Christian Church adopted the arrange
ment. At Rome the gospel was read on the south side of
the altar towards the men, whereas St. Augustine says it
was usually read on the north, in allusion to Jer. iii. 12 ;
and the Clugniac deacon turned to the east. In the
basilica the right-hand aisle was allotted to men, and that
on the left to women. Tribunes on this side were occupied
by widows, and the opposite galleries by young religious
women. The separation was no doubt originally an Eastern
arrangement, but was observed at Florence, St. Ambrose

DOCTORS, THE FOUR, OF THE CHURCH  DOLE. 223
(Mdan), St. Mark's (Venice), Modena, St. Michael (Padua),
Andernach, Boppart, and Bonn. At St. Bride's (Kildare)
there were two doors, two chancel arches, and a partition
running along the centre of the nave, from east to west. It
still Hngers in the diocese of Bayeux and many parts of
England. A gallery for women was erected under the roof
of the nave aisles at St. Lawrence, St. Agnes, and the Four
Coronati at Rome. In Brittany men occupy the nave, and
women are seated in the aisles.
Doctors, The Four, of the Church. These are Saints Ambrose,
Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory. The "Angelic Doctor is
St. Thomas Aquinas ; the'Divine Doctor, J. Ruisbroek ; the
Doctor of Grace, St. Austin ; the ''Invincible Doctor, W.
Occham; the Mellifluous Doctor, St. Ambrose; the v Pro
found Doctor, Thomas Bradwardine, Archbishop of Canter
bury; the Seraphic Doctor, Bonaventura ; the Subtle Doctor,
Duns Scotus. The Scholastic Doctors were Aquinas, Scotus,
Gabriel^ Bifl (1480), and Roger Bacon (1270). Doctors of
Divinity had a ring given to them as an ornament of honour
and authority, and appeared in boots as a sign of being
always ready to preach the gospel. They wore scarlet as
the colour of dignity, and were permitted to wear a gold
ring, except when acting as celebrants. fr. &iq
Dog Whipper. An official in many post-Reformation churches
and cathedrals, as Durham and at Ripon ; in Queen Eliza
beth's time, at St. Paul's, he paid a special visit on Satur
days. In the cathedral of Lima there is a per rone. In Ger
many he is called Hundfogde, or Spogubbe, and in France
Roy de l'Eglise. At Amsterdam there is, in the New
Church, the dog-whipper's chapel ; and in Portuguese
churches a common adjunct is the kapella dos execu-
gaes.
Dole. (1.) A boundary, as in the word dolemeads at Bath.
(2.) A distribution, or deal of alms at funerals or on anni
versaries of the dead. Bread is still given every Sunday on
the founder's tomb at Tidswell, and loaves are distributed
at Chichester and in many churches still in pursuance of a
bequest. These were often called the Hvery, i.e. delivered
dole. According to some monastic rules the commons of a
dead abbot were laid before his chair daily, and given to the
poor after hall, for forty days. Casalius says that in his

224 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
time the same practice was prescribed in France at the de
mise of sovereigns and princes of the blood.
Dom. A title of respect given to the Benedictines and canons,
being the short for dominus, the medieval ser (sieur), and
sir of the Reformation, applied to non-graduate priests.
The B.A. of Cambridge is now designated dominus, but the
M.A., as at Oxford, is dominus magister, and the D.D.
dominus doctor.
Dome. A cupola, probably so called as being the distinguish
ing ornament of the cathedral; the Italian duomo, the Ger
man dom, and Latin domus Dei, God's house, the dominicum
of St. Cyprian, Ruffinus, and St. Jerome. The dome is
the necessary constructional development as the fittest
covering for a round building ; at first it had a flattened form ;
as the builders grew bolder it was elevated, and received
additional height by means of a story or drum set under it.
This beautiful ornament was used in pre-Norman times in
England ; it is seen at Valencia, Zamora, Salamanca, Cler
mont, Le Puy, Cahors, Angouleme, of the early part of the
twelfth century ; in Poitou, Perigord, and Auvergne ; at
Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Antwerp, and along the banks of
the Rhine; at Florence (1420), Artor, Venice, Ravenna,
Parma, Piacenza, Verona, Milan, Como, Pavia, and Antwerp ;
in the Santa Sophia of Constantinople, the bulbous domes of
Russia, and the flattened cupolas of the Saracen. It became
the lantern in English Gothic art, but is closely approached
in the superb octagon of Ely. Whether elongated, sphe
rical, or polygonal, it is one of the noblest crowns of the
exterior of a church, and perhaps the most effective in
adding dignity to its interior. Span of domes — Pantheon,
144; Florence, 142 ; St. Peter's, 139 ; St. Paul's, 115; St.
Sophia, 100.
Dominant. The note which most frequently recurs in a Gre
gorian chant or psalm.
Dominical Altar. The high-altar.
Dominical, or Sunday Letter. Seven letters of the alphabet,
from A to G, marking Sundays in the calendar. If Sunday
falls on January 1, then A is the Sunday letter ; but if on a
Saturday, then B; in retrograde order, as in the case of
leap-year, when from March the next letter backward is
taken.

DOMINICANS. 225
Dominicans. The Black Friars or Preachers, an order founded
by St. Dominic of Calagorra, Canon of Osma, in 1205, and
confirmed by Pope Honorius III. in 1216. The rule, a
modification of that of St. Austin, was strict abstinence from
flesh : fasts of seven months' duration, from Holy Cross
Day to Easter, and on all Fridays ; maintenance wholly by
the alms of the faithful; the use of woollen clothes only;
and at first a mere white tunic and scapular, without a cowl.
In time this rigour was abated, and they wore a white serge
tunic, a black cappa or cloak, and a hood for the head ; and
their simple, unadorned chapels became magnificent churches,
rich in every ornament of architecture, colour, and carving.
From their devotion to the Blessed Virgin, they called them
selves at first, until the Pope forbade it, Brothers of the
Virgin Mary ; and they always had a Madonna and crucifix
in their cells. There was a general chapter held annually.
The superior was called master of the order, and the greater
officers, priors and superiors. A Dominican, since the time of
Pope Honorius III. (1216-27), is always master of the sacred
palace, the interpreter of the Holy Scripture, and censor of
books. The order was instituted for preaching at home and
for missions to the heathen ; the crusade against the Albi-
genses and the horrible Inquisition in Spain were carried on
by the Black Friars : the order has produced 1458 cardinals.
It used to take mere children and enrol them before the
conventional age of probation. They held that the Virgin
was conceived in original sin, consecrated Saturdays to her
honour, and were, in scholastic theology, stout Thomists : as
the leader of that party, Thomas Aquinas, was of their order.
Their preaching-cross remains at Hereford, their refectory
at Canterbury, the nave of the church and other buildings
may be seen at Norwich, and part of their convent at Lynn,
Beverley, and Gloucester. There were three divisions of the
order — the preaching friars, who occupied a convent ; clois
tered nuns ; and the mihtia of Jesus Christ, who engaged m
actual war on heretics ; they afterwards admitted brethren
and sisters of the Penitence of St. Dominick, who were ap
proved in 1360 by Innocent VI. Bishop Pecock says they
evaded their rule, which forbade them to touch money, by
counting with a stick. The early Dominican churches were
plain, without images, carvings, or pictures, and provided

226 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
with only one bell. The use of the organ was not common.
Women were not allowed to sit in the choir-aisles, and large
high screens parted off the friars from the congregation, for
whose use, at the elevation of the Host, windows were opened
in these partitions. The lay brothers sat apart. Occasion
ally their churches, as at Venice and Pistoia, were cruciform,
but usually terminated in a square end ; the naves of Perugia
and Spoleto are aisleless, but sometimes they had narrow re
cesses, as at Ghent, or lateral chantries for altars ; or, as at
Pisa, Sligo, Brecon, Kilmallock, Gloucester, and Roscom
mon, a single aisle for the accommodation of the congrega
tion at sermons ; lateral chapels were added at a later date.
Apsidal choirs occur at Monza, Milan, Toulouse, Antwerp,
Oberwesel; and at Paris, Agen, and Toulouse the church
was double, consisting simply of two aisles of equal length.
At Louvaine and Norwich the nave has aisles of the usual
size. The choirs had no aisles. The chapter-house at
Toulouse was apsidal, and had three aisles. They were
also called Jacobins, from their first house in Paris, in the
Rue St. Jacques. In England they established themselves at
Oxford, in 1221. The preacher for the Papal family was a
Dominican, until Benedict XIV. appointed a Capuchin.
This order prays more than any other for the dead, the friars
chanting the " De Profundis" every time they pass through
the cloister.
Dominus Vobiscum. The Lord be with you. The Council of
Braga, 563, said that this form of blessing, with the response,
was retained in the East from the times of the Apostles. It
occurs in Scripture, Judges vi. 12 ; St. Luke i. 28. In early
times the salutation was confined to the faithful only. In
the fourth and fifth centuries the strictness of this observ
ance was relaxed. When the Mass of the catechumens was
joined to the Mass of the faithful the bishops alone used the
form, " Peace be with you," as the representative of Christ ;
whilst a priest said, "The Lord be with you." But in 561
the Council of Braga, and Pope Innocent III. at a later date,
directed the bishop to say Dominus vobiscum, in order to
show that he was a priest as well as prelate. The response
is derived from 1 Cor. vi. 19; xvi. 18; Gal. vi. 18; Rev.
xxii. 17, in allusion to the indwelling Spirit.
Doors. The principal door of a Gothic church fronted the

doors. 227
centre of the nave, but did not receive any ornamental
decoration of sculpture, in France, until the twelfth century,
as at Clugny, Vezelay, and Moissac. About that period, in
France, and in the Early English style, the door was usually
divided into two sub-arches, symbolically of Christ, in His
two natures, as the door; and construction ally, one as an
entrance for persons coming in, and the other as a means of
egress, set under a lintel at the base of the outer comprising
arch. The tympanum, a triangular space between the lintel
and crown of the arch, and the voussoirs, the stones com
posing the arch, were often filled with images and tabernacle-
work ; whilst the older doorways were religiously preserved,
as at Auxerre, Sens, and St. Denis. Bishop Ralph of Chi
chester, in his quarrel with the king, barred the cathedral
door with thorns against the laity. The lateral doors usu
ally present a mere archway, without a central pillar, but
closed with folding-doors. Sometimes they are highly
enriched with sculpture. In cathedrals the north door was
used for the passage of funerals, and by the laity. In parish
churches where there were two, one on the west wall of the
transept, as at Hythe and Sompting, the second was used by
women. The western doors were only opened for the recep
tion of a bishop, the primate, or a sovereign prince. But
there is no such entrance at Romsey, which was the minster
of a nunnery, or in churches with western apses. At Canter
bury the south door was used as a spiritual law court in
early times ; but, as in other cathedrals, where the cloister
was on the north, became the ordinary entrance for lay per
sons. At the church door marriages and the churching of
women were commenced, but from 1549 to 1552 the latter
ceremony was removed to the choir door, where a light was
always kept burning in minsters ; and before it the offending
novices of Bury did penance, lying down to be trodden over
by the convent; and in cathedrals peccant vicars kept
involuntary vigil.
Doors often bore names of saints, as at Paris and Amiens,
or of adjoining buildings, as at Rome. At Paris; Romsey, and
other English churches there were red doors in the transept.
The superb bronze doors of the baptistery of Florence, by
Ghiberti and Andrew Ugolini, cannot be matched even by
those of Aix-la-Chapelle, Mayence, Augsburg, Hddesheim,

228 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
or Novgorod. In the first church of St. Denis, in 1 140, three
portals of gilt bronze adorned its western front; but in
France, throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
the taste of the people achieved what ItaHan artists could
not produce, — statuary such as that which flows over the
portals of St. Denis, Angouleme, Poictiers, Paris, Vezelay,
Autun, Chartres, Sens, Auxerre, Laon, Rheims, and Amiens;
whilst at the same time the richest patterns in wrought-iron
work adorned the doors of the treasury of Sens, of the thir
teenth century, and the great entrances of Paris, of the same
date. Besides these were massive knockers in the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries. The latter were rings, set in a
square or round plate of metal, which, during the fourteenth
and following centuries, became either square or oblong, and
the knocker was moved by the tad of a lion or dragon, as at
Bayonne, of the thirteenth century. The Brazen-noses of
Oxford and Stamford are well known. At Chartres, Aries,
and Provence, lions form the colossal warders of the
doors. The Norman doorways are usually enriched with orna
ment, with various patterns, grotesques, and signs of the
zodiac. The arch is round or segmental; and occasionally
a pediment projects over it. The tympanum has generady
some Scriptural sculpture, or the zodiac, as at St. Mary's
Walmgate, at York. The doors have as their only orna
ment hinges and scrollwork of iron.' The Early English
doorways are almost universally pointed. The panels are
filled with distinct shafts, and the opening divided by a
single or clustered shaft into two arches. The scrollwork of
the doors is more delicate, elegant, and elaborate than in the
former style. TheDecorated doorways are less deeply recessed,
and the shafts are slighter; a weaker moulding over the
arch is common, and the terminations of scrollwork usually
are in the form of foliage. In the Perpendicular period the
square lintel of the outer moulding, the spandrils filled with
carving, small shafts, large spaces in the joints, and panelled
doors are characteristic of the style.
Dormitory. The sleeping chamber, placed under the charge
of the chamberlain in a monastery or house of regular
canons or friars, invariably built either on the west or east
side of the cloister, and with few exceptions, as at Merevale

D0RNYX  DORSAL. 229
and Byland, in the latter position. In the Cistercian houses
the dormitory always adjoined the transept, and extended
over the chapter-house and calefactory. In the Austin
canons' church of Hexham a noble flight of stairs communi
cates with the south wing of the transept ; and at West
minster a bridge afforded communication with the triforium
and staircase, running across the end of the sacristy. At
St. Alban's a confessional recess has been detected at the
foot of the staircase, where the monks were shriven on
descending for matin Mass. In this instance, and at Dur
ham, it was on the west side of the cloister. Occasionally
it stood east and west, at right angles to the cloister, as at
Worcester, Winchester, and Chester. The dormitory was
divided into cells by partitions [called intermedia, which
were introduced by the Clugniacs] from one another, and
from the central alley, by doors, hung with curtains, or
made three-parts of trellis-work. This external screen only
was preserved by the Dominicans, and did not exceed a
cubit in height. Each cell had its own window and book-
desk, used for study during the meridian or noonday repose.
It was furnished with an oaken bedstead, a bolster, rug,
palliasse, blankets, and a coverlet of fur or sheepskin ; with a
round mat at the side, a bench at the foot, and a perch
overhead, on which the monk's day clothes were hung. A
light burned at each end of the chamber, which was strewn
with rushes, hay, or mats. In the centre was a cross, at
which any occupant who disturbed the brotherhood was
required to do penance. A patrol and watchman saw that
order was kept, and the prior visited every cell before
retiring to rest. After matins, for which they were awoke
by a deputed officer, they returned to the dormitory for a
short time, and after dinner were allowed another interval
for repose or study, which was passed in their cells. At a
later date, in the diocese of Winchester, the Austin canons
kept pet birds ; and the nuns of Romsey and some members
of religious houses in Lincolnshire took children into their
dormitories. The monks of Peterborough were once delated
to the bishop of the diocese in the fifteenth century for
dancing in their dormitory at night.
Dornyx. Coarse damask, made at Doornix, or Tournay.
Dorsal, or Dossal. (From dorsum Latin, and dos French,

230 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the back; Germ. Postergule.) (1.) The hinder part of a stall.
(2.) The hanging behind the choir stalls, or an altar, and ren
dered tapecium. At St. Alban's, at the close of the eleventh
century, it was wrought with the martyrdom of the saint ;
and two others, in the twelfth century, represented the
prodigal son and the traveller who fell among thieves. Some
heraldic tapestries were in use behind the stalls of Exeter.
Possibly dorsals were the origin of the linen pattern on
panelling.
Double Chant. An innovation on the ecclesiastical or single
chant, arising out of a mistake made by a deputy-organist at
Gloucester Cathedral in the last century. The earHest in
stances, probably, were those of Turner and Isam, in Dean
Aldrich's collection.
Double Churches. (1.) Those of Monte Subiaco, like that of Assisi,
were due to the peculiarities of the site ; but, in fact, every
minster provided with a crypt formed a double church ; so
did the chapels built in the fourteenth century on the model
of the Sainte- ChapeUe at Paris ; St. Stephen's, Westminster ;
St. Etheldreda's, Holborn; the prior's chapel, Ely; and
that of Chichester House, London, which had an external
approach to the upper chapel. Of the same kind were the
chapels in the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem ; those of Lynn,
Egra, Landsburg ; Ottmar's Kapella, Nuremberg ; Swartz-
Rheindorf, which belonged to a nunnery ; St. Gothard's, at
tached to the transept of the cathedral of Mayence; the
Lady Chapel and St. Michael's loft at Christchurch (Hants) ;
one formerly existing at St. John's, Chester, and another in
the cloister of Hereford : that of St. Cormac's, Cashel ; and
at St. Benignus, Dijon, the baptistery had a Chapel of St.
Mary over it, and in a third stage the Trinity Chapel. The
conventual chapels of Russia are usually double. The lower
chapel served for public worship or a sacristy, whilst the
upper storey contained relics, or, where there is an opening
in the centre, to allow two congregations to attend one ser
vice. In some cases the lower chapel may have served as
the founder's burial-place. (2.) There was a modification in
this plan, in having an upper and lower chancel, the upper
most being used by the principal persons of the congre
gation, as at Compton (Surrey) ; Browne's Hospital (Stam
ford) ; and in noblemen's houses. In the Holy Ghost Church,

DOUBLE MONASTERIES  DOUBLES. 231
Wisby, of the twelfth century, the nave is double, and the
upper storey was used by the nuns of an attached hospital.
The Bridgetines and nuns of Fontevrault attended service
in the upper " doxale," and the men of the order in the
lower building, where two convents had a common church.
Walsingham tells us the women were above, under the roof,
and the men on the ground floor. (3.) The two-aisled
church of Pakefield served for two distinct parishes; and
the Bridgetines of Hovedoun (Norway), had a similar church ;
and in England the Gdbertines assembled in the nuns'
church, being separated from the sisters by a veil. The
Dominican churches of Paris, Agen, and Toulouse were of
two aisles.
Double Monasteries. Separate convents, composed both of
men and women, in the Fontevrault, Gilbertine, and Brid-
getine orders, who met only in church, the monks in the
nave and the nuns in choir; and in yet earlier times at
Tynemouth, Whitby, Repton, Wenlock, Wimborne, Ely,
Barking, and Coldingham, in East Anglia ; at Jouarre, Far-
moutier, Remiremont, Chelles, Les Andelys, in Ireland and
Belgium; in these early Celtic monasteries the monks
acted as chaplains, and were under the abbess, who was
seigneur of the lands.
Doubles. These chief feasts included,, according to the Salis
bury use, * Christmas, * Ascension, * Easter Day, * Whit-
Sunday, and the *two days following the latter festivals ;
* First Sunday after Easter, Trinity Sunday, * Epiphany,
* Annunciation, * Purification, Circumcision, *St. John Bap
tist, * St. Peter, St. Andrew, St. Michael and All Angels,
and *A11 Saints. Those marked with a star were greater
doubles, the rest, with other saints' days and ordinary Sun
days, were semi-doubles. On the doubles the antiphons to
the Benedictus and Magnificat were doubled, that is, sung
entire before and after the canticle, hence the name of these
days ; at other times the initial words only were sung. On
these feasts the choir was governed by four rulers or can
tors, who alternated with the choir in singing the verses of
the Psalm Venite, or invitatory, hence called the quadruple
Invitatory. The doubles had first and second Vespers. The
semi-doubles resembled them in this particular, but the anti
phons were not doubled. All that are preserved in our

232 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
calendar are ordinary Sundays, certain holydays, and those
falling within the octaves of great feasts. In cathedrals of
the new foundation the dean is to officiate on great doubles
and principal feasts, the subdean on semi-doubles, and the
canons on other days.
Dove. A dove, for eleven centuries accepted as the symbol of
the Holy Ghost, was suspended in baptisteries, and over the
altar. ' The earliest example occurs in 359, on a tomb, hover
ing over a lamb, and shedding the divine blessing. The
colour, white, denotes purity; and the crimson feet and
beak denote love; and its nature is gentleness. In the
Baptism of Jordan it showers a bright stream of rays from
its beak. The nimbus is yellow, with red rays, or else the-
rays are black ; sometimes the nimbus is red, and the rays
gold. Occasionally the seven gifts of the Spirit are repre
sented by as many doves, or lamps (Isaiah xi. 1, 2 ; Rev. v.
6, 11, 12). The dove also typifies modesty, humility, gentle
ness, charity, contemplation, prudence, harmlessness (St.
Matt. x. 16) ; apostles, martyrs, mourners (Nahum ii. 7) ;
deliverance of the soul (Ps. cxxiv. 7) ; the devout soul (Song
of Sol. ii. 10) ; and, with an olive-branch in its beak, is
equivalent to the prayer of " Requiem in pace." Amphilo-
chius, in the ' Life of St. Basd,' speaks of a golden dove above
the altar; and in 537 the clergy of Antioch accused the
heretic Severus, in the Council of Constantinople, of having
rifled the font and altar of the gold and silver doves which
were suspended over them. The dove, then used for
reservation of the Eucharist for the sick, no doubt typified
Christ himself, the messenger of peace, — as Tertullian calls
a church the dove's house. The symbol was also often repre
sented on the summit of a cross, as St. Paulinus says, to
typify the opening of heaven to the simple ; and hung about
the tombs of confessors and martyrs, and sometimes by
loving hands over those of friends and relations. In the
Greek Church the dove above the altar is not used for pur
poses of reservation of the Eucharist. Matthew Paris, in
1140, speaks of the dove with the reserved Host falling down
during the time of High Mass, and in the presence of King
Stephen, in Lincoln Minster; and Casalius, in the seven
teenth century, says that the Sacrament was reserved in a
pendent dove at Paris, and in many French churches. The

DOXOLOGY  DRAIN. 233
dove of the baptistery contained the chrism and holy od.
In Italy Cranmer says the Sacrament never was seen hanging
over the altar; and MabiUon also mentions that there the
dove stood on it. It appears that the dove, in such cases,
was enclosed in a tower, usually of silver, as in those given
by Constantine, St. Hilary, and Pope Innocent to Roman
churches. Martene saw one suspended in a monastery at
Tours ; and in the churches of St. Clement, St. Agnes, and
St. Laurence at Rome, the hook is said to remain still on
the ciboria. The Eucharist, wrapped in a napkin, was laid
within the dove, which was placed within a tower, often
crowned with a cover, and then both were placed in the
under-canopy (peristerion), below the great ciborium.
Doxology. (1.) The Greater; the Gloria in Excelsis. (2.) The
closing paragraph of the Lord's Prayer, which occurs in St.
Matthew's but not in St. Luke's Gospel, and is used as an
antiphon in the Greek Church after the Embolismus, which
follows the Lord's Prayer. In the English Church, where
the service is of praise, it is used, but is omitted where the
tone is penitential pr one of prayer. (3.) The Less; the
Glory be to the Father, at once a creed and a hymn. In
some places, as at Manchester Cathedral, the choir turns to
the east during its repetition ; and elsewhere the custom is
to incline the head during the first verse, in imitation of the
angels, who veil their faces when singing to the glory of the
Holy Trinity (Isa. vi. 9). The words, " as it was in the be
ginning," etc., were added in the Western Church, except by
the Spaniards, in the seventh century, who added " honour "
after " glory," as appears by the Canons of Toledo. It is
said that the addition was made by the Council of Nicaea as
a protest against Arianism ; it was certainly ordered by the
Councd of Vaison in 529. The doxology itself is attri
buted to Flavian of Antioch, and was employed by St.
Clement, St. Justin, St. Basil, St. Irenseus, St. Dionysius,
St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, and Firmilian. In the West it
was recited after every psalm, but at the end of the last only
in the East. The use of this hymn occurs in the rule of St.
Benedict in the sixth century.
Drain. (Piscina [the Roman bath] , lavacrum,sacrar!um,cuve.)
A basin, on the gospel side of the altar, introduced for the
convenience of ablutions and washing the sacred vessels.

234 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Formerly it was in the pavement at the base of the altar,
used as a laver for the washing of the priest's hands and for
pouring away the water used in washing the altar-plate. At
Paris external gurgoyles carried off the ablutions. John of
Avranches ordered the use of a special vessel for the purpose.
In Clugniac churches it was lined with tdes. At Rouen,
Lyons, Chartres, and in Carthusian churches the acolyth
brought a hand-basin for the priest to wash his fingers.
Probably until the twelfth century, when one occurs at
Lausanne, the piscina was a moveable metal basin, set on a
detached pillar. About that time it was united and be
came a constructional portion of the building. It had for its
type the horn of the Hebrew altar, which resembled the crest
of a dwarf pillar, with a cup-shaped mouth and a grooved
throat to receive and convey the superfluities of the sacri
fice into a cistern beneath. One of the most ancient remains
at Morwenstow. Pope Leo IV. ordered a " place " to be
prepared in the sacristy, or near the altar, with two orifices
and a clean hanging towel, or cloth, for the priest to wash
his hands after communion, and for the ablutions of the
chalice. This was in the ninth century. About the same
period Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, recommended its
use ; and Walric, a monk of Clugny, mentions two piscinas,
near each other and close by the high-altar, made of brick,
and used, one for cleansing the chalice by the deacon, the
other for washing the celebrant's hands with wine. Ivo of
Chartres mentions the ablution of the priest's fingers after
communion. No example of a drain of this description re
mains of earlier date than the eleventh century, nor in Eng
land before the middle of the twelfth century. Norman
drains remain at Leicester, Romsey, Kirkstall, Gloucester;
and one of transitional date is in King's College, Cambridge.
After the thirteenth century the niches containing the drain
were left open, as closed aumbries had come into general
use. Before the priest consumed the ablutions of the hands
and the wine and water of ablution of the chalice, which
might be supposed to retain some particles of the elements,
and the water in which the corporals were washed, they
were poured down the drain; and where the drain was
double, as at Troyes, in the fourteenth century, the remains
in the cruets, the ablutions of the priest before the office,

DROMIKOS — DYZEMAS. 235
and the water used in washing the ordinary church-linen and
the hands of the servers, were emptied into the other orifice.
In this instance the drain is on the right-hand side of the
altar. The Clugniacs had two drains, lined with tiles, which
were also used by the deacon and subdeacon. At Roth-
well the drain has three cavities ; possibly one for the ablu
tion of the priest's fingers and of the chalice, the second for
the use of the assistants and ministers, and the third for
ablutions of other substances. By the statutes of Constance
every altar was provided with a drain, having a cover and
three towels, — one for the first ablution, the second used
after the Gospel, and the third after the Communion. In the
Greek Church the drain was in the sacristy or at the base
of the altar. In the West there was a drain inside chapels
for the water poured over the celebrant's hands, and another
for the rinsings of the chalice. In the thirteenth century a
double drain was provided for these purposes ; but in the
fourteenth century the assistants ceased to wash at the altar,
the perfusions with wine and water of the celebrant's fingers
were disused, and the priests were persuaded to drink the
water of the ewer, and then one drain only was provided.
Drains for pouring away other substances and the ablutions
of corporals, etc., are frequently found at a distance from any
altar. In 1287 Martene says that the cloth used for wiping
the chalice or any portion of dress, or a towel which was
stained with the consecrated wine was burned, the ashes being
thrown down the drain. In Italy the drain is almost un
known. In England it is often connected with an upper
credence shelf, and enclosed in a niche in side chapels ; but
at the high- altar is almost invariably on the east side of the
sediHa. At Cambrai, in the fourteenth century, the baptis
tery contained an open drain, used by the sponsors who
held the child to wash their hands and to receive the rinsings
of the shell or vessel used at baptism.
Dromikos. The term applied, from the shape of the circus for
races, to describe the apsidal oblong of the early St. Sophia
at Constantinople.
Dyzemas. (1.) Dismes, decimce, tithe-day. (2.) The name of
the penitent thief in the apocryphal gospel. His fellow is
called Gesmas or Gestas, and the soldier Longinus, from his
spear [louche].

236 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Eagle. St. Gregory considered this bird to typify the con
templative life; other fathers regarded it as an emblem of
resurrection (Ps. cm. 5). It is the symbol of St. John the
Evangelist, as it soars up to heaven and the sun; and he
dwells in his Gospel and the Revelations specially on the
divine discourses and the celestial glory of the Sun of
righteousness. It also represented the regeneration of the
neophyte ; the resurrection of the Saviour (says St. Ambrose) ;
and renewing of the soul on earth, as glory hereafter will
renew body and soul ; the power of grace when it is pour-
trayed drinking at a chalice, or in combat with a serpent, the
type of evil.
The eagle desk, or lectern, was used at first in the choir
only to carry the gospels, but at a later date the gradual,
. antiphonar, and choir chant-books were laid upon it. In
England brazen eagles remain, of the fifteenth to the seven
teenth century ; there are specimens at' Winchester, Lynn,
Wells (1660), York (1686), Canterbury (1663), Lincoln (1667),
and Salisbury (1719). At Toledo there are two eagles of
gilt bronze (1570), and one of brass (1646), represented
vanquishing the dragon ; the whole being supported on six
crouching lions, and the pedestal, dated 1425, adorned with
tabernacled statuary. There are brass eagles, of the fifteenth
century, at St. Symphorian-a-Nuits, and Merton College,
Oxford. They are used for reading the lessons. At Bourges,
and at Exeter till recently, the eagle stood in front of the
altar. At Aix-la-Chapelle there is an ancient specimen;
and another at Southwell, formerly in Newstead Abbey.
One was given to Peterborough in 1472, and another in
1519 to Canterbury. At Durham there was a pelican of
brass, on the north side of the altar, for reading the epistles
and gospels, and a brass eagle for the legendary stood in
the choir. The earHest eagle does not date earlier than
1300, but it was often carved previously on the front of the
pulpit. An eagle dated 1683, and formerly in the cathe
dral, remains in the church of St. Mary-le-Port, Bristol.
A late Decorated pelican is preserved at Norwich ; and an
eagle, dated 1496, in St. Gregory's in that city.
Early English Architecture lasted from the reign of Richard
I. to that of Henry III. (1200-1275). The pointed arch
contains the germ of the vertical principle, and buttresses

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. 237
were enlarged to resist the lateral pressure on the exterior
from the roof downwards, which was caused by its intro
duction ; hence arose the pyramidal form which distinguishes
the style; the ribs cross the vault at right angles, or run
diagonally along the groins. The use of materials of small
size produced the round arch; the pointed style took its
origin in mechanical necessity and requirements, and the
Decorated rose out of the constructive features. The de
velopment of the shallow buttress, as an artificial abutment,
and the introduction of the pointed arch, from its greater
capabdity of resisting and supporting the pressure of a
heavier superincumbent load, reduced the outward thrust of
the round arch when bearing a weight. The windows are
long, narrow, and lancet-shaped, and often combined in
triplets, or arranged in pairs side by side ; circles are often
interposed in the space between these lights and the com
prising arch; the mouldings are more -boldly cut; and
foliage, or a " dog-tooth" ornament, forming a square edge,
notched Hke a St. Andrew's cross, is used in their hoUows.
They are called by the French violets, and were employed
in the first half of the thirteenth century. They have also
been supposed to represent the cyclamen, or gazelle's horn,
just as the ball-flower is said to have had the red anemone,
the lily of Scripture, for its type; both ornaments having
been introduced from the East. The arches are lancets
(acute-angled), drop (obtuse-angled), foliated; or form equi
lateral triangles; the roofs have a high pitch; the ceiling
is ribbed and groined, and usually stone-vaulted. Spires
and the triforium are prominent features ; flying buttresses
are used; buttresses are divided into stages, with sharply
sloping set-offs, and are usually pedimented ; the angles are
often chamfered. Capitals resemble inverted bells, and are
wreathed with foliage. Crockets and knobs are set on the
edges of pinnacles, usually circular, octagonal, or square, and
sometimes shafted. Pillars are circular, octagonal, or shafted.
The doors are deeply recessed, with small shafts in the jambs,
are often flat, sometimes round-headed, the featherings are
often trefoiled or cinquefoiled ; when double they are divided
by a single shaft, their chief ornaments consisting of iron
scroll-work. Mouldings have outlines of rectangular re
cesses, or are alternate rounds and deeply-cut hollows :

238 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
sometimes splays and small fillets are used. The vault has
ribs along the apex, and additional ribs between the cross
springers and diagonals. Piers frequently divide windows.
Stone coffins of this and the preceding style are coped,
ornamented with crosses, or bearing effigies of the dead,
sometimes placed in low recesses, and occasionally simply
canopied. The growth of this style may be traced in the
g radual development of the raising of the aisle roof to the
height of the nave-roof, light being admitted through a
gallery; then the outer roof of the aisle was cut through,
mere ribs being left as flying buttresses, and then the cen
tral vault was cut up with intersections, in order to obtain
s pace for the windows to the very height of the ridge, and
this last expedient necessitated the adoption of pointed
windows. The first instance of plate tracery occurs at Lin
coln. The period of transition to the Decorated style lasts
from 1275 to 1-300 ; the reign of Edward I, mainly embraces
it, but there are some buildings of a Decorated character
of the time of Henry III.
East (the). The Jews turned to the West in prayer, in the
direction of the Holy of Holies (1 Kings viii. 48 ; 2 Chron.
xxix. 6; Dan. vi. 10; Ezek. viii. 16, 17) ; the Christians, at
least from the second century, turned to the East, as to the
true Light of the World, our Blessed Lord, who came in the
East. In several churches at Rome, in the Castle Chapel
(Caen), at Seville and Haarlem, and St. Benet (Paris), the
entrance is on the east and the altar to the west, — the latter
the invariable practice of the Jesuits. In such cases the
priest, standing on the west side of the altar, which was in
terposed between himself and the people, faced east, as in
churches of true orientation; whilst in the latter the cele
brant stood between the altar and the people, with his back
to the latter; but it is an irregular arrangement, although
a curious relic of the early parallehsm between the Law and
the Gospel.
Easter Day, so called from Urstand, the Resurrection, of which
it is the commemoration; the name is as early as the time
of the venerable Bede. The Greek term lampra, or bright
day, is also connected with the idea of the uprising of the
great light of the Sun of Righteousness. The original title
was Pascha, a form of the Hebrew name of the Passover : as

EASTER DAY. 239
Good Friday was called the pasch of the Lord's Passion, so
Easter Day was styled the pasch of the Lord's resurrection.
In the time of Leo the Great, pasch was used as the designa
tion of Easter in the Latin Church; and the coloured eggs,
still given on this feast in the north of England, are spoken
of as pasch eggs. Melitus, in the second century, wrote on
the paschal festival. Tertullian says it was the highest
occasion for holy baptism, and St. Cyprian mentions the
Easter solemnities ; the Council of Ancyra calls it the most
holy feast, or the great day, and St. Gregory Nazianzen de
nominates it the feast of feasts, the great Lord's Day, the
queen of festivals.
There was, at an early date, a great controversy about the
proper day for observing the festival, and Polycarp and
Anicetus, Bishop of Rome, in 1 58 held a friendly consultation
on the matter. The quartodecimian, or Jewish method,
which was advocated by Polycarp as following the teaching
of St. John, aimed at its observance on the actual anniver
sary of the great act of our Lord, on the third day after the
fourteenth day of the month Nisan ; whdst the Western
Church, imitating the example of SS. Peter and Paul, held
it on the next Lord's Day. In England the former use was
maintained until the arrival of St. Austin, and in the north
as late as 714. Although Anicetus and St. Polycarp had
reconciled their differences by mutual toleration, Pope Victor
and Polycrates, Bishop of Ephesus, at the close of the second
century, respectively assembled councils, which ended in
each maintaining his own opinions ; but the Pope anathema
tized the churches of Asia for their adherence to their an
cient custom. The Council of Aries, in 314, decided the
celebration of Easter should be held on one fixed day ; and
the Council of Nicasa, in 325, ruled that it should be a
Lord's Day, and directed the Church of Alexandria to send
timely notice of that day, in order to secure its universal
observance. On the Feast of Epiphany the deacon, by the Am
brosian rite of Milan, announced the exact day of the month.
It is the only festival for which we have express Scriptural
authority, for St. Paul says " Christ our Passoverwas sacrificed
for us, therefore let us keep the feast ;" and the ancient Church
discerned a prophecy of it in the words of the Psalmist,
" This is the day which the Lord hath made, let us be glad

240 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
and rejoice in it." Constantine, in his rescript about Easter,
mentions that it was then observed in Britain. In the
Greek Church the usual greeting is, "Christ is risen;" to
which the answer is immediately made, "Alleluia;" and in our
own service the special anthem contains the words, " Christ
is risen again." The primitive Church observed the day by
solemn Communion, the administration of baptism, libera
tion of prisoners, suspension of all secular spectacles, the
manumission of slaves, hospitality, almsgiving, and a general
holiday. Bishops sent the Eucharist to each other under
the form of Eulogies, till the Council of Laodicea forbade it,
in the middle of the fourth century.
It was long a vulgar error that the sun danced for joy on
this morning, and even grave Bishop Hacket, like the lively
Suckling, aHudes to the superstition. In Wales, Salop,
Cheshire, Lancashire, and the counties of Warwick and
Stafford, there is an old practice of lifting persons aloft in
chairs on this day, evidently as a rude memorial of the rising
on this morning, or the lifting of the Cross out of the Easter
sepulchre in churches. A At Rouen, York, Lichfield, and
Durham that ceremonial was observed with peculiar solem
nity. At University College, Oxford, the Fellows, on leaving
hall, chop with a hatchet at a huge block of wood, which is
set up by the master cook, possibly in allusion to " the ac
cursed tree."
Easter Eggs. The egg was the symbol of creation in Egypt,
and of hope and the resurrection among early Christians;
and the custom of giving coloured pasch-eggs on Easter
morning is found in the East, in the Tyrol, in Russia, in
Greece, in many parts of England, where it may be traced
back to the time of Edward I., and was observed at Gray's
Inn in the reign of Elizabeth. In France the pasch egg is
eaten before any other nourishment is taken on Easter day.
Tansy pudding, according to Selden, is a memorial of the
bitter herbs eaten by the Jews ; and peculiar cakes in some
places formed the staple fare on this day. Paul II. issued a
form of benediction of eggs for England, Scotland, and Ire
land. Henry VIII. received a paschal egg in a case of silver
filigree from the Pope. The Jews regarded the egg as a
symbol of death. De Moleon says that at Angers, on Easter
Day, two chaplains standing behind the altar, addressed two

EASTER EVE. 241
cubiculars or corbehers, vested in dalmatic, amice, and
mitellas, as they advanced towards them, "Whom seek
ye ?" and to the reply, " Jesus of Nazareth, the crucified,"
answered, "He is risen; He is not here." Then those who
personated the Marys took from the altar two ostrich eggs
wrapped in silk, and descended chanting, "Alleluia, the
Lord is risen."
Easter Eve. The Sabbath high-day of the Jewish ritual,
when aU presented themselves before the Lord and the
sheaf of the first-fruits was offered. In the Christian Church
it was called the Great Sabbath in the second century.
The Portuguese designate it the Sabbath of AUeluia. The
vigil of Easter is mentioned by Tertullian, the Apostolical
Constitutions, Eusebius, Lactantius, St. Gregory Nazianzen,
St. Jerome, and St. Chrysostom. The churches were lighted
up so that it seemed like day, in honour of the dlumination
of the grave by the resurrection, and of the Light of life
and the world arising from the dead. The services were
continued past midnight to welcome the dawn. Ordinations
were held, baptism (towards the end of the fourth century) was
administered ; and in the Medieval Church the font, the
paschal candle, the incense, and new fire received benedic
tion. The Holy Communion was celebrated after Vespers, in
anticipation of Easter; Gloria in Excelsis formed the Introit,
and the bells rang joyously for the dawn of Easter. At
Mdan the deacon thrice announced in the Mass, " Christ,
our Lord, is risen," and the choir thundered back the words,
" Deo gratias," thanks be to God. Easter Eve is the only
Jewish Sabbath retained by the Church. A strict fast was
maintained on the vigil, in reference to St. Matt. ix. 15 ; and
according to Lactantius, St. Jerome, and others there was a
tradition that Christ should return to judgment on this
night. In consequence of abuses following the nocturnal
assembly, it was forbidden by the Council of Autun in 578.
The paschal taper can be traced back to the sixth century.
Two candles, symbolical of Apostles and Prophets, were also
lighted from a fire of branches (St. John xv. 5) . By an Irish
Councd, held in 456, and the Sarum use, the Holy Com
munion was administered on this eve, probably after mid
night. Hallowing the New Fire was performed in the east

242 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
alley of the cloister in cathedral and conventual churches,
and in parish churches in the porch. At Salisbury the
septiform litany, led by the precentor in person, was chanted
by seven choristers ; and at Canterbury the convent," in albs,
singing the Miserere, assembled on the morning of Easter
Eve to watch the kindling of the flame by the deacon, either
by the burning-glass or flint and steel, but at Clugny with a
precious beryl, or sometimes a triple candle. The sacristan
lighted a taper on the top of a lance-like staff, the master
of the boys kindled his lantern, and the procession, often led
by the primate with incense and cross, returned to the choir
chanting the hymn Inventor rutili, whilst the servant of the
cellarer rekindled, with the fire remaining in the cloister, all
the hearths which had previously been extinguished. At
Rome, also, formerly the fires in the city were relighted from
the holy fire. No doubt there is intimate relation between this
custom and the blessing of the candles stdl preserved at Rome,
and the lighting of the tapers from the sacred fire in the Holy
Sepulchre at Jerusalem on Easter Day. In England, at the
time of the Reformation, the parishioners on the eve carried
away a brand from the holy fire to rekindle their cold hearths,
and marched nine times in procession round the font. On
Easter morning they brought in meat and other provisions
at Matins, to be blessed by the priest.
Hallowing the Font. By the Councds of Gerona in 517,
of Ireland 456, and several English synods of the eleventh
and thirteenth centuries, baptism was only administered on
the eves of Easter and Pentecost, except in cases of ne
cessity. St. Ambrose alludes to the washing of the feet of
the newly-baptized, in imitation of our Lord's great conde
scension in the paschal chamber. In later times the font,
like the waters at Epiphany by the Greeks, was solemnly
hallowed, the water being expressly consecrated in remem
brance of the Easter baptism. In the fourth century, in the
East, the Greek Church observed the custom of baptizing
catechumens and consecrating the water in the font on this
eve. At Salisbury, on every day in Easter week, a proces
sion was made with four riders of the choir to incense the
font.
Easter Offerings. Easter is one of the three seasons at which
all parishioners are bound to communicate by the Council of

EASTER SEPULCHRE. 243
Adge, 500; Canute's laws, 1017; canons of Eanham, 1009;
Gloucester, 1378 ; Gran; Paris, 1429; Cologne, 1310; Late
ran, 1215; Pope Calixtus, and the English Church. A priest
was permitted to say two Masses on this account by the
Council of Oxford, 1222. The people then made their
oblations, in kind, to furnish the Eucharistic elements, or
compounded by a payment of money, which became the
origin of Easter offerings. In the time of Edward VI. these
payments, which constituted an important revenue of the
Church, were ordered to be paid at Easter, if they had not
been rendered on one of the four statutable offering days.
By the rubric, parishioners are still required to pay at this
time " all ecclesiastical duties customably due." Possibly the
offerings also included personal tithes. 2d. or 4d. for adults,
and \d. for children and servants formed the customary
offering.
Easter Sepulchre. At Tours the canons, on Good Friday,
recited the Hours, not in their stalls, but standing round a
tomb of marble. This is the earHest notice of the cere
monial of laying the crucifix, and the Eucharist, which was
reserved in a ciborium on Maundy Thursday, and placed in
an Easter sepulchre. At Poictiers the Host was wrapped in
a folded corporal between two patens, with a gold cross
above it ; and then, being placed in clean Hnen, was enclosed
with holy water and incense, within a repository, which was
locked, guarded by five watchers, and surrounded by nume
rous lights. Cranmer says this was done " in remembrance
of Christ's sepulture, which was prophesied by Esaias to be
glorious, and to signify there was buried the pure and unde
fined body of Christ, without spot of sin, which was never
separated from the Godhead, and therefore, as David ex
pressed it in the fifteenth Psalm, it could not see corruption,
nor death could detain or hold Him, but He should rise
again, to our great hope and comfort; and therefore the
Church adorns it with lights to express the great joy they
have of that glorious triumph over death, the devil, and
hell." The sepulchre was (1) a chapel, as at Winchester ;
(2) a wall recess, usually in the north side of the chancel, as
at Bottesford and Stanton St. John ; (3) a temporary struc
ture sumptuously enriched, as at St. Mary, Redcliffe ; (4) a
tomb, under which a founder, by special privilege, was
r2

244

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

buried ; (5) a vaulted enclosure, as at Norwich, which, like
a sepulchre at Northwold, has an aperture for watching the
light, without requiring the person so employed to enter the
choir. At Seville a magnificent structure of wood, in three
storeys, raised over the tomb of F. Columbus and briUiantly
lighted, serves as the sepulchre. Neogorgus says that the
people standing at the barriers used to cast violets and all
kinds of sweet flowers on the sepulchre, and made their
offerings whilst the choir chanted a dirge. In some places
the steps of the sepulchre, were covered with black cloth.
Soldiers in armour kept guard, and a bright flash of fire
burst from the tomb as the priest removed the crucifix.
There was a constant succession of watchers and worshippers
in most churches. At Lichfield three persons kept unbroken
vigil and sang psalms until Matins were said on Easter
morning. At Wells a light burned in the sepulchre. Beauti
ful tombs, of Decorated or Perpendicular date, remain at
Heckington, Navenby, Patrington, Northwold, Holcombe,
Burnell, Southpool, Woodleigh, and of the thirteenth cen
tury at Lincoln and Hawton, where the Roman sentinels are
carved on the lower panels, and in the latter instance within
a groined recess the risen Saviour appears to the three
Marys. At Durham a framework, with rich hangings of
red velvet and gold embroidery, was erected on Good Friday,
and from it on Easter Day, between three and four a.m., two
of the most aged monks took a figure of the risen Saviour
holding a cross, and laying it on a crimson cushion, brought
it to the high-altar, singing Christus Resurgens ; then it was
carried to the south choir- do or where "four ancient gentlemen
held over it a rich canopy of purple velvet, faced with red
silk and gold fringes, and so round the whole church, the
whole choir attending with goodly torches and great store
of other lights, all singing and praising God, till they came
again to the high-altar." Archbishop Parker defended such
choral processions and singing that hymn as an " open pro
testation of faith and willingness to follow Christ in all holy
conversation." Cardinal de Joyeuse, Archbishop of Rouen,
abolished the ceremonial, as in France it had been profaned
by attempts at positive personation.
Easter-tide. During Easter week there was an ancient cus
tom that no one should touch the ground with the bare foot ;

ECONOMIST. 245
all stood during prayer-time, and, in the age of Tertullian
and that of St. Chrysostom, expanded their arms and stretched
their hands towards heaven, as if they were not content be
cause they could not soar up to it. St. Ambrose describes
the whole season until Whitsun Day as one long Lord's Day.
Balsamon mentions that artisans did not work on Monday
or Tuesday in Easter week, and St. Augustine and St.
Gregory Nyssen speak of their observance. The Church of
England appoints a special Preface for the whole octave, and
epistles and gospels for the Monday and Tuesday. The
Councils of Constantinople, Macon (585), and Ingelheim
(948), and the Constitutions of Ecgbright, enjoined that the
whole week should be kept with equal solemnity, — it was
called the neophytes' octave, — and during every day the
competents who had been baptized on Easter Eve came in
their white robes, and with lights in their hands (which gave
the name of Bright Day to Easter), until the Sunday in Albes,
the eve of which was called the close of Easter, and the
custom lasted from the time of Tertullian tiU after the date
of Gratian. St. Chrysostom, St. Augustine, and the code of
Theodosius show that the whole octave was kept ; and the
Sacramentary of St. Gregory and the Salisbury use con
tain a service for each day, but the Council of Mayence
(813) and the Canons of .ZElfric (957) restrict the celebra
tion to four, and the Council of Constance (1094) confines
it to three days ; the latter period is alluded to by St.
Gregory Thaumaturgus in the third century.
Economist. A steward ; called by Possidius provost of the
church-house. A priest, mentioned by Isidore Pelusiotes,
appointed by the Councd of Chalcedon in 451, and elected
by the clergy in the East ; to discharge the same duties as
devolved on a medieval treasurer, provost of canons, and
almoners in an English cathedral. In the Western Church
he is mentioned in the fourth century, and was a deacon at
Milan in the time of St. Ambrose. His office was contem
poraneous with the restriction of an archdeacon to spiritual
duties. In the vacancy of the See by the Councils of Chal
cedon and Trent he acted as receiver-general and adminis
trator of the episcopal revenues. At Kilkenny, St. David's,
and Exeter, as now at Windsor, he received the capitular
rents, and at Westminster provided the common table, and

246

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

paid the servants' wages. At Hereford two economists, or
bailiffs, rendered half-yearly accounts of the great commons.
Effigies and Grave-stones. Some very early sepulchral monu
ments, or standing stones, probably associated with idola
trous respect, as it appears, in England, in 1018, were
christianized by the addition of a cross; St. Sampson is
known to have done this. In Wales, and Brittany, as at
Rungleo, there are frequent examples. The Jewish monu
ments took the form of pillars (1 Sam. x. 2 ; Gen. xxxv. 20 ;
2 Sam. xviii. 18), and the same form of unhewn stone,
inscribed with the name of St. James, is mentioned by
Eusebius, near the Temple of Jerusalem. The ancient
monuments of Glastonbury were pyramidal. St. Jerome
and Prudentius mentioned inscribed grave-stones ; and SS.
Basil and Chrysostom inveigh against the extravagance
lavished on such memorials. In the catacombs pious in
scriptions, sacred emblems, and marks of the sex or pro
fession of the dead were carved on the titles, or marble slabs
which closed the grave ; and for the rich, sarcophagi, called
bisomi, trisomi, or quadrisomi, according to the numbers
interred, were ornamented with figures in relief, and inci
dents recorded in Scripture. Pelagius II. and Councfls in
Spain, Germany, and France resisted burials within churches ;
in the eighth century they were permitted in Italy ; but the
well-known legend connected with the translation of St.
Swithin, in 862, shows the repugnance of the English to the
practice ; and several bishops, as late as the eighteenth
century, declared that churches were for the living, and the
cemetery for the dead. The earliest church tombs in this
country are of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, ridged in
form, and covered with a cross, or in the latter period a
recumbent figure; the width of the slab diminishing from
the head to the feet. Canopies were sparingly used, and
supported by shafts. At length tombs were recessed in the
wall. Incised stones, monumental slabs of marble and
stone, and even alabaster, with figures engraved on them,
came into use in the middle of the thirteenth century,
and were cheaper than brasses; one of the earliest ex
amples exists in Wells Cathedral. This use lasted till
the time of Charles I., but in Germany aud France was
more common than in England. There are instances of

EFFIGIES. 217
inlaying the portions representing flesh with material of a
lighter colour, and brass is also employed. In the thirteenth
century plain pediments were erected over the tombs, but
at its close finials and crockets were employed, armorial
badges, traceried panels, and tabernacled figures were added,
and then at length the high tomb and effigy were detached
from the wall, and in many cases placed beneath splendid
canopies, pyramidal structures of great size, as at Glou
cester, Westminster, and' Canterbury, or of stellated form, as
at Tewkesbury and Gloucester. At length chantry chapels
were erected between the piers of the great arcades, as at
Winchester, York, Ely, Tewkesbury, Salisbury, and St.
Alban's. In the middle of the thirteenth century flat stones,
with brasses, were used; only one is known to remain in
France; but there are five incised slabs at Rheims and St.
Ouen, and at Chartres of the fourteenth century. At the
close of the fifteenth, and in the sixteenth century, the monu
ments became debased, as in Sir T. Pope's tomb, Trinity
College Chapel, Oxford, and the flat tester, supported on
pillars, over the Montague tomb at Bath. During this
period alabaster was freely used for effigies. At Murcia,
Burgos, and Batalha magnificent tomb-houseswere built at the
east end, as in the earlier instances of Bury St. Edmund's,
Canterbury, and Drontheim. Iron slabs occur, of the four
teenth century, at Burwash, Crowhurst (1591), and Himble-
ton (1690).
The chivalret, or effigy, is often of metal, as at Augsburg,
of the eleventh century ; those of two bishops of the thir
teenth century at Amiens; and at Westminster, the De
Valences, Henry III., Queen Eleanor, Richard II., Queen
Anne, Henry VIL, Queen Elizabeth, and Margaret, Countess
of Richmond; the Black Prince at Canterbury (1376), Earl
Richard at Warwick (1435), the Earl of Portland at Win
chester ; those of W. de Merton and Sheppey at Rochester,
Bishop Oldham at Exeter, and Wykeham at Winchester are
of alabaster, and retain their colour. There are also effigies
of oak at Brancepeth, St. Gdes (Durham), Gloucester, Little
Horkesley, Danbury, Ashwell, Woodford, (Northhants),
Burnham, Gayton, Fersfield, and that of Isabella of Angou-
leme at Fontevrault. There are some fine effigies at Mar
burg, Veruula, Burgos, Avila, Miraflorcs, and Toledo, some

248 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
appearing in the Spanish examples, as if sliding on their
backs. Weepers or mourners, friends of the departed, were
also set in niches on the sides of tombs, as on St. Richard's
at Chichester.
Effigies often are represented as holding a pot of unguentr
or a heart (Sam. iii. 41 ; Ps. li. 10), inscribed Jesu Mercy
(Job xix. 25, 26, or Ps. cxxxi. 5), possibly embodying the
old invitatory Sursum Corda, " Lift up your hearts." Occa
sionally angels bear up the head of the effigies, as on the
tomb of Aymer de Valence at Westminster, in allusion to
the angels sitting on our Lord's sepulchre (St. John xx. 12 ;
St. Mark xvi. 5); or their carrying up the soul to heaven
(St. Luke xvi. 22) ; sometimes, as on a tomb at Lisieux, the
naked soul is held in a sheet by Abraham. Three chantry
priests, or bedemen, support the head of figures at Bedale
Staindrop and the effigy of Wykeham. St. Oswald and St.
Wolstan are at each side of King John's head at Worcester.
There are also minor accessories : dogs at Gonalston, a dog,
hare, and bird on King Richard's tomb at Rouen, a little
lion on the Lyons' tomb (c. 1385), the head of a horse and a
diminutive henchman at a knight's feet at Minster; four
henchmen at Arbroath arrange the folds of drapery on the
figure. Sometimes these accessories are of great size : the
bronze monument of Maximilian I. has twenty-eight colossal
statues ; four kneeling knights carry on a litter the armour
of Sir F. de Vere ; knights watch the Duke of Bavaria at
Munich; Sixtus IV. sleeps on a bed, guarded by aU the
virtues, at Rome.
Occasionally the effigy is of miniature dimensions, and
has been mistaken for memorials of children, as in the so-
called boy-bishop's tomb at Salisbury, at Horsted Keynes,
Haccombe, Tenbury, Ayot St. Laurence, Bottesford, Ma-
pouder, Cobberley, Little Easton, Anstey, and Long Wit-
tenham. At Lichfield and Worcester there are half effigies,
the central portion of the figures being imbedded in the
wall. At Llanfihangel two pilgrims hold their arms crossed,
and their breast is ensigned with a cross. The cross-legged
effigies of knights represent those who had taken the vow
of a Crusader, or pilgrim ; those whose hands are drawing
their swords were actually engaged in the holy war. From
the attitude of the former the death's-head and cross-bones
took their origin, or from the lifted arms of those represent-

ELECTRUM  EMANCIPATION. 2 19
ed as praying in their sleep. Tho crossed legs are said also
to indicate a judicial capacity.
Effigios were constantly carried on the hoarse at funorals ;
and even in his lifetime Edward I. gave to Chichester cathe
dral a mensura, or waxwork figure, of himself. Until the
time of Henry V. the actual body was usually carried ex
posed; but from the reign of Edward III. the waxwork
effigies were brought to Westminster Abbey and preserved ;
some, indeed, still remain. These formed the model for the
effigy made in more durable material ; it must be remem
bered that the illusion of the coloured wax was heightened
by the fact that funerals of great personages were conducted
by torch-light until the close of the last century.
Somotimes tho tomb is in two stages : the lowermost con
tains the cadaver, skeleton (le gisant or jacons), as in Bishop
Gardiner's at Winchester ; on the uppermost was laid tho
effigy, robed and in prayer (Lo Priant or orans) ; in this case
attendant angels show that his prayer has been heard. Cap
tain Stanley, at Lichfield, is represented naked, and with a
scroll of confession, as on this condition his burial was per
mitted, as he had died either unrecouciled or under the
displeasure of the Crown.
Electrum. (1.) A composition of gold and silver mixed, used
in medieval metal-work. (2.) Enamel. (3.) Copper gilt.
Elevation of the Host. The lifting up of the paten and con
secrated element of bread was instituted by Pope Hono
rius III. (c. 1210), and he directed that it should be adorod
when elevated, or being carried to the sick, the people
reverently bowing. Casalius quotes as his authority (Ps.
lxxii. 16). Anastasius Sinaita alludes to this ceremony;
and it appears as early as, perhaps, the fourth century in the
Greek Church ; it has been traced in England in the eleventh,
in France in the twelfth, and in Germany and Italy before
the thirteenth century. Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure
mention the elevation of the paten only ; the elevation of the
chalice was of later date. The ringing of little bells at this
timo was introduced by William of Paris, and generally
enjoined by Gregory XL j> bt'j
Emancipation. A curious ceremony in Germany by which a
domicellar was promoted to be a capitular canon. He knelt
down in the sacristy before the precentor and scholastic,
holding two rods crossed over his breast, and being asked,

250

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

" What seekest thou ?" replied, " I desire to be emancipated,
for Christ's sake." He was then thrice struck with the
rods, in the name of the Holy Trinity, and so emancipated
from the yoke of chanter and chancellor, and once by each
canon ; the precentor and scholastic afterwards led him up
for installation to the dean.
Ember. Ymbren (so called in the laws of Alfred and Canute),
" circuits " from being, says Leo in 442, fasts occurring at
stated periods in the revolution of a year, but their origin is
lost in the night of ages ; Quatuor tempora, the four times :
and the German quatember, called in Welsh the procession
weeks, and in Germany the holy fasts. The word appears
in the canons of Eanham in 1009. Micrologus says that
these weeks were given to the English by Gregory the Great,
a.d. 600. Gelasius, 492, and Cuthbert in 747, mention only
three weeks, but Ecgbright, at the same date, speaks of
four, that of Lent including the fourth. The Councils of May
ence, 813, and Salegunstadt in 1022, and Durandus, mention
for their occurrence the months of March, June, September,
and December; but the Council of Clermont, 1095, more
precisely, names the first week in Lent, Whitsun-week, the
week before the autumnal equinox, and the fourth week in
Advent. Gelasius first speaks of them as stated seasons for
ordinations. It is probable that they were imitated from the
four Jewish fasts, and instituted to beg God's blessings on
the fruits of harvest, — in spring for sowing, in summer when
growing, in autumn at the harvesting, and in winter when
they are garnered into the barns. The Ember-days are the
Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday after the first Sunday in
Lent, after Whitsunday, after September 14, Holy Cross, and
after December 1 3, St. Lucy. The days kept varied in different
countries, and the present arrangement was not fixed until the
eleventh century, certainly after the Council of Clermont.
Emblem. A symbol is the representation of some dogma of
religious belief, a revelation from God derived direct from
Holy Scripture ; whereas an emblem is an arbitrary repre
sentation of an idea of human invention, and created by the
imagination. A symbol may be used as an emblem, but an
emblem cannot be employed as a symbol. For instance, a
sword is the symbol of martyrdom, but tho peculiar emblem
of St. Paul. An anchor may be either a symbol or an em
blem,

EMBLEM. 251
The earHest symbols were derived from Scripture : the
Good Shepherd, disused between the seventh and ninth
centuries ; the door of the fold ; the Lamb of God ; a light ;
the dove; the keys of St. Peter; the chased hart desiring
the water-brooks; the anchor of the soul; and later, the
lamb standing on the mountain of God's house, or, after the
sixth century, bearing on its shoulders the cross-banner.
The early Christians saw the cross prefigured in the out
stretched arms of Moses on the hdl and in his rod, which
they delineated crowned with a T or cross ; the pole of the
brazen serpent, with its transverse beam ; the two sticks of
the widow of Sarepta ; and the sign mentioned by Ezekiel.
In the catacombs the reserve of reverential tenderness, or
the fear of betraying to scorn the object of faith in the
sacrifice of Calvary, induced the early Christians to symbo
lize rather than paint it ; thus they drew the types of it found
in the Old Testament, or, less commonly, incidents in tho
Saviour's life, — the Fall, Noah's ark, Moses receiving the law,
striking the rock, Abraham's sacrifice, EHas's translation,
the three children in the furnace : the adoration of the magi,
the miracle of the loaves^ and that of Cana, the heaHng the
cripple, the raising of Lazarus, St. Peter's denial, and the
smiting with the reed. Then a Hon, as an emblem of soH-
tude, was given to St. Jerome, as having been a recluse in
Syrian deserts. Then hieroglyphs were employed. St.
Anthony appears with fire, the emblem of Divine love; a
swine at his feet, typical of sensual desire trodden down,
and a bell, expressive of vigdance, and with the Tau, a form
of the cross. St. Christopher, by his height, represents
loftiness of heart ; by his sacred infant-burden, Christ in the
soul; by his staff, holding to the cross; and by wading
through a stormy river, passage to the better country
through martyrdom. His wolf's head, converted by the old
English into that of a dog, refers to his birthplace in Lycia.
St. George, armed as the Christian warrior (Eph. vi. 12-17),
and on horseback, as borne up by Divine grace, transfixes
with his lance the devil (Rev. xii. 9), whilst the Church, or
perhaps the Virgin soul, watches the victory. Constantine,
pourtrayed in the Palatine, a knight with a cross on his hel
met, warring with the dragon of idolatry. St. Lucy carries
the eyes typical of constancy and Divine dlumination, whilst the

252

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

legend of St. Ursula and the eleven thousand virgins, which
is mentioned in the tenth century, is a perverted record of a
historical fact which occurred on October 21, 237, or in 451,
being indicated by a careless copyist as xim. instead of mm.
(martyrs), or a corruption into a single name, Undecimflla,
the latter m being taken for a numeral.
In monasteries the acts of their founders, but in cathedrals
a metaphysical system of symbohsm, obtained the preference.
A frequent warning against sacrilege is offered by the ter
rible angel on his horse treading on HeHodorus, from the
thirteenth century. Under the feet of saints impersonations
of holiness are carved, and horrible beasts as the embodiment
of evfl. The bishop thrusts his staff into the mouth of a
writhing lion, and the Virgin treads on the old serpent, as
our Saviour goes upon the lion and dragon. Very often the
evangehcal subjects are ranged with the corresponding
events of the Old Testament, as in the glass of King's Col
lege, Cambridge, jound the chapter-house of Sahsbury, and
formerly over the staUs of Winchester, till destroyed in the
civil wars. Of an inferior class are the bestiaries, or fables
sculptured on the folding seats of stalls, as a visible teaching
of morahty under an aUegorical form. Beleth, St. Isidore,
and Durand, Bishop of Mende, foUowed some code of
canons which applied a complicated symbolism to the whole
structure of a church in its minutest details, but Durand' s
Italian leanings render him comparatively silent with regard
to carved imagery. The Decretal of Gratian contains some
aUusions to symbolism. From the twelfth to the fourteenth
century external corbels and gurgoyles take the most gro
tesque forms," often masks, like that of the " devil looking
over Lincoln," and with their mocking expressions repro
ducing "the grin of Arius," who, at the Councd of Nicsea,
was convulsed with demoniacal mirth.
The emblems on ancient and medieval tombs included
badges of sex or profession ; the comb, keys, and shears for
women; and for men the sword, the horn, the moneyer's
scales, the priest's chalice and paten. The still earlier em
blems were numerous. Heaven was represented by a seg
ment of a circle edged with a rainbow, and to symbolize God
with the Creator's hand issuing from it or a cloud (Ezek.
H. 9 ; viii. 9) . A deep blue globe stood for the universe ; a

EMBLEM. 253
ring for eternity ; a river, formed by the confluence of four
rivers, for eternal life (Ezek. xlvii. ; Rev. xxii. 1, 2); an
olive-branch for peace ; a lily for purity ; a heart for charity ;
sheep, doves, fish, cedars by the watercourses for the beati
fied ; stags at the brook, according to St. Jerome's interpre
tation of the old legend of the hart that has seen a serpent
hastening to drink of a running stream, for souls thirsting
for cleansing ; the rose of Sharon for incorruption ; cande
labra for illumination through the Gospel ; a palm-branch
for victory ; a cock for vigilance ; the double-necked eagle
for the Holy Spirit ; an eagle for renovation of grace (Ps.
cni. 5) ; the resurrection, the neophyte ; or as alternated
with the dove on the cieling of St. Alban's, the Saviour ; a
horse for the Christian race; a dolphin for zeal in doing
good ; an anchor for constancy ; the phoenix, said to rise
from its ashes with renewed life, for the resurrection ; the
peacock, said to have incorruptible flesh, for immortality;
its beautiful plumage, for Christian virtues, as its scream
terrified serpents and their prayers routed demons ; a moun
tain (Dan. xi. 34) for the Church ; a vine, a woman in
prayer ; a house, a vineyard ; a ship sailing by a lighthouse,
Noah's ark ; Susanna, for her militant state ; a city for her
condition of triumph; water poured by a dove on the cross
for holy baptism, the sacrifice of Abel and Melchisedech ;
the manna, Daniel fed by Habakkuk, the miracles at Cana
and of the loaves, a feast (Prov. ix. 2) ; milk or a milk-pail
(Isa. Iv. 1 ; St. Peter H. 2), fish and bread (St. John xxi. 13),
a chalice with three small loaves marked with a cross, or the
wafer ; and in the ninth century grains of corn and clusters
of grapes for the Holy Eucharist ; twelve sheep, or a net (St.
Matt. iv. 19), for Apostles; four mystic animals, four open
books, four scrolls, their symbols set between the arms of a
Greek cross ; four rivers of Paradise watering the earth, for
evangelists ; a mountain for Paradise ; birds feeding on plea
sant fruits for its joys; sun and moon for human life; Or
pheus, with his lyre, charming wild beasts, making the wolf
lie down with the lamb, — a pillar, a fountain, a lion, a king
a giant, a jewel, a hand for the Saviour; instruments of
martyrdom or other accessories for saints and confessors;
the pelican, which has a crimson stain on its beak, supposed
to be caused by feeding its young with its blood, for the love

254 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
of Christ in the Lord's Supper ; a lion, for the resurrection ;
the olive, for the fruit of good works, and its oil for the lustre
of virtue, mercy, purity, and peace ; the gourd, for the Old
Testament; the deathless cypress, for the New; the pine, for
death ; the vine, for the ineffable union betwixt Christ and
His Church ; the house, for our mortal tabernacle ; the lamp
in a tomb, for the rest of the righteous in a place of light
the wine-barrel, composed of many staves, Christian union
a harp, for the subjugation of evil passions (1 Sam. xvi. 23)
winter, for the storms of life ; spring, for resuscitation ; sum
mer, the glow of love to God ; autumn, martyrdom, life's
glorious close ; an egg, for the resurrection ; a nut, with its
triple substance, shell, rind, and kernel, for the bitter passion,
the benign divinity, and the wood of the cross of Christ.
The Holy Trinity was symbolized by a three-coloured rain
bow, by three beams of light issuing from our Lord's
head, or by His thumb and fore and middle fingers raised in
benediction, and also by an equilateral or trefod-shaped
triangle ; in the ninth century by three circles interwined,
two above and one below, with the word tri-ni-tas in the
outer, and u-ni-tas in the inner spaces ; by three intersecting
triangles, called the Pentacle, though geometrically forming
six points ; by three aureoles inscribed with letters P(ater,
Father) at the top, F(ilius, Son) on the right, and S(piritus,
Holy Ghost) on the left-hand. Or a more composite symbol,
an equilateral triangle having curved sides, with the words
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost at the three ends, which are
aureoled; and a central aureole with the one word God,
connected with these by bands inscribed severally " is ; " on
the sides the words " is not " were written. The Agony, by
a chalice, surmounted by a cross of Calvary ; the Betrayal,
by a sword, club, staff, lantern, torch, the ear of Malchus, a
rope, thirty pieces of silver, and Judas's head ; the Condem
nation, by the basin and ewer, a rope, a pillar, a scourge, a
scarlet robe, a crown of thorns, and reed; the Passion, by
three nails, hammer, pincers, ladder, sponge, reed, spear,
the scroll, and title J(esus) N(azarenus) R(ex) J(uda3orum),
the seamless garment, and three dice ; the Ascension, by the
imprints of two feet on a hill, and two feet rising in the air ;
the Resurrection, by a lion. The sacred monogram I H C,
the two first and last letters of the name of Jesus as freely

emblematical gems. 255
used, and the sign of contraction abovo the H, is ingeniously
made part of a cross. Birds represented the enfranchised souls
of martyrs (Ps. cxxiv. 6), founded on a passage in Tertullian ;
and in a cage, their sufferings. At a canonization they are still
presented to the Pope with this meaning. Sometimes they
represent the Passion and Incarnation of our Lord, with tho
legends (Rom. iv. 25 ; Isa. vii. 4) in the catacombs. A
church in the hand betokens a founder. The dedication of
a church is distinguished by an altar with priest, deacon,
and subdeacon ; the feast of Corpus Christi by a pyx ; and
that of Cathedra Petri by a figure of the Pope throned and
wearing the tiara. The Scallop is the sign of a pilgrim ; a
Scourge of penance; a Square a type of the world; the
Pomegranate, showing its fulness of seed and now bursting,
of hope nr immortality ; the Palm, a Sword, or Arrows of
martyrdom; a Lamp of wisdom; a Swan of solitude, its
sweet death-song typifying the Christian Nunc Dimittis ; a
Ring of honour ; a Crown of reward ; a Book of knowledge ;
the Fruit-bearing Palm of celestial rewards; an Apple of
original sin ; an Anchor of patience ; a Banner of triumph ;
a Sprinkler of purity ; an Open Dragon's Jaws of hell. The
heart is simply a mark of punctuation. Emblems and ar
morial charges constantly were used as devices and ornaments
for vestments ; but in many instances simply became made
out of mantles and cloths presented by princes and noble
men. The Saviour has the lion of Judah; the blessed
Virgin a neur-de-lys, or the rose of Sharon depicted on her
robe. Faith holds a book, a sieve, a cross, instruments of
the Passion, a burning lamp, a chalice, and host. Hope has
a ship, a beehive, a rake, and spade. Charity holds a peli
can, the sacred monogram, or a flaming heart. Temperance,
standing on a windmill, with a gag in her mouth and two
eyeglasses in one hand, with the other regulates a clock.
Justice with scales, holds one sword poised and another in
readiness. Prudence carries a bier on her head, a sieve, a
mirror turned to reflect what is approaching, or instruments
of the Passion. Fortitude, standing on a press, has an iron
anvil on her head, and strangles a dragon which she has
drawn out of a tower.
Emblematical Gems. (Exod. xxxix. 8, 14 : Rev. xxi. 19, 20.)
The Urim and Thummim consisted of four rows of gems —

256

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

the cardinal virtues, each containing three jewels — the
theological virtues. (1.) Sapphire (blue), truth and heaven,
heavenly-mindedness, hope, the single heart. The tables of
the law were made of this stone ; St. Paul, St. Andrew.
(2.) Chalcedony (grey), humility ; St. James the Great.
(3.) Emerald, of victory and hope, immortahty, faith, recipro
cal love; St. Simon. (4.) Sardonyx (purple) , married happi
ness, lively charity, martyrdom, humility, grief for sin ; St.
Peter. (5.) Sardine (transparent purple), exalted faith,
chastity, martyrdom ; St. John. (6.) Chrysolite (green and
gold), antidote against madness, charity and wisdom, watch
fulness of repentance, wisdom; St. Matthew. (7.) Beryl
(pale bright green), good example, long-suffering; St. Tho
mas. (8.) Topaz (yellow), love to God and man, fruitfulness
and fidelity, wisdom, good works, contemplation ; St. James
the Less. (9, 10.) Chrysoprase (purple), charity in tribula
tion, love; St. Jude. (11.) Jacynth (blue), angelic love,
heavenly contemplation, preaching to wise and simple ; St.
Bartholomew. (12.) Amethyst (violet), sincerity, humility
to death, earthly suffering, docility, HberaHty; St. Phihp.
The numbers show their emblematical representation of the
Articles of the Creed, according to Marbodus. Agate, health,
long life, and purity in the ministry. Bloodstone, carnage.
Carbuncle (deep-red), suffering to bloodshed, earnest charity.
Chalcedony, secret almsgiving. Cornelian, content. Dia
mond, innocence, fortitude. Garnet, constancy. Jasper (blu
ish-green), Christian cheerfulness, faith; St. Peter. Onyx
(bluish -white), truth. Opal, hope. Pearl, purity. Ruby,
love, power, and dignity. Turquoise, prosperity.
Emblems of Saints —
St. Adrian, with a sword, anvil, St. Alberie, Patriarch of Jerusalem,
and hammer, deprived of legs and founder of Carmelites, in pontifi-
arms. cals, with a palm.
St. Afra, in a caldron. St. Alphage, stones in his chasuble ;
St. Agapetus, with lions at his feet. a battle axe.
St. Agatha, holding a pair of pincers, St. Ambrose, mitred, kneeling ; a bee-
and her bosoms. hive ; a scourge, in allusion to his
St. Agnes, holding a sword, a lamb at repulse of the Emperor Theodosius
her feet, a lamb on a book, a dove from his cathedral.
bringing a ring, a sword and flame St. Andrew, a cross saltier.
at her feet, an angel covering her St. Angradesima, as leprous.
with a robe. St. Anne, teaching the Virgin to read,
St. Aidan, a stag at his feet. standing with Joachim before the
St. Alban, in a cope, a cross raised on Temple gate, with a triple crown in
a tall staff in one hand, a sword in the left hand and a book in the
the other. right.

EMBLEMS OF SAINTS.

257

St. Anthony, hermit, a demon like a
goat.
St. Apollinarius, assailed by a demon
with a club.
St. Apollonia, pincers holding a tooth ;
with a palm.
St. Athanasius, habited as a Greek
bishop, holding an open book,
standing between two pillars.
St. Augustine, D., holding a flaming
heart, or one pierced with an arrow
of charity, an eagle.
St. Barbara, a tower in which she was
immured, a chalice and host, a
tower and palm.
St. Barnabas, holding St. Matthew's
Gospel, or three stones, or an open
book and staff.
St. Bartholomew, a flaying-knife and
book.
St. Basil, a dove perched on his arm ;
a pen presented by a hand ; before
a brazier.
St. Beatrice, holding a rope.
St. Benedict, in a black habit, mitred,
holding a staff, transfixing a demon
with a cross ; a sprinkler ; a broken
sieve ; a cup and book ; a raven
with a book in its beak ; a cup with
serpents, to represent poison ; a
loaf; a thorn bush.
St. Benignus, a cross in the back
ground.
St. Bernard de Tolomei, d. 1348,
founder of the Olivetans on Monte
Oliveto, near Sienna ; white, hold
ing an olive-branch.
St. Bernard, founder of the Cister
cians ; in a white habit, with the
tonsure, as an abbot ; with the em
blems of the Passion ; a white dog
at his feet ; with three mitres, the
Sees he refused ; writing, an angel
holding a cross ; kneeling before
the apparition of the Virgin, a
fettered dragon (heresy) beside him.
St. Bemardine, a tablet or disk like
a sun, inscribed with the letters
IHS.
St. Blaise, a comb or rake of iron.
St. Boniface, as a bishop, hewing
down " the oak of thunder ;" a book
pierced with a sword.
St. Brannock, a cowl, well, and oak.
St. Bride, conversing with the Virgin,
with a book and cross-staff.
St. Britius, carrying burning coals ; or
a child.
St. Bruno, in a white habit, with the
tonsure, and in the attitude of
prayer or meditation.

Canute, a king kneeling before an
altar.
St. Catharine of Sienna (Dominican),
with the stigmata ; as a bride at her

St. Catharine crowned, a sword and
wheel with knives.
St. Cecilia, a crown, a garland of red
and white roses, and a palm ; hold
ing a harp, an organ with pipes, or
a lute.
St. Christina, with a millstone round
her neck, with which Bhe was thrown
into Lake Bolsena, with arrows
aimed against her.
St. Clair, carrying a head.
St. Clara (Franciscan), d. 1253, a lily ;
in dark brown, veiled ; the pyx with
which she drove the Saracens from
Assisi ; a cross, staff, and book.
St. Clement, mitred, with a triple cross
and anchor.
St. Cornelius, tiared ; a horn.
SS. Cosmas and Damian, in togas,
carrying an ointment-pot, or instru
ments of surgery ; a bottle and
shears ; two physicians.
SS. Crispin and Crispmian, a shoe
maker's knife and awl.
St. Cuthbert, carrying St. Oswald's
head, pillars of light at his side, and
swans.
St. Cyprian, a sword.
St. Cyriac, with his hands cut off; a
deacon with a dragon.
St. David, a saint preaching from a
hill ; a dove on his shoulder.
St. Denis, carrying his mitred head ;
d. 272 ; in white, with a black
mantle.
St. Dominic, holding a rosary ; a star
on his forehead or breast ; a black
and white dog setting a globe on
fire, allusive to his mother's dream;
a crucifix , a book ; a,fleur-de-lys in
one hand, a monastery in the other.
St. Dorothea, with roses and apples of
Paradise, sent at her martyrdom to
convert a scoffer, Theophilus.
St. Dunstan, a dove lighting on him ;
a group of angels round him ; hold
ing a harp ; a furnace and tongs.
St. Eanswitna, carrying _Bh.
St. Edith, washing the feet of the
poor.
St. Edmund the Eing, pierced with
arrows j an arrow in his hand ; with
a sceptre. (Patron of Bury St.
Edmund's.)
St. Edmund, M., a king's head guarded
by a wolf.

258

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

St. Edward, K. and M., holding a cup ;
or a dagger or falcon.
St. Edward, Confessor, a sceptre in
his right, a ring in his left hand.
(Patron of Westminster Abbey.)
St. (Mary) _Egyptiaca, with loose
tresses, a monk standing by.
St. Elizabeth, holding St. John the
Baptist, saluting the Virgin.
St. Elizabeth of Hungary, crowned
with a basket of bread or roses, into
which her loaves were changed.
St. Eloi, or Eligius, a hammer and
cross-Btaff, Tested as a bishop.
St. Enurchus, a dove.
St. Erasmus, a windlass.
St. Etheldreda, asleep, a tree blossom
ing over her ; as an abbess.
St. Eustace, a knight ; a dog ; a stag
with a cross.
St. Eabian, a Pope, tiared, kneeling
at the block ; a sword and palm.
St. Faith, a gridiron.
St. Fiacre, as a hermit ; or with a
spade and open book.
St. Flora, with her head in her hand,
and flowers blossoming from her
neck.
St. Francesca Romana, d. 1448, foun
dress of the Benedictine Oblates, an
elderly woman in a nun's dress,
with a white veil, and her guardian

St. Francis, receiving the stigmata on
Monte Laverna ; with seraphs ; a
lamb; a crucifix; kneeling before
a skull; d. 1226; in dark brown,
with a girdle.
St. Francis di Paola, d. 1507, founder
of the Minims, in a brown habit,
with the cowl over his head, and
Charitas on a scroll.
St. Frideswide, an ox.
St. Gabriel, holding a lily.
St. Genevieve, holding a candle.
St. German, with dead beasts.
St. Gertrude, a loaf in her hand.
St. Giles, with a wounded hind, the
animal which led the French king,
in hunting, to discover the recluse
in his cave.
St. Giovanni Gualberto, d. 1073,
founder of Vallombrosans, dark
brown habit, with an embroidered
cope, a carved cross and crutch.
St. Gothard, a bishop in a confes
sional.
St. Gregory the Great, a cross and
book ; an eagle ; before him a dove
at his ear in inspiration ; Christ
appearing over the chalice.

St. Gudule, carrying a lantern.
St. Guthlac, a scourge.
St. Helen, carrying a large cross.
Henry VI., a fawn at a king's feet.
St. Hilary, with three books ; treading
on reptiles, that is, heresies.
St. Hippolytus, a gaoler; a horse.
St. Hubert, a stag, with a cross be
tween the antlers.
St. Hugh of Lincoln, a swan (solitude),
with a lantern in his hand.
St. Ignatius, vested for Mass, with a
noble type of head ; the monogram
I H S on his breast.
St. James the Great, of Compostella,
as a pilgrim, with staff, scallop-shell,
bottle, and hat.
St. James the Less, a saw ; a fuller's
bat in his hand.
St. Januarius, lighting a fire.
St. Joachim, with doves in a basket.
St. Joachim, with a staff and basket
of doves.
St. Jerome, a lion, his attendant in
the desert ; carrying a church ; as a
cardinal ; striking his breast with a
stone.
St. John the Almoner, with a loaf and
rosary.
St. John the Baptist, a lamb on a book.
St. John Chrysostom, a chalice and
the Gospels ; a beehive, honey.
St. John the Evangelist, a cup of gold,
with a serpent issuing ; as an evan
gelist ; part of his dress green.
St. John of God, St. Juan Calabita,
d. 1550, founder of the Hospitallers;
a pomegranate, surmounted with a
cross.
St. John de Matha, founder of tho
Trinitarians, d. 1213 ; in a white
habit, with a red and blue cross on
the breast ; fetters in his hands, or
at his feet; sometimes in a black
mantle above white; or a stag, with a
cross, red and blue, between its
horns, appearing to him.
St. Joseph, with a flowering rod, and
a dove resting on it ; an old man ;
part of his dress is always saffron.
Judas Iscariot, the purse ; his hair
red, his robe yellow.
St. Jude, a club ; with a little ship ;
a carpenter's square ; a medallion
of the Saviour on his breast.
St. Julian of Mans, a well, banner,
palm ; driving a dragon ; a ferry
boat.
St. Lambert, a javelin.
St. Lawrence the Deacon, with a grid
iron, carrying a cross-staff.

EMBLEMS OF SAINTS.

259

St. Leodegar, a borer or pickaxe.
St. Leonard, an ox ; with fetters in
his hand.
St. Louis, with a dove and the arms
of France ; or washing the feet of
the poor.
St. Lucy, carrying a taper (luce) or
sword ; or her eyes. (Called in
Scotland St. Tredwald.)
St. Lupus, a bishop giving the Host.
St. Magnan, with an animal eating
fruit at his feet.
St. Magnus, restoring a blind man to
sight.
St. Margaret, piercing a dragon with
a cross-staff.
St. Martha, a vat and sprinkler.
St. Martin of Tours, on horseback,
dividing his cloak to give to a beg
gar.
St. Mary, the Blessed Virgin, with a
lily ; an almond-tree ; a star on her
shoulder ; in robes of red and blue.
St. Mary Magdalen, robed in red,
with the box of ointment.
St. Matthew, as evangelist, an angel;
a purse, as a publican ; a dolphin
at his feet ; an axe ; a stone in his
hand.
St. Matthias, a halbert.
St. Maurice, in armour.
St. Medard, doves ; an eagle; a beggar.
St. Michael the Archangel, as a war
rior, in mail, treading on a dragon ;
or holding a balance with souls in
it ; a cross on his brow.
St. Nicholas of Myra, three children
in a tub ; three purses on a book.
St. Nicomede, a club with spikes.
St. Norbert, as holding a chalice,
above which is a venomous spider,
in allusion to his drinking without
harm from it.
St. Olaf, a halbert ; a loaf.
St. Oswald , a dove w ith a letter, chrism,
or a ring in its beak.
St. Oswyn, a sceptre and spear.
St. Osyth, a key; an apse.
St. Pancras, a sword or stone in his
hands, a Saracen under his feet.
St. Patern, a serpent.
St. Patrick, treadmg on reptiles ; with
trefoils or shamrocks.
St. Paul, a sword, sometimes two
swords, represented with a ' low,
spare body, grave face, weak eyes,
bushy brows, and thick beard.
St. Paul, hermit; ravens bringing
food.
St. Peter, two keys of gold (sometimes
a third, -that of knowledge or this

world, is added) ; two keys, one of
gold, the other silver ; a key on a
book; represented with a pale face,
noble head, dark keen eye, and
slender, sinewy form, robed" in blue
and yellow.
St. Peter, M. (Dominican), a knife
Bticking in his heart.
St. Peter Nolasco, aged, in a white ha
bit, with the arms of Arragon ; foun
der of the Order of Mercy, o. 1230.
St. Petronilla, ministering alms at a
table.
St. Philip Benizzi, a triple crown, of
fered by a cherub.
St. Philip, Ap., a basket with the
loaves ; a lance and double cross,
with an idol falling at his feet.
St. Philip Neri, a rosary.
St. Polycarp, a flaming pile.
St. Potentiana, almsgiving.
St. Prisca, a sword, a lion, or eagle.
St. Quentin, a spit.
St. Quiriac, pierced with u sword at
the altar.
St. Baphael, an archangel leading a
youth.
St. Remigius, a dove with a cruse of oil.
St. Rhadegund, two wolves.
St. Richard of Chichester, a chalice
falling, with the wine unspilled, at
his feet.
St. Roch, as a pilgrim, with a plague-
boil on his thigh, a dog beside him.
St. Romuald, aged, with a long beard,
in a white habit, leaning on a crutch.
St. Rosalia, embracing a rock.
St. Saturninus, dragged by bulls.
St. Scholastica, with a crucifix, as a
Benedictine nun, with a white veil.
St. Sebastian, pierced with an arrow,
bound to a tree.
St. Servatus, a sun and a bird.
St. Simon, holding a fish or sword.
St. Stephen, deacon, his dalmatic
full of stones ; as the Pope ; a mar
tyr at the altar.
St. Sidwell, a scythe.
St. Sylvester, an ox, or baptizing.
St. Theodora, a demon taking her
hand.
St. Theodore, with a halbert and
sabre ; flogged with rods.
St. Theresa, d. 1582, foundress of Re
formed Carmelites ; a dove ; a heart
with the sacred monogram ; an
angel aiming an arrow at her.
St. Thomas, with a lance or a. carpen
ter's square, allusive to his under
taking to build a palace for Gunda-
for, king of India, which he ex-
s2

260 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
plained meant the edification of the St. Vincent, as a deacon, with a grid-
Church, iron and palm, on a rack.
St. Thomas Aquinas (Dominican), a St. Vitalis, a saint in a river.
star on his breast, a dove at his ear ; St. Waltheof, at the block, the sun
a chalice and host in the tabernacle, rising.
allusive to his composition of the St. Walbruga, oil distilling from her
office for Corpus Christi Day. hand.
St Thomas of Canterbury, a sword in St. Walstan, a calf; a scythe.
his head. St. Wendolin, a shrine ; or with
St. Ursula, an arrow ; a white banner beads and a dog.
with a red cross ; a dove at her feet. St. Wilfrid, destroying idols.
St. Valentine, being stoned. St. William, M., nails in a boy's head
St. Vedast, a wolf and goose. and hands.
St. Verena, a flood sweeping past her. St. Winifred, with her head in her
St. Veronica (vera icon), the true hand.
likeness imprinted on a handker- St. Wulstan, with his staff fixed in a
chief. tomb ; a scythe.
Embolismus. The short prayer, against temptation, which
follows the Lord's Prayer in every Greek liturgy.
Embrasure. A crenelle, or opening between the merlons, or
solid parts of a battlement.
Enamel. Glass rendered opaque by the use of oxide of lead
or tin. Limoges was the great school of the art. The
Byzantine enamellers, after the fall of Constantinople, went
to Russia, and carried with them a distinguished name for
skill and beauty in execution. According to the mode in
which it is embedded or encrusted, it is termed cloisonne
or champleve.
Encolpia. (Egkolpizein, to wear on the breast.) (1.) Reliquaries
worn round the neck, and hanging on the breast, which con
tained relics, or gospels; a fragment of the cross, filings
from St. Peter's chains, or oil from the lamps which lighted
a martyr's tomb. They are alluded to by St. Chrysostom
and Nectarius, patriarch of Constantinople. They were
usually square, and bore the sacred monograms of X P and
AH. (2.) The bishop's pectoral cross; one lately found
bears the motto, " Emanuel, God with us, the Cross is life
to me, to thee, Death, an enemy." These reliquaries formerly
took the form of a small bottle of gold, contained within a
tube ; St. Gregory the Great first gave them the shape of a
cross ; one of his date is still worn by the Provost of Monza
at a pontifical Mass ; and two smaller phylacteries given to
Theodolinda are preserved in the treasury of that church.
Engaged. Having part of a surface attached to a wall, or
pillar.
England, Church of. That pure and apostolical branch of the

EPACT  EPIPHANY. 261
Church Catholic, derived by lineal succession from the Bri
tish bishops, and the same before and after the Reformation ;
a title as old as Magna Charta, and used in a bull of Pope
Innocent III. in 1245.
Epact, (Intercalary.) The difference between the last day of
of the lunar year and that of the solar year ; it is used for
calculating the moon's age on any day in the year, and in
conjunction with the Dominical letter for finding out Easter
Day.
Ependytes or Superaria. An upper robe worn by the ancient
monks, and mentioned by St. Jerome.
Epigonation. An ornament worn by an archimandrite on his
left side in the Liturgy.
Epiphany. (Gr. manifestation.) In the Mozarabic and Font
evrault use, — the Apparition; originaUythe festival commemo
rative of the Lord's baptism ; a tradition as early as the time
of St. Clement of Alexandria, but about the fourth century
and in the Western Church always observed in memory of
His manifestation to the Gentdes, and so in France, Germany,
and England it was called the Feast of the Three Kings, and
to this day the sovereign sends myrrh, frankincense, and
gold, in a crimson bag, which is offered on the altar of the
Chapel Royal. The Greek Church calls it Theophany, the
manifestation of God — when the voice of the Father pro
claimed the Son. St. Jerome mentions it as the Epiphany,
the recognized name in connection with the adoration of the
magi, but both names occur in his ' Comes ' and Pope Gre
gory's ' Sacramentary'. Bethphany is another title allusive
to the miracle in the house of Cana, and Phagiphania, re
calling the feeding of the multitude associated with it. In
Africa, as St. Augustine says, " the Lights" is a name as old
as the time of St. Gregory Nazianzen, connecting it with the
rising of the star and the " Light that lighteneth every man
that cometh into the world." Balsamon speaks of the
lighting of many tapers to represent the glory of the festival,
which was kept always on January 6th, as appears from the
Fathers and the laws of Valens, Theodosius, and Arcadius.
It is alluded to by Ammianus Marcellinus, the heathen.
MetropoHtans, at Epiphany, sent their paschal letters, an
nouncing the moveable feasts in the coming year, to their
suffragans. In England it was known as Twelfth Night, .the

262 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
conclusion of Christmastide, and the morrow as St. Distaff's
day, because work was then resumed ; in Austria as Bright
Day ; and in Wales and at Rouen as Star Feast.
I --¦- o Special baptism on this day, a Spanish custom, was
abolished by Pope Damasus and Himerius of Tarragona, be
fore the fourth century ; but the Greek, Syrian, and African
Churches retained the practice, with a solemn benediction of
water on the vigil. To this day the custom is preserved in
Russia, and attended with innumerable Hghts and tapers, to
symbolize the spiritual illumination to which our Lord, by
His baptism, consecrated water. SS. Chrysostom and Epi-
phanius mention the solemn drawing of water, connecting it
with the miracle of Cana, — a tradition alluded to by Chryso-
logus and Eucherius of Lyons ; and St. Paulinus mentions
the commemoration of three events — the visit of the Magi,
our Lord's baptism, and His conversion of water into wine.
Epistles for Festivals, Fasts, and Sundays, with the Gospels,
may have been appointed in St. Jerome's Lectionary day by
day, by command of Pope Damasus, who enjoined that order
in the Roman Church ; but some parties attribute the ar
rangement and choice to P. Telesphorus or Alexander. Like
the Ten Commandments, the epistle and gospel were read
in a low pulpit facing the people in the nave, or from the
desk attached to the priest's stall in choir, after the Refor
mation; before that period the rood-loft was used for the
purpose. The term ' apostle ' was often used to designate the
epistle, which is usually part of an apostolical epistle.
Eremites or Hermits. Dwellers in a Solitary Place. (Gr.
eremos.) Persons absolutely separated from society. The
first was Paul the SoHtary, whom St. Anthony visited in the
third century, and Hilarion and Pacomius imitated. They
usually attended the services of the nearest church, as five
at Merkyate did in the twelfth century. The ascetic kept
silence and retreat even in inhabited places. Curious rock-
ceUs overlooking rivers were hewn out at the Red and Black
Rock, in Worcestershire ; at Warkworth, where the neigh
bouring canons are said to have taken shelter in times of
danger ; and in Guy's Cliff, Warwick. Hermitages also are
found in the Roche Rocks, Cornwall ; at Inkerman, Teker-
man, Midiah, Gebel-al-Terr, Thelemark, Bretzenheim, St.
Aubin, St. Baume, Fontgambaud, St. Antoine de Calumies,

EUCHARISTIC BREAD. 263
St. Emilien, and Montmajeur, near Aries. The latter is of
the sixth century, but was enlarged five hundred years later,
retaining, however, its chairs and benches of stone, Hke a
Roman catacomb. The Eremites of St. Paul, founded under
the Austin rule by Eusebius of Gran in 1308, came to Col
chester in 1310. Sec Austin Friars.
Eucharistic Bread. The wafer. (Before consecration, oblys, ob-
lata; after it, hostia and housl (Norsk), the sacrifice; used in
England in 925); sand am the old Roman Order. In693aCoun-
cil of Toledo required the bread to be made thin so as to be
easily broken, and expressly baked for the altar. In the sixth
century the Greeks had adopted leavened bread, and in the
West the contrary practice of using unleavened bread, said
to have been prescribed by Alexander I., was in use between
the times of Photius and Cerularius, and during the Papacy
of Leo IX. in the middle of the eleventh century, at the
period of the rupture between the Greek and Roman
Churches. Epiphanius and Severus of Alexandria mention
that altar breads were circular. St. Gregory calls them
crowns. The panis deccussatus of the Roman Christians was
divided by incisions into four equal parts. In 1287, Bishop
Quivil of Exeter ordered hosts to be whole, white, and
round. They at first were usually made before Christmas
and Easter, and, until the fifteenth century, by three deacons
or priests, with an assistant clerk or lay-brother, fasting
with great devotion, and in complete silence, after having
said the litany and penitential Psalms. They kneaded the
hosts with meal and pure cold water upon a polished table ;
the assistant baked them, six at a time, with his hands
gloved, and from the ninth century used special irons or
tongs for stamping them with a cross and monogram (fer
ritin oblatarum v. f err amentum character atum), a pair of
of which is still preserved at Braine. The other two cut up
the hosts with a knife, and let them fall into a dish covered
with a white cloth. Bishop Bleys of Worcester, in 1329,
ordered the oblates to be baked in an instrument lined with
pure wax, and not with lard. Bona suggests that the wafer
was used when the personal offering of the holy loaf fell into
desuetude, and the priests provided the element, and that its
shape was a memorial of the denar — the betrayal money —
and came into vogue when the people offered the Mass

264

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

penny as a composition for their oblation. Durandus refers
it to Ps. xxiv. 1 ; xxxix, 8. In 1549 the English Church
ordered the eucharistic bread to be " throughout the realm
after one sort and fashion, unleavened, round, as it was afore,
but without all manner of print, and something more large
and thicker than it was, so that it might be aptly divided
in divers pieces, and every one divided into two pieces, at
least, or more, by the discretion of the minister, and so dis
tributed." Wafer bread was used in the time of Elizabeth,
and at Westminster Abbey in 1643. The altar breads are
called in some Greek liturgies "burning coals," in allusion
to Is. vi. 6, or divine fire of love. The words " holy sacri
fice, immaculate host," were inserted in the Mass by Pope
Leo I. The wafer was broken into three portions, as
Casalius says, as an offering to the Holy Trinity : (1) as a
sacrifice of thanksgiving ; (2) a sacrifice propitiatory for the
sins of the living ; and, (3) a sacrifice for the souls in Purga
tory, offered immediately to Christ. In the eleventh century
a portion was used for the viaticum, and in the later medieval
Church, according to Bishop Hooper, was carried by the
priests at their breast, their heads being covered with the
surplice. Erasmus says the Host was carried on horseback
round the fields, and from place to place, as a benediction.
Becon relates a painful anecdote, that "if the priest was
weak in his arms the rude people of the country in divers
parts of England would cry out to the priest, ' Hold up, Sir
John, heave it a little higher.' And one would say to another,
' Stoop down, thou fellow afore, that I may see my Maker,
for I cannot be merry (i.e. pleasant or happy) except I see
the Lord God once a day.' " And, on the other hand Bishop
Ridley says that blasphemous bdls were set round St. Paul's
by the ignorant, at the Reformation, calling the Host " the
sacrament of the halter," " round Robin," and " Jack in the
box." In the Grand Chartreuse the Hosts are passed by
the monks in solemn silence from hand to hand. The phe
nomenon of the bleeding host was observed in 1004 ; at
Bolsena in 1264 (the subject of one of Raphael's pictures),
in 1383, 1510; and at Legnano in 1819. In 1848 the
microscope revealed the fact that the stains were made by
myriads of vibrios or monads of a red colour. Houselhng
people were communicants. Houselling bread was the

eucharistic vestments. 265
smaller; singing bread (so called from the chanting with
which its manufacture was accompanied,) was the larger
altar bread. The housel, by ^Elfric's canons, was not to be
given to men half alive, and was not to be hallowed on Good
Friday. The custom of keeping the housel consecrated on
Easter Day for a whole year, for communion of the sick, was
forbidden, and a weekly or fortnightly consecration pre
scribed. If it had been by mischance kept so long as to be
corruptible, it was burned in a clear fire and the ashes were
put under the altar, by Edgar's laws, 960. In 994 the Com
munion was to be received on every Sunday in Lent, the
four last days before Easter, and daily all the next week.
In 1009 and 1017, men were required to go to Housel three
times a year.
In the Greek Church small, round loaves, or oblations, are
used, generally five in number, in allusion to St. Mark, vi.
38, and circular Hke the money, the price of our redemption.
Formerly their number was proportioned to that of the
persons offering. From the chief oblation, the Holy Lamb,
or Sphragis, which the priest stabs out of the antidoron, are
cut a pyramidal-shaped portion for St. Mary, nine por
tions for prophets, apostles, and martyrs, portions for the
dead, and portions for the Hving. In the time of Maldonati,
laymen who did not communicate, at the elevation of the Host,
represented in dumb show the earlier custom of touching
their eyes, nostrils, temples, and forehead, as the seat of the
senses, with it. See Holy Communion.
Eucharistic Vestments. Were first ordered by Pope Stephen
in 260, in imitation of the dress of the Jewish priesthood,
(Ezek. xliv. 17-19,) out of reverence to God and His
Church, to represent the sanctity of the rites administered,
as a warning to ministers when wearing them, and to pro
cure reverence in divine worship. In the twelfth century,
in Ireland, they were white. By order of Pope Clement old
vestments were to be burned, and their ashes buried in the
baptistery, under the pavement or in the walls. Gratian
says they were washed in special vessels. Their symbolical
meaning has been given under their names; the alb, with its
two flaps on the shoulders and two beneath over against the
feet, behind and before, are the four nails; the flaps of the
amice are the crown of thorns, according to Tyndale : the

266

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

amice is, after the ancient fashion, still worn outside the alb
in Holy Week by the Maronites'at Lyons and Milan.
Rupert says the dalmatic was not worn in Lent or Advent,
as a memorial of the disciples' inability to bear the mysteries
of the faith until Jesus was glorified. In 1222 and 1322,
every church in the Province of Canterbury was ordered to
have two sets, the principal for Sundays and feasts, and the
rest for week-days.
Eulogise, Antidora, Holy Bread, or Holy Loaf. (1 .) In the early
Church, at the end of the Mass, the loaves offered by the
faithful, which had not been consecrated, were blessed by the
celebrant, and distributed as a sign of brotherly communion,
as they are now in the Greek Church, to those who had not
partaken of the Divine Mysteries, and formerly to cate
chumens, who were not admissible. They were called eulogies
or antidora, compensations, by the Council of Antioch, in 341.
Sometimes holy bread was sent from the cathedral to its de
pendent parish churches. The eulogies of unleavened bread
were placed on the altar, or on the credence or diakonikon,
which stood to the left of it. After certain prayers they were
cut up with the holy lance, or eucharistic knife, for distribu
tion. In the fourth century, eulogies in the Western Church
were given to catechumens, and St. Austin calls them a
sacrament. (2.) Bishops also sent to one another bread set
apart with a special blessing and called benediction, as an
outward sign of ecclesiastical communion and Christian con
cord. They might be used by the recipients for consecration
afterwards. Paulinus sent such loaves to St. Augustine, and
Tertullian mentioned them as pledges of mutual hospitality.
(3.) In the sixth century, in France, a meal after grace had
been said was called a benediction or eulogy. Certain con
stitutions of the thirteenth century forbid the giving of
eulogies to priests' wives, but at that period women at their
churching at Durham received them. Cranmer says, " Holy
bread is to put us in remembrance that all Christian men are
one mystical body of Christ, as the bread is made of many
grains and yet but one loaf, and to put us in remembrance
also of receiving the Holy Sacrament and Body of Christ in
right charity, which, in the beginning of Christ's Church, men
did oftener receive than they do now."
Evangelistic Symbols. The four mystic animals (Rev. iv. 7 ;

EVANGELISTS  EVENING, CELEBRATIONS. 267
Ezek. i. 10; xi. 4) were not drawn earlier than the fifth century.
SS. Jerome and Augustine have referred the man to St.
Matthew, in allusion to his commencement with the human
genealogy; the lion to St. Mark, in reference to his opening
with the cry in the wilderness ; the ox to St. Luke, from his
beginning with the sacrifice of Zecharias ; and the eagle to
St. John, whose first words are, " In the beginning was the
Word." St. Matthew has sometimes an angel, the evange
list of the incarnation, and the other three symbols represent
(1) the royalty and resurrection, (2) the priesthood and pas
sion, and (3) the ascension and revelation of the Divine
nature. Other interpreters apply them to our Lord, who
took our manhood to deliver man ; as a lion, trod down His
enemies ; as a calf, was led to sacrifice ; and as an eagle, rose
to heaven. The head of the man only has the aureole in
most cases, as it was considered wrong to give it to creatures
without reason. Stars sometimes are set on the heads of the
symbols, which often hold books of the gospels : no pre
cise or invariable order of arrangement was observed, and
they frequently appear on the ends of a cross, as wit
nesses of the godhead and humanity of the Saviour ; cheru
bim have been sometimes pourtrayed as composed of all the
four animals.
Evangelists. Missionary or itinerant preachers ; assistants of
the Apostles in the primitive Church, in distinction to the
resident priests and deacons (Eph. iv. 11; Acts xxi. 8;
2 Tim. iv. 5) ; and the prophets, or inspired expositors of
Holy Scripture.
Eve. The day before a festival which is not fasted ; so, when
a feast falls on Monday, its vigd or fast is kept on the pre
vious Saturday, but Sunday is its eve.
Evening Celebrations of the Holy Communion are mentioned
by the Councils of Agde and III. Orleans. Tertulhan
speaks of the Eucharist being celebrated "before light;"
and the origin, as St. Augustine says, must be traced to the
time of the institution at the Paschal Supper. The Greeks
followed the custom in Lent, on fast-days, and vigils after
noon, that is, possibly, after Vespers. Rabanus Maurus and
Micrologus mention that, in Lent, Mass was deferred till
Nones in the West. In Africa the same practice prevaded.
The Latin Church celebrated on Maundy Thursday at even-

268 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
ing ; and also on Whitsun Eve, and fast days after Nones.
This custom lasted till about 430, when it was forbidden,
except on Maundy Thursday, by the Councd of Macon;
and even that relaxation was removed by the Council of
Tarragona. In the East, the Councils of Laodicea and V.
Constantinople required Communion to be made fasting, and
prohibited evening celebrations with the same view. In
1566 Pope Pius V. deprived metropolitans, cathedrals, mi
nisters, sovereigns, and nobles of the privilege of having
such services ; to these probably Shakespeare aUudes, when
he mentions " evening Masses," which no doubt had grown
out of the canonical midnight celebrations.
Exarch. The Greek primate, inferior to a patriarch, and supe
rior to a metropolitan. In the third century there were
three exarchs — of Ephesus, with the diocese of Asia, twelve
provinces, and 300 sees; Heraclea, with the diocese of
Thrace, and six provinces ; and Cassarea, with the diocese of
Pontus, thirteen provinces, and 104 sees; which were the
residences of the imperial prefects. Exarchs had jurisdic
tion over metropolitans within their diocese, and ordained
them; received appeals against their judgments, and de
cided cases of difference between them and their suffragans.
In councils they sat next to patriarchs. In the fifth century
the Council of Chalcedon transferred the privdeges of the
three exarchates to the patriarch of Constantinople, and their
titles became honorary. Pope Damasus gave the rank of
exarch to the Bishops of Thessalonica ; the metropolitan of
Cyprus was confirmed as exarch by the Council of Ephesus,
in the fifth century, and, like the Archbishop of Bulgaria,
who was exempt from the Patriarch of Constantinople, was
called autokephalous.
Excommunication. (Aphorismos, separation. Exclusion of an
offender from the Communion (founded on 1 Cor. v. 11), and
his removal from the Church and prayers, being reduced to
the condition of a heathen (St. Matt, xviii. 17); he was
capable of readmission (1 Cor. xvi. 22; 2 Cor. ii. 5-11). In
the medieval Church the general sentence, curse, or execra
tion on all who infringed on the privileges, immunities, rights,
and dues of the Church was pronounced with lights burning
and the uplifted cross in church, on the Sunday after Michael
mas, Mid-Lent Sunday, Trinity Sunday, and the Sunday

EXEMPT, OR PECULIARS. 269
after the Feast of St. Peter Vincula, after the gospel from
the pulpit or rood-loft, by priests, but usually before the
high- altar by a bishop, vested in his alb. The candles were
then thrown upon the ground, whilst the church bells were
rung, and then extinguished ; a custom in the eighth century,
as a sign that the souls of the malefactors, unless they made
restitution, would be quenched in torment, and meanwhile
the anathema was laid on them in the field, on the way, or at
home, sitting, sleeping, eating, working, standing, seques
tered from the light and all the blessings of the Church.
The entire ceremonial probably was not in effect until the
ninth century. The bull In Ccena Domini was read, until
1740, by a cardinal deacon, in the Pope's presence, on
Maundy Thursday, and was a sentence of general excom
munication. Tyndale says, that in the Marches of Wales,
when a man had a cow or a calf stolen, he complained to the
curate, who commanded all the parishioners to say, " God's
curse and mine have he." The lesser excommunication re
moved the person from a participation in the sacraments,
but the greater, called the anathema (Gal. i. 8), which re
sembled the primitive erasure of a name from the diptychs,
expelled him from the Church, and deprived him of Chris
tian burial. Subjects were absolved from allegiance to an
excommunicated priest. Gregory V., for the first time, in
flicted the sentence of excommunication on a king, on Robert
of France, in 998. John, and Henry VIII., and Napoleon,
in 1809, by Pius VIL, were excommunicated. The lesser
excommunication was the punishment of sacrilege, lay
usurpation of a church, notorious offenders, or those who
conversed with persons under the greater ban, which was
imposed on diviners, heretics, simoniacs, plunderers of
churches, or those who laid violent hands on a clerk. ' Ex
communication is followed by no civil penalty except impri
sonment in certain cases.
Exempt, or Peculiars. (1.) Places and churches privileged by
the Pope from any visitation but his own, as Bury, and many
other abbeys ; the Abbot of Westminster had to travel to
Rome for confirmation, and visit Rome once in every two
years or pay a fine. (2.) Churches free from the jurisdiction
of the diocesan and archdeacon, and called peculiars because
not being manors or advowsons of the See, they were reputed

270 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
to be subject to the Archbishop of Canterbury and of his
diocese, viz., the Arches, thirteen parishes in London, Ris-
borough, Booking, Shoreham, Pagham, the Pallant (Chiches
ter), Tarring, Poling, and Mailing, and parishes in other
dioceses, in all 57 in number ; the church of Battle, a donative
of the Abbot ; and St. Burian's, which was liable to visitation
by the Crown only, as Windsor and Westminster are now.
From these exempt places an appeal was made after the Re
formation to the Queen in Chancery, who constituted a com
mission of delegates. Some places were exempt solely from
archidiaconal jurisdiction. Monastic peculiars or appropri
ations dependent on great abbeys, until subjected to the
diocesan by Act 31 Hen. VIII., c. 13, but he had always the
right of institution. In Spain some churches, during part of
the year, were under the diocesan, and at other times were said
to be vere nullius, " truly of none." In England, prebendal
churches were visited by the dean of the cathedral (as dean
of Christianity), and the representative of the chapter ; these,
by 1 & 2 Vict. c. cvi. s. 108, in 1838, are now visited by the
diocesan. See Cathedrals.
Exhortatory Week. The week before Septuagesima.
Exorcism. (AphorMsmos in baptism, exorkismos in pure exor
cism.) In the primitive Church the candidates for baptism
coming barefooted, and habited in a single dress, and carry
ing a taper symbolical of the light of Christ, bowing their
heads, and, receiving imposition of hands, were exorcized.
The ceremony seems to have been substantially the same as re
nunciation of the devil, though differing in form. In the fourth
century exorcism was recommended as highly expedient.
Probably the custom took its origin in allusion to St. Mark
xvi. 17; Acts xix. 12—16, and as the persons deprived of the
blessings and freedom of the gospel are bond-slaves of Satan,
to 1 Cor. v. 3-5 ; 1 Tim. i. 20. The energumens, or exorcized,
stood with their faces towards the west, as the symbol of
darkness, and stretched out their hands as if pushing away
Satan ; the exorcist breathed on them three times. Probably
there was a longer form used in the preparation of the can
didate, and one shorter previous to his immersion. The
Western form was, "I adjure thee, unclean spirit, that thou
come out of this servant of Jesus Christ ! in the name of the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost." To the last these

EXORCIST  EXTREME UNCTION. 271
words were often added, " Make way for the Holy Ghost."
In the Prayer Book of 1549 the form was, " I command thee,
unclean spirit, in the name of the Father, of the Son, and of
the Holy Ghost, that thou come out and depart from these
infants." The LXXII. English Canon, of 1603, forbids ex
orcism without the bishop's licence. " No minister, without
licence of the bishop of the diocese, is to attempt, upon any
pretence whatsoever, whether of possession or obsession, by
fasting and prayer, to cast out any devil or devils, under
pain of the imputation of imposture or cozenage, and deposi
tion from the ministry."
Exorcist. One of the minor orders of the ministry, dating
from the third century. The exorcist at his ordination, by
the Fourth Council of Carthage, was given the forms of
exorcizing, and received power from the bishop of laying
hands on the energumens, persons possessed, who entered
only the forecourt of the church, whether baptized or cate
chumens ; he had charge of the catechumens; he seems to have
held a cross when acting ministeriaUy. Peter, who suffered
martyrdom in 302, is the earHest exorcist on record.
Exposition. The exhibition of the Host standing manifest in
a monstrance or glass vird on an altar. By special privilege
it is perpetual at Lugo and Leon, always surrounded with
burning lights, and attended by two priests watching. In
other large churches the exposition is made during the
" Forty Hours," by course or rotation, a privilege restricted
to Rome by Pope Clement VIII. in 1562, and introduced at
Seville in 1697. /. Cxo
Extreme Unction. Founded on St. Mark vi. 13, and St.
James v. 14-15, and universally adopted in the West after
the twelfth century ; originated in the act of anointing by a
bishop or priest, which, in early times, was immediately
connected with absolution and the Lord's Supper when ad
ministered to dying persons. An anointing of the sick is
mentioned by Innocent I. in the beginning of the fifth, and
by Felix IV. at the commencement of the next century ; but
the ceremony did not become universal in the Western
Church till after the twelfth century, although it is alluded
to by St. Augustine, St. Gregory, Fortunatus of Poitiers, and
Gregory of Tours. In the Greek Church it is practised on
the authority of oral tradition, and is mentioned by Origen

272

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

and St. Chrysostom, Victor of Antioch, and St. Cyril of
Jerusalem. In the time of Charlemagne several priests
officiated, but Innocent III. first defined that one priest
sufficed. The pseudo-Dionysius alludes to a practice of
anointing the dead before being lowered into the grave.
The unction was made in the form of a cross on the brow, the
seat of the senses, and that of the disease in the dying. The
oil was kept in a tabernacle in the sanctuary wall. The old
names for this ceremonial were, the sacrament of the passing,
the unction of the holy oil, or holy anointing. The Greeks
call it hagion elaion, holy od, and euchelaion, the " prayer of
the holy oil." In 1322 all persons in England, above the
age of fourteen years, were allowed to receive extreme
unction.
Fabric, in ancient Statutes. (1.) The material building of a
cathedral. (2.) The personal establishment, as when the
cope, required to be presented by a dignitary or canon at
his installation, was said to be given to the fabric.
Faculty. A dispensation issued by the Archbishop of Canter
bury for dispensing with plurality of benefices, or granting
ordination, infra aetatem, for persons of extraordinary abdi-
ties, before the canonical age, or letters dimissory; con
firmed by 21 Henry VIII. c. xxi. s. 3; and 44 Geo. III.
c. xhn. s. 1. Archbishops Usher and Sharp, Bishops Bull
and Jeremy Taylor, and Ven. Bede, were ordained priests
before they had attained twenty-four years of age ; in the
medieval Church simdar instances are recorded; and pro
bably St. Athanasius, St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, and Remi-
gius of Rheims, were consecrated at an earlier age than
ordinary.
Faithful. The title of a baptized Christian in primitive times,
in distinction to a neophyte or catechumen.
Faldstool. (Fr. Pliant.) A folding-stool, or seat, in the form of
a cross saltier, like St. Loup's at Sens. At St. Alban's, in the
twelfth century, called the faudestole; a bishop's portable
and enclosed, or armed chair — from the word ' fold,' a clo
sure : Hke one preserved at York. Bishop Hacket speaks
of the faldestory in the midst of Lichfield choir ; and Bishop
Andrewes of the faldistory for the Litany. At Rouen,
Chartres, Paris, and Vienne, the bishop ordinarily sat on the

PAN0N, OR PHANON— EASTS. 273
faldstool. The Litany desk is often improperly called a fald,
as if a folding-stool. Queen Mary II.'s faldstool, used at
her marriage, is preserved at Winchester ; and one of iron,
of the fourteenth century, at Bayeux.
Fanon, or Phanon. (Vannel, mappula, mantile, or maniple;
sudarium; from Germ. Fahne, a banner, or vane.) (1.) The
orale of old writers ; a white silk, gauze-like tippet, with
edges and bars of gold lace, and two stripes of blue and
scarlet, in imitation of an ephod, worn by the Pope like a
hood. It was not used until the time of Innocent III., about
1200, and was a substitute for the amice, which then began
to be worn by the Pontiff inside instead of, as before, outside
the albe. It is double, and the inner half being put on
like a tippet over the albe, the corresponding duplicate is
brought over his head until the chasuble is put on, and then
it is turned over all the other robes, coming round the back,
chest, and shoulders. In lieu of a maniple, he has a suc-
cinctory. Tyndale says that it represented the cord with
which Christ's hands were bound. (2.) A napkin. (3.) A
corporal. (4.) The label of a bishop's mitre. (5.) The
maniple, a kerchief formerly carried on the arm, and used
by the priest to wipe his face (as Amalarius says), but now a
merely ornamental appendage attached to his left hand. In
the sixth century it began to be carried on the left arm as
an honourable distinction, at Rome. St. Gregory desired
John, Archbishop of Ravenna, to permit its use to deacons :
in the ninth century priests and deacons indiscriminately,
and in the eleventh century subdeacons, adopted it.
Fan Tracery. The peculiar glory of Perpendicular architec
ture ; a vaulting, in which all the ribs at the springing of a
vault have the same curve, and diverge equaHy in every di
rection, as at Windsor, the Lady Chapel, Westminster; Pe
terborough New Work ; King's College Chapel, Cambridge.
Farced. Kyries and epistles were said to be farced, when they
were interlarded with passages, called tropes, which formed,
as it were, intercalated anthems between the Kyrie and
Eleison, or broke the sentences in the epistle.
Fasts. Abstinence from flesh meat. It was enforced by
Queen Elizabeth to promote fisheries, to maintain mariners,
and set men a-fishing, and dispensed with by virtue of
licences which were sold according to the rank of the appli-

274 . SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
cants by the curates, by an Act of Parliament passed in the
fifth year of her reign. By special privilege, the Wednes
day fish-day in Lent was dispensed with at' Oxford, Cambridge,
and Winchester through the influence of Archbishop Parker.
Pilkington relates a curious fact, that one side of Cheap-
side which was in the diocese of London fasted on St. Mark's
Day, whilst the opposite side of the street, being a peculiar
of Canterbury, were acquitted of abstinence in virtue of the
merits of Thomas a Becket. Another singular superstition
in England was to observe the fasts of certain vigils of
saints' days, such as St. Anthony, St. Brandon, and St.
Tronion or Ronan, very strictly as of primary importance.
Fastingonge, or Fastens, was the name of Shrove Tuesday.
Fasts were observed differently at Rome and Milan. In
the time of St. Augustine and St. Ambrose there was no fast
between Easter and Whitsuntide. "Epiphanius, in the fourth
century, mentions fasting on bread and salt for some days
before Easter; and in 1541 the Council of Orleans regarded
omission of fasting as an ecclesiastical offence. The ancient
fasts were the weekly stations, Wednesdays and Fridays ;
the monthly fasts, except in July and August, ordered by
the Councils of Elvira and II. Tours ; fasts on vigils of festi
vals in the fifth century ; the Ember weeks ; the rogations ;
and Lent.
Fathers of the Church. The primitive Fathers are, Clement,
Bishop of Rome, d. 100 ; Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, martyr
at Rome, 107; Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, martyr 167,
authors of epistles; Justin, martyr at Rome, 163, author of
'Apologies ;' Hermias ; Hegesippus ; Tatian, c. 170 ; Athena-
goras ; Theophdus, Bishop of Antioch, c. 1 69 ; Irenasus,
Bishop of Lyons, 179; Clement of Alexandria, d. 220; St.
Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, martyr, 258 ; Origen of Alex
andria, d. 254 ; St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, Bishop of Neo-
csesarea, c. 240 ; Dionysius the Great, Bishop of Alexandria,
d. 265 ; and Tertullian, of Carthage, died a heretic in 220 ;
Minucius Felix, his contemporary, Arnobius d. 325 ; Lactan-
teus,d.c. 325,three apologists against the heathen philosophy;
and Eusebius, the historian, Bishop of Caesarea and Antioch,
319. The other Fathers are of the Greek Church : St. Gregory
of Nyssa, a voluminous writer of treatises, d. c. 400 ; St.
Gregory of Nazianzum, in Cappadocia, Bishop of Sasima, d.

FEAST OP POOLS — FENESTRAL. 275
389 ; St. Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem, author of catechetical
lectures, d. 386 ; St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, dj
373 ; St. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, a writer on heresies,
d. 403 ; St. Basil of Ceesarea, d. 379 ; St. John, called Chry
sostom, Patriarch of Constantinople, d. 407 ; and Ephraem,
the Syrian of the fourth century. Those of the Latin
Church are, St. Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, d. 397 ; St.
Augustine, Bishop of Hipp\o, d. 430 ; St. Jerome, d. 420 ;
Pope Damasus, d. 384 ; and St. Hilary, Bishop of Poictiers,
the author of commentaries and treatises, d. 368.
Feast of Fools. On Epiphany Eve the Vicars of Amiens and
Senlis chose a pope, at Laon a patriarch, at Noyon a king of
fools. Indecent dancing before the porch ; infamous songs
like those sung on Innocents' Day, and a riding procession
followed the election. The Faculty of Theology at Paris had
to condemn priests and clerks, entering the church at the
the time of the holy office with monstrous masks, wearing
the clothes of women or actors, dancing and leaping and
singing songs. In the fifteenth century, Menot, a famous
French preacher, denounced the custom of priests dancing
with women in public after celebrating their first Mass. At
Aix, a chorister, until 1543, was chosen yearly on December
21st as king of fools. At the Trinity Church, Caen, a little
girl-abbess was elected on that day. At Chalons the king
of fools entertained his guests in a theatre erected before
the cathedral doors at the expense of the chapter; and
afterwards the crowd, singing confused words, and making
hideous grimaces, passed through the church and cloisters.
When Vespers had been sung in haste, the cantors and
choirmaster chanted a ludicrous motet, a parody of sacred
language ; and then the motley crew, shouting and playing
the most noisy instruments, made the procession of the cathe
dral. In 1346, in England, it was kept on the Circumcision.
Feasts. The Christian festivals are divided into two classes.
(1.) Immoveable, those fixed to certain days in the month;
(2.) moveable, those which occur at seasons, dependent on
Easter or on Sundays.
Fenestral. (1.) A niche containing a drain and credence
ledge; (2)- a shuttered casement; (3) alow side window;
(4) a slanting aperture in the wall, used, probably, as a con
fessional, found often in England ; near Tenby ; in Normandy,
t 2

276

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

and Denmark, and also at Heisterbach, Nuremberg, and
, Lecco. The vulgar and modern name is hagioscope or
squint ; (5) in some instances, where they are of large size,
or command the view of an altar, they may have been made
to allow persons in the transept, vestry, tower, or other posi
tion, to see the altar, as at Minster- Lovell, and Haseley : or.
as at Bridgewater, where there is a series of diagonal
openings, and in the vestry of Merton College, Oxford ;
Malvern, and Christchurch, Hants ; and the side chapel of
Chipping Norton, they may have been used as a commu
nication with the ringer of the sanctus bell. At Battle one
of these oblique windows is high up in the nave wall ; at
Lynn, in the parvise ; at Wittering near the rood-loft ; at
Stockbury and Newnham, in the Tower. At Stamford there
are apertures in the west wall of the belfry chamber for the
convenience of the ringers.
Feretory. (1.) The French fierte, a reliquary; (2) a shrine
of a saint, from the Latin feretrum, a bier or hearse.
Ferials. Week-days ; a term definitely fixed by Pope Sylvester
in 316, thus, Monday is the 2nd, Tuesday the 3rd, etc. The
Orientals, from their love of astronomy, first named the
week-days after the planets. In the fourth, fifth, and sixth
centuries (as appears from imperial laws, Eusebius and
Sozomen), the Christians commonly adopted the heathen
names, but frequently with some qualification, such as "the
day of salvation called by the Greeks," or " commonly, Sun
day ;" or, the " fast of the fourth or sixth day, which the
heathens call after Mercury and Venus," as St. Cyril of
Jerusalem says. St. John calls Sunday the Lord's Day
(Rev. i. 10), and St Augustine inveighs against the wrong
principle of calling week-days by heathen names. The
Jewish plan of numbers was adopted (St. Matt, xxviii. 1 ; St.
. Mark xvi. 9 ; St. Luke xxiv. 1 ; St. John xx. 1 ; Acts xx.
7) ; reckoning Sunday as the first day. These week-days
were called ferise, as the Council in Trullo, Tertullian, St.
Basil, St. Chrysostom, and St. Augustine understand the
title as days on which we must cease from sin, all days alike
, being consecrated to God's service, like the Roman feriaa
(from ferire, to strike the victim), days on which all business
was suspended and sacrifices were offered. The greater
ferials are Advent, Lent, Ember and Rogation days.

FERM0R Y  FISH. 277
Fermory. The infirmary.
Feuillans. Reformed Cistercians, founded by Jean-de-la-
Barrierre, at Feuillans Abbey, and confirmed by Gregory
XIII.
Fillets. (Peplum.) (1.) Children, when they went to Confirma
tion, carried to the bishop, when he was in the neighbourhood,
their fillets of sufficient size to dry the chrism and bind their
foreheads. On the third day after this they were taken to
church, where the fillets or fascias were burned, and their
foreheads washed in the baptistery by the priest. Tyndale
says the bishop or his chaplain knotted the fillets about their
necks, and no lay person was permitted to unloose them.
(2.) Small bands between mouldings. (3.) The labels of a
bishop's mitre.
Finial. (1.) A pinnacle on a buttress. (2.) The knot of foliage
surmounting a pinnacle.
Fireplaces occur in sacristies, as at Bristol, for baking the
altar bread; and for the same purpose at Lincoln in the
transept, and at Rochester in an aisle. Over porches, they
were for the comfort of the watchers, as at Winchester ; or
in towers, as at Rugby.
Fish. I C H T H U S, the word embodying the initials of the
five words, Iesous Christos Theou Uios Soter, — Jesus Christ,
Son of God, Saviour, — a symbol or acrostic, said to have been
invented by the Christians of Alexandria, and used until
about the time of Constantine. It is first alluded to by St.
Clement of Alexandria and St. Augustine, but only men
tioned by Tertullian and Origen in accordance with the dis
cipline of the secret. The fish represented man in the
troublous waves of this mortal Hfe : the fish which had the
tribute-money typified, according to Optatus of Mdevi, the
offering of Christ for the world ; and the fish broiled on the
lake side of Galilee, in St. Augustine's and Bede's explana
tion, the suffering of Christ. Sometimes the fish bears on
its back in the catacombs bread and wine, the ship of the
Church, or the elements in two chests ; or, when it is con
nected with baptism, a little child. When it represents a
Christian it hangs on a hook, as if caught by the apostolic
fishers of men ; or is attached to the anchor of the cross,
or sacred monogram. Sometimes two fish, symbolical of
the Churches of the Jew and Gentile, are pourfcrayed. Port-

278

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

able fish were worn as marks of their profession by the
newly baptized.
Flabellum. (Bipidion, esmouchoir,flabrummuscatorium,alara,
ventilabrum ; in English, besom.) A fan used in the Greek
Church for driving away the flies and other insects at the
time of the Holy Communion, and for cooling the celebrant
in hot countries. In the East the Syrian monks manufac
tured the fan. It is still carried by two chamberlains in
processions at the side of the Pope on Easter Day, as a me
morial of ancient usage ; as in the fourth century the dea
cons, standing at the horns of the altar, used the long brush
of peacocks' feathers, which symbolized the many-eyed
cherubim, and circumspection (Rev. iv. 6-8) ; and their
waving off the annoyance of insects represented the banish
ment of distracting thoughts, and the concentration of all
looks upon the altar. The waving, St. Germanus, patriarch
of Constantinople, informs us did not commence until after
the Lord's Prayer had been said. The Greek deacon re
ceives a fan at his ordination ; St. Athanasius used it, and
the instrument is mentioned in the liturgies of St. Chry
sostom and St. Basil; and in the West, where its use was
not restricted to deacons in the time of Pope Agapetus, 535 ;
at St. Benignus, Dijon; in the Dominican use; by Hilde-
bert, Bishop of Tours ; in the Constitutions of Clugny ; and
at Salisbury in 1214. It went out of use when, in the four
teenth century, Communion in one kind only was given.
The Greeks called it also the hexapterige, the six-winged,
because the cherubim (Isaiah vi. 2; Exod. xxv. 18; Numb.
vii. 89) were painted or carved on it, or else formed the
upper part of the staff. It sometimes bore the words, " Holy,
holy, holy," or some other sacred inscription. It was often
made of palm fibre, linen tissue, or metal plates, to which
bells were suspended; in Armenia it resembled a banner;
in France it was wrought with silver, gold, silk, and pearls ;
and in England its material was silk, vellum, feathers, or
silver with figures in enamel, and its shaft was of ivory.
One formerly at Tournus, of the ninth century, is preserved
at Paris ; and St, Theodolinda's is at Monza. In the West
it was always round.
Flagellants, or Order of the Penitents of Blood, took their
origin, in 1 260, at Perugia, and went in procession two and

FLAGON — FLOWERS. 279
two to the church doors, where they stripped themselves to
the waist, the lower part of their bodies being clothed in a
long linen habit, and their faces covered; and, having sung
hymns, scourged themselves with a knotted rope. Their
excesses were suppressed, but again, in 1349, they re-ap
peared ; and in the following century renewed the spectacle
of open-air scourging, with metal points to the cords, in
Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Spain, in spite of the dis
favour of the Popes and Princes, clad in white or sad-
coloured dresses and hair cloth, beHeving that they purchased
remission of sins by their voluntary torments ; and promul
gated heretical opinions.
Flagon. (Onax, burretta.) The vessel containing wine used
previous to the Lesser Oblation, and sometimes in the con
secration.
Flamboyant. A style of architecture so called from the wavy
or flame-like lines in the tracery, corresponding in date to
English Perpendicular. It prevailed on the Continent; in
Scotland from 1371 to 1567 ; and in Belgium from the latter
part of the fifteenth until towards the close of the sixteenth
century. There are windows of this character at Oxford,
Amport, and other places.
Fleur-de-lys. (Delices, flos deliciarum, the delightsome flower —
so spelt in the time of Edward I.) A symbol of the Holy
Trinity. The derivation from St, Louis is modern and
erroneous.
Flowers. (1.) A branching mass of golden needlework used
upon vestments ; (2.) real flowers in garlands were worn by
the choristers of Laon on Corpus Christi Day, and with ivy
by the subdeacons of Cologne, at Epiphany ; (3.) flowers
were laid upon graves (cemeteries were adorned with them,
like a pleasant garden), or carved with coronals on vase and
corbel, as types of celestial glory ; and the mosaics of the
apses at Rome and Ravenna, painted the joys of Paradise by
a group of saints and a meadow full of flowers and soft, green
turf. The ornamentation of the churches built over the
martyrs' tomb led to the general use of floral decoration.
The floor of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem is always
strewn with the fragrant blossom of the mimosa and orange-
blossoms. George Herbert had his church, on festivals,
" strewed and stuck with boughs," and perfumed with in-

280 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
cense ; flowers and ivy, on Whitsunday, adorn St. Mary's,
Redcliffe, which is strewn with rushes, like the cathedral on
Mayor's Day. At Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide,
churches were always decked with evergreens (Is. lx. 13; St.
Matt. xxi. 8) ; box, holly, ivy, and rushes, no doubt in
memory of the Gardener of the resurrection (St. John xx. 15),
the second Adam, who keeps the Paradise of the departed,
and also in anticipation of the renewal of all things (Solo
mon's Song ii. 11-13) ; birch and broom were used on St.
John the Baptist's day. St. Jerome says that Nepotian
shadowed the basilica and martyrdoms with divers flowers,
foliage, and tendrils of the vines. St. Severus decked the
church walls with lilies, and Fortunatus speaks of crowns and
pendent garlands. St. Paulinus alludes to the same custom ;
and Prudentius, who also describes the lamps hanging by
ropes, and their quivering, glittering light cast on the
ceilings, says, picturesquely: —
" With flowers the pavements strew,
The doors with garlands wreathe ;
Before its day the year shall bloom anew ;
And purple spring in winter breathe."
Garlands were always used in Cheshire ; from time imme
morial a garland at Charlton on Otmoor is renewed every
May Day; at Grasmere garlands were laid on the altar
on July 21, yearly, and the rush-bearing to strew the church
on the anniversary of the dedication, on St. Oswald's Day, is
still observed, as Glenfield and Heybridge are strewn with
grass on their feast-Sundays ; (4.) altars were also thus
adorned ; St. Augustine mentions a person taking flowers
from St, Stephen's altar. In the treasury of Aix-la-Chapelle
there is a vase of ivory with gold sculptures of the eleventh
century, which is supposed to have been used for flowers on
the altar ; (5.) well-flowering was practised at St. Richard's,
Droitwich, till the civil wars ; at Tissington ; and St. Chad's,
Stowe, near Lichfield, flowers and boughs being set about
the rim and standing cross.
Flowers were appointed for use on every festival and holy-
day, being consecrated to saints and seasons, as parts in the
great parables of nature. Our Lord's symbol was a flower
in a crown, and flowers symbolical of the gifts of the Holy
Spirit were showered down at Pentecost. The two latest

FONT. 281
additions to the sacred flora are the Passion flower, intro
duced by the Jesuits, and the Holy Ghost plant, brought
recently from Brazil. The commoner names are as follows :
Herb Trinity, Christ's herb, thorn, palm, our Lord's and
Lady's, Holy Ghost plant, agnus-castus, virgin's-bower, seal,
thistle, lace, finger, slipper, tresses, mantle, mary cost, bella
donna, maidenhair, fair maid of February, lady of the
night, marygold, pasque and rogation flower, alleluia,
almond of the Annunciation, Lent Hly, Christmas rose,
Michaelmas daisy, nun's discipline, nun's flower, monk's-
hood, cardinal's flower, friar's-cowl, angelica, archangel,
arbor-vitse, rood flower, Passion flower, everlasting, cross
of Jerusalem and Malta, holy tree, thistle of the curse, star of
Bethlehem, balm of Gilead, rose of Jericho, Solomon's seal,
Jacob's ladder, herb of St. Barbara, Benedict, St. Chris
topher, St. Gerard, St. Andrew's cross, St. Bartholomew's
star, St. Barnabas' and St. Fabian's thistle, St. Catherine's,
St. Louis's, and St. James's flower, St. James's, St. John's,
St. Peter's worth, St. Remy's, St. Jago's, and St. Bruno's
lily, St. Peter's parsley and corn-sweet, St. Basil and St.
William, St. Giles's aspine, St. Eustechium's rod, St. John's
bread, St. Martina's fern, St. Norbert's pink, St. Paul's
betony, St. Patrick's cabbage, St. Timothy's grass and goldy-
locks, St. Veronica, and the Canterbury bells of St.
Augustine. The trefoil, or shamrock, was used as a symbol
of the Trinity by St. Patrick in preaching, and the thorn of
Glastonbury was said to have been imported by Joseph of
Arimathea, and to blow only on Christmas Eve. Boughs of
trees were used at the Feast of Tabernacles.
Font. (Lat./<ms, a spring or well.) The fountain of the new
life and laver of regeneration ; a vessel for baptism — the in
vention of Pope Pius, according to Archbishop Whitgift —
elevated on a base or shaft, and having a descent to the
water as into a tomb, in allusion to our burial with Christ in
that holy sacrament. It is the counterpart of the Greek
plnale or pege, which was raised on arcades and covered with
a cupola, which stood in the close or forecourt of the church.
In order to witness to its sanctity no grave was permitted to
be made near it by a canon of the Council of Autun. Its
material, according to the Council of Lerida and Ivo the
canonist, was to be hard stone, without porousness or any

282

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

fracture ; the bowl to be of marble, and never of wood, which
is absorbent, or of brass, which is subject to tarnish with
rust ; but if of metal, tin was used. A solitary example of a
font of wood, but hewn out of a solid block, is at Evenechtyd,
county Denbigh.A, The font was to be irremovable. A basin
was used by the Puritans in the early part of the seventeenth
century, but such an indecent appendage or substitute, with
dishes or pails, were rigorously forbidden by the bishops.
At St. Mary de Castro, Guernsey, there is a small late font of
silver, and examples of bronze remain at Frankfort-on-Oder,
Minister, Brandenburg, Brunswick, Wurtzburg, Halberstadt,
Brussels, Louvain, and Hal. At Chobham it consists of a
leaden basin enclosed in oak panelling. A vessel or spoon
for pouring water on the child, in case of affusion, was pro
vided. The cover of wood was in allusion to the cross of
Christ, which was typified by the ark of Noah, as St. Am
brose says. A railing was to be set round it, and the keys
of the font-cover were in the keeping of the curate, to prevent
any superstitious abuse of the consecrated water, according
to a provincial English synod held in 1236, and to preserve
its cleanliness. The water was to be changed every seven
days by Edmund's constitutions in 1236, once every month
by the rubric of 1549, fortnightly by that of the Scottish
Service Book of 1604, but by the present rubric is to be
supplied at the time of baptism.
The font of the great baptistery was round or cruciform,
with its brim level with the pavement. On the right were
three stairs for descending, and as many on the left for com
ing up ; in the centre was a step for the bishop. Sometimes
additional fonts, of smaller size, were erected against the
walls. The font was sometimes crowned with the figure of
a dove, in allusion to Gen. i. 2 ; viii. 11 ; St. Matt. iii. 16, as
the symbol of the Holy Ghost who, as the Second Council of
Nice declared, broods upon the face of the water, bringing
peace after the storm and in the death of the world. Nap
kins were appointed for drying the forehead of the baptized.
By the Council of Meaux, 845, every parish priest was al
lowed to have a font placed in the porch, or, as St. Gregory
of Tours mentions was the case in France, on the left-hand
side of the entrance-door. At Strasbourg it was placed in
the eastern apse, and in many English cathedrals in the

FONT. 283
second bay of the nave on the south side. Whitgift says
the original position was in the midst of the church or in the
lowermost post, but never at the church door ; but it cer
tainly stood in the last position in 1549, and Cosin says it
should be not far from the entrance, and rightly, as baptism
admits into the spiritual Church and to a share in the ser
vices of the Church militant on earth. The "ancient and
accustomed place " is distinctly named in bishops' visitation-
articles early in the seventeenth century. At York, however,
a medieval dragon-headed beam in the centre of the nave on
the north side, and fronting an image of the Christian soldier,
held the cover-chain. At St. Peter's, Rome, and in some
other eathedrals, the font stands in the north wing of the
transept. Constantine the Great built a magnificent font of
porphyry, sdver-plated, in the Lateran, which had on a pillar
a lamp or censer of gold in the centre, in which perfumes
were burned at Easter. Water flowed from the mouth of a
lamb, near which stood figures of our Lord, St. John the
Baptist, and harts thirsting. Pope Damasus, in 384, built
another in the Vatican. Detached or separate fonts became
common in the eleventh century. Originally they were
merely carved basins of circular form, without supports. Some,
of lead, remain at Strasburg and Espanburg ; other speci
mens are supported on several pillars, usually five, represent
ing the Saviour and the four Evangelists. In the thirteenth
century fonts became octagonal, symbolical of regeneration,
the creation of the world having occupied seven days. In
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries they were richly sculp
tured. Bronze fonts are common in Belgium and Germany,but
were always rare in France and England. One formerly at
St. Alban's, of copper, was brought by Sir R. Lee from
Holyrood Abbey. Another was, in 1651, at Waterford. At
Hildesheim a bronze font, of the close of the thirteenth cen
tury, rests upon personifications of the rivers of Eden, typi
fying the cardinal virtues, which appear upon the bowl, and
are enforced by the greater prophets, each bearing a scroll
(Is. xi. 1 ; Jer. xxiii. 5; Dan. vii. 14; Ezek. i. 5). Above
these are the Evangelistic symbols, with scrolls (St. Matt.
i. 21 ; St. Mark i. 18 ; St. Luke i. 32 ; St. John i. 14) ; then
occur the Virgin and Holy Child, the Passage of the Red Sea,
the Baptism in Jordan, and the Passage of the Ark. The

284

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

tiara-shaped cover, which has a knop of foliage, exhibits
Aaron's rod flowering, .with Solomon (Eccles. xxiv. 16) ; the
Martyrdom of the Innocents, with Jeremiah (xxxvii. 15) ; the
conversion of the Magdalen, with David (Ps. lxxx. 5) ; the six
works of mercy, with Isaiah (lviii. 7), representing remission
by water, martyrdom, penance, and charity. At Brussels a
bronze font, 1 149, has the baptism, resurrection, and glorifica
tion of our Lord; that of white marble, 1470, at Florence re
presents the most remarkable instances of holy baptism ; one,
of silver, at Canterbury, used to be carried to Westminster
Abbey for royal christenings. Leaden fonts, mostly of
the Norman period, occur at Walton-on-the-hill, Clewer,
Wareham, Great Plumsted, Dorchester (Oxon), Parham,
Tidenham, and Frampton-on-Severn, where it has foliage and
sitting figures in low relief. Some are found in the north of
France. The stone font of Ashover is covered with leaden
figures. Sometimes the stone bowls have simple panel-
work on the sides, or an elaborate geometrical pattern, as
at St. Martin's, Canterbury, or intersecting knot-work.
At Winchester the Norman font has the acts of St. Nicholas
of Myra ; at Coleshill the crucifix and images ; at Horbling
the acts of our Lord ; and on those of Lynn, Walsoken, Net-
tlecombe, Norwich, Happisburgh, Worsted, and Dereham
of Perpendicular date, the seven sacraments are represented.
Covers — some of considerable height — are preserved at Fos-
dyke, Selby, Thaxted, Sudbury, Monksilver, Ticehurst,
Walsingham, Castleacre, Trunch, St. John's, Norwich, and
one of Bishop Cosin's time at Durham.
Palindrome inscriptions, capable of being read forwards
or backwards — usually the Greek version of Ps. li. 2, — occur
at Harlow, Warlingworth, Dulwich, Melton-Mowbray, St. Ste
phen's (Paris), St.Menin Abbey, St. Martin, Ludgate, and for
merly at St. Diomede and St. Sophia, Constantinople. At
Bradley the words "Pater noster," "Ave," and "Credo,"
which the sponsors were bound to repeat; at Dunsby "In prin
cipio," the beginning of St. John's Gospel; and on a thir
teenth century font at St. Anthony, Cornwall, the legend
" Ecce, karissimi, de Deo vero baptizabuntur Spiritu Sancto "
is engraved. The font was properly erected on three steps.
At Saltzburg it is supported on four lions, and one at Liege,
1112, like the brazen sea of Solomon's Temple, on twelve
oxen.

FOOT-PACE  FORMS OF CROSSES. 285
Foot-pace. (Haut pas; marche-pied.) The raised platform
or standing-place round an altar. Whilst the altar was
raised upon the confession it had no steps ; those in the
catacombs of Rome and Naples stand on the ground-level.
In the fourth century a single step was used, and the num
ber was not increased until two hundred years after.
Forcer. A chest or sacred • place for vestments, sometimes
made of cuir bouilli, and of a kettledrum shape.
Foreigns. (Forinsecus.) The external court of a. monastery.
Bathforum is Bath forinsecus.
Forensic Officers. The monastic chamberlain, cellarer, almoner,
kitchener, master of the works, and pitancier, their duties
lying out of choir.
Form. The wording with which the matter is inseparably ac
companied in a sacrament.
Forms of Crosses. The sacred crosses are the following, be
sides the fylfot, and gammadion ; the tau, or anticipatory
cross, shaped like a T (commissa, patibulata), is typical of
life under the Old Testament. Tertullian says that Jacob
blessed his children with his arms set in this form, and St.
Jerome, St. Augustine, St. Cyprian, Origen, and Isidore
refer to it the sign in Ezek. ix. 4-6. Four conjoined make
the cross potent, symbolical of the displacement of the Old
Testament by the Cross. St. Anthony's cross is a tau cross
with a loop or handle (a.nsata). The Saltire (intrornissa)
like an X, when of white, is St. Andrew's ; when of red, St.
Patrick's. The Greek cross (decussata) has four equal
arms, the scroll being set on lengthwise; when red, it is
called St. George's cross. The Latin cross (immissa) has
the lower limb or foot longer than the rest, the summit and
laterals. The Passion or Calvary cross has pointed limbs.
The cross of Resurrection stands on three degrees or steps,
faith, hope and charity ; the latter is the lowermost, as the
cross is rooted in love. The Franciscan cross has its lateral
members pommee, ending in balls, and the summit and foot
patonce, set between four gammadia. The cross fleury,
curved ; the cross patonce, straight-sided, each with three
pointed leaves ; and the cross moline, with two out- curved
leaves, represent Christ's Cross flowering, life-giving, and
fruit-yielding. The cross crosslet, a combination of four
equal crosses, represents the universality of the faith of the

286

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Cross. The Maltese cross consists of four arrow-heads
meeting at the points. The cross ragule represents the
cross budding at the sides. The cross called Irish, or of
lona, is circumscribed by the circle of eternity. The cross
fleury appears on the shields of the " Thundering Legion"
upon the pillar of Antoninus.
Forth Fare or Passing Bell. A bell tolled in the thirteenth
century twice in honour of the virgin-born, for a woman,
thrice in. honour of the Holy Trinity for a man, and once for
each of his orders in case of a priest, when in extremity,
and mentioned as in use, by Robert Nelson, in the last
century ; to summon the priest ; to remind the neighbours
of their own mortality ; to recommend the state of the dying
to God in their private prayers, and accompany him in his
departure with intercession. In 1605 a benefaction was left
for the tolling of the great bell of St. Sepulchre's, London,
as criminals passed on their way to execution at Tyburn,
whdst the sexton cried aloud, " All good people, pray
heartily unto God for these poor sinners going to their
death." A short peal or knell, by the 67th Canon, was
also rung after death to invite those who heard it to thank
God for the deliverance of the departed out of this vale of
misery. Similar peals were rung before and after the burial.
In the eighth and ninth centuries bells were used at funerals.
Fortified Churches. The churches of Alby, Beziers and Nar-
bonne, Veruela, and the Cordeliers' Church, Toulouse, were
fortified; and on the borders of Scotland many church-
towers, like that of Burgh, Middleham, An croft, and Long
Houghton, formed places of refuge in war time to the
parishioners ; in the East the monasteries of St. Catherine
and Mount Athos are fortified, as formerly were Black
Abbey, Holy Cross, Bective, Crossraguel, Kilkenny, Aber-
brothock, St. Andrew's, Cashel, Maubisson, St. Germanus,
Auxerre, Marmoutier, St. Martin des Champs, Argenteuil,
Luz, Meissac, Loretto, Medard, Puy, Brionde, Oberwesel,
Minister, Mayfield. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centu
ries nearly all the French cathedrals and abbeys were forti
fied, owing to the constant wars. Along the coast of Lucca
all the church towers are capable of defence ; in fact, the
church formed the most available fortress in case of an in
cursion, whether by robbers, the lord of the manor and his

FOSSORES — FRANCISCANS. 287
vassals, or by an army. Dol is stdl strongly fortified, and
at Etampes, of the thirteenth century, there are loopholed
guardrooms for soldiers built over the side chapels of the
nave. The king's licence to crenellate their houses was
obtained by bishops and chapters of cathedrals and monas
teries, to prevent disorderly meetings, robberies, and the
commission of murder in the capitular closes, and the raids of
land or sea pirates or armies in the closes. Stately gate
houses and strong walls, in consequence, defended Lichfield,
Chester, Battle, St. Alban's, Norwich, Canterbury, Spalding,
Thornton, Bridlington, Tynemouth, Clerkenwell, Bury, and
Evesham. Michelham Priory still retains its moat and
gatehouse, and Hulne, Royat Menal, Sion de Valere, Tour-
nus, Laon exhibit provisions for defence, which were indis
pensable in unsettled times. In the thirteenth century we
read of military assaults and the sack of Boyle Abbey, and
the burning of Elphin Cathedral, in Ireland ; regular sieges
were laid to Binham, Peterborough, Ramsey, and Coventry.
W. d'Ypres burned Wherwell Abbey, and a mob of rioters
under Jack Straw attacked Bury St. Edmund's ; and Nor
wich cathedral was in imminent danger of destruction during a
popular commotion. In Northumberland, churches in the vici
nity of a castle were seldom permitted a tower, lest it should be
occupied by the troublesome moss-troopers ; and peel towers
were built along the coast at the cost of Furness Abbey.
Fossores. Clerks who acted as grave-diggers in the cata
combs, ranking above the ostiarius ; they wore a white tunic
girdled, and ornamented with gainmadia on the shoulders
and skirt. Constantine included them in his 550 guilds of
undertakers.
Franciscans. An order of mendicant friars founded by St.
Francis of Assisi, between 1198 and 1211, called, from their
habit, Grey Friars or Minorites. They were allowed to
preach only by licence of the general minister of the
order, and with the permission of the bishop of the
diocese. They were to work with their own hands and were
fordidden to act as missionaries without the sanction of a
provincial minister. The general chapter was held at Pen
tecost yearly. Their first house in England was established
at Canterbury in 1224. At Oxford they educated such
illustrious students as Archbishop Peckham, John Burley,

288 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Duns Scotus, Occham, and Roger Bacon. They made choice
at first of the suburbs, the poorest and most neglected quar
ters of a town ; their churches were small and unornamented,
and cells and poor cottages of mud and wood, fenced by a
ditch, formed their convent ; but in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries their houses were luxurious and their
churches large, wide, and grand. They held the Immaculate
Conception of the Virgin, and were Scotists, because Duns
Scotus was of their order. They celebrated only one Mass
a day. About the beginning of the fifteenth century they
split into two bodies, — the Conventual, who indulged in the
laxity permitted by the Pope ; and the Observants or Sab-
botiers, under St. Bernardino of Sienna, who rigidly adhered
to their founder's rule. Of the latter class, were those in Eng
land, living without property and begging their daily bread,
accepting necessaries, but forbidden to take money. They
had an ill repute as spies, frequenting the Court and the
houses of noblemen, gentry, and merchants, and were said
to toot, that is, look out and pry, for the Pope, hence the
nickname of touter. They were the democrats of Chris
tianity. The order came into England in 1259, selling Papal
pardons. The Observants wore wooden sandals, a cassock,
a narrow hood, a short cloak with a wooden clasp, a brown
robe, and a loose girdle of cord with knotted ends, from
which they are called Cordeliers. The Conventuals wore a
long, grey cassock and cloak, and hood of large dimensions
covering the breast and back, a knotted girdle, and large
grey hat ; but, in preaching, a doctor's cap.
Frankalms. Tenantry by Divine service.
Frater House. (1.) The fratry or refectory. (2.) The calefactory,
the common sitting-room of a monastery.
Free Chapels. Usually built on royal manors, exempt from or
dinary jurisdiction, but having incumbents instituted by the
diocesan.
Freemasons were a corporation in Lombardy in the tenth
century, and they appeared as an association in Normandy
in 1145.
French Pierre. The Caen stone reredos of Durham.
Fresco. A painting made in oil colours on the fresh mortar
of a wall. This beautiful ornamentation has been revived
at Mayence.

FRET  FRONTAL. 289
Fret. A reticulated cieling, like network, forming lozenge
patterns.
Friars. A corruption of Fratres, brothers. Mendicant orders
in the medieval Church, who adopted more or less of the
Austin Canons' rule. Cranmer mentions that persons, in
superstitious reverence, used to wear a friar's coat to deliver
them from ague or pestilence, or when they were dying ;
and at their burial caused it to be cast upon them, in hope
thereby to be saved. Charles V. was buried in a friar's
cowl. Their churches are usually simple paraUelograms.
The Cordeliers' of Toulouse was an apsidal oblong, with
lateral chapel ; the Augustines' a parallelogram, with a tran
sept, forming chapels out of all orientation, and opening into
two polygonal apses; the Jacobins', Hke the Dominicans'
church at Paris and Abergavenny, consisted of two alleys,
divided by pillars, opening on a common apse with chapels ;
the Dominicans' of Ghent is a long paradelogram, with altar
recesses on the side ; but, in England, the Friars imitated
the Regulars, as in the fine nave of the Dominicans at Nor
wich, and that of the Austin Friars in London. In Ireland,
a tad thin tower parts off the conventual choir from the
nave. The regular canon had property in proprietorship,
the regular and monk possessed all in common ; the friar
had none, and was a mendicant.
Frid or Frith- Stool. The seat of peace; a sanctuary chair
of stone, hollowed in the centre, was set near the saints'
shrine, or the high-altar, as at Hexham and Beverley, where
it is still preserved. Crosses marked the boundaries of the
privileged sanctuary at Beaulieu, St. Martin's-le-Grand,
Westminster, Ramsay, Croyland, Ripon, St. Burian's, Wor
cester, Tintern, Jarrow, Leominster, and Whitefriars (Lon
don). Sir John Holland, after his murder of Lord Ralph
Stafford, sat in the grey chair of Beverley until he had the
King's pardon. Leland says the Latin inscription on it
was to this effect : — " This seat of stone is called the freed-
stool, that is, the chair of peace, that the guilty fugitive
who cometh to it may have all security."
Frontal. (Devant d'autel.) (1.) A piece of metal- or enamel-
work ; or of mosaics with gilding, jewellery, and glass ; or of
wood painted or carved, or forming an arcade of images.
There is a fine example, of the thirteenth century, at West-
u

290

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

minster, made of wood, painted, gilt, and inlaid with co
loured glass or crystal. This was more correctly caUed a
tabula picture, or table. (2.) The true frontal, like the mo
dern antepane, or antependium, and the ancient pall, was a
hanging of embroidery, — a drapery of the colour of the
festival. There is a specimen of white silk, at the time of
Edward III., at Steeple Aston. The super-frontal, called
the reredos, at Durham (1381), and the super-altar by
Matthew Paris, hung at the back of the altar as a dorsal.
The superb palla d'oro of St. Mark's, Venice, was made at
Constantinople in the eleventh century. At Toledo there is
an exquisite embroidered frontal, with sacred subjects, early
in the fifteenth century : that of Chichester is studded with
jewels. The frontal was the fringed upper covering, or para-
front, hanging over the frontal or suffront of an altar.
Fylfot (or fytfot, fourfooted). The dissembled cross under
the discipline of the secret ; a cross cramponnee, or rebated,
consisting of four gammas, which as numerals expressed
the Holy Trinity, and by its rectagonal form symbolized the
chief corner-stone of the Church. It occurs on church bells
in the counties of Derby, Lincoln, and York ; and on Edyng-
don's effigy at Winchester.
Galilee. In the primitive Church the penitents were plunged
in a " place of tears " near the great doors of the church,
along with the catechumens, from Ash Wednesday until
Maundy Thursday. This custom, however, was discontinued,
and public penance thenceforth forbidden, after a scandal
related by Nectarius, St. Chrysostom, and Pope Leo : a wo
man, without the priest's permission, loudly confessed her
sins in the hearing of the people. The Galilee sometimes
takes the form of (1) a large western porch, as at Ely and
Chichester cathedrals, or humbler churches as Llantwit, St.
Woolos, Boxley, and Chertsey; or (2) of a great western
transept, as at Peterborough, Lincoln, Upsala, and Braisne ;
(3) of an ante-church, as in Clugniac Minsters ; or (4) of a
western chapel, as at Durham. The procession took its
origin in our Lord's command, given to His disciples after
His resurrection, to meet Him in Galilee ; and a Durham
MS., quoted by Hutchinson, and Macro in his Lexicon, both
mention that the Sunday procession was held in memory of

GALLERY. 291
the Apostles' journey. But the Durham Rites say that it
was called Galilee, owing to the transposition of the eastern
chapel to this site. Martene defines it to be " the lower
end of the church ;" and, in this respect, it may refer to the
Gahlee of the Gentdes, as being the most remote part from
the altar. It served as the place of penitents, and also for
the burial of the worthy dead. The true allusion was to the
original Hebrew word applied to the outer folding gates of
the Temple (1 Kings vi. 34; Ezek. xii. 24), which in Chris
tian symbohsm, forming two doorways under one arch, repre
sented the two natures and unity in the person of Christ.
Gallery. Galleries or tribunes were provided in the basilica
for women, those of the widows on the left, and those of the
unmarried religious on the right ; and ,they are preserved,
even in medieval churches, at the west end of the nave at
Jumieges, St. Ursula's, Cologne, Montvdliers, Genoa, Soest,
Laach, Le Mans, and Heckington ; or in triforia at Paris,
Soissons, Rheims, and Noyon; in an arm of the tran
sept at Winchester, Laon, Boschervdle, and St. Ste
phen's, Caen; in the south arm at Hexham, Upsala, and
Cerisy ; and in the Mannerchor for young men in Rhenish
churches, Boppart, Neuss, Zinzig, Heimersheim, Bacharach,
St. Goar, Andernach, Ems, Lemberg, and Magdeburg. A
gallery in the north wing of the transept of Rheims, which
is fenced by a grille, served as a tribune for nuns. In
Auvergne the northern with a gallery is common ; and in
the valley of the Danube as far as Croatia, western galleries
of stone, all of the Flamboyant period, are invariably found.
A tribune or minstrels' gallery occurs on the north side of
the nave at the level of the triforium at St. Juan de los
Reyes, Toledo, at Wells and Exeter, where it is stid used on
Christmas morning for singing the Old Hundredth Psalm ;
on the south side at Malmesbury ; at the east end of the
north aisle at Winchester, and in the south aisle of West
minster. At York and at Chichester, till 1508, there was a
minstrel's gallery over the reredos. At St. John Lateran,
the choir is still seated in a screened gallery. On the ex
terior of the west front, over a porch, there is frequently a
gallery, in which the choir sang, as now at Lisieux, " Laud
and Glory " when the procession, on Palm Sunday, returned
with the sacrament from the cemetery, or at the reception
u2

292 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
of a bishop. Sometimes the former ceremonial was held be
fore the altar of the cross in the rood-loft in very bad wea
ther, and this may have led to the construction of the inner
gallery. The modern gallery, happily soon to be a thing
of the past, was called the scaffold in Bishop Montague's
time.
Gammadion. A voided cross, the Greek form of the Fylfot,
four gammas in combination.
Gang Days. Rogation days, so called in 1571 from the gangs
or processions, recently revived at Colkirk, Norfolk. The
gang or cross-flower, so caded because it blooms about
May 3, the invention of the cross, and was worn by maidens
in garlands in rogations, is the mdkwort.
Garde-robe, Gong. The latrine, adjoining the calefactory
and dormitory in two stages, such as may be traced at
Battle, Lewes, and Canterbury, and exists at New College,
Oxford.
Garland. (1 .) The ornamental band of decorative work round
a spire, as at St. Mary's, Redcliffe, Bristol, and Chichester.
(2.) A crown or chaplet was carried by two maidens in front
of the bier of an unmarried woman, and hung up in a pro
minent place in a church. It was made of a hoop of wood
and two half circles crossing each other at right angles.
This frame was covered with long streaming ribbons, arti
ficial flowers, dried horn, and silk ; and in the inside were
white paper gloves, inscribed with the name of the departed
lady ; and, as emblems of mortality, an hour-glass or empty
egg shells. At St. Alban's, the iron which held the wreath
remains in the south nave aisle. (3.) At Hathersage Derby,
brides still wear a wedding chaplet, which in the seventeenth
century was in Westminster called a past or circlet. The
nuptial fillet or crown is shown, held by a hand or hovering
over the bride's head in the catacombs, and Tertullian alludes
to it. It was often pearled and enriched. The Greek
Church still uses sdver crowns.
Garth. The enclosed green space in a cloister. The centry
garth at Canterbury was a corruption of cemetery, as century
fields are in Cornwall.
Gates. (1.) Superb entrance gates of bronze, 1400 20, which
Michael Angelo said were worthy to be the doors of Para-
: dise, remain at Florence ; others of the eleventh century are

GAUDIED — GAZOPHYLAKION. 293
at Augsburg, and in a chapel of the Lateran. The monks,
although feudal lords, usually gave a pacific character to
their gates, as to one at Winchester ; but even, when defences
were added, they had no drawbridge, barbican, ditch, or
outwork, and opened directly on the country, being rather
closed than fortified gatehouses, as at St. Leu d'Esserent, of
the fourteenth century, and St. Jean au Bois. Michelham
possesses a large gatehouse and a moat, but without a per
manent bridge or walls. Many fine monastic gatehouses
remain at Winchester, Bristol, Chester, Canterbury, Mal
vern, Tewkesbury, Bury St. Edmund's, St. Alban's, Ely,
Carlisle, Wetherall, Castleacre, Reading, Rochester, Hex
ham. There are three kinds of gatehouses : — (1) the tower-
gate at Evesham and Bury, and in colleges ; (2) the rect
angular, at Lincoln and Colchester, and flanked by turrets
at St. Augustine's, Canterbury; Clerkenwell, Battle, and
Thornton; (3) the gabled, as Worksop and Norwich.
Usually, besides the great archway for carts and horsemen,
there is a side entrance, called the postern, for foot-passen
gers. At Binham the jail gate, at Bridlington the badey
gate, and the gatehouse of Westminster, were used for
offending clerks and other prisoners. Occasionally, as at
Thornton, Kirkham, and Worksop, the guest-house was in
this building. In other places, as at Peterborough,
Norwich, Durham, Winchester, Chertsey, and Barlings,
there was a chapel, in the upper chamber; at Bolton it
formed a muniment room. The town monasteries had
usually several gatehouses : those in the country but one,
except at Furness, and these were usually on the south-west
or north-west, but on the south at Worksop. Gatehouses
were also attached to bishops' palaces, as at Wells, Chi
chester, and Hereford ; and to the entrance of cathedral closes,
as at St. David's, Chichester, Wells, Lincoln, and Salisbury.
These were opened before matin Mass, and closed after
compline. The pavilion, or pyepowder court, which was
held in- case of offences by pedlars attending fairs, was held
over the Canongate at Chichester. ' ' - •-
Gaudied, with large beads. Every decade or tenth large bead
in the rosaries representing a Paternoster is a gaud ; each
smaller bead stands for an Ave Maria.
Gazophylakion or Corbana. The treasury of the basilica into

294 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
which the alms and offerings of the faithful were carried,
according to the Apostolical Constitutions and Fourth Council
of Carthage, and thence transferred to the bishop's house
for distribution, as it was forbidden to set them on the
altar.
German Architecture. At the termination of the eleventh
and the commencement cf the twelfth century a modified
basilican arrangement appeared at Worms, Spires, Mayence,
Laach, Bamberg, Naumburg, and Ratisbon. The type was
a double aspidal cruciform ground-plan, as at Treves, Besan
con, Nuremberg, Liege, andoriginally at Strasbourg. West
and main transepts, polygonal domes, and octagonal lanterns
at their intersections, octagonal towers flanking the apses,
and gaUeries under the eaves of the aisle roofs, are marked
characteristics of the style ; the apses also are rarely sur
rounded with apses or chapels owing to the Teutonic regard
for complete orientation. Sometimes, however, the single
eastern apse expands into three apses ; sometimes there are
western and eastern apses ; sometimes apses to the choir and
east sides of the transept, or apse's to the choir and north
and south faces of the transept. There are three marked
periods of German architecture. (1.) The Romanesque,
lasting from 960 to 1000 ; or 1000 to 1200, according to
Lubke, with transitional 1174-1225; it has a circular,
domical apse, and apses frequently attached to the ends of
the choir, aisles, and the sides of the transept ; pairs of
towers usually flank the east end, and terminate in pedi
ments, but often are placed at the re-entering angles of the
cross, and over its intersection, being generally unbuttressed ;
spires, or octagonal pyramids, often rise from between" the
gables; cupolas are also used. The triforia are of enor
mous size. A western narthex appears in several churches
of Cologne, and at Trebitsch and Gurk with a gallery above
it. The polygabled spires of the Rhine-land are distinctive
features ; Sompting is the only English example. (2.) The
transitional, or early German style, lasting till the fourteenth
century ; the. apse became polygonal ; pairs of towers are
placed alongside the eastern and western apses ; buttresses,
central, octagonal, and western porches came into fashion.
(3.) Complete, or decorated German. The nave aisles were
frequently doubled, eastern chapels were added, and two

GESSO  GLASS. 295
western towers became typical of the style. Lubke divides
the style, 1225-1525, into severe 1275-1350, declining 1350-
1450, in decadence 1450-1525. The earliest churches are
St. Gereon, Treves, Magdeburg, and Marburg. German
architects built the Duomo of Milan, and St. John's,
Naples.
Gesso. A coating of whiting and size to receive painting and
gilding.
Gimmer. A small hinge, or fastening.
Girdle. (Gingidum, baltheus ; Gr. zone.) The cincture of the
albe, as old as the days of St. Gregory the Great ; formerly
ample in size and broad, and often adorned with gold and
gems. In the sixth century it was first reduced to its pre
sent narrow dimensions. It represented the cord with which
our Lord was bound ; and alludes to St. Luke xii. 35 ; Eph.
vi. 4 ; 1 Pet. i. 13.
Glass windows are mentioned by St. Chrysostom and Lac
tantius, by Fortunatus at Paris, in the fifth century; and
by Gregory of Tours, generally in France, as enclosed in
wooden frames. Benedict Biscop, and St. Wilfrid imported
glass and workmen from France. In 1052 St. Benignus,
Dijon, possessed stained glass : but so late as the thirteenth
century the windows of Peterborough were closed with reeds
and straw ; and the unglazed clerestory was long protected
only by shutters in most places. Painting on glass was un
known till the eleventh century. At first the design con
sisted of historical medalhons arranged on mosaic glass,
which embraced panels with geometrical patterns and bor
ders of scroll-work and leaves. The folds of draperies and
details are marked out in bistre colour. The outlines of
the designs are formed by the leading. In the fourteenth
century the pieces of glass are larger; the slips of lead
occur at wider intervals, whilst single figures, placed under
canopies, and not on a mosaic ground, but a plain field of
red or blue, occupy an entire window. Lights and shadows
are introduced in the draperies, and the flesh tints are no
longer violet, but of a reddish grey. In the fifteenth, and
first part of the sixteenth century, the decorations were in
creased ; hangings are placed behind figures, borders become
rare, and when they occur represent a scanty leafage. Gri
saille, or silver grey, is freely used. In the second- half

296 SAC-RED ARCHEOLOGY.
buildings and landscapes were introduced. The glass win
dows of Le Mans date from the eleventh century, the earliest
now existing, and probably among the first examples of the
introduction of glazing in lieu of perforated marble or stone.
The art of glass-painting, which took its origin in mosaics,
and still more from enamelled work, has been traced back
two centuries earlier. At Canterbury, on the glass of the
twelfth century (for which Gondomar, the Spanish ambas
sador, offered its weight in gold), the design consists of
panels of Scriptural subjects, on a ground of ruby or deep
blue ; rich mosaic patterns fill the interspaces, and a broad
bunch of foliage and scroll work, in brilliant colours, com
pletes the plan. In the thirteenth century the panels, are
usually circular, or quatrefoiled, and the colours used are
ruby, blue, green, palish yellow, and lilac sparingly. In the
Decorated period, the interspaces have flowing foHage;
quarries are freely used, and single figures, usually canopied,
are frequently represented. Green and Hlac are dying out
of fashion. In the Perpendicular period yellow became
more prominent ; the figures increased to a large size, with
elaborate canopies, and heraldic cognizances and inscrip
tions, freely used, mark the style. There is fine glass at
Amiens, Chartres, Auch, Bourges, and Fribourg, of various
dates ; at Burgos and Exeter fourteenth century, Lichfield
sixteenth century; Leon of the thirteenth and of the fifteenth,
as at Toledo and Avda. There are other beautiful examples
at York, Gloucester, Bristol, Lincoln, Canterbury, Fairford,
and New, Merton, Lincoln, and Queen's Colleges (Oxford),
and King's (Cambridge). In the catacombs ampulles of
the blood of martyrs are found; and also glass vessels,
like a patera or saucer, the bottoms of which have Scrip
tural or devout inscriptions, and figures of the Saviour,
worthies, and saints, and domestic events etched in upon
gold leaf. Some with views of agapse are said to have served
as ministerial chalices, having this inscription : — " Pie, zekais
en agathois," — " Drink, mayest thou find life in these goods,"
that is, in the Eucharistic elements. Several are of the
earHest Christian age, and many were used in times of per
secution, as stains of blood still cling to them, rendering
their legends illegible.
Glebe. Land enjoyed by an incumbent in right of his church.

GLORIA IN EXCELSIS— GLOVES. 297
Gloria in Excelsis. The great doxology, or angelical hymn.
This hymn was ordained to be sung at the time of Holy
Communion, on Sundays and martyrs' holy days, by Pope
Symmachus, c. 510. Some attribute the composition to
Pope Telesphorus, c. 140, who directed that it should be
sung on Christmas Eve. It is certainly older than the pope
dom of Hdary c. 340. The Fourth Council of Toledo attri
butes it generally to ecclesiastical doctors, but some authors
have discovered in it the polyonumos spoken of by Lucian,
and the hymn of Christ alluded to by Pliny. It was in use
at Matins, and in the Apostolical Constitutions is called the
Morning Prayer. St. Chrysostom also alludes to its daily
use. However, generally, it was sung only on Sundays,
Easter, Christmas, and the great festivals. In the West,
Walafrid Strabo says bishops only sung it on such occasions ;
and Bona mentions that priests never recited it except at
Easter. In the East, it was said daily by bishop, priest,
and people. St. Athanasius first distinctly mentions the
hymn, adding, that it was known by heart by women.
When it is sung in Exeter Cathedral on Sundays, Christ
mas, and Ascension Day, the ten choristers are arranged
between the two altar-rails; and, when the bishop is pre
sent, the boys precede the procession as it leaves the sanc
tuary, and place themselves, kneeling, in the aisle, to receive
the epis'copal benediction, each in . his turn. In 1552 the
English. Church omitted the Hosanna in it.
Glory, Laud, and Honour. A hymn and vocal melody
sung on Palm Sunday inside the church, whilst the choir
went in magnificent procession from the altar to the closed
portals ; and composed by Theodulph, an Italian bishop of
Orleans, in the prison of Angers, in 835, when confined on a
charge of conspiracy against Louis I. the Pious, who is said
to have overheard him singing his composition, and at once
released him. Some authors attribute the work to Reginald,
Bishop of Langres. At Lisieux now, as in English medieval
cathedrals, it is sung from a gallery over the great west
door.
Gloss. A commentary.
Gloves were worn by bishops in the twelfth century, and are
mentioned by Innocent III. They typified the hiding of
iniquity by the merits of our Saviour, and the benediction of

298

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Jacob when he wore gloves of skins. William of Wykeham's
gloves are preserved at New College, Oxford. Candidates
for degrees in medicine formerly gave gloves to the graduates
of the faculty in that university, in return for their escort to
the doors of the convocation-house. Bishop Ken contributed
to the rebuilding of St. Paul's the cost of his consecration-
dinner and a hundred pairs of gloves. At St. Andrew's,
Holborn, the clergy were given gloves at Easter, and Sir
Julius Caesar used to send a pair to any bishop or dean whom
he heard preach. In 1636 the University of Oxford pre
sented gloves to the members of the royal family and King
Charles I.
Godfathers and Godmothers are mentioned by Tertullian and
St. Basil ; they were called afferentes, sponsores, fidejussores,
patres spirituales, paranymphi, and susceptores. Pope Hygi-
nus, c. 140, required at least one godfather and one god
mother to be present at baptism. Theodore, Archbishop of
, Canterbury, permitted, in case of necessity, the same person,
or one person, to appear as sponsor both at baptism and
confirmation. The pseudo-Dionysius mentions the renun
ciation made by the sponsor, and St. Augustine speaks of
the answer on behalf of children brought in the hands of
their sureties, who have been compared to the faithful wit
nesses in Isa. viii. 2. Godfathers are alluded to in Ina's
Laws of 693.. The name of compater appears in St. Augustine
and the First Councd of Mayence, the other names were testes,
lustrici, sureties, sponsors, offerers, martyres, anadochoi ; the
later titles were " fathers and mothers at holy illumination,"
profathers, promothers, patrini, and matrinas, as those who
took the child out of the font as its spiritual parents. Pope
Nicholas I. says that there exists a holy fellowship between
the child and the godparents, (gossips, God's sib, affinity),
not to be called kinship, but rather to be regarded as spiritual
affinity. It was held to dissolve marriage, but Pope Boniface
VIII. restricted the dissolution to marriage not yet con
tracted. The custom of having sponsors is traced to St. Philip
bringing Nathanael to Christ, but more probably was esta
blished by the Church, in order to add security and solemnity
to the sacred covenant, as in the civil law sureties were pre
sent at contracts. They answered the interrogatories made

GOLDEN FRIDAYS  GOLDEN ROSE. 299
at baptism, and also as witnesses secured the personal con
fession of adults in times of persecution. In the fourth and
fifth centuries godparents were always appointed, and the
the pseudo-Denys mentions that their names were inserted
in the baptismal register.
Golden Fridays. The Fridays fasted in the four ember weeks.
Golden Numbers. The lunar cycle, invented by Meton of
Athens, and anciently written in gold. It extends over nine
teen years. They indicate in the calendar the day of the
ecclesiastical paschal full moon ; the Sunday letter following
marks Easter Day.
Golden Prebendary. The penitentiary of the diocese, who
held the prebend of St. Pancras at St. Paul's, the bishop's
staU at Hereford, Mathry at St. David's, and Leighton at
Lincoln.
Golden Rose. First mentioned by Wdliam of Newburgh,
about the end of the twelfth century, but dating perhaps
one hundred years earher; an ornament of gold, musk, and
balsam, typical of the divinity, body, and soul of Christ;
of joy, spring, and Easter, by its sweetness, beauty, and
pleasant taste ; and of the second advent in the seventh age
of the world, as it is consecrated by the Pope on the fourth
Sunday in Lent, the seventh after Septuagesima. It was
anointed with chrism and sprinkled with perfumed dust;
and after benediction, in which allusion is made to the fruit
of good works, the flower of the field, the rose, and the lily
of the valleys, — the symbols of the Virgin, it was set upon the
altar during Mass, and then carried away in the Pope's
hands to be sent to some favoured prince, some eminent
church, or distinguished personage. Though at first a re
ligious ceremony, it became a Papal acknowledgment of the
recipient's sovereignty when sent to a monarch ; when the
latter was staying at Rome, he carried the rose in procession
through the streets, attended by a great retinue of cardinals
and prelates, and showing it to the people. The King of
the Romans was always crowned immediately after he had
received the newly-blessed rose. In 1446 Pope Eugenius
sent one to Henry VI; Pope Julius II. in 1510, and Leo X.
to Henry VIII. ; and Urban V. to Queen Joanna of Sicily,
in 1360. In the museum in the Hotel Clugny there is a
a branch of a rose-tree with flowers blooming in gold, of the

300

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

thirteenth century, which, probably, was a similar gift to
some French king. (o knj
Golden Star. A kind of monstrance under which, in the
Papal Mass of Easter Day, the bread is exhibited on the
paten by the cardinal-deacon turning it on every side to the
people for adoration ; it is then carried by the subdeacon to
the throne. The chalice is exhibited in the same manner.
When the Pope celebrates, he gives the benediction to the
people with the Host, but does not communicate himself.
This is the origin of the ceremony of benediction by priests
after Vespers, which is not much earlier than the present
century. In 1549 the priest in England was directed at the
prayer of consecration to turn to the altar without elevation
or showing the sacrament to the people.
Gonfanon. A banner, shaped like Constantine's labarum, sent
by the Pope to Baldwin and the Christian army before
Jerusalem. It had four pointed ends, and was the sign of
a patriarchal church. The Counts of Anjou were hereditary
gonfaliers of Tours, the Counts de Vexin, of St. Denis.
Good Friday. The beautiful English name for the day of the
Crucifixion ; called the Pasch of the Cross by Tertullian ;
the parasceve, or preparation (St. Mark xv. 42) ; the day of
the Lord's Passion ; Long Friday, owing to its lengthened
fast, in Denmark ; yElfric's Canons, 957 ; and the Saxon
Chronicle in 1137; in Germany, Still Friday; and in France,
Passion Friday. On this day, it appears from St. Chryso
stom, the Greeks commemorated the departed. It is observ
able that in the catacombs the soldiers crown our Saviour,
not with thorns but with flowers, as if the early Christians
regarded the triumphant rather than the mournful aspect of his
great sacrifice. In the time of Pope Innocent I. Mass was
not said on Good Friday or Easter Eve ; but until the tenth
century, as by Pope Gregory's ' Sacramentary,' and -Elfric's
Canons, 957, communion was permitted to the faithful; in
England in 1328 the day was ordered by the Synod of London
to be kept as a feast ; and in the reigns of Elizabeth and James
I. there was communion. Creeping to the Cross, the altar
stripped of its lights, pall, and crucifix, and the use of black
veils and vestments marked the solemnity of the day. The
Greek Church has a service mainly composed of Scriptural
allusions to the Passion. See Mass of the Pre sanctified.

GOSPEL. 301
Crossbuns eaten on this day somewhat resemble the loaf
from which the Greek altar-breads are cut, and preserve the
memory of the manna, as they are flavoured with coriander
seed (Ex. vi. 14-31 ; Numb. xi. 7) and the panis decussates
of the early Christians. Crossbuns are the relic of un
leavened simnel cakes, which were formerly eaten as lamb
was on Easter Day in memory of the paschal food of the
Jews. In the thirty-sixth year of Henry III. bakers were
forbidden to print the cross, the Agnus Dei, or the name of
our Lord upon their bread, as a guard against its supersti
tious use.
Gospel. (God's spel, or message ; good tidings.) The book of
the Gospel, usually splendidly illuminated and bound in
jewelled covers, always stood on the altar upon a stand, and
the latter is caUed in 1640 in England a desk; with degrees
of advancement, in 1558 it stood in the midst of the altar.
Two tapers, according to Amalarius, were carried before the
gospeHer to represent the light of the Gospel in the world,
and other candles, signifying the law and the prophets, were
extinguished, to show their accomplishment in the Gospel.
In St. Augustine's time the Gospel was read on the north
side, in allusion to the prophetical verse, Jer. iii. 12 ; and
the old sacramentaries added, because it is preached to those
cold in faith ; but at Rome, because the men sat on the
south side and the women on the north, the deacon turned
to the former, as mentioned by Amalarius, probably in allu
sion to 1 Cor. xiv. 35. The Gemma Animas speaks of
reading from the north side as a new custom, but it is pre
scribed by the use of Hereford and Seville. In some parts
of England, however, the south side was still observed as
late as the fifteenth century. When the epistle was read on
the lowest, the Gospel was read on the upper choir steps
from a lectern; on principal festivals, Palm Sunday, and
the eves of Easter and Pentecost, they were read in the rood-
loft. As at St. Paul's ; in cathedrals of the new foundation,
also ; and in all cathedrals, by the Canons of 1603, a gospeller
and epistolar, or deacon and subdeacon, who are either minor
canons or priest-vicars, are appointed ; they are to be vested
" agreeably" to the celebrant or principal minister, that is,
in copes. In 1159 all these were to be canons at York,
by Pope Alexander III.'s order. Anastasius L, c. 405, ordered

302 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
all priests to stand and bow reverently at the reading of the
Gospel. In the sixth century the people stood at the read
ing of both these lections, but standing was retained at the
Gospel only, in deference to Him that speaketh therein.
At the end of the epistle the words are said " Here endeth
the epistle," but no such form follows the Gospel, because it
is continued in the Creed. The custom of saying " Glory be
to thee, 0 Lord," prescribed before the Gospel in Edward
VI.'s First Book, and saying after it " Thanks be to God for
his holy Gospel," is as old as the time of St. Chrysostom. In
Poland, during a time of idolatry, Prince Mieczlaus ordered
in 968 that at Mass, as a sign of Christian faith, whdst the
Gospel was reading every man should draw his sword half
out of his scabbard, to show that all were ready to fight to
the death for the Gospel. There was a curious English
medieval superstition of crossing the legs when the Gospel
from the first chapter of St. John was read. The Gospel oak
was the tree at which the Gospel was read in the Rogation
processions.
Gown. The ancient academical gown, always wide-sleeved,
was an adoption of the monastic habit from the robe of the
preaching friars, who wore it instead of an albe. From itine
rant lay preachers of the time of Elizabeth ; the custom of
the universities ; the vanity of the richer clergy in the last
century, wearing silk robes out-of-doors and then in the
pulpit; and the introduction of lectures, not provided for by
the rubric, — the use of the gown in English pulpits took its
origin. The narrow-sleeved gown, with a cross-slit for the
arms, was an importation from Geneva, and called the lawyer's
gown, in distinction to the wide velvet-sleeved gown still
worn by other graduates, posers at Winchester, and often
with an ermine hood by proctors at Oxford. Russet white
and black gowns were worn by mourners at funerals.
Graal. The precious dish (paropsis) or cup used at the Last
Supper. The vessel in which our Lord turned water into
wine, and Nicodemus or Joseph of Arimathea received the
Saviour's blood at the crucifixion, accordmg to medieval
legends. It often appears in the Arthurian laws, and pro
bably arose from a Druidic origin. The Genoese claim to
have it in the cathedral treasury, where it is known as Sacro
Catino. It is of glass, of hexagonal form, with two handles,

GRACE— GRADUATION. 303
and is 3 feet 9 inches in circumference. It was cracked in
its removal from Paris, whither it had passed under Napoleon.
Sometimes the graal supports a bleeding spear, as on a cruci
fix at Sancreed church, Cornwall. The Church is often repre
sented holding a pennon and a graal opposite the synagogue
with drooping head, and a banner of three points, the staff
broken.
Grace. The benediction of the table, founded on St. Matt.
xiv. 19 ; Acts xxvii. 35 ; and 1 Tim. iv. 4. The ancient
form is in the Apostolical Constitutions, and the collect and
medieval versicles are sung at the election dinner in Win
chester College, to Reading's setting, c. 1662. The con
ventual form is Benedictus Benedicat, but a Cistercian abbot,
conceiving it to be a slur on his founder, on his return from
some Benedictine house to his own convent, gravely said
Bernardus Bernardat. The grace-cup was a mazer, and in
use at Durham. It is still used with great ceremony at Win
chester CoUege in election week. The person nearest to the
one drinking, and another opposite to him, stand until he
passes the cup.
Gradin, (It. predella.) A sort of low retable in Western
Europe, of post-Reformation date. Sometimes, in France,
it has three steps. In 1486, however, in London, " a shelf
above the altar " is mentioned, but this probably was either
a rood-candle and rehc-beam, or, as at Clapton, Somerset,
a stone ledge, supported on columns, running along the east
wall, and carrying two brass candlesticks. On the other
hand, Bishop Bleys of Worcester, and Bishop Quivil of
Exeter, mention two candles on the altar, which, Durandus
says — and the custom prevaded in medieval times as late as
Queen Anne's reign,—" were set upon the right and left (outer
or western) corners (cornua, or horns) of the altar." At
William III.'s coronation there were four three-branched
candlesticks, such as are preserved at St. James's, West
minster. Two stood at the back of the altar and one on
each horn. Possibly the gradin originated in the tabulates
or shelf for the more sacred plate in the Clugniac aumbry,
which was lined with precious stuff, whdst the rest of the
vessels stood below it.
Graduation. The literary rank given by universities to mem
bers of faculties. The system began in the faculty of theo-

304 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
logy at Paris in the thirteenth century, when bachelors,
licentiates, and doctors are mentioned.
Grail. (1 .) Gradale, gradual, that which follows in degree, or the
next step (gradus) after the Epistle, a book containing the
Order of Benediction of Holy- Water, the Offices, Introit, or be
ginning of the Mass, the Kyrie, Gloria, Alleluia, Prose, Tract,
Sequence, Creed, Offertory, Sanctus, Agnus Dei, and Com
munion and Post-Communion, which pertain to the choir in
singing solemn Mass. In France it denotes the Antiphonar,
which was set on the gradus or analogium. (2.) A verse or
response, varying with the day. A portion of a psalm sung
between the Epistle and Gospel whdst the deacon was on his
way to the rood-loft. Their introduction into the Church is
attributed variously to Celestine, 430, St. Ambrose, Gela
sius, 490, or Gregory the Great, c. 600, who arranged the re
sponses in order in his ' Antiphonar.' Rabanus says the name
is derived from the custom of singing the grail on the steps of
the ambon or pulpit ; but others consider it to be taken from
the responsory, gradation, or succession, or the altar-step.
These verses were formerly chanted, either by a single voice
or in chorus. When the chanter sang to the end tractim they
were called the Tract ; but when he was interrupted by the
choir then the name was a Verse, Responsory, or Anthem.
Grandmontines. A Benedictine order under a very composite
rule, instituted at Grandmont, near Limousin in 1076, by
Stephen, a layman of Auvergne. They came to England in
the reign of Henry I., but only had three houses in this
country, the chief being Abberbury, founded in 1233. They
wore a hard, coarse tunic and a long gown of thick cloth.
John XXII. erected Grandmont from a priory into an abbey.
Grange. (1.) The wheat-barn and garners under the charge
of the granarer. They remain at Ardennes, Caen, Peter
borough, Abbotsbury, Fountains, St. Mary's (York), St.
Vigor, Barbery, St. John, Laon, Vauclair, Perrieres, Vin-
celottes, and Fontenay. (2.) A monastic farm, with a
threshing-floor.
Grate. (Lat. crates.) A metal screen of ornamental work
round a monument; the simple iron railing of Cardinal
Langham's tomb ; the gate-like screen of Haxey and Arch
bishop Gray at York ; and massive Norman grille of Conques,
are in strong contrast with the rich curved closure of Queen

GREAT ENTRANCE — GREGORIAN CHANT. 305
Eleanor's tomb, the metal-work of Henry IV.'s chantry, and
the brass gates and screen of Henry VII. at Westminster.
See Carol.
Great Entrance. (Megale eisodos.) In the Greek liturgies the
solemn bringing in of the holy elements in procession to the
altar from the prothesis, as the " little entrance " is the
bringing in of the Gospels, preceded by tapers and incense.
They are the most imposing ceremonies in the Eastern
Church.
Grecanic Work. Glass tessellated-work, with all the luxury of
gold and tint.
Greces. (Fr. grS.) Degrees ; steps ; grissens in Norfolk, and
Grecian stairs, a tautology, at Lincoln.
Greek Church. The Church of Russia, Greece, Christian Tur
key, Asia, Abyssinia, and the Copts. In the ninth century,
owing to the insertion of the Filioque clause in the Nicene
Creed ; at a later date, from five charges of heresy brought
against the Western Church by the patriarch Photius ; and
finaUy, in 1059, from a mutual exchange of excommunica
tion by Cerularius of Constantinople and Pope Leo IX., —
ancient feuds resulted in a positive rupture of intercommu
nion, which subsists to this day.
Gregorian Chant. The music applied by Pope Gregory the
Great (591-604) to the service of the Church. St. Ambrose had
composed four ecclesiastical tunes, to which the Psalms were
sung ; those added by the Pope were not rhythmical, like those
of Milan, but rather even, grave, and sustained, hence their
name of plain or firm chant. The first four modes, invented
by St. Ambrose, Gregory called Authentic ; those added by
himself received the appeUation of Plagal, Collateral, or Rela
tive ; owing to the insertion of one of these after each of
the former, from which it was derived, the order of all was
changed ; thus the Authentic are now numbered by the un
even, as the Plagal are the even numbers of the eight tones.
The ecclesiastical modes, as settled by St. Ambrose, are
called, the I. Dorian, III. Phrygian, V. Lydian, and VII.
Mixo-Lydian, as modifications of the Greek scales so named ;
to each of these St. Gregory added a subordinate, or attend
ant or plagal scale, called II. hypo-Dorian, IV. hypo-Phry
gian, VI. hypo-Lydian, and VIII. hypo-Mixo-Lydian, each
lying a fourth below the original. Plagal (Gr.plagios, oblique), x

306 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
are melodies which have their principal notes between the
fifth of the key and its octaves, or twelfth. A ninth tune,
to which the Psalm " In exitu Israel" is sung, is called
Peregrine, or, from the place of its composition, the Gallican.
Guarded. Garnished, or bordered.
Guardian Angel. (Exod. xxiii. 20; Dan. x. 13; Ps. xxxiv.
7; Heb. i. 14; Acts xii. 15; St. Matt, xviii. 10.) Origen
says that a second angel was given to a bishop at his conse
cration. There is a Chapel of the Guardian Angels, with
illustrative carvings, in Winchester Cathedral.
Guest House, or Hostry, The great monasteries had several
guest houses, hospices, or hostels, under the charge of the
hostillar, or hospitaller ; one for monks, another for persons
of gentle birth, and a third for poor traveUers, who were
ordinarily entertained for three days. In some cases a splen
did set of apartments was appropriated for the use of the
Sovereign, called the King's palace, parlour, or chamber;
at St. Alban's, Bristol, and Beauheu. These visits, and the
prolonged stay of nobles, with their retinue, greatly im
poverished monasteries which lay near high-roads. Peter
borough was cost many thousand pounds by a stay of Edward
II. Edward I. spent three months, with his army, atLaner-
cost; and Glastonbury, on two occasions, entertained 200
knights, arriving with their retainers, and 500 travellers
coming on horseback. In fact, the abbey was the only safe
hotel when the taverns and hostelry were the haunt of high
waymen and pickpurses, and the lowest of either sex. The
Queen was permitted to enter at St. Alban's ; but at Dur
ham, Queen Philippa, having entered the precinct clandes
tinely, was compelled by the monks to rise at midnight, and
precipitately betake herself to the rougher accommodation
of the Castle. The Benedictine abbot received at his own
table the guests of superior degree; the Cistercian abbot
modestly dined with them in the hostel, whdst the Clugniac
abbot took no notice of their reception. At Abingdon the an
them, " Honor, virtus," or " Time Deum," greeted the guest.
The beautiful Guesten Hall of Worcester has been bar
barously destroyed; that of Westminster, known as the Je
rusalem Chamber, remains; the lesser guest-house, a tim
bered building, maybe seen at Winchester; and portions
of the principal hospice at Ely. The great guest-house

GUEST-HOUSE, OR HOSTRY. 307
usually stood on the west side of the cloister, or else behind
the refectory ; it has been preserved in the former position
at Sherborne ; sometimes it was removed to a distance from
the cloister, in a base court, as at Durham; or placed in
proximity with the prior's house, as at Worcester ; or erected
near the entrance gate, as at Merevale, Furness, and Mailing ;
or over the gates, as at Chertsey, Finchale, Kirkham, Work
sop, and Thornton. The guest-house chapel, in which offer
ings were made for the poor, and travellers on their arrival
returned thanks to God, adjoined the gate house at Finchale,
Mailing, Merevale, and Stoneley ; it remains perfect at Peter
borough, and in ruins at Furness. The Cistercians admitted
their guests into their minster ; humbly bowed and knelt at
their arrival, washed their feet, and sprinkled them with holy
water; they dined with the abbot in the guest house. The
Austin Canons allowed Mass to be speciaUy sung at the
desire of travellers ; and the last prior of Christchurch told
Henry VIII. that there was no other house of entertainment
within ten miles for the reception of wayfarers. The Clugniac
abbot dined with guests in hall. The guests were received
by the Benedictines with the "venia" at the abbey gate,
sprinkled themselves with holy water at the minster door,
and, having confessed the sins of their journey in choir and
at the altar of the revestry, were conducted to the parlour ;
there the hostillar saluted them, saying the Benedicite, and
having given them the kiss of charity, led them to the guest
house. The guest house usually consisted of a great hall,
divided into alleys or oblong, with a number of sleeping
rooms on the sides, and provided with stables and servants'
apartments. At Gloucester, in 1378, when a Parliament
was held in the abbey, the King was entertained in the
abbot's lodge, the Commons in the guest-house, the Privy
Council in the chief guest-chamber, the Common Council in
the chapter-house, and the Commission on the Law of Arms
in the refectory, whilst the wretehed monks were harried for
dinner from the dortor to the school house, and finally took
refuge in the orchard, whilst their cloister-sward was trodden
down by bad players and wrestlers, and the whole precinct
looked like a fair. Monks, friars, and religious lived with
the community. By Ecgbright's 'Excerptions' (740), every
bishop and parish priest -had a guest-house near the church.
x2

308 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Guilds. Voluntary associations, combined for the mutual bene
fit of the members ; the bishop's family of clerks was called a
fraternity in 725 ; and by Bede, in 940-950. Monasteries also
were united in a common bond of fellowship, intercommunion
in prayer, and in prayer for departed members, intelligence
of their demise being communicated by a messenger bear
ing a brief to the various houses. Brotherhoods, or reli
gious clubs, maintaining a chantry priest, were also esta
blished in nearly every parish church, who formed benefit
societies, kept a yearly feast, met on certain anniversaries at
a common altar, and supported annals for the repose of de
parted members, whose names were on the guild roll. They
consisted of men and women; in the monasteries kings,
nobles, and benefactors were received in chapter as lay mem
bers, and there were also honorary associates of the parish
societies. The members promised fidelity to the guild rules,
and obedience to the superiors, and received a certificate of
admission, signed and sealed by the masters and wardens.
They sometimes maintained a hospital for the relief of de
cayed members, and always collected alms for their sick
and poor. They met on their anniversary in Hvery gowns
and hoods, usually of two different colours, and wearing
the badge or cognizance of their patron saint. On the
morrow of their feast they audited their accounts and trans
acted the necessary business. At Brecon the gudd chapels
had the implements of their various trades carved on the
parcloses, and these remain in a chapel of St. John's (Caen) .
Gurgoyle. The legendary name of a monster at Rouen, as
gargouille; reappearing at Metz as granouilli; as kraula
at Rheims, and grand guete at Poictiers. In the old rituals
of Provence the dragon, carried in the rogation processions
as a symbol of heresy, bore this name ; it now is applied to
chimeras, dragons, and monsters, wrought into the useful
form of waterspouts. They were also called magots, pro
bably a corruption of magog, in Hebrew meaning " on the
roofs ;" and these grinning creatures, perched aloft on roof
and vantage coin, represented the spirits of the powers of
the air endeavouring to assail the faithful, whose sure refuge
is within the Church. One of these figures, at Lincoln, is
called, the "Devil looking over Lincoln." Gurgoyles first
appear in the Early English period.

GYPCER — HEALING. 309
Gypcer. (Fr. gibeciere.) A pouch.
Habit of Clergy. In the thirteenth century the rule of the
Councd of Lateran was adopted, the close cope and cropped
hair being enjoined. In the fourteenth century long hanging
sleeves not covering the elbow, hair trimmed with fur or
cendal, long beards, tippets of monstrous length, broad
jewelled belts, chequered hose of red and green, and peaked
boots were forbidden; and in 1463 another sumptuary law
prohibited neck-tippets of cloth and silk, swords, daggers,
purses with gilt embroidery, habits furred, cut off at the hips,
or open except at the neck, and bolsters on the shoulders.
Archbishop Stratford permitted the use of the sleeved sur-
coat or mensal at meal-time, and a short habit in travelling.
In the fourteenth century the foreign clergy wore a sleeved
tunic closed at the wrists, a supertunic, with long sleeves
reaching to the feet, tabard, and black hood ; and in travel
ling a round cloak, black cap, black or brown boots, and
socks knotted round the thigh. In 1603 the apparel con
sisted in England of a square cap, cassock, a gown with
standing collar and sleeves straight at the hands, or wide
like those worn in the universities ; in travelling sleeved
cloaks were used. Curates and poor beneficed men had
short gowns, and graduates were distinguished by hoods
or tippets of silk and sarcenet. George Herbert, when a
deacon, wore silk clothes and a sword. See Canonicals.
Halidom. The Gospels, or sacred relics.
Hallow Mass. All Saints' Day. (Fr. toussaints, or touzeins.)
A festival observed at Rome in the seventh century, but not
for two hundred years after in Gaul and Germany. Sixtus
IV., in the fifth century, gave it an octave. It seems that
this commemoration was kept in the East on Good Friday.
Hampulling Towels. (From ampulla.) Clothes to wipe away
the holy oil, chrism oil, and sick-men's oil.
Hanap. A drinking-cup.
Harnessed. Girt, or bound.
Head, or Front of a Church. The east end. Very rarely the
western fa§ade.
Healing. Touching, i. e. stroking the patient's face with both
hands, to remove the scrofula, significantly called the king's
evil, practised by the kings of France as early as Clovis or

310 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Philip I., kings of Hungary, and English sovereigns, from
Edward the Confessor to Queen Anne, who touched Dr.
Johnson. Bradwardine says that crowds resorted to the
kings of England, France, and Germany. Solemn prayer
and the sign of the cross, first laid aside by James I., were
used. Henry II. and Edward I. practised the touch. The
ceremonial took place on a progress, on Good Friday,
monthly, quarterly, or at Michaelmas, Easter, and Whitsun
tide, and in 1683 from All Saints tdl a week before Christ
mas, and from Christmas tdl March 1. The first form of
service was drawn up in the reign of Henry VII. The Gos
pel (St. Mark xvi. 14) was read whilst the king laid on his
hands, and during another (St. John i. 1) at the words " the
light " an angel, noble, Or medal with St. Michael stamped
on it, was attached by a white ribbon round the neck of the
patient, who had to produce a certificate of his malady, signed
by the parish priest and churchwardens, and was examined
by the king's surgeon-in-waiting. The faculty of healing was
popularly attributed to the ninth son of a ninth son.
Healing Box. Used for holding the chrism in Extreme Unc
tion.
Heart Burial. The heart was often buried apart from the
body in the place it loved well in life, as Devorgilla founded
Sweet Heart Abbey in memory of the heart-burial of her hus
band. Richard I.'s heart was buried at Rouen. Robert
Bruce desired his heart to be taken to the Holy Land in lieu
of his pilgrimage, and Lord James Douglas carried it round
his neck in a sdver case, hung by a sdken cord. He threw
it forward in advance of his men at the great battle of Salano,
and covered it with his body. It was taken to Melrose by
J. Lockhart, and the Douglas still carries a heart.
Hebdomadary. (Septanier.) The priest in charge of the ser
vices for a week.
Helyng. (1.) A canopy. (2.) A coverlet.
Hermaphrodite Orders. A community of both sexes, living in
different monasteries, separated by a single wall. (1.) Fonte
vrault, founded by Robert d'Arbissel, Archdeacon of Rennes,
in 1100, under the Benedictine rule. According to the sym
bolists the abbess presided over the monks, in allusion to the
text St. John xix. 27, but in point of fact because the abbess
held the seignorial lands, as in the early Northumbrian mon-

HERMENEUTES  HERSE. 311
asteries. (2.) Bridgetines, founded by Queen Bridget of
Sweden in 1360, and confirmed by Urban V. The sixty
nuns sat in the choir of the common church of each house.
(3.) Gilbertines of Sempringham, founded by Gilbert, priest
of that village, in 1148, and confirmed by Eugenius III.,
under the Austin rule.
Hermeneutes. An interpreter in the primitive Church, who
translated the liturgy or sermons where people did not
understand Latin, as in Africa, or spoke various dialects, as
in Palestine, or Greek, as in the missions of St. Chrysostom
to the Arian Goths. St. Augustine sent a bishop, who under
stood Phoenician as well as Latin, to a city, where the in
habitants spoke only the Punic language.
Herse. (Fr. herce, a harrow; the Latin herecius, a hedgehog;
leichen wagen in German.) (1.) A triangular candlestick,
made of bars, Hke a harrow, with many branches or candle
sticks without feet, varying from seven to thirty-two, and
containing sometimes twenty-four white lights, or else four
teen yellow tapers at the side, representing the eleven
Apostles and three Marys, and a single white light, symboli
cal of our Saviour, at the top. (2.) A wooden or metal frame,
like a waggon-head, to support the pall laid over a bier in a
church. It had sometimes seven candles, two on each side,
and three on the ridge. There are good examples at Tan-
field, Hurstpierpoint, and the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick.
It was used in offices of the dead at Tenebras, and in festi
vals when much Hght was required. In the obsequies of an
abbot of Canterbury, at the close of the fourteenth century,
the payment is entered for the image (corpus fictum) and
herse. Sometimes it was called onzaine when it held eleven
Hghts, or ratelier (rastrum), a harrow-like rake. (3.) (A
chapelle ardente, in France ; catafalco, in Italy ; castrum
doloris — grief-castle — in medieval Latin.) A temporary
lofty funeral canopy of timber, covered with waxen figures of
angels and saints, a profusion of tapers in sconces, and
draped with black hangings, flags, and penoncels, under
which a bier was placed, usually before the high altar, with
a balustrade and watchers around it, whilst the departed
were being carried to their burial. (4.) A horse-litter for
the dead. A funeral car, covered with black, mentioned in
1556, mounted on four wheels. Jeremy Taylor speaks of

312

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

strewing the herse with flowers. (5.) A dead person. (6.) The
frame for the tenebrse candles. A herse-cloth of good needle
work is preserved at St. Gregory's, Norwich, and another at
Goldsmiths' Hall, London.
Hibernian Work. (1.) Enamel. (2.) Stud-building.
High Church. (1.) A term professed by the adherents of the
Stuarts, in distinction to Low Churchmen, their opponents,
about the year 1 700. (2.) A cathedral in local usage; as " high
prayers," called at Winchester College " Amen Chapel," are
those sung to instrumental accompaniment.
Hip Knob. A pinnacle at the top of a gable.
Hip Roof. A gable sloping back.
Hirmos. A strophe in a Greek hymn. The model of succeed
ing stanzas, so called as drawing others after it.
Histories. Anthems composed out of Scripture or lives of the
saints.
Hock Tide (hocken, to seize), or Hoke Days. Usually Monday
and Tuesday one fortnight after Easter, kept in memory of
the slaughter of the Danes by Ethelred, on November 13,
1002, according to Henry of Huntingdon, and mentioned in
the Confessor's Laws. Money used to be coUected by the
parishioners in 1667; and at town gates, as at Chichester, in
the last century.
Holosericum. Watered silk.
Holy Bread Skep, or Maund. A basket for the eulogies.
Holy Candle, Blessing with the. Latimer and Tyndale men
tion that dying persons committed their souls to the holy
candle, and that the sign of the cross was made over the
dead with it, " thereby to be discharged of the burden of sin,
or to drive away devils, or to put away dreams and phan
tasies."
Holy Cross. An order of canons reformed by Egerard, Prior
of Bologna, under the Austin rule, and confirmed, 1160, by
Alexander III., and suppressed in 1656. They wore a cas
sock, patience, gown, and hood of sky-blue colour.
Holy Father. The first person of the Trinity was represented
as in Daniel's vision, vii. 9, and vested in a cope, and wear
ing a tiara. It was contrary to our Lord's declaration (St.
John vi. 46), and indefensible.
Holy Fridays. Fridays in Ember weeks.
Holy Ghost. The dove constantly represents the third person

HOLY INNOCENTS — HOLY OIL. 313
of the Blessed Trinity (St. Matt. iii. 16) ; possibly this was
the sign or image of the Holy Spirit, which, in the fifteenth
century, was carried round the cathedral of Chichester by
the dean, or person next in dignity, at the Feast of the
Epiphany. He afterwards gave an ornament to the church,
as an acknowledgment of the privilege. The dove was first
accepted as the type of the Holy Spirit after the Council of
Chalcedon (536). Tertullian attributes the adoption to the
innocence, and St. Chrysostom to the loving kindness and
gentleness of the dove.
Holy Ghost. This is a rare dedication in England, but
examples occur at Basingstoke, Walsham ; Middleton, West
moreland, and Newtown, Isle of Wight ; and chapels, Exeter
and Peterborough cathedrals.
Holy Innocents. This festival is alluded to by St. Irenaaus
and St. Cyprian, by Origen and Augustine as of immemorial
observance. Prudentius, in the fourth century, celebrates it
in the hymn, " All had, ye Infant Martyr-Flowers," and in
connection with the Epiphany, as did Fulgentius in his homi
lies for the day. " Stephen was a martyr before men," said
St. Bernard, " John before angels, but these before God, con
fessing Christ by dying, not by speech, and their merit is
known only to God." Violet was used on this day in me
mory of the sorrow of their mothers, and the Te Deum,
Alleluia, and doxologies were forbidden. At Norton, Wor
cestershire, a muffled peal is rung to commemorate the
slaughter, and then a peal of joy for the escape of the infant
Christ ; and a half-muffled peal is rung at Minety, Maise-
more, Leigh-on-Mendip, Wick, Rissington, and Pattington.
The Greek menology and Ethiopic liturgy give the number
of the involuntary infant martyrs at 40,000.
Holy Night. The night before Holy Day. The first Sunday
in Lent. By Theodulf 's Chapters, the previous week was
employed in shriving penitents.
Holy Oil. In the fourth century oil was brought to Europe
from Jerusalem, which had been blessed for use in the holy
places. It was carried in cotton within little phials, and dis
tributed to the faithful at a time when relics were sparingly
distributed. Oil blessed at saints' tombs was also in vogue
in the time of Gregory of Tours ; and in the time of St.
Gregory oil taken from lamps which burned before the

314

SACRED AECHEOLOGY.

martyrs' graves in the catacombs. Several of these amptdlas,
or vials of metal, are preserved at Monza, which Gregory the
Great gave to Queen Theodolinda. See Ampulla.
Holy Rood. A rare dedication for churches in England, but
it occurs at Southampton, and is the same as St. Cross, near
Winchester. The famous abbey of Holyrood adjoins Edin
burgh. Holy Cross Abbey is a ruin in Ireland.
Holy Spear. (Hagia louche.) A Hturgical instrument used
by the Greeks, in the form ef a spear, with a long handle
ending in a cross, with which the altar-bread called the
sphragis, or holy lamb, is cut out from the loaf for consecra-
cration by the priest with a solemn form in the Liturgy of
St. Chrysostom, founded on Is. Hii. 7, 8 ; St. John xix. 34.
Holy Thursday. The Ascension Day.
Holy- Water. According to the Tripartite History, aqua bene-
dicta and the benediction of salt are attributed to Pope
Alexander I., who had them sprinkled in houses and churches
to exorcise devils. Bishop MarceUus ordered Equitius, his
deacon, to sprinkle holy-water, haUowed by him, for the
same purpose, and, as Theodoret says, by its use caused the
destruction of Jupiter's temple at Apamea. Joseph, the
converted Jew, as Epiphanius relates, used consecrated water
in exorcism. Holy-water was used in aU benedictions of
palm and olive branches, vestments, corporals, candles,
houses, herds, fields, and in private houses. By the canon
law it is mingled with salt. The Council of Nantes ordered
the priest before Mass to sprinkle the church-court and
close, offering prayers for the departed, and give water to
all who asked it for their houses, food, cattle, fodder, fields,
and vineyards. By the Capitulars of Charlemagne, Louis,
and Lothaire, on Easter and Whitsun eves all the faithful
might take, for purposes of aspersion in their houses, conse
crated water before its admixture with chrism. A novice
carried the holy-water in monasteries before the cross in
procession.
Holy- Water Sprinkler. The Aspergdl ; a brush for scattering
holy -water. A horrible Tudor mace, with radiating spikes,
was called the Morning Star or Sprinkle.
Holy- Water Stock (i.e. pdlar) or Stoup (i. e. bucket). A station
ary stone basin for holy-water, placed at the entrance of
churches, called by the French benitier. It succeeded to the

HOLY-WATER VAT — HOURS, CANONICAL. 815
brazen laver used by the Temple priests (Is. i. 16; hi. 2 ;
Exod. xxx. 20 ; 2 Cor. vii. 1 ; Ps. li. 2, 7), and cantharus of
the basilica [see Atrium], Pope Leo III. erected one at
Ostia. The vat in a minster next the cloister was used by
the monks, that on the other side by the people. At Dur
ham the church wras swept and the holy-water vat filled
afresh every Sunday morning. The stoup is found in all
periods of architecture, formed in the wall, set on a pdlar or
in the porch, or standing on a pedestal. At Pylle the leaden
basin still remains.
Holy- Water Vat. (Be>iitier,s-itula, vas.) A portable vessel to
contain holy-water, which was, according to Micrologus, first
consecrated by Pope Alexander V., as Cranmer says, to "put
us in remembrance of our baptism, and the blood of Christ,
for our redemption, sprinkled on the cross." The fixed holy-
water stoup w-as used by those who came too late into church to
receive the aspersion by the sprinkler and water carried in
the portable vat, which, in the churches of the West, repre-
presented the bodily ablution made by the Oriental Chris
tians. The behitier of the Emperor, of gold and ivory, of the
eleventh century, remains at Aix-la-Chapelle ; the ivory
benitier of the Virgin, at the close of the twelfth century, at
Milan ; and one of bronze, of the same date, at Spires.
Holy Week. The week before Easter, called formerly the
Great Week, and in medieval times the Authentic, with the
same meaning ; in Germany and Denmark the popular title
is Still Week, in allusion to the holy quiet and abstraction
from labour during its continuance.
Homily. A popular sermon of a colloquial character, used
x after the time of Origen.
Hood Mould. A label or dripstone over an arch.
Hours, Canonical. Mentioned generally by St. Clement of
Alexandria, and as Synaxes in Ecgbright's Excerptions 740.
There were four day-hours and three night-hours, in allusion
to St. Mark xiii. 35; and St. Matt. xxvi. 44. From the
fourth century the nocturns embraced three Psalms, one for
each watch. The Seven Canonical Hours, so called because
fixed by the canon or Church rule, for prayers at each third
recurring hour, are founded on David's practice (Ps. Iv. 17;
cxix. 62). Daniel prayed thrice a day (Dan. vi. 10), which
St. Cyprian considered was in honour of the Holy Trinity,

316 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
and the Jews four times (2 Esdr. ix. 3) . Their names are
Matins (matuta, dawn), at midnight, called vigils by the
Council of Carthage, 398, but afterwards the first hour after
dawn, and mentioned by St. Cyprian as midnight and
matins, and by St. Athanasius as nocturns and midnight
(Ps. cxix. 62-147; Acts xvi. 25) ; an office which Cassian
and Isidore say was first observed in the fifth century in the
monastery of Bethlehem, in memory of the Nativity; Lauds,
after Matins, before day, mentioned by St. Basil, and in the
Apostolical Constitutions ; in the fifth century nocturns
merged in matin lauds (Ps. lxni. 6 ; cxix. 55) ; Prime, the
early morning, six a.m., mentioned by St. Athanasius (Ps.
xcii. 2; v. 3; lix. 16); Tierce (the third), nine a.m., men
tioned by Tertullian with Sexts and Nones, when the dis
ciples were assembled at Pentecost (Acts ii. 15) ; Sext (the
sixth), noonday, when St. Peter prayed (Acts x. 9) ; Nones
(the ninth), three p.m., when SS. Peter and John went up
to the Temple (Acts iii. 1) ; Vespers, mentioned by SS.
Cyprian, Basil, Ambrose, and Jerome, and the Apostolical
Constitutions, (evensong) six p.m., (Ps. Iv. 18; xii. 2) when
our Lord instituted the Eucharist, showing it was the even
tide of the world. This hour is called from evening, accord
ing to St. Augustine, or the evening star, says St. Isidore.
It was also known as the office and the hour of lights, as
until the eighth or ninth century it was said in the East, and
at Milan, also when the lamps were lighted (Zach. xiv. 7).
The Roman custom of saying Vespers after Nones then came
into use in the West. Compline, the complement of divine
service, as the office before bed-time (Ps. cxxxii. 3), was first
separated from Vespers by St. Benedict. The Apostolical
Constitutions mention Matins as the thanksgiving for the
dayspring from on high, and the return of light; Tierce,
when our Lord was sentenced by Pilate; Sext, when He
was crucified; Nones, when the great earthquake and
shaking heavens could not endure the Lord's shame; Even
ing, thanksgiving for the gift of sleep after the day's toil ;
and cock-crow, when the coming of the day invites to do the
works of light. Cassian likewise mentions the observation
of Tierce, Sext, and Nones in monasteries. Tertullian
and Pliny speak of Christian services before daylight. St.
Jerome names Tierce, Sext, Nones, Vespers, and Dawn;

hour-glass stand. 3J 7
and St. Augustine, — for the two latter hours, however, substi
tuting Early Vigil. Various reasons have been assigned for a
deeper meaning in the hours ; one is that they are the
thanksgiving for the completion of the creation on the
seventh day. Another theory beautifully connects them
with the acts of our Lord in His Passion : Evensong with
His institution of the Eucharist, and washing the disciples'
feet, and the going out to Gethsemane ; Compline with His
Agony and Bloody Sweat ; Matins with His appearance be
fore Caiaphas ; Prime and Tierce with that in the presence of
Pilate; Tierce with his scourging, Crown of Thorns, and
presentation to the people ; Sext with his bearing the Cross,
the Seven Words, and Crucifixion ; Nones with His dismis
sion of His spirit, descent into hell, and rout of the devil ;
Vespers with His deposition from the Cross and entomb
ment ; Compline with the setting of the Watch ; Matins
with His Resurrection. Ado of Treves says that, even during
the Diocletian persecution, the Christians kept Matins,
Vespers, Tierce, Sext, and Nones round the graves of the
saints. The old English names are, Uht Sang, midnight;
Lof Sang, praise or after song, two to three a.m. ; Prime
Sang, six to seven, a.m.; and Undern Sang, eight to nine, a.m.;
Midday Sang; Noon Sang, two to three p.m.; Even Sang,
six to seven p.m.; Night Sang, eight to nine p.m. The
Church of England retains Matins and Evensong, the
former containing the canticle for Lauds and the collect for
Prime, and the latter the collect and canticle of Compline.
In the collegiate churches of Durham, Matins were always
sung in the morning. The Canonical hours for marriage by
the CII. Canon, are between eight and twelve, except by
special licence of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Can
onical hour for the Holy Communion is mentioned by St.
Gregory of Tours as Tierce ; at Durham it was nine ; and by
the Councd of Norwich, 1257, was not to precede Prime.
The design was that communicants should be fasting by the
Third Council of Carthage, 397, and the advice of St. Au
gustine. St. Cyprian mentions that the Eucharist was
celebrated in the daytime ; Tertullian says before daybreak.
Hour-glass Stand. A post-Reformation invention, existing
in the time of Parker, in 1569 ; it is mentioned at Abingdon
in 1591; a bracket or frame of iron for supporting the

318 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
hour-glass (found at Wiggenhall, Ashby-Folville, Belton,
Stamford, Leigh, Bradeston, South Burleigh, Edingthorpe,
(1632), Wolvercot, Stoke-D'Abernon, St. John B., Bristol,
Beckley, and some London churches, as St. Alban's, Wood
Street), which was necessary when sermons were interminably
long, — usually an hour in delivery by Sanderson, Stillingfleet,
Tillotson, and Barrow. The hour-glass remains at Wiggen
hall, and one has been recently set up in the Savoy Chapel.
Hours of Our Lady. A devotion instituted by Pope Urban II.
at the Council of Clermont in 1096.
Hovel or Housing. A canopy or niche.
Hospital. (1.) The Greek xenodochion ; the guest-house used
for sick pilgrims. Palladius, Bishop of Heliopolis, mentions
one on the Nitrian mountain. St. Chrysostom budt several
at Constantinople ; in the sixth century one was erected at
Lyons. One existed at Rome in the fifth century, and bore
the ordinary ancient dedication to the Holy Ghrjst. In the
East, priests discharged the office of nosocomi, or prefects
of valetudinarians, in such hospitals. (2.) Hospitium, or
hostry; a monastic guest-house. (3.) A foundation for in
firm people, consisting of a series of small dwellings, ar
ranged round a court, with a had and church, as at St. Cross,
(Winchester) ; or else of apartments opening off a central hall,
which terminates in a chapel, so that the sick could hear
Divine service even in their beds, as at St. Mary's Chi
chester, of the thirteenth and fourteenth century; Angers
and Ponthlieue of the twelfth, Chartres and Tonnerre of the
thirteenth, and Beaune of the fifteenth century. Similar
arrangements may be traced at Wells and Sherborne. (4.)
Maison-Dieu ; a guest-house, usually in a seaside town, for
poor priests travelling and pilgrims; as St. Mary's (Dover),
St. Julian's (Southampton), Holy Trinity (Portsmouth).
There were others at Arundel, Beverley, and Elgin; they
were governed by a master and brethren, or confraters. (5.)
Maladrerie ; a leper hospital, dedicated to St. Lazarus ; so
called at Caen and Lincoln. In 1200, lepers were allowed to
build a church and maintain a priest. (6.) Gallisses ; alms
houses for decayed members of the staple of Calais, at Stam
ford, Oakham, and in Kent.
Humble Access. Prayer of; that said by the priest kneeling
down at the altar before the consecration.

humiliati — hymn. 319
Humiliati. A mixed Italian order, founded in the reign of
the Emperor Henry III. in 1017, or in the time of Barba-
rossa, 1164, by a body of Milanese exiles, on their return
to their country. They wore a tunic, scapular, and white
cloak ; their chief was called a provost, and they adopted the
Benedictine rule in part. In 1571 the order was abolished,
owing to its dissoluteness. Their name was adopted from
the circumstances of their prostration at the feet of the Em
peror.
Hutch. An aumbry, or locker.
Hymn. A sacred chant to the praise of God, according to St.
Augustine and Isidore of Seville ; either a song or metrical
composition in prose; mentioned by St. Paul (Eph. v. 19;
Col. iii. 16) ; the verses Eph. v. 14 and Rev. iv. 8 are sup
posed to represent portions of hymns. A hymn is addressed
to God immediately ; a canticle celebrates His actions. The
Te Deum, Benedicite, Magnificat, Nunc Dimittis, Benedic
tus, Gloria in Excelsis, and Ter Sanctus, are hymns, as dis
tinguished from spiritual songs and metrical odes ; though
the latter are now called by the name of hymn, and the first
five known as canticles. Philo, as recorded by Eusebius,
mentions Christians singing psalms and hymns night and
day. St. Ephraem speaks of their use on festivals, c. 379.
Socrates, about the same date, mentions that it was the uni
versal practice throughout the East; and the Council of
Antioch, in the third century, speaks of such hymns as ad
dressed to Christ as God. Hilary, Bishop of Poictiers,
author of " Lucis largitor optime," and Hierotheus, accord
ing to Dionysius, Synesius, Bishop of Ptolemais in the fourth
_ century, St. Gregory Nazianzen, Paulinus of Nola, and Pru-
dentius, author of " Salvete flores martyrum," sung at Lauds,
were early hymn writers. The most eminent was St. Am
brose, who wrote " Jam lucis orto sidere," " Consors Paterni
luminis," and " Deus Creator omnium," and introduced the
use of hymns in the West, after the manner of the Greek
Church, and not by the choir only. His compositions were
formally recommended for use in France and Spain by the
Fourth Council of Toledo, in 633. Venantius Fortunatus,
Bishop of Poictiers, wrote " Pange lingua gloriosi," and
"Vexilla Regis prodeunt." Pope Gelasius, at the close of
the fifth century, Rabanus Maurus, Archbishop of Mayence,

320 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Pater Damiani, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, Odo of Clugni, St.
Thomas Aquinas, Adam of St. Victor, St. Bernard of Mor-
laix, in the West ; and in the East, St. Anatolius, St. An
drew of Crete, St. Germanus, St. John Damascene, and St.
Cosmas, added to the store of hymns. The " Veni Creator,"
first found in the works of Rabanus Maurus, in the ninth
century, has been attributed to Charlemagne. Paul Warne-
frid, the deacon, in his time, composed the hymn for St.
John's Day, beginning " Ut queant laxis," from the initial
syllables of which Guido of Arezzo composed the Solfeggio
musical system. The employment of hymns was sanctioned
by the Councils of Agde (506) and Tours (567). St. Au
gustine says they were used in nearly all the churches of the
world; but the Councils of Laodicea (372) and Braga (563)
forbade human compositions. St. Hilary of Poictiers alludes
to the disinclination of the Gallican Church to adopt them ;
and years after they were sung at Vienne and Lyons, at
Compline only, and sparingly at Rheims and Langres ; and
Durandus, in the thirteenth century, mentions that in cer
tain churches no hymns were sung. In the sixth century
they were used at Matins and Vespers only, but after that
date at all the Hours. The Greeks use three hymns in the
Liturgy : (1) the Angelic, like the Gloria in Excelsis ; (2)
Trisagion [which see] ; the Triumphant, or Epinikion, like
the Ter Sanctus ; and (3) the Cherubic, of the time of Jus
tinian [which see]. The American Church sings hymns
during the administration. See Te Deum.
Hymnar, or Hymnal. A Church book containing hymns;
one, according to Gennadius, was compiled by Paulinus of
Nola.
Images. (Called in the Greek Church icons, whence the name
of iconostasis for the altar-screen.) God enjoined the mak
ing of cherubim in the Temple (Exod. xxv.). Eusebius
mentions a statue of our Lord, erected by the woman who
was healed (St. Matt. ix. 20). Tertullian speaks of etchings
of the Good Shepherd on glasses, such as are preserved still
in the Vatican; and St. Gregory of Nazianzum, Pope Da
masus, and St. Augustine frequently allude to paintings and
sculptures as common in their time. St. Basil says that by
" the beauty of the image the eyes are raised to the fairer

IMAGES. 321
vision of the archetype;" and St. Gregory of Nyssa de
clared that he never passed the inscriptions of images with
out tears, and regarded them as efficacious in stirring the
heart and elevating it to virtue; whilst Bede calls them
"the Hving history of Divine history;" and Beleth "the
Hterature of the laity." St. Gregory sent pictures of
our Saviour, St. Mary, SS. Peter and Paul, to a French
bishop. Paulinus mentions a picture of St. Martin, in the
baptistery, or place of refreshment; he at Nola, in 460,
adorned the cathedral of St. Felix with wad paintings of the
stories taken out of the Old Testament; and Prudentius,
about the same time, mentions that he saw painted in a
church the history of the Passion of Cassian the Martyr. In
the time of St. Jerome church walls were incrusted with
tablets of marble ; the capitals of the pillars and cielings
were gdded, the doors decked with ivory and silver, and the
altars adorned with gold and precious gems. In 305 the
Council of Elvira forbade pictures in churches, or the por
traiture on walls of any object of adoration or worship, in
order during periods of persecution to secure them from
profanation ; but, from the time of Calixtus, the catacombs
were covered with pictures, because there was no fear of any
desecration. Valens and Theodosius prohibited the use of
the cross ; but Constantine restored the paintings of the
Fathers who sat in the first six councils, in St. Peter's
porch of Santa Sophia. In 752 a Roman Council required
images to be erected in churches ; and at the end of the
sixth, and again in the eighth century, worship of images
was inculcated, a violent change from primitive simplicity,
wherein they were used only as decent ornaments, — " a re
membrance whereby men may be admonished of the holy
lives and conversation of them that they did represent."
In the fourth century the use of images increased until
the eleventh century, so that churches were covered with
mosaic and paintings ; St. Mark's, at Venice, will convey
an idea of this method of decoration ; and traces of frescoes
remain in the Parthenon at Athens. In the catacombs they
were at once attractive and useful in solemnizing the hearts
of those who kept agape. The subjects are always the same
in different branches of art ; a strict uniformity is the evi
dence of a hieratic tradition in the mural painting, the cut-

322 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
ting on glass, the sculpture of the Sarcophagus, and the
mosaic. Wooden figures of saints were probably first intro
duced into churches in the ninth century, when crowns of
gold were nailed on them, and on sacred pictures. In 1274
the Councd of Lyons forbade the practice of veiling altars
in sackcloth, extinguishing lights, and laying relics and
images in places overgrown with thorns, when a church had
been profaned. The II. Council of Nicaaa, in 787, ordered
images and crucifixes, whether painted or in relief, should
be placed in churches, in public streets, in private houses,
and on vessels and vestments. The Council of Trent re
quires the previous approbation of the bishop for the erec
tion of images. The fact is, that the opinions of the early
Christians varied with regard to the use of images, accord
ing to their national character; cultivated Rome, re-creating
pagan temples, feasts, and symbols to a worthy use and a
good signification, as if the treasures of the Gentdes were
the inheritance of the Church, approved what ruder coun
tries like Africa and provinces far distant from the centre of
civilization (like men of a more stern nature), regarded with
no favour, as appears from the writings of Tertullian, St.
Clement of Alexandria, and St. Augustine.
Serenus, Bishop of Marseilles, was blamed by Pope Gre
gory for breaking images in a church, although his zeal in
repressing the adoration of them was deservedly commended.
" In paintings on walls," says Gregory, " they who cannot
read books, can read that which in books they are unable,"
as John Damascene also remarks. Epiphanius, attracted by
a light burning in a church at Anabathla, when about to
enter it, found a curtain -ved before the doors painted with
the image of Christ, or some saint, and desired the church
wardens to remove it because it represented the human
form ; and he gave another ved. But his conduct was also
blamed, as contrary to common practice, the custom of
antiquity, and the edification of the unlearned. The
Trullan Councd, in 692, allowed pictures of our Saviour in
His human form to supersede merely symbolical representa
tions under the figure of a lamb. The supporters of icons
numbered in their ranks all that was pious and venerable in
the Eastern Church ; the iconoclasts were the legitimate de
velopment of Manichseism, which, under various names, de-

IMAGES. 323
vastated Christ's fold. Leo the Isaurian began, in 726, and
the despicable Constantine Copronymus carried on the per
secution; and the Council of Constantinople, in 752, rejected
the use of images. The Second Councd of Nicsea, in 787,
seemed to end the opposition ; yet it broke out again when
Leo III., the Armenian (813), forbade the images of saint,
martyr, or angel in churches ; but the feud died out in 842,
with Theophilus. Sabinus, king of Bulgaria, provoked a
rebellion by an attempt to abolish images. In consequence
of the iconoclast movement, great numbers of artists emi
grated from Greece to Rome ; Gregory II. opened asylums
to them ; convents were erected for the fugitives from the
East ; and in the ninth century, under Paschal I., this foreign
school produced the pictures of the Madonna, now dark with
age, and the famous Volto Santo.
In 1547, " such images as had been abused with pilgrimage
or offering made," and " been censed unto," were to be taken
down and destroyed; and no torches, candles, tapers, or
images of wax," were " to be set before any image or pic
tures ;" and " kissing, licking, and decking" of images were
forbidden. Grindal distinguishes "fat images" from pic
tures, as being solid. The image of St. Mary, of Penrice,
near Swansea, had been greatly frequented. In 1539 the
image of St. Mary, called " the Block," of Walsingham, was
burned at Chelsea. Other famous images were those of
our Lady of Ipswich, Doncaster, and Wfllesden, where the
people " made rolls of half an hour long, to pray after that
manner" of invocation. Bishop Latimer, in " the Western
part," threw out an image which the inhabitants of the
country believed eight oxen could not move. The image of
Our Lady, of Worcester, was found to be a bishop's effigy.
The rood of grace, of Boxley, was shown to be an automa
ton, by Bishop Hilsey, at Paul's Cross ; by means of cords
it rolled its eyes, opened its mouth, and nodded its head
approvingly, or in dissent. Another vile imposture was
practised by R. Leigh, who, by means of a sponge, made
the head of a marble rood bleed, at Christchurch, Dublin,
when the English Litany was sung for the first, time. Arch
bishop Hugh destroyed it in 1559.
There is an enormous altar-piece, of the fifteenth century,
painted in tempera upon panel, and brought from Valencia, in
y 2

324 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the South Kensington Museum. At Winchester ' the hooks
remain above the base arcade on which the superb suits of
tapestry, embroidered with stories of Holy Writ, were hung
on solemn occasions. There are at Chichester remarkable
wall-paintings by Bernardi for Bishop Sherborne; and at
Exeter, in the panels of the screen, thirteen oil paintings of
the time of Charles I. ; and some figures in distemper, by
Damian (1728), at Lincoln. Altar-pieces are far from un
common in English churches.
Immersion, not affusion, was used by the Apostles and dis
ciples of our Lord (St. John iii. 23; Acts vHi. 38); and
various passages of Scriptures are applicable only to this
form (Rom. vi. 3, 4; Col. H. 4). Affusion, or sprinkling,
was introduced (Grotius says) for the sake of those who were
baptized as clinics, bedridden, or at the point of death, but
more probably out of consideration to infants, about 875,
when adult baptism became rare. St. Chrysostom, com
menting on our Lord's command, says, " The Lord, setting
as it were a seal on all mysteries in three immersions in
water, gave one Baptism to His disciples ;" and Tertulhan
says, "We receive the water, not once but thrice at each
name;" and Pope Gregory I. observes, that "by thrice
dipping, the mystery of Christ's lying three days in the
grave is signified." His ' Sacramentary' prescribes trine
immersion, but in consequence of a misinterpretation and
abuse of the ceremony by the Arians, the matter was re
ferred to him by the Spanish bishops, and he decided that
single immersion was valid, as representing the unity,
whilst trine immersion symbolized the Trinity of the God
head ; and this view was embodied in the fifth canon of the
Fourth Council of Toledo, in 633. St. Basil, St. Jerome,
St. Augustine, and St. Ambrose consider trine immersion
to be an Apostolical tradition ; and St. Cyril of Jerusalem,
St. Gregory of Nyssa, St. Athanasius, and Leo the Great,
interpret it as symbolical of the death, resurrection, and
ascension of our Lord. Trine immersion was observed by
the Greeks in the eighth century.
Beleth says the child was immersed with its face to the
water and the head to the east, and then with its face up
wards and the head towards the north and the south, at
each dipping one person of the Holy Trinity being named ;

IMPOST  INCENSE. 325
and at the anointing a chrismal, a round mitre symbohzing
the crown of life, or a white robe was set about the child.
The practice of immersion of the whole body, though
dying out in the time of Pope Gregory, was retained until
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries ; indeed, it has never
been abandoned. By the present rubric, adults are to be
dipped in the water, or to have water poured over them ;
and in the case of infants, " if the godfathers and godmothers
shad certify the priest that the child may well endure it, he
shall dip it in the water discreetly and warily ; if they shall
certify the child is weak, it shall suffice to pour water upon
it." Possibly immersion was graduaUy discontinued owing to
the ancient custom of baptizing persons wholly undressed,
to add significancy to the rite, as we find from the writings
of St. Athanasius, St. Chrysostom, St. Ambrose, and Denys
the Areopagite. It represented the state of Adam before
the Fall, and of Christ on the cross, and the laying aside
of the garment spotted by the flesh, and that naked we must
enter the Kingdom of Heaven. The old Ordo Romanus
alludes to the practice which was followed by Constantine,
as Metaphrastes relates ; by St. Basil, by Apronianus when
baptized in the prison, by Sisinius the deacon, by Tranqud-
linus when infirm, by St. Polycarp, and other persons men
tioned by Surius. About the year 1140 the custom was laid
aside in the Western Church. Men were placed on the right,
and women on the left-hand of the font.
By the Rubric of 1549, the priest naming the child dipped
it in the water thrice, first dipping the right side, secondly
the left side, and the third time dipping the face towards the
font. In 1552 a single immersion was prescribed.
Impost. The moulding on the top of a pillar from which an
arch springs.
Impropriations. Benefices appropriated by monks or regular
canons, and served by some of their own body, but at length,
through the influence of the bishops, by secular priests.
Henry VEIL distributed these livings to bishops, cathedral
chapters, colleges, and laymen.
Incense (Mal. i. 2.) was used in processions in the time of
Justin the younger, and St. Gregory of Tours ; in censing the
altar, to represent prayers offered to God; in censing the

326 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
persons of the clergy and people, to remind them that they
should be a sweet savour of Christ (Eph. v. 2 ; 2 Cor. ii.
15) ; and even with the dead, in memory of the spices with
which the bodies of the faithful were interred, as in the case
of our Lord (St. John xix. 39). Bona questions the opinion
that Leo I., c. 440, enjoined its use at the altar on solemn
feasts ; it has been also referred to the year 745 or 876. In
the magnificent mosaic of the Church of the Nativity, Beth
lehem, on one side of the altar is a candlestick with a lighted
taper, and on the other a censer, both on the ground.
Incense was no doubt employed, like the lights, in the
catacombs, to dispel damp and noisome smell; but it is
mentioned during Divine Service by the Council of Chalce-
don, the liturgies of St. Peter, St. James, St. Chrysostom,
and St. Basil; the Apostolical Canons, Hippolytus Martyr,
St. Ephraem, St. Ambrose, Evagrius, Damasus, in the lives
of Soter and Constantine the Great, and Germanus, patriarch
of Constantinople. It mystically represented, (1) contri
tion (Eccles. xlv.) ; (2) the preaching of the Gospel (2 Cor.
ii. 14) ; (3) the prayers of the faithful (Ps. cxli. 2 ; Rev. v.
8-24) ; (4) and the virtue of saints (Song of Songs in. 6).
St. Augustine explains the golden censer of the Revelations
to mean the humanity of Christ; and the patriarch Ger
manus adds, the fire, His Divinity ; and the fragrance, the
sweet savour of the Spirit. It was the deacon's office to
incense. The Cistercians used incense only on festivals,
whdst the Benedictines and Clugniacs employed it on most
occasions. In England and Wales incense-cups of earthen
ware, with incised ornaments, and apparently adapted for
suspension over the sepulchral flame, are not unfrequently
found within the cinerary urns of a remote antiquity. Bishop
Andrewes, Archbishop Laud, and George Herbert used in
cense, which was a common article of purchase in the church
wardens' accounts of the period. It was burned at the
coronation of George III. ; and in a standing censer, at
Ely Cathedral, before the altar, about one hundred years
ago.
Inclination (Prayer of). (1.) In the Greek Liturgy, that said
immediately before the Communion of the people, and cor
responding to the English prayer of humble access. (2.)
Bowiug at the Gloria Patri and the name of Jesus, which

INCLUSE  INDULGENCES. 327
was ordered by the Archbishop of Dublin in the fourteenth
century.
Incluse. (See Anchoret.) By English Canons of 1236 no one
could become an Incluse without the bishop's permission.
Those in holy orders celebrated low Masses, and the lay folk
assisted in cleaning the church plate and furniture.
Indelible Character. The spiritual sign stamped on the soul
which distinguishes clerks in the greater orders from lay
men, so defined in the Council of Florence, 1439. St. Ire-
nasus calls it " the certain gift of truth," and St. Augustine
" the sacrament of his ordination."
Indiction. A chronological system, including a circle of
fifteen years : (1) the Cassarean, used long in France and
Germany, beginning on September 24 ; (2) Constantinopoli-
tan, used in the East from the time of Anastasius, and be
ginning September 1 ; and (3) Papal, reckoned from Janu
ary 1, 313. The Council of Antioch, 341, first gives a docu
mentary date, the fourteenth indiction. The computation
prevailed in Syria in the fifth century, and is mentioned by
St. Ambrose as existing at Rome. It is, however, asserted
that in the West, the East, and Egypt, with the exception of
Africa, the indictions, until the sixteenth century, were
reckoned from September 1, 312, and that they commenced
in Egypt in the time of Constantine.
Induction after Institution. The admission of a clerk to a
benefice by the bishop or his delegate, is performed
by the person named in the episcopal mandate or arch
deacon's warrant. He takes the presentee to the church
and laying his hand on the church key, which is then in the
door, and saying, " By virtue of this instrument (the mandate
or warrant), I induct you into the real, actual, and corporal
possession of the rectory or vicarage of  , with all its
fruits, profits, members, and appurtenances." The clerk is
then passed through the open door and tolls a bell. If the
key cannot be had, the ring of the door will suffice, and if
the church be in ruins, the wall or fence may be touched.
At St. Alban's the new abbot touched the bell-ropes to
signify his power, and then all the bells were rung.
Indulgences. Remissions of temporal punishment due to
actual sins, made without sacramental means, and dispensed
from the treasury of the Roman Church to persons not in

328 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
mortal sin. They are given for so many days or years as it
would have taken penance to last in order to exhaust the
penalty, some days occasionally being supposed to be ob
served strictly.
In the early ages penitents used to obtain reconciliation by
obtaining the " peace," on intercession of a martyr in prison
being made to the bishop on the offender's behalf. Tertul-
¦ Han and Cyprian both allude to the practice. The Councds
of Nicssa, Ancyra, and Laodicea, and the Caroline Constitu
tions permitted relaxations of penance by the bishop. The
paschal indulgence regulated the stations of penitents ; and
from these practices rose up the later system of indulgences.
The first mention of the word is in the sixth century by
Gregory the Great, when granting indulgence to those who
should visit the stations of Rome. In the eighth century
Pope Leo granted indulgences to churches in Germany and
France. In 884 Pope Sergius granted an indulgence of
three years and three-quarters, to all who visited St. Martin -
at-Mount, in Rome, on Martinmas. In 1116 Pope Urban
gave plenary indulgence, in the Councd of Clermont, to aU
who took the cross. In 1213 Innocent III. renewed the
grant. Martin V. gave another in the Councd of Constance.
The wholesale auction of indulgences by Tetzel, in 1517, was
the active cause of the Reformation in Germany. Accord
ing to the Stacyons of Rome of the fourteenth century, at
the anniversary of the dedication of St. Peter's, an indul
gence of three thousand years was given to citizens, of nine
thousand to neighbours, and of twelve thousand to pilgrims
from beyond sea. Indulgences, written on parchment and
sealed with lead, were found in St. Paul's Churchyard during
the demolition of buildings made by the Duke of Somerset
to provide materials for his palace in the Strand. One of
lead is preserved at Chichester, of the twelfth century, and
another, of later date, at St. Omer. See Burials.
Infant Baptism (St. Matt. xix. 13, 14; Rom. ii. 29) in the
sixth century was general ; and from the third to the fifth
century, and until after the time of Charlemagne, infant
communion was permitted. " Mother Church," says St.
Augustine, " lendeth to infants the feet of others to come,
the heart of others to believe, and the tongue of others to
confess."

INFIRMARER — INSTALLATION. 329
Infirmarer. He had the care of the sick -house, in which Lent
and fasts were not observed, had charge of the burial of
the dead, provided physicians and attendance, and flesh
meat.
Infirmary. The Benedictine sick-house usuady consisted of a
small cloister, as at Westminster, Gloucester, and Canter
bury, a kitchen, a bath-house, and a had with aisles to con
tain beds, and opening at its eastern end into a chapel. At
Canterbury, Ely, and Peterborough considerable portions,
and at Buildwas and Norwich fragments exist. The infir-
marer's house adjoined it, and remains at Westminster and
Ely. At CarHsle and Bristol it lay in a second court south
ward of the refectory. At times, as at Durham and Wor
cester, it fronted a river. In the infirmary chapel the body
of the dead monk was laid, on a stone slab, before the cross,
and watched by two of his nearest friends. It was then
taken into the chapter-house, and so to the cemetery. The
infirm among the Cistercians were required to attend
church.
Inquisition, or Holy Office. A criminal spiritual court for the
repression of false doctrine, first appointed in the south of
France in the thirteenth century, and about the middle of
that period in Spain. In 1484 the Supreme General Inqui
sition was established at Seville, under the control of the
Dominicans. The Spanish Inquisition was abolished by the
Cortes in 1820, and at the same date that of Portugal, esta
blished in 1557. At Rome an inquisition, appointed in
1542, takes cognizance of ecclesiastical dehhquents in mat
ters of disobedience, heresy, sorcery, and sacrilege. The
standard of the Inquisition was red, with a cross, having a
sword on one side, and on the other a palm branch, and the
legend (Ps. lxxiv. 23).
Installation. The induction of a canon into his stall in choir
and chapter. In the old foundations the order was for the
nominee of the bishop to present himself in the chapter
house, where the mandate of the bishop was read out by the
chapter- clerk, and the oaths of fealty administered. Then
the dean gave permission for his installation, which is per
formed by the dean or residentiary at Chichester, two
canons at Exeter, dean or subdean at Wells, by the dean,
subdean, or subdean's deputy at Lincoln, by two vicars-

330 sacred archeology.
choral at Salisbury, and by the precentor or succentor at
Lichfield, — leading him by the hand to his stall in choir.
At the end of the service the new dignitary or prebendary
is led again to the chapter-house, where he is assigned his
place, with the right of a voice according to his dignity or
the seniority of his prebend. The old form was to say to
the installed, " God preserve thy going out and thy coming
in, now and for ever." The actual admission is made by the
delivery of the text or book of the Gospel, or the statutes,
" the form of regular observance," for spiritual food ; and a
loaf of common or canonical bread, for bodily refreshment.
At Lincoln and St. Paul's he was directed to note the Psalm
which he was to recite daily for benefactors, the title or anti
phon being written above his stall (Ps. cxxxHi.), except at
Hereford, where the Miserere was always sung after the in
vestiture ; and a bond to pay staU-wages to his vicar was
signed, and certain suffrages and prayers used. These cus
toms, in the main, are still observed. At St. Paul's, when
a prebend was changed, a new installation took place ; and on
promotion to a dignity, the dean led up the canon to the
upper stall, .saying, " Friend, go up higher." See Cope.
The installation in cathedrals of the new foundation is very
meagre. The institution takes place in the bishop's palace.
The dean or canon robes in the vestry and, attended by the
verger, mandate in hand, is installed — if a canon, by the
dean ; if the dean, by the vice-dean or residentiary — after the
second lessons, the mandate being first read and the statut
able oath administered.
Intercessor, or Interventor. A bishop in Africa who occu
pied a see in its vacancy as administrator of the diocese,
and the delegate of the primate ; owing to grave abuses
which ensued, such as candidature for the bishopric if of
superior value, unworthy concessions, or protracting the
election of a new prelate, in 401 a Council of Carthage for
bade the tenure to exceed one year, and also succession to
the temporary occupant.
Interdict. An ecclesiastical censure by which sacraments,
services, and religious rites at funerals were forbidden. In
the ninth century a bishop of Laon laid an interdict on one
of his parishes. In 1170 Pope Alexander III., and Pope In
nocent in 1207, put all England under an interdict. Divine

INTERNAL DIGNITARIES — INVENTION OF THE HOLY CROSS. 331
service was not held in church, the viaticum and ecclesiastical
burial were forbidden ; eulogia only were administered ; old
chrism alone was used ; infants were baptized in the presence
of their sponsors alone ; but confessions were received,
and dying penitents absolved ; sermons were preached and
women churched in the yard. On the principal festivals of
the Church the faithful were allowed to pray without. In
a quarrel with the king, Bishop Ralph of Chichester barred
the cathedral doors with thorns.
Internal Dignitaries. The dean, precentor, chancellor and
treasurer in cathedrals of the old foundation.
Introits. Pope Celestine, c. 430, ordered the psalter to be sung
before the communion antiphonally, which was a new order,
as the epistles of St. Paul and the holy Gospel hitherto only
had been recited. For about 500 years the Psalm xliii. has
been used, the antiphon being verse 4, " I will go unto the
altar of God, my exceeding joy." It is an antiphon sung by
the choir as the priest goes up to the altar to celebrate. St.
Ambrose calls it the ingressa, and it is the commencement
of the office which terminates at the prayer after the lesson.
The Introit, or entry, is so named in distinction to the verse,
by which the return is made to the Introit. The Introit is
of two kinds, (1) regular, that sung daily ; (2) the irregular,
which is chanted on festivals. It should be of grand and
solemn character. In a great church there was a procession
round the nave to the sound of bells and with incense, pass
ing out by the small gate of the sanctuary and re-entering
by the great doors. The deacon then went up with the
Gospel elevated in both his hands and set it on the midst of
the altar, so as to be seen by the people. Then followed the
Introit, composed of several anthems, succeeded by prayers
and the Trisagion. The priest and deacon intoned it, the choir
and people took it up, and a candlestick with three lights, as
a symbol of the Holy Trinity, was lighted. The hymn itself,
according to Symeon of Thessalonica, typifies the union of
men and angels. The priest at the same time made three
signs of the cross over the Gospels with the taper which he
held.
Invention of the Holy Cross. A festival on May 3rd, first
mentioned in the ' Sacramentary ' and ' Antiphonar ' of Pope
Gregory. Some refer its introduction in the Latin Church to

332 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
a date later than 720, and stfll more recent by the Greeks.
In the year 326, according to St. Ambrose, Sozomen, Theo-
doret, and St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Queen Helena discovered
the Cross of Calvary at Jerusalem. She placed a large
portion in the Church of Holy Cross at Rome, on September
14th, hence called the Exaltation of Holy Cross mentioned by
St. Chrysostom. The Friars Cross-bearers, who always car
ried a cross in their hands, settled at Colchester in 1244.
Their founder is not known. They wore blue, and kept the
Austin rule.
Invitatories. Short texts interpolated between the verses of
the Psalm, Venite Exultemus Domino, which indicate the
subject of the office to which they invite thought. In the
sixth century the Invitatory at Matins was called the Anthem,
in St. Benedict's rule and the Roman Order. At Lyons, at
Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost, the choir sang Venite
Popuh as an invitatory to the clergy and people to commu
nicate after the Agnus Dei, as on those festivals the faith
ful were required to communicate by the Councils of Agde,
Elvira, and III. Tours under Charlemagne. At Milan this
Anthem inviting to the Eucharist was called the Transi-
torium. At Lyons, the three contiguous churches assembled
the people with the same beds, and at the same hours ; St.
Stephen's commenced Matins when they were singing in the
cathedral of St. John ' To-day we wdl hear His Voice,' and
when at St. Stephen's that verse was being sung, morning
service began in St. Cross; so that a canon, if he arrived late at
the cathedral, could go to one of the other churches and not lose
his quotidian. At Vienna on Holy Thursday, after Nones, the
archbishop in albe, amice, stole, and sdk cope, and with his
cross, went to the west door of the cathedral and preached to
the penitents, and at the end of his sermon he said three times,
" Venite filii," the archdeacon added " Accedite," whereupon
they all entered the church. The Psalm Venite in the Sa-
rum use is called the Quadruple Invitatory when sung on
principal doubles by four cantors and choir in alternate
verses; the Triple Invitatory when alternated by three
cantors on the other doubles ; and the Simple Invitatory
when sung between the precentor and the choir. The
Double was sung on simple feasts by two cantors, or by the
precentor and two cantors. In the Roman use, on double

Jacob's ladder — John's, st., day. 333
feasts, the antiphon to the Psalms is doubled at Matins,
Lauds, and both Vespers. »'
Jacob's Ladder. The vision of Jacob in the wilderness, pour-
trayed in stone on the west front of Bath Abbey.
Jamb. The side of a window or door.
Jesse, Tree of. The emblematical representation of the gene -
alogy of Christ, with a tree growing out of Jesse who lies
asleep, on the leaves and branches of which are his descend
ants, in allusion to Is. xi. 1-10. There is a Jesse in the
windows at Winchester College, Rouen, Chartres, St. Cuth
bert's at Wells, and in St. George's, Hanover Square, Lon
don ; in the mudions of the east window of Dorchester,
Oxon, and on the reredos of Christchurch, Hants. In the
eleventh century the Abbot of St. Augustine, Canterbury,
presented to the church a Jesse candlestick of brass which
was bought beyond seas.
Jesuits. An order founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1540, con
firmed by Paul III. Their superior is called a general, and
his subalterns are called provincials. One of their most dis
tinguished members was Francis Xavier. The order has
been suppressed in most countries.
John's, St., Day. The nativity of St. John the Baptist, June
24th (in the Greek Church, January 7th), was commemorated
as early as the fourth century, and St. Augustine comments
upon the peculiarity of observing his birthday rather than his
martyrdom. This, under the name of the Decollation, was
subsequently kept on August 20th. At Magdalen College,
Oxford, an open-air pulpit was used on this day, and at
Winchester College, in 1407, the pulpit was surrounded with
boughs and green candles, as a memorial of the preacher in
the wdderness. In Ireland, as formerly in the North of
England, at night enormous bonfires are lighted on the eve.
The Greeks represent the Baptist winged, in allusion to St.
Mark i. 2. In France wheels were rolled in allusion to the
sun's declination, bones of animals burned to purify the air,
and torches carried in aHusion to St. John v. 35. St. John
the Evangelist's Day, December 27th, is first mentioned by
Venerable Bede. In 1240 the Council of Lyons directed its
perpetual observance. On this evening the boy-bishop was
elected, and in France it was called the Feast of Sousdiacres
(subdeacons), a pun on souls diacres, drunken deacons.

334 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Journal or Diurnal. (1 .) An ancient name of the Day Hours con
tained in the Breviary. (2.) A diary of daily expenses in a
monastery.
Jubilee. A time of indulgence in which all confessors, with
the approval of the ordinary, may absolve in all reserved
cases from all censures, greater excommunications, suspen
sions from offices and benefices, and interdicts, and can com
mute vows, except those of religion, perpetual chastity, or
pilgrimages to Rome, Jerusalem, or Composteda. Boniface
VIII. instituted a centenary jubilee in 1300, but some
authors insist that it- was a revival of the old custom for
persons to visit Rome every hundred years. Clement VI.
when at Avignon reduced the period to every fiftieth year,
owing to the brevity of human life, and for mystical reasons,
in allusion to the Mosaic jubilee (Lev. xxv. 9), and to Pente
cost. Urban VI. , in 1389, enjoined the jubilee to be held
every thirty -third year. Nicholas V., in 1449, renewed the
former tenure of every fiftieth year. Paul II. reduced the
term to every quarter of a century, which was observed by his
successors as late as 1625. Jubilees have been held in 1300,
1350, 1390, 1450, 1473, 1500, 1525, 1550, 1575, 1600, 1625,
1650, 1675, 1700, 1725, 1750, 1776, 1826. The jubilee was
announced beforehand, on Ascension Day, by the auditor of
the Rota. On the recurrence of the jubilee at Christmas
Eve the Holy Door of the Station was opened by the Pontiff,
after three blows of a mallet, announcing jubilee to the three
known quarters of the world, and joy in heaven and earth
and purgatory. The anthem, Aperite Portas, and the Te
Deum were sung, whilst four deputies opened the doors of
the other churches. Boniface VIII. required the four great
basilicas of Rome to be visited, and in consequence each had
its own holy door. Boniface appointed the following sta
tions : — St. Peter and St. Paul's without. Clement VI. added
St. John Lateran; and Urban VI., Sixtus IV., or Gregory
XL, St. Mary Major. In 1300 Charles de Valois, and Charles
Martel, King of Hungary; in 1475 Ferdinand, King of
Naples, Christian I. of Denmark, and the Queens of Cyprus
and Bosnia; and in 1573 Tasso and St. Charles Borromeo,
attended the jubilee. In 1550 the numbers of pilgrims were
estimated at 1,200,000, but at the close of the century the
Popes dispensed with personal attendance on condition that

JUDAS LIGHT — KISS OF PEACE. 335
the pilgrims visited stations in their own countries appointed
by the ordinary. Magnificent processions, with a represen
tation of the triumph of the Church, in 1575, and in 1600 of
the mysteries of the Old Testament, attracted vast crowds,
fifty thousand persons of both sexes on the latter occasion
following the procession alone. See Stations,
Judas- Light or Judas of the Paschal. A wooden imitation
of the candle which held the real paschal in the seventh
branch which stood upright, the rest diverging on either
side. The Judas cup was a mazer used at Durham on the
night of Maundy Thursday.
Jugulum or Transenna. A smad grated window of marble
in the Confession, through which palls or brandea were
passed, being first carefully weighed, then, after an interval
spent in prayer and fasting by the suppliant, withdrawn from
the tomb, in the belief that the divine favour was infallibly
signified by the increased heaviness of the garment left in
contact with the tomb of a saint. (Judges vi. 38.)
Keys of gold or some rich metal, of small size, and containing
the dust of iron filings from the chains of St. Peter and St.
Paul, preserved in the remains of the Mamertine prison, now
called the Confession, under the Church of St. Joseph at
Rome, were formerly sent from Rome to favoured princes
since the time of St. Gregory the Great. Pope Vitalian sent
a gold relic-key of this kind to the Consort of King Oswy
of Northumbria in 667. St. Peter's keys represent his
power in heaven, earth, and hell. The crossed keys (the
Papal arms) are more usual, one of gold for the power of
absolution, and the other of sdver as the sign of excommu
nication.
King Post. The middle part of a roof between the beam and
the ridge.
Kiss of Peace. A salutation of charity in the primitive Church
frequently alluded to by St. Paul (Rom. xvi. 16 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 20 ;
2 Cor. xiii. 12 ; 1 Thes. v. 6) as a token of love, perfect peace,
brotherhood, and unity in faith and religion, offered at holy
communion, baptism, and marriage, with the words " Pax
tecum," peace to thee. In the East, after the recitation of the
collect and Creed, the deacon, at the time of the oblation,
(St. Matt. v. 24) proclaimed, " Kiss ye one another with a

336

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

holy kiss," and then the clerks gave the holy kiss to the.
bishop, and among the lay people men to. men, and women
to women. In the West it was given after the consecration,
and the Lord's Prayer, and is mentioned by Tertullian as the
seal of prayer, and by St. Augustine, and Cesarius of Aries.
The kiss of baptism is alluded to by St. Cyprian and St. Chry
sostom. The Greek Church has retained the marriage kiss,
which is spoken of by Tertullian, but the West has long
abandoned it. The kiss called Phdema by St. Paul, and
Eirene by the Councd of Laodicea, was omitted at private
Masses, on Good Friday, and by persons fasting ; because
Judas betrayed our Lord with a kiss, and in order to dis
countenance ostentation of fasting. Charlemagne, King
Pepin, and the Emperor Frederic kissed the feet of Popes ;
and, according to the Papal ceremonial, the emperor elect
kissed the Pope's feet in reverence for our Saviour, and so
did the empress. The Papal sandal being embroidered with
a cross, on Palm Sunday patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops
assisting at the throne kissed the Pope's right knee, and
mitred abbots his foot, at the reception of the palm. See
OSCULATORY.
Kitchen. Invariably adjoined the Refectory, behind it in
Benedictine houses, and on the side usually in Cistercian
arrangements. The ordinary shape was square, but there
were exceptions : thus a bottle-form was adopted at Mar-
moutier, a round at Chartres, Villers, Saumur, and
Vendome, an octagon at Pontlevoy, Caen, Durham,
Glastonbury, and with little apses at Fontevrault. At
Westminster there was a vaulted way to the hall; at Can
terbury a covered alley ; but in the smaller orders a hatch or
window formed the means of communication. There was
also a kitchen for the infirmary, and the abbot had his own
kitchen.
Kitchener. The marketer and purveyor who bought the pro
visions for kitchen use, and was overseer of the cooks, butch
ery, and fishponds. He visited the sick every morning, and
saw that the broken meat was reserved for the poor.
Kneelers. (Gonuklinontes, genuflectentes.) The third class of
penitents, who knelt in the nave near the ambon or lectern,
attended the prayers, and received the benediction and im
position of hands from the bishop.

KNIFE— KNIGHTS. 337
Knife. One with a box- wood handle, which belonged to Thomas
a Becket, and was used for cutting the Eulogise, is preserved
at St. Andrew's, Vercelli. The holy loaf, out of which they
were cut, was ordered to be provided by the parish by the
Salisbury Constitution of 1254. King Athelstan left his
knife on the altar of Beverley, as a pledge for his redemption
of a vow of benefaction.
Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, or Hospitallers. Consti-
- tuted by King Baldwyn and Pope Honorius II. under the
Austin rule, who occupied St. John's Hospital for Pilgrims
at Jerusalem, to the capture of which, in 1099, they had
materially contributed. They wore a red belt with a white
cross, and a black cloak with a white cross of eight points
on the left side ; but the colour was sometimes black in
peace-time and red in war. Their chiefs were caUed provosts,
masters, and at length priors. The knights were required
to be of eighteen years of age, of noble or lawful birth, to
say the Lord's Prayer a certain number of times daily, to
communicate three times a year, to abstain from commerce
and trade, to make no heirs, to be gentle to the poor, and
repress heathendom. There were three classes in the order :
(1) priests and chaplains; (2) knights; and (3) servants.
Adrian IV. made them exempt from the Patriarch of Jeru
salem, and Alexander III. freed the Cistercians and Tem
plars from payment of tithes to the diocesan, and they were
allowed to celebrate in a general interdict. About 1300,
being driven out of Palestine, they became Knights of
Rhodes, where they established eight Languages under great
officers. The grand commander, the treasurer, storekeeper,
comptroller, and master of the ordnance were of Provence ;
the grand marshal, the commander-in-chief, came from
Auvergne ; the grand hospitaUer was of France ; the admiral,
of Italy ; the draper or grand conservator, who attended to
the commissariat and clothing department, of Arragon ; the
turcopolier, the chief of the light cavalry, outposts, and adju
tant-general, of England; the grand badiff, of Germ any, includ
ing Bohemia, Croatia, Hungary, and Dalmatia ; and the grand
chancedor, of Castile. The priors presided over the com-
manderies. In 1523 the Turks drove them from Rhodes,
and in 1529 they became masters and Knights of Malta
under a grand master, who, Hke the electors of the empire,

33S SACRED ARCHEOLOGT.
were stvled His Eminence. Savoy, in acknowledgment of
services rendered by the order, adopted its arms, — gules, a
cross argent. The last prior of England who caded himself
first baron of the kingdom and was mitred, ranking after the
abbots of Tewkesbury and Tavistock, died in 1 539, followed
by the last turcopolier in 1551. Their gate-house and the
crypt of their church remain at Clerkenwell.
Knights Templars. An order of knights instituted in the year
1118, when Hugo Paynel, Geoffrey de St. Omer, and seven
other Franks undertook to reside at Jerusalem and defend
the pilgrims from interruption on their war. King Baldwin
gave them a home near his own palace, and adjoining the
Temple and its southern gate, whence their name of Tem
plars. The canons and .patriarch contributed to their main
tenance and endowment. Calixtus Lt. in the Councd of
Rheims, 1119, or Gelasius H. made them exempt from the
patriarch. Their dress was a white cloak, given to them by
Honorius HI. in 1128. To it Eugenius, in 1146, added a
red cross, in token that they should be ready to die for
Christ. They ransomed those who were taken by the ene
my by a sword and belt only. They were suppressed by
Pope John XXII. after the Council of Vienne, in 1312, on
the most horrible charges. Their nine thousand houses and
their lands, except in Portugal, Spain, and Castde, where
they would do service against the Moors, were given to the
hospitallers and Teutonic knights. In England the king
allowed every member 4c7. a day; many were quartered on
the monasteries, and others were supported on the proceeds
of their confiscated lands. In France their pay varied from
bd. to 12i7. of the Paris mint. Their chief was called the
Grand Master. Their preceptories were often called temple-
houses. Their churches had a round nave, in honour of the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and four remain,
— Little Maplestead, St. Mary's (London), and the Holy
Septdchre at Northampton and Cambridge.
The knights of Mountjoye, under the rule of St. Basd,
founded in 1130, and the knights Teutonic or Marianis,
under the Austin rule, founded in 1195, defended pdgrims
to Jerusalem. The knights of Compostella, founded in the
twelfth century, under the Austin rule, protected those visit
ing the shrine of St. James. The Knights of Christ in the

KNOTS  KYRIE ELEISON. 339
fourteenth century, under the Benedictine rule, in Portugal ;
those of St. George, founded in 1 170, under the Austin rule,
in Bohemia and Hungary; and the knights of Mountjoye
and Calatrava in Spain, — defended the frontiers against the
Saracens.
Knots. (1.) Trinity knots and St. Katharine's knots and other
knots were distinctive badges of guilds. (2.) A boss in a
vault.
Kyrie Eleison. Lord have mercy upon us (Is. xxxiii. 2 ; St.
Matt. xx. 30; xv. 22; St. Luke xvii. 13). Called by St.
Benedict a minor or lesser litany, and probably meant by
SS. Cyprian, Chrysostom, and Augustine when they mention
litanies. The supplication, now lifted heavenward by divine
music in such strains of adoring rapture, was at first used
for catechumens and penitents, the spiritually blind and
lepers, as appears by the Apostolical Constitutions, when the
deacons and people alternately recited them. The name is
used in the Liturgies of SS. Basil, James, and Chrysostom.
The introduction of this Greek form into the Latin service
has been attributed to Pope Sylvester, c. 320, or Gregory
the Great, in the seventh century ; but it is earlier than his
time, as it is mentioned by the Second Council of Vaison, in
529, as in use throughout eastern Italy, and directed to be
used at Matins, Vespers, and Masses. The influence of the
Eastern Church on the Western terminology may be traced
in this form and iu the words pasch, pentecost, parasceve,
bishop, priest, deacon, acolyth, epiphany, litany, anthem,
k, hymn, and trisagion, and also in the adoption of the Jewish
words, hosanna and alleluia, — the latter so sacred, as St.
Augustine says, that the Church scrupled to translate it, and
so reverend that St. John heard it sung in heaven. At first the
celebrant repeated the Kyrie as often as devotion suggested.
From the time of Pope Gregory, the Pope, when he cele
brated, gave the signal for it to cease. The Council of
Vaison, 529, sanctioned its repetition in divine service. In
the eleventh century it was sung nine times. In the En
glish Litany it is repeated alternately by the priest and choir ;
at other times the central petition is only recited by the
latter. The triple invocation is dedicated to one Person of
the Godhead, to show the unity of the Divine Trinity. The
Ambrosian rite recites it three times after the Gloria in

340 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Excelsis, and the Gospel, and at the end of the Mass. The
kyrie usually designates the passage as chanted at the com
mencement of the Mass, and in the English Church the
responses sung' after each of the Ten Commandments. It
was the watchword given by King Henry, in 934, at a
battle in Hungary, and soldiers in the Rhine country are
recorded to have marched to battle shouting the Kyrie
Eleison.
Labarum. Constantine having seen at midday a cross of light
in the heavens ordered the first artists of the time to make
an imitation of it, which resulted in a gilt pole with a trans
verse beam, surmounted with a leafy crown of gold and
gems, engraved with the sacred monogram of Christ. From
the arms drooped a banner of purple tissue, studded with
jewels and superbly embroidered with gold, and the heads
of the emperor and his sons. Fifty draconarii, or dragoons,
so called from the guard of the military standard of Rome,
guarded it when it led the army to battle. It was repre
sented on the imperial coinage, and was preserved at Con
stantinople until the ninth century. Eusebius describes the
inspiring effect it produced on the Christian soldiers at the
battle of Adrianople, " where the cross went before, victory
followed."
Label. A square-headed or straight hood-mould.
Labyrinth. At St. Bertin's in St. Omer there was one of
those curious floors, representing the Temple of Jerusalem,
with stations for pilgrims, and actually visited and traversed
by them as a compromise for not going to the Holy Land in
fulfilment of a vow. The labyrinth at Sens was destroyed in
1768; those of Arras and Amiens shared the same fate
in 1825. There is a round labyrinth in the centre of the nave
of Chartres, inlaid with lead ; another, of encaustic tiles, in
the chapter-house of Bayeux; and a third, of octagonal
shape, in the nave of St. Quentin.
Lady Chapel. The earliest lady chapel in England was that
in the western apse of Canterbury, but removed to the north
nave aisle by Lanfranc ; that of St. Alban's, in the Norman
period, was on the east side of the south arm, and also later
at Worksop. About the close of the twelfth, or rather the
beginning of the thirteenth century, its ordinary position

LADY DAY  LAMB. 341
was at the extreme east end, as at Lichfield, Hereford, Wells,
Exeter, Chichester, Gloucester, Salisbury. It was included
under the same roof as the presbytery at York, Lincoln,
Worcester, St. Paul's, Selby, Howden, Hull, Hexham, and
Carlisle. At Rochester and Waltham it is on the south side
of the nave; at Drontheim, Bristol, Canterbury, and Oxford,
parallel with the north choir aisle ; at Geneva and Paisley,
with the south; at Ely, as formerly at Peterborough, de
tached on the north side ; at Ripon, over the chapter-house ;
and at Wimborne, in the south arm of the transept. At
Bristol there was a second later lady chapel at the east end.
In the case of an apse the lady chapel was the central of
three radiating chapels.
Lady Day. The annunciation is mentioned in the Greek
Church, in the fourth century, by the Council of Laodicea,
and also in that called " in Trullo." They observed it like
the Sundays in Lent, providing that if it fell on Maundy
Thursday or Good Friday, fish and wine might be partaken
of by the faithful. In the fifth century Proclus of Constanti
nople distinctly speaks of the festival. The ' Sacramentary '
of Gregory calls it " the annunciation of the angel to Mary."
Lady Fast. A species of penance, voluntary or enjoined,
in which the penitent had the choice of fasting once a week
for seven years on that day of the week on which Lady Day
happened to fall, beginning his course from that day, — or of
finishing his penance sooner by taking as many fasting-days
together as would amount to an entire year.
Lady Psalter. The Rosary.
Lamb. The symbol of Christ (Gen. iv. 4 ; Exod. xii. 3 ;
xxix. 38; Is. xvi. 1 ; Jer. Hii. 7; St. John i. 36; 1 St. Peter
i. 19; Rev. xiii. 8), who was typified by the paschal lamb,
the blood of which was set on the door-posts and lintel of
the doors like a Tau cross, to redeem the Hebrews from de
struction. In very old sepulchres the lamb stands on a hill
amid the four rivers of Paradise, or in the Baptist's hand.
It sometimes carries a milk-pail and crook, to represent the
Good Shepherd. In the fifth century it is nimbed. In the
fourth century its head is crowned with the cross and mono
gram. In the sixth century it bears a spear, the emblem of
wisdom, ending in a cross ; or appears, bleeding from five
wounds, in a chalice. At last it is girdled with a gold zone

342

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

of power and justice (Is. xi. 5), bears the banner-cross of the
resurrection, or treads upon a serpent (Rev. xviii. 14). At
length, in the eighth and ninth centuries, it lies on a throne
amid angels and saints, as in the Apocalyptic vision. When
fixed to a cross it formed the crucifix of the primitive Church,
and therefore was afterwards added as the reverse of an
actual crucifix, as on the stational cross of Velletri. In 692
the Council in Trullo ordered the image of the Saviour to be
substituted for the lamb. Jesus is now the Shepherd to
watch over His flock, as He was the Lamb, the victim for
the sheep. (See Emblems.) (2.) Walafrid Strabo condemns
the practice of placing near or under the altar on Good
Friday lamb's flesh, which received benediction and was
eaten on Easter Day. Probably to this custom the Greeks
alluded when they accused the Latins of offering a lamb on
the altar at Mass in the ninth century. In ancient times the
Pope and cardinals ate lamb on Easter Day. See Altar,
Eucharistic Bread, and Disk.
Lammas Day. 1st or gule (feast) of August. St. Peter ad
Vincula. From lamb tithing, lamb-mass : or loaf-mass, from
the benediction of new bread-corn. A festival instituted by
Pope Sixtus III., at the request of the Empress Eudoxia.
Lammas lands are commons on which the parishioners have
the right of pasturage, commencing on Lammas Day.
Lamps were often placed in graves of the catacombs as a sym
bol of the eternal light which the departed, it is hoped, en
joy, — a memorial of their shining lights before men and their
future glory (St. Matt. xiii. 43). Some of them have the
form of a little boat, and a few are inscribed with sacred em
blems. These lamps are found in Italy, southern France,
Egypt, and North Africa, but always of earthenware. Bronze
specimens are much later, and bear only the cross or mono
gram. At York, near St. Helen's, in the wall, Camden
records the discovery of a burning lamp in a tomb, and an
other was found, in 1833, at Baena, near Cordova. Some
Norman stone lamps have been found at Romsey. At Lich
field, in 1194; at Salisbury, by Osmund's Custumal; at
Hereford, in the time of Edward III., by bequest ; and in
all wealthy churches, by episcopal injunctions, in the thir
teenth century, a perpetual lamp burned day and night
before the high-altar. In the Constitutions of Oxford,

LANTERN. 343
1222, a lamp is first mentioned. Usually, however, lights
were placed in the standing candelabra upon the altar-step.
Lantern. Phare orfaneau. (1.) A lamp on a shaft in French
cemeteries, probably used during the time of Mass at the
interment of persons of importance and rank. Niches for
the dead-light remain in the east wall of Ashford and the
north wall of the transept of Christ Church, Hants. These
were lighted to direct the traveller, to dispossess the fearful
passenger of alarm in traversing a churchyard, and to invite
the prayers of those who went by for the departed. The
Council of Elvira proscribed the use of lights in churchyards
during the day-time. (2.) An open central tower of a church,
as at Ely, Coutances, Lisieux, Evreux, Lincoln, and York,
for showering down light on the choir or rood, — rare in
France, rarer in Germany, and unknown in Spain, Scandi
navia, and Sicily, where it is replaced by a dome. On great
festivals an immense lamp was suspended from the vault of
the tower of Beauvais 288 feet above the floor, and being
hung about midway down, was visible at great distances
from the city at night, symbolizing the true Light of the
world — a beacon set upon God's high hill that could not be
hid. At Edinburgh and Newcastle the crowns of the towers
were illuminated, on festival eves, with coloured lamps, shed
ding every colour of the prism over tracery and arch. (3.)
A turret of open work (Fr. couronne), usually octagonal,
erected as a beacon on towers, as in the west front of Ely,
at Boston, Nantwich, St. Ouen's, Rouen, Tours, Orleans,
Valencia, Freiburg, Ghent, and the belfry of Chichester and
other places. It is polygonal at St. Gereon's, Cologne.
Octagonal lanterns also occur at St. Helen's, and All Saints',
York. In the latter a beacon-lamp burned at night to guide
the traveller through the Galtres forest ; as at Lamborne, for
the purpose of directing persons across the bleak downs in
winter-time during storms, a bell was toded. At Cartmel
the central tower is low and square, and supports one of the
same shape, set upon it diamond-wise. (4.) A lantern [bocca
or botta] preceded the priest in carrying the Eucharist
to the dying. A beautiful example of a lantern for oil and
wax lights, of the fourteenth century, is preserved at Sienna.
Portable lamps were carried in the procession of relics and in
funerals. (5.) A small gallery, corbelled out and glazed, to

314

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

allow persons to be present at services unobserved, as at
Westminster, Worcester, St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield, and
St. Symphorian's, Tours. (6.) A stationary receptacle for a
Hght near the nuns' cloister-door at Romsey, which retains
its smoke-holes; and another on the stairs of the prior's
lodge at Gloucester, now the deanery, also with smoke-holes
and orifices once closed with horn. (7.) A low central tower,
as at Winchester, Romsey, Peterborough, Boxgrove, Ripon,
Coimbria, Burgos, Piacenza, Monza, Parma, and Asti. It is
octagonal at Caen, Bayeux, Evreux, Antwerp, Cologne,
Haarlem, Batalha, Burgos, Vercelli, and Pavia. In England
the fall of the lofty Norman towers of Worcester, Ely, Win
chester, Lincoln, and Evesham no doubt deterred the erection
of simdar towers. (8.) A prison, as at Lewes (from latere, to
lie hid). Archbishop Arundel tells William Thorpe he shall
be made as sure as any thief that is in the prison of Lantern.
Bocardo, Little Ease, the Gatehouse, and Lollard's Tower, at
St. Paul's, were also terms in common use.
Lapsi. (Fallen.) Apostates. During the Decian persecution
in the third century, when the discipline with regard to
these unhappy men was established, although there are not
wanting examples of earlier defection from the faith. Blas
phemers openly abjured the creed, incense-burners offered
incense to idols, some sacrificers attended the heathen sacri
fices, whilst others, called libellatici, bought attestations of
their relapse to paganism to save their lives, and traditores
surrendered the sacred books and plate, or betrayed the
names of the faithful. There were found persons who re
lapsed without compulsion. Soldiers, says St. Cyprian, con
quered without a fight. When the Church had peace, two
extreme opinions were held with regard to the treatment of
these men when they desired reconciliation on the cessation
of the persecution ; the one urged total abandonment 'of
them, the other pleaded for their reception without penitence
or proof of their sincerity. A middle course was adopted ;
their readmission after a course of penance proportionate to
the degree in which they had fallen. Members of the clergy
by the Council of Aries, however, were degraded from their
orders, and only in rare instances were they ever reinstated.
In many cases, however, the lapsed obtained libels or testi
monials from martyrs before their suffering recommending

LARDER — LECTERN. 31-5
that they should be received back by the Church. These,
however, became available only by the concurrence in their
prayer on the part of the diocesan and other suffragans of a
province.
Larder. The place where the lard for greasing boots and
other purposes was kept in a monastery. Latterly the meat
store.
Lardose. The reredos, a corruption of arriere dos.
Latten. (Fr. laiton.) A mixed metal, resembling copper or
brass, gilt, known as Cologne plate, probably imported at
first from the Low Countries and afterwards imitated by our
own manufacturers. It was extensively used in medieval
metal-work.
Lavatory. (1.) A place for washing the dead in the churches
of Clugny, Lyons, Rouen, the Chartreux, and Citeaux, in the
dioceses of Avranches and Bayonne. (2.) The conduit used
by monks for washing their hands before dinner in the
cloisters. It remains at Norwich and Westminster. Also
a trough for the sacristans to wash the corporals and their
hands, as at Chichester, Elgin, and Lincoln. In Spain the
lavatory usually stands at the north-west or south-west angle
of the cloister, as at Veruela.
Lay Brothers. The servants in a monastery; the Clugniacs
wore albs which had not been blessed. Laymen (laos, a
people) mean the people of God (St. Luke i. 17; Acts xv.
14, xvni. 10; Tit. ii. 14; Heb. ii. 17). The word is used in
distinction to clergy by Origen, and generally about the
third century. It then corresponds to the use of idiotes
(1 Cor. xiv. 16) ; according to Zonaras 'and Theodoret, a
private, in opposition to a leader or captain (1 Thess. v. 12 ;
Heb. xiii. 17; 1 Tim. v. 17).
Lean-to. A sloping roof, one side of which, as in an aisle, is
attached to a taller wall.
Lectern. (Lectricium, pulpitre.) A book-desk, which was
placed either in the middle of the choir, or at the choir step,
and used by the rectors of the choir ; by the subdeacon for
reading the Epistle at Hereford, for the Gospel according to
Beleth, and generally for the Gradual Alleluia, and nine
Lections on great festivals. It was of stone at Crowle,
Wenlock, of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and Eve
sham c. 1218. At Gloucester, one in the north aisle was

346

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

used to read out the story of Edward I. to the pilgrims
visiting his tomb. At St. David's, that used by the bishop
rests on the stand of a lectern of the sixteenth century. The
stone lectern of Tattershall on the rood-loft faces east, and
was probably used for the Gospel, as the Clugniacs, contrary
to Cistercian use, also read it in this direction. Beleth says,
when a priest was gospeller, he folded his chasuble on the
shoulder, to show that he was acting as a deacon. Some
times the lecterns for the gospeller and epistolar were port
able, and placed in the ambo, or rood-loft. Sometimes the
lectern had only one desk for the legendary, and sometimes
two for the choir books. In France they were usuaHy of
simple form, one at Narbonne, of the thirteenth century, of
iron, combining firmness and lightness, has a stand of cop
per; another, of the fifteenth century, with double legs, is
in the Museum, Clugny ; and a third, of the same material,
is in St. Esteban, Burgos. There is an enormous ancient lec
tern, with four sides and cresting, at Zamora. At Sens
there is an apparel of tissue for the lectern, of the tenth or
eleventh century. There are fine specimens of lecterns at
Wells- (c. 1660), Ditling, Bury, Hunts (decorated), Ramsey,
St. Thomas (Exeter), Trinity Church (Coventry), Yeovil,
Eton, Campden, King's College (Cambridge), Merton Col
lege (Oxford), St. Chad's, Birmingham (formerly at Lou-
vain), Tirlemont (of copper), Hal (with an eagle, of the fif
teenth century), Aix-la-Chapelle (of the fourteenth century,
an eagle), and Leon. They sometimes rest on lions. (See
Eagle and Pelican.) At St. Ouen's (Rouen), formerly in
the cloister, were to be seen two ranges of lecterns, one of
wood the other of stone, erected between the vaulting shafts,
used by the religious when reading in cloister time. The
abbot's desk was distinguished by a carved frontal, or
capital.
Lectionary. The book containing the Epistles and lessons
read at Mass ; called also the Apostolus, because most of the
lessons were taken from St. Paul's Epistles; and Comes
the codection compiled by St. Jerome, and so called the
priest's companion. The Greeks had lectionaries of epis
tles and gospels, called Apostolevangelia, or Synaxaria,
books of the Holy Communion. St. Matthew is read from
Whit Monday to the Friday after the sixteenth Sunday after

LEGATE — LEGENDS. 347
Trinity; then St. Mark is used; St. Luke is begun on
the eighteenth Sunday after Trinity, and St. John at Easter.
Legate. The Pope's deputy, (1.) Legate a latere, a car
dinal armed with almost pontifical power, such as Othobon
and Otho had, who called national Synods in England, in
the thirteenth century; and Cardinals Wolsey and Pole.
(2.) Legatus natus, a legate without creation, and ex officio,
as the Archbishop of Canterbury was, from the year 1195
till the Reformation. The one relic of this office is, his
power of giving Lambeth degrees. (3.) Legatus datus, a
special legate, who could hold councils, confirm canons, de
pose bishops, and issue interdicts. The Councils of London
(712), and Cealcythe were legatine. In the time of Henry I.
it was agreed that no legate could be received without the
Royal sanction. Cardinal Beaufort exercised legatine power.
In 1371 no primate or archbishop was allowed to carry his
crozier in the presence of a legate. (4.) A mortuary.
Legends. (Legenda, lesson.) The lections at Matins ; as they
contained some unauthenticated traditions and acts of saints
and martyrs, the word came to mean vain stories. ^Usually
the word designates a portion of Holy Scripture read and
not chanted (hence its name) in Divine service. The reading
of lections alternated with psalmody, during nocturns in the
East, at least in the fourth century, as appears by the Coun
cil of Laodicea. Generally, however, after every nocturn a
history, or chapter of the Old or New Testament was read.
St. Augustine shows that they were definitely fixed for every
season in the year. St. Chrysostom mentions the reading
of the Acts of the Apostles, from the fourth century, after the
Psalms. In the seventh century,it appears, bythe Third Coun
cd of Constantinople, that the Greeks substituted the acts of
martyrs ; a course followed by the Latins in the ninth cen
tury, along with homdies of the Fathers. Then, also, the
form used by the reader, "Jube domne benedicere" (Sir,
give me a blessing), was introduced. In the twelfth century
the response after the lesson, " Lord have mercy upon us,"
was added. In early times, as we learn from St. Ambrose
and St. Augustine, the deacon prefaced the lection with a
loud cry of "Silence!" or "Attend!" Amalarius adds,
that he used the sign of the Cross. (2.) Gapitida, or little
chapters, were shorter lessons used in the day hours ;

31-8 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
they date from the fifth century, and the Council of
Agde (506) ; but then longer lessons were also read in the
daytime. On feasts of nine lections at Lichfield, the chapter
and collect were read out of the last stall on the east. At
Canterbury and Wells, the lessons are now read from the
stalls.
Lent. Spring ; so called in German, Russian, and Dansk, with
the same meaning, but in the East called the Fast ; it is the
Greek tessarakoste, and Latin quadragesima, both meaning
forty (days) ; and in French, by a corruption, carime. Ter
tullian, SS. Epiphanius, Augustine, Jerome, and Pope Leo
contend for an Apostolical origin for Lent, in conformity with
the fasts of Moses, Elias, and our Lord (Exod. xxiv. 18;
1 Kings xix. 18). SS. Basil and Gregory of Nyssa mention
it as of universal observance ; and in the time of Hippolytus
Sundays were the only exception to the total fast. Sozomen
says that six weeks were fasted by the Illyrians, Egyptians,
Libyans, and Syrians; seven at Constantinople, and the
countries as far as Phoenicia; others kept three weeks at
intervals, or only the three preceding Easter. Charlemagne
mentions, that to make up the forty days, those who ob
served it from Septuagesima omitted Sundays, Thursdays,
and Saturdays ; if from Sexagesima, Sundays and Thurs
days ; if from Quadragesima, Sundays, and Maundy Thurs
day and Easter Eve. Water even was not drunk until
after nones, according to Prudentius ; except in the case of
the sick, as St. Jerome says. At noon in the East, in the
fourth century, dry fruits were eaten in addition to bread
and pulse, called by the Council of Laodicea xerophagy, dry
food ; a practice which had prevailed in the West from the
second century, and in the Greek Church lasted till the
twelfth century in certain places ; but in the seventh century
the Western Church began to eat cooked vegetables, fish,
and water birds, and was imitated in the East. Lent was
observed only by the clergy at first, by the decree of Teles-
phorus. In the second and third century Lent began on
the Monday after Quinquagesima, and ended on Maundy
Thursday, Saturdays and Sundays being excepted by the
Easterns. In the fourth century, at Rome and in other
places, Thursdays were not fasted, according to a decree of
Pope Melchiades, who, in order to complete a fast of forty

LETTERS ECCLESIASTICAL. 349
days, added Sexagesima ; in like manner, Septuagesima was
added by the Greeks, when they adopted the exceptional
days of the Latins. The Council of Laodicea decreed the
keeping of Lent from Monday after Quadragesima Sunday
until Easter Eve. Beleth says, the Clergy added two
days, and commenced the fast on Quinquagesima : that
Popes Melchiades and Sylvester antedated it to Sexagesima,
because two meals were eaten on Saturdays; and that Sep
tuagesima was finally observed in lieu of the weekly
celebration of Thursdays. Gregory the Great first intro
duced, it is said, the modern usage of beginning Lent on
Ash- Wednesday ; but, in point of fact, he says that it began
on the Sunday after, and so, subtracting six days, only
thirty-six days were fasted. This discipline lasted untd the
ninth century, as Amalarius says ; and the Eighth Council
of Toledo conceives existed in all churches of the West,
which adopted the Pope's mystical view of Lent as a tithe
of the year. In the eleventh century, Ash-Wednesday was
taken as the first day in Lent, thus adding four days to
make up the forty ; but, even now, the rite of Milan com
mences Lent on the Sunday foHowing. The Greeks and
Westerns never celebrated festivals on fasting days in Lent,
but commemorated them on Saturday or Sunday, according
to the Council of Laodicea. The Latins, by the Tenth Coun
cil of Toledo, transferred the feasts ; and the Greeks, who
did not acquiesce in this rule, nevertheless omitted the fast
on such days. Until the sixth century Saturdays were not
fasted in the West; but then the Councils of Agde and
Fourth Orleans excepted only Sundays. The East stid pre
serves its old tradition. In Russia, monks who keep Lent
rigorously, eat only the antidoron. At Lyons and Milan
festivals were only commemorated during Holy Week.
Letters Ecclesiastical. (Memorial, dismissory, decretal, pas
toral, confessional, commonitory, circular.) Before taking
a journey, the primitive Christians presented themselves to
their bishop, and received from him letters testimonial, con-
tessaratio hospitalitatis (as Tertullian says), by which they
were recommended for communion and entertainment to
Christian communities. The Apostolical Constitutions sen
tenced excommunication on those who received any strangers
without this passport and certificate. St. Paul alludes to it

350

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

in 2 Cor. iii. 1. The practice was indispensable in times
of danger, as a precaution; it also cemented the unity
of the Episcopate, and the whole Church; from this cir
cumstance they were called pacific, or irenic. In order to
preclude fraud by heretics, the Council of Nicsea directed
that they should be countersigned with the letters P(ater),
U(ios), A(gion) P(neuma), the initials of the three Persons
of the Holy Trinity. In the West, by the I. Council of
Orleans, the bishops sealed them with their episcopal ring.
Communicatory letters, or letters of Salutation, were read
publicly in church from the ambon; and the Epistles of St.
Paul, except that addressed to the Hebrews, were of this
character, being sent from one to the other by the churches
(Gal. iv. 16). St. Chrysostom alludes to Letters of Peace;
and Eusebius gives several examples of such correspond
ence. The letters given to ecclesiastics were called Formal
in the Council of Carthage (397), Canonical in the Council
of Laodicea, Ecclesiastical by St. Jerome, because written
in a conventional form, which did not admit of counterfeits,
and were signed and sealed in a peculiar manner, like the
bulls of later date. Commendatory Letters, mentioned by
the Council of Chalcedon, were given to persons of high
distinction. In ancient days readers or subdeacons acted
„as envoys to carry ecclesiastical letters from one bishop to
another, and in delicate cases a priest was employed; and
to this day, in Apulia, bishops send their correspondence to
the clergy by the hands of clerks.
Library. There were noble libraries at Lichfield, and the
Grey Friars, London. Adjoining the monastic library the
copyists had cells from the twelfth century. An aumbry
with shelves, a chamber having a door opening on the
cloister, contained the ordinary books in use for readers
during cloister time ; and another almery near the altar held
the gospels, epistles, and choir song-books. The monastic
librarii, writers of books, called amanuenses (from manus, the
hand), or antiquaries (transcribers of old books), which they
repaired, used a stylus, or pointed bodkin, and pens con
tained in a case, to which an inkstand was attached. They
formed a numerous class, as the sale of MSS. was no less
productive than the multiplication of service books for the
use of the community was indispensable. Those who added

LICHGATE  LIGHT. 351
miniatures, rich borders, and initials in colour, and bur
nished gdding, were caded illuminators.
Licence of Marriage. An episcopal dispensation permitting
a marriage to be solemnized without publication of banns,
dating certainly from the fourteenth century and confirmed
by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21. A special licence, not subject to
these restrictions, is granted by the Archbishop of Canter
bury, originally his privilege as Legatus Natus of the Pope,
but now confirmed by the marriage act of 1836.
Lichgate, The. (Lich, the dead.) Called Trim train or trams, i.e.
" adjust the procession ;" in Devon, Cornwall, Wales, and
in Hereford, the scallage (from scallus, Low Latin, a bench).
An old lychgate remains at Stanley St. Leonard's. It was
used as a covering for the funeral procession when await
ing the arrival of the priest, or arranging the pall and order of
the followers. Examples consisting of three arches and an
upper gallery occur at Lampaul, and other places in Finis-
terre, and possibly served also as preaching tribunes, or
places of proclamation of notices when there was no open-
air pulpit. The litten, or lichtun, at Marwed and Chichester,
as in Lichfield, means a cemetery.
Liernes. Ribs crossing each other and meeting in the key
stone, which appear in vaults of the later part of the fifteenth
century.
Light. (1 .) Space between muHions or tracery, a pane in a
cloister. (2.) Joys of Paradise, as in the prayer for the
departed, and the inscription on tombs of early Christians,
" Grant them perpetual Hght." (3.) The Holy Communion
was always celebrated with lights (Acts xx. 8) in memory of
the Light of the World (St. John i. 9, vdi. 12 ; Rev. xxi. 23),
without whom we stumble at midday as in the night. There
were usuady two (Rev. xi. 4) on the altar, but others of in
determinate numbers in different churches were lighted round
and above the altar (Rev. iv. 5 ; Exod. xxv. 37), and on the
step ; but at Chichester there were ordinarily three, and on
greater festivals seven altar-lights. (See Candles.) In 1276
one, at least, anf that of wax, was required by Bishop Bleys
with the lamp, and by English canons of 1322. Albertis
says the candles, ranged in line, and each of four fingers in
length, should be graduated in height from the sides of the
altar ; a seventh taper behind the cross being added at a

352 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
pontifical Mass, and the foot of the cross, which was raised on
a stem, on a level with the bowls of the nearest candlesticks.
(4.) In the fourteenth century private persons often founded
a perpetual light to burn before the high-altar, in token
that the Church was ever watching (Exod. xxiv. 2 ; St. Matt.
xxv. 7). Cardinal Pole in 1555 required it in every church.
In foreign countries there was, Frances says, a similar light
before the reliquaries, in allusion to St. Matt. v. 15, 16 ; Phil.
ii. 15.^ (5.) One Hght was carried before the Gospel on
common days, in memory of St. John the Baptist (St. John
v. 35), and on festivals in allusion to the two witnesses,
Enoch and Elias. (6.) Mourners at funerals carried a Hght
in one hand, and in the other the offering made after the
Gospel had been read.
Limina Vistanda. The obligation laid on all prelates and abbots
to visit the apostolical threshold, that is, St. Peter's, Rome, by
Pope Anacletus, and renewed by Pope Sixtus in 1585, who
enacted times proportionate to the distance of the pilgrim from
Rome; that is, from once in three years to once in ten.
Pope Benedict XIV. restricted the former term to Italians,
and directed that Ultramontanes should visit once in every
fifth, and Americans and others once in every tenth year.
The Limina were the steps at the entrance of the Con
fession.
Limitour. A friar who had a certain limit or district assigned
him by his convent within which to beg.
Limoges Work. Enamel. The city was a Roman colony, and
long eminent for the skill of its inhabitants as goldsmiths
and enamellers ; the latter trade is traceable back to the
tenth century. The effigy of Walter de Merton, at Rochester,
and William de Valence, at Westminster, were, in their per-
v feet state, remarkable specimens of this ornamentation.
Lions in marble or bronze are carved at the entrances of cathe
drals as emblems of Christian strength, vigilance, force,
and courage, as at Rome, Mans, Placentia, Reggio, Bologna,
and Foligno. They appear in the twelfth century. One
guards the entrance of the pulpit of Wolverhampton, and
they often appear at the feet of lecterns and paschal candle
sticks. When the lion holds a figure, it typifies the gentleness
of the Church to neophytes ; when the figure is apparently
torn by its claws, her severity is symbolized.

LITANIES. 353
Litanies. (Gr. ; Rogations, Lat.) In the fourth century pub
lic and private devotions, but eventually public supplications
for God's favour and deprecations of His wrath. In the com
mentary of the pseudo-Ambrose, the procession day is
spoken of. Sozomen mentions the procession at Constanti
nople, instituted by St. Chrysostom with antiphonal chanting
and sdver standards of the Cross and burning wax tapers.
In the East, before the time of St. Basil, litanies were in use.
The word litany is first mentioned by Eusebius, St. Chryso
stom, and the Emperors Justinian and Arcadius. There
were two kinds : (1) general, ordered by the Church, pre
scribed and ordinarily called Stated Litanies ; (2) special or
particular, extraordinary, commanded by a bishop according
to occasion, and known as Imperatse. There was a further
division into major and minor, the former made through the
city streets as a public solemnity, the latter made through
the close, cloisters, and interior of a church. Some were
sorrowful, deprecations of God's wrath in time of plague or
distress, the others joyous, as commemorations of deliverance
and thanksgiving. Some say the major litanies were made
on St. Mark's Day, and the minors on the Rogation days.
Gregory the Great instituted, on April 25th, the greater
litany as an annual device, as he had enjoined the septiform
procession of seven orders — the clergy, abbots and monks ;
abbesses and nuns; boys; lay persons; widows; married
women, who issued simultaneously to traverse Rome during a
flood and pestilence. It bore the name of the Black Crosses,
because the crosses and altars were veiled in black, and the
members of the procession wore sable mourning. Walafrid
Strabo calls this the Great Litany. At the head the cross was
- carried, and in France bare feet, ashes, and haircloth were pre
scribed. This order was maintained to invoke God's blessing
on the blossoms and fruits of the early summer, according to
Amalarius and Albinus, and as major litanies in Charlemagne's
"Capitulars", and the Councds of Mayence, 813, and Or
leans, 515, expressly mention rogations. The lesser litany has
been referred to Mamertus, c. 465, or Claudian, bishop of
Vienna, but Apollinarius Sidonius, his contemporary, states
that Mamertus only established in a definite form, with fast
ing, psalm, and prayer, and on the stated three days be
fore the Ascension, a practice hitherto irregular and rare.
2 a

354 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
St. Augustine certainly speaks of the Rogations of the
Three Days. The reform of Mamertus was adopted by the
Church of Spain, but observed in autumn and in Whitsun-
week, conformably to the law of the Church which forbade
fast between Easter and Pentecost. In the English Church
rogations before the Ascension were used from the coming
of St. Augustine, who entered Canterbury chanting a verse
from those of Lyons. Beleth says on each of the first two
days a dragon, swollen in body and with a long tad, was
carried before the cross and banners, and on the last behind
them, to typify the broken power of the devil. In 1747 the
English observed the greater litany after the use of Rome on
the seventh of the kalends of May, and also the three rogation
days before the Ascension, according to their ancestral cus
tom. Charlemagne, it is said" by the Council of Mayence,
had the Roman litany observed in France on St. Mark's
Day, May 25th ; and Pope Leo III., 795-816, introduced the
Gallican litany of the rogations at Rome ; and it must be
observed that the latter was called the minor at Rome and
the major in France. The litany with candles on the Purifi
cation was instituted by Pope Sergius. The plain Litany
was that on which the invocations were often repeated. At
Orleans, on Maundy Thursday, the Grand Penitentiary
headed a procession of penitents who made the circuit of the
choir on their knees, two and two, their faces veiled, and
their bodies covered with sheets, and singing litanies. The
litany was sung on Easter Eve, before the altar, St. Mark's
Day, the Rogation Days, and Wednesdays and Fridays in
Lent, and at Salisbury, on every weekday in the latter
season ; the septiform litany being chanted by six choristers
in surplices on Holy Saturday — the litany in this case, as
at Rome by the Gelasian Sacramentary of the fifth century,
not being confined to a season of humiliation. The septi
form litany was also used at Paris, Lyons, and Soissons.
Sometimes seven subdeacons chanted the septiform, and
there were also quinal and ternal litanies for three or five
singers. At Laon and Mans the septenal litany derived its
title from the repetition of each saint's name seven times.
Litre. A band of black paint charged with arms, and placed
in a chantry chapel, round the walls, as a sign of mourning.
It was not to exceed two feet in breadth.

LITTLE HOURS  LITURGY. 355
Little Hours. Prime, Tierce, Sext, and Nones.
Liturgy. (Gr. leitourgia.) Public offices of religion, and spe
cially the Eucharistic rite foreshadowed (Prov. ix. 5 ; Mal.
i. 11). The variations in liturgies are due to several causes;
the privilege used by the early patriarchs and bishops of
drawing up the diocesan use, as St. Hilary of Poictiers even
in the fourth century drew up a local sacramentary ; the
custom, before the second century, of learning and saying by
heart great portions which were never committed to writing ;
and also the numerous alterations, modifications, and reviews
to which they have been submitted before reaching ourselves.
The Apostles, also, probably did not restrict themselves to
the essential rite. Justin Martyr, c. 140, describes the
liturgy of his day as embracing the reading of the Acts or
Writings of the Apostles, a sermon by the bishop, prayer
made standing, the offering of the elements with prayer and
thanksgiving, the communion, and transmission of the ele
ments to the absent by the hands of the deacons. The
liturgy was always celebrated in the language of the country,
in Syriac or Chaldee in Jerusalem ; in Greek at Antioch
and Alexandria ; in Latin, in the West ; " Every man praying
and praising God in his own tongue," says Origen, " for God
is the Lord of all languages, hearing each people as if they
used but one and the same language." The Coptic or Egyp
tian, the Armenian, the Ethiopian languages were used in
their respective countries. In Ulyria, England, Gaul, Africa,
Spain, and Pannonia, — Latin, then the universal language, at
an early date was adopted. But nations recently converted
used their own tongue, as the Sclaves in the ninth century
by permission of John VIII., and the Chinese in the seven
teenth century, by grant of Paul V. Liturgies, however, did
not follow the modifications in their primitive language,
which has been retained unchanged, so that the old national
wording still forms an almost hieratic form, as is the case
with a not inconsiderable portion of the English PrayerBook.
There are five primitive liturgies : I. St. James', of Antioch
or Jerusalem, branching into the (1) Clementine or apostolic,
(2) Csesarean or St. Basil's ; the latter subdivided into that of
St. Chrysostom's and the Armenian ; and (3) of Jerusalem or
St. James'. II. Alexandrine or St. Mark's, from which are
derived (1) St. Cyril's, (2) St. Gregory's, (3) Coptic. III. The
2 a2

356

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Oriental or St. Thaddeus'. IV. St. Peter's or Roman. V. Ephe-
sine, St. Paul's or St. John's ; the latter again divided into the
Gothic, Mozarabic, and Gallican. From the mixture of these
with the Roman sprang, with addition of new rites, (1) the
Ambrosian, still in use at Milan ; and (2) the Patriarchine or
Aquileian. The liturgy of St. James is at least fourteen cen
turies old, and is not only mentioned by the Council of Con
stantinople, 691, but traceable in the writings of St. Jerome,
St. Chrysostom, St. Cyril of Jerusalem, and Theodoret.
The Clementine is represented in the Apostolical Constitu
tions of the third or fourth century. St. Chrysostom's is
used in Russia to this day. The Alexandrine can be traced
back to the second century ; it received modifications by St.
Cyril. The Roman is substantially one with the three Papal
Sacramentaries of the fifth and sixth centuries. The Ephe-
sine was replaced by that of St. Chrysostom in the fourth
century, as appears by the Council of Laodicea, but was the
foundation of those of Spain, England, and France ; in
France, until the time of Charlemagne, and revised by St.
Hilary of Poictiers, Musasus, priest of Marseilles, or Sidonius
Apollinaris ; and in Spain, in the pontificate of Gregory VIL;
and it has been preserved at Toledo from the sixteenth cen
tury. In England St. Augustine modified the old use by
changes derived from a ritual of the South of France of the
fifth century ; having been revised by St. Osmund of Salis
bury in 1085, it became for a few years the use of all
England in the sixteenth century, and the basis of that
which we now possess. The communion in both kinds to
the laity certainly had not ceased in the twelfth century, and
probably was not forbidden till after the Council of Con
stance in 1415. The Eastern liturgies have a distinct invo
cation of the Holy Ghost at the consecration of the elements
which the Western have not. The Western and that of St.
John have varying gospels and epistles ; the Eastern have
not. Those of St. James, St. Mark, and St. Thaddeus have
only one preface for every day in the year. The Mozarabic,
Gallican, and Ambrosian have a different one ; the Roman
has several for every festival. The liturgy consists of two
parts, (1) the Proanaphora, including the Mass of catechu
mens and Mass of the faithful ; (2) the Anaphora, comprising
the great Eucharistic prayer, the consecration, intercession

LITURGY. 357
for quick and dead, and communion. Proanaphora (before
the oblation) I. (1.) The Mass of the catechumens includes
the prefatory prayer, introit, little entrance, trisagion lec
tions, and prayer after the Gospel; (2) the Mass of the
faithful consists of prayers of the faithful, the great entrance
offertory, kiss of peace, and the Creed. Anaphora II. (1.)
The great Eucharistic prayer includes the preface, triumphal
hymn, prayer, commemoration of our Lord's life, and the
institution ; (2) the consecration contains the words of in
stitution, oblation, prayer of invocation of the Holy Ghost,
prayer for change of the elements ; (3) the great intercession
includes prayer for quick and dead, prayer before the Lord's
Prayer, the embolismus ; (4) the communion comprises the
ectene or prayer of intense adoration, sancta Sanctis, eleva
tion of the Host, the fraction, the confession, the communion,
the antidoron, the thanksgiving, and dismissal. The West
ern liturgies consist of two portions : I. Ordinary (which
was prefaced in the sacristy by the Veni Creator, the collect
" Almighty God to whom ad Hearts be Open," the XLIII.
Psalm, lesser litany, and Lord's Prayer) comprising the office or
introit, sung in going to the altar, confession and absolution,
the kiss of peace given by the celebrant to deacon and sub
deacon, the Gloria in Excelsis, sung whde incense was
offered, the mutual salutation, the collect, epistle, and gospel,
preceded by the gradual, the Nicene Creed, the offertory,
oblation of the elements, and secret prayer. II. The canon,
including the apostolical versicles, the proper preface, the
ter sanctus, the prayer of consecration, the Lord's Prayer, a
prayer for deliverance from evil, the Agnus Dei, the mix
ture of the chalice, the kiss of peace, the communion, the
prayer of thanksgiving, post-communion collect, ablutions
and dismissal. In the times of St. Augustine and St. Chry
sostom, and in Gaul and Italy, the communion Ps. xxxiv. 8
was sung during the administration (see Communion), and at
that time, in 1549, passages from the Holy Scripture were
chanted in England. (See Administration.) Pope Adrian,
777, is related to have decided on the respective merits of
the Gregorian and Ambrosian liturgies by laying them on
the high-altar of St. Peter's, sealed with seven bishops' seals,
at night, whilst the doors were shut, and prayer was made
for a sign from heaven. In the morning both were found

358 SACRED AKCHEOLOGY.
open ; but the Gregorian book leaves were blown all over
the church, whilst the Ambrosian lay still. The decision
was that St. Gregory's book should be used throughout the
world, and the Ambrosian only in his own church. The
Ambrosian was also observed by the Cistercian order. St.
Chrysostom's liturgy is used in the four patriarchates and
Russia on all Sundays in Lent except Palm Sunday, or
Maundy Thursday, eves of Christmas, Easter, and Epiphany,
and St. Basil's Day, January 1st, when St. Basil's liturgy
is said. The liturgy of St. James, older than either, is used
on St. James's Day in some islands of the Archipelago.
The Jacobites, Ethiopians, Melchites, and Armenians have
peculiar liturgies, ad grounded on that of St. Mark. See
Mass.
Livery. (1.) That which is given out; the dress of the members
of a guild or convent. (2.) Liberations ; certain portion of
meat, drink, money, and clothing delivered at certain times
to almsfolk.
Locker. A smaller aumbry for ornaments of the altar in a
church wall.
Lodge, Abbot's. This house usually adjoined the west end as
at Westminster and Dunstable; sometimes the north-east
part of the cloister, like the prior's lodge at Worcester
and Durham ; the site of the prior's rooms, when he was a
subordinate, was usually on the north-east or south-west
part of the. great cloister.
Loft. A gallery or upper room ; the ordinary refectory at
Durham.
Lombardics. Uncial letters used in marginal sepulchral in
scriptions, each letter at first being of brass inlaid in the
stone, but soon after, in the fourteenth century, engraved on
brass plates, when the capitals of the style only were re
tained; these in their turn disappeared in the sixteenth
century when Arabic numerals came into use.
Longobardic. The style of Italian architecture which prevailed
from the sixth to the ninth century, at length was super
seded by the Lombardic, the old churches being rebudt as
Italy increased in wealth. The valleys of the Po and Rhine,
we must remember, belonged to the same empire from the
time of Charlemagne downwards, and the same style pre
vailed in both districts, and the churches were almost

LOUVRES — LOW-SIDE WINDOWS. 359
identical. The Lombardic was well defined in the eleventh
and lasted until the thirteenth century. It affected Rhine-
land in the tenth, and France and England in the twelfth
century.
Louvre. A small turret, with apertures for the escape of
smoke from the central fire in a hall. Louvre boards, cross
bars like Venetian blinds, set in windows as a kind of open
shutter. At York Minster the wind blowing through them
is said to produce a soft aerial music. Instead of these we
should have sound-holes.
Lord's Prayer, The, was ordered to be used at baptism in the
Greek Church in the fourth century ; at Matins and Vespers
by the Councils of Gerona and IV. Toledo, three times a day
by the Apostolical Constitutions ; and at the Eucharist, ac
cording to St. Augustine, St. Jerome, St. Cyril of Jerusalem,
and St. Chrysostom. In the Greek and Gallican Churches
the priest and people recited it together. By the Roman use
the priest alone said it ; the English Church uses it in both
these ways. In the Mozarabic liturgy the people answer
Amen to every petition said by the priest. The Doxology
occurs only in St. Matthew's Gospel, and has been supposed
to have been introduced into it from the Liturgy. Similar
cases are pointed out in the Epistle to the Hebrews (Eph. v.
14, and Rev. iv. 8) . It is an old English custom to rise when
the Lord's Prayer is read in the second lesson.
Low-side Windows. Small shuttered windows, slightly above
the ground level, and usuady on the south-west angle of the
chancel, for the most part an appendage of an ankerhold ; but
also added for purposes of ventilation; for communicating
with lazars, or persons afflicted with contagious disease ;
for ringing the sanctus bell where there was no bellcot; and
used by the friars for confessing penitents. They are rare
before the thirteenth century, and were provided with shut
ters, which could only be opened from within. The earHest
examples exist at Caistor, North Hincksey, and St. Giles
(Northampton) ; at Landewednack, in Cornwall a rude
block of stone was placed on the outside for a person to
stand on. In some instances windows at the east ends of the
nave are placed at a lower level than the rest, ir order to
permit outsiders to see a particular altar. See Ankerhold
and Confessional.

360 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Luminare Cryptse. The shaft for light in a catacomb.
Lup. A black sapphire.
Lustres of Glass. Used in French churches of the seventeenth
century, instead of crowns of light.
Magi. The wise men of the East, usually represented as three
before the time of Pope Leo. Sometimes four, or only two
appear. St. Chrysostom says there were twelve. The ordi
nary names attributed to the three " kings of Cologne," as
they are called from their shrine in that cathedral, are Apel-
lius, Amerus, and Damascus ; or Magalath, Galgalath, and
Saracin ; or Ator, Sator, and Paratoras ; or usuady Baltazar,
Melchior, and Jaspar. On mosaics generally their offerings
are a crown of gold (the confession of Christ's royalty), a
dish of myrrh (significant of His anointing to burial), and in
cense, in the shape of a dove (testimony to His Godhead).
Manchet. A small loaf. The name of the wafer in the Mass
^ in the sixteenth century.
Maniple. An appendage of dress, introduced when the use of
the stole as a handkerchief fell into desuetude. It now
represents the cord with which our Lord was bound to the
pillar at His scourging. At Peterborough some maniples
were ornamented with little bells and silver acorns. See
Fanon.
Manuaries, Consecrated gloves given to pilgrims.
Manse. (1.) A parsonage, ordered in 1222 to be built near
every Scottish church for the reception of the ordinary by
the vicars. (2.) The country house used by monks and
canons as a convalescent hospital, or for keeping manor-
courts.
Mansionarii. (1.) Resident churchwardens in early times,
who acted as sacrists and allotted graves. (2.) Clergy assist
ant to the Pontiff when officiating in a station-church. (3.)
Porters, called coliberti in the East, basilicani in Spain, and
aaditui at Mdan. See Vicars.
Mantelet. A long cape, with slits for the arms, worn by pre
lates. Regular bishops wore it without the rochet; and
cardinals, vested in rochet and mozzetta, lay it aside when
visiting ahother of their order. The mantellone is a purple
cloak with long hanging sleeves. At York certain vicars
wore red mantles in the fourteenth century.

MARK'S DAY — MARRIAGE OF PRIEST. 361
Mark's, St., Day. April 25. The day, in commemoration of
his martyrdom and the translation of his relics to Venice
from Alexandria, was not observed in the Latin Church until
the end of the seventh century, and was for the first time
formally required to be kept by the Council of Cognac, in
the middle of the thirteenth century.
Maronites. A Christian community in the Libanus. The
secular clergy are married ; the regulars follow the rule of
St. Anthony. The bishops are celibates, and their patriarch
— who is always styled Peter, and of Antioch — resides in the
Convent of Canobin. In 1736 they formally acknowledged
the Canons of Trent in the Synod of Marhanna ; they there
fore now receive only in one kind, but have retained the
Syriac language at Mass, and the priest reads the Gospel in
Arabic. Their chant and instrumental music are of a primi
tive kind. Gregory XIII. founded a Maronite codege at
Rome.
Marriage of Priest. Pius II. qualified his assertion that mar
riage was taken from priests with great reason, by adding
that it should be restored for causes still weightier. In the
East the clergy were allowed to marry within ten years after
ordination until the close of the ninth century. Now priests
may be married at the time of ordination, but are forbidden
a second wife. Bishops must be monks. Syricius first
made constitutions for the celibacy of the clergy, and Inno
cent I. revived it. Gregory I. ordered subdeacons not to
marry. Until the end of the seventh century, and the Council
of Quinisext forbade it, the African bishops were married.
St. Gregory Nazianzen was the son of a bishop, St. Patrick of
a deacon, Pope Agapetus of a priest, SS. Cyprian, Basil, and
St. Gregory Nyssen were all married men ; so were Fehx IV.
and Adrian II., and several other bishops. Married clergy are
mentioned by Socrates, St. Ambrose, and St. Athanasius,
and the rejection of their ministrations was forbidden by
canon law and the Council of Gangra in 384. The Third
Council of Carthage, in 397, mentions the children of clergy,
and as late as the sixth century the clergy were married, as
appears by an observation of Gratian, who, like John a
Ludegna at the Council of Trent, maintained that celibacy
was not enjoined by Evangelical law. In 1076 the Council
of Winchester, under Lanfranc (whose son is said to have

362

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

been Abbot Paul of St. Alban's), imposed it; and Anselm
—like Stephen IX., in 1059, and Gregory VII. (Hildebrand)
had done in 1073, and St. Dunstan endeavoured to achieve —
ordered the clergy to part with their wives or their livings.
In Lombardy, France, Germany, and Spain the clergy pro
tested against this cruel tyranny, but in 1097 the Council of
Piacenza re-enforced it. In 970 the Northumbrian priests
were married. Boniface, Archbishop of Canterbury, was
married; and Bishop Fitzjocelyn of Wells, and Bishop Peche
of Lichfield were bishops' sons. Anselm, in 1102, forbade
the marriage of the clergy. The unacknowledged wives of
the clergy continued down to the period of the Reforma
tion. In 1281 the Constitutions of Peckham provided that
priests' sons should not succeed to their fathers' Hvings
without Papal dispensation.
Marriage, Rites of, are first described by Isidore of Seville in
the seventh century, and by Pope Nicholas in 861. The
bride and bridegroom, being come into church, offered gifts
by the hand of the priest, and received the benediction and
"heavenly veil." They then left the church wearing on
their heads crowns, which were preserved in the church.
(See Garland.) The betrothal-ring was given at the es
pousals. In the ancient Church, gifts (arrhce) were made,
together with a solemn kiss and the settlement of a dowry,
by the man, at the time of the espousals, in the presence of
witnesses. At the marriage, the priest united their hands and
gave them the benediction. The woman's hair was unloosed ;
the bride was covered with a nuptial veil, except in the case
of re-marriage, as a symbol of modesty or of obedience to
her husband, and the twain were united by a fillet of white
. and purple thread, in token of their being one flesh. Lights
were used at marriages, and doles were made to the poor.
Women came bareheaded in the time of the Tudors, with
bagpipes and fiddlers before them, to be married, and would
enter only by the great church-door. In some places they
carried wheat-sheaves on their heads ; and casting of corn in
their faces, with shouts of " Plenty, plenty," was practised.
Marriage was prohibited, out of reverence, on high festivals,
during Ember weeks, from Advent to the octave of Epiphany,
from Septuagesima to Pentecost, by the Council of Eanham,
1009 ; from Advent to the octave of Epiphany, from Septua-

MARTYROLOGIES. 363
gesima to the octave of Easter, as times specially solemn or
to be fasted ; and for fourteen days before St. John the Bap
tist's day, by the Council of Seligenstadt, in 1022 ; but Duran
dus says in his time three weeks were prohibited, and Beleth
says they were relics of a summer Lent ; in Lent, on Christ
mas, Easter, and Ascension Days ; and during Eastertide,
by the Council of Dublin, 1631. The Clementine decretals
and the Sarum use interdicted the time between Rogation
and Trinity Sunday. There was formerly a fast of forty
days, it must be borne in mind, before St. John the Baptist's
Day, and another from Martinmas (Nov. 11) to Christmas.
Martyrologies. A kind of legend read as lections in churches,
and containg the victories of martyrs ; another class of such
narratives is the ' Lives of the Saints.' They correspond to
the ' Menologion' of the Greeks, which was drawn up by
Symeon Metaphrastes. The principal compilers in the West
were Ado of Treves, Ven. Bede, and Usuardus, in the time
of Charlemagne. Such records were kept in ItaHan, Gaul
ish, and Spanish churches, and at Cordova in the time of
Theodosius. Pope Clement instituted seven ecclesiastical
regionary notaries, called from districts assigned to them by
Pope Damasus ; and Pope Fabian added seven deacons and
seven subdeacons as their overseers in writing these acts,
which were preserved in the Church by order of Pope An-
therus, and read on the birthdays of martyrs, that is, on the
day of their suffering, which was their birthday to the new
life. Churches communicated their acts to each other ; the
earliest are those of the martyrdom of St. Polycarp, and of
the martyrs of Lyons and Vienne. St. Gregory, in the sixth
century, says, " We possess the names of nearly ad the
martyrs in one book, their passions being arranged under
days," probably alluding to the Latin version of Eusebius by
St. Jerome. The Martyrology of Rome was the model of simi
lar compositions in the churches of Smyrna, Vienne, Lyons,
and Carthage. They gave rise to many spurious histories,
itineraries, and acts of apostles and saints, such as those
mentioned by Tertullian, St. Jerome, and St. Athanasius;
indeed Gelasius I., in the Council of Rome (494), distinctly
says that the Church, with singular caution, would not read
certain martyrologies in public of ancient custom, because
the names of the authors were unknown, and their authen-

364 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
ticity questionable ; and the Sixth Council in Trudo decreed
that such writings should be burned. (See Legends.)
Churches, besides their own special calendars, had a book
containing the acts of other confessors and martyrs, so that
on the anniversary of their death the story might be read
out in church ; and this was the origin of martyrologies. A
calendar contained merely the name of the saint, the date of his
death, and the day of his commemoration ; but a martyrology
embraced a notice of his family, the place and date of his
suffering, and the name of his judge. Ad churches had
calendars, but very few had a complete martyrology of their
own. Eusebius cads it a coHection (synagoge) of ancient
martyrs.
Masonry. Pre-Norman, Saxon, or Danish. Long and short
work in quoins and jambs ; blocks laid alternately flat and
upright, the latter being the longer. Early Norman, Ashlar
with wide joints of mortar ; opus reticulatum, diamond-work,
square stones laid angularly; herringbone, stones laid
slantingwise instead of flat; often found in coarse rubble
or rag work, constructed of rough stones, irregular in size
and shape. In the Early English period the stones were
laid with close fine joints, the first author being Bishop
Roger of Salisbury, in the twelth century. Flint-work ap
pears in the later styles.
Mass. The first names given to the administration of the
Sacrament of the body and blood of Christ were the Break
ing of Bread (Acts xx. 6, 7), the Lord's Supper (1 Cor. n.
20), or Communion (1 Cor. x. 18). It was also called, by
way of eminence, the mystery, the sacrament, the oblation
or prosphora, the sacrifice, Dominicum (the Lord's), agenda
(the action), synaxis and collecta (the assembly), the solem
nities, the service, the supplication, the mystical or Divine
Eucharist or eulogy (the thanksgiving), the office, the spec
tacle, the consecration, the unbloody sacrifice, the supper,
the table, the latria (worship) , the universal canon ; and by
the Greeks also the hierurgia (sacred action), and the good,
by excellence, and metalepsis (the Communion) in the Apos
tolical Canons. These terms served either to explain to the
faithful the meaning of the service, or in times of persecution
to conceal its real nature from the profane and persecutors.
In Acts xiii. 22, it is spoken of as the Liturgy. The term

mass. 365
Mass is ancient, having been used by Clement I., Alexan
der, Telesphorus, Soter, and Felix (c. 100-275). It has been
derived from the Hebrew missach (Deut. vi. 10), a volun
tary or free-will offering, or from mincha, an oblation of
meal (Levit. vi. 14, 15 ; Malachi i. 11). The term undoubtedly
is employed by St. Ambrose in the fourth century (c. 385),
and really is derived from the word missa, low Latin, for
missio, the sending up prayers with sacred ceremony to the
Most High, the oblations of the faithful being transmitted
to God's throne, or from the dismissal of the catechumens,
with the words still used in the Roman Mass " Ite missa
est," like the Oriental apolusis, " Go, it is the dismissal."
St. Augustine says, after the sermon occurs the missa (the
dismissal) of catechumens ; the faithful will remain. The
Fourth Council of Carthage, Florus, Remy of Auxerre,
Avitus of Vienna, and Isidore of Seville, coincide in this
view. The name of Mass was extended to the day and
night offices and festivals, because the Holy Communion
formed the great feature in those services, and on those days ;
and for this reason even fairtimes held on festivals were
called sometimes by this name. Hesychius says that the
first celebration took place on the day of Pentecost. In 1549
in the English Church the word Mass had given place to the
expression High Communion, the Communion of the Virgin
or Apostles, but these were forbidden in St. Paul's'by the
Council very shortly after. From 1549 to 1552, when there
was a daily celebration in cathedrals, the heading of the ser
vice in the Prayer Book ran, " The Supper of the Lord, and
Holy Communion," commonly caded the Mass. Melchize-
dek's sacrifice of bread and wine was a type of the offering
in the Last Supper by Christ, the Priest after the Order of
Melchizedek (Ps. ex. 4; Heb. vii, 17-21). The manna was
another type (St. John vi. 51). The Mass of the Catechu
mens comprises the preparation at the foot of the altar, the
short sermon and succeeding parts as far as the Offertory;
the Mass of the faithful commences at the Offertory, or
oblations (Csesarius of Aries says), and continues to the dis
missal. Before 960, apparently, the priest said the canon
without book, but in that year he was required to have it open
before him, for fear of making a mistake in the words.
In the first ages the bishop always celebrated in company

366 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
with other bishops or priests ; this custom was known as the
Lesser Liturgy, or concelebration, and is mentioned in the
Apostolical Constitutions and the Council of Ephesus. At
ordinations the practice was preserved. The Councd of
Clermont enjoined that on principal feasts, especially at
Christmas and Easter, the country priests, instead of cele
brating separately, should assist the bishop in his cathedral ;
when bishops visited each other-, they had the privilege of
concelebrating. At Lyons still, at Pontifical or Solemn
Mass, celebrated by a dignitary or canon, he has four or six
assistant priests vested as for Mass ; when the bishop occu
pies his throne at the end of the presbytery, the priests sit
beside him ; and when he goes up to the altar, they accom
pany him, and take their places on either side of it. In
England, in 1279, when a bishop died, ad the bishops at the
next council held a concelebration, saying a united Mass for
his repose.
At Rome, in times of persecution, Holy Communion was
said in prison, in private houses, as St. Paul did (Acts xx.
11), and in the catacombs; indeed, for some time after,
from tender and holy association, after the Church had
peace, the crypts were still used for the same purpose. By
the English Canons of 994, Mass was to be said in churches
only, except in the army, and then under a tent, with a hal
lowed (portable) altar. In 1076 an English Council again
forbade the saying of Mass, except in a consecrated budding.
In 1342 noblemen, if aged or living far from a church, re
ceived the bishop's licence to have Mass in their private
chapel, or oratory.
At first, celebration occurred only on Sundays (1 Cor.
xvi. 1) ; and in the time of Justin Martyr, after the second
century, the Western Christians communicated on Sundays
and Wednesdays and Fridays. In the fourth century the
Greek Church added Saturday ; now it maintains daily cele
bration. St. Augustine says that the practice differed in
various countries ; in some celebration was daily, in others
on Saturdays and Sundays, but in some on Sunday only ;
the daily celebration existed in Africa and Spain, and at
Constantinople; in the sixth century, it was general. St.
Ambrose mentions three celebrations in the week, St. Francis
one daily Mass, at Rome. After the fifth century, priests

mass. 367
were allowed on certain days, called Polyliturgic, to cele
brate twice. Pope Deusdedit first enjoined a second Mass
in a day. Alexander I. permitted a priest to celebrate only
once a day. Leo IV. forbade private Masses ; but stid there
were several festivals besides Christmas when the priest said
Mass three times in a day. Leo III. sometimes celebrated
seven or eight times within twelve hours ; and it was not
until the close of the eleventh century that Alexander III.
directed that the same priest should say no more than one
Mass on the same day, Christmas excepted. The Councd of
Seligenstadt forbade a priest to exceed saying three Masses
in a day. From the sixth century these repeated Masses
said by the same priest may be dated, when private Masses
were not in common use ; and were permitted (as St. Leo
says) in order to satisfy the need of crowds of communicants,
and he calls it a form of tradition from the Fathers. At
length, when the pressure no longer existed, in the eighth
century there were four Masses at Christmas, two on the
Circumcision, and three on SS. Peter and Paul's Day, and
on Maundy Thursday. In France every priest was allowed
to say two Masses every day in Holy Week. Three Masses
were said on St. John Baptist's Day, one on the eve, in com
memoration of his being the Lord's messenger ; a second on
his Feast, in memorial of the Baptism in Jordan ; and the
third because he was a Nazarite from his birth. In 1222, in
England, Mass might be said twice by a priest on the same
day at Christmas, Easter, and in offices of the dead. The
three Christmas Masses were in honour of Christ, as the only
begotten of the Father; His Spiritual birth in Christians,
and His nativity of a woman. A restriction by the Councd
of Autun (613), was in force until the tenth century, against
celebration by a priest at the same altar twice on one day, or
where Pontifical Mass had been said. Priests who celebrated
more than once collected all the ablutions of their fingers in
one chalice, and the contents being emptied into a cup, were
drunk at the last Mass by a deacon, clerk, or layman in a
state of grace, or innocent. The day when no Mass was
offered, except that of the Mass of the Presanctified, which
was called ahturgic.
The Holy Communion was celebrated at first at night, out
of pure necessity, or, as Pliny says, before daybreak ; and

368 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Tertullian calls the meeting the Night Convocation, or that
before light. But in time the Church prescribed the Mass
to be said at tierce on festivals, but always after tierce in
England in 1322 ; on common days at sexts, in Lent and on
fasts at nones, or 3 p.m. In the middle ages, the nightly
celebrations were permitted on Christmas Eve, on Easter
Eve, on St. John Baptist's, principally in France, and Sa
turdays in Ember weeks, when ordinations were held ; and
Easter and Pentecost, on the hallowing of the candle. In
1483 Archbishop Bourchier, from regard to his infirmity,
received permission to celebrate in the afternoon. There
are several Masses. Beleth says each day had its Mass,
commencing on Sunday; those of Holy Trinity, Charity,
Wisdom, the Holy Ghost, Angels, Holy Cross, and St. Mary ;
and that at Rome, and in the province of Ravenna, the Mass
of Easter Eve was not said until after midnight. He adds,
that the Greek Church excommunicated all who failed to par
take of the Eucharist for three Sundays. See Invitatory.
(1.) High Mass, grand mass, the principal, capitular,
canonical or conventual Mass, is sung with music and
solemn ceremony, and the assistance of numerous ministers.
The priest is assisted by a deacon and subdeacon, two taper-
bearers, a thurifer or censer-bearer, a master of the ceremo
nies and sacristan. Communion is seldom given at high
Mass. Pontifical high Mass is sung by a bishop. (2.) Low
Mass is said by a priest attended by a single clerk. (3.)
Private Mass is said in a private oratory on any day by a
priest who alone communicates, and with, perhaps, a single
assistant. St. Ambrose celebrated in a private house ; the
father of St. Gregory Nazianzen celebrated in his room ; so
did Paulinus of Nola ; and Constantine the Great had a
private oratory in his palace, and a moving chapel which ac
companied him to the wars. The English Church requires
two other communicants at the administration to a sick
person. Becon says Masses were called private or special,
golden, and canonical. (4.) Mass in honour of St. Mary and
saints. (5.) Votive Mass said by way of supplication or
thanksgiving. (6.) Mass for the dead. These, of course,
are all comparatively modern, more or less. The holy com
munion was said at funerals, it appears from Tertullian, St.
Ambrose, St. Epiphanius, St. Augustine, St. Cyril of Jeru-

mass. 369
salem, and St. Chrysostom. The present "collect" in the
English burial service is provided for this purpose ; and a
form of service was drawn up in the reign of Elizabeth.
(7.) The Mass of the Presanctified : celebration with a por
tion of a Host, sometimes called the Familiar, previously
consecrated on Maundy Thursday and placed in a chalice of
unconsecrated wine; used in the Latin Church from the time
of St. Augustine on Good Friday only, but in the Greek Church
from the time of the Councd of Trullo, or possibly that of
Laodicea, every day in Lent except Sundays, Saturdays,
Maundy Thursday, and the Annunciation. The Ambrosian
rite prescribes it on all Fridays in Lent. On Sunday
five additional loaves are consecrated. In imitation of the
Roman use, at evening on the weekdays the faithful meet at
Vespers, and during the prayers consume the elements,
having recited the gradual, psalms, certain hymns, lections,
and prayers prescribed by the Euchologion. In the time
of Pope Innocent I. c. 450, Mass was not said on Good
Friday or Easter Eve, through grief at our Lord's death, and
in memory of the dispersion of the terrified Apostles. (8.)
The Mass at cock-crow was the first Mass on Christmas Day
at Sens and Wells. (9.) The Mass of the Holy Ghost, a
solemn Mass for the Pope, the Sovereign, and ad in union
with the Church or a religious order ; sung before councils, or
the election of a bishop or abbot, and also at consecrations
and coronations. In general chapters of the great monastic
orders, there were three Masses sung : 1, of the Holy Ghost ;
2, for all the faithful dead ; and, 3, for departed brethren of
the order. (10.) A dry Mass — missa sicca — one in which
there was neither consecration nor communion. (11.) St.
Mary Mass in harvest (so called in 877) : the feast of the
Assumption, August 15th. (12.) Matin Mass, the first Mass
said in the day, at the matin altar in choir, or the rood altar
in the nave. At Lichfield it was also called Our Lady Mass.
(13.) Mary Mass were the Annunciation and Purification ;
in 101 7 there was a daily Lady Mass in cathedrals, minsters,
and most large churches. (14.) Peter Mass, August 1st,
when Peter Pence were collected. (15.) The Mass of the
Overthrow of the Idols is the name for the Mass on Circum
cision in the south-east part of Europe, in allusion to the
destruction of paganism. 2 B

370 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Massa Candida. Quicklime or burning oil by which martyrs
were put to a terrible death.
Massarius. A chamberlain ; massa communis was the com
mon fund of a cathedral.
Mass Penny. A conventional name for the offering made by
a chief mourner at a funeral.
Mass Priests. Mercenaries hired at a certain sum, who under
took an immoderate number of annals or trentals, and were
unable to say them, and sold them to be offered by others.
This abuse was forbidden in 1236 by Archbishop Edmund's
Constitutions. (2.) In 960 the mass priest was the secular
and the minster priest the conventual, and this is the earliest
meaning of the term.
Master of Ceremony. An officer of the Pope who superin
tends the order of processions and religious ceremonial.
He wears a purple cassock and surplice ; on festivals his
cassock is red. The master of the ceremonies is a clergy
man who acts as director at a High Mass. His place is
at the south-west angle of the altar steps, behind the sub
deacon.
Masters of the Church. Mentioned in 673; learned clergy
who sat as advisers of the bishops in synods. (2.) The resi-
dentiaries at Chichester and Lincoln ; Master of the Sacred
Palace, the Pope's theologian and licenser of the press, a
Dominican since the time of Pope Honorius III. There
were several masters in a minster, Master of the Lady Chapel,
being its keeper ; Master of the Choristers ; Master of the
Common Hall, Calefactory, or Parlour ; Master of Con
verts, the superintendent of lay-brothers ; the Master of
the Novices, always an elderly monk ; Master of the Song-
school ; Master of the Shrine, at Durham called Feretrar,
Tumbarer at Worcester, and Keeper at Norwich ; Masters of
the Order or Custodes, the great officers of a monastery (at
Evesham the vineyard-keeper and gardener were included) ;
Masters of the Anniversary and of the Table are mentioned
at Canterbury ; Master of the Works or Fabric (Fr. Proviseur
de la Fabrique ; Lat. supervisor operis, operarius, Magister
operis, Sp. obrero). The names of the designers, Flambard,
Poore, De Berrington, and Billesleigh at Durham ; Godfrey
de Noyers, at Lincoln ; Gower and De Leia, at St. David's ;
Parys, at Peterborough; Elias de Dereham, at Salisbury;

MASTLIN  MICHAELMAS. 371
and of Alan de Walsingham, and J. de Wisbech at Ely, are
stid preserved. R. Farleigh, " mason or builder," at Salis
bury, as guardian of the fabric under the Master of the
Works, received 6d. sterling a day, and 10 marks quarterly.
The Domus Operaria (the designing house) remains at Glou
cester in the Close ; and at Lincoln, adjoining the passage to
the cloisters ; and at Christchurch, Hants, over the transept
chapel. Every cathedral and monastery had its own regular,
but not numerous, gang of workmen, in its employ, regularly
at work every day, year after year, large numbers being
taken on upon special occasions only. The monks and
canons sometimes worked as masons or carpenters, and the
bishop or prior, or one of the body, usually the sacristan or
treasurer, was architect, the clerk of the works being the
practical architect (apparaideur du maitre des ceuvres, or
contre-maitre ; Lat. constructor) .
Mastlin. A kind of brass.
Matricula. The canon of church register, containing a list
of the clergy. The term matriculation for admission on the
list of undergraduates is still used in our universities. The
matricular was (1) the sacristan's servant, who rang the bells
and woke the convent ; (2) A chaplain priest in Italy who
was registrar, and had charge of the baptistry, cemetery,
and belfry .; (3) The almoner at Corbey.
Matthew's Day.. September 21st ; in the Greek Church, No
vember 16th. Is mentioned in St. Jerome's Comes, and was
generally observed in the eleventh century.
Michaelmas. The commemoration of the dedication of St.
Michael's Church on Mount Gasganus, kept on September
29; mentioned in the ' Saxon Chronicle' in 1011, and in
Ethelred's Laws, 1014. The apparition of St. Michael, "the
prince of seraphim, leader of the angelic hosts, prefect of
paradise," and " conductor of souls " to the place of repose,
to whom cemetery chapels and churches on hills were in
consequence dedicated, was observed on May 8. In the
tenth century there was a curious superstition that on every
Monday morning St. Michael sang High Mass in heaven.
There is a tradition that the feast was instituted by
Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, in the fourth century.
It was generally observed about the eighth century, and
recognized, in 813, by the Council of Mayence. The em-
2 B 2.

372 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
peror Manuel Comnenus, in the twelfth century, formally
established it in the Greek Church.
Matutinal. A book containing the Matin office.
Maundy. A dole of alms and food given weekly or daily to
the poor at a convent gate.
Maundy Thursday (Coena Domini, the Lord's Supper; or
Feria Quinta in Ccena Domini), so called from the manda-
tum, our Lord's new Commandment of Love (St. John xiii.),
through the first antiphon, Mandatum novum do vobis, or
Manducando, from eating the supper (1 Cor. xi. 24), was the
Thursday in the week before Easter. In medieval times it
was called the Birthday of the Chalice or the Eucharist, in
memory of the institution of the Eucharist ; in England
Sheer (or affliction) Thursday ; and in Austria Remission Day,
from the reconciliation of penitents previous to restoration
to communion at Easter. The altar stones were washed with
wine and water, in allusion to St. John xix. 34, and dried
with bloodwort, hard box, or yew brushes, in memory of the
crown of thorns. At Chartres and Autun they were rubbed
with fragrant herbs on Good Friday after this cleansing.
The day was observed as early as the fifth century by the cele
bration of holy communion and washing of the feet of others
(lavanda) ; catechumens also publicly recited the Creed in
the presence of the bishop and clergy ; and the sermon of the
day is still called mandato in Portugal. A large illuminated
cross, as it still is at Venice, was let down inside the cupola
of St. Peter's until the Papacy of Leo XII. In the East and
West the monks used to sup together after the Maundy.
(See Cloisters.) The Archbishop of Moscow still performs
the ceremonial. Cranmer says, " Our Lord did wash the
feet of His disciples, teaching humbleness and very love and
charity by His example. It is a laudable custom to wash
the altars and to prepare with all cleanness the places where
the most blessed Sacrament shall be ministered; and also to
be for us a remembrance that as those things inanimate are
washed and cleansed for that purpose, so we ought much
more to prepare and wash our minds and consciences at all
times, and especially at this time for the more worthy re
ceiving of the same most high Sacrament. We, in Hke
manner, as Christ washed His disciples' feet at His maundy,
should be ready at all times to do good unto our Christian

MAY BISHOPS  MEMORIAL. 373
brothers, yea, even to wash their feet, which seemeth to be the
most humble and lowly act that we can do unto them." At
Lichfield, and probably in other cathedrals destitute of clois
ters the ceremony of the maundy took place in the choir. At
York there are some stalls and aumbries in the north side of
the choir, which were probably connected with the ceremo
nial. The Clugniacs merely touched with wetted fingers the
feet of three poor men. The Benedictines and Cistercians
scrupulously washed the feet of the brethren, the abbot him
self not being excused. King James II. was the last English
king who performed the maundy at Whitehall. In lieu,maundy
money, consisting of sdver pence, is still given on this day
by the Lord Almoner to a certain number of poor persons cor
responding to the years of the sovereign's age. (See p. 17.)
May Bishops. Nullatenses, having only bare titles of bishop
rics. A term derived from the May lords in the rustic
summer games.
Mazer. A broad standing cup or drinking-bowl of maple or
walnutwood. There are several examples still existing — one
at Oriel College, Oxford ; and another belonging to the Iron
mongers' Company, the St. Mary bowl of the fifteenth
century, with silver bands ; a third of the time of Edward
I., at Harbledown" Hospital, Canterbury, with rims and bases
of silver gilt, which was used on St. Nicholas's Day for the
common feast. (See Bowls.)
Mediety or Portion. A division of a rectory church into several
parsonages or vicarages, reprobated in England in 1237 by
the Legate Otto, who ordered that where it was of old order
the bishop must see that the income was properly divided,
and regions or districts carefully assigned. The decrees of
Pope Dionysius, the Councils of Toulouse, Rheims, and
Lateran, under Alexander III. and Innocent III., forbade
plurahties of benefices with cure of souls to one man.
Mediocres or Second Grade. Monks from 24 to 40 years of
age who were exempted from being taper-bearers, the read
ing of the epistle, gospel, martyrology, and collation, in
chapter, and parva cantaria, chanting the offices.
Member. (1.) A moulding. (2.) A subordinate portion of a
building.
Memorial. (1 .) A prayer of oblation ; the prayer in the order of
the Communion beginning " 0 Lord and heavenly Father,"

374 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
which follows the communion of the faithful. (2.) The tomb
of a martyr, or a church dedicated to his memory. (3.) The
commemoration of a concurrent lesser festival by the use of
its collect. (4.) Exequies, an office for the dead said by the
priest in the fourteenth century in England.
Mensa. The upper immoveable slab of stone of one piece laid
on a cube of stonework in an altar. The lower part of the
altar of St. Dunstan in the Pyx Chapel, Westminster, is of
the eleventh century, square and unadorned.
Merenda. (From meridies.) The midday meal ; dinner.
Meridian. The siesta or noonday sleep in a convent, allowed
to be taken during one hour after hall time.
Mesorion. An intermediate office in the Greek Church after
Proton, Triton, Ekton, Ennaton; but omitted after Luch-
nikon and Hesperinon ; Apodeipnon ; Mesonuktion (matins) ;
and Orthron (lauds).
Metropolitans were called primates, first bishops, heads in the
Apostolical Constitutions, bishops of the first see by the
Third Council of Carthage, bishops of the first chair by the
Council of Seville, and in Africa seniors. The name of arch
bishop does not occur before the fourth century, when it is
mentioned by St. Athanasius. Beveridge, Ussher, Wolf,
Schelestrate, and De Marca recognize Titus and Timothy as
the earliest metropolitans, and Eusebius and St. Chrysostom
speak of the one as president of the Churches of Crete, and
the other as chief governor of those of Asia. St. Cyprian
speaks also of the bishops of his province. St. Paul sent
epistles only to the chief cities in each province, and St.
John in the Revelation addressed the principal cities.
Corinth and Thessalonica were evidently regarded by the
former as the metropolitical cities of Macedonia and Achaia.
St. John fixed his see at Ephesus; St. Peter at Antioch
and Rome ; and St. Mark, his disciple, at Alexandria.
The metropolitans exercised a veto on the election of a
bishop. The dignity is purely of spiritual creation, and can
not be made by grant of the civil magistrate or royal patent.
The Council of Chalcedon enacted that any bishop who
attempted by court favour to have his see erected into an
archbishopric should be deposed, and any one made by the
imperial authority should hold only the bare title, without
power or jurisdiction. Metropolitans were also archbishops,

MATURINES — MINIATURE. 375
which is, in fact, the generic title for them, as for patriarchs
and primates, ranking after a patriarch ; a primate being their
chief, and the metropolitan presiding over a certain number
of cities in the mother city or chief town of a province, as
Rome, Ravenna, Aquileia, and Milan, and, in Charlemagne's
time, nineteen other towns, whereas an archbishop might
have no suffragans. The Archbishops of Saltzburg, Ham
burg, Oviedo, and Bourges, and other cities in France, were
metropolitans. The right of erecting a cathedral into a me-
tropolitical church was reserved to the Pope, as Adrian I.
erected Lichfield into a metropolitical see with six suffragans,
Worcester, Leicester, Stow, Hereford, Elmham, and Dun
wich, leaving Canterbury only London, Rochester, Win
chester, Sherborne, and Selsea, in 785, till Leo III., in 803,
restored the jurisdiction to Canterbury. But St. David's,
like Caerleon before it, was an archbishopric without the pall,
untd Henry I. reduced Wales to dependence on Canterbury.
During the quarrel between the king and a Becket, Gilbert
Foliot endeavoured to secure the title of metropolitan for the
see of London; in 1093 Thomas of York, claiming the same
title, successfully contested the claim of Canterbury to be the
metropolis of all Britain. Pope Sixtus IV. made St. An
drew's metropolitan and independent of York ; and Pius IV.
created Utrecht, Mahnes, and Cambrai. The term is first
used by the Council of Nicsea in 325, and corresponds to
that of the Greek exarch. The Bishop of Alexandria was
metropolitan in Egypt, the Bishop of Csesarea in Palestine,
and Chalcedon was made metropolitan in the time of the
Emperor Marcian. Until the time of Alcuin Apostolical was
used as a synonym. The rights of a metropolitan were to
consecrate suffragans, to convene provincial councils, to
settle disputes among bishops, and to superintend the faith
and discipline in his province.
Maturines or Trinitarians. An order for the redemption of
captives, founded by John de Matha, of Provence (born
1154, died 1214,) under the Austin rule, and confirmed by
Innocent III. It was called in England the Order of Ing
ham, and established itself here in 1357. It had twelve
houses. The Order of Mercy was also founded for the re
demption of captives.
Miniature. Pictures illustrating the text of a MS., so called

376 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
because filling up the outline sketched in vermilion (mi
nium.)
Minims. An order of Franciscans (least of all), founded by
Francis di Paula (born 1416), and confirmed in 1473 by
Sixtus IV. They were often called Bonhommes. The habit
was tawny, with a hood, a scapular, and leathern girdle.
Their superior was called a corrector.
Minister. (1.) An inferior clerk in a cathedral. (2.) An
officiating clerk in holy orders, ministering God's Word and
Sacraments. (3.) A priest until the last review of the Prayer
Book, and in the Canons of 1603.
Minister of the Altar. The server at Mass, in 1195, provided
pure bread, wine, and water for the Mass.
Minor Canon. Petty canon, petty prebendary, or sub-canon.
(1.) A vicar in priest's orders in the old foundations ; a repre
sentative and auxdiary who celebrated at the high altar in
the absence of a canon. Generally there were four, as at
Hereford and Lichfield; eight at Rouen. In most cases
they were the vicars of the four dignitaries, but at Hereford
represented the abbots of Lyra and Cormedles. At St.
Patrick's they were founded in 1431, and there were petty
canons also at Toledo. At Salisbury the word designated
the prebendaries who were in minor orders, and at York a
major canon was one who had kept the greater residence. At
St. Paul's they form a college, instituted in 1395, over and
above the thirty vicars. The latter sung the Matin and Lady
Mass, but the minor canons chanted the Mass of requiem for
their founder, as well as the Apostles' and high, or chapter
Masses, being required in addition to attend ad the hours.
All were priests under a superior, called the warden. Their
almoner looked after the choristers. The two cardinals, who
had a double stipend, were parish priests of the close. They
furnished the librarian, subdean, succentor, and divinity lec
turer, and the perpetual gospeller and epistoler. In 1378
they wore surplices, dark almuces of calabre, lined with
minever, with a black cope and hood, trimmed with silk or
linen. (2.) A subordinate and stipendiary priest, appointed
by the dean and chapter, in the new foundations ; and by the
original constitution the number equalled that of the canons,
and the stipend half that of the latter. They had a share in
the quotidian. In the time of Charles I. their numbers were

MINSTER — MINSTREL. 377
reduced, and stdl further by the recent Act of Spoliation.
They lived in a common hall, until the time of the civil wars,
along with the schoolmasters, lay singers, and choristers.
The minor canons of Chester alone possess an estate. Minor
canons are removeable by the dean and chapter, and are now
choral substitutes of the canons residentiary, officiating in
turn, under their authority, jointly with the dean.
Minster- — miinster, moustier — meant originally, as in the writ
ings of Cassian, St. Athanasius, and Jerome, the cell of a
solitary; but the word was extended by Eusebius to em
brace the church or abode of a religious community. (1.) A
church of regular canons. (2.) A church formerly served by
monks, as at Durham ; in Germany the term Miinster is stdl
employed, and Marmoutier in France — majus monasterium —
(great minster). (3.) A cathedral, as York, Salisbury, Lin
coln, Ripon, etc. (4.) Many large churches, as Beverley,
Wimborne, Southwell, though held by secular canons, were
dignified by the title of Minster. (5.) Parish churches, in
960, were called minsters, and several churches retain the
name in Dorsetshire. These were the original outposts of
the Church, isolated stations of priests living under rule and
in community, which in time became parishes.
Minster Ham. A sanctuary-house, in which persons might
have refuge for three days. If it was burdened with the
king's purveyance, they might remain for a longer period.
Minstrel. A name, in the thirteenth century, given to musi
cians and poets. The minstrels formed a corporation, under
the patronage of St. Judien ; and their chiefs, appointed by
the prince of the country, were called kings of the minstrels,
and wore a crown. At St. Mary's, Beverley, one of the nave
pillars bears the inscription, in Latin, "Pray for the souls of the
players ;" on the capital there are five figures, habited as min
strels, and bearing musical instruments painted, the harp, lute,
treble and bass flute, and tabor. (See Gallery.) The minstrels
were incorporated by King Athelstan to control all minstrels
between Trent and Tweed. They held a congress annually at
Beverley to choose an alderman and other officers of the fra
ternity. These waits or histriones gradually degenerated, and
in the time of Elizabeth were ranked with rogues, and with
in recent times wore a municipal dress, a chain, and badge,
confining their duties to a serenade at Christmas-time, and

378 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
playing before the mayor and civic authorities at processions
and local festivities. The angel-choir of Lincoln represents,
in the spandrils ef the triforia, the angelic minstrelsy.
Miracle Play, The. French and German Mystery. The re
presentation of the acts of a saint. The earliest on record,
that of St. Katharine, was played at Dunstable in the twelfth
century, by a graduate of Paris and his scholars. But in the
tenth century such representations had been not unfrequent
in that university. Archbishop Langton, Bishop Grosteto,
and Baston, a Carmelite, in the thirteenth century, wrote
plays in Norman-French; and John Lydgate, a monk of
Bury, in the fifteenth century, produced similar dramas.
At the close of the twelfth century London was famous for
its scenic representations of the miracles wrought by con
fessors, and the sufferings of martyrs. In the fourteenth
century Chaucer and the author of ' Piers Ploughman's
Crede ' show that these plays were the popular amusements
of the day. At the Clerken-well the parish clerks then
acted before the king, and the choristers of St. Paul's be
sought the royal protection for their Christmas play of the
history of the Old Testament, which was to be produced at
a considerable outlay. No doubt the idea of the mystery
was derived from the liturgical drama, — the symbolical re
presentations prevalent within the Church of sacred events.
The sculptures of St. Etheldreda round the octagon of Ely
are a mystery in stone. Plays are said to have been repre
sented on Sundays at St. Paul's and in the Chapel Royal
until the time of Charles I. In the Middle Ages, when the
Church was unable to repress the popular taste for the stage,
we find, side by side, two classes of dramas, one laic and
secular, the other ecclesiastical, religious, and moral. The
two motives meet in the ' Morgante Maggiore ' of Pulci. A
German abbess, Hoswritha of Gandersheim, in the tenth cen
tury, introduced plays, written in Terentian Latin, and repre
senting nuns reclaimed to the cloister from a life of vice.
During the eleventh and twelfth centuries the religious drama
spread rapidly through England, France, and Spain; and
the scene sometimes extended from the sanctuary to the
porch. At length the adoption of the vernacular and the
introduction of action instead of expressive dumb-show, led
to vulgar diction and buffoonery. In 1548 the French Parlia-

MIRACLE PLAY. 379
ment prohibited all except honest plays, owing to the scan
dals which arose during the play of the ' Acts of the Apos
tles,' in which five hundred actors took part. It occupied
forty days in representation at Bourges. In 1417 the En-
ghsh bishops had plays acted before the Council of Constance,
and the clergy took part in such representations, just as the
monks (and notably Benedictines) and canons did at Thetford,
St. John's, Beverley ; Lincoln, in the time of Edward III.,
Woodkirk, St. Florian, St. Benignus, Dijon ; Corbey, and
Eisenach. In 1492 the Franciscans of Coventry acted miracles
on Corpus Christi Day, as their brethren in London played
the Passion in 1556. In 1519 Cardinal Wolsey forbade the
Austin canons to act, but at a later date the chaplains and
choristers of the Duke of Northumberland acted at Easter
and Christmas. In 1526 the canons of Lille acted a comedy
(that is, a play in acts) in the open air. At Veletri and other
Italian towns mysteries long lingered. In the church of
Ara CceH, at Rome, the representation of the Prassepe and
Bambino stdl takes place at Christmas. At Ober Ammer-
gau the Passion-play is a decennial representation, and at
Barcelona very recently the mystery was still in vogue. The
' Autos Sacramentales ' of Calderon hold the highest rank in
this remarkable class of literature. They were acted on Cor
pus Christi at Seville, Toledo, and Madrid.
Mysteries were commonly played on saints' days, and de
generated into monstrous abuses and licence. At Nivelles,
on Whitsun-Monday a young girl sitting by a horseman,
represented St. Germanus, whilst a youth, playing a thou
sand fantastic tricks, did aU in his power to make her laugh.
At Courtrai, on Good Friday, a poor man received £25 to
personate the Saviour bearing His cross and endure the
blows inflicted by six Capuchins on one side and six Recollects
on the other. Similar exhibitions took place at Brussels in
the church of the Augustines ; in honour of the rosary, by
the Dominicans at Venice ; and on Corpus Christi Day, with
burlesque pantomimes, in Spain, carried on by the Discipli-
ners. These plays soon overpassed the traditional language
of the Church, and adopted the homely vernacular, becoming
so popular that they were acted no longer in the close, which
became too strait for the audience, but on hillsides, in ceme
teries, and public places where scaffolds could be erected.

380 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
In fact, one part of the population was often engaged in
amusing the rest. The transition from the church to the
exterior was gradual. On Whitsunday 1313 the guilds of
the skinners and curriers of Paris, within the aisles Of Notre
Dame, performed in dumb -show, with musical accompani
ment, the mystery of ' Reynard the Fox ' and ' Paradise and
Hell,' in which the performers wore the disguise of various
beasts. The Church tried to check the people, but the tem
poral soon leavened the spiritual element.
The acting of plays was not confined to the clergy. Secular
actors,as in the Prsemonstratensian refectoryat Paris, or gudds,
represented the mysteries. Menestrier thinks that the first
impulse was given by the pdgrims returning from the shrines
of Compostella, St. Michael, or Le Puy, and chanting recita
tive songs of a sacred character, a spectacle which so excited
the interest of the citizens of Paris that they built a perma
nent theatre for plays on festivals. In England the trading
companies shared the expense, and each guild took its part
in what was called the pageant, — a lay show or spectacle of
detached scenes, acted by relays of independent brother
hoods, almost invariably on Corpus Christi Day, but at
Chester at Whitsuntide. In 1313 the guilds had a dumb-
show, with musical accompaniments, at Paris. At St. Quen
tin, in 1452, a mystery was played. But England was the
home of such shows. They are mentioned at Cambridge in
1355, in London in 1348; at Chester they were commenced
before the abbey-gate so early as 1268. They lasted tdl
1577, at Coventry till 1591, at Newcastle till 1598, and at
York from the close of the thirteenth until late in the six
teenth century. At the dissolution of the guilds they passed
into the universities. In 1564 Queen Elizabeth witnessed
one at Cambridge, and at Ely House the ' Passion of Christ '
was acted on Good Friday in the reign of James I., and
about the same period Corpus Christi plays were acted at
Preston and Lancaster. That which had been the delight of
kings, however, had descended to the amusement of the
common people only. At Tewkesbury plays were acted in
1583, and the Guary (play) Miracles in Cornwall about the
same period.
Misericord. (1.) Subselha, Sp. subsilia, the folding seat of a
stall. (See Stalls.) There is an Early English specimen in

MISSAL. 381
the Lady Chapel at Westminster. (2.) A compassionate
mitigation of full penance. (3.) According to Lyndwood, a
custom in certain monasteries of relieving a number of monks,
in alternate weeks, from attendance in choir and claustral
duties. (4.) A hall for eating flesh-meat in a monastery at
Tewkesbury, Westminster, Worcester, and Peterborough.
Some convents, as Canterbury and Westminster, had coun
try hospitals for convalescents. In the latter case it was at
Chelsea.
Missal. Called in early times the Sacramentary, and in Scot
land the Cursus. The book of prayers and chants used in
the Mass, compiled by Gelasius and Gregory the Great, and
revised by Celestine, c. 422, and Leo the Great. Salvian,
Musseus, a priest of Marseilles, and Voconius, Bishop of
Castellana, drew up sacramentaries. Some copies, as re
quired in every parish by the bishops, contained the gospels,
the sacramentary, prayers, prefaces, benedictions, and the
canon, the lectionary, a book of epistles, and the antiphonar
— in a word, all that was to be sung by the priest at the
altar and by the minsters in the ambon. These books were
called Plenars (complete, or full), but usually their contents
were distributed into separate volumes, the gradual, collectar,
benedictional, hymnar, etc. The complete missal was requi
site when priests, from the ninth century, began to say low
Masses, and especially for country clergy ; as laymen, by the
Capitulars of 789, were forbidden to sing the lessons and
Alleluia, and the priests were required to sing the Sanctus
with the people before the canon was commenced. The
earliest Frank, Gothic, or Gallican missals, of the sixth cen
tury, contained only the portion of the liturgy recited by a
bishop or priest, that is, the canon, prayers, and prefaces. At
a later date those of small churches comprised the Introit,
Gradual, Alleluia, Tract, Offertory, Sanctus, and Communion,
where, although there were a deacon and subdeacon, yet the
smallness of the choir required the celebrant and his two
assistants to chant together. The missal, mainly compiled
by Pope Leo, was amplified by Gelasius, corrected by Pope
Gregory, and reformed by Pius IV. Celestine required the
psalter, besides the epistles and gospels, to be said, but his
successors, to avoid wearying priest and people, substituted
collects and versicles, e. g. the Introit, Gradual, Offertory,

382 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
and Post-Communion. St. Augustine insisted on uniformity
of ritual in Africa.
Mistral. A corruption of ministerial. A provost at Vienne
who acted as prefect of the city, delegated by the archbishop.
A canon who looked after the prebendal estates.
Mitre. The mitra or mitella was worn by virgins like a
kind of veil, and is mentioned by Optatus of Milevi;
and the mitre was used by some Eastern sovereigns ;
probably it was the same as Aaron's tiara (Exod. xxix. 6 ;
Lev. viii. 9), "the mitre upon his head; upon his fore
head the golden plate, the holy crown ;" " the holy crown
upon the mitre ;" and in early times it was simply a
small band or narrow plate of precious metal (petalum)
tied about the head, such as St. John the Evangelist,
St. James the Less, and St. Mark are said to have worn by
St. Jerome and Eusebius ; the latter terms the mitre " Ste
phanos," or crown, and St. Gregory Nazianzen caUs it the
kidaris, or diadem ; corona was its name in the fourth
century, and a synonym for the episcopate. The Pope's
mitre is called the tiara. Until the sixth century it lost
nothing of its early simplicity, but at that date John of Cap-
padocia added to it ornamental embroidery, and images of
saints painted or in needlework. For some time, until the
twelfth century, it was merely a crown hollowed out in front
like a crescent, a modification of the horned or pointed cap,
which was its shape before the tenth century. The earliest,
of a cloven shape, were very low ; about the twelfth century
they were blunted, and usually white. In the fourteenth
century they were heightened and sumptuously enriched;
the points ended in jewelled crosses, and the edges orna
mented with crockets or leaves. In the fifteenth century
they became broader and higher. From 1300 until the
latter half of the century the outlines were very graceful.
The present shape is exceedingly ugly, and, as a witty
French cardinal observed, strongly resembles the undesirable
san benito. The two points symboHzed the two Testa
ments, which are diverse in rites and ceremonies; or the
hypostatical union of Christ ; or the helmet of salvation.
The two fanons or labels hanging down over the shoulders
represent the literal and spiritual sense of Scripture. They
originally were brought round like strings or ribbon-bands,

MITRE. 383
and tied under the chin to secure the mitre firmly on the
head ; their ends or pendants became in time mere orna
ments. The open top and jewellery have been considered
emblematical of the intellectual decoration of the prelate's
head, and the richness of the knowledge of Scripture, in
which precious examples of varied virtue blend their lustre
with the tissue of the sacred history. The mitre was formerly
of linen, as St. Bruno, Honorius of Autun, and Hugh de
St. Victor describe it ; but Durand, in the thirteenth century,
observes that this was " the former custom." The privilege of
wearing the mitre was a concession of the Popes, as to the
bishops of Hamburg by Pope Leo IV., and to those of
Utrecht by Pope Alexander III. Pope Leo IX. gave it to
canons of Bamberg in 1053. Pope Alexander II. is said to
have given it to a duke of Bohemia ; he undoubtedly gave it
to Egelsin, abbot of St. Augustine's, Canterbury, in 1059,
renewed 1173. The grant of the mitre was made to West
minster, 1167; Waltham, 1191; Thorney, 1200; Win
chester, 1249-53; Evesham, 1163 and 1230; Battel, 1370;
Malmesbury, 1380; Chester, 1324-49; Durham, 1374-91 ;
Peterborough, 1397; Gloucester, 1400; Tavistock, 1458;
Worcester, 1351 ; and Canterbury in 1378. In 1154 Adrian
IV. transferred the precedency from Glastonbury to St.
Alban's. The first summons of ecclesiastics to Parliament
was made in the forty-ninth year of Henry III., the king
calling up such as he thought fit. The Abbot of Jorevalle
and the Prior of Durham (in 1374) received the mitre, but
had no seat in Parliament. The religious summoned were
reduced by Edward III. in number to twenty-five abbots
and two priors, there having been in the reign of Henry III.
sixty-four abbots and thirty-six priors in Parliament. The
privilege was far from desirable to the greater abbots, who
looked upon it as a burden, and endeavoured by every means
to be excused from it. The omission of names in the rolls of
Parliament may be attributed to a vacancy in their houses,
and the fault of the clerks. The priors of St. James, North
ampton, and St. Mary de Pre, Leicester, the abbots of
Middleton and Burton, were occasionally summoned. The
abbots of Monte Cassino and St. Denis were mitred. The
first French mitred abbot was Hugh of Clugny, in 1088, by
permission of Urban II, Innocent III. granted the dis-

384 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
tinction to Vendome, but the honour had become so com
mon in time, and the bishops so seriously complained of the
abuse, that Pope Clement IV. confined the precious mitre
(orphreyed, and plated with gold or silver, but unjewelled)
to exempt abbots ; and to others, not so privileged, simple
white mitres, undecorated, and without the indent. In
synods and councils jewels marked the episcopal mitre.
There is a good example of a mitre of the fourteenth century
preserved at Beauvais. In 1217 the dean, matrescuela
(chancellor), treasurer, and archdeacon of Toledo; the pro
vost, dean, and chanter of Mayence ; since 1244 the provost,
celebrant, deacon, and subdeacon at Vienne and Macon ; the
provosts of Ghent, St. Die, and Lavantz ; and the celebrant
of Cambrai were mitred. There were several kinds of the
mitre: (1.) The precious, made of gems and gold and silver
plates; (2) the orphreyed, of white damask, covered with
pearls and gold thread; and (3) the simple, made of da
masked silk, bokeram (boquerammus, fine material of goats'
hair), or pure white linen (byssus), with red fringes (laci-
nise), and hanging fillets (vittse) . In 1386 the Prior of Win
chester wore a ring and plain mitre in the presence of the
bishop, and in his absence a silver mitre, pearled and
jewelled. Mitres and staffs of silver-gilt were carried at
the funerals of Juxon, Duppa, Frewen, Cosin, and Wren,
Trelawny (1721), and Lindsay (1724) ; the mitres only at the
burials of Monk and Feme, of bishops of Bristol in the
present century, and Bishop Torry at Perth. The effigies of
Hacket, Magrath, Harsnett, and Lamplugh had mitre and
staff in the seventeenth century ; those of Sterne, Dolben,
and Sharpe (1721) are mitred. The bishops appeared
mitred at the coronation of George III. In 1645, at York,
the vestry contained two double-gilt coronets, the tops with
globes and crosses, to set on either side of his grace, which
are called his dignities, upon his instalment when he takes his
oath. Two, of the earliest bishops of America, are preserved
in the United States. (See Canon, Cardinal, Coronet.)
Mixed Chalice of water and wine, in memory of water and blood
flowing from the Saviour's side, was instituted by Pope
Alexander L, of which the Jewish atonement was typical
(Heb. ix. 19, 20) ; it is also said by Cranmer to signify the
union of Christ's strength with the weakness of His people,

MIXTUM  MONASTERY. 385
or the union of His two natures in one person. Our Lord
drank of a cup with wine and water mingled. The 3rd
Council of Braga, 675, forbade the use of mdk or a sop.
Lanfranc in 1071 prescribed mingled wine and water, and
prohibited the use of beer or water only. In 1549 a little
pure and clean water was added to the wine in the chalice
before the prayer for the Church after the offertory. Bishop
Andrewes used a ton set upon a cradle on the altar, and a
tricanale, a round bad with a screw-cover, whereout issued
three pipes for the water of mixture. In 740, in England,
the practice of mixing wine with water in baptism was for
bidden.
Mixtum. A light meal of bread and wine taken in a Bene
dictine monastery before hall by the servers who had com
municated. Houselhng sippings of unconsecrated wine were
given to communicants at the end of Mass. Becon calls
them bottom blessings.
Modus. A payment in money which is by custom or pre
scription made in Heu of the whole tithe in kind.
Mola. (From the sacramental immolation of Christ, Beleth
says.) The middle of an altar, signed with the dedication
cross, and covering the sepulchre of relics.
Monastery. The monastery took its origin in the cell of the
hermit or soHtary ; graduady others were grouped round it,
and at length a community was formed. The little chapel
grew into a church ; the relics or grave of a sainted superior
or king attracted pilgrims and visitors, for whose accommo
dation guest-houses were erected ; traders and pedlars came
to sell their wares ; their booths were converted into sta
tionary shops ; fairs and markets granted to the abbot by
the king or feudal lord led to fresh accessions to the popula
tion ; the vdlage grew up, and at length developed into
the town, or even city. Such is the origin of most great
towns in England and on the continent. In the monastery
of Tabenna, founded by St. Pachomius, which was presided
over by an abbot for spirituals, and an economist or provost
for temporals, it was divided into houses, each having a
prior. These contained separate cells for three or four
monks, and as many cells made a clan or tribe. A large
house contained forty monks, and great monasteries had
thirty or forty houses. At Nitria, where there were 5000
2 c

386

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

solitaries, there was but one church, served by eight priests.
When there was a small community there was but one presi
dent ; where it was numerous they were divided into centuries
under a centurion, or deaneries under a dean, and obeyed
the canon or chief abbot (father), hegoumenos (president), or
archimandrite (chief shepherd). From the fourth century,
in the West, at the request of the people or their abbot, the
monks frequently took orders, and in the East at the instance
of the bishops, the archimandrites being sometimes elevated
to the episcopate, or acting as bishops' deputies at councils,
and their monks ranking after priests and deacons, who fre
quently came to study in their cloister. It was not until the
fifth century that the coenobites left the desert for the
suburbs of cities and towns; after the next century they
estabhshed their houses in them. Gregory in the sixth
century, and Boniface IV. in the seventh century promoted
monks to holy orders without transition through the lower
grades, and in consequence they bore the name of clerks.
It was then that St. Benedict restored the ancient discipline
of the cloister. The earliest written rule was that of St.
Basil, who was followed by Csesarius of Aries, Cassian, and
St. Martin of Tours, in France, and by Isidore of Seville in
Spain, the latter being retained until the eighth century.
The ancient dress was the colobium or lebitus, a linen
sleeveless dress ; a melotes or pera, a goatskin habit ; a
cowl covering the head and shoulders ; the maforte, a smaller
cowl, cross-shaped over the shoulders ; and a black pall. St.
Benedict introduced during manual labour the lighter scapular
reaching from the shoulders down the back, and the cowl
became a habit of ceremony and worn in choir. Borrowing
the language of the regular and secular canons, the monks
at length, when in their common habit they attended choir,
called it on ordinary service days " dies in cappis," in dis
tinction to " dies in albis," days in surplices or festivals, the
cope being black like the frock. The origin of monasticism
is attributed to Christian solitaries called Therapeutae, who
settled on the shores of the lake Mareotis; but the founders of
hermits were St. Paul and St. Antony of Egypt in the
Thebaid, about the middle of the fourth century, as described
by St. Jerome, when the Nitrian desert was crowded with
monks and nuns ; Erigenes or Hones in Mesopotamia ; Pa-

MONASTERY. 387
chomius and Hilarion in Palestine ; ^Ematha and Masarius
in Egypt and Syria. In Rome monastic observance without
restriction to the cloister is referred to Athanasius and some
priests of Alexandria, when they fled from their Arian perse
cutors, c. 341 ; and St. Jerome says that women adopted a
similar Hfe. St. Augustine mentions houses of prayer and
labour at Mdan. St. Martin of Tours founded the first
monastery in the West, at Liguge, near Poictiers, c. 360,
and Marmoutier. The chiefs only of these monasteries at
this time were in orders. Until the sixth century women
were allowed to rehnquish their state and marry. The
regular life of community was introduced by Eusebius of
Vercedi, c. 350. Theodoret mentions a large number of
monasteries both in the East and West, some founded
by St. Basd, c. 358 ; others by St. Augustine in Africa,
c. 390; and" some by St. Ambrose at Milan in 377. In 550
the rule of St. Basil, followed by ad Greek monasteries,
was introduced at Rome, but St. Benedict gradually
absorbed all other monks into his great rule. In 585 St.
Columban's rule of prayer, reading, and manual labour was
founded in Gaul. In 649 the Monothelite persecution in the
East furnished many monks to the Western Church, and in
the eighth century the Iconoclasts were the cause of a still
larger migration. In the thirteenth century St. Dominic
prevaded on women to observe a still stricter rule. The first
written rule — that of St. Basd, Bishop of Csesarea in the
fourth century, who embodied the traditional usages — was
derived from that of Pachomius, aimed at the combination
of prayer and manual tod, and was modified by St. Benedict,
the patriarch of Western monks, but in the eleventh century
was still vigorous in Naples. Polydore Vergil says that in
373 St. Basil first enacted the triple vows of chastity, poverty,
and obedience. In 410 Lerins was founded. The Bene
dictine rule spread rapidly in Italy before his death, in 543.
Maurus and Placidus spread it in France and Sicily ; others
introduced it into Spain, where monasteries are said to have
existed in 380 ; and in less than two centuries all the monastic
orders in the West were affiliated to it. St. Columban budt
the first abbey in England in 563, as he had done in Ireland ;
in the latter instance it was preceded only by the St.
Bridget's CeU at Kddare, which was famous in 521, and
2 c 2

388 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
established probably by St. Patrick. In 802 the Council
of Aix-la-Chapelle decreed that the Benedictine rule should
be universally adopted. From the tenth century it put forth
branches; Clugny, in 910, under its abbot, embraced the
rule; so did the Camaldolesi in 1020, from St. Romuald; the
Cistercians in 1098, from St. Robert; the Carthusians in
1080, from St. Bruno; the Valombro sans in 1060, from John
Gualberte; the Celestines in 1294, from Peter di Merona;
and the Olivetans in 1319. At Bangor in 603 there was a
monastery with seven portions, each consisting of three hun
dred monks, with their provosts or rectors. Benedict Biscop
in 677 built the monasteries at Wearmouth and Yarrow of
stone; and in 1035 Lanfranc united all the English abbeys
into one congregation. St. Maur in 1621 was the last in
stance of its reform. In the seventh century the rule was
observed in the East. Monasteries were caded ingenua if
exempt from their foundation, or libera if the grant or privi-
ledge had been made subsequently. Those which were not
exempt were compelled to render to the bishop obedience ;
annual fees called jus synodale, or circadas ; procurations, or
the provision of entertainment ; solemn processions, and
the right of celebrating Mass in their minsters. All abbots,
however, despite their repugnance, certainly after the ninth
century, were compelled to make the profession of canonical
obedience to the diocesan when receiving his benediction,
and this implied his right to give holy orders, consecrate
churches, altars, and cemeteries, and grant chrism, and
dimissory letters when the abbots travelled out of the diocese.
The foundation of the monastery was the dictate of religious
motives in the youth of the Church, but the reward of piety
was temporal also ; the estates of the founder were improved,
the vassals educated, order introduced, the sick and aged
tended, and handicrafts and useful arts taught. The in
trigues of the friars, the accumulation of wealth, and the
decay of discipline wrought the fall of the monasteries,
which was commenced by Wykeham, Fisher, Alcock, Chi-
chele, Beckington, the Countess of Salisbury, and Wolsey
for university foundations. " What, my lord," said Oldham
to Fox in 1513, " shall we build houses and provide liveli
hoods for a company of bussing monks, whose end and fall
we may live to see ?" It was a great and fatal error of the

MONEY STONE  MONK. 389
Reformation, Leighton thought, that the great abbeys had
not been preserved for places of education, and retreats for
men of mortified temper without vows. Henry VI. dissolved
the alien priories; Henry VIII., in 1535, the lesser, and in
1538 the greater monasteries. The extravagant waste of
the commissioners, the expense of bringing down special
juries from London to assess the value of each monastery,
the destruction of superb churches, ancient monuments, and
works of beauty, and the cost of pensions assigned to the
late occupants rendered the proceeds of little value to the
Crown, and the loss to the country and the poor irreparable.
In France, Spain, Austria, and Italy the same suppression
has taken place in less than a century.
Money Stone. The upper slab of a tomb, as at Carlisle, York,
and Dundry, on which payments were made.
Monk, (Monachos, soHtary.) (1.) The title of a metropolitan.
(2.) The ascetic, or continent, who, living on bread and dried
fruits in the week, and cooked pulse on Sundays, withdrew
into the Egyptian and Syrian deserts for purposes of reli
gious meditation, manual labour, and study, was the proto
type of the medieval monk, whose name he bore, and also of
the anchorite, or solitary, and hermit, the dweller in a solitude ;
the remobothi, mentioned by St. Jerome, lived in towns, in
parties of three or four. Cassian says the monastic life
was the child of mystic theology, which was the fruit of a
burning sun and a sky without rain. Since the third and
fourth centuries the name of monk designated a member of
a religious community, more correctly described as a coeno
bite (one living in common), or conventual. The Gyrovagi,
or wandering monks, are reprehended by St. Benedict as
worse than the Sarabaitse, monks of the time of St. Jerome,
who Hved in small societies of two and three in castles and
towns. In islands, because of "the hardness of monastic
life," St. Gregory the Great fixed the age of admission at
eighteen, and it was the English rule in 1222; in other
countries it was fourteen. King Sebbi was the first unpro-
fessed layman buried in the monastic habit. At' a later pe
riod still more frequently persons adopted the monastic
habit when life was in danger, and those who recovered
were bound to enter the cloister, and known as monachi
ad succurrendum. An incorrigible monk was sent for punish-

390 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
ment to a neighbouring convent, which had to spend two
pence a day on his maintenance.
Monogram of the Saviour. A combination of X and P, the
first two letters of the name of Christ, also forming a cross ;
sometimes it takes the appearance of a P set upon a Tau
cross in the East. It is often set within a crown or palm-
branch, or has the letters A and 12 on either side (c. 355) .
Ancient writers recognize in it the mystic seal (Ezek. ix.
4-6; Rev. vii. 2, xiv. 1). It is clearly of Eastern origin,
and was adopted by Constantine as one long consecrated to
Christian use. The letter P began to be disused, and the
X was retained only in the form of a Latin or Greek cross ;
and even now Xmas and Xians are common abbreviations.
The letters A 12 represent the initials of Alpha and Omega,
the designation of our Lord as the Beginning and the End
(Rev. i. 8, xxii. 13). St. Clement of Alexandria, and Ter
tullian both allude to this monogram; St. Ephiphanus
and Origen explain it as symbolical of the two natures of
Christ.
Monstrance. (Ostensorium; Sp. viril.) A species of vessel
used for showing the Eucharist. to the people; it is composed
of a stem, which supports a crystal case surrounded by rays
of glory, a transparent pyx, or tabernacle. At Conques
there is a sdver-gilt monstrance, with a large disc and a
double patriarchal cross above it; the lower portion is of
the fourteenth century, the upper part is a later remodelling.
In the fifteenth century the custom of carrying about and
exposing the Host began to be universady observed. The
festival of Corpus Christi, which occurs in June, was insti
tuted in 1264 by Pope Urban IV.; and in certain churches
a procession was enjoined on that day. between 1320 and
1330, and even in the eleventh century the Eucharist
had been carried in procession ; but the Councd of Cologne
first, in 1452, mentions that the Host was set up and carried
visibly in monstrances, showing that formerly the wafer was
not exposed, but borne in a closed ciborium. The necessary
alterations were made in the earlier examples at a later date.
At first it took the shape of an ordinary reliquary, but at
length was made Hke a tower of crystal, of cylindrical form,
and mounted on a foot like that of a chalice, and covered by
a spire-like canopy, with flying buttresses. Inside the cylin-

MONTHS' MINDS  MORSE. 391
der was a crescent held by an angel, in which the Host was
set ; in some cases the cyhnder was replaced by a quatrefoil,
or was surrounded by foliage like a Jesse-tree, and at a later
date by the sun, a luminous disc, with rays alternately
straight and wavy, set upon a stand. Upon the vessel itself
the Doom was often represented, and rehcs were placed in it.
The monstrance did not become common tdl the fifteenth,
and is probably not earlier than the fourteenth century ; it
bore different forms : (1) a little tower, jewelled, and having
four apertures of glass or crystal ; (2) the figure of a saint,
or the Holy Lamb, with St. John Baptist pointing to it ; (3)
a cross ; (4) a crystal lantern, or tube, mounted on a pedes
tal of precious metal, and covered with a canopy in the
fifteenth century; (5) a sun with rays, containing in the
centre a kind of pyx (this is found as early as the sixteenth
century) .
Months' Minds. Monthly commemorations of the dead.
Trentals.
Montjoy. Mounds serving to direct travellers on a highway,
probably often originally tumuli, or funeral mounds of an
elder people ; heaps of stones overgrown with grass, which
had been pded over a dead chieftain. They often were
crowned with a cross. Montjoie St. Denis was the French
war-cry; Montjoie St. Andrew, of Burgundy; Montjoie
Notre Dame, of the Dukes of Bourbon ; and Montjoie St.
George, of England.
Morality. A paganized miracle play. In 1680 the London
pageant revived the " Morality," when Sir Patience Ward,
Lord Mayor, exhibited in his procession the Virtues, some of
whom made poetical addresses. In 1687 the Goldsmiths
presented a hieroglyphic of the company, representing St.
Dunstan, in full pontificals, working at his forge ; and in
1689 the Skinners in Guddhall gave a pageant, a wilderness
with beasts and birds, with some horse-play. The modern
Gog and Magog, or Corineus, were made in 1 708, and are
substitutes for wicker giants of old processions.
Morrow Mass Priest. The priest who said early Mass, mor
row being equivalent to morning.
Morrow of a Feast. The day foHowing.
Morse. (Firmaculum, formal, owche.) A clasp for a cope
or pectoral.

392 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Mortmain. An exemption from rendering feudal mditary ser
vice. Lands held by a religious corporation were under this
tenure, which deprived the crown of such service as if the
land were held by a dead hand. The Act 7 Edward I., 2,
was directed against such holdings, except with the king's
sanction.
Mortuary. A composition for oblations wrongly detained,
or forgotten tithes; a principal legacy or bequest for the
soul of the dead made to the Church. Henry VIII. abo
lished the practice, which was a constant source of conten
tion between the clergy and executors. These payments
were called St. Hubert's rents, St. Alban's lands, St. Ed
mund's right, and St. Peter's patrimony. Mortuaries were
paid in pursuance of a council held in 1009. It was fixed
to be the second best animal of the deceased, to be paid to
the parish priest or church ; the best went to the lord, by
constitutions made in the thirteenth and fourteenth centu
ries. In Venice a tithe of the personal property went to the
Church,but in England only one-third; probably the mortuary
was a composition for it. Innocent IV. mentions that in
England the third part of the goods of intestate persons
passed to the fabric of the church and the poor. As early
as 840 a white horse and the arms of a dead knight were
given to the church in which he was buried.
Mosaic, Musiyum. The production of a design or painting by
the combination of small pieces of glass, paste, stone, or
marble, naturady or artificially coloured. A composition, by
means of coloured and solid materials, representing objects
of nature. (1.) Opus tesselatum, of various shapes, used in
pavements. (2.) Opus sectile, of one or two colours, in thin
marble slabs, used in pavements or on wads. (3.) Opus
vermiculatum, so called from the minuteness of its fragments,
and employed in grand groups and figures. Vitreous mosaic
(crustce vermiculatce) was substituted for that in coloured
marbles or terra-cotta. Mosaic work is mentioned in the
book of Esther, and was known as opus Grsecum, from the
workshops of Greece and Byzantium. Mosaic enamel is
attributed to the Persians. St. Mark's, Venice, is a treasure-
house of mosaics. At Byzantium mosaics, formed of cubes
of enamelled glass, were made to adorn the interiors of
churches, with a magnificent effect. There is good glass

MOTET  MUXLION. 393
mosaic upon St. Edward's shrine, circa 1269; and stone
mosaic before the altar, c. 1268, at Westminster. There is
also a similar pavement at Canterbury.
Motet. A little word; play on words. A medieval composi
tion, formed upon an anthem, to which different parts were
sung, as if improvised; a movement or counterpoint upon
the plain song. It was also caded pulpitre in the fifteenth
century. When counterpoint was first introduced there were
only two parts, the tenor and discant ; then a third, called
triplum, was added ; then a fourth, the quadruplum or mo
tet. The latter word, in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen
turies, was a synonym for contralto.
Moulding. The face or outline of the angles of cornices, capi
tals, jambs, and bases.
Mozarabic. Most-Arabe, " Arabic by adoption;" a term ap
plied to the Spanish or Gothic liturgy, of Ephesine origin,
which was coeval with the introduction of Christianity into
Spain, and possibly received some additions from the Goths.
At Braga, in 538, the Roman office was adopted ; but at
Toledo, in 589, St. Leander of Sevdle reformed and digested
the national use, and introduced some orientalisms. St.
Isidore of Seville improved and developed it. In 633 the
Fourth Councd of Toledo extended its use to all Spain, and
so it continued until the eleventh century. At the time of
the Mahometan invasion it received its present title, possi
bly from the right being a concession within the Moorish
pale. Cardinal Ximenes, in the sixteenth century, restored
it from almost total decay, and it was revived in six special
chapels at Toledo, Salamanca., and VaUadolid; but it is now
extinct in the latter place. In the time of Queen Costanza
the Papal legate endeavoured to introduce the Gallican Bre
viary. Two parties were formed on the question, and the
Toledan and French books were put to the ordeal, first of a
duel, in which the Toledan champion won the day ; and then
of fire, out of which the Spanish book came unharmed, whilst
the French book suffered some injury. The decision was
that Toledo might preserve its ritual, which, in after years,
Cardinal Ximenes had carefully transcribed.
Mullion. The upright divisions between the Hghts of a win
dow or screen, rarely found of earlier date than the Early
English period.

394 SACRED ARCH/EOLOGY.
Mozetta. A short cape worn by Italian bishops. There is no
actual distinction between the mozetta and camail ; the for
mer is used in all dioceses of France by bishops and canons,
and the latter only in a few. It is edged with crimson ; the
episcopal camail is violet.
Mumpsimus. The nickname for persons obstinate in religious
matters ; used by Henry VIII. in Parliament, and founded
on a story, related by Pace, of a priest who refused to aban
don the practice of saying " quod ore mumpsimus " on the
plea that he would not give up the usage of thirty years for
any correction.
Muniment Chamber. Register-house or treasury. A room
for the preservation of charters, fabric and matriculation
rolls, terriers, and registers. At SaHsbury it is detached,
on the south side of the cathedral. At Chichester it was
over a chapel of the transept, dedicated to the Four Virgins,
and at a later date, next the chapter-house, and furnished
with a sliding panel. At Durham it adjoined the stairs of
the prior's lodge. At Winchester and New College, Oxford,
it is in a tower, as at St. Martin des Champs, Clugny, and
Vaux des Sernay. At Fontenelle it was over the church-
porch, as now at Peterborough. Where there was a provost
that officer kept the key. Muniments are, as it were, the
defences of church property, hence the name.
Murmuring, as a sign of disapproval or pleasure, was once
common in churches. Bishop Burnet and Bishop Spratt were
both hummed when preaching at St. Margaret's, Westminster.
Burnet sat down and enjoyed it, rubbing his face with his
handkerchief, but Spratt, stretching out his hand, cried,
" Peace, peace ; I pray you, peace." At Cambridge a witty
preacher, in the time of Queen Anne, addressed his congre
gation at St. Mary's as "Hum et hissimi auditores." At
Hereford this unseemly practice, which greeted every person
arriving late in choir, was prohibited. See Amen.
Mynicens. (Fem. of munuc; Lat. moniales.) Classed with
monks in England in 1009 and 1017, and probably Benedic
tines, differing from nuns in being of younger age and under
a rule more strict.
N. or M., in the office of baptism, probably designate N(omen),
a single name, or NN, nomina, (fused in M, a printer's

NABLE  NARTHEX. 395
blunder), a double name. In the marriage service N only
is given.
Nable. A stringed instrument with a triangular sonorous-box.
It only differed from the psaltery in form and having shorter
strings.
Nails in the Crucifix. In the thirteenth century three are
pourtrayed, one foot of the Crucified overlying the other,
without the hypopodion. James de Voragine first mentions
the change, which Ayala, Bishop of GaHcia, attributes to the
Albigensian heretics. Benedict XIV. pronounced the nail
preserved in St. Cross, Rome, to be authentic. (See Cruci
fix.) On Irish crosses the Saviour's feet are represented
tied with a cord, and His arms drooping.
Naos. The inclusive name for the trapeza, or nave, and the
choir in a Greek church.
Napery. Linen.
Narthex. The porch or portico in front of a basilica. So
called from its narrow oblong shape, resembling a rod or
ferule. It contained three doors, the central for the clergy,
the north for women, and the south for men. These were
imitated at a later period in the three western porches of St.
Mark's, Venice, and elsewhere. The narthex itself reappears
at St. Front, Perigueux, Romain Mortier, of the tenth cen
tury, Jumieges, and Neuchatel ; and a similar narrow porch
has been traced at Fountains and Beaulieu. At Moissac and
Petersburg, Hade, 1124, it supports a parvise in the west
tower. It is a portico of insulated columns in several Roman
churches of ancient date, reappearing in the Palladian por
ticos, and growing, stdl earher, into the portal cloister which
was added round the courts of several Roman churches, at
Ravenna, Novara, Milan, Parenzo, Laach, Lorsch, and Tour-
nus, churches at Cologne, Trebitsch, and Gurk, and in the
latter instances with a gadery above it. In the large basdicas
there were two kinds of narthex, one at each end of the
atrium or forecourt. The exterior, called the vestibule,
horopulaion, propylos, or first entrance, was a large porch or
colonnade of three, five, or seven pillars, sometimes double,
with an upper and lower range, as at Tournus ; in it the
dead were buried, after the Councd of Nantes permitted
intramural interment, in 658. In smaller churches an outer
narthex was added for the use of the penitents, called weepers.

396 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
The interior narthex was the ferula proper, divided from the
nave by a wad. It was the place of the second class of peni
tents, the hearers.
Natalitia. Birthdays (i. e. into immortality) . Days on which
the martyrs had suffered.
National Council. An assembly of all the prelates of a country.
The earHest in England was that of Hertford, in 673, and the
last was held by .Cardinal Pole in 1555.
Nave (Lat. navis, gremium, cumulus ; Germ, hoch schiff; It.
nave ; Fr. nef ; Sp. coro, the choir being called capilla
mayor) derives its name from Gr. naos, or Lat. navis, sym-
bohcady of the ship of Christ, the Church — an idea as old
as the Apostolical Constitutions, and preserved in the En
glish baptismal service. The church of SS. Vincent and
Anastasius at Rome has its walls curved like the ribs of a
ship ; and the nave of Payerne is of uneven width, to repre
sent a vessel beaten with the waves. In France naves we're
first subdivided by ranges of pillars about the fifth century.
At St. Paul's, in 1385, persons bought, sold, and played bad
in the nave, which, two centuries later, was put to abominable
desecration. At Durham and Worcester there was a com
mon thoroughfare, and in York and the northern minster
the country gentry and townsfolk made the nave a fashion
able walk.
Navette. An incense ship or boat. A vessel for containing
incense, as we use the word vessel and (butter or sauce)
boat now.
Necrology. When the diptychs fell into desuetude, necrologies,
obituaries, books of the dead, books of annals or anniver
saries, and books of life took their place, in which, in cathe
dral and collegiate churches and minsters, the names of the
departed were entered. The Benedictines adopted them at
the beginning of the sixth century. When an abbot or dis
tinguished monk died, a messenger, carrying a brief or roll,
a kind of encyclical letter, rode to the various associated
abbeys or churches to apprise them of his decease, and left
a schedule, containing his own name and that of the dead
and the date of his arrival. The new name was then inserted
in the several obituaries. These were read -after the martyr
ology at prime, but in a monastery after the rule. The
names were recited on their several anniversaries, and in

NEOPHYTE  NEW FIRE. 397
caso of a benefactor the De Profundis and a special prayer
were sung. The abbot was commemorated by the words,
" The deposition of Lord Abbot N." All others had the
simple affix " obiit," he died. First were read out the names
of abbots, then monks, provosts, praacentors, and in succes
sion those of sacristans, bishops, priests, sovereigns, and
soldiers. Saints were also included ; and for convenience a
single volume generally comprised the monastic rule, the
martyrology, and obituary. The gifts of benefactors were
often recited ; but sometimes only a general commemoration
of ad brethren and familiars of the order was made, followed
by the words, " Requiescat in pace," may he rest in peace,
uttered by the president, and closed by an " Amen " chanted
by the whole chapter. Cowel says that at the Prayer of the
Prothesis the Greeks had their names inserted in the cata
logue and deposited a present in money, which formed a con
siderable portion of a country priest's income.
Neophyte. (Newly planted.) (1.) The name of the newly bap
tized, grafted into the true vine (Ps. xcii. 13; St. Matt. xv.
13 ; Rom. vi. 5 ; 1 Pet. ii. 2). (2.) A catechumen, in distinc
tion to the faithful or baptized. (3.) A clinic, as St. Cyprian's
phrase is ; a grabbatarian, in that of the Sixth Council of
Paris, — one who put off baptism until on a sick-bed, an abuse
reprobated by the Council of Neo-Csesarea, St. Gregory
Nazianzen, and St. Chrysostom. (4.) A clerk or novice
promoted to a bishopric without proceeding through the in
ferior orders (1 Tim. iii. 6).
Neuma. The sequence. A musical prolongation of the last
syllable of the word Alleluia, sung after the gradual, and so
called from its following the rhythm of the Alleluia, or from
the words of the deacon which succeed, " Sequentia Sancti
Evangelii," etc. (here fodoweth the Gospel) . To these notes
Notkar, who died in 912, wrote words, which were called
" sequences." The latter were substituted, Beleth says, for
the neuma, by Papal authority.
Newel. The central column round which a circular staircase
winds.
New Fire. On Easter Eve the new fire was kindled for re
lighting the lamps in church, which were extinguished on
Good Friday, though in some places the upper candle of the
Tenebraa was reserved for the purpose ; and in others, as at

398 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Rome, in 750, in the pontificate of Zosimus, three lamps were
concealed, emblematical of the three days in which our Lord
lay in the tomb ; but usually the new flame was kindled by
a burning-glass from the sun, as a type of the Orient on
high ; or as mentioned by Leo IV., in the ninth century,
from a flint, symbolical of the Rock (1 Cor. x. 4), as at Flo
rence from one brought from Jerusalem in the time of the
Crusades. The rekindling represented both the resurrection
and the fire which our Lord came to cast upon the earth (St.
Matt. xd. 49). The fire was used to Hght three tapers
branching from a common stock in the top of a lance. See
Hallowing.
Nicene Creed was first recited in the time of the Eucharist by
Peter the Fuller, Bishop of Antioch, in 471 ; and adopted by
Timothy, Bishop of Constantinople, in 511 ; in Spain by the
Third Councd of Toledo, in 589; in France in the time of
Charlemagne ; and ad the Western Church by Pope Benedict
VIII. in 1014. It is based on the Creed of Cassarea, which
was adopted by the Councd of Nicaaa in 325, and after
wards received the addition of the words from " the Lord
and giver of Hfe " in the Second Councd of Constantinople
in 381. It was enjoined to be sung in the Mass by Pope
Marcus, c. 340, but Pope Innocent III. and others say that
it was introduced by Pope Damasus, after the custom of the
Greeks. Its characteristics are the insertion of the term " of
one substance," directed against theArian heresy, the insertion
of the words " and the Son," and the omission of the clause
" He descended into hell," which occurs in the Athanasian
Creed. The question was raised in the Councd of Aix, 809,
whether the Spanish and French churches were right in add
ing the Filioque clause in this Creed, and it was referred by
Charlemagne to Pope Leo, who allowed the Creed to be
sung, but without the addition ; and Walafrid Strabo says
that the Creed was chanted in France and Germany after
the condemnation of the Felician heresy in Gaul. Leo the
Great, however, in consequence of the opposition of the
Patriarch of Aquileia and Photius, at length authorized the
use of the clause, and uses it in letters to the Bishop of
Astorga and the monks of Mount Olivet. Charlemagne de
creed that the interpolation was to be used ; the Council of
Toledo, 447 and 580, adopted it; and it was inserted by the

NIELLO — NIMBUS. 399
Catholic Visigoths and Franks. In 680 Archbishop Theo
dore and an English council accepted the clause. Pope
Benedict, in 1024, at the request of the emperor, required
the Creed to be chanted in Italy. It is the custom for the
priest alone to intone the words, " I believe in one God."
Niello. (Black ; from Lat. nigellum.) An imitation of pencil-
drawing in black on metal, by the use of lead, silver, and
copper, an art brought to high perfection at Florence, and
practised by Benvenuto Cellini. The monk Theophilus
speaks of the art. The patriarch Nicephorus of Constanti
nople sent, in 811, to Pope Leo two jewels adorned with
niello. Marseilles was eminent in this art during the reigns
of Clovis II. and Dagobert.
Night-Wateh. (Lych-wake, death-watch, or vigil). It was
the custom for the faithful to observe night-watches for the
departed untd the funeral, and make intercession for their
souls ; but in 1343 this practice was forbidden in England,
as it had degenerated into an occasion for assignations,
thefts, revels, and buffooneries in private houses, under pain
of excommunication, the relations of the dead, and those
who said psalters, only excepted. In 1363 these wakes were
kept in churches, under the close supervision of the parish
clergy. The wake still Hngers in Scotland, Ireland, and
Wales.
Nihil Prebends. At Bangor, unendowed canonries, held by
the prascentor, chancellor, and three canons, who were main
tained by corrodies, pensions, and oblations.
Nimbus. A cloud, called a diadem in an inventory of Bourges
in the fifteenth century; the attribute of sanctity, or of
power ; a circle or disc of light surrounding the head, as a
reflex of celestial glory. It was at first a heathen symbol
for deities and emperors, and then became a mere conven
tional ornament of the heads of personifications ; in the third
century it was Christianized, and attributed to the Saviour ;
then to angels, evangelists, to their symbols, apostles ; lastly,
St. Mary and all saints. In the fifth century the nimbus
of our Lord is distinguished by a cross pattee, and some
times by the insertion of His monogram. In the sixth cen
tury, Isidore of Sevdle first mentions that angels were
nimbed; at the close of the seventh century the other
classes received the nimbus, which was given to the mystic

400 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
dove, and the phoenix. Herod and sovereigns have the
nimbus of power designated by red or green colour, gold
being reserved for Christian saints. The nimbus of our
Lord represents His dominion, the splendour of the Di
vinity, and glory of the Sun of Righteousness. Honorius
of Autun says, " In saints it pourtrays their heavenly joys
and imparted glory; and its round buckler shape typifies
the Divine protection which guarded over them. See Au
reole.
Nine Lections. Three lections are said on each of the three
nocturns, the first three taken from Holy Scripture, the
second from the acts of a saint, the third from homilies of
the Fathers. Justin Martyr alludes to the commentaries of
apostles and writings of prophets, the Councd of Laodicea
to lections, the Third Council of Carthage to the passions of
martyrs on their anniversaries, and St. Jerome to the works
of St. Ephrem, as being read in the sacred assemblies. The
nine had reference to the orders of angels, with whom the
Church joined in adoration, and, as a tripled three, bore allu
sion to the Holy Trinity. But from the time of Cassian
there were twelve lessons, until Gregory VII. reduced them
to nine, with eighteen psalms, on Sundays, except Easter
and Pentecost ; on festivals, nine psalms and nine lessons ;
on ferials, twelve psalms and three lessons ; in Easter-week
and Whitsun-week, three psalms and three lessons, accord
ing to ancient use. Among these days were included the
Epiphany, the Circumcision, Conversion of St. Paul, Purifi
cation, St. Matthias, the Annunciation, SS. Philip and
James, St. Barnabas, St. Peter, All Saints', St. Andrew, and
sixty-eight other commemorations of saints and holy days,
such as the Exaltation of the Cross and the Name of Jesus.
Nine Worthies of the World. (1) Hector of Troy ; (2) Alex
ander the Great; (3) Julius Csesar : heathens. (1) Joshua;
(2) David; (3) Judas Maccabeus: Jews. (1) King Arthur;
(2) Charlemagne ; (3) Godfrey of Boulogne : their arms are
on Duke Robert's tomb at Gloucester.
Norman Architecture. (WilHam I. to Richard I., 1066-90.)
The cieling, of timber, with beams reaching from side to side,
is flat ; the ribs are broad massive flat bands, crossing the vault
at right angles, but occasionally are enriched with zigzags ;
the choir ends in a semicircle or apse ; the doors are gene-

NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 401
rally deeply recessed, with grotesque and various mouldings
above the arch, which is invariably round; the windows
have no divisions ; the pillars are round or octagonal, some
times channelled; the buttresses have but a slight projec
tion, and are flat and broad ; arcades are common ; the roofs
are steep ; turrets are tall, and terminate in conical spirelets ;
mouldings consist of alternate rounds and hollows, with
splays and few fillets, are broken into zigzag lines, or form
billets and beak-heads. The last ten years of the century
belongs in architectural character to that which succeeded.
Arches at first squared were then chamfered, and later orna
mented in various ways. Pillars, at first with a diameter
equal to their height, were gradually increased to six or
eight diameters high, as in the crypt under A'Beckett's
crown, and in the Galilee of Durham. The ornamentation
of pillars and shafts was introduced in the reign of Henry I.
Capitals were plain and circular, and in this century have a
plain piece of stone projecting from the centre of each face,
to be painted or carved subsequently, but later in the style
were imitations of the Corinthian capital. Doors follow the
same order ; deep rich doorways are always late. The win
dows at first were small and plain. The earlier masonry is
distinguished from later stonework by coarseness, and wide
joints of mortar between the stones. Surface ornament is
found only in late work. Sedilia are peculiar to England.
Aisles only were vaulted until the middle of the twelfth cen
tury, and were made barrel-shaped, often of herring-bone
work, without mouldings, or groined simultaneously. Ribs
were introduced after 1100. The naves are of greatdength ;
the choirs apsidal, without radiating chapels, and often with
out a surrounding aisle. The ground plan included a cen
tral lantern and western towers. Oxford had a square end.
The development of the Norman style in the twelfth century
was a natural expansion — not the invention of a single mind,
but the gradual work of many — an indigenous work, aided
by hints drawn from different countries and various sources.
Pointed arches occur previous to 1150, but with Norman de
tails and mouldings ; the progress of the Early English style
was rapid after 1184, and established before 1200. The
reign of Henry II. was the chief period of the transition
( 1 154-89) . The masonry is coarse, as if hewn with a hatchet,
2 D

402 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
until 1110, when Roger of Sarum, according to William of
Malrnesbury, used a form of construction that gave the budd
ing the appearance of being built with one stone. The style
became Hght, as in Durham Galilee, about 1180; and rich
doorways occur at Rochester about that time ; and the
Corona of Canterbury, of that period, is the first real Gothic
building.
North Side of the Church. The east was regarded as the
gate of the prince (Exod. xliv. 1-3) ; the south as the land
of light, and the soft warm wind (Acts xxvii. 13) ; the west
as the domain of the people ; but the north, as the source of
the cold wind, was the abode of Satan. In some Cornish
churches there is an entrance called the Devil's door, ad
joining the font, which was only opened at the time of the
renunciation made in baptism. In consequence of these
superstitions, and its sunless aspect, the northern parts of
churchyards are usually devoid of graves. The north side
of the altar corresponds to the Greek boreion meros, and
Latin sinistrum cornu.
Notaries acted as recorders of the acts of councils, and short
hand writers of sermons; as Socrates tells us the homilies
of St. Chrysostom were thus preserved. (2.) The acolyth
who registered the names of persons to be baptized. Pope
Julius I. required the notaries, or the primicier of notaries,
to digest the history of the Church. In 1237 there were
no public notaries (tabelliones) in England. See Martyro
logies.
Novena. A religious service continued during nine days con
secutively.
Novices. The novices were lodged in a dormitory at the far
end of the monks' dortor, generally in Benedictine houses.
The Cistercians and Austin Canons usually placed them
apart, under their master, at the west side of the cloister ;
and this was the case at Winchester exceptionally. In the
old cathedral of Canterbury their school was in the north
tower of the nave ; but in Benedictine monasteries, at a
later date, they studied in the western alley of the great
cloister. The age of a postulant in a Benedictine house was
eighteen, and the term of a novice's probation one year, as
in Cistercian abbeys. The Clugniacs remitted part of the
time ; but in all cases they were subjected to a sharp disci-

NUMBERS  NUN. 403
pline and menial duties, such as carrying a lantern before a
procession ; they occupied an inferior place in church and hall.
Numbers, Sacred. One is the Unity ; two represent Unity re
peated; three, the Creator, Trinity; four, the world, and,
by the Second Adam, Paradise ; five, the Synagogue ; six,
perfection and creation, the hour when Jesus was crucified ;
seven, rest, as in the Sabbath, love, grace, pardon, composed
of three and four; eight, beatitude and resurrection (eight
persons were saved at the Deluge) ; nine, angels ; ten, the
law of fear, or salvation, in allusion to the denar given to the
labourers in the vineyard ; twelve, Apostles ; fourteen, per
fection ; three hundred, redemption ; fifty, beatitude ; and
one hundred, virgins ; sixty, widows ; and thirty, w ives,
according to St. Jerome, on Matt. xiii. 8 ; 888, IESOUS the
Saviour. The uneven number of the collects in the Mass, three
five, or seven, was symbolical of the Church's desire of unity.
Numerale. The same book as the compotus, the kalendar.
Nuncio. Like the apocrisiarius, a Papal envoy in a civil
capacity, accredited to a royal court.
Nun. (Nonna, a grandmother; or nonis, a maiden; Egypto-
Greek.) A holy woman, unmarried and elderly, or widow,
dedicated to God's service under the veil. In 1009 and
1017, in England, they are mentioned with canons, so
that their rule was less strict than that observed in myn-
cheries. St. Jerome uses the word nonna in the sense of
a religious widow. There were two kinds of nuns : one
made on a promise of virginity spontaneously, on the part
of a young woman about twelve or sixteen years of age,
called henceforward " Deo devota," devoted to God, who
lived in their own homes, and wore simply a dark dress.
The other was by formal profession, at the age of twenty-five
years by the Council of Carthage, or at forty as other coun
cils required ; these nuns were called " Deo sacrataa," conse
crated to God. They received the veil from the bishop on
festivals, and specially on Epiphany, Low Sunday, and
saints' days. In 745 they were called the Lord's hand
maidens in England ; spouse of Christ was a later title.
Nuns are said to have been established by St. Syncletica,
c. 363, near Alexandria, and to have existed in England
in 630. In the fourth century St. Macrina, sister of St.
Basil, c. 340, St. Anthony, and St. Pachomius built nunneries ;
2d2

404 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
but Marcella was the first (St. Jerome says) who occupied a
convent for women ; and St. Augustine speaks of communities
at Rome and Milan devoted to a life of labour, prayer, and
self-denial, but not bound by vows. There were others in
Africa, and at Vercelli. In the fifth century there were nuns
in France. Even in the sixth century nuns were unfettered
in the cloister. In 721 a Roman council anathematized
married nuns, and the regular conventual life for women does
not date earlier than the institution of St. Dominic, in the
thirteenth century. Until the fifteenth century, nuns, under
proper restrictions, in England were allowed to visit their
friends, and to receive callers of their own sex in their con
vent. In 1127, in England, they were allowed to use lambs'
wool, fox or catskin, but in 1138 were forbidden grey,
sable, marten, beaver, or ermine fur, or a gold ring, or curi
ously plaited hair; their dress was in 1200 determined to
be a black-hooded cope, without a cap. In 1222 their con
fessors were appointed by the bishop ; they were allowed to
wear a ring, but neither a silk ved nor gold or silver needles
in their hair. St. Aldhelm condemned the extravagant cos
tume of nuns, the soft violet skirt, beaded tunic, crimson
hood, sleeves with fur, and red silk bands and hanging orna
ments, curled hair, and coloured mafortes flowing down to
the feet, whilst the nails were worn as long and sharp as the
talons of a bird of prey. The Benedictine nuns, founded by
St. Scholastica in 530, had a house at Wilton in 773. The
Franciscans, or Minoresses, founded 1212, came to England
in 1293; they were first established in the Minories, Lon
don. The Poor Clares, founded 1225 by St. Clara of Assisi,
were another branch. The Bridgetines were established at
Sion, Middlesex, in 1415; Clugniacs, c. 940 ; Cistercians by
Humbertina, sister of St. Bernard, c. 1118; the. Prsemon-
stratensians, c. 1121; the Dominicans, c. 1206; the Car
melites, c. 1122; the Carthusians, by Beatrice, a French
woman, in 1309 ; and the Beguines, by St. Begga, c. 698,
under the Austin rule. Fine nunnery churches of the Bene
dictines remain at Jesus College, Cambridge, Romsey, and
St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, and one of smaller dimensions is at
Minster, island of Sheppey. The parishioners occupied one
aisle, divided from the rest of the church. The conventual
buildings of Easebourne, Sussex, are tolerably perfect. St.

NUNNERIES  OBLATIONS. 405
Rhadegund's, Poictiers, founded in 567, was the first French
nunnery.
Nunneries. The local name for the triforium at Durham,
Westminster, and Christchurch (Hants). At Paris recently
nuns occupied this story on great occasions.
Nut. A cup made out of a cocoa-nut; examples remain at
Corpus Christi and Exeter Colleges, Oxford.
Obedience. A place or office with the estate and profits be
longing to them in a monastery, subordinate to the abbot,
whence the name, and corresponding to a dignity in a cathe
dral or codegiate church. In 1222 the incumbents were re
quired to render half-yearly or quarterly accounts, as well as
the greater prelates, abbots, and priors. The obedientiares
were usually the subprior, prascentor, cellarer, sacristan, cham
berlain, kitchener, infirmarer, keeper of annals, hostillar,
almoner, pitanciar, tumbarer, and master of the Lady chapel.
But the obediencies varied according to the size of the
monastery ; sometimes the gardener, fruiterer, or keeper of
the orchard was included.
Obit. The commemoration of a saint's death, called also his
celebration, departure, falling asleep, birthday, or, if a
martyr, his passion. The Assumption is ascribed to the
Blessed Virgin, and Deposition to St. John, from the tradi
tion that he laid himself down in his grave.
Oblates. (1.) Children dedicated from infancy to the cloister;
the parents wrapped their boys'hand in altar cloth, with a peti
tion. (2.) The dying who assumed the cowl. In 1191 Celes
tine III. freed children from such vows. (3.) Lay persons
who offered themselves with a rope or bell round the neck, or
four coins in their hands, or else laid their heads on the altar,
and there engaged themselves, resigning all their property.
(5.) Benedictine Oblates, an order founded by St. Frances
Romana, d. 1443, neither cloistered nor bound by vows.
Oblationar. The shrine-keeper who received the offerings.
Oblations. (1 .) Offerings for the maintenance of the ministers of
the Church in kind, such as oil, vegetables, fruit, milk, honey,
and farm produce, which, with offerings in money, were de
livered to the bishop, and he made the redistribution of the
residue in three parts — one for himself, the second for the fabric,
and the third for the poor and pilgrims, according to the rule

406

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

of Pope Simplicius, in 476. (2.) Offerings of bread and wine
for the Holy Communion ; and also of wheat, grapes, incense,
and oil for the Hghts. All the faithful who intended to com
municate brought their offerings every Sunday, according to
the Second Councd of Macon, in 582, under pain of anathe
ma, the custom being founded on Exodus xxiii. 15. They
carried them to the oblationarium or gazophylakion, a kind
of portable aumbry placed near the diakonikon, where the
deacon received the offerings made by men, and a deaconess
those of women, strictly scrutinizing those who came, and
rejecting usurers, heretics, notorious sinners, those under
Church censure, persons not in a state to communicate, pub
lic penitents, and such as had invaded the Church rites.
During the scrutiny the offertory was chanted by the choir.
In the Ordo Romanus, the Pope, with considerable ceremony,
received the offerings ; and by the Ambrosian rite, at High
Mass, six aged men offered three hosts, and six women pre
sented white wine, each on their proper side. Strictly
speaking, the oblation was an offering to God; the oblata
an offering for the service of the altar. In 1 549 the parish
ioners in England were required every Sunday to " offer the
just valour and price of the holy loaf, with ad such money
and other things as were wont to be offered with the same."
In 1552 the bread and wine were to be provided at the
charges of the parish, and the parishioners were discharged
of such sums of money or other duties which hitherto they
had paid for the same, by order of their houses, every Sun
day. In some French churches the Voffrande is made stdl.
Large round cakes are carried up with lights to the altar by
the assistants, and after benediction are cut up, as pain beni,
into pieces, which are distributed from a basket to the con
gregation. At Mdan ten bedesmen and two aged women
carry up the oblations to the altar, where they are received
by the deacon. In the primitive Church the people offered,
probably in consecutive order, bread taken from the offering
made at the love-feast. In the medieval Church the wine
was brought in an amula or cruet, wrapped in the fago, a
white linen cloth.
The word oblation also designated sops or portions of
bread formerly offered at the altar before the Holy Com
munion and blessed by the priest. Some were given to the

OBLIGATION  OCTAGONAL CHAPELS. 407
poor, and others reserved for the clergy and poor, or dis
tributed in the church as a sign of corporate unity. The
lesser oblation comprises the typical offering up of the ele
ments of bread and wine, and of the alms and other devo
tions of the people for special purposes, in the Holy Eucha
rist. The greater oblation is the act of spirituady offering
the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist. Small round
loaves are used in the Greek Church for the Eucharist. In the
West houseding bread was used for communion, and singing
bread for the oblation. Offer enda is the layman's offering.
The oblation was restricted to the priest's part at the altar.
Obligation, Feasts of. Holydays on which work was sus
pended. In 1362 forty-one are named, including Christmas,
Circumcision, Epiphany, Ascension, Pentecost, and Easter
(each with the three foUowing days), Good Friday, St. Ste
phen, John the Evangehst, Holy Innocents', Purification,
Annunciation, St. Mark, SS. Philip and James, John the
Baptist, SS. Peter and Paul, St. James, St. Bartholoniew, St.
Matthew, St. Michael, St. Luke, SS. Simon and Jude, AH
Saints', St. Andrew, St. Thomas the Apostle, Invention of
Holy Cross, St. Thomas the Martyr, Corpus Christi, Transla
tion of St. Thomas the Martyr, St. Mary Magdalen, Assump
tion, St. Lawrence, Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary,
Exaltation of Holy Cross, St. Nicholas, Conception of the
Blessed Virgin Mary, the dedication of the church, the patron
saint of the church, and feasts ordained by the ordinary. In
Worcester diocese the labour of the plough only was adowed
on seven days ; and women's work was forbidden on the
feasts of SS. Agnes, Lucy, Margaret, and Agatha.
Occurrence. When two festivals fall on the same day the lesser
is either omitted or anticipated, or translated, that is, deferred
to the nearest vacant day. Festivals concur when at Vespers
the office of one commences before the other is terminated.
The lesser day is then only commemorated.
Octagonal Chapels or churches occur at Stony Middleton,
Wisby, Milan, Perugia, Ravenna, HierapoHs, and the modern
St. Dunstan's-in -the -West of London. There was formerly
one at Ayot St. Peter's. The form is mentioned by Eusebius
at Antioch in the case of a church budt by Constantine, and
was a modification of the principle of the round church.
There is an octagonal porch at St. Mary's, Redcliffe, and a

408 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
chamber, in modern times called the baptistery, but really
connected with the water-system, at Canterbury Cathedral.
Octave. The eighth day after a great festival, as Easter,
Christmas, Pentecost, etc.
Qjlcumenical (General). In 1179 the English bishops stated
that four only were required to attend a general councd.
Offering Days. Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, and the
feast of the dedication of the church, or, as Beleth says, All
Saints', when the alms were allotted for the priest's stipend
and the purchase of the paschal. By Henry VIII.'s Injunc
tions, 1538, the four general offering days were changed to
Christmas, Easter, Nativity of John the Baptist, and Michael
mas, when money offerings at the altar were given for the
support of the clergy. In the last century, attended by the
Knights of the Garter, and heralds in their tabards, the king
offered, at Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, and All Saints', a
bezant in his private chapel ; on six other days gold ; and
on Circumcision and Epiphany gold, frankincense, and myrrh,
in three purses.
Offertory, The, in the Mass (1) commences with the Dominus
vobiscum, after the Creed, ending with the Preface. It
contains the oblation of the bread and wine by the celebrant,
the censing of the oblation, altar, and attendants, the washing
of the fingers, the subsequent prayers, the invitation to pray,
and the secret prayer. Originally it was usual for the faith
ful to bring to church the provisions which they contributed
to the support of the clergy, and the necessaries for the
Holy Communion and the church use. The offering was
made at this time. The deacon selected what was required"
for the altar, and the residue was taken to the bishop's house
for distribution to the clergy at his discretion. The candles
given at ordinations and the bread and wine at the conse
cration of a bishop are remnants of the ancient practice.
Walafrid Strabo says that it was lawful to offer new wheat-
ears, grapes, oil for lamps, and incense at the time of cele
bration. (2.) The anthem sung after the Gospel or Creed,
during which the people formerly offered their alms and
oblations. Such was the custom in Africa, c. 400, in St.
Augustine's time. Hugh de St. Victor and Honorius of
Autun attribute the introduction and arrangement of the
offertories to Pope Gregory the Great, but it has also been

OFFICE  OILS. 409
referred to Eutychian, c. 280; Celestine I., c. 430; or Adrian
I. Singing is used in adusion to Eccles. 1. 12-18. Pope
Gregory II. ordered oblations to be made as God had directed
by Moses (Exod. xxiii. 15). In the first four centuries the
offering was made in silence. When a bishop celebrates he
goes to the altar after the offertory, and, taking off his gloves,
makes the ablution of his fingers. (3.) A sdk napkin in
which the deacon wrapped the chalice when offered to him
by the priest. The sub-deacon now has a large scarf placed
upon his shoulders and takes the chalice, over which an
attendant spreads the end of the scarf He then carries the
offerings to the deacon, presents the water-cruet, and receives
the paten from the celebrant, which he holds enveloped in
his scarf, standing behind him since the custom of consecrat
ing upon the corporal was introduced.
Office. (1.) An administration without precedence in choir or
chapter ; the financial provost and procurator ; the prascentor,
chancellor, and treasurer of Beverley ; monks elected by the
prior and seniors, and confirmed in authority by the bishop, in
a conventual cathedral were caUed officers, the term desig
nating now the vice-dean, treasurer, and receiver-general of
the new foundations. (2.) The Introit. (3.) Vespers. (4.)
The canonical Hours, called by St. Basil and the Greek
Church the Canon; by SS. Jerome and Benedict God's
Work ; the Cursus or Course in the Roman rite ; the Col-
lecta by St. Pachomius ; Synaxis by Cassian ; and Missa, in
506, by the Councd of Agde. (5.) A service. When two
" concurred " on one day the latter was caded " dies duplex,"
a double day.
Official. A judge ecclesiastical, for the most part in priest's
orders, acting as the deputy of a bishop or archdeacon, to
hear causes in their courts. Archbishop Becket mentions
his vicar; and, in 1195, Archbishop Hubert's officials held
pleas of Christianity at York. In 1222 the archdeacon's
" officials in consistory " are mentioned. The principal offi
cial heard causes only, and in 1343 is distinguished from the
vicar-general, who exercised ad voluntary episcopal jurisdic-
V tion, except what the bishop reserves to himself as collations.
'Ogee. (Bessaunt .) A moulding, partly convex and partly concave.
Oils. There were three — (1) holy oils; (2) chrism od; and
(3) sick men's od — kept in different bottles in every church,

410 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
and fitted into an oblong " ointing-box" with a crested lid
like a church roof.
Omophorion. A kind of scarf or stole, worn by the Eastern
bishops. It resembles the Latin pad, but is broader, and
tied round the neck in a knot.
Option. The choice by the archbishop of any dignity or
benefice in the gift of any bishop consecrated or confirmed
by him. The right is now extinct.
Opus Alexandrinum. An invention of the Egyptians, or, as
others say, made in the time of Alexander Severus. A kind
of mosaic pavement, made of squares'and circles of porphyry,
coloured stones, and marbles, of brass, sdver, and gold.
Opus Grsecum, mosaics. Opus Teutonicum, metal work.
Opus intextum, irregular masses of stonework. Opus reticu-
latum, stones arranged diagonally. Opus vermiculatum,
chequer-work, latticed embroidery. Opus Anglicum, em
broidery.
Orale (from or a, a stripe) or fanon. An ornament of the Pope,
introduced by Pope Innocent III., c. 1200, as a substitute
for the amict, which then began to be worn inside the albe.
It is of thin silk, striped in four colours, and edged with
gold lace and worn double, the inner part serving as a
tippet over the albe, and the duplicate being laid on the
Pope's head until after the chasuble is put on, and then
turned over the back, chest, and shoulders.
Orarium. The stole of a deacon, as epitrachelion marked that
of a priest originally. The name designated originally a
handkerchief, but was applied to a new form of the white
robe (Rev. iv. 4) used by the Christians in prayer, which
was fastened on the chest, flowed over the shoulders, and
concealed the hands. It derives its name from or are, be
cause used in prayers ; but the Fourth Councd of Toledo,
Ven. Bede, Alcuin, and Raban derive it from the preacher or
Christian orator; others from ora, care, or orao, to observe.
More probably it comes from ora, the ornamental band, of
purple and gold, from the neck to the feet. The Council of
Laodicea, c. 366, forbade the use of the orarium by subdeacons
or readers. Gregory the Great interdicted it, as well as the
chasuble, to subdeacons, who, like acolyths, had previously
worn it. The Councd of Braga, 563, ordered deacons to wear
it on the shoulder over the dalmatic, to distinguish it from the

ORATORIO  ORATORY. 411
tunicle of the sub-deacon; the Fourth Council of Toledo
defines the left shoulder, and forbids it to be coloured or
adorned with gold. The priest wore the stole at all times,
the deacon only at the time of Holy Communion. The Greeks
wear it hanging behind and before; the Latins scarf- or sash-
wise, from the shoulder to the right side.
Oratorio. A spiritual opera, holding an intermediate place
between religious and secular compositions, and invented by
St. Philip Neri in the house of the Oratorians, c. 1540, at
Rome, in order, by the use of good music and singers, to attract
people to church, especially during the time of the Carnival.
Handel, in 1720, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Bach, Beethoven,
Cimarosa, and Jomelli have composed oratorios. The first
religious drama of this kind, having recitatives, was the
' Body and Soul ' of Emdeo del Cavaliere, which was repre
sented at Rome in 1600. Of the unmusical religious play
Racine's ' Athalie ' and ' Esther,' Milton's ' Sampson Ago-
nistes,' Alfieri's ' Saule,' and Chocquet's ' Les Actes ' are
well-known examples.
Oratory. (1.) The private chapel, usually an upper chamber
(Acts xiii.), in which the early Christiansworshipped for safety,
to preserve their secret discipline from the knowledge of the
heathen, and in distinction to the pagan exhibition of graven
images on the ground-floor of buildings, and also in memory
of the place of the Last Supper. The use of private places
of worship, called euteria, outlasted the times of persecution,
and were permitted, under certain restrictions, by the Coun
cils of Saragossa, 381 , and Gangra. (2.) A chapel in which no
Mass may be said without permission of the ordinary. There
are several kinds — (1) a monk's cell; (2) a private chapel,
recognized by the Councd of Agde, 506; (3) a chapel in
the country without a district ; (4) the private portion of a
minster reserved to the use of the convent; the choir; a
chapel attached to the chapter-house; in 1027 Alexis,
patriarch of Constantinople, condemned the abuse of ora
tories, in which persons of power had assumed to have bap
tism administered and to assemble congregations under a
licence ; (5) in the sixth or seventh century a burial chapel,
or a chapel in a cemetery, in which Mass was said at times,
when the bishop sent a priest to celebrate ; (6) a chantry
chapel in a church. The private chapel of the dukes of Bur-

412 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
gundy was rebuilt as the cathedral of Autun ; the chateau of
the Bourbons became that of Moulins. The ancient Cornish
oratories are simple parallelograms, and contain a stone altar
and well ; they are sometimes raised on artificial mounds.
Ordeal. (Urtheil, urdell, judgment, the judgment of Heaven.)
There were two kinds in 925, one of red-hot iron for freed-
men, the other of boiling water for slaves. In the latter he
dived his hand to bring up a stone, with his arm bared to
the elbow or wrist, according to the accusation ; in the for
mer he took the iron from a stake of iron or stone and made
three strides of three feet each, and at the last threw down
the iron. His hand was then sealed up for three days, and
then was examined, to see if there was any mark upon it.
The ceremony was accompanied by prayer, the use of holy-
water, and the kiss of the cross. It was forbidden on holy-
days in 878 ; embers ; from Advent to the octave of Epiphany ;
and from Septuagesima until a fortnight after Easter, in 1009 ;
and in 1064 was required to be performed in presence of the
bishop's representative and the civil magistrate. In the
Council of Mayence, 847, a slave had to traverse twelve red-
hot ploughshares ; but Stephen V. and Alexander II. for
bade ordeals altogether. Montanus and St. Britius are said
to have carried live coals in their dress to prove their inno
cency. • Remigius, as was customary with persons of rank,
passed the ordeal by deputy. At length, owing to the con
demnation by the Church, by the Council of Lateran, 1215,
this superstition fell into desuetude during the reign of
Henry III. An ordeal, prohibited in Italy in 8 1 6, consisted in
two persons standing before a cross untd one fell down from
weariness. The ordeal of hot water was in use amongst the
Salian Franks as early as the fifth century; that of the
ploughshares is mentioned in 803. There were also ordeals
by lot, when two dice — one a blank, the other inscribed with
a cross — were used ; and by the bier, when the person of the
dead was supposed to bleed at the touch of his murderer.
Henry II.'s assizes established the ordeal in lieu of compur
gation, in which the accused produced witnesses in his de
fence, whose worth was estimated at one pound of old English
money. The wager of battle was claimed in 1817, and abo
lished by 59 Geo. III., cap. 46. See Corsned.
Order. (1.) Ecclesiastical office. The hierarchy includes (1)

ORDINAL  OEDTNATION. 413
priests; Pope, superior, bishops, inferior, priests; (2) ministers
in sacred orders ; deacons, and subdeacons ; (3) minor orders.
Those in the greater or sacied orders are bishops, priests
(reckoned as one sacerdotal order), deacons, and subdeacons ;
and in minor or unsacred orders acolyth, exorcist, reader, and
porter or ostiarius, as detailed in ^line's Canons, 957. The
singer was regarded as a clerk only in a large sense. In
1281 it was not permitted to give the four minor orders and
one of the superior orders to the same person on one day,
and it was declared desirable that the minor orders should
be conferred at intervals, or at least only two at one time.
The English Church regards the orders of bishop, priest,
and deacon as three and distinct. With this determination
the canonists generally coincide, though some have ranked
the episcopate only as a degree or grade of the priesthood.
(2.) In the tenth century a certain form or rule of monastic
discipline. Afterwards the word denoted an association of
several monasteries with the same rule and under the juris
diction and superintendence of one common chief.
Ordinal or Custumal. The use of Salisbury. The ecclesiasti
cal offices comprised in a single volume by Osmund, Bishop
of Salisbury, which John de Brompton, in 1198, says was in
general use in England, Wales, and Ireland.
Ordinary. One who has authority to take cognizance of causes
in his own right, and not by delegation, as the bishop in his
diocese, and the archbishop for hearing appeals in a province,
and the crown in royal peculiars.
Ordination. The laying on of a bishop's hands, with prayer,
to put a candidate in the order, grade, or rank of the ministry
(Gr. telesiourgia, kathlerasis, cheirotonia : Acts xiii. 3 ; xiv.
23; 1 Tim. iv. 14; 2 Tim. i. 6; Numb. viii. 10; xxvii. 18,
19; Deut. xxxiv. 9; Exod. viii. 6, 7). The hand repre
sented divine aid (Ps. lxxxix. 21, 22; Ezek. iii. 14). The
right hand only is used in the Greek Church; but in the
Western, after the sixth century, both hands were employed.
The priests lay on their hands at the ordination of a priest
merely as a sign of approval and reception. The earliest
form of prayer was called the consecration. In the Greek
Church the words are, " The Divine grace, which helpeth
them that are weak and supplieth that which lacketh, choosed
this godly subdeacon (or deacon) to be deacon (or priest) ."

414

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

For nine hundred years after Christ there was no express
statement of the Church respecting the power of consecrat
ing Christ's body and blood in the ordering of priests. The
form conveying the power of absolution is later by three
hundred years, but took the shape of a prayer. It appears
first in a pontifical of Mayence in the thirteenth century, and
the consecration of the Holy Eucharist in a pontifical of
Caetan before the year 1000. Unction of the priests, how
ever, and the investiture with robes occur in St. Gregory's
Sacramentary. The delivery of the Gospel or the Bible was
probably introduced from the East into the Gallican Church.
Beleth says that minor orders were given on Sundays and
festivals, but holy orders on Saturdays only. Ordination of
a church is its settlement under a parish priest — a term
used as early as 1237, but in 1126 signifying his institution
to a benefice.
Organ. The original of this instrument has been traced back
to the syrinx or pipes of Pan and the hydraulos or water-
flute, which was the invention of Ctesibius, a mathematician
of Alexandria, b. c. 520. It derives its name from the fact
of its being the instrument of all instruments. It was often
called organs, in the plural, and at a later date in the singu
lar, organ. St. Augustine and Isidore mention the organ,
which is said to have been introduced by Pope Vitalian into
churches in 666, but Spain is recorded to have possessed it
two centuries before that date. St. Aldhelm, who died in
709, describes one with golden pipes in England; and in the
time'of Dunstan, Canterbury and Ramsey, and at the close
of the tenth century Winchester, Magdeburg, Ghent, and
Halberstadt, in the thirteenth century Bury St. Edmund's,
and somewhat later St. Alban's and Crowland possessed
organs. King Pepin received an organ in 757 from the
Greek emperor Constantine Copronymus, which was set up
at Compeigne. In 826 Louis le Debonnaire ordered an
organ from George, a Venetian priest, for the church of Aix-
la-Chapelle. Pope John VIII., elected in 872, begged Anno,
Bishop of Friesing, in Bavaria, to send to him an organ and
organist. The introduction of organs in Italy, Germany,
and England, and a great part of Europe, dates from the
close of the tenth or beginning of the eleventh century. In
951 Elphege, Bishop of Winchester, built one for the minster,

ORGAN. 415
which required several men to set the keys in motion, pro
bably with hammers, and fill the four hundred tubes with
air. Wolstan celebrated its magnificent tones in Latin
verse. Organs, though not mentioned in the inventory pre
scribed for English churches in 1305, were objected to by the
Lodards. Aquinas says that the Church had not established
musical instruments for the praises of God, and they are not
mentioned in the canon law. Marinus Sanudo, called Tor-
sellus, who flourished in 1 312, introduced in Germany a kind
of wind organ, called after him a torsel. The regals was a
small portable organ to accompany the singers. It had a
single row of treble pipes and a small bellows, worked by
the left hand. The larger organs are often called " a pair."
The Benedictines employed a choir of boys to sing the Lady
Mass in the morning to the organ, with most harmonious
modulation, and the bishops also maintained choirs in their
domestic chapels. At Milan, Padua, Bergamo, Venice, Flo
rence, Verona, Ferrara, Bologna, Santiago, Seville, and
Burgos there is an organ on either side of the choir, to carry
out more emphatically the antiphonal chanting of the psalms.
At St. Alban's and Crowland there were large organs at the
west end. This position is still common in Germany and
France, as a small instrument is used to accompany the choir
at Autun, Caen, Bayeux, Amiens, St. Omer, Sens, Fecamp,
Paris, Lausanne, Haarlem, Treves, Courtrai, Vienna, and
Prague. At Durham and Gloucester the choir-organ was on
the south side, as now at Hereford, Canterbury, and Faenza.
A pair, called the cryers, were on the north side at Durham, as
is now the case at Chichester, Ely, Durham, Lichfield, Bristol,
St. Paul's, Winchester, Sherborne, Armagh, and Burgos.
Since the Reformation, at York, Westminster, Lincoln,
Chester, and Worcester, the organ was placed on the north
side, and in the medieval period at Winchester, as now at
St. Paul's and Genoa, in the south wing of the transept. At
the Restoration organs were placed upon the rood-screens,
to the utter destruction of internal effect. At Braga, Ba
talha, and Chartres the organ is on the south side, at Stras-
burg on the north side of the nave, at the west end of the
choir at Antwerp, and the east end at Ratisbon and Perugia.
At Lyons, Liege, and St. Peter's, Rome, no organ was used
in choir, and the Cistercians proscribed its use. Two bands

416 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
of musicians on either side of the choir at Liege accompanied
the singers. In the thirteenth century four priests who sang
the Alleluia were caded its organizers, as those who sang it
in parts. Organs in the middle ages were constantly bor
rowed by smaller churches.
Organ Cases are not earlier in date than the fifteenth cen
tury. At St. James's, Liege, is an early example of the be
ginning of the sixteenth century ; that of Amiens was made
1422-9 ; one at Old Radnor is carved and of the early part of
the seventeenth century. In Spain the organ-pipes are ar
ranged in stepped compartments, with those of one stop pro
jecting from the principal range. They have often painted
wings or shutters. At Rotterdam the organ (1840) has
90 stops, and 6500 pipes; that of Haarlem (1738) 60 stops,
5000 pipes ; that of Friburg 64 stops, 7800 pipes ; that of
York 4500 pipes.
Organist. At Durham a monk played at Nocturns and Matins,
and the master of the song-school at High Mass and Ves
pers. The more ancient names of this official are Master of
the Song-school, Clerk of the Chapel, and in the thirteenth
century at Hereford, Clerk of the Organs. He ranked as a
vicar, and usually was also master of the choristers.
Orientation. The position of a church facing the east, a rule
of the northern nations ; is an ancient custom and approved
tradition, according to the Council of Milan. Rievalle alone,
in England, is built nearly north and south. Pope Virgilius
ordered the priest to celebrate towards the east. God is every
where present, but the east is, as it were, His proper dwelling-
place, and that quarter where heaven seems to rise. The
window in the ark is believed to have faced the east. Prayer
was made to the east in the primitive Church (according to
Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and Origen, SS. Augustine and
Basil) : (1) in allusion to Ps. cxxxii. 7; Zech. xiv. 4, "His
feet shad stand in the Mount of Olives, which is before
Jerusalem on the east;" (2) toward sit as the dayspring (St.
Luke n. 78) ; (3) as the place of light ; and (4) of Paradise
(Gen. ii. 8) ; and (5) of the Crucifixion and Ascension, Pen
tecost and the second Advent. Churches, therefore, faced
the east, and the dead were laid with their faces to the east.
The altar represents the Holy of Holies of the Temple ; at it
the death of Christ is commemorated, and from it the sacred

ORIFLAMME  0 SAPIENTIA. 417
food is administered to the faithful. Leo I., 443, condemned
the custom of the people at Rome who used to stand on the
upper steps in the court of St. Peter's and bow to the rising
sun, partly out of ignorance, and partly from a lingering
paganism. In later times the custom continued of turning
eastward before entering St. Peter's, but with the intent of
praying to God. To avoid, however, any suspicion of super
stition, in the time of Boniface VIII. a mosaic of the ship of
Christ was erected, towards which devotions were to be
made. Urban VIIT. placed it over the outer great door. In
some early churches (as those of the Holy Cross at Jerusalem,
erected by Constantine, and Tyre, built by Paulinus at the
beginning of the fourth century) three great gates faced the
east, the central being the loftiest, like a queen between her
attendants. The arrangement adopted was that of the
Jewish Temple. In several early Roman churches, and in
the western apses of Germany, the altars face westward, but
the celebrant fronts the congregation. See East.
Orifiamme. (Auri flamma, or f ano n.) A red flag of sendal,
carried on a lance shafted with gilt copper. It was preserved
in the abbey of St. Denis, and said to have been lost at
Agincourt, in the Flemish wars by Philip de Valois. It
passed with the County of Vexin, the counts having been
the protectors of the Church, and became the standard of
France in the time of Phdip I. Other accounts state that it
was last seen in the battle-field in the time of Charles I. ;
and Felibien says that in 1 535 it was still kept in an abbey,
but was almost devoured by moths.
Orphrey. (Auriphrigiata, gold of Phrygia.) An ornamental
border of a cope or albe, so called as an imitation of the
famous Phrygian embroiderers. England was famous for
this work, and M. Paris relates that the Pope, struck with
its beauty, directed the Cistercian abbots to buy up all the
specimens they could, saying, " England is our garden of
pleasure and delight; its treasure is inexhaustible; where
much is, thence much may be taken." His order was
obeyed, and his choir vested in copes thus ornamented. In
some English inventories the rich apparels (apparatus) of
the albe for the neck and hands are called spatularia and
manicularia.
0 Sapientia. The first of the seven antiphons of the Magni-
2 E

418 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
ficat sung in Advent, on December 16th. The others were,
December 17th, 0 Adonai; December 18th, O Radix Jesse;
December 19th, 0 Clavis David ; December 20th, 0 Oriens ;
December 22, 0 Rex Gentium ; December 23rd, 0 Emmanuel,
St. Thomas's Day being omitted.
Ostiarii. Doorkeepers ; porters ; the lowest of the minor
orders in the Western Church, spoken of in the third or
fourth century. The Fourth Council of Carthage prescribed
as the form for their admission to office the delivery of the
church-key to them by the bishop, with these words, " Behave
thyself as one who must render account to God of the things
locked under these keys." They arranged catechumens
in their places, - announced the hours of service, and had
charge of the church. From this word ostiarius are derived
the words huissier and usher. The second master of Win
chester is still called hostiarius. The Greek Church only
partially adopted the institution of porters, and soon let it die
out. In the West they always Hved near the church.
Owch. A precious brooch.
Ox, The, and the ass are often represented round the cradle of
the Nativity, in allusion to Is. i. 3. Beleth says the lion and
ox in front of doors and a cock or eagle upon the church
were common representations.
Pace Haut. A broad step before an altar.
Palace. A bishop's house, called before the Norman invasion
the minster-house, in which he resided with his family of
clerks. It was provided with a gatehouse at Chichester and
Hereford ; at Wells it is moated and defendecLby walls ; at
Durham an actual castle ; at Lincoln and St. David's it exists
only as a magnificent ruin ; the chapels remain at York,
Winchester, Chichester, Durham, Wells, and Salisbury ; and
the hall is preserved at Chichester ; a few portions remain at
Worcester. There is a very perfect example at Ely. Bi
shops had town houses mostly along the Strand, as well ¦ as
numerous country houses, like Farnham, Rose, Hartlebury,
and Bishop's Auckland. The chapels of Lambeth, and Ely
Place (Holborn), the abbots' houses at "Peterborough and
Chester, converted at the Reformation into palaces, retain
many ancient portions, like those of Bayeux, Sens, Noyon,
Beauvais, Auxerre, Meaux, and Laon.

PALED — PALL. 419
Paled or Paned. (Lat. pannus, cloth.) Striped or rowed.
Pall. (1.) A band of honour, "the plenitude of the pontifical
office," was first worn by Linus, or Sylvester, in the reign of
Constantine. In 336 St. Mark gave it to the Bishop of
Ostia, when officiating at the consecration of a Pope, when
the pontiff was not a bishop at the time of his election. It is
made of wool shorn from lambs which are blessed on St.
Agnes' Day; it receives the Papal benediction on the feast
of SS. Peter and Paul. All the previous night it is laid on
the altar of St. Peter, after certain antiphons have been sung
and certain candles lighted. If there was a morrow Mass at
the high-altar it was laid upon it, and. afterwards returned to
the Pope ; and the canons of the 'Basilica received three
shillings of Provence, for claret, as the fee for their service.
The tapers were the chamberlain's perquisite.
It is the peculiar mark of primates, metropolitans, and
archbishops, and a few privileged bishops, to be worn
by them at councils, ordinations, and on certain occasions in
church. The Council of Macon, 581, forbade archbishops
saying Mass without the" pall. About 600 Autun received
it, but Aries had the priydege from time immemorial.
Isidore of Seville says that it was once common to all
bishops, but at length it was only an exceptional honour in
their case, as when St. Boniface received it from Pope
Gregory II., the Bishop of Bamberg in 1046, and the
Bishop of Lucca from Alexander II. in 1057. Pelagius or
Damasus required ad metropolitans to fetch their pall within
three months after consecration; Pope Gregory I. forbade
the reception of money by any official at its delivery, but
the journey and fees in time became a sore tax, which cost
the Archbishop of Mayence 30,000 gold pieces. Pope
Gregory sent a pall to St. Augustine of Canterbury, and in
734 Ecgbright of York, after great difficulty, procured the
same distinction, which had been withheld since 644. In 1472
the archbishops of St. Andrew's became independent of
York and metropolitans of Scotland in right of the pall.
Four palls were given for the first time at the Council of
Keds, 1152, to the Irish archbishops by the Papal legate,
this being their earliest acknowledgment of the Pope's supre
macy. The pall represents the lamb borne on the Good
Shepherd's shoulders, and also humility, zeal, a chain of
2e2

420 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
honour, and pastoral vigilance. Its other names were ano-
phorion, superhumerale, and, in the writings of Theodoret
and St. Gregory Nazianzen, hiera stole. It is a circular
scarf of plain lambs' wool worn like a collar about the neck,
and having two falling ends fastened over the chasuble by
three gold pins fixed on the left shoulder, the breast, and
back, the number signifying charity or the nails of the Cross.
Before the eighth century it was ornamented with two or
four red or purple, but now with six black crosses, fastened
with gold pins, which superseded an earlier ornament, the
Good Shepherd, or one cross, in the fourth century. It has
been supposed to be the last relic of an abbreviated toga, re
duced to its laticlave by degrees. In the time of Gregory
the Great it was made of white linen cloth without seam or
needlework, hanging down from the shoulders. It has pen
dants hanging down behind and before to represent the
double burden of the Pope. (2.) (Gr. endute, trapezophoron,
aploma.) The frontal hanging in front of an altar ; the
modern antependium, like the blue cloth of the golden altar
(Numb. iv. 11). In 1630, at Worcester cathedral the upper
and lower fronts, and the pall or middle covering, are men
tioned. There is one with the acts of saints of the fifteenth
century at Steeple Aston, Oxon. (3.) The corporal. (4.)
Wall hangings, according to. Rupert, betokening the future
glory of the Church triumphant. (5.) The linen cloth covering
the table or slab of the altar, ordered by the Councils of La
teran and Rheims, and by Pope Boniface III. In the Greek
Church, on the four corners of the holy table are fixed four
pieces of cloth called the Evangelists, because stamped with
their effigies, symbolizing the Church, which calls the faithful
to Christ from every quarter of the world. Over these are
laid the linen cloth, called the body cloth, representing the
winding-sheet of the Lord in the tomb (St. John xx. 7) ; a
second of finer material, symbolizing the glory of the Son of
God seated on the altar as His throne ; and a third the cor
poral proper. The use of three cloths in the Latin Church
is said to have existed in the time of Pius I. St. Optatus of
Milevi mentions an altar cloth. In the sixth century silk and
precious stuffs were used, as St. Gregory of Tours informs us.
Constantine gave a pall of cloth of gold to St. Peter's ; and
Zachary presented one wrought with the Nativity and studded

PALLANT  PALM SUNDAY. 421
with jewels. A fair white linen cloth, and a carpet of silk
or decent stuff, are required in the English Church. The
form is the ancient pall, and should be fair, that is, damasked
or ornamented, and so beautiful (Is. liv. 2; Ezek. xvi. 17) ;
it is white (Rev. xv. 6; xix. 14), like the Saviour's raiment,
exceeding white as snow (St. Mark ix. 3). It ought to hang
slightly over the front of the altar, but at the ends nearly to
the ground. Decent, the canon explains, means " such as
becometh that Table," therefore rich and of price. (6.) A
herse-cloth laid over a coffin and bier, ensigned with a cross
of yellow or white material, often of bright blue colour. In
1386 Lord Nevdle's coffin had a russet pall ensigned with a
red cross. Another pall is described as made of black fur
with gold embroidery. The Clothiers' Company at Wor
cester preserve one made of two copes of the early part of
the reign of Henry VII.
Pallant. An independent jurisdiction, like the Archbishop of
Canterbury's peculiar at Chichester.
Palmer. A pilgrim who carried a palm-branch in token that
he had visited the holy places. He differed from a pilgrim
in having no home, with no definite shrine to visit once for
aU, and in being never free until death released him from his
vow. Palm was the symbol of triumph after confession of
Christ (Rev. vii. 9).
Palm Sunday (Palm Easter ; Pasrha floridum, the Easter of
flowers), a name as old as the time of Amalarius, for the
Sunday before Easter, as the commemoration of the palm-
strewn entrance of our Lord into Jerusalem. It was ob
served in the Greek Church as early as the fourth century ;
the first allusion to it in the West occurs in an epistle of St.
Ambrose. Bede records its observance, which was general
in the time of Charlemagne. In the middle age a priest
seated on an ass was often led in procession through the
streets. The blessing of the palms is mentioned in Italy in
the fifth century, but was of earlier date in the East. In
England it is not noticed until the eighth century. In some
places this ceremony took place outside the city, and the
procession was stopped at the entrance by finding the gates
closed, as at Paris, until they were opened after having been
struck with the cross. In other churches, as Salisbury, St.
Alban's, Canterbury, and Bee, the Holy Eucharist was car-

422 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
ried before the procession, which, at Angers, in the eleventh
century, was made with especial ceremonial, owing to hostdity
to Berangar ; but in Germany and the East the Holy Scrip
ture led the van ; and Alcuin, in the eight century, says the
Gospels, encircled by palms and laid on a richly-ornamented
litter, were carried in procession by two priests vested in
albs. The ashes of the palms were used on Ash Wednesday
for sprinkling penitents. Indulgence Sunday in St. Je
rome's Lectionary, from the reconciliation of penitents, but
more probably connected with the word indulgentia, remis
sion of sins, which occurs in the Preface in St. Gregory's
Sacramentary. Great Sunday. Hosanna (save us, we pray)
Sunday, in the East and Southern Europe, in allusion to
St. Matt. xxi. 9-15; St. Mark xi. 9, 10; St. John xii. 13.
Pardon Sunday. Dominica broncherii. In Italy it is called
OHve Sunday; in Wales, Flower Sunday ; in Spain, Portugal,
and France, Branch Sunday ; in Russia, Sadow Sunday ; in
land, Willow or Yew Sunday, because of the respective
substitutes for the Oriental palm in the procession on this
day, commemorating our Lord's triumphal entry into Jerusa
lem. At Malmesbury they still go in procession, carrying
catkins of the willow, to St. Martin's Hdl on this day.
Flowers, box, or laurel were used in France. It was also
known as Pasch of Competents and Tradition Sunday, be
cause the catechumens were taught the Creed on it ; in Hert
fordshire, as Fig Sunday, in allusion to our Lord cursing the
fig-tree ; and at different times it has been characterized as
Capitilavium (head- washing), by Isidore and Alcuin, from the
washing of the heads of infants who were to be anointed
on Easter Eve. " In the beginning of the procession,"
Becon says, " the people goeth out, having every one a palm
in their hand, following the cross, which is covered with a
cloth," to signify " Christ adumbrated, shadowed, prefigured
by types, etc.," and " the fathers of the Old Testament."
" They go forth until they reach unto a certain stead of the
churchyard, where they stand stdl, and in the meanseason
the priest read the Gospel;" this signified the prophets
which prophesied of Christ's coming. "Then goeth forth
the people with the cross that is covered, and even strait-
ways not far from them come other people (§), and the priest
with the Sacrament, which have with them a cross, bare (a)

PALM SUNDAY. 423
and uncovered, pricked full of green olives and palms (7), and
certain children before singing En Rex Venit (/?)," to signify
(a) Christ born ; the prophets (/3) that prophesied a Httle
before He was born ; the innumerable abundance of virtues
which are in Christ (7), and His victory ; and (8) the people
of the New Testament. " They are not so soon met but the
bumbled cross vanisheth away and is conveyed from the
people straitways. Then all the whole people inclose toge
ther with great joy, singing and making melody, triumphantly
foUowing the naked cross, bearing in their hands every one a
palm ;" in some places they also bore green herbs instead
of olives, to signify that types have vanished away, that
there is now but one fold, and that the victory is won, and
Christians may bring forth fruits of righteousness. " Then
the people goeth somewhat further unto the churchyard, and
there standeth still ; immediately after certain children (1),
standing upon an high place right against the people, sing
with a loud voice a certain hymn in the praise of our Lord,
Gloria laus (2) ; at the end of every verse they cast down
cakes or bread (4) with flowers (3)," to signify that Chris
tians (1) should be simple and humble in heart as chddren.
(2) glory in Christ, (3) showing an honest conversation to
wards God, and (4) mercy to His people. Then goeth the
procession forth until they come to the church door, which
when they come unto it is opened and certain children in the
church singing. The song being once done, the priest
taketh the cross in his hand and putteth the door from him
with it, and so openeth it, and entereth it with all the other
people after him," to show that Christ is the entrance to
heaven, where the ransomed are with their everlasting songs.
" When they are once entered into the church, then doth all
this people kneel down, and the priest, plucking up the cloth
wherewith the crucifix was covered, singeth a certain song,"
to signify the beatific vision revealed to the faithful departed.
Cranmer says the ceremonial was designed to teach us to re
ceive Christ into our hearts, as He was received into Jerusa
lem. The " stead " in the churchyard was sometimes called
the pavilion, a tent being erected in bad weather, but
occasionaHy there was a permanent structure like that called
St. Germoe's chair in Cornwall, which is Early English in
date and oblong in plan 6.3 x 3.6 feet, having two arches

424 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
in front, and at the back a blind arcaded wall and a bench
of stone. At Eyam the churchyard cross formed the
station. At Caistor on this day a man holds over the priest's
head a whip with a leathern purse at the end containing
thirty pieces of silver, signifying the price of blood paid to
the traitor, and with four pieces of witchelm tied upon the
cross to typify the Gospel. ¦ Whilst the first lesson is being
read he cracks it three times in the porch to commemorate
St. Peter's denial, and during the second lesson waves it
thrice over the reader in honour of the Holy Trinity. Upon
the performance of this curious ceremony the tenure of
Hunden Manor depends. There was also a custom of
casting cakes from the church tower amongst boys as
sembled below, and of blessing palm crosses to be set on
doors or carried in the purse. The veil was also drawn from
before the rood during the processions. At the Reformation
in England the making of crosses of wood on Palm Sunday
during the reading of the Passion was forbidden.
Panagia. Bread cut crosswise, and distributed to Greek
monks in refectory after every meal.
Pancarea. A representation of the six general councds painted
on the walls of St. Peter's, Rome, in the eighth century.
Pane. A light in a window ; a bay in a cloister ; the side of a
tower; a panel or compartment of wainscoting, or cielings.
Panteon. A Spanish term for a crypt behind the altar, serving
as the burial-place of bishops.
Parabolani. District visitors, especially at Alexandria, in times
of dangerous disease.
Paradise. A garden ; " a place of Divine pleasantness, des
tined for the reception of the spirits of saints," Tertullian
says. See Cloister.
Paramonarius. In the East, a bailiff of Church lands ; in the
West, a resident verger and porter.
Parapet. A low breastwork to protect the gutters and roofs
of churches, in England commonly battlemented or panelled,
but in France usually pierced.
Paratrapezon. A side-table for the additional chalices in the
Greek Church.
Parcel Gilt. Partly gilt.
Pardon Bell. The same as the Ave, which was tolled three
times before and' thrice after service ; it was suppressed by

PARDONER — PARISH. 425
Bishop Shaxton. It derived its name from the indulgences
attached to the recitation of the Angelus.
Pardoner. (Qucestor.) A missioner, usually a friar, who car
ried a seal, and sold Papal pardons and indulgences, and
pretended to absolve from all punishment and guilt. Their
wickedness was condemned by the Council of Lateran (1215),
Pope Clement V. in the Council of Vienne, and Archbishop
Nevdle in 1466. They buried suicides, remitted penances,
and dispensed with vows, for money. The Council of Trent
abolished their very name. At Segovia, St. Paul's Cathedral,
and St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, there was a pardon-door,
where indulgences were sold. At St. Paul's Cross a general
absolution was pronounced after sermons, usually at Pente
cost.
Pargetting, Ornamental plastering on walls.
Parish (Paroikia) , as the word is used by St. Athanasius, St.
Basil, St. Gregory Nazianzen, Eusebius, Irenaaus, and even
in Corboyl's Canons in 1127, in England; in the first
three centuries the circuit of a bishop's jurisdiction, extend
ing over a city and a district round it, whereas a diocese was
the see of an exarch, or patriarch, embracing several pro
vinces. In the fourth or fifth century parish sometimes
designated both the city and rural divisions, and diocese
marked a single church, as if it was the. priest's diocese.
Title was also a name given to distinguish the parish priest's
church from the cathedral or see, because the clergy, being
permanently attached, derived their title from it. As the
population became Christianized, these parish churches were
multiplied ; but those in the city, for many centuries, were
served by the cathedral clergy. Innocent I. used to send
the Eucharist by acolyths to priests in Rome upon Sundays,
and in the time of Justinian the capitular clergy served in
the three basilicas of Constantinople in courses. The coun
try parish clergy at first remitted the offertory to the bishop,
who assigned to them a portion annually or monthly, until
the middle of the fifth century ; for a hundred years later in
Spain, and for a yet longer period in Gaul and Germany.
Pope Dionysius (c. 267) is said to have divided to priests
churches and churchyards, and appointed parishes and dio
ceses. The African Canons, in 418, and the Council of
Sardica, required the sanction of a primate, the provincial

426

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

synod, and the bishop of the district for the erection of a
new parish in the sense of a diocese ; in 747, parishes, that
is districts, first assigned to priests by Theodore in the
South, and Wdfrid in the* North, existed in England, and
are alluded to in 970 and 994.
Parish Chaplain. An assistant stipendiary, temporary or per
manent ; the medieval curate, whose pay was six marks a
year in 1347. In 1362 they had become scarce, preference
being given by unbeneficed clergy to the office of Mass
priests, who celebrated annals only, without cure of souls ;
very stringent regulations were then made, in order to se
cure curates, whilst the pay of the others was not to exceed
five marks a year.
Parish Church. In a monastic or cathedral church, as at
Norwich, Kilkenny, Carlisle, Chester, SaHsbury, and Here
ford. Spanish cathedrals have usually an attached sagra-
rio or parroquia, or parish church, which communicates
with the main building; at Strengnas, in the south aisle,
there is a peasants' church. Nice, like Manchester and
Ripon, are also parish churches. The Austin Canons of
Thornton, Carlisle, and Christchurch, and the secular oa-
nons at Hereford and Chichester, left the naves open for the
parish altar; the Benedictines, who, at Rochester, West
minster, St. Alban's, and other places, built a separate parish
ch.urch, yet tolerated it within the nave at Bodmin and Tyne-
mouth. At Romsey, Marrick, St. Helen's (Bishopsgate),
Croyland, and Dunstable, the north aisle, and at Leominster
the south aisle, formed a parish church. At Lincoln, Bishop
Sutton removed the parishioners of St. Mary Magdalene out
of the nave. In order to give stdl further relief at Chi
chester, Scarborough, and Manchester, side chapels were
erected externally to the nave aisles ; a large chapel at York,
and a church of St. Cross at Ely, were appended on the
north, as at Rochester and Waltham on the south, of the
nave ; and at Sherborne, a western ante-church.
Parishioners, in 1250, 1281, and 1305, were required to find
in every church a chalice, principal vestment, a silk cope
for principal festivals, two others for rectors of the choir on
those days ; a processional cross, a cross carried before the
dead, a bier, a holy-water vessel, with salt and bread ; oscu-
latory, paschal candlestick, censer, lantern, and little hand-

PARISH PRIEST — PARLOUR. 427
bell (for preceding the viaticum) ; two candlesticks for aco
lyths before the gospel; a legendary, antiphonar, grail,
psalter, tropar, ordinal, missal, and manual ; high-altar
frontal, three surplices, a pyx, rogation banners, bells and
ropes, a font with lock and key, chrismatory, images, the
image of the patron saint, the church light (before the altar) ;
the repairs of the nave and tower, glass windows, aisles, and
churchyard fence. In 1014, parishioners were called the
priest's hyrmen, or hyremen. In 994 the only church fur
niture expressly required comprised holy books, housel, ves
sels, and mass vestments. The Sovereign is the parishioner
of the Archbishop of Canterbury.
Parish Priest. (1.) A medieval reader in a parish church,
in 1127 ; a temporary assistant in choir to a resident incum
bent, without cure of souls; in 1287 he received forty shil
lings a year, whilst the chaplain had five marks, and the
mass priest was paid fifty shillings ; he is called a temporary
vicar in 1408. (2.) In 1362, a curate in a parish church.
(3.) A rector or vicar, in 1268; called by John de Athon
perpetual curate or perpetual vicar. The temporary parish
priests only preached if they had a licence; either of the
three meanings of the word can only be ascertained by the
context of the passages in which it occurs. Annual chap
lains, in 1236, were required not to be removed by the
rectors without reasonable cause. In 1305, these stipen
diaries, or chaplains, often were maintained by their friends ;
they attended choir in surplices, and could only celebrate
Mass, bury, and hear confessions by the permission of the
incumbent. See Curate.
Parlour. (Locutorium, spekehouse.) At Durham, where it occu
pied the usual site of the slype, and St. Alban's, the monks
communicated in this room with visitors and tradespeople;
there were two chambers bearing the same name : the private,
forensic, or outer parlour, was used for this purpose, and was
almost invariably near the western side of the cloister, or the
¦ abbot's lodge ; whereas the regular parlour, or calefactory,
used as a withdrawing-room by- monks or regular canons,
adjoined the refectory and chapter-house, and usually formed
a portion of the cellarage under the dormitory. In it also
monks communicated with the obedientiaries during reading
or cloister time. At Lincoln the canons had a common

428 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
chamber, in which part of the ceremonial of installation took
place. In the outer parlour, a fugitive monk was revested
in his habit after his reception.
Parson. (Persona, a word designating at first the King's chap
lains and capitular clergy.) The parson was represented by
the vicar (Tyndale says), and the latter, when he obtained a
dispensation for non-residence, put in a parish priest, " who
had most labour and least profit," taking " the mass-penny,
trental, dirge money, bead roll, and confession penny." In
1164, parsons are said to hold of the King in capite, and the
election of a bishop was made by the chief parsons in the
King's chapel ; in 1236 the title included rectors and vicars.
In 1363, Thoresby mentions archdeacons, deans, plebans,
provosts, chanters, and other parsons ; the plebania was a
rectory, with dependent chapelries.
Partibus, in, Infidelium. Bishops of some see in which there
are few if any Christians, residence being dispensed with.
Particular Feasts. Festivals only locally observed, as St.
Hilary's was in Aquitaine, in distinction to general feasts,
which were kept universally.
Parvis. (1.) An enclosed space, paradise, or atrium ; occasion
ally elevated above the ground ; in front of a cathedral, as at
Rouen, before the north front of the transept. It is a relic
of the primitive arrangement; the ancient basdicas had a
forecourt, surrounded with porticoes, and containing in ihe
centre tombs, wells, fountains, and statues. At the close of
the twelfth century the parvis became open, and only slightly
marked out, to show the episcopal jurisdiction. On it scaf
folds were erected, on which delinquent clerks were exposed,
and criminals did open penance ; the relics were exhibited,
and the inferior clergy were ranged, whilst their superiors
occupied the open galleries above to sing the Gloria. At
Rheims, and Notre Dame, Paris, the parvis was enclosed
with a low wall ; at Amiens and Lisieux the raised platform
exists ; and at Rhadegund's, Poictiers, the coped wall, with
kneeling angels, dogs, and lions, and its five entrances re
main perfect. A trace of the same plan may be seen in front
of Lichfield. At Laach, and St. Ambrose's, Milan, the parvis
and cloister remain ; and the forecourt at Parenzo, Salerno,
Aschaffenburg, St. Clement's, and other churches at Rome.
Staveley derived the word a pueris parvis, from little boys

PASSIONISTS — PASTORAL STAFF. 429
educated in the parvise, and the song-school at Chester was
held over the south porch ; but the true derivation is para
dise, the term applied to the cloister garth at Oxford.
Bishop Cooper says the sophisters kept logic disputations
in the parvise school. (2.) A chamber over a porch, as at
Drontheim, Paisley, Christchurch (Hants), and Hereford.
Passionists. An order founded, 1779, by Paul of the Cross.
Passoire. A cullender, or strainer, for the wine and water
when poured into the chalice. It dates from the seventh
century.
Pastophoria. (1.) That which is borne on a shrine. (2.) Pas-
ton, a small chapel, the sacristy of the Greek Church ; from
passo, in the sense of an embroidery, which was wrought
upon the curtain which hung before it. It comprehended
the diakonikon and skeuophylakion. (3.) The watchers'
chamber.
Pastoral Staff. (Baculus pastor alis, cambuca, pedum, crocia,
virga, ferula, cambutta in Gregory's Sacramentary.) A sym
bol of episcopal authority, resembling a shepherd's crook,
and pointed at the end as an emblem both of encouragement
and correction. In the fourth century it resembled a simple
cane with a knob, or else a crutch-like staff, like a Tau.
The Russian bishops use one with two curved heads. After
the twelfth century the staffs increased in height and orna
mentation, but the abbots, especially those of the order of
St. Anthony, long retained the Tau- shaped one. The Pope
gave up the use of the staff in the middle of the twelfth cen
tury, and cardinal-bishops no longer carry it. The early
staffs were made of cypress-wood generally, and afterwards
of ivory, copper-gilt, crystal, and precious metals richly
carved, jewelled, or enamelled. The silver cambuca of St.
Remi is mentioned in the sixth century. The staff has either
a simple crook or volute, or one enriched with foliage, or
with a sculptured subject. Between 1150 and 1280 the
crook was often formed of a serpent (the old dragon), or
contained St. Michael or the Hon of Judah, and at a later
period the prelate praying before his patron saint. Beautiful
crocketed work also was added on the exterior of the crook.
The banner (sudarium, ve.rillum) on the staff originally was
a handkerchief. The bishops of Oxford, Chichester, Roches
ter, Salisbury, Honolulu, Capetown, and some other colonial

430 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
prelates have resumed the use of the staff. Fine specimens
are preserved, those of Wykeham, of silver-gilt, enamelled,
at New College ; of Fox, at Corpus Christi College ; of Laud,
at St. John's College, Oxford ; of Smith, of the seventeenth
century, at York ; of Mews and Trelawney, at Winchester;
and are represented on the effigies of an archbishop at Cashel,
four archbishops of York, and Bishop Hacket of Lichfield, ad
of the seventeenth century. The British Museum contains
the head of a staff with Limoges enamel, of the thirteenth
century, and the coronation of the Virgin in the head ; an
other, of the same date and character, with an inscription
only, from Peterborough; Lyndwood's wooden staff with
delicate foliage, of the fifteenth century ; and a bronze staff,
with a silver head and crestwork of birds, which was used
by Archbishop Finnen of Leinster, who died in 1108. At
Chichester the head and pommel of a staff of obsidian and
jet, and an ivory crook with a bird and foliage, A'Beckett's
at Sens, two at Maryland and Connecticut, two in the
Museum Clugny, and three, of the twelfth century, at
Hildesheim, are of great interest.
The staff of a prascentor had a double curve by way. of dis
tinction. The oriental staff is straight and surmounted by a
globe and Tau cross, or has two interlaced serpents. The
French abbot's staff has its crook turned inwards, to show
that his authority extended only over his house, whdst the
bishop's crook turned outwards, to denote his external
jurisdiction over his diocese. At Worcester the mitred prior
was allowed to carry only a blue-and-white staff in the pre
sence of the bishop. The wooden staff of Abbot Sebroke of
Gloucester, who died 1450, is now preserved at Newcastle,
• and is nearly five feet in length. The crook has projecting
bosses and two tabernacled figures in the centre. The Tau-
shaped staff of Morand, Abbot of St. Germain des Pres in
the tenth century, was of hazel, with a cross-piece of ivory.
In the Penitential of Theodore and the Ordo Romanus the
bishop gives the abbot his staff and sandals. The former
was then curved back like a bishop's. The ved on the
abbot's staff was covered in the presence of the diocesan.
Paten, so called from its open shape. A small flat plate for
holding the sacred element of bread, formed of the same
material as the chalice, and invented by Pope Zephyrinus.

PATRIARCH. 431
Walafrid Strabo mentions some of glass, which was forbidden
by the Councd of Tribur. But long before this date patens
were of gold and silver, and such are spoken of in the times
of Pope Urban, Damasus, and Sylvester, but were formerly
of larger size than at present. They were consecrated, as
Moses, by God's command, sanctified the vessels of the
Tabernacle. In some places the deacon, after the Lord's
Prayer, having received the paten from the subdeacon, lifts
it up so as to be seen of the people, in order to notify the
congregation that the communion is about to commence. In
the Greek Church it stands on the left of the chalice. Be
sides the altar patens there were (1) ministerial, of larger
size, for containing the breads given to the people ; (2) chris-
mal, hollow in shape, and used for containing chrism for
baptismal confirmation; (3) ornamental, with carvings and
symbolical images, set on altars as decorations. Church
plate of medieval date is necessarily rare. In 1070 WilHam
I. robbed ad the English minsters of their shrines and
chalices, and in 1193-4 another raid was made upon them
for the ransom of Richard I. There are three ancient speci
mens at York, one engraved with a hand upraised in bene
diction. Another, at Chichester, of the twelfth century, has
the same design between a crescent and star ; another has
the Agnus Dei ; a third, of pewter, was taken from a bishop's
grave, with a chalice of the same material.^ A paten and
chalice, once at St. Alban's, remain at Trinity College, 1527 ;
others at Nettlecomb, of the middle of the fifteenth century ;
a communion chalice, of the same date, at Monk's Kirby,
Warwickshire ; a paten and chalice, of Elizabethan date, at
Wymondham, St. Mary's, Bedford, Hillmorton, Withybrook,
Caxton, Long Itchington, Churchover. In 1685 Arch
bishop Sancroft consecrated church plate at Coleshill.
Patriarch. A local title, of Eastern origin, almost synonymous
with primate, and derived from Acts vii. 8. The successors
of the Apostles were so called, as if the fathers of all other
Churches. These were Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and
Jerusalem in the third century, but the name and duties
were hardly established before 440. At first each quarter of
the world had its patriarch — Europe, Rome, Asia, Antioch,
Africa, Alexandria. At a later period there were two more
• — those of Jerusalem, as the mother of all churches, " the

432

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Apostolical See " of St. James the First, founded by the
Council of. Chalcedon ; and Constantinople, by the Councd
of Constantinople, 451, as Byzantium was another Rome
and imperial city. The patriarch of Constantinople took
the title of oecumenical, or universal (587), and in 934 received
the honour of the pall from Pope John XI. St. Gregory enu
merates only four patriarchs. The bishops of Aquileia became
patriarchs in the sixth century, and were confirmed in their
rank in the eleventh century. The bishops of Lyons and
Bourges whilst their cities were capitals of kingdoms, the
Archbishop of Toledo at a later date, enjoyed the title.
Antioch, the metropolis of the East, the first see of St.
Peter, embraced five provinces. Alexandria, the evangeHcal
see founded by St. Mark, contained Libya, Pentapolis, and
the Thebaid, but in the seventh century lost the distinction.
Jerusalem embraced Syria and Palestine ; the rule of Con
stantinople extended over Pontus, Thrace, and Asia, the
metropolitans of Csesarea and Heraclea being deprived of
their power over their suffragan sees. To the patriarchs
lay appeals; they consecrated metropolitans and convened
national councils. The five Roman patriarchal churches are
St. John Lateran, " the chiefest of all," St. Peter, St. Paul,
St. Mary Major, and St. Laurence. There are also patri
archs of Venice, Lisbon, and the Indies. The dress of the
four patriarchs at Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alex
andria, and Jerusalem, ranking next to cardinals, resembles
that of cardinals except that the colour is purple. In the
Papal chapel they wear over their soutane and rochets amicts
and a purple serge cappa, gathered up with a fold under the
left arm, with a white ermine tippet, and when the Pope
officiates, plain linen mitres and copes of the colour of the
day. The Greek patriarchs have a lampadouchon, or lighted
candlestick, carried before them. In 'the twelfth century
the right, hitherto exclusively attached to the pontificate, of
having a cross borne before them was conceded to all patri
archs and metropolitans, and granted to all archbishops from
the time of Gregory IX.
Patrons (helpers in diseases, etc.) : —
St. Agatha presided over fire and St. Sylvester, over woods ; St. Vin-
valleys ; St. Barbara, over hills ; St. cent and St. Anne, over lost goods ;
Florian, over fire ; St. Anne over St. Urban, over vineyards ; St. An-
richcs ; St. Osyth, over house-keys ; thony, over pigs ; St. Sail, St. Leo-

PATRON SAINTS.

433

degar, or St. Eerrioll, over geese ;
St. Leonard, over ducks ; St. Gjer-
man, over hen-roosts ; St. Gertrude,
over eggs ; St. Huldeth, over mice ;
St. Hubert, over dogs ; St. Magnus,
over locusts; St. Pelagius,over oxen;
St. Wendoline, over sheep.
St. Barbara took care that none died
without the viaticum.
St. Judocus preserved from mildew ;
St. Magnus, from grasshoppers ; St.
Mark, from sudden death.
St. Leonard broke prison chains.
St. Otilia watched over the head ; St.
Blaise, over the neck ; St. Erasmus,
the chest; St. Catherine, the tongue;

St. Laurence, the back; St. Burghart,
the lower members.
St. Romain drove away spirits.
St. Roche cured pestilence ; St. Apol-
lonia, toothache ; St. Otilia, bleared
eyes ; St. Eutropius, dropsy ; St.
Chiacre, emerods; St. Wolfgang, the
gout ; St. Valentine, the failing
sickness ; St. Erasmus, the colic ;
St. Blaise, the quinsy ; St. John,
Shorne ; St. Pernel, the ague ; St.
Vitus, madness; St. Laurence, rheu
matism ; SS. Wilgford and "[In
cumber, bad husbands.
St. Susanna helped in infancy ; St.
Elorian, in fire.

Patron Saints (Defensores) of professions, trades, conditions, and
callings. Several are clearly connected by a sort of pun (as St.
Clair, of lamplighters ; St.' Cloud, of the nailmakers ; and St.
Blanc, or Blanchard, of laundresses), or are derived from some
incident in their life (as St. Peter, of fishmongers), or in
their legends, as St. Dunstan, of goldsmiths ; St. Sebastian, of
archers ; St. Blaise, of combmakers ; St. Laurence, of girdlers
and cooks ; SS. Hubert and Eustace, of huntsmen; St. Ce
cilia, of musicians ; St. Catherine, of philosophers. Some
preside over different trades, as St. Eloi, patron of hangmen,
coachmen, tinmen, nail and shoeing smiths, and metal
workers ; St. George, of soldiers, clothiers, and horsemen ;
St. Anne, of grooms, toymen, turners, and combmakers ; St.
Michael, of fencing-masters and pastrycooks ; St. John at the
Latin Gate, of printers, attorneys, and papermakers ; IV.
Coronati, of masons and builders ; SS. Cosmas and Damian, of
physicians and surgeons; SS. Crispin and Crispinian, of
cordwainers and embroiderers ; St. Nicholas, of butchers,
scholars, seamen, and thieves ; St. Vincent, of vinedressers
and vinegar-makers.

Artillery, and engineers, and mecha
nics, and married women, St. Bar
bara.
Bakers, SS. Wilfred and Honorius.
Basketmakers, St. Anthony.
Blind men, St. Thomas a Beeket.
Bookbinders, the Ascension.
Booksellers, St. John the Evangelist.
Boys, St. Gregory.
Brewers, SS. Honorius and Clement.
Brokers, St. Maurice.
Builders, SS. Coronati, Severus, Seve-
rianus, Carpophorus, and Victo-
rius.

Butchers, SS. Anthony the Abbot
and Erancis.
Carpenters, SS. Joseph and Andrew.
Carters, St. Catherine.
Chandlers, the Purification (Candle
mas).
Charcoal-cutters, St. Anthony.
Children, The Holy Innocents, St.
Eelicitas.
Chinamen, St. Anthony of Padua.
Common women, SS. Bride and Afra.
Confectioners, the Purification.
Coopers, SS. Mary Magdalen and
Hilary.
2f

434

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Captives, SS. Leonard and Barbara.
Curriers, SS. Simon and Jude.
Divines, St. Thomas Aquinas.
Drapers, SS. Blaise and Leodegar.
Drunkards, SS. Martin and Urban.
Falconers, St. Tibba.
Eerrymen, St. Christopher.
Fool's, St. Mathurin.
Fullers, St. Severus.
Gardeners, SS. Urban of Langres and
Fiacre.
Girls, St. Catherine.
Glaziers, St. James of Germany.
Granarers, millers, St. Anthony.
Grocers, the Purification, St. An
thony.
Hairdressers, St. Louis.
Hatters, SS. James and William.
Horsedealers, St. Louis.
Hotelkeepers, St. Theodotus.
Jockeys, St. Euloge.
Labourers, SS. Walstan and Isidore.
Lawyers, St. Ives.
Locksmiths, St. Peter-es-Liens.
Lovers, St. Valentine.
Master-shoemakers, St. Martin.
Matmakers, the Nativity.
Mercers, St. Florian.
Millers, SS. Martin and Arnold.
Mowers and reapers, St. Walstan.
Nurses, St. Agatha.
Painters, SS. Luke and Lazarus.
Paviours, St. Roeh.

Peasants, St. Lucia.
Physicians, St. Pantaleon.
Pilgrims, St. Julian.
Pinmakers, St. Sebastian.
Plasterers, IV. Coronati.
Ploughmen, St. Urban.
Potters, St. Gore.
Saddlers, St. Gualfard.
Seamen and fishermen, SS. Nicholas,
Disnias, Christopher, and Elmo.
Shepherds, SS. Neomaye, Drugo, and
Wendolin.
Spinners, St. Catherine.
Spurriers, St. Giles.
Students, scholars, SS. Jerome, Lau
rence, Mathurin, Mary Magdalene,
Catherine, Gregory the Great, Ur
sula.
Tailors, SS. John Baptist, Goodman,
and Anne.
Tanners, SS. Simon, Jude, and Cle
ment.
Taverners, St. Laurence.
Theologians, SS. Augustine and Tho
mas Aquinas.
Thieves, St. Dismas.
Travellers, St. Julian.
Virgins, St. Winifred.
Washerwomen, SS. Hunna and Li-
doise.
Weavers, St. Stephen.
Woolcombers, SS. Blaise and Mary
Magdalene.

The dedication of a church often commemorates the patron
of the staple trade of the vicinity.
Patrons of Countries, Cities, and Towns : —

Asturia, St. Ephrem.
Austria, SS. Colman and Leopold.
Bavaria, SS. George, Mary, and Wolf
gang.
Bohemia, SS. Norbert, Wenceslaus,
John Nepomuc, Adalbert, Cosmas,
Damian, Cyril, and Methodius.
Brabant, SS. Peter, Philip, and An
drew.
Brandenburg, St. John Baptist.
Brunswick, St. Andrew.
Burgundy, SS. Andrew and Mary.
Denmark, SS. Anscharius and Ca
nute.
England, SS. George and Mary.
Flanders, St. Peter.
France, SS. Mary, Michael, and
Denis.
Germany, SS. Martin, Boniface, and
George.
Hanover, St. Mary.
Holland, St. Mary.
Holstein, St. Andrew.

Hungary, SS. Mary and Louis.
Ireland, St. Patrick.
Italy, St. Anthony.
Leon, SS. Isidore, Pelagius, Ramiro,
and Claude.
Luxembourg, SS. Peter, Phihp, and
Andrew.
Mecklenburg, St. John the Evange
list.
Naples, St. Januarius.
Navarre, SS. Fermin and Xavier.
Norway, SS. Anscharius and Olaus.
Oldenburg, St. Mary.
Parma, SS. Hilary, John Baptist,
Thomas, and Vitalis.
Poland, SS. Stanislaus and Hederiga.
Pomerania, SS. Mary and Otho.
Portugal, SS. Sebastian, James, and
George.
Prussia, SS. Mary, Adalbert, and An
drew.
Russia, SS. Nicholas, Andrew, Wladi-
mir, and Mary.

PAVEMENT. 435
Sardinia, St. Mary. Sweden, SS. Bridget, Erie, Anscha-
Savoy, St. Maurice. rius, and John.
Scotland, St. Andrew. Switzerland, SS. Martin, Gall, and
Sicily, SS. Mary, Vitus, Rosalie, and Mary.
George. Venice, SS. Mark, Justina, and Theo-
Spain, SS. James the Great, Michael, dore.
Thomas a, Becket, and Edward. Wales, St. David.
Suabia, St. George.
Many cities and towns bear the name of their patron saint,
to whom the principal church is dedicated, as St. Remo, St.
Sebastian, St. Malo, St. Omer, St. Quentin, St. Die, Peter
borough, Bury St. Edmund's, St. David's, St. Asaph, St.
Alban's, Boston (St. Botolph's town), Kircudbright (St.
Cuthbert's church), Malmesbury (Maidulph's town), St.
Neot's, St. Ive's, St. Burean's, St. German's, St. Marychurch,
St. Andrew's. Others have special saints : St. Fredeswide,
of Oxford; St. Sebald, of Nuremberg; St. Giles, of Edin
burgh ; SS. Peter and Paul, of Rome ; St. Mark, of Venice ;
St. Stephen, of Vienna ; St. Genevieve, of Paris ; St. Janu-
arius, of Naples ; St. Nicholas, of Aberdeen ; St. Gudule, of
Brussels ; St. Norbert, of Antwerp ; St. George, of Genoa ;
St. Ursula, of Cologne ; St. Bavon, of Ghent ; St. Ambrose,
of Milan ; St. Vincent, of Lisbon ; St. Boniface, of Mentz ;
St. Domatian, of Bre ; St. Romuold, of Mechlin.
Pavement. From the fourth century churches were carefully
paved, as the Jewish temple had a wooden floor. The nar
thex was laid with plaster, the nave with wood, and the
sanctuary with mosaic. The custom of burying within
churches between the seventh and tenth centuries led to the
practice of covering the pavement with memorials of the
departed; and at length the floors were laid with stone,
marble, or tesselated or plain tiles. Rich pavements, like
marqueterie in stone or Roman mosaic, occur in most parts
of Italy, at St. Omer, St. Denis, in the Rhine country, at
Canterbury, Westminster, and in the churches of St. Mary
Major, St. Laurence Without the WaHs, of the time of Adrian
I., and St. Martin of the period of Constantine at Rome.
The patterns are usually geometrical, but figures, flowers,
animals, and the zodiac are frequently introduced with an
effect equal to the richest tapestry. This decoration lasted
till the twelfth century, but at that time, and in the subse
quent period, marble became rare, and hard blocks of free
stone were used, and lastly tiles. There is a magnificent
2 f2

'436 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY. -
pavement at Rheims, commenced in 1090. Pliny caded
these beautiful additions to buddings aserota (Gr., not to be
swept) ; and in the time of Cicero they were known as
emblemata vermiculata and opus musivarum, and the in
vention is attributed to Sosias of Pergamus. In England
rushes, hay, straw, and on great feasts ivy-leaves, were
strewn on the floors of the noblest minsters. • Tessedated
pavements occur at St. David's, Malvern, Salisbury, Wor
cester, Prior Crauden's Chapel (Ely), Stone Church, and
Chinnor. The sacred monogram, the fish, the lamb, the
interlaced triangle, the fleur-de-lys, and the pehcan are
found at Gloucester, Hereford, and Evesham. Letters were
found at Beaulieu, portions of inscriptions and mottoes,
which are complete at Malvern and Gloucester ; figures, as
at Tintern, and Romsey, and Margam; armorial bearings,
c. 1450, at Gloucester; quatrefods at Shrewsbury; birds,
grotesques, and animals at Christchurch, Hants, St. Alban's,
Beaulieu, Evesham, Romsey, Salisbury, Kirkstad, and
Shrewsbury; and sometimes large designs, made up of a
large number of separate tdes, as at Haughmond, St.
Alban's, Haccombe, and Shrewsbury. The use of marble
pavements in choirs commenced in the seventeenth century,
and at Canterbury in 1704. At Lichfield (formerly paved
with cannel coal and alabaster) and Chichester there are
superb pavements of marble and tile recently laid down.
Pax. (Deosculatorium , osculatory .) In lieu of the ceremonial
kiss of mutual salutation and affection at Mass. Owing to
its abuses, about the twelfth or thirteenth century, when
Low Masses came into vogue, and the division of the sexes
in church began to be neglected, a tablet of metal, usually of
latten, and sometimes of precious stone, was introduced.
It was kissed by the celebrant after the Agnus Dei, and
offered by the acolyth, serving-boy, or parish clerk, to aU
the clerks in choir, to be kissed after the prayer and Pacem,
and then by the congregation, in order. Beleth says that
the priest first kissed the Eucharist, or the seal of the altar,
and transmitted it by the deacon to the congregation, but
men were not to kiss women. At Mdan a prayer followed,
said aloud, and not as in the Roman use, in secret. The
new fashion • pervaded Italy, Spain, Germany, and France,
but it has now altogether faden into disuse among the laity,

PAX VOBIS — FKUCAN. 437
and in several places among the clergy, except those engaged
immediately about the altar or in choir, as at Caeu, in St.
Stephen's Abbey. In England the pax was sometimes called
the pax bread (brede, breeds, a board), because made of wood.
The pax, mentioned at York, c. 1250, and in the Constitu
tions of Peckham, c. 1280, is called the osculatory in 1250;
the asser ad pacem iu a Councd of Oxford, 12S7 ; the paxil-
lum at St. Paul's, 1298 ; in the Council of Merton, 1800,
tabula pacis ; and in France the porte paix. There is one
of silver-gilt, of the date of Henry IV., at New College, with
an engraving of the crucifix ; another, enamelled with jewels,
of the fifteenth century, at Arezzo ; and a third at Cologne.
Other subjects were also employed, such as the Annuncia
tion, the Trinity, the Adoration of the Magi, the Baptism in
Jordan, or the patron saint of the church. One of glass
•was given by Chichele to his College of All Souls, Oxford.
At Doncaster, in 1548, " the clerk took the pax without the
church door, and said to the people, This is a token of joyful
peace betwixt God and man's conscience. Christ alone is the
Peacemaker." At Durham the embossed cover of the Book
of the Gospels and Epistles served as the pax.
Pax Vobis. (St. John xix. 19-21.) The salutation made by
the bishop at Pontifical High Mass, in place of the customary
Dominus vobiscum, used at other times after the Gloria in
Excelsis. A Council of Rome in 561 restricted the saluta
tion to these times, but St. Chrysostom and St. Cyril of
Jerusalem show that the Greek clergy invariably used this
form.
Pedalia. (1.) Foot-cloths in front of the altar. In 1092
we find bearskins used for this purpose. (2.) Collections
of the creeds and canons of general councils in the Greek
Church.
Pedaries. Consecrated sandals for pdgrims.
Pedilavium. (1.) Feet-washing, a ceremonial at Milan, and in
other places, observed at holy baptism. (2.) The lavanda,
in the fifth century, which followed the Holy Communion on
Maundy Thursday.
Pedules. Shoes or slippers.
Pelican. One supporting the lectern is at Wimborne. At
Waterford there was a great pelican for the Bible, with two
great standing candlesticks above a man's height, and a

438

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

brass eagle, until 1651. At Sefford and North Walsham
a pelican crowns the font cover. See Emblems and Lectern.
Pelvicula Amularum. Metal stands for the cruets.
Penance. (Pcenitentia.) Punishment for sin: (1) private,
enjoined by a confessor ; (2) special, enjoined by the priest
for notorious crime ; (3) solemn, enjoined by a bishop alone,
and ordinarily restricted to Lent, the offender being put out
of the church, and reconciliation, or absolution, given on
Maundy -Thursday; in 1281 it was made with imposition
of hands. Years — seven, ten, or twelve — were formerly
appointed for penance for sin ; the Council of Elvira deter
mined five as the number for accidental homicide, and seven
for murder or malice prepense ; ten years for adulterers, or
unchastity in a priest. Sewal, Archbishop of York, used
to sit in the minster porch upon Maundy Thursday, when
the penitents were tied up to two large pillars and publicly
scourged. In the early Church there were three kinds of
penance : (1) segregation, aphorismos, prohibition of offering
at the altar, for lighter offences ; (2) deprivation of commu
nion for graver faults; (3) effacement of the name from
the list of the faithful, and exclusion from church, for great
sins. At first the deacons interposed, and besought the
bishop to reconcile the penitent; if the bishop assented,
after examination of. the offender, he imposed a fast of a
fortnight, three, five, or seven weeks, and at length gave
absolution; after three episcopal monitions a sinner was
regarded as a heathen man and a publican. In the third
century penance became a subject of canonical legislation.
Canonical penance was inflicted for idolatry, adultery, and
homicide, but required great prudence in its administration,
and was only imposed after a solemn judicial act. Recon
ciliation at first was restricted to bishops ; but at the time
of death St. Cyprian, and the Councils of Seville, Agde,
and Elvira gave power of private reconciliation to priests
and deacons. In the ninth century, priests obtained the
right of public absolution. In the East, public absolution
was given on Good Friday or Easter Eve ; in the West, the
day was Maundy Thursday, and in both Churches at the time
of Mass, before the Lord's Prayer. The penitents, in hair
cloth and ashes, stood before the ambon, and from it the
bishop laid hands upon them, after being entreated by his

pendant — penitentiary. 439
clergy in set forms of address. Public penance for secret
sins was remitted in the seventh century; in the eighth
century it was commuted for alms and prayers ; and in the
twelfth century, for pilgrimages ; and then at length indul
gences were given. The two latest instances of public
penance in England occurred at Bristol in 1812, and Ditton,
Cambridgeshire, in 1849. In 1554 the penitents stood
wrapped in a white sheet, with a taper in one hand and a
rod in the other, during a sermon, after which they were
struck on the head at Paul's Cross, and so reconciled. In
1389, men in shirt and breeches, and women in their shifts,
holding sacred images, stood during Mass barefooted and
bareheaded, and finally made an offering to the priest.
Weepers, audientes, kneelers, consistentes, were the names
of the classes of penitents in the early Church. There are
several ItaHan orders of penitents, or of mercy, who attend
criminals; one at Florence dates from 1488. The Canons
of Rouen and the Abbot of Battle could reprieve a criminal
going to execution, if they met him. The Friars of the
Penitence, or Sack, came to Cambridge in 1259. In a
monastery a monk was separated from the common table
for a small fault, but for a greater fault was thrice scourged
in chapter, put on short commons, had his head cowled, put
in solitary confinement, and lay prostrate at the hours be
fore the choir door (1092, 1298, 1343). In 960, in severe
penance, a pilgrimage was made by a man never passing two
nights in one place, never eating meat, clipping his hair or
nails; if rich, he was to found a church, build a bridge,
make roads, or emancipate his serfs.
Pendant. (1.) A hanging ornament in Perpendicular vaults
or cielings. (2.) A spandril in a Gothic canopy.
Pendentive. (1.) The spandril or triangular space of a vault
left between the intersections and crossings of the ribs.
(2.) A corbelling out in angles which are formed by arches
carrying a square building into an octagonal or circular
form. (3.) The part of a vault between the arches of a
dome.
Penitentiary. The office of general confessor or penitentiary
priests in a diocese, mentioned by Sozomen and Socrates,
was abolished by Nectarius at Constantinople in the reign of
Theodosius, and generally in the East, but was retained in

440 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the West for regulating penance and hearing confessions.
Deans and priests of penitents are mentioned by the Councd
of Agde, in the ceremonial of Ash Wednesday, as imposing
penance on offenders. In England, in 1237, as at Salisbury,
general confessors were appointed in all cathedral churches,
and others in every rural deanery were nominated by the
bishop to receive confessions from parsons and minor clerks
who were reluctant to make them to the rural deans. In
1281 the common penitentiaries heard cases reserved to the
bishop in the case of both clergy and laity, and Lyndwood
says secular canons confessed to the bishop, the dean, or per
sons appointed by the bishop or the dean and chapter. The
external penitentiary was a diocesan confessor acting within
a certain district; the internal penitentiary regulated pe
nances and absolved in grayer cases reserved to the bishop.
At Canterbury and Peterborough there were two, at Dun-
keld four grand penitentiaries. At Exeter the dean, in 1225
and in 1284, as at York the subdean, yearly visited the sick
who could not attend at the cathedral. At Salisbury the
penitentiary on Maundy Thursday, standing at the church
door, besought the bishop to reconcile penitents ; at Wor
cester he distributed the ashes on the first day of Lent. In
foreign cathedrals he was to be forty years of age. The
office existed at Siguenc^, Bayeux, Sens, Lisieux, Orleans,
Amiens (1219), and Rouen, where he preached on Holy
Thursday, and was prsecentor, as at Hereford. In the latter
instance he could not leave the city, even with chapter
Hcence. See Golden Prebendary.
Pentacle of Solomon. A five-angled figure, composed of two
triangles interlaced. The legendary seal or sigil of Solomon,
carved on an emerald, by which he ruled the gins or demons,
representing the five fingers of the hand of omnipotence.
David's shield has six angles.
Pentecostal. A contribution or duty paid by every house or
famdy to the cathedral church at Pentecost, in consideration
of a general absolution then pronounced.
Perambulation of the circuit of parishes made on the Rogation
Days; mentioned in 926, and ordered in 16L6; now known
as beating the parish bounds, as the marks are struck with
a stick.
Per Annulum et Baculum, bishoprics were given by the tradi
tion of the staff and ring.

PER VIAM COMPROMISSI — PERPENDICULAR STYLE. 441
Per viam Compromissi. Election of a superior by the sworn
delegates of a convent, who retired into a secret chamber,
and, after invocation of the Holy Ghost, named the person
on whom their choice had fallen.
Per viam Spiritus Sancti was an unanimous election by the
whole convent, as if by Divine inspiration.
Per viam Scrutinii was when each monk voted singly in the
chapter-house, in the presence of the bishop.
Perch. (1.) A bracket. (2.) A tall candle. (3.) -See pp. 64, 229.
Perpendicular Style. Early, 1375-1425. Late, 1425-1524.
Professor Wdlis believes that this style may be traced first
at Gloucester, but it is usually attributed to William of
Wykeham when clerk of the works at Edyngdon. The fine
open timber cielings and fan-traceried vaults of stone are
peculiar to England. The tracery from the window usurps
walls and roofs ; piers and arches are no longer in justly-
balanced proportion; some members disappear, as the tri
forium — others are exaggerated, as the clerestory. Panelling
is profusely employed ; fan-tracery is much used ; the pillars
are clustered and of lozenge shape; pinnacles are usually
square, the arches obtusely pointed, ogee, and four-centred ;
window-tracery is vertical ; transoms cross the mudions at
right angles ; the vaulted and depressed roof becomes very
complicated ; doors have a square moulding, forming a
spandril, which is generady feathered or has tracery ; large
hollows are in the jambs on either side ; the upper parts of
capitals are often battlemented, or have the Tudor flower, a
sort of angular fleur-de-lys ; parapets are battlemented, gur
goyles universal ; capitals are frequently octagonal and com
posed merely of mouldings ; pillars grow taller and are of
lozenge form, standing west and south ; arches are narrower;
buttresses are bold and projecting; and windows of great
size form a majestic range, nearly occupying the space of
every bay between them ; there is an absence of fillets, and
rounds and hoHows are fused. Its marked characters are
angularity and squareness; arches are ordinarily four-centred;
doors are generally panelled; mouldings become flatter,
rarely splayed, and have large shallow hollows, form ogees
or undulate, or are concave in the centre and convex at the
ends; splays are unfrequent; members are separated by
quirks. Enrichments are very various, formed of foliage,

442 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
grotesques, and heraldic devices ; cielings are flat, and usu
ally divided into square compartments by ribs ; and bosses
and pendants are profusely employed. Large richly-cano
pied recesses are employed for tombs, and chantries and
screen-work introduced about them. The decadence of
medieval art was contemporaneous with the discoveries of
natural science and the commencement of a new order of
studies. It shared the transitory lot of ideas to which it
had subjected immortal thought. Its revival in a century
rich in ample mechanical resources will possibly rival, per
haps exceed, all its triumphs in the past.
Perpent. A through or border stone of ashlar, appearing on
either side of a wall, which it pierces. A perpeyn wall is a
y buttress or pier projecting to support a roof, or a corbel.
Personati. A term not earlier than the eleventh century,
which came into use after the time of Alexander III. (1.)
Persons, canons holding office with precedence in chapter
and choir after dignitaries, either by institution or custom.
A dignitary was also a person because his person was ho
noured and he was a person constituted in dignity. The
quatuor personse were the four internal dignitaries. Until
recently the dignitaries were called the parsons at Hereford.
(2.) Stipendiary clerks or chaplains perpetually resident in a
cathedral or collegiate church, Hke the chantry priests of
St. Widiam at York and the rectors of choir at Beverley,
holding offices for life. At Grenoble, Sens, Aries, and
Nevers they had the responsibility of the ordinary choral
services.
Peter's, St., Day (June 29) has been traced back to the third
century. In 348 Prudentius mentions that the Pope cele
brated the Holy Communion in both St. Peter's and St.
Paul's churches at Rome on this festival, which in the
sixth century was observed at Constantinople, and was kept,
until the Reformation, associated with the name of St. Paul ;
whose Conversion was not generally commemorated on Janu
ary 25 until the twelfth century. Cathedra Sancti Petri is a
commemoration virtually of SS. Peter and Paul, but its title
is the Chair of St. Peter, wherein he first sat at Rome, Janu
ary 18. On February 22 his chair at Antioch is comme
morated.
Peter Pence, paid on Peter Mass, August 1, were granted by

pew. 443
King Ma of the West Saxons at the close of the seventh
century for the maintenance of the English College at Rome.
I^ig Offa, about sixty years later, gave one penny of every
Irearth to the same purpose in the kingdom of Mercia as a
penance for his murder of King Ethelbert. In Northumbria,
in 950, a priest and two thanes collected this tax and paid it
in at the bishop's see. In 958 the defaulter had to go on a
pdgrimage to Rome, for which the payment was a composi
tion, and moreover pay a heavy fine. They were discon
tinued by Edward III. whdst the Popes were at Avignon,
but afterwards revived, and finally abohshed by Henry VIII.
Pew. A bench, or stool (like Dutch puy, a desk-front to
kneel at). Open benches are mentioned at Exeter in 1287,
but at Durham, somewhat later, the enclosed cloister carols ;
and, in the fifteenth century, "parrocked" seats in churches,
with garnets, or hinges, to the doors, were called pews.
In 1215, in Durham diocese, patrons of churches, and in 1225
in Scotland, nobles were allowed seats in the chancel. In a
London wdl, dated 1453, we read, " sedile vocatum pew,"
which probably was allotted to women. The old French
word puie meant a balcony, a gallery budt on balks or posts
of timber ; and it has been unnecessarily suggested that pew
may only be a form of podium, a book-desk, or the crutch used
by monks before sitting was permitted. Pepys speaks of
the bishop's raised throne in St. Paul's as the pue. Weever,
in 1631, first mentions "high and easy" pews as a fashion
of no long continuance, and worthy of reformation. Pews
probably did not come into fashion untd the fifteenth cen
tury, when stationary pulpits were erected. Previously to
that date people sat on the bench tables in the aisles, or
knelt along the floors, as in a miniature of Archbishop Arun
del represented as preaching ; and the engraving of the Li
tany prefixed to Bishop Sparrow's ' Rationale.' There are
ancient carved pews, or benches, at Caxton, Finedon, Net-
tlecombe, Talland, Lavenham, Shellesley, Walsh, Long Mel-
ford, and Langley Marsh. At Bottesford there were circular
stone benches round the nave pillars. Latimer and Bradford,
in 1553, speak of timeserving and unwilling conformists at
the Reformation, neither worshipping nor kneeling, but
" sitting still in their pews" at the time of Mass. And it is
quite clear that the seats were open and unscreened at that

444

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

time; but in the next reign, Bishop Corbet of Norwich
speaks of pews, instead of stools, which had " become taber
nacles, with rings and curtains, casements, locks and keys,
and cushions," and suggests the addition of pillows and
bolsters. " They are," he says, " either to hide some vice
or to proclaim one, to hide disorder or proclaim pride." In
the fifteenth century three-legged stools were in use ; and
wooden seats are mentioned in a constitution of Bishop
Grostete. In 1509 six and eightpence was paid for part
of a pew at St. Margaret's, Westminster. The reading pue,
first mentioned in the rubric of 1662, was the reader's stall
in the chancel. It had two desks — one on the west for the
Holy Bible, and the other for the Prayer Book facing east
wards, as in Hooker's Church at Drayton Beauchamp. In
1571 Grindal called it " the pulpit, where prayers are said."
Calamy applies the word to designate an open-air pulpit.
George Herbert made his pulpit and reading pue of equal
height, so ' as to be of equal honour and estimation, and
agree like brethren.
Philip and James the Less (or Jacob), SS. (May 1). This
festival dates possibly from the sixth or seventh century, and
may be traced back to the burial of St. Philip's relics,
brought from Hierapolis, in St. James's grave. At Rome,
in the fourth century, two hundred years later, Pelagius
built a church under their common dedication. The Greek
Church observes their days separately; in the Lectionary
of St. Jerome, and the Sacramentary of St. Gregory, their
names are associated. At Angers on this day the cathedral
vicars sacked the citizens' houses, and compeHed them to
redeem their property.
Phylacteries. (Gr., preservatives.) (1.) Amulets. Caesa-
rius of Aries couples the word with "devflish characters"
and " fortune-telling." (2.) Reliquaries.
Piscina. The Latin rendering of the pools of Siloam and
the Five Porches ; from the curative nature of their water,
baptism was symbolically called the piscina of regeneration,
and the vessel into which the water of the font was poured
took the same name ; perfusorium was the name of the drain
for ablutions. The priest at the lavabo still washes the tips of
his fingers in a piscina, a small vessel placed near the taber
nacle; but the Carthusians and bishops wash their whole

PIE  PILGRIM. 445
hands during the recitation of verses from Ps. xxvi. The
remarkable triple piscina of Rothwell had drains for all these
purposes.
Pie. (Pinax, Gr., aboard.) (1.) A wooden table, on which the
directions for service were written in early days. (2.) The
Pica, Ordinale, or Directorium Sacerdotum. Becon talks of a
priest being " wed seen in the pie," and Ridley calls it the
" rubric primer ;" it was both a table of daily services, and
a summary of the rubrics of the Mass. (See Books.) The
Dominican Friars, from their black-and-white dress, were
called friars pied, or of the pie.
Pier. Solid masonry between doors and windows.
Pilgrim. (Pelegrin, peregrinus, a stranger.) In Bishop Mayo's
tomb at Hereford, and St. Richard's at Canterbury, pieces of
hazel-wood wands, memorials of pilgrimages, were found.
The pilgrim's weeds consisted of a hood with a cape, a low-
crowned hat with two strings, a staff or bourdon four or five
feet long, made originally of two sticks swathed together,
a bottle strung at their waist-belt, and scrip. Those whose
pilgrimage was self-imposed walked barefooted, and begged
their daily bread, let their beards grow, and wore no Hnen.
The palmer was distinguished by two leaflets of palm ; the
pilgrim to Mount Sinai wore the St. Catherine's wheel ; he
who went to Rome came back with a medal, graven with the
cross-keys, or vernicle ; the pilgrim to Compostella brought
home the scallop shell of Gallicia ; those who went to Wal-
singham were distinguished by a badge ; and from Canter
bury the pdgrim carried, as a memorial, an ampulla full of
Canterbury water, which was mingled with one tiny drop of
A'Becket's blood. Latimer mentions " the piping, playing,
and curious singing, to solace the travail and weariness of
pilgrims." At Gloucester the pilgrims' door, with its colossal
warders, remains in the south arm of the transept. In the
holy wars the French Crusaders were distinguished by a red,
English by a white, and Flemings by a green cross. Peni
tents paid Peter's pence as a composition for a pilgrimage
to Rome, or commuted it by a visit to Peterborough, St.
Alban's, or St. David's. In 1064, persons going to visit a
saint had the protection of the Church. At Hereford, a
canon might be absent on pilgrimage in England for three
weeks; and once in his life for seven weeks to visit St.

446

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Denis ; ten weeks, Rome and Compostella ; eight, Pontegnes ;
and one year, Jerusalem. In some Continental countries
pilgrims and priests sometimes inscribed their names on the
altars which they visited. These were called inscripta, or
literata, but must not be confounded with those bearing the
donor's name; the first instance of the latter custom oc
curred in the case of Pulcherius at Constantinople, as Sozo-
men relates. The pilgrim's tomb sometimes bore the print of
two bare feet, as emblematical of his safe return. The pilgrims,
having been first shriven, prostrated themselves before the
altar whdst prayers were said over them, and stood up to re
ceive the priest's benediction on their scrips and staves,
which he sprinkled with holy -water and delivered into their
hands. If going to Jerusalem, a cross was marked upon
their garment; the ceremonial terminated with a solemn
Mass. In 1322, a priest who betrayed a confession had to
go on pilgrimage as a penance. Monks were not aUowed to
become pilgrims in 1200. " Divers men and women," said
W. Thorpe in the fifteenth century, " have with them both
men and women that can well sing wanton songs, some other
have bagpipes, so that in every town, what with the noise of
their singing and with the sound of their piping, and with
the jfngling of their Canterbury bells, and with the barking
out of dogs after them, they make more noise than if the
King came there away with all his clarions and many other
minstrels." The staff had sometimes a bronze socket, in
scribed with these words in Latin, " May this cross direct
thy journey in safety."
Pilgrimage. SS. Chrysostom and Augustine mention pilgri
mages to Rome to the " Memorial of the Fisherman," and St.
Jerome and Socrates pdgrimages made to Jerusalem, and
Theodorus those made to the martyrs' tombs and churches.
In the fourth century serious evils were found to attend
these journeys. In . 744 St. Boniface advised Cuthbert,
Archbishop of Canterbury, that a provincial council should
be held forbidding EngHshwomen, especially nuns, for good
reasons of morality, to go on pilgrimage to Rome ; and
a law of Charlemagne forbade wandering through the land
by pedlars and feigned penitents, wearing iron rings or
chains, as if they were the marks of penance. Beleth says pil-
¦ grimages began on Saturday in the Ember week of Advent.

PILLORY — PLAIN-SbNG. 447
Pilgrimages were made to the roods of Bermondsey, Boston,
Dovercourt, and Chester ; that of Beccles was made to sweat,
bleed, and smed sweet. The " gaping rood," or " bearded
crucifix," called also the "rood of grace," of Boxley, was
exposed at St. Paul's Cross. The shrine of St. Mary of
Walsingham was of wood, in the shape of the Holy House
of Nazareth. Henry VIII. walked barefoot to visit her
image, and offer it a necklace from Barsham, in the second
year of his reign. The shrine of St. Thomas A'Becket, at
Canterbury, in pne year, when there was no offering at the
Saviour's altar, received £964 in gifts. The Pilgrims' Road
from London to Canterbury is still pointed out along nearly
its entire extent. The Milky Way in the sky, from its bril
liancy and position, was called by the pilgrims from the
southward Walsingham Way. In the monastic guest-houses
the travel-worn pilgrim and serge-clad palmer, footsore and
bronzed with Eastern suns, were ever welcome, and repaid
their hosts for bed and fare by telling wondrous legends,
miracles, perds from the Moslem, and tidings of other lands,
which found their way into many a medieval chronicle.
Pillory. One, like stocks, for brawlers' fingers, is preserved
at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and a brank or gag for scolds at
•Walton-on- Thames.
Pillow-beres. A pdlow-case, usually of rich material.
Pinnacle. A small turret or tapering spirelet, used as a cover
ing of buttresses, parapets, and towers. The earliest occur
at Caen and Rochester Cathedral. In the Early English
period they are sometimes shafted, crocketed, and taber
nacled for statues. In the Decorated style they have finials,
and are usually square. In the Perpendicular period they
often end in figures or have ogee-shaped tops.
Pitanciar. The furnisher of the gaudies ; the distributor of
the pittance (pietancia or pite, a coin of Poitou) or extra
commons, as caritas was an additional beverage to the gene-
rale, the usual fare.
Pity, Our Lady of. A pieta, a representation of St. Mary
holding the dead Christ.
Placebo. The antiphon at Vespers in the office of the dead, as
the dirge is at Matins.
Plain-Song (canto fermo, cantus planus) is a monotonic recita
tive, being the Cantus Collectarum. The Cantus Prophet-

448

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

arum Epistolarum et Evangelii admitted certain inflections.
The Cantus Psalmorum adopted inflections in the middle
and end of the verse. An unrestricted melody was used
in prefaces, anthems, and hymns.
Platform. A ground plan.
Plays of a religious character were written at an early period.
One, of the close of the second century, by Ezekiel, a Jew,
represented the Exodus. St. Chrysostom composed the
'Dying Christ;' St. Gregory Nazianzen wrote plays, substi
tuting hymns for the ancient choruses ; Apollinarius, Bishop
of Laodicea, with his son, who was a priest of the diocese,
turned portions of Holy Scripture into tragedies and come
dies upon the Greek model. In later times the word " play"
designated a drama founded on Holy Writ and containing
an aggregate of pageants. At length it degenerated into
the ridiculous form, with amusing or grotesque accessories,
and at last fell deservedly under episcopal censures. The
statutes of Exeter condemn grave irregularities in choir,
banquetings and drinkings and irreverence. In 1360 Bishop
Grandison peremptorily forbade the acting of plays at Christ
mas. At Lichfield on Christmas Eye the representation of
the Shepherds, the Resurrection (as at Rouen) at dawn on
Easter, and the Pilgrims to Emmaus on the following day ;
at York the Three Kings at Epiphany, and the Shepherds
at Christmas, stars being employed in the scene, — were
popular Church mysteries. In the intermediate stages of
the miracle play the actors used a scaffold, built over the
steps of the porch, with the inside of the church representing
the heaven out of which the Deity comes. At Gloucester
and Durham the Ascension was represented by a figure
drawn up through an aperture in the choir vault. These
lively representations led to other " spectacles." At Wells,
during Whitsuntide, laymen in choir wore absurd masks, and
at Christmas the vicars made ridiculous gesticulations, con
vulsing the congregation with laughter. At Pentecost
there was an " interlude " representing the descent of the
Holy Spirit. In 1310 Pope Gregory desired the bishops to
extirpate the custom of priests mumming and acting in
churches, and the Council of Basle, in 1436, forbade scenic
plays in consecrated places. In 1384 William of Wykeham
prohibited spectacles in the cemetery of Winchester. In
1446 the Council of Rouen condemned the disguisings and

PLAYS. 449
fools' -play which had grown into an intolerable abuse.
Spectacles with low songs prevailed at Sens and Treves.
At Toledo, and in other Spanish cathedrals, at Christmas,
during High Mass, masks and monstrous shapes, cries and
humorous verses, were freely bandied in choir in the begin
ning of the sixteenth century. The feasts of the Ass and
Fools were grossly indecent. In 1542 Bishop Bonner pro
hibited common plays, interludes, and games in the London
churches, but interludes were certainly acted in English
churches in the reign of Elizabeth, and probably for the last
time at Witney, by means of puppets, as in the show of the
Creation of the World, which was fashionable at Bath in
the time of Queen Anne. Jack Snacker, the watchman, who
clapped two sticks, was the popular character at Witney.
In 1316 the Bishop of Worms condemned the masks and
plays used on the festivals of St. John, and required the mys
tery of the Resurrection to be acted before the entrance of
the people, and in 1834 the Bishop of Cambrai prohibited
the plays of the Shepherds at Christmas or the Passion at
Easter on religious grounds.
The Epiphany. The Three Kings were represented at
Rouen by three canons, habited in royal ornaments, mitre on
head and sceptre in hand, descending westward from the
altar and followed by attendants carrying gold, incense, and
myrrh. Opposite the altar of the cross, in the nave, was a
tent containing a figure of Christ in His cradle, and over
head was a star in the vault. Before this figure, which was
discovered to them by two other canons, they kneeled
down, whilst a boy in the rood-loft, habited like an angel,
sang verses to music. They then returned along the south
aisle and re-entered the choir by the north entrance.
The Sepulchre at Rouen. Three deacons in dalmatics,
with amices on their heads and perfumes in their hands,^
represented the Three Maries, and traversed the choir,
where at the sepulchre a boy, vested as an angel, was sitting.
As they turned away a priest-canon, one of the great digni
taries, in his albe and holding a cross, met them and repre
sented the Saviour. The ceremony concluded with the Te
Deum. From these ceremonies and those exhibited on
Palm Sunday, Christmas, Good Friday, and other days the
sacred drama took its origin. These mysteries were sung to
2 G

450 sacred archeology.
the plain chant. It was not until the thirteenth century
that the stage-play, composed by troubadours and acted by
laymen, was introduced.
Plicata. The "folded" chasuble worn on Good Friday by the
deacon and subdeacon, or by a priest, folded on the shoulder,
when acting as a deacon. It is a relic of ancient usage, an
terior to the use of the dalmatic and tunic, when they wore the
trabea rolled up in front to leave their hands free and unen
cumbered, and is also a peculiarity belonging to times of
penance.
Plinth. A square stone forming the lower part of a base of a
pillar.
Plough Monday. Called in Belgium Lost Monday, from its
revellings. Old ploughs are preserved in the belfries of
Bassingbourne and Barrington. Plough alms were one
penny paid for every plough harnessed between Easter and
Pentecost in 878, and in 960 payable on the fifteenth night
after Easter.
Pluralities. The tenure of many benefices by one person,
abolished by 1 and 2 Vic, c. J 06. Throughout the thirteenth
century the Archbishops of Canterbury inveighed against the
gross disorder and evils produced by the prevalence of plu
ralities ; but it was not until the present century that the
blot was removed from the system. In the middle ages,
notably at Lincoln and York, and in other cathedrals, many
of the stalls were possessed by non-resident foreigners ; and
even such a man as Wdliam of Wykeham held as many as
fourteen benefices. Bogo de Clare, Prsecentor of Chichester,
held 16 churches in the reign of Edward L, besides other
benefices. Offenders who had not Papal dispensation were
excommunicated in 1279.
Pocularies. Consecrated drinking-cups.
Poderis or Talaris. (Reaching to the heels.) The albe.
Pointed Style. The Pointed arch, mentioned as an architectural
term in the fourteenth century, occurs in Egypt, Italy, Greece,
and Mexico in ancient buildings, merely as a freak of the
architect, an accident, or irregularity. Some authors have
traced its origin to the avenues of a forest ; others have seen
it in the palm, in the wooden churches of an earlier period,
or the intersecting arcade. Some refer it to the Goths, like
Warburton; to the Saracens, like Christopher Wren; to

pointing — poor men's box. 451
Asiatics, like Lord Aberdeen and Hallam ; to the period of
Rome, like Payne Knight ; to England, Hke Carter ; to Ger
many, Hke Palladio ; to Italy, like Smirke ; in fine, to
Egypt, the Hebrews, the Normans, the Lombards, or the
Freemasons. There are strong objections to every one of
these views, either on historical grounds or from the reason
ing of common sense. The true origin, no doubt, lay in the
aspiration of the Christian builders to attain height in con
struction, when vaulting had become common. It was
simply the application of a well-known form to a new and
loftier purpose.
Pointing. The choral pause in the midst of a verse of a can
ticle or psalm denoted by a colon or two points.
Pole-Axes. The ensigns of legates a latere, carried with
silver pillars (Gal. H. 9) before Cardinals Wolsey and Pole.
Polychrome. The application of colour to ornament a build
ing.
Polygonal Towers. Octagonal towers occur in all countries,
as at Oppenheim, Liege, Barcelona, Wymondham, St. Ger
man's, Lausaune, Dijon, and Pisa ; hexagonal towers at
Lynn; a triangle at Maldon ; and two bisecting polygons of
16 sides above an octagon, at Swaffham Priors.
Pome. (Pomum, Lat., an apple.) (1.) A cup or ball filled
with perfumes. (2.) (Calefactorium, calepungnus, scutum ;
Fr. rechaud, a chafing-dish.) A ball of metal filled with
hot water and used by the priest to warm his hands at the
altar, sometimes made fourfooted, with rings of silver.
Pomel. A knop or boss of round shape.
Pontiffs, Confraternities of. In the twelfth century guilds of
associated masons for building churches and bridges, which
appeared first at Chartres, and spread through France, Eng
land, Switzerland, and Germany. When their Christian
character died out they became lodges of Freemasons.
Poor Men's Box, The, for alms (uniculus, pyxis ad obldtiones
faciendas) in lieu of pilgrimage, was affixed near the high-
altar, by Cranmer's orders. It was enjoined in every church
in 1559. There is a curious almsbox in St. Helen's, Bishops-
gate, supported by the figure of a mendicant, and another at
Outwell with a grinning mouth. The idea of these boxes
was probably derived from such objects as the bracket of the
fifteenth century, adjoining the tomb of Edward II. at Glou-
2 a 2

452 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
cester, and the oaken box with a slit for alms, used at St.
Richard's shrine at Chichester, which is of the sixteenth
century, although the ironwork dates back three hundred
years earlier. There is a wooden almsbox of the fourteenth
century at Fribourg. There is a stone box at Bridlington.
A flasket or box of wood for collecting alms is mentioned in
England in the seventeenth century. At Selby there is a
chest made out of the bowl of a single tree. In 1292 such
hutches were forbidden at Chichester, as the oblations hitherto
made at the altar were placed in them. At St. David's, two
centuries ago, old people could remember having seen basin
fuls of oblations made by seamen and passengers.
Pope. (Papa, father.) The name in early ages, until the sixth
century, used by all bishops. It was first given to the Bishop
of Alexandria in St. Mark's Liturgy, where Patriarch desig
nates the Metropolitan of Antioch, and Archbishop, him of
Constantinople. St. Jerome addresses St. Augustine as
" very holy lord, and most blessed pope." The Bishop of
Constantinople was called pope of the city, as the Bishop of
Rome bore the title of Pope of the City of Rome. In the time
of Leo the Great, Pope was the official title of the latter, and
was, in 1076, decreed by Pope Gregory VII. in a council of
Rome to be the peculiar appellation of the Supreme Pontiff.
Benedict III. assumed the title of Vicar of St. Peter ; and
his successors assumed that of Vicars of Christ, in the
thirteenth century. In the fifth century Pope Hilary called
himself " bishop and servant of Christ ;" Gregory III. ap
pears as " most holy and blessed Apostolic Pope," or " by
the grace of God, bishop of the Catholic and Apostolic city
Rome." Agatho, in 679, called himself Universal Pope ; and
Boniface accepted the title of Primate of all Churches. Gre
gory I. condemned the name of Oecumenical Bishop. Up to
the ninth century, and during it, Pope of Rome was adopted,
to distinguish the Pontiff from other prelates bearing the
title of papa. Eugenius III. and Leo IV. first were thus
designated. The Greek bishop is called papas ; a priest,
papas, with a different accentuation. Pere (father) and
abbe are also used for priests. John VIII., 872-882, called
the Primate of Sens " Second Pope ;" and Anselm of Can
terbury was invited by the Pope to sit next him in the apse
of Bari, as " Pope of the other orb." In 1 163, at the Coun-

pope. 453
cil of Tours, Alexander III. seated A'Becket at his right-
hand. The Bishop of Rome was formerly chosen by the
clergy of the city. The Gothic kings and the Eastern empe
rors at length interfered in his nomination or confirmation.
Until the eleventh century the Roman people took part in
the election of the Pope ; and the latter had to pay a tribute
into the Byzantine treasury. The Conclave was first esta
blished by Gregory X. at the Council of Lyons, 1274, when it
was ordered that, during the first three days of seclusion,
the cardinals should dine on only one dish, and after five days,
on bread and water. The cardinals, in 1299, refused to sub
mit to seclusion; and in 1351 Clement VI. forbade them, on
pain of excommunication, to promise their votes beforehand.
In the eleventh century the parish priests and regionary
deacons, with the suffragan bishops of the province of Rome,
acquired privileges subsequently developed into the Ecclesi
astical Senate of the College of Cardinals ; but it was not
until 1179 that their special prerogative as electors was con
firmed and assured to them by Alexander III., at the Lateran
Council. The limitation to the agency of the Sacred College
dates from 1174, but the strict organization of the Conclave
in secrecy and seclusion came into practice early in 1276,
in the popedom of Innocent V. In 682 the tribute claimed
by Justinian at the election of a Pope was relinquished by
Constantine, but a veto is stdl exercised by France, Spain,
and Austria, through the mouth of a cardinal. Stephen IV.
decreed that only a cardinal, priest, or deacon could be
raised to the pontificate. Nicholas II., in the Lateran Coun
cil, 1059, and Gregory X., in the Council of Lyons, in 1271,
gave the form for assembling the Conclave of Cardinals.
Pope Innocent III., in 1200, regulated the mode of election,
which was to be by scrutiny, compromission, and inspiration ;
and Gregory XV., in 1621, and Urban VIII., in 1625, intro
duced several modifications. The Pope was set upon the
altar of St. Peter's by the cardinals, and his feet, hands, and
lips kissed by them. After being enthroned, in the twelfth
century, he was led to a stone chair outside the porch of the
Lateran, called the seat of the dunghill, in allusion to 1 Sam.
ii. 8. He then stood up and scattered three handfuls of
pence, using these words : Acts. iii. 6. At St. Stephen's
Church the Prior of St. Laurence gave him the keys of

454 _ SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the Lateran J, a rod, the ensign of authority ; and a girdle,
with a purse containing twelve jewelled signets, and musk,
symbolical of chastity, mercy, power, and fragrancy in Christ.
A belt with seven keys and seven seals of the seven basili
cas, in the eleventh century, was presented. He then
scattered silver, saying the verse Ps. cxii. 9. On the
morrow he was consecrated by the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia,
from the ninth century ; or by the Archpriest of Ostia or
Velletri, having the pall, the fulness of the pontifical office,
with three little gold nails with turquoise heads, fixed by the
Prior of St. Laurence before, behind, and on his left side.
At St. Stephen's tower the Jews presented the Book of the
Law, and received £20 of Provence. At his coronation the
master of the ceremonies lighted a piece of tow, saying,
" Blessed Father, thus passeth away the glory of the world."
So the Greek emperor at his coronation carried akakia, a
purple bag filled with dust. The first Pope who changed
his name was Octavianus Conti, who took the title of John
XL, in allusion to St. John i. 6. The Pope has been carried on
men's shoulders since the time of Leo or Sylvester II. At
Peterborough in medieval times, and in France at an early
date, prelates were carried through the church after their
consecration or benediction. In going a journey the Pope
carried the Viaticum, and was preceded by a bell. When
he celebrates he receives a purse of white velvet for having
sung the Mass well from the Chapter of St. Peter's.
Poppy Heads. (Popis, poppcea ; Fv. poupees.) Ornaments of
the elbows of seats, first appearing in the Decorated period,
and deriving their name from their resemblance to a bundle
tied in the middle, and latterly the fleur-de-lys.
Porch. (Porticus.) When infant baptism became prevalent
in the West, and the discipline of catechumens had faden
into desuetude, the narthex was still retained in the form of
a vestibule, frequently closed, and sufficiently capacious to
contain a large number of persons and permit the celebra
tion of different ceremonials. Few churches, cathedral, con
ventual, or parochial, were, until the middle of the twelfth
century, unprovided with a central porch in front of the
principal entrance, but after the thirteenth century they
were not so common. The earliest porches in the West,
dating from the eighth to the eleventh century, are shallow,

porch. 455
and extend across the church front, as at Clermont. One of
the earliest is at St. Front, Perigueux. In some cases they
were recessed under the tower, as at St. Germain-des-Pres
(Paris), Limoges, Poissy, of the ninth or tenth century, St.
Benet-sur-Loire, Moissac, and St. Savin. During the eleventh
century this became the rule ; in the thirteenth century it
was rare, but at a later date it reappeared at Caen, Fribourg,
and Cranbrook. At St. Savin the porch is defensible and
protected by a ditch, just as the castellated palace stands in
front of the western entrance of Cashel Cathedral. The
giant porch of Vienna, imposing as it is, is far exceeded by
the three magnificent Early English porches of Peterborough,
which accord with the entire work, whilst those of many of
the great French cathedrals are mere afterthoughts, noble
but accidental additions. At Fribourg, Rheims, and Chartres
(1250-80) the porches are covered with statuary. Towards
the close of the twelfth century the ceremonies performed
within them fed into desuetude, and they in consequence
dwindled, into a mere appendage of the nave. Then, from
the exclusive use of western doors, large lateral porches,
usually in cathedrals, as at Chartres, Mans, Bayeux, Puy-en-
Velay, Chalons -sur-Marne, Wells, Salisbury, Lincoln, and
Hereford, were built for the convenience of worshippers
when entering or leaving the church, for benedictions, and
the preliminaries of marriages and baptism, and the passage
of funerals. The monastic churches in towns imitated the
arrangement. These porches were usually closed at the
sides, as in the Norman examples of Kelso, Selby, South
well, Sherborne, and Malmesbury, although that of Alencon
is open. At Hereford the outer porch, c. 1513, is open, but
the inner Decorated porch is closed. Until the close of the
fourteenth century porches, generady of open form, were
commonly built. The lateral porch fronted the side which
faced the more populous portion of the city — at Gloucester,
Canterbury, Malmesbury, Chester, and St. David's, on the
south ; at Durham, Hereford, Exeter, Christchurch (Hants),
and Selby, on the north. At Chichester it is on the south
side, opening on the cloister to admit processions to the
shrine ; at Westminster (called from its beauty Solomon's
Porch) it stood in advance of the north front of the transept ;
at Lincoln the bishop's porch is in the presbytery. There

456 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
are Early English porches at St. Alban's and Barnack, the
latter, Hke All Saints', Stamford, Albury, and St. Mary's,
Nottingham, having external and internal stone roofs. At
Tewkesbury the vast western arch may have formed a
gigantic porch. At Lincoln three recessed porches exist, as
once at St. Alban's. Wooden porches occur at all dates,
fine examples remaining at Chelvington and Warblington.
There are large porches at Tours, Pol, St. Leon, and Ul-
richsk, and smaller specimens in several churches at Cologne.
English cathedrals and minsters are remarkable for the
homeliness of their doorways, resembling those of parish
churches on an enlarged scale. The cathedral, in distinction
to a minster, in the twelfth century, was built with many
porches and western doors opening directly on the close, as
if inviting the entrance of crowds. Noyon, at the end of the
thirteenth or beginning of the fourteenth century, is a soli
tary exception to this rule in possessing large porches in
advance of its principal front. Up to the sixth century
children were exposed in the porch, and the Council of Aries
required those who adopted them to place in the priest's
hand a letter of contestation with regard to the sex and age
of the child ; and the Council of Vaison, complaining that
the chddren were exposed to dogs, for fear of scandal re
quired the priest at the altar to announce on Sundays the
name of the adopter. Kings and princes were permitted to
be buried in porches by the Councd of Nantes (658), and
interments were forbidden within church walls till the twelfth
century. At Ely, as in many ascertained examples in France,
probably the recesses above the arcading were used as char-
nels, fenced in with an iron screen ; and at Chichester there
are still lateral tombs. Gradually incense was used and
litanies were chanted in porches. Fonts and basins for the
ablutions of the faithful before entering the church were
erected, and exhibitions of relics and sacred images were
made. Markets were permitted, just as objects of piety are
still sold in foreign porches on festival days. Feudal and
other courts were held. At Sandwich a school was taught
and books sold, and even in 1519 pedlars hawked their wares
at Riccald. Chapters and religious bodies appealed to the
civil power to put an end to such irregularities, and the
great abbeys of Clugny, Maulbronn, and Citeaux, about the

porch. 457
beginning of the twelfth century, began to erect large in
closed porches in front of their churches. The Clugniacs
built large ante-churches of two stories, as at Lewes; at
Tournus, of the close of the eleventh century, the latter con
sisting of a nave and aisles of thirteen bays, with an upper
chapel of St. Michael, in which the altar was used for a Mass
attended by penitents ; and at Clugny in the thirteenth cen
tury, where an altar and pulpit adjoined the church door.
Their influence is perceptible in the large upper chapel over
the porch at Puy-en-Velay and Autun and the tribune for
an altar at Chatel Montagne, Monreale, and Dijon, which
are said to have been used by women and minstrels. In
many instances the view into the nave was unimpeded.
The Cistercians built western porches deep and longitudi
nal, in imitation of the narthex, according to the desire of
St. Bernard, at Toury, Moutier, Charite-sur-Loire, Fountains,
and Beaulieu. At Vezelay, in the thirteenth century, the
porch, of two bays in length, forms a nave with aisles, lateral
galleries, and a tribune for an altar over the minster door.
In many French parish churches this plan was followed in
order to accommodate mourners at funerals. In England
an upper chamber sometimes occurs over porches, as at
Southwed, Christchurch (Hants), and in parish churches used
as a schoolroom or a chaplains' or watchers' dormitory.
Placentia, Parma, and Modena have porches of two
storeys. In the foreign examples pdgrims or penitents were mar
shalled on the ground floor in order to hear an address from
the pulpit, or Mass said at the upper altar, whilst those who
came from a distance found shelter in these vaulted porches,
just as the country people on the eves of great festivals pass
the night under the porticos of St. Peter at Rome. At
Paulinzede, c. 1150, there is, and at Sherborne there was a
large parochial ante-church. At Glastonbury and Durham
the Lady-chapel was placed in a similar position. It is possi
ble that these outer buildings served the same purpose of a
place of previous assembly, just as the great western transept
of Ely or Lincoln may have been also occupied on occasions
when large multitudes flocked to the church. In some
monastic churches it served as the forensic parlour for con
versation with persons inadmissible within the inner portions.

458 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
The children of the abbey serfs were baptized and the office
at which their domestic servants and labourers attended was
said. In all large churches the processions were arranged
in the porch on Palm Sunday, on Holy Cross Day, and in
Rogations. Sometimes it formed a sanctuary, containing a
ring in the door to which the fugitive clung, as at Durham,
and at Cologne there was an inscription to this effect, " Here
stood the great criminal." See Galilee and Doors.
Portable Altars. (Viatica, gestatoria, itineraria.) One is pre
served at Santa Maria in portico d'Campiteili, and another,
of carved porphyry, at Conques, c. 1106. During the Cru
sades the bishops and ecclesiastics who took part in them
carried an " itinerant altar." The portable altar-stone or
table was used on unconsecrated altars in private chapels.
Bede mentions a consecrated table in lieu of an altar. The
monks of St. Denis carried a table of wood, covered with a
linen cloth, in Charlemagne's campaign against the Saxons.
There were examples also, of stone, metal, and terra cotta.
The reposoir is used in the street to rest the Sacrament on
in the procession of the Fete Dieu in France.
Portable Bells. Handbells were of Celtic origin and used in
Brittany, in St. Patrick's time in Ireland, and in that of St.
Teilo in Wales. Unlike the small altar -bells, which were
square, these were hexagonal or oval, without clappers, Hke
the original cloc, usually of bronze and sometimes jewelled,
being regarded as specially sacred and possessed of miracu
lous powers, as St. Iltyd's, the bell of Armagh of the close of
the eleventh century, the golden bell of St. Senanus, St.
Ewin's or Bernan at Monastevin, which was tied with a cord
to prevent its automatic flight, and used as an ordeal for
swearing criminals by the justices of Munster. The cloc
was cylindrical, and in the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries
often gemmed. In Wales the bangu was used at Caerleon at
a funeral recently. Hand-bells are preserved at Perros,
Guirec, and St. Symphorion's, Cote du Nord.
Portal. (Avant-portail.) An external arched canopy, usually
gabled, raised in front of the principal doors of a church by
way of shelter, whereas a porch is a projecting outwork inde
pendent of the door. There are fine examples at Rheims,
Paris, St. Ouen's, and the cathedrals of Rouen, Amiens, Sens,
Senlis, and Bourges, Westminster, and of smaller dimensions

PORTATIVES  PRECENTOR. 459
at Salisbury, Lichfield, Verona, and other Italian churches.
Penniless porch, the resort of beggars, was the local name of
the cemetery gate of Wells.
Portatives. Candlesticks carried by hand.
Portesse. A breviary. From the Latin portiforium (a portando
foras), through the French porte hors, hence portusse, portas.
The foreign breviaries were divided according to the four
seasons, but in England into winter and summer parts.
Porticus. A porch ; an apse ; an inclosed end of an aisle ; an
anker's cell.
Portion. The mediety of a parish, which was divided into
several vicarages or parsonages.
Portionist. A beneficed person in a cathedral, who received
only half or a moiety of his prebend, called in France a demi-
prebendary and in Spain a rationero. Bursaries in Scottish
universities and the German bursch were portions of money
given to poor students, while the Cambridge pensioner lives
at his own cost.
Poser. A bishop's examining chaplain. The annual exami
ners at Winchester and Eton still bear the name.
Prsecentor. (1.) (Gr. Protopsaltes, canonarcha, and domesticus
cantorum ; Fr. grand chantre ; Sp. chantre, caput scholce, or
capiscol, leader of the school of singers; Germ, primicier ;
at Cologne, chorepiscopus.) The prsecentor led one part of
the chant and the sub-chanter responded in the other, in
some French cathedrals being sub-chanter of canons. The
dignitary codated by the diocesan and charged with the
conduct of the musical portion of Divine service, and re
quired, on great festivals and Sundays, to commence the
responses, hymns, etc., to regulate processions, to distribute
the copes, to correct offences in choir, and to direct the
singers. In France, England, Germany, and Spain he
ranked next to the dean. He gave the note at Mass to the
bishop and dean as the succentor did to the canons ana
clerks. He superintended the admission of members of the
choir and tabled their names for the weekly course on waxen
tablets. He corrected and had charge of the choir books.
In England when he ruled the choir he wore a rochet, cantel-
or cantor's cope, ring, and gloves, and carried a staff; and
the rectors followed him in soutanes (often of red colour),
surplices, and copes. He installed canons at Exeter, at

460

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

York the dean and dignitaries, and at Lichfield the bishop
and dignitaries. He attended the bishop on the left-hand,
as the dean walked on the prelate's right-hand. At Paris
he exercised jurisdiction over all the schools and teachers in
the city and respondents in the universities. In the French
cathedrals, upon high festivals he presides over the choir at
the lectern, and carries a baton of silver as the ensign of his
dignity. At Rodez, Puy-en-Velay, and Brionde he, Hke the
other canons, wears a mitre at High Mass, and at Cologne
was known as chorepiscopus. At Chartres during Easter
week all the capitular clergy go to the font, with the sub
chanter preceding the junior canons, carrying white wands,
in allusion to the white robes of the baptized. At Rouen
the chanter carries a white wand in certain processions, and
no one without his leave could open a song-school in the
city. In England his stall faces the dean, being on the
north-west. In foreign cathedrals he occupied either the
same position or sat next to the dean. The Greek prsecentor
at Christmas wore white, and the singers violet. The exarch
was the imperial protospaltes. The dignity of prsecentor
was founded at Amiens 1219 ; at Rouen in 1110 ; at Exeter,
Salisbury, York, Lincoln, in the eleventh century ; at Chi
chester, Wells, Lichfield, Hereford, in the twelfth; and at St.
Paul's in the thirteenth century. The prsecentor was re
quired to be always resident, and usually held a prebend
with his dignity. The Clugniac prsecentor was called
armarius because he was also librarian, the treasurer being
aprocrisiarius. The singers of the primitive Church were
regarded as a minor order by Pope Innocent III., by the
Council of Laodicea, 360, and in Trullo. When the service
of song was intrusted to lay persons in course of. time, the
title of chanter was preserved in cathedral chapters and col
legiate churches as that of a capitular dignitary, having pre
cedency, rights, and duties. (2.) The monastic prsecentor
had similar duties and privileges in choir. He also was
chief librarian, registrar, secretary of the seal, registered
obits, regulated processions and the order of the monks,
ordered the monthly shaving, had charge of the charters,
sent out briefs announcing the demise of a brother, gave out
the books, noted the chants and ministers, presided over the
carols and studies, and rode with young monks going to be

PRELECTOR — PREMONSTRATENSIANS. 461
ordained. (3.) In the new foundations a minor canon ap
pointed and removable by the dean (as rector chori) and
chapter. Whilst there was a common hall he presided at
table as censor morum. He, like the German and Italian
punctator, was to note absences. His duties now are to
select music for the choir, subject to capitular revision, to
recommend men and boys for the choir, and to instruct them
in music, assisted by the organist. At Vienne and Beverley
the precentor was only a person.
Pradector. (Fr. Theologal.) A divinity reader in the cathe
drals of Vich, Bayeux, Sens, and Lisieux ; at Chichester,
attached to the prebend of Wittering, 1259. The lectures
were read in cloister, but now, in Lent, in the cathedral ; and
at Valencia in the chapter-house. At St. Paul's, in 1394, he
was a B.D. At Hereford, the prselector lectures in Lent,
on saints' days, and other times. He was paid by the
bishop's prebendary, and succeeded to the first vacant resi
dentiary stall, except the last-named. At Westminster there
is a term lecturer, and at Canterbury six preachers are ap
pointed by the Archbishop to deliver annual sermons.
Prsemonstratensians. An order of regular canons, founded
by Norbert of Cleves, afterwards Archbishop of Magdeburg,
at Premontre, in the diocese of Laon, in 1120, under the
rule of St. Austin, and confirmed by Honorius II. and Inno
cent III. The title was taken from a legendary tradition,
that an angel showed aforehand the site for the new monas
tery in a meadow. The white canons wore a white cassock
and rochet and a long white cloak. The abbots never wore
pontificals ; and any member promoted to the Cardinalate
or Popedom retained his habit. Until 1273 their monas
teries were double, a house of women always adjoining the
convent of men. Their churches and conventual buildings,
as at Eastby, Leiston, Bayham, Wendling, and Eggleston,
were very irregular in plan, the greater portion of the
minster being aisleless, and the transept unimportant, as
they eschewed all processions. There is a fine ruin at Ar-
daines, near Caen, which gives a vivid illustration of the
farming arrangements of the order, which was to the Austin
Canons what the Cistercians were to the Benedictines,
homely and retired lovers of the country, and enterprising
farmers. Their principal houses were Torre, East Dereham,

462 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
and Hales Owen. They carried the almuce over the right
arm ; the Canons of St. Victor wore it like a tippet round
the neck.
Praemunire. An Act (28 Henry VIII.) directed against those
who refuse to elect the Crown nominee as a bishop, involving
outlawry, imprisonment, and confiscation of goods.
Preachers. Non-resident rectors were required in 1281 to
maintain a steward to relieve the poor, and entertain preach
ing friars. Every priest was bound four times in the year to
expound in the vulgar tongue to his people the fourteen arti
cles of faith (i.e. with regard to the Holy Trinity, seven ; and
to Christ's humanity, seven), the Ten Commandments, the
two evangelical precepts (love to God and man), the seven
works of mercy, the seven capital sins, the seven principal
virtues, and the seven sacraments. In 1408 no secular or
regular was allowed to preach, except with the licence of his
diocesan, after due examination ; the Dominicans and Fran
ciscans were authorized by written canon law to preach in
the churchyard and public street, and of common right any
where ; and Carmelites and Augustines enjoyed special pri
vileges. The perpetual curate (that is, the rector or incum-.
bent) preached by right and virtue of his office ; temporary
vicars and chaplains were restricted to the topics prescribed
in 1281. Untd the Restoration, the preacher and academical
congregation wore their caps in sermon time at the Uni
versities.
Prebend. (Prcebenda, provender, an allowance of food.) (1 .)
The right of receiving a stated income in a church, attached
to a member of a college or chapter, in reward for the dis
charge of ecclesiastical duties. (2.) A certain portion of
dues and fruits of lands accruing of right to such an incum
bent and beneficiary. (3.) A church, all the tithes and
profits of which were impropriate to his maintenance. In
the time of Henry III. the bursaries, prebends paid out of
the bishop's purse, were reconstituted at Lichfield, and en
dowed with lands. It is a separate endowment impropriated,
as distinguished from the communa, manors or revenues ap
propriated to maintain all the capitular members. When
regular canons only existed, all were maintained from a
common stock, from which they were prebended or fed.
When the common life was given up by canons on their

PREBEND. 463
becoming secular, each canonry became a benefice, with its
fixed revenues and stated allowance; before the arrival of
William I. there is a trace of the tenure of distinct lands,
afterwards made prebendal at St. Paul's; but the definite
names of prebends is not much earlier, in England, than the
time of Edward I. These names were derived from their corps
in land ; the church or altar from which the income was de
rived; their founder; their portion, or the amount of their
value; thus we find such titles as Littlemead, Consumed-
by-the-Sea, Arthur Bulkeley, Holy Cross, Combe the first,
Lesser-part-of-the-Altar, Llanfair Portion, One Hundred
Shillings, etc. The earliest prebend on record was that of
Neaufle, founded hi 1095, at Rouen. As the parish priests
had secured their glebes and separate incomes, the capitular
clergy claimed a similar independence ; and the custom at
length took such a hold that no person was admitted to a
canonry unless there was a vacant prebend, as the wages of
church service, for his support. Prebends are in the gift of
the bishop ordinarily, but in some cases, when attached to
offices or certain stalls, were in the patronage of the dean
and chapter, as at Chichester. In 822 the Bishop of Lich
field assigned prebends to his secular canons ; at Lindisfarne,
at the close of the tenth century, the clerks received prebends
after the manner of secular canons. At Lincoln,in the eleventh
century, forty-two prebends were founded ; in the twelfth
century, at Wells, the prebends were formally distinguished,
and the dignities founded ; in the thirteenth century four
teen prebends were founded at Llandaff. At York, Arch
bishop Thomas divided the lands of the common fund into
separate_ prebends ; these were augmented by Archbishop
Grey and Romaine, who added the last stad in the thirteenth
century. In the sixteenth century Bishop Sherborne founded
four stalls at Chichester, the latest endowed in England.
The prebends were divided into stalls of priests, deacons,
and subdeacons, a certain number coming up to reside in
stated courses; but in 1343 all the stalls of York were de
clared to be sacerdotal. Dignitaries almost invariably held
a prebend attached to their stall. The great chapter in
cluded twenty-seven prebendaries at Lichfield, at Hereford
and Exeter twenty-four, at Chichester twenty-eight, at Sa
lisbury thirty-two in 1092^ and latterly fifty-three, at Lin-

464 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
coin forty-six, at Wells forty-nine, at St. Paul's thirty-nine,
and at York thirty-six; but at different times stalls were
merged or lost, and Exeter retained but twelve, Salisbury
thirty-six, and York twenty-eight. Every prebendary is a
canon.
Precedence. A recognition of superiority in certain acts due
to one person over another. Thus priests precede deacons ;
and rectors, vicars; and vicars, perpetual curates ; and incum
bents assistant-stipendiary curates. Rectors rank with each
other according to the size and importance of their livings,
or the date of their induction; bishops according to the
precedence of their sees, in the case of London, Durham,
and Winchester, and of Meath in Ireland, where the in
cumbent bears the title of Most Reverend; or, otherwise, of
the date of consecration, by the Councils of Milevi (416),
Braga (573), Toledo (633), and London (1075), unless their
sees were privileged by ancient custom. Priests and dea
cons rank according to the date of their ordination. For a
cathedral of the old foundation in England the order runs —
dean, prascentor, chancellor, treasurer, archdeacons, canons
residentiary (subdean, subchanter of canons), and canons
non-resident. In chapter the bishop sits with the dean,
chancellor, archdeacon, and residentiaries on the right, and
the prsecentor, treasurer, archdeacon, and residentiaries on
the left; the rest of the canons in order of installation. At
Salisbury two extra archdeacons sat on either side of the
entrance. In all procession s the members walked two and two,
at regular distances — dignitaries in copes, canonspriests in cha
subles, canons deacons and subdeacons in dalmatics, with one
pace between collaterals, and three paces between each rank ;
juniors first and seniors last in going, but in reverse order
on their return ; the right-hand side is the place of honour.
At St. Paul's the dean walked last, between two dignitaries.
The parish clergy go first, then follow vicars, canons, digni
taries, the dean, the bishop, and last the lay persons. Each
parish had its cross or banner. Abbots took precedence
according to the date of their benediction ; Glastonbury, St.
Alban's, and Westminster at various times challenged the
first place among those who were mitred. Rural deans and
honorary canons have only local precedence in a ruridecanal
meeting or cathedral respectively.

PRECES — PRENORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 465
In 1383 it was ruled that the Archbishop of Canterbury
should sit at the King's right-hand, and rest his cross against
the right side of the throne, the Archbishop of York being
on the left side ; where the place admitted they should walk
side by side, but if the passage was too narrow then Canter
bury should have precedence. In 1075 the Council of Can
terbury ordered that York, in synod, should sit at the right,
and London on the left of Canterbury; but if York was
absent, then London occupied the right, and Winchester the
left-hand side.
Preces. The verses and responses at the beginning of matins
and evensong.
Prefaces in the Mass. (Immolatio; the Gallican contestatio
missce, the priest's witness to the vere dignum of the peo
ple; the Mozarabic and Gallican illatio or inlatio.) The
Prefaces were composed by Gelasius, in memory of our Lord
singing a hymn with His disciples after the Last Supper, the
Jews at their Paschal Supper singing seven psalms (Ps.
cxiii.-cxix.). Pope Sixtus added to them the Ter Sanctus.
Pope Victor calls them capitula. The Preface is a thanks
giving before the act of consecration, to which it is the pre
paration, as an invitation to praise God before the Canon,
or principal part of the Liturgy ; it begins, " It is very
meet." The Greeks use only one Preface. From the sixth
to the end of the eleventh century the Western Church had
Prefaces for every festival, but after that date they were re
duced to nine, and are enumerated by Pope Pelagius and
Alexander on Easter, the Ascension, Pentecost, Christmas,
the Apparition of our Lord (Epiphany), the Apostles, Holy
Trinity, Holy Cross, and Quadragesima. In 1 1 75, by Arch
bishop Richard's Canons, the Tenth for the Blessed Virgin,
added by Pope Urban at the Councd of Placentia, 1095, was
sanctioned in England. The Eucharist of St. Paul (1 Cor.
xiy. 16) and St. Justin is probably the germ of the Western
Preface, and the long thanksgiving prayer corresponding to
it in the Greek Church.
Prelates. Bishops, abbots, deans, priors, archdeacons, or their
representatives, exercising ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
Prenorman Architecture. In a large class of buildings ante
rior to the Norman Invasion of England, besides the Corn
wall oratories, the walls are of rag or rubble, of herringbone- 2 H

466 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
work frequently, and unbuttressed ; the quoins present long
and short work ; strips of stone or pdasters bisect or relieve
the towers ; the imposts of the shafts are rude, massive, and
ornamented either with classical mouldings or rude carvings ;
the arches are round or angled, and sometimes constructed
of bricks ; and baluster-like pillars are introduced in the
windows, which are often deeply splayed within and without.
Two pillars from Reculver Basilica are standing in the Green
Court of Canterbury. The churches of Lyminge, Barnack,
Bosham, Bradford (Wilts), Brixworth (the oldest remaining
church in England, and possessing a BasiHcan type), Stan
ton Lacy, Dover Castle, Brytford, Corhampton, Dunham
Magna, Caversfield, and part of the crypt of York, those of
Ripon and Hexham, the towers of Deerhurst, Barton, St.
Benet's (Cambridge and Lincoln), Cholsey, St. Mary (York),
Bolam, Brigstock, Earl's Barton, and the steeples of Bosham
and Sompting, and portions of many other churches, exhibit
some or other of these peculiarities. The base storey of
the tower of Barnack formed a judicial and council chamber,
with an angle-headed sedde on the west, with stone benches
for the assessors on either side. They were erected either by
the English, or possibly by the Danes under Canute, as that
king ordered churches of stone and lime to be budt in all
places where the minsters had been burned by his country
men, and out of the hundred, which is the number of these
buildings, two-thirds are in the Eastern Counties and Lin
colnshire, where the compatriots of the French Normans
settled before the latter arrived. In the first half of the
eleventh century churches so rapidly multiplied in France
and Italy that a chronicler says the world seemed to
be putting on a new white robe. Westminster Abbey was
built by the Confessor in the Norman style ; whilst in Lin
colnshire the Prenorman mode was preserved late in the
eleventh century, just as Perpendicular lingered in Somerset
in the time of Elizabeth, and produced Wadham College
Chapel by the aid of west country masons.
Prerogative Court. The Archbishop's Court for proving wdls
and giving administration, when the person within the pro
vince has goods in another diocese than that within which
he died.
Presbyter. (Gr., an elder ; Lat. senior ; a title of honour, like

PRESBYTERESS  PRICKED-SONG. 467
ealdorman or seigneur.) One in the second order of the
ministry ; with bishops, priests make up the one sacerdotal
order ; sacerdotes is used in the Latin version of the English
Articles, in allusion to the sacra, holy things, which they
have to handle. Prester John was a fabulous King of Abys
sinia or Tartary, first mentioned in the earlier part of the
twelfth century; Alexander III. sent an embassy to him.
Some have identified him with Unk Khan, a real Nestorian
shepherd ruler. In modern times even the Majesty — the
Saviour sitting in Doom — has been absurdly called a Prester
John. Bishop Pilkington gravely talks of him as a heathen
prince, living in his time ; so does Harding. Jewel speaks
of Peter Gran in Ethiopia, and Becon improves it into Pre
cious John, in whose dominions there was dady Communion.
Presbyteress. (A priestess.) Presbutis (Titus ii. 3), a wo
man appointed to superintend women-members of the
Church, and before the Council of Laodicea ordained with
imposition of hands ; their office consisted in teaching and
catechizing, and was superior to that of the deaconess, or
ministra. (2.) An abbess, according to the Councd of
Rome, 721, and the Excerptions of Ecgbriht, 740.
Presbytery. (Sanctuary ; capitium, secretarium, and sancta
sanctorum ; the space between the choir and altar.) An as
cent (gradus presbyterii) from the choir led to the presby
tery, and a second flight of stairs (gradus altaris) led from
the planum presbyterii to the altar. The presbytery usually
stands on a higher level than the choir, being raised upon
the crypt, the choir in turn being raised above the level of
the nave. Clement I. says, " It is not lawful for any lay
person to sit in the place where priests and the other clerks
sit (which is called the presbytery) at the celebration of
Mass, in order that they may decently and conveniently do
the holy office." At Norwich, the orifice for the chain of
the altar-light, and at Ely, Salisbury, and Gloucester, a rich
boss on the vault, marks the site of the high-altar.
President in Choir. The dean's deputy, usually the senior re
sidentiary or vice-dean, in his absence for the correction of
offences, who acts also as president in chapter, and choragus
or director of the services where there is no dignitary-
prascentor.
Pricked-Song. Written in musical notes ; musical composi-
2 h2

468 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
tion was divided into descant, pricksong, counterpoint, and
faburden, the latter being a highly pitched key.
Pricket. A spike on which candles were fixed; there, are
specimens from Kirkstall Abbey in the collection of the
Society of Arts, London ; and another of Limoges enamel
of the thirteenth century is in the British Museum.
Prie-Dieu. A small lectern or book-desk, introduced in the
fifteenth century.
Priests' Rooms. The chaplains frequently had chambers over
porches or sacristies, as at St. Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford ; in
Ireland, over the vault of the church, as at Cashel, Mellifont,
Holy Cross, and Kilkenny; in Scotland, at lona, over the
aisles.
Primate or Exarch. Beleth says, the president of three
archbishops ; one of any inferior grade of patriarchs ; pre
sidents of provinces, appointed by the Council of Nice, and
recognized by Charlemagne ; several bishops in Greece, and
Illyria, Thessalonica, Carthage, and Milan, in the third cen
tury ; those of Aries and Mayence, Tarragona and Cartha-
gena, by Pope Zachary's order; Pisa, by that of Alexander
III.; Armagh and Dublin, and Papal legates in the South
of Europe, were primates. In Scotland there is an elective
primus. In the African province, except Carthage, the
primate was simply the bishop who had been consecrated
earlier than the rest ; and the registers were kept in his See,
and in the city of the metropolitan. In the fifth century the
greater metropolitans sought the title of primate, which im
plied no more than legatine authority. In the Eastern
Church a change of precedency was made by secular power :
the vicegerent of a patriarch became autocephalous, aud
every prelate exarch of some province. In France the Arch
bishop of Rouen was called Primate of Normandy; the
Archbishop of Auch, Primate of Gascony; the Archbishop
of Lyons, Primate of all Gaul ; the Archbishop of Vienne,
Primate of the Primates of Gaul ; the Archbishop of Csesarea,
the Most Excellent of Most Excellent ; the Metropolitan of
Heraclea, First of the Most Excellent. The Archbishop of
Saltzburg became Primate of Germany in 792, and metropo
litan. In the seventh century Seville was compelled to re
sign the primacy, held for two hundred years, to Toledo. In
the time of Charlemagne, Bourges received the primacy of

PRIME  PRIMER. 469
Aquitaine, and Narbonne of Aix. At Bourges the archbishop
appointed two vicars, one a metropolitan, and the other a pri
mate. By John VIII. Sens was endowed with the primacy
of Gaul. In the same century Hamburg and Oviedo became
metropolitan, and Hincmar of Rheims contended for the
primacy of France. At the close of the eleventh century the
Archbishop of Lyons became Patriarch of Tours, Sens, and
Rouen. Calixtus II. advanced Vienne to the primacy of
Bourges, Bourdeaux, Auch, Narbonne, Aix, Embrun, and
Tarentaise. In 1085 Toledo received the primacy of all the
Spains, but Braga still claims the precedency, and uses the
double-barred cross. By Innocent VI., in 1354, York and
Canterbury were respectively declared to be Primate of
England and Primate of all England and Metropolitan, but
in the eleventh century York carried his cross through the
southern province ; but in 1 280 the official of Canterbury
broke the cross of York in pieces. The northern primate,
however, replaced it and again carried it before him. In
1300 Archbishop Winchelsey ordered that bells and divine
service should cease when the Archbishop of York was
passing through the province of Canterbury, that no lay
man should ask his blessing, and that every diocesan should
prevent him from carrying his cross. In 1325 Archbishop
Walter excommunicated the Archbishop of York for an
infraction of this rule. (See Cross.) The Archbishop of
Canterbury had the right of carrying his crozier uncondi
tionally in the province of York. Clement III., in 1188,
dissociated all Scotland from the province of York. Can
terbury absorbed the archiepiscopal sees of St. David's and
Lichfield. From 1072 to 1125 York was also subject to it.
Before the irruption of the Moors Spain was divided into
five provinces, now increased to eight in number. Portugal
has three. The primate always occupied a principal city,
and had archbishops under him, but need not himself be an
archbishop. In France they ranked thus : Bourges, .Sens,
and Bourdeaux. k' *• V
Prime, Canons of. Twenty-nine short lections taken from
synodical injunctions, and read in France instead of capitula,
at Prime.
Primer. The reformed version of the Little Office of the
Virgin, or Enchiridion, which was revised by Peter Damians

470 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
in the eleventh century. The latter name also denotes the
breviary of the Greek Church.
Primicier. The first singer enrolled on the tablets of wax,
primus in ceris ; a title dating from the ninth century. In the
Greek Church there are two primiciers, who stand with the
domestics. The Prsecentor of York, in 1226, was addressed
as primicier by Honorius III. At Constantinople the char-
tophylax and archdeacon bore the same title; and the
primiclerus in Spain, who was both provost and principal of
the college of inferior clerks and ministers, as in the primi
tive Church the prsecentor, was called Prior of the School of
Singers. The archdeacon was at first called Primicier of
Deacons : the latter at length discharged many of the func
tions of the subdeacon, as the bishop's vicar, presiding
over the minor clergy at the hours, directing the lections by
the clerks, and controlling the music. In Italy, therefore,
the archdeacon, archpriest, and primicier were regarded as
the three chief dignitaries; but on the other side of the
Alps, at least for some time, the archdeacon retained these
duties, and, with the archpriest and. custos, was regarded as
the principal in a cathedral. At Metz the primicier super
intended all the city and diocesan schools. At Braga he is
both prsecentor and chancellor ; at Aberdeen he was prse
centor, taking that name eventually ; at Forli his office was
founded in 1562 ; there is also a primicier at Venice, Milan,
Naples, Cremona, Bergamo, Toul, Verdun, Aries, and Metz,
who is the grand chanter, and at Barcelona, master of the
choir, having his deputies the precentor and succentor, who
thus correspond to the subchanter of canons and succentor.
Principal Vestment. The suit of robes used on principal or
chief feasts, including, in 1250, a chasuble, fair albe, amict,
stole, maniple, cincture, with three towels, corporals, and
vestments for deacon and subdeacon.
Prior. (1.) A vice-abbot, so called where a bishop, as at Coven
try and other conventual cathedrals, sat as abbot. At Ghent,
in 1536, he became a dean. (2.) Prior-major, elected by
the convent; the second in authority to the abbot in a
monastery. (3.) A conventual prior, chosen by the monks
of a small convent ; and holding the power of an abbot.
(4.) A claustral abbot presided over a cell of a greater house,
and was nominated by the abbot of the latter, his own being

PRISON. 471
subject to it; all these, in 1126, were required to be priests.
(5.) The prior-major had under him the prior of cloisters,
who held chapter in his absence, visited the infirmary, in
spected the brethren after Compline, and made the circa
(grand rounds or patrol) of the monastery after nightfall; there
were usually two other subpriors, who held the rank of cus
todes, or masters of the order. (6.) Subprior, the vicegerent
of a conventual or claustral prior. (7.) The mitred head of
the order of Hospitallers. (8.) The chief provost at Cefalu,
Osma, Cremona, Urgel, Burgos, Astorga, Tarragona, and
Siguenca; and at Cologne, Seville, Brechin, Dunblane, St.
Andrew's, and Merewell Codege, a vice-dean ; called senior,
or ancien in some German and Italian churches. Probably
the title was a relic of a conventual establishment formerly
existing at Brandenburg, Littomissel, and Pampeluna. The
Council of Aix, in the ninth century, required that those who
had formerly been priors, subordinate to other prelates,
should be called provosts, whereas at Canterbury, after Lan-
franc's arrival, the provost was named prior; and in the
middle of the twelfth century priors in secular chapels began
to be known as deans.
Prison. A bishop was required to have one or more prisons
for criminous clerks in 1261. That of the Bishop of Chi
chester remains over his palace gate ; and the Bishop of
London's gatehouse stood at the west side of Westminster
Abbey. The south-western tower of Clugny was used as a
prison. There were various names for prisons : (1) Little Ease,
in which the prisoner could neither sit, lie, nor stand;
(2) Bocardo, as over the gate near St. Michael's, at Oxford ;
(3) Hell, as at Ely ; and (4) the Lying House at Durham. At
Durham, Berne, and Norwich, the conventual cells adjoined
the chapter-house ; at Durham the term of imprisonment
lasted sometimes during a year, and was often attended with
chains, food being let down by a rope through a trap-door.
In all cases solitary confinement was practised, and in some
cases the guilty were immured, after the pronunciation of the
sentence Vade in pace, " Go in peace." At Thornton the
skeleton of Abbot de Multon, c. 1445, with a candlestick,
chair, and table, was found built up within a recess in the
wall ; and a cell, with a loop looking towards the high-altar,
remains at the Temple, in which William le Bachelor, Grand

472

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Preceptor of Ireland, died. At Clugny the prison had no
stair, no door, and no window. At Hirschau the prisoner
could barely lie down ; at St. Martin-des-Champs the cell
was subterranean ; at St. Gabriel, Calvados, under a tower.
The prisons remain at St. Gabriel, Calvados, Rebais, St.
Peter-sur-Dives, and St. Benet-sur-Loire ; at Caen, near the
great gate; and over it at Tewkesbury, Binham, Hexham,
BridHngton, and Mailing. The prison was under the charge
of the master of the infirmary. " Criminous priests " were
imprisoned in 740 in England, and in 1351 their meagre
fare was prescribed. See Lantern.
Private Baptism. In case of danger or sickness, baptism
might be administered at any time or in any place. In
Thessaly, when baptism was restricted to Easter, many died
without it, and, in consequence, the old prohibitions were
mitigated, the font being hallowed at Easter and Pentecost
for occasional use. Children, if in danger, might be bap
tized on the day of their birth, by the Councils of Gerona,
517 ; and Winchester, 1071 ; and the Constitutions of Otho-
bon, 1268.
The vessels in which any have been baptized are to be
carried to church and there applied to some necessary use,
and not to any common purpose, out of reverence to the sacra
ment (Langton's Constitutions, 1223) ; and the water with
which baptism was ministered was to be thrown into the
fire, or carried to the church to be put into the font. The
vessel, Lyndwood says, was to be large enough to permit
immersion, and was to be " burned or deputed to the use of
the church" by Edmund's Constitutions, 1236 ; that is, as
Lyndwood explains, "for washing the church linen." Wooden
vessels were burned. Children, if sick, were brought to the
priest, by^Blfric's Canon's, 957, who was to baptize them, from
whose district soever they were brought, without delay, by
Theodulph's Capitulars, 994.
Privileged (1) Sundays. Those on which " histories " (lessons
from Holy Writ) were read. (2.) Days signalized by peculiar
ceremonies or commemorating particular events; the first,
fourth, and fifth Saturdays in Lent, and Easter Eve, Ash
Wednesday, first and fourth Sundays in Lent, Palm Sun
day, Good Friday, and Holy Week.
Procession. A choir in movement, marshalled by the sacristan,

PROCESSION. 473
comandatore, preceptor processionum, or terminator. The
origin of processions may have been an imitation of the
motion of the heavenly spheres, the courses of the stars,
and the revolutions of seasons, and more immediately of
ancient religious dances. They were always accompanied
by singers, and generally by musicians. Procession is pro
gression, says Durand, when a multitude, headed by the
clergy, goes forth in regular order and ranks to implore the
Divine grace. They represent the pilgrimage of man upon
earth on his way to the better land, from the cradle to the
grave, as St. Paul says that we are pilgrims and sojourners
in this world. Processions round cloisters and cemeteries
still more vividly brought before the mind the thought of the
last home to which man must come at length, as waters, after
the most devious course, are lost in the great sea. In a pro
cession to the altar, in reverse order to that of the recession,
first went the verger, the cross -bearer, attended on either side,
by acolyths carrying candlesticks and lighted tapers ; then
came the censers, or thurifers, the chanters in copes and carry
ing batons, the subdeacon, deacon, and celebrant ; then choir
boys, clerks of the second grade, and the more honourable fol
lowing. In a cathedral the prsecentor, the sub-chanter of
canons (prechantre) , and the succentor of vicars (sous-chantre) ,
each with his chanter's baton, preceded the bishop, carrying
his cross, or staff. In the middle of the fifteenth century
the capitular tenants went in procession on St. Peter's eve
at Exeter, preceded by the choristers carrying painted
shields of arms. Processions were introduced for public
prayers when the faithful people went in order to implore
Divine help (Joshua vi. 15; 2 Sam. vi. 15; Ezra ii. 12-
30 ; 1 Kings vin. 4, 5 ; Numbers x. 33-36), with a form at
setting out and when halting; or when rendering thanks
to God (2 Chron. xx. 27, 28, 21 ; St. Matt. xxi. 9). Chris
tian processions commenced in the reign of Constantine.
Justinian required the formality of a public procession at the
consecration of a church, to add dignity to the ceremonial
and suppress conventicles. Processions are mentioned by
Tertullian, SS. Augustine and Jerome, and the Third Council
of Braga, and were protected by Justinian's edict in 541.
The word processio is used by Tertullian and St. Jerome in
the sense of church-going. Ruffinus mentions processions

474

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

to the various shrines made by Theodosius. Sozomen speaks
of the alternate chants used, and Nicephorus, Socrates, and
Theodoret, of hymns.
Processions were made with litanies and prayers, (1) for
the prosperity of the King; (2) the wealth of the realm;
(3) for pureness of the air ; (4) for the increase of the fruits
of the earth. Two processions for the good success of a king
were made on Sundays about the church and churchyard,
by English canons, in 1359 and 1298. On Ash Wednesday,
after confession in church, there was a solemn procession
for ejecting the penitents, who were not readmitted until
Maundy Thursday. On Easter Day was a grand procession
in memory of the disciples going to meet our Lord in Gali
lee, and in' imitation of it there was a humbler procession
on every Sunday. The other great procession was annual, on
Palm Sunday. Bishops were also met with processions of
the chapter and vicars ; or a convent ; at the west door of the
church and the cemetery gate, by decree of Honorius III.,
1221. In 1471 all curates of the diocese were required to
visit the high-altar of Lincoln Cathedral in procession, and
make their offerings. In the nave the great processions were
arranged ; at Canterbury two parallel lines, and at Foun
tains, Lincoln, Chichester, and York were two rows of cir
cular processional stones, arranged at proper intervals, and
specifically allotted. At Exeter the antiphon was sung dady
at the screen, and the procession passed through the north
gate of the choir to the vestibule of the Lady-chapel, and
then by the south gate of the choir near the throne to the
high-altar; it afterwards traversed the nave and cloisters,
concluding before the rood-loft ; and if there was no sermon
the procession returned to the altar. Carpets were strewed
along the way on great festivals. Bishop Edyngdon desired
to be buried at Winchester where the monks stood in proces
sion on Sundays and holy days. These monks, being aggrieved
by a bishop, on one occasion went round their cloisters from
west to east, out of their usual manner, in order to show that
all things were out of order. At Chichester at Epi
phany an image " of the Spirit " was carried round the
church by the dean or senior canon and two vicars. On
W.hitsun Monday the parishioners in the diocese often came
to blows about right of precedence, so that Bishop Storey

PROCESSION. 475-
made injunctions (1478) for order on this occasion, when the
shrine of St. Richard was visited annually. Crosses and
banners were permitted, but the long painted rods with
which the contending parties had hitherto belaboured each
other were proscribed, as well as laughing, crowding, and
noise. The pilgrims entered by the great south porch and
assembled in the choir at 10 A. m. and left the building by it,
having duly visited "the chancel and church." In 1364 the
primate forbade such dangerous contentions throughout Eng
land. On Easter Monday at Kinnersley and Wellington the
parishioners, adult and children, joined hand-in-hand, sur
rounded the church and touched it with a general simul
taneous embrace, called " clipping the church." They after
wards attended Divine service. The procession at Wolver
hampton on Monday and Tuesday in Rogation week, in
which the children bore poles dressed with flowers and the
clergy chanted the Benedicite, only ceased in 1765. Some
of the Gospel trees or holy oaks where the stations were
formed still remain. The office for Corpus Christi Day was
drawn up by Alcuin with a hymn, and prose by Alcuin for
Urban VI. One hundred years after, at Pavia, the Host was
carried in procession upon that day, and the custom passed
into Anjou and other countries. As late as 1551 the city
companies of London went in procession, the Fishmongers'
to St. Michael's, Cornhill, with three crosses, a hundred
priests, and the parishioners and members of the guild
carrying white rods; and the parish of St. Clement Danes
displayed eighty banners and streamers, and was preceded
by the city waits. A processional cross was carried in front
certainly in the fourth century, and in the fifth century, both
in the East and West, banners and Hghts were also used.
Usually this staff ended in a tall pinnacle on which was a
small cross, to distinguish it from a crozier. The gilt and
tapering end of a modern churchwarden's wand is the last
relic of the older staff. The deacon for the Gospels followed
the cross; the priests and bishops walked last; the rest
moved in the following order, clerks, monks, laymen,
women, religious, and children, all barefooted. The Ro
gation procession of each parish in Franconia was called
a cross, from its banner. The reliquary cross is usually de
tached from the foot or stand, which is either round or

476

SACKED ARCHEOLOGY.

square, supported by the Evangelists, and was placed upon
the altar beforehand. It was presumed to contain a portion
of the True Cross. In the treasures of St. Omer there is a
cross with two bars (a double traverse), of the thirteenth
century, resembling in form one formerly at Bourges. On
the lower bar was a crucifix, and on the upper Christ in
glory. Another double cross, once in the abbey of Aignies,
of the twelfth century, is at Namur, and a stand of the same
date at Lunebourg, in Hanover. The celebrant in some
churches, as at Rheims, carried a smad relic-cross in coming
out of the sacristy to proceed to the altar or walk in proces
sion. When the reliquary cross was set upon a staff it be
came a processional cross ; when set upon a stand it was an
altar-cross. Three beautiful examples remain, that of Maes-
tricht, of the twelfth century, made of rock crystal, which in
the sunlight blazes up and shines like fire ; another at Ver-
nassal, of silver, embossed and carved, of the close of the thir
teenth century; and another at Ahetze, of the sixteenth
century, silver-gdt, with niello-work and bells, which are a
favourite adjunct in the south of France, in order to call
attention to the passing procession. At Orleans on Easter
Day two processional crosses were carried at Mass and Ves
pers. " In processions," said Cranmer, " we fodow the cross
of our Saviour, professing ourselves, as true Christian people,
ready to bear our cross with Christ, wilhngly to suffer all
troubles and afflictions laid upon us for the love and cause
of our Saviour, like as He suffered for us."
Processional Cross, The, or Cross of the Station (Crux ges
tatoria or stationaria), is mentioned by Socrates, Nicephorus,
Cassiodorus, in the Life of St. Porphyry by Durand, and by
Baronius under the year 401, and in the Canons of Cleveshoe
in 747, when regulating the Rogations. A cross made of
ash, silver-plated, engraved or enamelled, without a crucifix,
was at an early date, after the introduction of the Labarum
of Constantine, carried in processions by the staurophoros.
The evangelistic symbols were usually set at the ends of tho
arms, which terminated in fleurs-de-lys. In the fourth cen
tury they had short handles, and candles were attached to
the arms. Charlemagne gave such a cross, of pure gold, to
the churches of Constantine at Rome. In the twelfth cen
tury at Rome a subdeacon, regionarius, carried down the

PROCESSIONAL PATH  PROCTOR. 477
cross, inclined so that the faithful might kiss it, from the
altar to the porch, where he held it upright in his hands
during the procession. At Durham the chief cross was of
gold, with a silver staff, and the cross used on ordinary days
of crystal. A novice followed it, carrying a benitier. A
cross of the fifteenth century is stdl preserved at St. John's,
Lateran ; another, of the time of St. Louis, is at St. Denis ;
and a third, of silver and beautiful design, with statues and
evangelistic symbols, at Conques ; and another at Burgos.
In England, no doubt, many were destroyed during the
Wars of the Roses and at the Reformation. At Chichester
the aumbry for them remains. In England, from Easter to
Ascension, the cross was of crystal or beryl, but in Lent of
wood, painted blood-red. No parish could carry its cross
into a monastic church ; and in funerals in a collegiate
church the cross of the latter only is set before the bier.
See Station.
Processional Path. (Spacium vel via processionum a retro
altaris ; latus pone chorum ; Fr. partour de choeur, behind
a choir.) The transverse aisle in square-ended churches is
commonly doubled, as at Lichfield, or even tripled, as at
Winchester and St. Mary Overye, in order to provide room
for chapels as well as a passage for processions. At Here
ford this aisle resembles a low transept. The eastern screens
at Fountains, the Lady-chapel of Hexham, and the Nine
Altars of Durham seem to have been further developments
of the same idea, which appears also in the longitudinal new
work of Peterborough. At Canterbury, pilgrims to the mar
tyrdom passed up the south aisle of the nave, and through
the passage under the platform of the crossing.
Proctor. (Procurator, a proxy.) (1.) The master of the works
and general bursar in a monastery. (2.) The procurator
fabricas at Lunden and Roeskilde, at Lincoln, Salisbury,
and St. David's, had charge of the houses of the inferior
ministers. (3.) An economist, like the cellarer of St. Asaph
(1372), who presided over the granary from which the cano
nical bread or wheat was furnished. At Nola there are two
procurators or qusestors, one for the canons, the other for
the numerals. There was a similar officer at Otranto, Rieti,
and Littomissel. (4.) The president of the vicars' college at
Salisbury. At St. Bertin's he defended the privileges of

478 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the vicars. (5.) Two representatives or proctors from each
diocese were summoned to a provincial council in 1279.
Members of Convocation, not being deans or archdeacons,
are called proctors.
Procuration. (1.) An entertainment given to the archdeacon
with provision for seven horses and six men. (2.) An equi
valent in money; according to Lyndwood, 7s. 6d. to the
archdeacon and Is. to each of the other six at his visitation.
(3.) An entertainment made at a visitation for a bishop.
In 1336 a money composition was permitted to be offered by
Pope Benedict XII., but only one procuration could be de
manded if several churches were visited in one day. The
amount varied in different countries. In England an arch
bishop received 220 turons, a bishop 150, an archdeacon 50,
and an archpriest or rural dean 10.
Profession of Faith made in baptism. (Lat. promissum,
pactum, votum ; Gr. suntassesthai Christo.) The form follow
ing a renunciation.
Profesti Dies. Days without any special service, in distinction
to solemn or officiated days, which include stations, litanies,
fasts, and feast-days or festivals.
Prokimenon. The short anthem before the Epistle, consisting
of verse and response, usually taken from the Psalms. Used
in the Greek Church.
Prone. (Prceconium.) Publication in the pulpit of banns of
marriage, pastoral letters, coming fasts and feasts, and a ser
mon (the dominicale or homily for Sunday) after the Gospel
in France.
Proper Psalms. Psalms adapted by their contents to the sub
jects of particular Sundays or festivals and holy days. St.
Chrysostom refers to ancient prescription in this matter, and
St. Augustine mentions as an old custom the use of Ps. xxii.
on Good Friday. Cassian informs us that Ps. lxiii. was
sung at Matins, and the 141st at Evensong. St. Athanasius
and St. Augustine appointed special Psalms on certain occa
sions.
Prophecies, or Exercises. (1.) Conventicles of the Puritan
clergy, borrowed from Scotland about 1560, for sermons
and Scriptural study, in market towns or other places.
Forbidden under pain of suspension for the first fault, of
excommunication for the second, and of deposition from the

PR0SAR  PROSE. 479
ministry for the third by the 72nd Canon of 1603, and pre
viously by Grindal in 1577, owing to its abuses. (2.) The
lections from the prophetical writings read and sung by the
deacon and choir on Easter Eve before the lighting of the
Paschal, a relic of the primitive custom of Scriptural instruc
tion given to catechumens on this day in the early Church.
(3.) A church dedicated to a prophet, as apostoleia were to
Apostles.
Prosar. The service-book containing the proses.
Prose. The French name for the Sequence. (1.) The prayer
sung in the Mass after the Gradual and before the Gospel
on great festivals. It required the licence of the diocesan
or the superior of a monastery before it could be used. (2.)
A canticle in which no metre is defined. An expression, in
loose measure, of the principal circumstances of a festival
to be added to the pneuma or adapted to its notes. St.
Csesarius of Aries required the laity in the diocese to sing
proses and antiphons in church — some in Greek and some in
Latin — aloud like the clergy, in order to introduce among
the people a love of psalmody and hymns. Notker, Abbot
of St. Gad, c. 880, composed and favoured the use of proses,
but certainly did not invent them. He says that he found
one in an antiphonar brought from a Benedictine abbey near
Rome, which had been burned by the Normans in 841.
Pope Nicholas first authorized their use. Proses in the mid
dle ages were written in the vulgar tongue for the edification
of the people. These proses, having become exceedingly
numerous, and in some places even ridiculous, were retrenched
by the Councds of Cologne in 1536, and of Rheims in 1564.
The four proses used since the time of Pius V. are Victimse
Paschali Laudes, for Easter ; Veni Creator Spiritus, appointed
by Pope Innocent III., at Whitsuntide ; Lauda Sion Salva-
torem, for Corpus Christi Day, written either by Bonaven-
tura or St. Thomas Aquinas ; and the Dies Irse, Dies Ida,
used in the commemorations of the dead, and attributed to
Thomas de Cellano, or Salerno, a Franciscan, c. 1230, Car
dinal Ursin (who died 1204), Cardinal d'Aquasporta (who
died 1302), Humbert, general of the Dominicans (who died in
1277), Augustus Buzellensis, or Bonaventura. The Stabat
Mater Dolorosa, written by Pope Innocent III., or Giacomo
da Toda, a Minorite in the fourteenth century, is a prose.

480

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Possibly the chants used by St. Aldhelm, Bishop of Sher
borne, sitting on the bridge of Malmesbury, to win the atten
tion of the passers-by, were of the nature of proses. In the
twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries rhythmical
chants were sung at the end of a banquet which the Pope
gave to his clergy. At Sens, Lyon, Paris, and Rouen proses
were in frequent use (unlike the Roman custom), but they
were mere rhapsodies, as we have in one instance preserved.
to us " Alle — necnon et perenne celeste — luia." After the
prose, the Mass-book is removed from the Epistle to the
Gospel side, to represent the translation of authority from
the Aaronitish to the Apostolical priesthood.
Protection of the Church prevailed in 1064 in England from
Advent to the octave of Epiphany, from Septuagesima to
the octave of Easter, from Ascension to the octave of
Pentecost, in Ember weeks, throughout Sunday, on the vigils
and feasts of Apostles and saints which were bidden on the
previous Sunday, All Saints', the dedication day of a church,
in going to synods, chapters, on pilgrimage, to a consecra
tion, or to church.
Prothesis. (1.) A small side-altar in a Clugniac church on the
Epistle side, at which the ministers of the altar on Sundays
and festivals partook of both kinds, using a silver calamus to
drink of the chalice. (2.) The chapel of the credence in the
Greek Church.
Province. The diocese of an archbishop, including a certain
number of suffragan episcopal sees. Russia forms one pro
vince with three eparchies, (1) Kieff-Novgorod ; (2) Mos
cow ; and (3) St. Petersburg. Archbishops form the second,
and bishops the third episcopal class.
Provincial Synod. An assembly of the metropolitan and his
suffragans, which, by the Councd of Nicsea, was to meet
twice a year. By 25 Hen. VIII., c. 12, the royal licence is
now requisite.
Provision. The destination of an ecclesiastic by the Pope for
promotion to a see, living, or stall not yet vacant.
Provisor. (1.) A chamberlain. (2.) The Clugniac bailiff of
the vill or manor and receiver of rents.
Provost. (Prcepositus.) A prelate or president. (1.) The
bishop in the time of Tertullian and St. Cyprian bore the
name of provost, and in the early monasteries the title was

PROVOST. 481
.transferred to the subordinate of the superior (prsepositus
per episcopum), nominated at first by the bishop, and at a
later date by the abbot. He was a priest in the earlier cathe
drals ; the bishop's representative, who held charge of the
estates, had cure of souls, and took care that the constitu
tion and revenues were maintained unimpaired, the statutes
obeyed, and divine service religiously observed. (2.) The
major or grand provost had the first seat in choir, in-
staUed the canons, and gave them leave of absence for a
week ; he punished their excesses ; saw that the daily distri
bution, the oblations, and fees for anniversaries were given
only to canons and vicars present at the daily services ; cele
brated on great festivals ; acted as president of chapter, but
usually without the right of a vote ; and held precedence in
choir and processions. At Lichfield and Worcester, and in
the seventh century at Ely, there was a provost besides an
archpriest. In fact, the same office was called by Chrodo-
gang, and the Councils of Aix and Valence in the ninth cen
tury, archdeacon, provost, and primicier; and at Utrecht
and Deventer, centuries later, and in twenty-five Italian and
German cathedrals, the archdeacon was still called also pro
vost, and dom-prost in Sweden ; but at Utrecht the major
provost presided over four archdeacon-provosts. The incon
venience of the tenure of many offices by one person was at
length sensibly felt. The provosts became too powerful, owing
to their administration of the financial affairs. They were
seen to represent too strongly the bishop's influence in the
chapter, and their temporal duties conflicted with their spiri
tual headship and continuous residence. The office of dean
as president in choir was therefore established. In 1020 the
president at Canterbury, and in 1080 at Wells, was still called
the provost ; even in the sixteenth century dean was regarded
as a synonym for provost, and the latter Cranmer proposed to
revive in his own cathedral. At Vienne, and in the provinces
of Aix, Aries, Toulouse, and Rheims, and in twenty churches
of Germany, Holland, and Scandinavia, and in many English
collegiate foundations, he was still president, as he is still
in many colleges, at Pesth, and since 1536 at Ghent. (3.)
Provost of canons. From an early date there was an in
ferior provost. The Council of Mayence calls the office a
mastership or ministry, and at length it subsided into a
2 i

482

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

benefice and obedience, with rank, but without compulsory
residence, and the Council of Rheims classed provosts and
vidams as secular officers. The German cellarer, the French
economist (a name occurring also in Ireland), and Spanish
primiclerus corresponded to the English provost, a steward
of estates and bursar. The dean superseded the provost at
Auxerre 1117, in England and Norway between the close of
the eleventh and middle of the twelfth century, at Upsala
1285, Urgel 1299, Solsona 1409, and gradually in France,
the Peninsula, and Italy. At Forli the provostship was
created in 1466. There were frequently several provosts, as
at Hildesheim and Padua four, at Spires three, and in the
tenth century twelve at Vich, Urgel, Barcelona, and Gerona,
each acting for a month. At Wells in 1135, owing to the
fraudulent conduct of the presiding provost, two were ap
pointed, and then one, by Jocelyn's statutes, to pay the
prebendaries of Combe, ranking next to the subchanter of
canons. At Vienna, Milan, Seez, Amiens, Chartres, Tours,
Lincoln (where he found the choir books), at Tuam, Elphin,
Killala, Kilmacduagh, Achonry, and all cathedrals in Con-
naught a provost, at Brechin a pensionary, and at York and
St. Paul's a chamberlain discharged the same temporal office
of bursar. At Toulouse the provosts acted as gospeller and
epistoler. At Beverley the provost was a dignitary, having
charge of the bedern and granary and paid the canons who
had quarrelled over their dividends by the chamberlain. In
1536 the monastic provost became the prsecentor of Ghent.
(4.) In England in 696 and 740, and by the Council of Or
leans, and later, the church reeve and warden. (5.) In 1305,
a rector or perpetual vicar in an English church. (6.) In
1308, an ordinary. (7.) In some French monasteries, the
claviger.
Psalmody. (1.) The singing of the Psalms. Pliny, mentioning
the Communion before dawn, speaks of the antiphonal strain
(carmen invicem). (2.) It is used on the Continent in the
sense of the English saying.
Psalms, Burial, in the time of St. Augustine and St. Chry
sostom were xxiii., xlii., xliii., lix., ci. ; in the Roman Church
are xxiii., xxv., xxvii., and the seven penitentials ; in the
English Church, xxxiii., xc. ; in the Greek Church, xci., cxix.,
and for clerks, xxiv., lxxxiv. Beleth mentions Ps. cxiv. and
Confitemini ; he says charcoal was placed in the grave to

PSALTER. 483
show the ground could never again be occupied. Psalms
Gradual, Pilgrims' Songs, or Psalms of Degrees : the Psalms
cxx. to cxxxiy., which were sung in ascending the fifteen
steps of Solomon's Temple. Hallelujah : cxlvi. to cl., each
beginning with the words " Praise ye the Lord." Psalms
Lucernal : those sung in the primitive Church at the
lighting of the lamps, the first hour of the night. The
Clementine Constitutions, Cassian, and St. Chrysostom
mention the office said at this time under the same appella
tion. Psalms of Praise (Hallel.) : Ps. cxiii. to cxviii., the
hymn sung by our Lord before His agony. Psalms Peni
tential, — St. Augustine when dying and lying speechless
on his bed had the Seven Psalms painted on the walls
of his chamber, that, looking towards them, he might re
sist any temptations of the devil, — Ps. vi., xxxii., xxxviii.,
li. (Miserere), cii., cxxx. (De Profundis), cxliii. Psalms
Prostrate, during the saying of which the seniors knelt in
their stalls and the junior monks lay prostrate on the floor
or forms. Those after Vespers and in Lent before the Col
lects of the Hours and Verba mea auribus percipe. Twelve
psalms, called the Dicta, were sung (with three lections and
rcsponsories and six anthems) on the nocturns of ordinary
days, one for each hour of the night. Six, says Beleth, are
sung at Matins, Lauds, and other hours, in memory of the
six works of mercy ; five at Vespers, one for each of the
senses ; and four at Compline, the number of perfection.
Psalter. The Psalms of David, divided by the Jews into five
books, ending respectively with Ps. xii., Ixxii., lxxxix.; cvi.,
cl. Seventy-three are attributed to David, one (xc.) to
Moses, two (lxxii. cxxvii.) to Solomon, twelve to Korah's
sons, and fourteen to the chief singers Asaph, Heman, and
Ethan (1 Chron. xv. 19). The Psalms in the East, from the
first to the fourth century, were recited in the version of the
Septuagint, and by the Latins, until the time of St. Jerome,
in the Italic. St. Jerome, c. 382, rearranged and corrected
the Psalter, which was adopted by the Greeks and called
Horologiai, under Theodosius ; Horologion is their Book of
the Hours. In the fifth century Pope Gelasius made a new
revision. The 91st Psalm at Compline was formerly (we
learn from St. Basil) sung at Vespers till the fourth century.
In the ninth century the 31st was added to the 41st, 91st,
2 i 2

484 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
and 134th. The Prayer Book version was made by Tyndale
and Coverdale, and published in Cranmer's Bible in 1539.
Psaltery or Canticum. A stringed instrument played with
the fingers or plectrum, the sonorous body of brass or wood
being placed at the top. It was either square or triangular,
with ten strings. From the ninth to the eleventh century
David is represented playing on this instrument, but after
the latter date carries a harp.
Pugillaris. The reed of gold, silver, or ivory used for drink
ing from the chalice.
Pui. The name of a fraternity, partly religious, in honour of
St. Mary, and partly literary, established in Picardy and
Normandy, and translated to England about the beginning
of the fourteenth century, deriving its name from the Virgin
of the Cathedral of La Puy, to which pilgrims greatly re
sorted. They yearly elected a prince, who was crowned
with garlands or circlets, like those still used on certain
occasions by the City Companies ; the loving cup was gaily
passed at the election, and the author of the best ballad-
royal was also crowned. They had a chaplain-priest to
sing Masses, maintained a grand feast annually, and kept
a common hutch for the contributions of the brotherhood.
There was a chapel of St. Mary de Pui at Westminster. No
woman was admitted at their meetings. Perhaps Puits,
another form, may allude to Song of Solomon iv. 15.
Pulpit. (Fr. chaire, pulpitre, meaning a lectern, lection being
a book-desk, an elevated place for preaching.) Ezra, when
reading the Law, stood on a pulpit of wood high above the
people (Nehem. viii. 4) ; and Solomon prayed on a brazen
scaffold (2 Chron. vi. 13). In medieval times the word de
signates the rood-loft. Becon uses it in its modern sense.
It is said to remind the hearer of our Lord going up on the
mountain to preach His Sermon of Beatitudes. The earliest
pulpit was the ambo, tribune, or tribunal, as it is called by
Prudentius. Epiphanius says that St. Chrysostom preached
usually from the ambo ; so did St. Ambrose and St. Augus
tine ; and Nicephorus records that Macedonius, Patriarch of
Constantinople in 489, mounted the ambo when he desired to
clear himself of a charge of heresy. The ambo was placed
in the centre of the church by the Greeks. It is in the
middle of the nave at St. Pancras', Rome, on the left side,

pulpit. 485
but on the right at Milan and Ravenna ; at St. Clement's,
Rome, the epistle desk is on the left, and that of the prophe
cies on the right. At Chartres, Bayeux, and Roiament the
Matin lections were sung on the left side of the choir-
entrance, and the desk was called the legend at Chartres.
At Bourges an eagle stood in front of the Matin-altar. A
pulpit at Orleans and Chalons-sur-Marne was used for read
ing the Epistle, Gradual, Tract, and Alleluia ; the Gospel was
sung on the west side of the jube at Chartres, Chalons, and
Lyons, that for the lections facing the east. At Bayeux and
Noyon there were several desks. At Lyons and Vienne the
Gospel was read in the lower part of the choir, and the
Epistle from the ambo ; but the latter was used at both times
at Rheims, Cambrai, Tours, Rouen, Sens, Chalons, Laon,
Soissons, Noyon, Amiens, Beauvais, Sends, Orleans, Meaux,
Tournay, Bayeux, and St. Denis. The desk for reading the
Gospel was caded the pulpit ; the lectern held the choir-
books. The former was moveable, so as to be transferred
from the one side to the other of the choir, and used by the
subdeacon for reading the Epistle, whereas the lectern stood
in the centre of the choir as a fixture, and was common to
all the cantors in time of singing. Both, from their common
ornament, the symbol of St. John Evangelist, were caded
the Eagle, and it appears on the ambones of Pistoia, of the
thirteenth century, and in three ancient churches at Rome.
The deacon, taking the text, the Book of the Gospels, richly
bound in ivory, metal, and jewedery, carried it processionally,
preceded by thurifers and taper-bearers, to the north side,
where the pulpit stood. Fulk, Abbot of Lobbes, in the
ninth century, made a wonderful eagle, on which burned four
tapers in the form of a cross ; a censer was contrived in its
neck, which poured fragrant smoke from the beak and
flaming eyes of the bird; and the head and wings were
moveable, for the convenience of turning the book. Often
the other three Evangelists were represented as writing the
words sung by the deacon ; at Messina there is one with the
pelican, as the symbol of the Saviour, above all. At Nar
bonne, in the cathedral, there is a moveable pulpit of the
fourteenth century, consisting of two iron supports set
saltierwise and supporting a bookstand of supple leather.
Those of St. Augustine's, Canterbury, and Bury St. Ed-

486

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY

mund's, mentioned in the twelfth century, were moveable
until the fourteenth century. In Belgium the ambo or
a faldstool set before the altar served as a pulpit. According
to John de Garlande, who wrote at the close of the eleventh
century, a pulpit is the ascent of steps to the lectern, upon
which the chant- or reading-book was laid. The double pul
pits of Milan, Narni, and Perugia connect the tradition with
the ambones ; those of Toledo are of bronze, and at Sevide
(1518) are still used for singing the Gospel and Epistle. In
three of the ancient churches at Rome the Epistle ambon is
square, and stands on the north, whilst that for the Gospel
is round, and stands on the south side, with flights of stairs
leading up to it. The ordinary pulpit also stood on the
south side, as at Toledo, because the Gospel was preached
from it. The jube for the gospeller and epistoler in large
churches took the place of the ambo, and within two centu
ries was used by the preacher at Rouen, but in smaller
churches a pulpit was used, but there is no existing example
or record of such furniture until the thirteenth century.
The church-pulpit is usually hexagonal or octagonal, and of
wood, possibly in allusion to our Lord preaching from the
boat (St. Luke v. 1) . Early pulpits were, no doubt, moveable,
and kept in corners until required for use, like that still
preserved at Hereford ; and at Bur/ the analogium, or pulpit,
we know was removed from the chapter-house into the
church when it was necessary. This, no doubt, is the cause
of their present rarity. There are fine examples of pulpits
at King's Sutton, Kingsbury Episcopi, Wolvercot, North
Kdworth, Dartmouth, and Frampton, which has images of
saints. Those of Sudbury, Southwold, Hereford, and Win
chester are of wood, and of. the sixteenth century. The
earliest Jacobean example is at Sopley, 1606. There are
stationary pulpits of stone at Wells of the sixteenth century,
Worcester (1504), Ripon, Combe, Nantwich, and Wolver
hampton. The oldest wooden pulpit is at Fulbourne, c.
1350. In Italy there are examples of the thirteenth and
fourteenth century at Sienna and St. Miniato, Florence ; in
Germany there are stone pulpits at Fribourg, Ulm, of the
latter part of the fifteenth century ; at Avignon, in France ;
and Nieuport, in Belgium. There is a Byzantine pulpit,
said to have been brought from St. Sophia's, Constantinople,

pulpit. 487
at St. Mark's, Venice. Romanesque pulpits may be seen
in St. Ambrose's, Milan; St. Mary, Toscanella; and St.
Sabino, Canova. There is an octagonal pulpit, dated 1482,
at Ratisbon; that of Eidrich is c. 1491. An hexagonal
pulpit is at St. Andrew's, Pistoia. The octagonal pulpit of
Perugia is used for giving the benediction. There is a
superb thirteenth-century pulpit on seven pillars in the bap
tistery at Pisa, with lecterns for the Gospel and Epistle on
the stairs. Abbot Wygmore's pulpit (Gloucester) was on
the north, and placed against the third pillar westward of the
crossing. The south or men's side is the most common posi
tion, as at Wells, Chartres, Haarlem, Aix, and formerly at
Winchester, Peterborough, Gloucester, and Worcester. In
England the pulpits were copied from those of the refectory,
and such as stood in the open air, Hke those of Paul's Cross,
Worcester, and Norwich. In cathedral churches the pulpit
was often large enough to contain several persons, as the
bishop when preaching was accompanied by his two arch
deacons. Gilding and colour were not employed on pulpits
until the fifteenth century. Many of these pulpits were
highly enriched with carving ; that of Worcester has the
New Jerusalem, and one of stone at Newton Nottage has
the Scourging sculptured upon it. One at Burnham Norton,
of wood, is painted with the Doctors of the Church. In the
sixteenth century stone pulpits were introduced. There are
magnificent wooden pulpits at Strasbourg, 1481 ; Mayence,
Antwerp, Faye laVineuse, Nuremberg, Brussels, 1699; and
Vienna, from which John Capistran preached a Turkish cru
sade in 1451. At Durham there was an iron pulpit or ambo
in the Galilee, from which the Sunday sermon was preached
to women. There is another on the north-west at San Gill,
Burgos; and two Hke ambons, fitted with desks, of the
fifteenth century, flank the screen of Zamora ; the two
pulpits of Milan are of metal, and circular. At Aix the
choir-pulpit is silver-gilt and jewelled. At Lugo one of the
two metal ambons has an eagle on the south. (2.) Refectory
pulpits remain at Beaulieu, of the fourteenth century, Ches
ter, Shrewsbury, Walsingham, Chichester, Carlisle, Easby,
and in part at Oxford. (3.) Open-air pulpits in France, over
looking a cemetery, are not uncommon, and were probably
used when the friends of the departed came to visit their

488 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
graves. One at St. Die remains in the cloister; another, in
the outer court of Magdalen College, Oxford ; and there are
other examples at St. Lo, Des Carmes, Paris, De Vitre, Laon,
Prato, Pistoia, Viterbo, Spoleto, and Wraxall. That of the
Dominicans at Hereford is canopied, as a protection against
bad weather, as that of St. Paul's was. (4.) Cranmer de
sired the lessons to be read from the pulpit, and Cosin
ordered the Commination to be read from the lower pulpit,
clearly a synonym for the reading-pue.
Pupilla Oculi. A clerical manual written by John de Burgh,
and very popular during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Purfies. (Pour filles.) Embroidered borders.
Purgation. A clearing of an accused person from impeach
ment by oath of himself and others ; this, in 696, was done
at the altar. The number of witnesses or consacramentals
varied; the common man had four. In Wales three hundred
were required ; and in 1 194, the Bishop of Ely purged himself
with one hundred priests' hands. The practice was general
among the Teutonic nations ; in England it was called the
atha. If the offence was alleged to have been committed
in Lent, or on a festival, a triple purgation in 1018 was
enjoined.
Purification. February 2nd ; called also Light Mass, and, in
the Greek Church, Hypapante, as commemorating the meet
ing of our Lord by Simeon and Anna. It probably dates
from the close of the fifth century in the Latin Church. In
England a jocular name was St. Blaise, derived from the
blaze of candles. (See Candlemas Day.) In Germany St.
Blaise's Day, from its bonfires, was popularly called Little
Candlemas. Candles were offered at his altar, as Beleth re
lates.
Purifier. (Purificatorium.) A napkin of Hnen to cleanse and
dry the chalice, the lips and fingers of the celebrant.
Purlin. Horizontal timbers resting on the principal or main
rafters of a cieling, and supporting the common rafters.
Putlog Holes. Apertures for scaffolding left in walls.
Pyramid. A sepulchral monument in imitation of a spire of
flame. Beleth mentions one built at Tours, and another,
called St. Peter's Needle, at Rome. See Effigies.
Pyx. (A box of boxwood, puros.) The custody, or vessel for
the reserved Host, so called as early as the Councils of

pyx. 489
Tours and York, 1179, and enjoined by Pope Innocent III.
in 1215, and by Odo of Rouen in 1266, to be over or near
an altar. The Clugniacs had a pyx of cork or bark and a
pendent gold dove. In 1322 the Archbishop of Canterbury
required the pyx to be made of silver or ivory. Bishop
Bleys of Worcester, a century before, required two pyxes,
one of those materials or of Limoges work for the reserved
Host, and the other, decent and honest, for the oblates. At
Durham the pendent pyx was Hfted or lowered by cords of
white sdk. Gervase, Hoveden, and W. Malmesbury men
tion the pendant pyx. Only two English notices of a dove
like shape occur — one in an inventory of Salisbury, the other
in Matthew Paris. The ciborium, custodia, or corporax cup
is, as it were, the chalice of the Host, a vessel to contain the
consecrated altar-breads for Holy Communion, or the com
munion of the sick. The monstrance contains a single Host
for exhibition to the people, and when the ceremony of
adoration is over the Host is returned to the ciborium. The
tabernacle contains the pyx, sacred plate, the chalice, and
ciboria, and is, in fact, an aumbry.
The great ciborium, or cup, contained ad the altar-breads
for Communion ; the small ciborium, or pyx, held only those
for the Viaticum. The larger kind, Hke one at St. Omer
of the twelfth century, had covers, and often were receptacles
or tabernacles for the pyxes. The pyx was usuady a cylinder
with a cone-shaped cover. Up to the thirteenth century the
material was ivory, but subsequently, when it became rare,
gold, sdver, or enamelled copper. A few rare cup-shaped
pyxes are preserved at Sens of the thirteenth century ;
Munster and the Louvre, of the twelfth century. The latter
came from Montmajeur, and the second serves now as a reli
quary. They were usually crowned with a cross, or a
jeweded diadem of precious stones. There are fine examples
at New and Corpus Christi Colleges, and in the Bodleian,
Oxford. The pyx was the casket for jewels used by the
Greeks and Latins, and made of boxwood : hence the name.
In the fourteenth century an apothecary of York uses the
word for an unguent-box. (See Tabernacle.) At that date,
in Germany, the true pyx often resembled a small turret and
spire. A wooden pyx held the Hosts at St. Paul's, and
another served as an alms-box.

490 sacred archeology.
Quadripartite. The divisions of a vault into four triangular
spaces. Sexpartite includes six of such divisions.
Quarrel or Quarry. (1.) A diamond-shaped pane of glass.
(2.) A wax taper of Jib in weight.
Quarter, Stud, or Punchion. An upright support in a screen.
Quatrefoil. An ornament of four leaves or featherings, as
cinquefoils have five, and trefoils three fods.
Quirk. A sharply-formed recess or channel between mould
ings.
Quisshion. (Pulvinar, cussinus,culcitrum.) A cushion, usually
of velvet, and stuffed with wool or horsehair, for the service-
book, on the south side of the altar, appears in Henry VI.'s
Book of the Hours, and was used by Bishop Andrewes. In
the former it is on the south side, in the latter on the north.
Albertis mentions the' wooden desk, plated (legile), as a
modern substitute. The book was first set on the right
side, and afterwards moved to the left side of the altar at
Mass.
Quoin. The outer angle of a wall.
Quotidian. (Secta chori.) Payment for duties performed in
choir, and personal attendance at divine service. The pras-
sentiarius paid it in foreign cathedrals.
Rabat. A linen neck-collar.
Rafters. Inclined timbers, forming the sides of a roof.
Rails, Altar, date from the time of Bishop Andrewes, who calls
them "wainscot banisters," andLaud, who intended to preserve
the altar from profanation by their use. They are, in fact,
the cancelli moved eastward, resembling the medieval recli-
natorium, and answer to the primitive altar-veils and Greek
Iconostasis. At Leamington Priors, St. German's,, and
Wimborne they are covered with a white linen cloth at the
time of Holy Communion, a relic of the custom for communi
cants to hold the houselling cloth (dominicale, for the
Lord's body) below their chin for the purpose of retaining
upon it any portion of the Sacrament which might fall during
the administration. The custom was disused at the corona
tion of William IV. St. Augustine and Csesarius of Aries
mention a Hnen cloth (linteamen) used by women for the
same purpose. See Church Books and Holy Communion.
Rationale. (Pectorale, logisn.) An ornament worn by a bishop

RATTLE  READER. 49 1
on his breast. It was in the form of a trefofl, quatrefoil, or
oblong square, Hke the piece of stuff worn by the Aaronic
high-priest. It appears on Bishop Gilford's monument at
Worcester, 1301. It was worn perhaps for the last time on
record at Rheims. The Pope has a formal, and cardinals
and Italian bishops wear superb brooches to clasp their
copes. The Greek peristethion worn by patriarchs and
metropolitans over the chasuble is an oblong plate of gold
or silver, jewelled.
Rattle. (Crecelle, tarturelle, rattelle ; semantron ; crotalus.)
The Celtic cloc, which preceded the use of bells, was a board
with knockers. The Greeks used the hagiosideron (sacred
iron), a mallet and plate of iron, and the hagia xula (sacred
wood) , two clappers, as summons to prayer ; the latter are
mentioned by John Climacus as used for rapping at the cell
doors in the monasteries of Palestine, in the sixth century,
as a night signal and waking-hammer; at University and
New Colleges, Oxford, fellows are summoned to a meeting
in common room by the blow of a hammer at the stair-foot.
By the rule of Pachomius a trumpet was used. At Burgos
the clappers are called matraca, in Italy serandola, and in
some parts of France symandres, which sound for service
between the Mass on Maundy Thursday and the Gloria in
Excelsis, sung on Easter eve in the Mass after Nones, when
the bells are disused, in memory of our Lord's silence in the
tomb and the speechless timidity of Apostles, a custom
dating from the eighth century. At Caen the ceremoniar
gives the signal for censing with tablets. Neogorgus says
that boys carried rattles in the procession of Good Friday.
See Bell.
Ravle. A cloak worn by women mourners.
Rayonnee. Rayed; a line in zigzags, vandyked, like sunrays.
Read. To recite, whether in monotone or with a musical inflec
tion of voice, which are respectively expressed by the terms
saying and singing ; read is the generic and inclusive term,
embracing the more ornate and simpler forms of recitation,
whether cum nota or sine nota.
Reader. (Anagnostes.) (1.) The teacher of the hearers. The
office ranking next to subdeacons ; is mentioned by Tertul
lian, and in Spain by the Councd of Toledo. St. Cyprian
speaks of their ordination. In the West the subdeacons

492 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
assumed the office, which became at length almost extinct.
Their duties were to read Scripture from the ambon, and
in the East to act as acolyths. They were often very young,
and in primitive times were selected from confessors. (2.)
The chaplain of an Inn of Court.
Receptorium, or Salutatorium. A parlour attached to the basi
lica, where the bishop and priests received persons who came
to ask their benediction or advice.
Reconsecration of a church was required by Ecgbriht's Ex
cerptions, c. 740, in case of the removal of an altar, or its
violation by murder or adultery. If the walls only were
altered, reconsecration was made with holy-water and salt.
Rector. (1.) The recipient of the great tithes. John de Athon
says that in his time, and certainly in England before 1126,
any clerk might be appointed to a rectory; but Pope Boni
face VIII., in 1299, permitted a subdeacon by dispensation
to hold one for seven years. In 1273 the Council of Lyons
prohibited any one from accepting a benefice whilst under
twenty-five years, instead of the previous requirement of only
fourteen years of age. A rector, or vicar, in 1250, was re
quired to maintain the chancel, with its desks, benches, win
dows, walls, and glass windows. (2.) In 747, in England, a
conventual president or parochial incumbent. (3.) The
superior of a Jesuits' seminary, and some foreign universi
ties. (4.) The head of Exeter and Lincoln Colleges, Oxford.
Rectors of Choir. The vicars provided on great festivals four
subordinate rectors, the principal rector and collateral on
one side, and the secondary rector and collateral on the other
side of the choir, the prsecentor (the chief rector of choir)
being in the midst, before the altar-step. They stood at the
bench and lectern until the chant began, and then walked
in copes to and fro, with staffs of ivory and boxwood in their
hands, to mark the time. Their folding faldstools of iron
were covered with leather. At Lincoln the slab inscribed
" Cantate hie," (" sing here,") remains ; and Pugin disco
vered the marks of their seats. They also acted as markers of
absence for a week at a time. At Chichester the two high-
rectors were chosen from the vicars, who wore the calabre
almuce, and the two second rectors were selected from the
priests' stall on great festivals; on lesser days the latter
acted as high rectors, and two from the second form as

REDEMPTORISTS  REFECTORY. 493
second rectors. The prsecentor taught them the antiphon,
intonation, and difference of the Psalms. At Lichfield, on
doubles, the two principals were chaplains, and the others
secondaries, deacons, or subdeacons ; on greater doubles the
former were vicars of the dignitaries, chosen by the prse
centor; on ordinary days only two secondaries acted. On
alternate weeks the dean's and prsecentor's choirs led ; but
the dean's if he were present, except at Christmas, Easter,
and Whitsuntide, when both choirs were united.
Redemptorists. An order founded by Alfonso Liguori, 1787.
Refectory. The dining-had of a monastery, which remains at
Chester and Worcester as a schoolhouse, at Carlisle and
Durham as a library, and at Beaulieu as a church. Portions
of its beautiful arcaded walls remain at Peterborough. It
was at Lanercost, Rievalle, and usually, raised upon cellarage,
which at Clugny contained the bath-rooms ; and in Benedic
tine friars' and regular canons' houses it lay parallel to the
minster, in order that the noise and fumes of dinner might
not reach the sanctuary ; but in most Cistercian houses, as
Beaulieu, Byland, Ford, Netley, Tintern, Rievalle, Furness, and
Kirkham, Maulbionn, Clairvaux, Braisne, Savigny, and Bon-
port, it stood at right angles to the cloister, as it did in the
Dominican convents of Toulouse and Paris. A few foreign
monastic refectories were of two alleys, as Tours, Alcobac,a,
the Benedictines', and St. Martin des Champs at Paris. At
St. Alban's an abbot, on his resignation, went to reside in a
chamber which he had fitted up under the refectory. The
usual dinner-hour was 3 p. m. The smad bell rang and the
monks came out from the parlour and washed at the lavatory,
and then entered the hall, two and two, taking their ap
pointed places at the side-tables. At the high-table on the
dais the superior sat, in the centre of the east wall, under a
cross, a picture of the Doom, or the Last Supper, having the
squilla-bell on his right-hand, which he rang at the. begin
ning and end of dinner. Usually the number of each mess
varied between three and ten persons. Each monk drew
down his cowl and ate in sdence. Whilst the hebdomadaries
or servers of the week laid the dishes, the reader of the
week began the lection from Holy Writ or the lives of saints
in the wall pulpit. During dinner all the gates were closed,
and no visitors were admitted. After dinner the broken

494 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
fragments were sent down to the almonry for the poor and
sick, and the brethren either took the meridian sleep, talked
in the calefactory, read, or walked, but in some houses went
in procession to the cemetery and prayed awhile bareheaded
among the graves of the brotherhood. At Durham the
frater-house was used only on great occasions. It was fitted
with benches and mats. The ordinary fare was pulse, fruit,
vegetables, bread, fish, eggs, cheese, wine, or ale ; and the
evening meal, the biberes, collation, mistum, or caritas, consis
ted of bread and wine, and was followed by prayer in church
before bedtime. The dinner -hour at length became put
back to noon, and the supper was continued at the old time,
about 5 p.m. At the entrance of the hall there was a large
aumbry for the mazers, cups, and plate. The Clugniacs dis
tributed the unconsecrated hosts in hall. The Last Supper
of Leonardo da Vinci, painted for the Dominicans of Milan,
represents the high-table of a refectory of the order. French
or Latin only were allowed to be spoken in hall or cloister,
and in 1337 meat was not eaten on Wednesdays and Satur
days, during Advent, or from Septuagesima to Easter Day.
The hall of a guest-house was lined with beds at Clugny and
Farfa, for men on one side, and for women on the other,
whilst moveable tables down the centre were laid out at meal
time. -See Loft.
Registers of Ordination were first ordered to be preserved in
1237 in the bishop's house or in the cathedral.
Registers, Parish, were required to be kept as a record of
baptisms, marriages, and burials in 1538 by Cromwell, by
the Royal Injunctions of 1547, and the 70th Canon of
1603.
Regnum. The tiara or diadem of the Popes, encircled with
three crowns. It is, says Innocent III., c. 1200, the impe
rial crown, representing the Pope's power as plenary and
absolute over all the faithful. According to some authors,
Hormisdas first wore a crown which had been sent to him as
a mark of fealty by the Emperor Anastasius, to whom Clovis
had presented it in 550, whilst some refer it to a gift of
Constantine to Pope Sylvester. At the entrance of a church
the Pope, when borne on his litter, laid aside the regnum
and put on a precious mitre, but resumed the former when
he left the building. Paul II. made a new regnum, and en-

REGULAR CANONS  RELICS. 495
riched it with precious stones, when its use had long lain
dormant. At first it was a tall round or conical cap, ending
in a round ball and wreathed with a single gold crown, re
presenting regal and temporal power. It is mentioned in
the eleventh century. In the ninth century, on mosaics,
Nicholas I. is represented wearing two circles, the lower
labelled, " The crown of the kingdom, from God's hand,"
and the upper inscribed, " The crown of empire, from St.
Peter's hand." Boniface VIII., 1294-1303, added a second
or spiritual crown, whilst Benedict XII. (1334), others say
John XXII. or Urban V., contributed the third coronet of
sacerdotal sovereignty, and about that time the ornament
assumed an oval form and was no longer straight-sided.
The patriarch of Constantinople wears two crowns on the
tiara. On putting on the tiara the cardinal deacon says to
the Pope, " Receive the tiara, adorned with three crowns,
and know that thou art father of kings and princes, the
ruler of the world." The crowns represent the three realms
of heaven, earth, and purgatory, according to Becon; but as
Jewel explains it, the three divisions of the earth, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. Pope Adrian V.'s effigy at Viterbo has
no crowns on the tiara.
Regular Canons. Prosper of Aquitaine and Pope Gelasius
introduced the order of canons into France. Baudin at
T ours, and Wolfgang at Ratisbon adopted the common life.
The real fact, no doubt, was that at first monks Hved outside
the city and the canons resided in towns, at first with the
bishops and then independently, receiving the monks in
time of war or persecution, and adopting from them portions
of their rule, so that from the growing similarity their
houses were familiarly called monasteries and their churches
minsters. They wore black almuces, and canons secular had
white until the latter adopted grey fur. See Canon.
Regular Clerks. Modern orders founded for preaching, medi
tation, or education. The principal are the Theatines,
founded by Paul IV., and the Oratorians, instituted 1 550 by
Pope Neri of Florence.
Relics. Remains of a saint's body. Objects which had touched
such remains or tombs. Called also benedictions, insignia,
lipsana, xenia, patrocinia, pignora sanctorum, or sanctuaria ;
and objects which had been used or handled by a saint. In

496 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the seventh century Gregory sent the bones of a saint to
Britain for the consecration of a church by St. Augustine,
but he reprobated the dismemberment of the remains of the
holy dead. At first a handkerchief, a flower, or -ved laid on
the sacred tomb, filings from a chain or instrument of tor
ture, od from lamps that had burned round the grave, stains
of the saints' blood on stone, or dust from the spot, had
hitherto been regarded as gifts worthy to be sent to pre
lates or carried home as heirlooms by devout pilgrims.
Relics of saints were regarded as the palladia of cities, as
St. Martin's body was carried out to the gates of Tours in
845 to repel a siege by the Danes. St. Werburgh's rehcs
were borne in procession to qued a fire at Chester, and the
canons bore them through the diocese to invite alms for the
erection of Salisbury Cathedral. At Lichfield the bells
were rung at their departure and return. In the ninth cen
tury, it is said, the sale of relics and holy images, with occa
sional traffic in MS. codes, formed the chief trade of Rome.
Theodosius, in 386, forbade the sale of rehcs by itinerant
monks. In 855 Leo IV. ordered that on altars should be
placed only the book of the Gospels, the pyx, and relics.
In the sixth century the custom of swearing upon rehcs, as
later upon the Gospels, began.
Relic Sunday. The Sunday after the Translation of St. Tho
mas (July 7), for worship and reverence of all saints' relics
left here on earth, and the third Sunday after midsummer
day.
Religious. Monks, friars, canons living under the bond of a
rule (religio).
Reliquaries. Vessels for holding relics, and enclosing always
in the thirteenth century three grains of incense, in honour
of the Holy Trinity. ReHquaries, called by a French author
the souls of churches set in the midst of the great body of
the Church, usually took the form of the material building,
reproducing that in which it was kept, as at the Sainte
Chapelle, Paris, and Nivelles, of the end of the thirteenth
century. At Tournay and Cologne they assume a conven
tional form. In the fourteenth century cathedrals adopted
the form of a church, whilst in chapels and parish churches
preference was given to images of gold and silver. Some
times they take the shape of a coffer ; or a transparent bier,

RELIQUARIES. 497
carried by ecclesiastics ; a case-like cruet ; a rose ; a quatre-
fod ; a canister in an angel's hand ; horns, at Canterbury ;
a triptych, Hke the triple entrance of a church ; a lantern
tower and spire; a campanile; cyHnders of crystal, as at
Rheims, and one in the museum, Clugny ; or a strong castle,
with towers. A beautiful specimen is preserved at Ovieto.
In some cases the church bearing the name of a saint, as St.
Denis, St. Omer, St. Hilary, St. David, St. Asaph, has his
monument; sometimes great shrines, as St. Remi's at
Rheims, St. Front at Perigueux, the Three Kings at
Cologne, St. Edward at Westminster, St. Cuthbert at Dur
ham, St. Edmund at Bury, rose over their tombs ; but in
other cases the rehcs only were preserved in portable
shrines. Very small relics were inclosed in the figure of
some popular saint. Sometimes a large wide chest, like a
gabled coffer, contained all a saint's bones. In other in
stances the reliquary was of stone, or of plated wood set
with gems. There was a superb reliquary, shaped like an
altar, which had been used by kings for military Mass in the
field, given by Wdliam I. to Battle Abbey. At Limbourg
there is a beautiful Byzantine reliquary, referred variously
by German and French antiquaries to the tenth or thirteenth
century. At Chichester the relic-chest of St. Richard is of
oak, contains a door which was opened when the relics
were exposed, and a sHt for the reception of offerings in the
cross-bar below it. It is of the sixteenth century, of oak,
with ironwork of the thirteenth century. At Kewstoke
there is a mural relic-aumbry in the nave, and at Gloucester,
in the south arm of the transept, a beautiful screened relic-
chamber or treasury. At first the reliquaries were portable,
to form accessories of a procession. The Third Councd of
Braga in 560 notices the procession of " the ark of the Lord "
and the relics carried on the shoulders of a deacon, but
Anjou was the principal if not earliest imitator of the custom
of carrying the Host in procession, a ceremonial which began
at Pavia. In 745 relics and the cross were carried in the
Rogation processions in England. At Rome the "three
relics" are exhibited on Good Friday, the portion of the
True Cross, the blade of the lance which pierced His side,
and the veronica. About the beginning of the thirteenth
century reliquaries were placed upon the altar instead of
2k'

498

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

under or in the centre of it, the tabernacle being also placed
upon the mensa, and retables, pads, banners, books, veds,
curtains, burses, and phylacteries introduced. The reHqua-
ries took the form of the limb or bust, called a corset or
corselet, which they contained, incased in crystal or mounted
with precious metals. (-See Chef.) Statues on a portal or
west front, as at Wells, are ranged in order, those of the
Old Testament on the left, and those of the New Testament
on the right hand of the Saviour, who occupies the centre.
Reliquaries were arranged on great festivals in a similar
manner in their case or aumbry on the rood-beam, or upon a
kind of retable, with a number of apertures, set above the
high-altar, being brought from a low altar of relics placed be
hind it, at the east end of the sanctuary, or from the sacristy
or the treasury, their most appropriate place, innumerable
lights being kindled in their honour. See Processional
Cross.
Renunciation in Baptism. (Gr. apotaxis.) An abjuration
of the deceits of the world, the works of the devil, mentioned
by Tertullian, SS. Cyprian, Ambrose, Jerome, Cyrd of Jeru
salem, the Apostolical Constitutions, and Salvian, and made
three times (according to Dionysius, St. Ambrose, and the
Gregorian Sacramentary), with turning to the west as the
place of darkness.
Repentinse. (Ferice.) State holidays.
Reposoir. (1.) A receptacle for the tabernacle in the proces
sion of Corpus Christi. (2.) A chapel and shelter for tra
vellers on the wayside, common in Italy ; one of the thirteenth
century is near Fismes ; a pilgrims' chapel remains on Lans-
downe, near Bath.
Repousse. Hammered work.
Requiem. A musical Mass for the dead, so called from the
words of the Introit, Requiem seternam dona eis, Domine,
" Give them eternal rest, 0 Lord," etc. (2 Esdras u. 34, 35) ;
and the antiphon for the Psalms in place of the Gloria
Patrii
Reredos. (Betroaltare, retrotabidarium, postabulum, postaltare,
posticum, reyretaule, retaide, retable, reredos, lardose, I'arriere
dos ; Sp. retablo ; Ger. postergule.) Called by Bishop
Andrewes the backpiece. An ornament behind an altar,
of hanging, carved metalwork, or drapering ; on it were

REREDOS. 499
often ranged innumerable lights " ultra magnum altare."
It is not earher than the fourteenth century in its later
form, nor under any description previous to the end of
the eleventh or beginning of the twelfth century. As long
as the old ritual lasted the altar stood free from the east end,
in the chord of the apse. Untd the fourteenth century it was
stdl of the ordinary form of a table, and had only the Gos
pels and ciborium set on it at the time of Holy Communion,
both in the Western and Eastern Churches. The tabernacle
was an addition in the seventeenth century to the retable;
the latter about the end of the eleventh century was intro
duced, being moveable and made of wood or precious metal,
and set on the altar to contain relics at certain times.
Even the fixed retable, a mere upright slab of stone masking
a Httle shrine behind it, does not date further back than the
beginning of the twelfth century, and was never attached
then to the high-altar of a cathedral, but only used in
minsters to which pdgrims were to be attracted by the exhi
bition of relics. Before this, curtains, dossals, or ridels (Fr.
rideaux), which had fenced in the back and sides of the
altar, gave place to the stone reredos at Exeter, Lincoln,
Brecon, Beverley, Bristol, York, Canterbury, Durham (1380),
Westminster, and those now lost at Peterborough, Tewkes
bury, and Gloucester, and stdl grander structures, the germ
of which may be seen in the panelled walls of Ludlow and
Wells, or at Christchurch (Hants), Winchester, St. Alban's,
and St. Mary Overye, of the fifteenth century, covered with
tabernacle-work, images, and sculpture round a central
crucifix, once lighted by pendent lamps. Whilst they ob
struct the view of the eastern limits of the church, which
hitherto augmented the subhmity of the sanctuary, they
resemble a gorgeous veil before some further holy of hoHes
which our earthly services faintly shadow. There are
superb reredoses of the sixteenth century, with wonderful
carvings in wood, at Schleswig, Nuremberg, and Bamberg,
where colour is employed. Other beautiful examples in
stone remain at Sevdle (1482-1550), Keyserburg, Bodilis,
Lampaul, and Crozon. In parish churches there was a
panelling often over the altar, or an arcade, as at Hanwell,
Enstone, Solihull, and St. Michael's, Oxford. At Arundel
there is a passage behind the wall or reredos of the altar, as
2 k2

500 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
originally -at King's College, Cambridge, and still at Bridey
and Michaelchurch, where there are carved oak posts against
the east wall, which, with corresponding posts in the sanc
tuary screen, supported a beautiful panelled canopy as wide
as the chancel and resembling the baldachino of the Basi
lica. There is a beautiful carved reredos and painted tri
ptych of the sixteenth century over St. Agdophus's altar at
Cologne. The contre-retable faced the celebrant. -See
Altar.
Reservation. (1.) Amphdochius mentions that St. Basil divided
the Eucharist into three portions, one to be buried with him
in his grave, and another suspended in a gold dove above
the altar. The1 Council of Nicaaa mentions the place for the
reservation of the Holy Sacrament, and the Clementine
Constitutions speak of the tabernacle. An instance of burial
of the Eucharist with the dead is related by St. Gregory, but
the practice was forbidden by the Councils of Carthage,
Hippo, and the Third of Constantinople. ~Satyrus, brother of
St. Ambrose, carried the Eucharist in a cloth (orarium) on
shipboard, as did St. Birinus of Winchester in his pall. Inno
cent IV. prohibited the reservation for the sick of the
Eucharist consecrated on Maundy Thursday^ but allowed
the practice during fifteen consecutive days, in order to
provide against the Host becoming mouldy. In the time of
St. Basil, in the absence of a priest or deacon, persons in
Egypt kept it in their own houses, and took the Communion
for themselves ; but this practice of carrying the Eucharist
out of church was forbidden by the Council of Toledo in
400. Irenasus says that the Eucharist was sent by various
Churches to each other as ' a sign of Communion, but this
again was forbidden by the Laodicean Council in the fourth
century. In the primitive Church reservation was unavoid
able, owing to the scattered and persecuted state of her
members; hence Justin Martyr says that the eucharistic
elements (probably from one central altar) were sent to the
absent by the hands of the deacons ; and Tertullian relates
that the priest gave them to pious persons, who partook of
them at home daily in secret, for fear of their enemies, when
it was impossible to hold religious assemblies. St. Cyprian
thus speaks of a woman keeping the Eucharist in her chest ;
Origen and Augustine, of it borne to private houses in a linen

RESERVATION. 501
cloth; and Eusebius, of a lad carrying it to a dying Christian.
St. Jerome says that Bishop Exuperius of Toulouse carried it
abroad in a basket. In St. Chrysostom's time, however,
both elements were reserved, and communicated either on
the morrow or very shortly after. In Greece during Lent
consecration was made only on Saturdays and Sundays, so
that reservation, in order to meet the case of reconcded
penitents being at the point of death, was a necessity ; but
by the Apostolical Constitutions, written when the Church
had peace, the residue of the elements was given to the
clergy. St. Jerome says they were consumed by the com
municants. Hesychius mentions that their remains were
burned, as in 960, by Edgar's Canons ; but in Constantinople,
according to Evagrius, and by the Council of Macon in France
(585), and Tours in 813, the young, and (by the testimony
of Nicephorus) children, partook of them. Reservation was
usuady made in the chapel of the Holy Sacrament.^ A chapel
under that dedication remains at Chichester. Pope Innocent
III., in the Lateran Councd, 1215, c. xx., first ordered that
chrism and the Eucharist in all churches should be re
served (conserventur) under faithful guard and keep. Hono
rius III. renewed the order. The Councd of Tours, under
Pelagius in 566, required the Lord's body to be reserved on
the altar, not in the aumbry or among the images, but only
under the cross. The practice of reservation was intended
to serve three purposes — to quicken the love of the faithful,
to have the elements ready for the Communion, and to fur
nish without delay the Communion of the sick. Leo, in a
letter to the Emperor Michael, says that reservation at Jeru
salem was for the convenience of pilgrims. At Christchurch,
Hants, masses were allowed to be said specially at the
arrival of strangers. In 1195 the Legatine Constitutions, at
York, require the Host to be kept in a clean and comely
pyx, and renewed every Sunday ; and Archbishop Reynolds,
in 1322, renewed this injunction. In 1229 reservation was
made for seven days. On Good Friday, after the adoration
of the cross, Beleth says the reserved Host was set on the
altar, and after Communion Vespers were sung. In
1549, in England, reservation for the sick was made when
there was " open Communion" on the same day in church,
and also if more private Communions than one were to be

502 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
administered, at the first celebration. In 1558 reservation
was made in an aumbry, on the right side of the altar, either
in the wall or framed in it, with the chrism and oil for the
sick. (2.) The appointment of a bishop to a see reserved,
or claimed beforehand by the Pope for his donation. (-See
Provision.) Devolution was a claim to appoint made when
a chapter omitted to elect, or the person elect was declared
unworthy.
Residence. In former times the following words, explanatory
of their duties, were required to be read over frequently by
canons : — " All canons are bound to perpetual residence in
their church, in obedience, chastity, charity, prayer, reading
psalmody, contemplation, and sobriety. Some of them are
priests, some deacons, and some deacons always abiding : at
God's altar the priests by course serve for a week, with dea
cons and subdeacons Hkewise ministering in turn" (but latterly
in quarterly courses). " They, with a common counsel, treat
of ad matters touching the Church ; and in their food there
should be a fair distribution ; they should not be absent from
their church or live elsewhere, neither ought they to leave
the world nor follow the fashion of its generation, since the
whole Church is set in their hands, that by God's grace they
may rule and govern it."
The love of canons died out in the twelfth century, when
prebends had become common, non-residence the rule, and
vicars were appointed as their deputies, the burden and
heat of the day, as they were pleased to call it, falling upon
the residentiaries, who in turn absented themselves often
for half or even one-third of the year. The practice became
still further deteriorated by the . permission for only two-
thirds of the residentiaries to be present at the cathedral ;
and so common were absences and pluralities of stalls that
the commune system was introduced, with a share in the
diary, sequence, petty commons, or livery of bread and wine
furnished by the church manors, and the money payment
on Saturdays, called the great commons, quotidian, or
manual, varying in different cathedrals, and apportioned to
the number of times of attendance and the occurrence of
festivals ; and in the quarterly distribution, annual dividend
of fines for absence, and in the residue arising from offer
ings, rents, legacies, obits, fees, and the prebend of a canon

RESIDENCE. 503
for one year after his demise. The constant presence of
some of the capitular members was thus secured ; but in the
fourteenth century unstatutable expenses were laid upon re
sidents which amounted to a prohibition, in order to secure
a larger dividend, so that non-residence was almost openly
encouraged, except that the non-resident member paid a
proportion of his prebend to the common fund by way of
fine. At first a precious cope, or composition in money, like
the emphanisma at Constantinople, was made to the fabric; but
at length the new resident, on his protestation or offering to
reside, received no income for his first year beyond his pre
bend, but had nevertheless to bear the burdens of the church
in the shape of fees and entertainments to the dean and his
brethren, vicars, choristers, and in some cases the citizens.
These impositions sometimes amounted to several thousand
marks in a year ; and in consequence Richard II. was com
pelled to threaten a fine of £4000 on St. Paul's chapter,
and prebendaries were prayed, for love of God, to come into
residence. If a prebendary missed Matins or Mass on a single
day in his year of probation, he was compelled to commence it
anew. In some cathedrals there were two annual residences,
of unequal duration, called in consequence the greater and
less. The dean, prsecentor, chancellor, and treasurer were
resident during eight months of the year in most cases, and
each had his own house, caded the deanery, prsecentory
or chantry, chancery, and treasury. The numbers of resi
dents varied, but the quarterly courses of priests, deacons,
and subdeacons, one-fourth of the whole number at a time
coming up to their duty, was long preserved. The grounds of
excuse were teaching school, service in the King's chapel,
attendance on an archbishop or bishop, absence on church
affairs, or for prebendal residence ; and then three parts of
the year were adowed as the term of non-residence. The
requirements for attendance in choir were met by presence
at Mass and one canonical hour daily, or, sometimes, at Matins
and Prime Mass, and Vespers, great stress being laid on the
attendance at Matins.
In the new foundations the dean celebrated on the prin
cipal feasts, the subdean on greater doubles, and the canons
on other feasts, in their order ; the bishop officiated when he
pleased in some of these cathedrals, as Peterborough. The

504 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
residence was either statutable or ordinary ; the former per
mitted absence varving between eighty and ninety days m the
year, with a quarterly attendance of twenty-one days continu
ously; the other was regulated by bye-laws; now the legal resi
dence is three months. The quotidian varied: at CarHsle it was
lO.i,; at Chester, Worcester, Rochester, and Gloucester, Si?.;
at Durham, Is. 4^d.; and at Ely, 3s. id. daily. Commuta
tion of residence was sometimes allowed for fifty days' con
tinuous- attendance in choir, but the usual rule was that one-
fourth or one-third of the canons should be always resident.
At Ely and Durham the canons had prebends ; and in the
latter cathedral the investiture was made by the dehvery of
the loaf and statute-book.
Responds. (1.) Short anthems giving the key-note of the fes
tival. (2.) Half-phTars set against a side-wad for the sup
port of an arch.
Response. A chant earher than the antiphon, in use by the
Benedictines in the sixth century, aud brought from Italy.
It was sung in any part of the choir, unlike the gradual,
which was restricted to the ambon. In the antiphon a single
voice sang the verse ; in the response the whole choir sang
alternate verses.
Responsory. (1.) The verse sung after the Epistle, which is
foUowed by the Gradual. (2.) The answer after the lections
at Matins.
Return. (1.) The end of a hood-mould, often in the shape of
a mask or leaves. (2.) A stad set against the east side of a
roodscreen.
Reveal. The side of a window or door-frame.
Reverend. A titular designation of the clergy below the rank
of bishop and dean, in the seventeenth century almost inva
riably associated with the adjunct "learned." In the last
century judges were sometimes spoken of as reverend, as
now they are called honourable. In 1727 the dignitaries,
archdeacons, and canons of Chichester with superior de
grees were called venerable, and the rest masters ; in 1733
the former only ; but in 1 742 all were indiscriminately styled
reverend. South, in 1693, speaks of Dean Sherlock as very
reverend, but the ordinary almanacks do not give deans the
distinction tdl 1807. Dean Xowell in Elizabeth's reign
mentions only the titles reverend and most reverend; at

RIB  RING. 505
the samo timo the Dean of York was called " right worship-
full." Popo Gregory called St. Augustiuo "your holiness."
In 673 tho Archbishop of Canterbury mentions a Bishop of
Worcester as most reverend. Six years later the Council of
Rome speaks of tho " glorious and most holy bishops." In
7 17 Cuthbert of Canterbury is called honourable ; priests
aro termed venerable, and bishops most reverend, approved,
honourablo, and venerable. Tho Bishop of Mouth, like
archbishops, is called most reverend. The primitive bishops
were often called makarioi, blessed. In 1 709 an Archdeacon
of Lincoln was called very reverend, whilst his brother of
Leicester was simply reverend. A Bishop of Peterborough
in 1630 was most reverend, whilst his predecessor in 1594 was
reverend. In 1696 a Canon of Peterborough is described as
very reverend; and a Prebendary of Hereford in 1-197, and
the Chancellor of St. David's in 1622, aro dubbed vo-
nerablo.
Rib, A projecting band in a vault or cieling which covers
the groin or junction of tho stones or timbers.
Ridge Piece. The upper rib running along the centre of the
inside of a cieling.
Ridge Tiles. Cresting upon a roof.
Ring. (1.) Popo Adrian sent a gold ring to Henry II. as tho sign
of investiture with the realm of Ireland. (2.) An ornament
adopted by bishops in the West in the fourth century, but
unknown in the East. It is the sign of fealty to the Spouse
of Christ and alliance with tho Church, contracted by elec
tion, ratified by confirmation, and consummated by consecra
tion, when it is blessed and placed on the fourth finger of
the right hand, which is used in benedictions. The ring
was formerly worn on the middle finger of the right hand,
as that indicative of silence and discretion in communicating
the mysteries, in giving the benediction, but was shifted to
the annular finger in celebrating Mass. In 827 Gregory IV.
required it to be worn on the right hand, and no longer, as be
fore, on the left hand. The ring is mentioned by the Councils
of Orleans, 511; Rome, 610 ; the Fourth of Toledo, 633;
Hincmar of Rheims, Isidore of Seville, and the Sacramenta-
ries of Gelasius and Gregory the Great in 590. St. Angus-
tine sponks of his signot. These rings usually had monograms
(siglai), or engraved subjects, and were usod as signets till

506 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the eleventh century in official correspondence, and for
signing a neophyte's profession of faith, and, by Pope Ser-
gius's order (687-701), for sealing the font from the be
ginning of Lent to Easter Eve in France and Spain, a
custom alluded to by Optatus, and in France for sealing
the receptacle of relics in an altar. They were called some
times, in consequence, church-rings. Every bishop had also
a jeweded pontifical ring, which Innocent III. in 1194 re
quired to be of gold, solid, and -set with a plain precious
stone, usually a sapphire, baleys, or ruby, which was uncut.
Durand says they were not to be engraved ; but the ring
of Pope Eusebius, c. 310, had his monogram and that
of our Lord upon it ; possibly the rule was directed
against the use of pagan antiques. This ring represented
fidelity to Christ, the bridegroom of the Church ; the
duty of sealing and revealing; and, lastly, the gifts of the
Holy Spirit. The best rings of suffragans at their decease
were the perquisite of the primate, and, in the vacancy of the
archiepiscopal chair, of the Crown, at least as early as the
time of Edward I. In" 1163 the Pope, Alexander III.,
granted all the episcopal insignia to the Abbot of Evesham,
except the ring. The rings of Pope Caius (c. 296), St. Bir-
inus (d. 640), and St. John of Beverley (d. 721), were foundin
their graves. The fodowing episcopal rings are preserved : —
Athelstan's, c. 867, in the British Museum. At Win
chester, Bishop Gardiner's ring, with an intagho, 1531-55 ;
two gold rings, set with a sapphire; one is of the thirteenth
century, the other belonged to Wdham of Wykeham, 1367-
1404. Chichester, three rings, two having sapphires, the
third set with a Gnostic gem of the twelfth century. At
York, two rings with rubies, one of the thirteenth, the other
of the fourteenth century ; and a gold ring with the chanpon
" Honnor et joye " of the fifteenth century. At Hereford
there is a ring set with a sapphire, and with the chancjon
" En bon an " of the fifteenth century ; another with a ruby
of the sixteenth century. St. Cuthbert's ring at Ushaw. A
ring at Metz, with a cornelian engraved with the fish, earlier
than the fourth century. Priests, as friends only of the
Bridegroom, did not wear rings. Italian canons wore a
ring without a stone, except at Mass. Fisherman's Ring.
That worn by the Pope as the descendant of St. Peter, with

RITE — RITES OF BAPTISM. 507
an engraving of St. Peter casting his net. The Decade
Ring. A modern substitute for the rosary during the exist
ence of the penal laws, being more easily concealed. It has
on it ten knobs, on each of which as it passed under the
fingers an Ave was said, and on the eleventh, which is dis
tinguished by a cross, a Paternoster. The Gimmel, or
Betrothal Ring, or a coin, was broken by the two contract
ing parties; and rings were interchanged at espousals in
England, to which Shakespeare alludes in ' Twelfth Night.'
They are usually made of two circlets ; on the front there
is usuady a heart clasped by two hands. Herrick, in the
'Hesperides,' speaks of returning a ring of jimmals for a true-
love-knot; the latter was the wed-known Stafford knot.
Wedding-rings, certainly from the time of the Tudors, and
betrothal rings at an earlier date, bore posies or loving in
scriptions upon them. The Marriage Ring was formerly
given at the espousals (as Pope Nicholas says), being placed
on the finger of fideHty, or, as Isidore of Seville explains, on
the fourth finger, whence a vein runs to the heart, as a token
of love and union of hearts. In the tenth century the ring
was given at marriage, probably as an amulet, and in imi
tation of the bishop's ring. In George the First's time it
was worn on the thumb. In the sixteenth century " other
gifts of spousage, gold and silver," were presented by the
man at marriage, and at Cosin's time in the north of England.
Sanctuarz Ring. One remains at Pampeluna; it is of the
Flamboyant period, and in the form of writhing serpents,
set upon a richly-perforated plate. -See Knocker.
Rite. (Riht, an ordinance ; jus ; Gr. reton, prescript.) (1.)
The right rule and settled custom observed in ceremonies ;
the essential part in their ministration. Ceremonies are for
decency and order. (2.) A special order of office peculiar
to a single church.
Rites of Baptism. TertulHan mentions (1) renunciation; (2)
trine immersion ; (3) tasting of milk and honey ; (4) absti
nence from bathing for the space of a week ; and (5) unction
with od. The milk and honey were given to signify that, Christ
being our Captain, and having passed over Jordan, the bap
tized have the sure hope of inheritance of the better land of
promise (Exod. iii. 8-17 ; xxxiii. 3). St. Jerome says in his
time, in the Churches of the West, wine was mingled with the

508 sacred archeology.
milk, as a type of infantine innocency, in adusion to Isaiah
lv. 1, or in reference to 1 St. Peter ii. 2, the spiritual nou
rishment of God's Word, which is pleasant to the renewed
(Ps. xix. 11; cxix. 105; Rev. x. 9, 10). The custom died
out in the West in 725, but prevails in the Ethiopic Church
stid. St. Augustine mentions the interrogatories, exorcism,
and blowing away of ad adverse power, i.e. the devd, by the
clergy. Rabanus Maurus mentions the placing of consecrated
salt in the mouth as the seasoning of wisdom (St. Matt. v.
13; St. Luke xiv. 3 ; Coloss. iv. 6). Beleth says that at the
church door males were placed on the right side, and women
and children on the left, and when they were brought into
church one of either sex was led up into the chancel, to show
the salvation of the baptized. He adds that, after the unc
tion, a chrismal or round mitre like a head-dress, symbohcal
of the crown of life, and a white robe like a cowl, of pure
white cloth with a thread of crimson, were put on the bap
tized. After the renunciation a black pall instead of the
toga was given to the candidates as a sign of humility.
Shoes were given, symbohcal of the life of the dead and of
entrance on a new path of life. The tapers carried by the
candidates for a week after baptism were deposited in the
baptistery and used in the church-service. On the day of
baptism the churches in early times were carpeted, per
fumed with balsam, scents, and incense, and lights were kept
burning. Offerings in kind or money were made to the priest;
litanies were said in going to the font. At first the candi
dates fasted till evening, but, in consideration to the feeble
ness of infancy, the morning was appointed for the adminis
tration. The names of the candidates were recited by the
bishop or notary in the order in which they had been given
in. Friends offered their congratulations, hymns were
sung, and the Lord's Prayer was said. Ten sdiquse, coins of
small value, were given by the Pope to the baptized, to
show divine grace was not to be bought. The pax was given
for about 700 years. The baptized, then called the elect,
because placed on the Church register, were placed in an
elevated position in front of the sanctuary, within the chan
cels, or at the altar : the custom is preserved in the East. A
crown, as a symbol of joy and victory, was set on their
heads. -A banquet was given to the sponsors and priest, but

RITES OF BAPTISM. 509
was restricted by the Second Council of Mayence. Signs of
joy were exhibited by friends. The Alleluia sung in the
Roman office on the octave of Easter is a relic of this exul
tation. The baptismal day was observed as an anniversary.
Cranmer describes the old ceremonial, which was extremely
ancient : — (1.) The minister, after signing a cross upon the
forehead of the child, " makes another cross upon his breast,
for that it is not enough to confess Christ with mouth openly
unless he does steadfastly believe in heart inwardly." (2.)
"The minister makes the sign of the cross in the child's
forehead, adjuring the devil to depart and no more to ap
proach him." (3.) The minister wets with spittle the
noise-thurles (nostrils) and ears of him that shall be bap
tized, putting us in remembrance of the miracle of the deaf
and dumb wrought by Christ, and signifying the grace and
godly influence descending from heaven by the operation of
the Holy Ghost. (4.) After the exhortation to the spon
sors " the minister makes the sign of the cross in the right-
hand of the infant, which cross shall in all our lifetime ad
monish us valiantly to withstand the devil and all our corrupt
and perverse affections and desires ; and, so blessing the
child in the name of the Holy Trinity, takes it by the right-
hand and bids it enter into the Church, there to be admitted
as one of Christ's flock and congregation, and so proceeds to
the font." (5.) After the interrogations "the minister
anoints the child with holy oil upon the breast and betwixt
the shoulders, behind, with the cross, which (1) signifies
that our heart and affections should be wholly dedicated to
Christ ; and (2) that we should bear the cross of our Lord,
and patiently sustain such cross of persecution, trouble, and
affliction as our most merciful Lord shall lay upon us." (6.)
After the baptism he is anointed with holy chrism on the
head, signifying thereby that he is made a Christian man by
the head of his congregation, and that he is anointed with
the spiritual unction of the Holy Ghost (or as anointed as
a Christian wrestler, and graffed into the true vine). In
some church-towers fireplaces occur which were used for
heating the towels used in wiping off the chrism, or tempering
the water of the font. (7.) " Then he is clothed in a white
vesture, in token of his manumission and freedom from the
former captivity of the devil, and of Christian purity and

510

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

innocency." (8.) "The minister puts a -candle-light in his
right-hand, in token that he should through all his lifetime
show before all men a light of good example and godly
works, and be in readiness with the saints to meet his Lord,
and receive the fruition of everlasting joy."
Ritual Choir. The part of a church actually used for the choir,
and distinct from the architectural or constructional choir.
Robertines. An English order of eremites founded by Robert
of Knaresborough, c. 1169.
Rochet, The, (Gr. rouchion ; 'Ger. rock, a little frock.) The
word appears first about the thirteenth century. At Cam-
brai it was called sarcos, and John of Liege speaks of it
as a saroht. The Council of Buda, 1279, mentions it as the
white camisia or rosetta which was to be worn over the
breast and round the neck, under the cappa or mantle, by
prelates when walking or riding. This, says Catalani, was
the rochet which the bishop promoted was to wear in the
city and in the church according to the Councd of Lateran
IV., under Pope Innocent III., a.d. 1215. It might be red,
but was then to be quite concealed by the mantle. Between
1305-77 the Popes introduced it at Avignon, but it is of far
earlier date, having been identified with the linea prescribed
by the Ordo Romanus, and worn by St. Cyprian. It was in
common use in the seventh century. Bede, comparing it
with Aaron's ephod, says that the closeness of it at the
hands denotes that he that wears it ought to do always
something that is profitable. In the following ages the
bishops were obliged by the canon law to wear their rochet
whenever they appeared in public. This practice seems to
have been kept up in England more than in other places, as
Hody says it was only laid aside in hunting, and Erasmus
mentions as a singularity of Bishop Fisher that he left off his
rochet (linea vestis) when he travelled. Since the Reformation
the bishops have not worn their rochets in any public place
out of the church, except in Parliament, and, in Convocation,
over their scarlet habit. Secular prelates, prothonotaries,
and canons who had the right to use it put it on over the
vestis talaris before robing for Mass. The rochet, according
to Lyndwood, was sleeveless, and worn by the server to the
priest, and by the latter in baptizing ; and Ducange men
tions it as worn by bishops and abbots with straight sleeves.

ROGATION DAYS  ROMAN MANNER. 511
The modern full sleeve is not earlier than the time of Bishop
Overad. Bale describes the clergy wearing fine white
rochets of raines (Hnen of Rennes or Rheims) or fine linen
cloth, costly grey amices of calaber and cats' tails, fresh
purple gowns when they walk for their pleasures, and red
scarlet frocks when they preach in the pulpit. In the
thirteenth century in England a priest was buried in the
ferial rochet of the church with a chalice of tin that had
y not been blessed.
Rogation Days. The three days before Ascension Day, in
747, in England, were observed by the people on bended
knees after a procession with the cross and relics, and with
fasting tdl three p.m., and celebration. Games, horse
races, and banquetings, which had desecrated the obser
vance, were then forbidden. In 1014 processions were made
barefooted on the three days before Michaelmas, which were
rigorously fasted. Crosses and banners were carried in
memory of the power of the ascended Saviour, and the
prayers were offered with stronger hope of being heard, in
faith of His promise, "Ask and ye shaU have." In 1559
processions about the church and churchyard were forbidden,
"to avoid all contention and strife, by reason of fond
courtesy and chadenging of places." In 1572 and 1576
Grindal forbade " wearing any surplice, carrying of banners
or handbells, or staying at crosses," but the common per
ambulation of the circuits of parishes was retained at the
time accustomed in the days of Rogation, and in the proces
sion were to be sung Psalms ciii., civ., with the Litany and
suffrages. At certain places the curate was to admonish
the people to give thanks to God for the increase and
abundance of His fruits upon the face of the earth, and in
culcate these sentences : " Cursed be he which translateth
the bounds and doles of his neighbours." A sermon or
homily of thanksgiving was to follow, and divine service
said in the church. At Paris, Rouen, Laon, and in Provence
they carried two serpents in rogations, but the accidents
which resulted from placing fusees in the eyes and between
the jaws of the monsters led to their disuse. The procession
with the dragon was observed at Dublin. -See Litanies.
Roman Manner. The custom of building churches of stone,
spoken of in 675 when Benedict Biscop, Abbot of Wear-

512 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
mouth, went to France to engage masons. It was about the
same time called the Gallican mode.
Rome Land. A large open roomy space in front of the min
ster of Waltham, St. Edmund's Bury, and St. Alban's, called
the forbury at Reading, and probably the original of the
tombland of Norwich, so called since 1302.
Rome Scot, or Rome Fee. An annual tribute of a thousand
marks paid by King John to the See of Rome.
Rood. In the fifteenth century a cross surmounting the jube
or screen of St. Sophia's at Constantinople is described as
being of gold and jewelled, and carrying taper-stands. The
rood itself was usually of wood. On the arms of the cross
were the evangelistic symbols facing the nave, but busts of
the four doctors towards the choir. About the fifteenth
century the figures of SS. Mary and John were added on
either side of the rood. Three chains, let down from the
vaulting, supported its head' and arms. A Hght always
burned before it during Matins. The black rood of Scot
land was of silver, and derived its name from having been
smoked black with the tapers before it after its removal to
Durham. Many superstitions were connected with roods,
"with rolling eyes and sweating brows, with speaking
mouth and walking feet." The more celebrated crosses
were, according to Calfhill, "the rood of grace of Boxley,
.. the rood of Winchester, the very cross of Ludlow, and Jack
Knacker of Witney " (which Lambard says was the name of
the watchman in the puppet play of the Resurrection).
There were also St. Saviour's of Bermondsey, the rood of
Chester (which gave name to the rood eye), and the speak
ing crucifix of Calne in St. Dunstan's time. -See Images.
Many churches were dedicated to the holy rood, as the
abbey near Edinburgh, and at Daglingworth, Caermarthen,
Bettws-y-Gr6g, Capel Crist, Llechyd, Cuxham, Southampton,
Combe Keynes, Thruxton, Wood Eaton, Swindon, Shilling-
stone, Mailing. The Church of SS. Vincent and Anastasius,
after it received the addition of a transept, was called Holy
Cross, from its new shape. The rood was set before the feet
of the dying, stretched on straw or ashes, emblems of mor
tality, and also, Beleth says, erected at the head of graves.
Rood-Beam. (Trabes crucifix!.) A screen of lighter construc
tion than that which fenced the entrance of the choir parted

ROODLOFT. 513
off the sanctuary at the extremity of the stalls, like a chancel-
rail. A solitary instance remains at St. David's, and at St.
Alban's the beam was of the thirteenth century, and an altar
of the holy cross, inclosed within an iron screen, once stood
beneath it. At Malmesbury a similar screen existed. At
Nortldeach it stands over the chancel-arch. At Worcester,
on the western piers of the lantern, are stone brackets for
the rood-beam, at a height of twenty-eight feet from tho
floor. It was, in point of fact, a rafter eastward of the altar
to support a crowd of tapers, (according to the dignity of the
day,) the cross, and reliquaries. When the space below it
was filled down to the floor it was developed into a reredos.
At Lubeck the screen is on the east side of the crossing,
whdst the beam spans the western arch.
Roodloft. A screen with a gallery supporting the rood.
(Ambo, pulpitum, alleluia, gradus, tribune, jube, lectrier,
doxale.) The roodscreen had no upper loft or solar. For
the first three centuries there is no direct evidence of the
separation of the choir from the nave, but after the time of
Constantine, tapestry, a veil, or a balustrade, like an altar-
rail, was employed, like the modern Greek iconostasis.
These screens, which are mentioned by St. Augustine, St.
Gregory Nazianzen, Theodoret, Sozomen, Synesius, St. Ger-
manus, St. Paulinus, St. Gregory of Tours, and the Council
of Chalcedon, had three doors, one facing the altar, a second
fronting the Gospel side, and a third the Epistle side. Be
fore them veils were dropped at the consecration. That of
the Apostles, at Constantinople, was a lattice of gilt brass ;
that of Tyre, erected by PauHnus, of carved wood ; one of
stone, c. 340, remains at Tepekerman. In Spain, Italy,
Greece, and the East they were in use in the fifth century.
There is one, of the date of Justinian, at St. Catherine's,
Mount Sinai ; and that of St. Sophia was imitated, in the
eleventh century, at Novogorod, Eieff, Chernigoff, and Cutais.
The Benedictines and Cistercians preserved the use of the
Lenten veil, drawn between the choir and the altar, and the
Gdbertines divided the brothers and sisters by a veil at
sermon-time. During the greater part of the first seven
centuries probably the iconostasis was used in Italy, but
when the apsidal arrangement was definitely adopted this
screen was pushed westward, until the altar was placed in
2 L

514 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the middle of the church, as in the large Italian churches, in
southern France, and even in Burgundy, the screen now
being placed under the chancel-arch, (as in other parts the
rood-altar was erected,) and no longer within that of the
sanctuary, Hke the rood-beam. When the choir was thus
extended into the nave, the roodscreen was erected west
ward of the crossing — in the first bay at Ely, Durham,
Gloucester, Chester, Fountains, Tintern, and Chichester;
in the second, at Norwich, Worcester, and Peterborough ; in
the third, at Melrose, Binham, St. Alban's, and Westminster;
in the fourth, at Jorevalle and Merevale ; and in the sixth,
at Tynemouth. At York, Lincoln, Lichfield, Wells,
Salisbury, Hereford, Exeter, Canterbury, Rochester, Win
chester, Oxford, Carlisle, and Christchurch (Hants), the
crossing was left free, and the screen erected under the east
ern arch, but at St. David's under the western arch, of the
crossing, which was regarded as the natural division between
the nave and choir. The screen was built in the twelfth
century at St. Alban's, and in the thirteenth at Bury St.
Edmund's, the addition being made when choir-screens were
multiplied for the purpose of giving warmth and seclusion to
the canons or monks. With the introduction of permanent
stalls, walls were erected between the intercolumniations for
their support at Ghent, Poitiers, Auch, Bourges, Christchurch
(Hants), Canterbury, Rochester; and at Carlisle wooden
parcloses, with paintings. In Belgium at the close of the
thirteenth century, and in France, at Troyes and Paris, in
the fourteenth, and generally in the fifteenth as at Rheims and
Rouen, and in the sixteenth century at Auch and Rodez,
the roodscreen was adopted to furnish the accommodation
for the gospeller and epistoler hitherto given by the ambons.
The latter fell into desuetude in Italy and France about the
time of the removal of the Popes to Avignon in 1309. There
are other examples at Limoges (1593), Alby, Lierre, Rodez,
St. Pierre-sur-Dives, Laon, Beaune, St. Etienne du Mont,
Aries, Tournay, Bonn, Tournus, Dixmunde, Bamburg ;
Louvain, of the fifteenth century ; and double, of stone, of the
fourteenth century, at Oberwesel. At Clugny, Paris, Sens,
and Milan, the name of jube (from the words, Jube domne
benedicere) was adopted, and the episcopal benediction was
for the last time given at Bayeux. The Clugniacs communi-

R00DL0FT. 515
cated the laity at a grille in the screen. The loft was used
for reading the Gospel, Epistle, certain lections, letters of
communion, pastorals of bishops, proclamation of treaties,
and acts of councils ; from it penitents were absolved, the
episcopal benediction pronounced, and elect abbots pre
sented to the people. At a later date the organ and singers
were placed in it. In France the paschal taper was blessed
in this place. Bishops sometimes preached from the loft.
At Peterborough tho abbots after benediction, and some of
the Kings of France before their coronation at Rheims, were
presented to the people from the loft. A screen existed at
St. Alban's in the twelfth century. The desk for the reader
of the fifteenth century remains at Merevale, and at Ess-
lingen facing the choir, and by the Salisbury use the eagle
lectern for the Gospel stood in the loft ; at Gloucester the
stone pulpit, of the fourteenth century, was over the west
choir-door. The usual arrangement was to have either a rood-
altar with side processional doors, as at St. Alban's, or else
a central door with lateral altars, as at Chester, Exeter, St.
David's, Chichester, and Norwich ; sometimes, as at Car
lisle, Lincoln, Clynog Vawr, Canterbury, Ripon, Southwell,
Christchurch (Hants), and York, there is only a central door ;
at Hexham the panels above it represented the Dance of
Death ; and at York the side-niches are fided with statues of
kings. There is a beautiful screen, elaborately painted, at
Ranworth. Screens were erected at Bristol (1541), Rodney,
Stoke (1625), and Durham after the Restoration. At Can
terbury and Winchester magnificent stairs, and a lesser flight
at Rochester, led up to the screen, as the choir is elevated,
as in a basilica, over the crypt. The single rood-altar oc
curred at Clugny, Lyons, Zamora, Munster, Milan, and
Florence, and for the laity at Dunster and Ewenny. (-See
Parish Church.) The central tower, from the cross below
it, was often called the rood- tower, as at Lincoln and Here
ford : a blaze of sunlight was thus showered down upon the
altar of the rood. Many lofts and screens were destroyed in
England after the Reformation, but up to the year 1571 the
beam was allowed to remain with a cresting on it. The rude
hand of innovation, however, has removed as many or more
screens bodily from German and French churches. Some
beautiful examples of screens exist at Southwold, Worstead,
2 l 2

516 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Shellingham, Old Radnor, Bradninch, Collumpton, Plan-
borough, Beverley, Hexham, St. Burian's, .Gresford, Chinner,
Thame, Northfleet, Gilston, and Swinbrook. A loft of
the thirteenth century remains at Stanton Harcourt, but the
finest specimens date back to the early part of the fourteenth
century, and the most common now to the fifteenth century.
Many retain beautiful colouring and rich decoration. Drains
have been found in roodlofts at Maxey, Frome, and East
bourne, but probably they are mere insertions from some
other place, or, if in their original position, were used for the
ablutions of pavements and Hnen, or the ashes of tow, palms,
etc.
Rood-Stair. The staircase to the roodloft. It winds at Bur-
lingham round a pier at the entrance of the chancel. At
Christchurch, Gloucester, and CarHsle it is constructed
within the loft- on the north side, which is the general ar
rangement in a large church. At Sopley and other places
an aperture is pierced through the pier towards the transept
on the north side, and was reached by a wooden staircase.
At Battle there is an external stair-turret, having a bridge
within the north nave aisle which communicated with a
similar opening. In Norfolk there are frequently two stair-
turrets. The stairs at Lupworth, St. John's (Chester), and
the external flights at Christchurch (Hants), adjoining the
Lady-chapel, led to an upper chapel, like that of Henry V. at
Westminster. There are good stair-turrets at Stamford and
Eastbourne. There are stairs in the chancel-pier at Girton
on the south ; and on the north at Bedeau. Fribourg and
Manchester have noble rood-turrets. Sometimes there were
four, but ordinarily two flights of stairs, one used by the
deacon-gospeller, and the other by the subdeacon-epistoler,
as at Sens, Ravenna, St. Sophia (Constantinople), and St.
Pancras (Rome). In England one flight was probably used
for ascending, and the other for descending.
Roofs. Several churches in Norfolk and Suffolk, and Somersby
in Lincolnshire, are modestly thatched ; and Rampston is
covered with reeds, formerly abundant in the fen country, and
resembling the sea mat-weed. Wooden cielings consist of
common rafters next the tiles. Parallel with these are the
principal rafters; the tiebeams extend longitudinally from
wall to wall ; the wad-plate runs along the top of the wall.

ROSARY  ROSE WINDOW. 517
under the tiebeam, as the pole-plate under the common
rafter ; the ridge in the centre of the meeting of the common
rafters; the struts are diagonal timbers joining the tiebeam
to the principal rafter ; the posts are upright timbers rising
from the tiebeam ; where there are two posts a collar unites
them at the top ; the hammer-beam was a tiebeam not ex
tending across from wall to wall, and was of Perpendicular
introduction when paneding came into fashion. There are
Early English cielings at Hales Owen and Rochester Cathe
dral ; of Decorated date at Chartham, Sparsholt, Addington,
Stourbridge, and Temple Balsall ; and of the Perpendicular
period at Cirencester, Devizes, Faringdon, Godshill, and
Wear Gifford ; and groined wooden cielings at Selby, St.
Alban's Lady-chapel, and Winchester College chapel. In the
twelfth century the height of the chancel-roofs was elevated,
to the utter destruction of the old symbolism of the low ridge,
indicative of the drooping head of the Saviour. The deflec
tion at St. Etienne du Mont was to the traditional position of
the penitent thief, the north. -See Deviation.
Rosary, The, or Lady Psalter, consists of fifteen decades (or
150 Ave Marias and fifteen Paternosters), in honour of the
fifteen mysteries, or events in our Lord's life, in which St.
Mary is said to have borne a part — five glorious, five joyous,
and five sorrowful. The "usual prayers," mentioned in
Arundel's Constitutions of 1408, were probably beads ; a
Crown had six decades and sixty-three Ave Marias, the
Psalter fifteen decades and 150 Ave Marias, the Little
Psalter three gauds and fifteen Ave Marias, and the Chaplet
three gauds and fifteen Ave Marias.
Rosette. An ornament in front of the hat, worn by prelates,
dignitaries in a cathedral, and archdeacons. Savage, in the
'Progress of a Divine,' 1735, says "he gains a cassock,
beaver, and a rose ;" and Archdeacon Sharp specifies as the
clerical badge " the band, hatband, and short cassock."
Rose Window, or the Marygold, was derived from the round
window, called the eye in the basilica, pierced through the
gable over the entrance, and imitated in the Norman period,
at Canterbury in the transept, at Southwell in the clerestory,
at Patricksbourne, Iffley, Barfreston, and the Temple Church,
London, but -is unknown in Rhenish architecture. About
the thirteenth century, at first in Picardy, Champagne, and

'518

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

the Isle of France, and at a later period in Burgundy and
Normandy, the rose became of large dimensions. There are
fine examples at Paris (1220-1257), Mantes (1220), Laon,
Rheims (1239), Amiens (1325), St. Denis, Sees, Clermont,
Montreal, Soissons, and Rouen. They bore the names of the
elements — the northern being called the rose of the winds;
the west, of the sea; the south, of heaven; and the east, of the
earth. In England the rose usually occurs in the transept,
as at York, Lincoln, Winchester, and Beverley ; of the De
corated period, at Chichester ; and of the Perpendicular, at
Lynn and Westminster. When there were two of these
transeptal windows in a cathedral, that on the north was
called the bishop's, and the southern one the dean's eye, as
representing their respective jurisdiction, one watching
against the invasion of the diocese by evil spirits on the
north, and the latter as presiding as censor morum over the
capitulars and close. At St. Paul's exceptionally the Lady-
chapel had a superb eastern rose, and one still adorns the
nine chapels of Durham.
Rota, Auditors of the, formerly called auditors of the sa
cred palace, and by Pope John XXII. , in 1450, apostolic
chaplains, reduced by Sixtus IV. A judicial tribunal at
Rome, having cognizance of civil and ecclesiastical causes;
its decisions always state the grounds on which they are
made.
Rouel or Rowel Light. The device for moving the star in
the Epiphany play of the Three Kings with a pulley-wheel
(roue), as the spiked wheel in a spur is called rowel.
Round Churches were imitations of the Holy Sepulchre at
Jerusalem, the nave being round and forming the vestibule
of an oblong chancel, as in the Templars' churches at Laon,
Metz, and Segovia, 1208. Other examples are found in
Ludlow Castle, Cambridge, Northampton, of the end of the
twelfth century; Little Maplestead (built by the Hospitallers),
St. Gereon's, Cologne, of the thirteenth century; Treves,
Bonn, Aix-la-Chapelle (a copy of St. Vi talis, Ravenna, and
more remotely of St. Sophia, Constantinople), Salamanca, St.
Benignus Dijon, London, built in 1185; Neuvy St. Sepul
chre, c. 1170; Lanleff, Rieu Minervois, of the close of the
eleventh century; Brescia, Pisa, Rome, Bergamo, Bologna,
Thorsager, and several other churches in Scandinavia. In

ROOND TOWERS. 519
many cases the shape may have been merely a mechanical
contrivance to carry a dome. (-See Knights Templars.)
Circular churches occur of all dates, and distributed over
most parts of Europe, either insulated as baptisteries, in a
mystical allusion to the Holy Sepulchre, attached as chapels
to churches, or existing as independent buildings. They
are sometimes of a simple round or polygonal form, either
without recesses, except an apse or porch, such as the church
of Orphir, Orkney, and the baptistery of Canterbury, or
with radiating recesses, rectangular or apsidal, as the bap
tisteries of Novara and Frejus. Sometimes a circular or
polygonal centre is supported by pillars, and surrounded by
an aisle of corresponding form ; this aisle is repeated at
St. Stephen's, Rome, and Charroux. The Crusaders, or
pilgrims, imitated the plan of the Sepulchre of Jerusalem,
surrounded by a circular church, and the Martyrdom, or
place of the Crucifixion, by a chancel eastward of a round
nave. At Bury St. Edmund's, at the close of the eleventh
century, the abbot removed the body of St. Edmund from
the " round chapel" to the new church ; and this circular
termination is still seen in Becket's Crown at Canterbury, at
Sens, Burgos, Batalha, Murcia, and Drontheim. After the
middle of the thirteenth century round churches were no
longer built. Almost all the German churches of the time
of Charlemagne were circular, Hke Aix, Nimeguen, Peters
burg, and Magdeburg.
Round Towers occur of the time of Justinian, attached to the
Church of St. Apollinaris-ad-Classem, in Verona; two in the
same city, c. 1047; others of minaret-like shape, and divided
by string courses, at St. Mary and St. Vitalis, Ravenna ; also
at Pisa, Bury, near Beauvais, and at St. Desert, near Chalons-
sur-Saone. The French round towers appear to have come
from the north of Italy. In the ninth century they were
erected at Centula, Charroux, Bury, and Notre Dame
(Poictiers), Gernrode, and Worms. Those of Ireland are
mainly of the eleventh or twelfth centuries, though some
are of an unknown date, and were at once treasuries, bel
fries, refuges, and places of burial. Round towers are found
in East Anglia, at Rickingale Inferior, at Welford and Shef-
ford, Bucks ; Welford, Gloucestershire (thirteenth century) ;
in the Isle of Man, at Bremless, Breconshire, Brechin, built

520

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

by Irish ecclesiastics (c. 1020) ; Abernethey, and Tcherni-
god, near Kieff (c. 1024). The East Anglian form, and
those of Piddinghoe and Lewes, have been attributed to the
peculiar character of the material employed, and a desire to
evade the use of coigns. At Brixworth a round is attached
in front of a square tower.
-.Rubble. Coarse walling of rough stones.
Rule, the Choir. (Fr. regir le chant ; Sp. regir los clerigos.)
The duty of the prascentor, as director of the musical ser
vices on greater doubles, and of the hemdomadary on simple
feasts. The choir was ruled for the invitatory on Sundays,
doubles, feasts of nine lections, and other principal feasts.
Canons present at the service were said to keep choir.
Rural Deans. Innocent III. first mentions that the officers
hitherto known as archpriests were sometimes called by this
name, and were subject to archidiaconal jurisdiction; they
are appointed by the bishops as his removable overseers of
certain small districts ; their office terminates with the life of
the bishop who nominates them. In 1279 they held quar
terly chapters; in 1337 they -were required to have seals
graven with the title of their office or deanery, but without
their personal name, their office being temporary only.
In 1222 they are described as "deans constituted under
bishops," and "archdeacons' deans." Probably the deanery
rural took its rise out of the local gudds of priests, con
sisting of geferan or mates, mentioned in 950 and 960, both
in Northumberland and King Edgar's dominions. Rural
deans are unknown in Italy.
Russian Architecture. A debased style of Byzantine. The
plan of the churches is an oblong, the Greek cross being
marked by cupolas; three long alleys terminate in apses,
which are screened by iconostases ; in front of the latter the
choir is arranged. Under the great central dome are thrones,
one on the right for the emperor, and the other on the left
for the bishop. The principle of one altar only is preserved,
but small bye-churches are often erected in groups, as in the
Kremlin, and convents usually have a double church.
Sabanus. A white chrism-cloth in which infants were wrapped
at baptism in the Greek Church.
Sacrament. (Sacrum, a sacred thing.) (1.) "The word is

SACRING-BELL. 521
added to the element and it becometh a Sacrament, as if a
visible word," says St. Augustine. (2.) The reserved Host.
The seven sacraments — the Eucharist, Holy Baptism, Con
firmation, Penance, Orders, Matrimony, and Extreme Unc
tion — are pourtrayed on many fonts, and in a reredos in the
Lady-chapel of Paisley. Saoramentals are oil, salt, and
other matters used in the administration. Beleth says
priests are called sacerdotes, as though sacra dantes, minis
ters of sacred things.
Sacring-Bell (campanella, timbele) was rung at the elevation
inside the church, in England, by the Constitutions of Cante-
lupe in 1240, as a warning of devotion. Becon says while
the elements were blessed the serving-boy or parish clerk
rang the Httle sacring-bell, at which the people knelt down
whilst the Host was elevated. The second sacring was the
crossing of the chalice with the Host. The custom has been
attributed to Cardinal Grey when legate in Germany, c. 1203 ;
it was confirmed by Gregory IX. in 1259. At the begin
ning of the thirteenth century, at Paris, the bells were rung at
this time. The Armenians use a cymbal, with little bells,
called the quechouez. A sacring-bell was found in the wall
of Deddington church, and that of Hawstead still hangs
above the roodscreen. The use of this bell has been traced
back to the eleventh century, and before 1114 Ivo, Bishop of
Chartres, thanked Queen Maud of England for the bells
which she had given to Chartres, and says they were rung
at the elevation. The custom is confined to Western Christen
dom, and is unknown at Rome. In Spain they use a melo
dious peal of bells, which chime a silvery music, instead of
the ordinary tinkling of a single bell, at the moment of con
secration, when the Divine words of institution are recited
by the celebrant ; and at the elevation of the Host Aubrey
mentions that at Brokenborough, Wilts, there were eighteen
little bells rung by pulling one wheel. Such wheels, it is
believed, are stdl preserved at Yaxley and Long Stratton.
In the Roman Church it is rung thrice at the Sanctus, once
before and three times at the elevation of the Host, three
times at the elevation of the Chalice, and at the Domine non
sum dignus, and once before the " Pater " (the latter dating
from the sixteenth century), and also at Benediction with
the Sacrament.

522 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Sacristan. (1.) The monastic treasurer and churchwarden.
He provided all the necessaries for Divine service, was
keeper of the church keys, relics, fabric, plate, furniture,
and ornaments, secretary, and chancellor. He arranged the
way of processions for the prascentor, superintended the
bed-ringers, and received the rents, oblations, and burial-
fees. At Canterbury he delivered the crozier to the new
archbishop. At Ely he received the candle-corn (one sheaf
of corn in every acre), to supply the lights, and, as the
bishop's vicar, exercised archidiaconal jurisdiction over the
city chaplains. At Peterborough his fee was the horses of a
knight buried in the minster, if under four marks in value ;
otherwise they accrued to the abbot ; and at Worcester, the
abbots of Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Pershore, and Evesham
gave him a cope of profession at their benediction. (2.)
Vice-custos, the vicar of the treasurer, or sub-treasurer at
York in 1230. He opened the doors of the sacristy in the
morning, admitted the rectors of choir and sick members
who desired to say the Hours privately. He warned canons
of chapter, kept the doors shut during its session, rang the
bells, and led the procession. Bishop Storey mentions the
use of the word sacrist in an inferior sense as recent in the
fifteenth century. Where there was no permanent sacristan
in a cathedral a canon was appointed, caded praafect of
sacristy. In the Decretals of Gregory IX. and at Lyons
(1269) the sacrist was the inferior of the sacristan. In the
new foundations he furnished the sacred elements, adminis
tered sacraments, officiated at marriages and burials, was the
curate of the chapter, Hke the foreign parochus, and had
charge of the bells, church goods, furniture, and lights. At
Girgenti there are four sacrists ; at Mayence he was a vicar,
and at Angers a cubicular or chamberlain, who administered
the sacraments to sick canons and the choir clergy. (3.)
The sacristan at Mass has charge of the vessels, and attends
in a surplice at the credence-table, which is placed on the
south side of the altar, and arranges on it the chalice, covered
with the Hnen cloth called the purifier; and by the paten,
which is covered with a stiff cloth and a rich veil of silk ; the
cruets for wine and water ; the Gospel and Epistle books ; the
ewer, bason, and water for washing the celebrant's fingers; the
corporal, or cloth on which the chalice and Host are placed,

SACRISTY. 523
and contained in a burse, or embroidered case ; a crucifix,
and two tapers. (4.) A church servant, now called sexton.
Sacristy. (Vestry, revestry, sacrist ia, sacrarium, secretarium, mu-
tatorium, metatorium.) A chamber near the choir, or transept,
as at Chester, Westminster, and Gloucester, used for robing
by the clergy and clerks. A receptacle for the hangings,
aumbries, cope-stands, presses for vestments, and altar fur
niture, usually having very narrow windows and strong iron
screens or bars externally, and an altar, at which minor
clerks or suffragans were ordained and young priests learned
to celebrate Mass. At Lichfield the Early English hooks
for the store of lamps remain in the vault, and a chamber
for the priest-vicar in course above it. At Christchurch
a loop in the wall commanded a view of the processional
aisle, to allow the watcher to ring the small bell in time to
announce that the celebrant was coming out. At Chichester
an Early EngHsh laver, for washing his hands, is set in the
wall. At York there are a well and drain, c. 1 350 ; and
at Bristol, c. 1334, the fireplace for baking the altar-breads
still exists. Occasionally there was a second sacristy, or a
muniment-room, communicating with the treasury. There
are fine examples at Rouen (twelfth century) ; Worcester,
under an upper chapel, of Early EngHsh date ; Laon and
Tours, of the thirteenth century; at Chartres, of the four
teenth century; at Paris, with an upper storey, forming a
treasury, choir-library, and gaol ; at Amiens, communicat
ing with a cloister ; at Carcassone, retaining aumbries of the
fourteenth century ; at Hereford, and, with narrow strongly-
barred doors at Chalons-sur-Marne, of the twelfth century ;
at Selby, of grand dimensions, with a double doorway ; and
at Salisbury, octagonal in form, with a muniment chamber
above. At Ludlow, Eastbourne, Hawkhurst, Malvern,
and Warwick behind the altar there is a small sacristy.
At Crewkerne and Arundel it intervenes between the east
wall and the altar. Formerly at York and Chichester there
was a sacristy behind the high-altar, used by the bishop at
his enthronization and on solemn occasions. There were
always two sacristies, one for the canons, and the other for
vicars, chaplains, masters of choir, and assistants. The
latter was often called the vestibule. The Greek sacristy is
on the south side of the choir, fronting the credence chapel.

524 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Before the twelfth century the canons came from their
houses chorally habited, attended by their vicars, so that
vestries or sacristies were not so indispensable as at present.
In some churches, as at Clugny and St. Denis, the aumbry
adjoining the altar was called the sacrarium, forming a smad
inclosure of wood or stone.
Saddle-back Roof. A covering to a tower accommodated to
the pitch of the gables on the north and south, which ap
pears at St. Nicholas, Caen, New, Sweetheart, and Pluscar-
dine abbeys. It is very rare in England.
Saint. (Hagios, holy.) The appellation of Christians (Eph.
iii. 5; Rev. xviii. 20). From the fourteenth century the
Pope has exclusively been called His Holiness, but the title
was given by a Pope to an archbishop in 465, and to a
patriarch in 590, and by Constantine to the senate in 326, in
a calendar of the Church of Carthage and Pamelius, c. 449.
The appellation is given to Christian worthies. It seems to
have superseded the earlier form of dominus. Beleth men
tions that at Venice and in Greece many of the Old Testa
ment worthies give titles to churches. The Breviary con
tains a proper of time and proper of saints, that is, offices
appropriate to a day, whilst the common of Apostles, a
martyr, etc., is an office used in common for saints, arranged
in classes, who had no special festival. In 1494 it was ordered
that at a canonization offerings should be made of four
loaves, four barrels of wine, wax tapers, and two cages of doves
and singing-birds. The two former offerings were made by
bishops at their consecration, except in England. In 1298
Pope Urban made saints' days doubles. Beatification is a
permissory but unjudicial act of the Pope, allowing religious
veneration to be paid by an order or community to a reputed
saint untd the tedious details of canonization can be con
cluded and the authoritative judgment of the Pope pro
nounced.
Saint Barnabas's Day. (June 11.) Mentioned in the Calendar
of Ven. Bede. The Greek Church observes the festival, in
conjunction with that of St. Bartholomew's, on August 24.
Saint Bartholomew's Day (August 24) appears first in the
Sacramentary of St. Gregory. It is observed on this day
in the Greek Church, St. Barnabas's name being associated
with that of St. Bartholomew, who has been identified with

saint Stephen's day — san. benito. 525
Nathaniel since the twelfth century, against the opinion of
many of the Fathers. Owing to a horrible massacre of the
Huguenots at Paris in 1 572, the day was known as Black
Monday. In 1662 the revised Book of Common Prayer
came into use on it.
Saint Stephen's Day (December 26) is first mentioned in the
sixth century by St. Gregory Nyssen. Beleth says the
deacons sang the Magnificat and night office and gave the
benediction in honour of the first deacon.
Sakkos. A tight sleeveless habit worn by Greek patriarchs
and metropolitans.
Salt was mingled with holy-water, in allusion to 2 Kings ii.
21, and was used at baptism and in exorcisms. In 1223
chddren who were exposed by their parents had salt laid
upon them in token that they had been baptized.
Salut. An evening office, which took its origin in Southern
Europe, Spain, and Italy, consisting of an exposition of tho
Sacrament, accompanied with chanting and a brilliant dis
play of tapers. It varies in different churches ; at Lyons it
is not followed by benediction, and in France generally is
only used in a solemn form on the eves of great festivals.
Grancolas, writing in the seventeenth century, says that
benediction with the Holy Sacrament was not earlier than
a century before his time. The Roman rite requires the
sign of the cross to be made with the monstrance in silence ;
but in some parts of France the priest used a form of bene
diction. At Cadiz and other Spanish churches the mon
strance doors open by mechanism for the salut, as the chant
commences. The most sumptuous monstrance extant is at
Aichstadt, being profusely jewelled.
Salve Regina. An antiphon written by Bishop Peter of Com
postella, in the twelfth century, or by Adhemar, Bishop of
Puy, who died 1098. It is said that the last words were
added by St. Bernard when he heard it chanted in the cathe
dral of Spiers. It was sung from Trinity Sunday to Advent,
but at Chalons between the Purification and Maundy Thurs
day. The Dominicans spread the custom.
Samit. Satin ; rich silk, with gold or silver thread inter
woven.
San Benito. A tall painted cap, worn by persons condemned
by the Inquisition to an auto da fe, or death by burning at

526 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the stake. Their sleeveless dress was yellow, with a cross
saltier, flames of red serge if they were to be pardoned, or
figures of demons if they were to be executed.
Sancered. The bead-roll, or list of Church benefactors and
founders.
Sanctuary. (1.) The presbytery, or easternmost part of the
choir, containing the high-altar. (2.) A graveyard, in which
fairs and markets were prohibited by Parliament in 1258.
(3.) The right of asylum in a church, mentioned as ancient
by the First Council of Orange ; the " Church's peace," so
called in 605, and extended in 945 as the King's protection
for three miles three furlongs and three broad acres from the
gate of the city in which the palace stood. The protection
afforded by a church and its precincts to accused persons
was first granted by the Emperors Honorius and Theodosius
in 392. It received the Papal sanction from Pope Boniface
in 620. King Ina, in 693, recognizes the immunity of
sanctuary; King Alfred, in 887, allowed it for seven nights,
in order to allow composition by the offender; King
Canute, in 1017, confirmed the right of sanctuary. The
felon was suffered by later enactments (as the Constitutions
of Clarendon, in the reign of Henry III.) to confess before
the local coroner, and abjure the realm for perpetual banish
ment into some Christian country by Canute's laws ; and he
went forth bearing a crucifix, or white cross, for his protec
tion. At Durham, Westminster, Carrow, Ramsey, Crow-
land, Ripon, Tintern, Leominster, and Worcester the privi
lege of asylum was restricted to the precinct, at Paris to a
quadrangle, but at Beverley extended to a leuga on every
side. At Hexham, and St. Gregory's, Norwich, where the
sanctuary ring-knocker, or hagoday, remains on the north
door, the church only was a sanctuary. St. Burian's and
Beverley were privileged by Athelstan, Westminster by Ed
ward the Confessor, St. Martin' s-le- Grand in 1529. By the
Act 22 Henry VIII., c. 14, the person abjured was not al
lowed to leave the realm, but was transferred to some other
sanctuary. All persons accused of high treason were de
clared incapable of sanctuary by Act 26 & 28 Henry VIII.,
and in the twenty-first year of the reign of James I. the
privilege was wholly abolished. Alsatia, the precinct of
White friars, London, was the last sanctuary in use. In 1540

SANCTUS-BELL. 527
sanctuary was removed from Manchester to Chester. Mar
garet of Anjou and Perkin Warbeck took refuge at Beau-
Heu; the queen of Edward IV. and Skelton the poet, at
Westminster. At Durham the fugitive fled to the north
door of the cathedral, and laid hold on the knocker, or hago
day. At Cologne the place was marked, "Here stood the
great accused." The watchers, who occupied two chambers
over the porch, gave the fugitive admission, and tolled the
Galilee bell. He was then provided with a black cloth gown,
with a yellow cross on the shoulder, and lay in a screened
or grated chamber near the Galilee, being provided with food
for thirty-seven days. At Beverley he would have been fed
in the refectory and lodged in the dormitory for thirty days.
He was bound to wear no weapon, to hear Mass, and
assist as a bell-ringer. He might go thirty paces from a
church and forty from a cathedral with immunity. At the
end of the time he was forwarded by the under-sheriff, under
the constable, to the nearest port or seacoast, and put on
board ship. If the same person claimed sanctuary a third
time, he became a servant of the Church. There are sanc
tuary knockers on the doors of Durham, Pampeluna, All
Saints' Pavement at York, and St. Gregory's, Norwich ; the
Norman sanctuary chair is preserved at Hexham. At West
minster there was a double-storeyed building, detached on
the north-west side, containing a chapel in the upper stage.
In 1261 all persons who prevented victuals from being brought
to the fugitive, or killed him after he had forsworn the king
dom, were excommunicate.
Sanctus- or Saunce-bell, was rung in the sancte bedcot, out
side the church, at the singing of the Ter Sanctus in the
High Mass, whence its name, as a warning that the Canon of
the Mass is about to commence. It has been attributed to
William of Paris, in 1097, confirmed by Gregory XIII. , or to
Cardinal Guido, 1200, confirmed by Gregory IX. in 1230.
In 1281, in England, all the bells were to be tolled at the
elevation, in order that the absent from daily Mass in house
or field might bow their knees at the sound; and it is said
that his people would let their plough rest when George
Herbert's saints' -bed rang to prayers, that they might also
offer their devotions unto God, and would then return back
to their plough. A bell rung now after Matins in country

528 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
churches is a relic of the sanctus bell; the bells remain at
Long Compton, Whichford, and Brades, and the frame of
one is over Nykke's chantry at Norwich.
Sandals became an episcopal ornament in the ninth century,
bishops having previously worn black shoes. If bishops
made an uncanonical sequestration they were deprived of
tunic, dalmatic, and sandals. A pair worn by Bishop Lynd-
wode (d. 1446) are in the British Museum. In 970 the
Bishop of Metz procured the use of sandals and dalmatic for
the Abbot of St. Vincent in that city. Richer, Abbot of
Cassiuo, obtained the Papal permission to use, as his prede
cessors had done, sandals, dalmatic, and gloves on great
feasts in time of Mass ; and Fulco of Corbey, and Warin of
St. Arnulph, at Metz, received the same indulgence, with the
exception of gloves, from Leo. IX. The monks wore latchet
sandals (sotidares corrigiatos) as well as boots (calceamenta,
botce) . In former times they had a tie or latchet ; those of
priests had none. They were supposed to indicate firmness
in God's law, and the duty of'lifting up the weak. In later
times the priest celebrant was forbidden to be sandalled. In
1379 the Abbot of Malmesbury, and all other exempt abbots,
wore sandals and the rest of the pontifical habit.
Sarantari. (Greek.) Masses for the dead during forty days.
Saturday. The seventh or Sabbath day. Regarded by the
Greek Church as a festival and working day, but in the West
as a fast day, except by the Ambrosian rite. The Jews
made it a holiday, with cessation from business and long
journeys; one of cheerfulness and hospitahty. The Satur
days in Ember weeks are caded " in XII. Lections," from the
six Gospels read both in Latin and Greek.
Savagarad. An Armenian priest's cap, of cloth of gold, with
an orb and cross on the top.
Saye. (1.) Silk and wool mixed. (2.) Serge, woollen cloth
made at Sudbury in large quantities.
Savigny, Order of. Grey brothers, founded by Vitalis of
Tierceville, near Bayeux, 1105. They came to England
1120, and were united to the Cistercians in 1148.
Saying. A distinct or sustained monotone, analogous to the
old " saying without note," neither singing nor reading.
Saviour. The so-called portrait, engraved on an emerald, which
was said to have been made by Pilate's order for presenta-

SCALA CCELI  SCHOOL. 529
tion to Tiberius, and, further, to have been given by the
Sultan, from the Byzantine treasury, to Pope Innocent VIII.,
is a forgery, of the time of the ItaHan Revival, and the
head is copied from one in Raphael's cartoon of the Miracu
lous Draught of Fishes. St. Augustine says there was no
record of His likeness. See Veronica.
Scala Coeli. A staircase at Rome, ascended by pilgrims on
their hands and knees, in the belief that our Lord went up
it in His Passion. Certain churches in England had similar
staircases, which enjoyed the privilege of affording composi
tion for a visit to Rome, — at Westminster Abbey, in 1504;
St. Mary's Chapel at Boston; St. Mary's Chapel in the
Austin Canons' Church, Norwich ; and at Windsor, with a
college often priests, until 1504.
Scandinavian Architecture. Many of the earlier Norwegian and
Swedish cathedrals were built by English or French work
men. There are six basilicas in Norway, with towers at the
ends of the choir-aisles. In Denmark there are eight round
churches and one octagonal. Roeskilde, Ribe, and Thorsager
are apsidal, but the general characteristics of the Danish
churches are a square east end and- an immense south porch
and parvise. The wooden churches of Norway are probably
of Byzantine origin, the plans having been brought back by
the Varangians.
Scapular, or Patience. (Gr. analabos.) Two bands of woollen
stuff — one going down the breast, and the other on the back,
over the shoulders — worn by the religious. The original
scapular was first introduced by St. Benedict, in lieu of a
heavy cowl for the shoulders, designed to carry loads. It
was cruciform in the eighth century. The tongue-scapular,
on which twelve tongues of red cloth were sewn, was put
upon a Cistercian who had offended with his tongue.
Scarf. A broad stole-like ornament of silk, folded three times,
properly belonging to the D.D. and dignitaries, but assumed
by chaplains of noblemen in the time of Queen Anne, as ap
pears by an amusing paper in the ' Spectator.' In Italy
and Malta it is called talaga, and worn by the doctors of
theology. -See Almuce and Tippet.
School. (1.) The clergy-house adjoining the church in the early
ages, when, as in the capitulars of Charlemagne, clerks
were called scholastici, students of the various sciences,
2 M

530 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
which they pursued under the rule of the bishop. (2.) The
choir.
Scotch Architecture. The churches of wicker-work in the
fifth century gave place to stone churches, built by monks
from Jarrow, Frenchmen, and other strangers. Whitherne
derived its name from its bright white stone church. From
the middle of the sixth to the middle of the eleventh century
was the age of a Scoto-Irish style, with round towers, small
churches grouped, beehived houses, and dome-roofed cells.
The successive styles then are (1) English-Romanesque
(1124-56), as at Dunfermline, Kelso, and Leuchars ; (2)
Lancet (1165-1286) ; (3) Decorated (1286-1370) and Flam
boyant (1371-1567). The marks of foreign art and influence
are everywhere manifest after the War of Independence, in
the saddle-back roof to towers, the double aisles of Elgin,
the polygonal apse and the shallow transepts. At Holyrood,
Aberdeen, and Dunfermline were the only instances of wes
tern towers. The spires are few and poor; that of Glasgow
is the best. The imperial crown of Edinburgh is almost
unique. The naves of Kelso and Paisley were shorter than
the choirs. Aisleless choirs occur at the latter, Dunkeld,
Sweetheart, Dunblane, and Whitherne ; and the two latter
cathedrals, like Brechin, are not cruciform. Roslyn was
built by architects from the north of Spain. There are fine
porches at Aberdeen, Paisley, and Dunfermline.
Scottish Manner. Bede' calls by this name church-building
with planks of oak and roofing of rushes.
Screen. (Fr. grille; Sp. reja; Germ, schrage; It. tramezzo ;
parclose, intermedia, murus.) According to ' Eulogium His-
toriarum,' Pope Boniface II., c. 533, first made a distinction
between the clergy and laity at Mass. By the Councils of
Tours (566) and Nantes (658) laypersons were forbidden the
choir. Martene complains that the laity, interdicted from
approach, except for communion, pressed into the choir, and
women sat on the altar steps ; and this probably occasioned
the introduction of the side-screens of the presbytery, as at
Winchester (1528), at Carlisle (1484), and another, of cinque-
cento work, c. 1540. They also gave access to the aisles by
means of doors, and permitted the passage of processions
without interruption to the choir service. There is a tran-
. sitional Norman screen, of wood, c. 1180, at Compton,

SCRIPTIONALE — SEALS. 531
Surrey, and others, of Decorated date, at Chester, Stanton,
Harcourt, Dorchester, Oxon, Morden-Guilden, Northfleet,
Bignor, and Sparsholt, and of the Perpendicular period at
Fyfield, and St. Mary's, Leicester, and Worcester. The Early
English screens were of stone, as at Canterbury. Conrad
built one of marble slabs. Metal screens occur in France, at
St. Germer, St. Quentin, Braisne, Rheims, Noyon, St. Denis,
Auxerre, Conques, Beziers, and Puy. At Westwell, Kent,
there are three tad arches of stone in front of the chancel.
The superb screens of metalwork in Spanish cathedrals date
between 1530 and 1600.
Scriptionale, Scriptorium. (1 .) Desks used by the monks who
were copyists. Those which were round and moved on a
pivot were called the roue. Some had a central pricket for a
taper. Some with two sloping sides, of the sixteenth century,
are preserved at Oxford. (2.) The monastic copyists' room.
Scrutiny. The inquiry into the faith and manners of candidates
for baptism ; it was made in the presence of the congrega
tion on seven days, the last being the Wednesday before Pas
sion Sunday. The name of each candidate was called ; then
the deacon bade him prostrate himself five times and rise, in
memory of the five wounds of Christ ; and the sign of the
cross was made on his forehead by the sponsor and acolyth ;
lastly, he was sprinkled with ashes. The custom died out in
the year 860.
Seals (intaglios, in distinction to cameos, which are bas-reliefs
cut in the substance of the stone) were in the middle ages
made with beeswax, not as now with lac. (1.) Archbishop
Reynold's private seal was round, with the mitred heads of
eighteen bishops engraved upon it. There is a seal of an
. early bishop preserved in the chapter clerk's office at Chi
chester. A chapter used two seals, one for capitular busi
ness, the other for letters and dady missives. In 1237,
owing to the prevalence of forgeries and the absence of
public notaries in England, abbots, priors, deans, archdea
cons, their officials and rural deans, capitular bodies, colleges,
and convents, were required to have seals. If the office was
perpetual, then the name of the man who bore it was en
graved on the seal ; but rural deans and officials whose office
was temporary had only the name of their office engraved
upon it, and were to resign their seal at the expiration of
2 m2

532

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

their tenure to him by whom they had been commissioned.
(2.) The little stone which covers the sepulchre of relics in
an altar. (3.) Seal of confession; the obligation on a priest
never to reveal the secrets of the confessional.
Seasons. According to Lyndwood, winter commenced on
November 23; spring, Feb. 22; summer, May 25; au
tumn, August 24 ; and, as custom in various places pre
vailed, winter lasted from Michaelmas to Lady Day, or from
All Saints' to SS. Philip and James.
Secondary. At Exeter a class of twenty-four clerks of the
second form, who were, if learned and expert in music, eligi
ble for promotion by the dean to the place of vicar ; he was
the canon's personal attendant. At Chichester the secondary
sang the daily Mass of Requiem in the Lady-chapel.
Secret, Discipline of the. A systematic and organized reserve
used by the primitive Church, seen in the mysterious lan
guage, the allegory and symbolism, the reticence of writers,
and the hieroglyphical character of the productions of art
(St. Matt. vii. 6 ; 1 Cor. iii. 1), which only the initiated could
understand.
Secret of the Mass. A prayer in the Canon of the Mass be
fore the Preface, since the tenth century said secretly in
a low voice by the celebrant after the Orate, fratres, and
having much the same tenor as the collect. In France it
was marked with the mystic letters V. D. St. Gregory calls
it the Canon of the Secret. According to some writers it re
presents that the working of God in the Holy Communion
passes man's understanding, but, as Cranmer explains it,
Christ's secret conversation which He kept with His dis
ciples before His Passion. The bells in England were for
bidden to be rung at this time in 1071. The secrets were
formerly caded super oblata, and may have taken their name
from the secretion of the gifts and oblations. -See Canon of
the Mass.
Sedilia. (Prismatories, presbyteries.) A single stall near
an altar is sometimes" found in the catacombs ; Ducange
mentions a sedes majestatis, and Trivet says that Edward I.
gave the royal chair of Scotland as the celebrant's chair at
Westminster ; several authors mention it as thus occupied.
The sedilia are canopied and graduated stalls for the cele
brant, with the subdeacon on his right and the deacon on

SEEDED — SELOUR. 583
his loft; or, iu England, more usually for the priest on the
east, aud then the deacon and subdeacon ; when on the same
level, they mark the date when priests acted as assistants.
They are always on the south side, and generally have a
water-drain beyond on the east side. They occur in tho
twelfth, and were commou in the next century. Sometimes
they are divided by pillars, and sometimes by a wall with
apertures ; at Dorchester, Oxon, there is a small triangular
window at the back of each seat. The eastern stall is gene
rally raised above the level of the others. The earliest form
in the catacombs, and repeated at St. David's, was a bishop's
throne flanked by collateral seats. At Beckley and Lenham
there is only a single elbowed seat, in other cases two are
found. The earliest stall in England, used however for judi
cial purposes, is in the Prenorman west tower of Barnack.
At Westminster the stalls of the thirteenth century are en
riched with paintings. Sedilia are comparatively rare on the
Continent, but there are examples at Leon, Stuttgardt,
Boppart, Augsburg, Marienburg, Oberwesel, the Certosa
(Pa via), and Corbeil, four at Esslingen and Sens, aud five at
Padua and Ratisbon. Three stalls remain at Exeter (1320),
Rochester (Late Decorated), Selby, Ripon, St. David's,
St. Mary's (Leicester), Binham, Worcester (c. 1500), and
Tewkesbury, tho latter still retaining their colour; four at
Westminster, Durham, Furness, Paisley, Gloucester, Bolton,
RothweU, and Ottery in the Lady-chapel, and five at South
well. The chaplain, deacon, and subdeacon or crossbearer,
and, on great days, a canon with the mitre, were thus accom
modated at an Episcopal Mass ; and on great festivals, when
the dean was celebrant, the assistants were doubled ; but at
Durham there are four sedilia. on either side of the altar
(these were probably used by the four acolyths in the Pon
tifical Mass, one with the mitre, the thuribler, and taper-
bearers, and two deacons and subdeacons). At York tho
dean on greater festivals was assisted by three deacons and
three subdeacons ; and the archbishop by seven deacons at
Toul, Vienne, and Lyons.
Seeded (i.e. dotted over) with pearls ; a vestment is said to be
semee or sown, when they are more thickly placed together.
Selour. (Cyling, ciel, cileo.) Cellar; a canopy; inner roof of
a room, which is sealed or closed with planking.

534 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Semifrater. A benefactor, who was regarded as in confra
ternity, having a share in conventual prayers during life,
and in Mortuary Masses after death.
Sempecta. A monk who had passed fifty years in a monastery.
At Westminster and Crowland he lived in the infirmary, and
had a young attendant.
Sendal. A kind of taffeta, used for quilts and banners. The
clergy in 1343 were forbidden to wear their hair rolled with
fur or sendal.
Seneschal, and Receiver Monastic. (1.) He seated the guests
in the guest-hall, sent presents to strangers of degree, and
in some cases had charge of the bishop's palace. (2.) The
Steward of the Liberties at Canterbury held an annual court,
to which he cited tenants holding of the See by knight ser
vice. (3.) The High Steward of Chester was the Earl of
Derby, and at Canterbury the Earl of Gloucester. (4.)
Stewards of the year or months, minor canons or vicars, who
catered for the common table.
Senior. (1 .) Monk from the age of forty to fifty years, who was
excused from the external offices of provisor, procurator,
cellarer, almoner, kitchener, master of the works, and pitan
ciar, but took his turn- in singing Masses. (2.) The head of
a college of secular canons, as at Christchurch, Hants, 1099.
(3.) At Osnaburg, Trent, Lubeck, and in some Italian cathe
drals, the antianus, or senior, corresponds to the archpriest
of certain French cathedrals, in which he acted in the
bishop's absence as his representative in administration of
sacraments and benediction of ashes, palms, and the font.
Such an archpriest was required in every cathedral by the
Council of Merida.
Sequestration. Execution for debt on a benefice, issued by the
bishop, by which the profits are paid to the creditor.
Sequence. (1.) The later name of the pneuma, a melodious
and varied prolongation of the Alleluia. (2.) The announce
ment of the Gospel of the day when taken from the middle of
the Gospels, but called Initium when the opening words were
to follow. On the four days of Holy Week the words, " The
Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ," replaced the ordinary
sequence, or initial. -See Prose.
Serge. (Fr. cierge ; Lat. cereus, a wax taper.) Those in a low
basin were called mortars, and burned during Matins at the

SERGEANTS  SERMONS. 535
choir-door. Lyndwood says in very many churches " the
two " (i.e. on the altar) were found by the curate.
Serjeants. (Servitores.) Servants in monastic offices ; those
of the church, the guest-house, refectory, and infirmary were
subordinate officers. The first was the bell-ringer, except for
High Mass, Vespers, Matins, and obits; the candle-lighter,
except round the high-altar (he also laid out the vestments
for the celebrant at the high-altar), was the chandler, making
all the wax candles, and assisted the subsacrist in baking
the hosts. The Serjeant of the infirmary was the barber,
and, with the clerk and cook of the infirmary, waited On the
monks who were sick or aged.
Sermons were called tractates (expository), disputations (ar
gumentative and controversial), allocutions, and by the
Greeks didaskahse (doctrinal), or homilies (familiar ad
dresses). The preacher used the sign of the cross and a
short prefatory prayer, as St. Chrysostom says ; and St.
Augustine used to say, " God give me some worthy word to
say. May the Lord make known His mysteries. The Lord
aid our prayers, that I may say what I ought to speak and
you to hear." The sermon ended with a doxology to the
Holy Trinity, in the time of St. Gregory Nazianzen. In some
places the prosresis, " Peace be unto you," with the response,
" And with thy spirit," was in use ; and in Africa, before and
after sermons, St. Chrysostom mentions that sometimes the
form was " Blessed be God," and the blessing of the bishop
was asked. An hour was the appointed limit to the preacher,
who sat or stood at his pleasure. Laymen occasionally were
allowed to preach, Hke the catechists of Alexandria. Sermons
formed a part of the Sunday and festival services, and were
delivered on special occasions and in times of penitence and
rejoicing alike. The pulpit was the front of the bishop's
chair, the steps of the altar, as St. Gregory of Nyssa and Si-
donius Apollinaris inform us, or the ambon. In the East the
people frequently sat, and not uncommonly gave audible
signs of approval or the reverse. When St. Chrysostom
preached the people waved their handkerchiefs, threw up
their robes in the air, laid hands upon their swords, and shook
their plumes, exclaiming "He is worthy, worthy." (-See Mur
muring.) At Durham the galilee-bell was rung on Sundays
from twelve to one, to announce that a sermon was to be

536 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
preached, the duration of which was from one to three p.m.
" Thorn dike says that a quarter of an hour is long enough for a
sermon, and Herbert would restrain it within an hour, admit
which Barrow and South must have often exceeded. Funeral
sermons were not very uncommon in England, immediately
before and after the Reformation. Sir Julius Csesar always
sent a broadpiece to the preacher, or a pair of gloves to a
dean or bishop, because he would "not hear God's word
gratis." Beleth says that in some churches the sermon im
mediately followed the Gospel.
Server. (Adjidor.) The priest's assistant at a low Mass. The
Clugniacs allowed one, but the Cistercians, in obedience to
Pope Soter's injunction and the plural wording of the Domi
nus vobiscum, required always two.
Service-Books of the Greek Church. (1.) The Euchologion,
corresponding to the Missal. (2.) The Menoea, answering to
the Breviary, without the ferial offices, aud frdl of ecclesias
tical poetry in measured prose. (3.) Paracletice or great
octoechus, the ferial office for eight weeks, mainly the work
of Joseph of the Studium. (4.) Triodion, the Lent volume,
from the Sunday before Septuagesima to Easter ; and the
Pentecostarion, the office for Eastertide.
Services. (Canto variato or mcdulato, harmonized, as opposed
to canto fermo, unisonal or Gregorian singing ; a kind of
anthem.) (1.) Arrangements of the Canticles, Te Deum,
Benedictus, Benedicite, Magnificat, and Nunc Dimittis,
and the Psalms sung by substitution for them, consisting of
a succession of varied airs, partly verse and partly chorus,
sung in regular choirs, of which, probably, the germ is to be
found in the Ambrosian Te Deum, a succession of chants
which is mentioned first by Boethius, who lived a century
after St. Augustine. The simplified notation of this music,
as used in the Salisbury and Roman breviaries, was composed
by Marbecke. Tallis's Service is an imitation rather than an
adaptation of the original arrangement. Probably the first
was the setting of the Venite by Caustun in the time of
Henry VIII. In 1641 complaint was made of "singino- the
Te Deum in prose after a cathedral-church way." There
are two classes : (1) full services, which have no repeti
tions, and are sung with an almost regular alternation
by the two choirs ; (2) verse services, which have frequent

SERVITES — SHIER THURSDAY. 537
repetitions, no regular alternations, and are full of verses,
either solos or passages sung in slower times by a selected
number of voices. (2.) The domestic officers (servitia) of a
monastery were the cook, baker, brewer, laundrymen, and
tailor. At Rochester the bishop appointed them.
Servites. Servants of St. Mary. A mendicant order under
the Austin rule, founded 1285 or 1304, by Philip Tuderti, a
physician of Florence. Their dress is a close black tunic, a
plaited black cloak, a scapular, and alms-pouch.
Set-Off. The projecting portion of a buttress, the nosing
marking the successive stages, made of skew-stones.
Seven Capital or Deadly Sins. Pride, envy, anger, slothful-
ness, covetousness, gluttony, luxury.
Seven Principal Virtues. Faith, hope, charity (theological),
prudence, temperance, justice, fortitude (cardinal) .
Seven Sacraments. Baptism, Confirmation, Penance, Eucharist,
Extreme Unction, Orders, and Matrimony.
Severy. A bay or compartment of a vault or cieling.
Shaft or Virge. The portion of a pdlar between the base and
capital.
Shalloon. (From Chalons.) A medieval stuff.
Shaving of the monks was performed at certain fixed times,
the razors being kept in an aumbry close to the entrance to
the dormitory. At Christmas and Easter, after shaving,
baths were allowed.
Shawm. A pipe or hautboy.
Shier Thursday. Char or Sheer Thursday, Maundy Thurs
day, commonly said to mean Shrift Thursday, deriving its
name from the custom of men polling their beards on this
day as a token of grief for our Lord's betrayal. In Saxony
it was caded Good Thursday, and in the North of England
Kiss Thursday, in allusion to the Judas kiss. " Oil and
chrism are consecrated on this day," Cranmer says, " which
signifies principally the imperial and priestly dignity of
Christ, and His being anointed with the spiritual unction of
the Holy Ghost above all creatures, admonishing us of our
state and condition ; for as of chrism Christ is named, so of
Christ we are called Christians; and it signifies defacing
and abolishing of the rights and consecrations of the old
Law, which were done in oil, and therefore at this time the
old oil is burned and destroyed, and new consecrated, signi-

538 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
fying thereby our new regeneration in Christ and holy
inunction which we have by His Holy Spirit."
Shingles. Thin tiled-shaped pieces of wood used as coverings
for roofs or towers.
Ship. (Navis, navicula, acerra.) For incense ; so called from
its pointed oval form, often carved and enamelled. After
the twelfth century it was furnished with a foot, and a cover
jointed in the middle, and often ornamented with angels. A
spoon or ladle was used with it.
Shire. In the tenth century a bishop's diocese, a parish
being known as a priest's shrift or shriftshire.
Shrift. Confession of sins to a priest. Greek, exomologesis.
Shrine. (Feretrum, feretory.) (1.) The continuous prolongation
of churches eastward led to the formation of feretories in
place of the bishop's throne behind the high-altar, and fur
nished with their own altar on their west side, as at St.
Alban's ; St. John's, at Bridlington and Beverley ; St. Guth-
lac's, at Croyland ; St. Paulinus', at Rochester ; St. Thomas',
at Canterbury ; St. Cuthbert's, at Durham ; St. Edward's, at
Westminster ; St. William's, at York ; St. Erkenwald's, at St.
Paul's ; St. Ethelbert's, at Hereford ; St. Richard's, at
Chichester; St. Edmund's, at Bury; St. Chad's, at Lich
field; St. Osmund's, at Salisbury; St. Olaf's, at Drontheim;
St. Hugh's, at Clugny ; St. Louis, at St. Denis ; and the
Three Kings, at Cologne. St. Sebald's shrine, of the six
teenth century, however, is in the centre of the choir of
Nuremburg. Sometimes bouquets of lights were arranged
on staples in the vault, and at Ely, in 1378, the triforium
was cut through for larger windows to shower down light
on a shrine. At Canterbury bandogs were employed to
guard its treasures. At Westminster and Chester (of the
fourteenth century) the shrines still remain perfect ; and at
St. Alban's and Oxford the watching-chambers remain per
fect. At Durham the effect must have been very imposing ;
flags and standards drooped over the shrine, and nine
cressets burning in front of the great eastern marygold
threw a soft radiance over its gold, and gems, and colours.
The shrine usually consisted of two storeys, the lower forming
a marble or stone basement often enriched with porphyry,
crystal, serpentine, alabaster, and mosaics, and provided
with lateral niches for the sick folk who came to be- healed

SHRINE. 539
to lie in ; the pilgrims simply knelt. The upper stage had a
marble coffin or chest enclosing the saint's body, and con
cealed by a painted cover of wood, plated with precious
metal, ridged like a church-roof, gabled, and provided with
tapers at each end, which was visible above the reredos to
ad entering the church, and in some cases the west end
of the shrine was the reredos of the high-altar, as at York,
St. Paul's, and Lincoln. On great festivals and the anni
versary of the patron the veil was drawn up at Matins,
High Mass, and Vespers, by means of a rope to which sweet-
sounding beds were attached. Around the basement, on
precious cloths, hooks, and gilded or sdver rods, were laid
jewels, ivories, corals, rings, girdles, slippers, rich tapestries,
trindles, tapers, models of limbs supposed to have been
healed by the saint, besides offerings of brooches, lances,
swords, ships, chains, necklaces, women's hair, and images.
At Santiago 1000 lamps burning incense were kindled round
the subterranean shrine of St. James. At Malmesbury a
troop of cavalry kept order among the crowds who came to
pray at St. Aldhelm's tomb. Musicians often sat harping
and singing at a shrine, as Edward I. found Lovel, the min
strel, at Chichester, in order to awaken emotions of gratitude
in the pilgrim, or celebrate the praises of the saint. The
largest shrine now existing is the Camera Santa of Oviedo.
At the entrance of the aisle at Gloucester there is a stone
lectern, at which a monk recited the story of King Edward's
death to the pilgrims. (2.) Subordinate positions were also
selected : — a side-chapel for St. Frideswide's, at Oxford : the-
transept, as for St. Amphibalus', at St. Alban's ; St. Francis',
at Assisi ; St. WdHam's, at Rochester ; Little St. Hugh's, at
Lincoln ; St. Caradoc's, at St. David's : and the fine tomb
of Cantelupe, at Hereford, with its effigies of knights in the
basement, and an upper canopy resting on open arches.
Venerable Bede's shrine was in the galdee of Durham ; and
at Ripon, St. Wdfrid's was in the choir-aisle. There are
two interesting stone- coped shrines left, of Norman date, at
Canterbury and Peterborough, in the latter case enriched
with figures. (3.) A portable shrine (bahut, theca, chasse, lo-
cellus, scrinium) , shaped like the mortuary chests on the
choir-screens of Winchester. These shrines were carried in
procession about the church, or on the town-walls to scare

540

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

an enemy, or quench a fire, or round the diocese to collect
alms, and upon their return were greeted by the chiming of
the bells. Many were arranged upon the rood-beam or about
the retable. Several are still in existence, as St. Heribert's,
at Deutz ; St. Taurin's, at Evreux ; St. Emdbert's, c. 1635,
at Cologne ; Charlemagne's, in the Louvre ; St. Romain's,
at Rouen, c. 1305; St. Yvet's, of the eleventh century,
formerly at Braisne, and now in the Museum Clugny ;
three of the thirteenth and one of the twelfth century, en
amelled, in the British Museum ; another of the thirteenth
century in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries of
London ; some at Goodrich Court ; one of the close of the
twelfth century, with plates of enamelled copper, and en
graved with the rood, at Shipley, Sussex; St. Ethelbert's, at
Hereford, ornamented with the acts of A'Becket; two of the
eleventh century, at Hildesheim ; one of the ninth century,
and the Notre Dame of the twelfth, the gift of Barbarossa, at
Aix-la-Chapelle ; St. Elizabeth's, at Marburg, of the thir
teenth ; and one at Orvieto, of the fourteenth century ; St.
Ursula's, of the fifteenth, at Bruges ; the Three Kings, of
the twelfth century, at Cologne ; and a fine example at Orsa
Michele, Florence. From the richness of the enamel, these
were often called Limoges coffers. The shrinekeeper or his
clerk sat at the shrine to watch the jewels and palls on an
enclosed seat, or in a pentice, or chamber, with his book, or
in prayer.
Shrove Tuesday. In Italy caUed San Martedi di Carnovale ; in
France, Mardi Gras, and Careme (Quadragesima) entrant.
The pancake-bell was rung at noon on this day.
Sibyls. (Siou boule or bulls, the counsel or fate of God.)
Twelve ancient sibyls, in various parts of the world, were
believed to have foretold the history of our Lord; and in
medieval decorations their figures are often introduced, as at
Sens, Aix, Autun, St. Ouen at Rouen, Beauvais, Auch, and *
Auxerre. They are thus distinguished : — (1) the Persian,
treading on the serpent, and holding a lantern; (2) the
Lybian, with a lighted taper, allusive to Christ, the Light of
the world ; (3) Erythrean (i. e. of the Red Sea), with an
expanded white rose, with a bud of the same flower, allusive
to the Annunciation ; (4) Cuniasan, with a-crutch or mano-er;
(5) Samian, with a cradle ; (6) Cimmerian (i. e. the Black

SICILIAN ARCHITECTURE-1— SIMONY. 541
Sea), with the suckling-bottle ; (7) European, with a sword,
allusive to the Slaughter of the Innocents ; (8) Tiburtine (i.e.
Tivoli), with a gloved hand raised to buffet ; (9) Agrippa,
with a scourge; (10) Delphic, with a crown of thorns ; (11)
Hedespontine, with a cross; (12) Phrygian, with a proces
sional cross and scarlet flag, bearing a cross of gold. In the
Prose for the Dead allusion is made to these traditions in the
words, " Teste David cum Sibylla." They are represented
as of commanding stature, and in the prime of life, habited
in tunic, mantle, and robes, jewelled and richly embroidered.
The Sibylline verses date from two hundred years before the
Christian era to the third century after it, and are a strange
medley of heathen oracles and Jewish traditions. They were
quoted against paganism by Tatian and SS. Clement of
Alexandria, Clement of Rome, and Justin; and SS. Jerome,.
Augustine, and Gregory Nazianzen, and Tertullian, Arnobius,
and Lactantius allude to them. St. Ambrose attributed them
to demoniacal inspiration.
Sicilian Architecture. The prevalent styles are Byzantine,
Saracenic, and Pointed Norman. There are no central
towers, the cupola being their substitute, and the windows
are very small.
Sidemen or Questmen. (0. Eng. sithesmen, or sitheundmen,
country officers of the king.) Like foreign testes synodales,
mentioned in the ninth century, assistants of the church
warden in making presentments to the bishop at a visitation,
and chosen annually. They are mentioned first in 1595 as
synods men. The churchwarden's office became necessary in
the fourteenth century, when the parishioners had to repair
the nave.
Signs. (1.) The great bells at Canterbury in the twelfth cen
tury ; one took twenty-four and another thirty-two men to
sound it. (2.) A most intricate system of talking with the
fingers, used by the Clugniacs to indicate their wants in
hall. (3.) Gerbert furnishes a minute account of a similar
manual telegraph made use of by the preecentor in choir.
Simony. Selling the grace of the Holy Ghost (Acts viii. 20),
which Simon Magus desired St. Peter to do. The buying
or selling of holy orders, or any ecclesiastical office with cure
of souls, forbidden in England in 740 and 1075, or with pro
motion to any dignity in 1127.

542

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Simple Feasts. According to Salisbury use, those on which
only the initial words of the antiphon to the Benedictus and
Magnificat were sung, comprised under three classes : (1)
" of nine lessons," with triple or double invitatory ; (2) of
three lessons, with double invitatory; (3) of three lessons,
with simple invitatory ; the latter, in distinction to the for
mer two, were marked "sine regimine chori." Simple
feasts, like ferials and vespers, had no first vespers.
In the Roman use simple feasts, without ruling the choir,
are classed as simples ; the simple, with ruling the choir, as
semi-doubles. Accordingly, the highest class of Salisbury
simples became the Roman doubles, to which succeed greater
doubles, doubles of the second and doubles of the first
class.
Sinecure. (1.) A benefice held by a rector in a parish where
there is also a vicar. (2.) A benefice where there is no
church or no population.
Singers (hypoboleis, psalmists, monitors) were appointed with
these words by the Fourth Council of Carthage, 398,
" See what thou singest with thy mouth that thou believest
in thy heart, and what thou believest in thine heart thou
confirmest also in thy life." They formed a distinct order,
and are mentioned in the fourth century, by St. Ephraem,
and in the Liturgy of St. Mark. They were at length called
canonical or registered singers. In the sixth century song-
schools were erected at Tours. That of St. Gregory at
Rome, frequented by students from Britain, Gaul, Spain,
and Italy, became the model for Europe. Some Spanish
singers only ate pulse before singing, and were called in
consequence fabarii, whilst the Clugniacs used liquorice juice
and electuaries to improve the voice.
Si Quis. (If any one.) A notice of requirement put forth for
any objector to dispute the fitness of a candidate for holy
orders, formerly set on church doors, but now read from the
altar. It corresponds to the praedicatio of the primitive
Church, and epikeruxis of Chalcedon, 451.
Sir. This, as the English of dominus, was the style adopted
by priests, as dom by monks, and in consequence they were
commonly called Sir Johns. There were three Sirs, Sir
King, Sir Priest, and Sir Knight. At the Reformation, Sir
appears generally to have marked literates, in distinction to
Ma.gister.

SOLAR  SPANISH ARCHITECTURE. 543
Solar. (1.) A terrace on the roofs of Greek churches. (2.) An
upper chamber or loft.
Solaria. (Gynccma, hyperoa, kafechoumena.) The upper gal
leries for women in a Greek church, which, St. Chrysostom
mentions, had screens of wood. They remain at St. Lau
rence, St. Agnes, and the Four Coronati, at Rome.
Solea. (A corruption of solium, the ground.) The space in a
Greek church between the ambon and sanctuary, where the
laity communicated, afterwards appropriated to monks, and
at length to the lesser orders. In a Latin church, between
the choir and presbytery. In the basilica it was raised
several steps above the ambon and the choir of minor clerks.
Here the communion was given to all but the clergy, and
subdeacons and readers sat, and the candidate for the priest
hood was led up from this part to the altar.
Sommer. (Summarius, a beast of burden.) (1.) A main beam
or girder. (2.) Sommier is the French term for an abacus,
the support of an arch. (3.) Summissarius, the chanter of
High Mass.
Soul Cake. A sweet seed- or oat-cake, of triangular form, forr
merly eaten on the eve of All Saints' Day and All Souls'
Day, and given by the rich to their poorer neighbours, pro
bably in return for prayers for the departed, for whom also
the bells were rung at this time.
Soulscot. A mortuary payment made to the church which the
dead had attended, at the open grave, in 1009.
Sound Holes. Ornamental perforations in belfries for the
emission of the sound of the bells.
Span. The breadth of an arch at its base.
Spandril. Tho triangular space between an arch and the
outer rectilinear mouldings.
Spanish Architecture. In the South few early Gothic build
ings remain, and those which exist were mainly erected in
the fifteenth century ; but in the North the obra de Godos
(Gothic), the Romanesque, and Geometrical Pointed (Tudesco)
are represented. The German Middle Pointed, as well as
French art, clearly influenced the designers in Spain. The
old system of parallel eastern apses gave way to the affec
tion for a chevet, with its processional path and circlet of
chapels. The constructional choirs are usually very short.
Moresco designates the leaven of the Moorish style, and Pla-

544 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
teresque, so called from its plate-like tracery in flat relief, is
the Spanish style of the Renaissance, of the sixteenth cen
tury. The choir in a Spanish church occupies the eastern
half of the nave. The westward portion of the latter is
called the trascoro ; the part eastward of the choir is called
entre los dos coros. Under the cimborio or lantern is the
crucero or crossing. A passage, fenced with screens of
metal work, afford the clergy a means of access to the
screen in front of the altar in the sanctuary or capilla mayor.
In the centre of the coro are several lecterns for the choir-
books, and on the west, north, and south are stalls, the
bishop occupying a central stad facing east. Pulpits are
erected against the western faces Of the eastern pillars of the
crossing. This curious arrangement, which -has been fol
lowed at Westminster Abbey, is probably not earlier than
the sixteenth century. About the same time, in parish
churches, large western galleries, of stone, were erected for
the choir, as at Coimbria, Braga, and Braganza, and pro
vided with ambons at the angles. The choir was in the
centre of the nave at the Lateran, St. Mary the Great, St.
Laurence's, and St. Clement's, at Rome, by a basilican ar
rangement.
Sparver. (A.S. sparran, to enclose.) A richly-embroidered
cloth. A bed-canopy.
Spear, Holy. A lance with a serpent twined about it, carrying
a lantern for the new fire. -See Easter Eve.
Spire. (1.) Fleche, a spirelet; a small central spire, as at Haarlem,
Cologne, Brussels, Amiens (130m. 54 centimetres in height),
St. Benignus (Dijon), Rheims, Orleans, Evreux, the Sainte-
Chapelle, and Notre Dame (Paris)", and formerly Rouen.
This is quite a Continental feature. (2.) Aiguille, a spire of
stone, as at Peterborough, Lichfield, Salisbury, Chichester,
Norwich, Oxford, Strasburg, Chartres, Semur, Vienna, Frei
burg in Brisgau; or of wood, as one at St. Benet, Holm.
Bramante said, when building St. Peter's, " I will put your
marvel, the Pantheon, in the sky." The Gothic architect
had already pierced heaven with the spire. The tower showed
at first merely a top covered by a roof; and then by a low
spire, which in time grew higher, lighter, sharper, requiring
buttresses, increasing in breadth from the summit to the
ground-line, until, as at Vienna, Ratisbon, Ulm, Freiburg,

spire. 545
Strasburg, Autun, Chartres, Mechlin, Antwerp, and Brussels,
by a succession of retreating arches, buttresses, and pinna
cles, gradually receding behind each other to the top, it
pyramidized, Hke a magic growth of stone shooting up — the
natural development of the higher out of the lower structure.
In France a very frequent form of spire is a high coved roof
of wood, bounded on two sides by triangular and on the
other by quadrdateral faces. In Germany a low many-
gabled covering, with facets such as jewellers cut on precious
stones, is common. In France there are superb examples at
St. Denis, Chartres, Coutances, Autun, Cambrai, Harfleur,
Caudebec, Caen, Langrune, and St. George, Boscherville.
The central spire of Lausanne is covered with metal or
brightly-glazed tde. An ingenious lover of symbohsm has
discovered that the north-west spire of Lichfield is hollowed
inwards like a trumpet, as though the church beds sounded
from it like the sdver trumpets of the Temple on Zion. Ches
terfield spire, 228 feet high, has been warped into a twisted
shape by the sun-heat ; but the most extraordinary appear
ance is presented by the south-western spire of Gelnhausen,
clearly a whim of an eccentric architect.
The spire is the noblest ornament of a tower, without which
a tower can hardly claim to be complete. The conical cap
ping of the turret, or the sharp pediment of a dormer win
dow, may have suggested the original idea, but it already
existed in the top of the obelisk and the bulk of the pyramid.
Before the Norman period rude spires appear in England,
and in the west of France in the eleventh and twelfth cen
turies, some being supported on an octagon rising from a
square tower. The earliest and latest EngHsh steeples are
destitute of spires. Towers first received a low capping, then
a low timber spire, as in Kent, Sussex, and Herefordshire.
This was again changed into stone, which became perfect in
the Decorated period, often overhanging the tower ; and in
Perpendicular broach spires lingered on in Northampton
shire. In the Decorated period the spire grew reduced in
breadth and more lofty; the spire-lights project less, and
mount from the base along the sides; the squinches are
smader and are pinnacled, or are no longer visible ; while
the junction with the tower is not marked by a corbel table.
At length the broach merges into the true spire as an essen-
2 N

546 sacred archeology.
tial portion of the tower from within a parapet which is some
times pierced. The spire is sometimes ribbed, sometimes
crocketed, united to angle turrets by flying buttresses ; or
bold and massive pinnacles are grouped round it inside the
parapet with consummate skill,as at Chichester, Peterborough,
and St. Mary's, Oxford. The conjunction of a tower and
spire forms a steeple. Height of steeples above the ground : —
Old St. Paul's, 527 feet; Salisbury, 404 feet; St. Michael's,
Coventry, 320 feet; Norwich, 309 feet; Louth, 294 feet;
Chichester, 271 feet; Strasburg, 500 feet; Vienna, 441 feet;
Antwerp, 406 feet ; Freiburg, 385 feet; Chartres, 353 feet;
St. Patrick's, Dublin, 223 feet ; Glasgow, 225 feet. The spire
of Amiens, called the golden steeple, from its gdded crockets,
is 422 feet; of Cologne, 510 feet; the highest pinnacle of
Milan, 355 feet; the dome of St. Peter's, 434 feet; Florence,
387 feet; and Segovia, 330 feet.
Splay. The slanting side of a doorway or window-frame.
Sponge, Holy. The mousa of the Greek Church, correspond
ing to the Latin purificatory ; it is used to gather the vari
ous "portions" in the disk under the holy bread, and to
cleanse the chalice in memory of the sponge of the Cruci
fixion. It is carefudy wrapped in a linen cloth.
Spoon. (Cochlear.) (1.) One is sometimes used in pouring in
wine and water into the chalice. (2.) Colum, colatorium;
a spoon-shaped implement, with holes in the bowl, used for
straining the eucharistic wine (St. Matt, xxiii. 24) as early
as the fifth century. It is mentioned as late as the ninth
century. (3.) Labis; a spoon used in the Greek Church
for giving the sop in the Eucharist. Apostles' spoons had
their stems ending in figures of Apostles, and were usually
made for christening gifts.
Sprinkler. A Httle brush made of hyssop, with which the altar
and congregation are sprinkled with holy- water at Mass;
but in some places the water is blessed in the sacristy, and
placed at the entrance of the church in a stoup • it is used to
invoke the protection of God on the church and people, and
to typify the internal disposition required in the worshipper.
Spur Money. A fine levied formerly by choristers of St. Paul's
Westminster, Lichfield, and Windsor on persons entering
the church.
Square Cap. This was first used by clerks in the fifteenth century.

SQUINCH — STAIRS. 547
Squinch or Sconce. Small arches formed across the angles of
waUs in towers to support the alternate sides of an octagonal
superstructure.
Staff. There are three kinds used by a prsecentor : (1) orna
mented with a pommel of gold, like one preserved at Lim-
burg-on-the-Lahn, and within memory at Rheims ; (2) having
a carving like those of St. Gereon's, and the Dom at Cologne ;
the latter has a staff of the twelfth century, with the Adoration
of the Magi added in the fourteenth century ; (3) terminating
in a Tau-shaped head, usually of boxwood, like St. Servais',
of the twelfth century, at Maestricht; sometimes they were
made of ivory, adorned with bands of silver, gilt-edged,
with gems, and ending in a crystal ball. It was sometimes
called serpentella, from a figure of the Virgin treading
on a serpent, as at Paris. The slightly-curved top of the
" cross of St. Julliene" at Montr eud-sur-Mer, of the eleventh
century, marks the transition from the staff to that borne by
a bishop. The chanter's baton of St. Denis, now in the
Louvre, was carried by Napoleon I. and the French kings
before him at their coronation as " the golden sceptre of
Charlemagne," from a seated figure of the monarch on the
top ; it is dated 1384. There was another of the time of that
king at Metz ; the grand chantre used it in certain cere
monies, when wearing an ancient cope covered with golden
eagles in general processions. At Amiens the choristers
carried Httle silver crosses, and the priest-chanter and chanter
had staffs with figures in a dome-like niche, but formerly
used batons of silver of the Tau-shape, which at length de
scended to the hands of cantors and choristers on certain
days. The dean of Messina and the senior canon of Palermo
carry a sdver staff. The prsecentor on great festivals used
the staff at Paris, Rouen, Angers, Lyons, Catania, Neti,
Messina, and Syracuse. -See Baton and Pastoral Staff.
Stairs. Large flights of stairs, called in Spanish grddas (the
English grees), lead up to the west fronts of Amiens, Lisieux,
Barcelona, Salamanca, and Sevide, and the transepts of
Chartres and Beauvais. There are fine internal staircases
at Burgos, Rouen, Hexham, and Beverley. The terrace at
Sevdle was desecrated by money-changers even in the six
teenth century. At Tamworth, where the church was col
legiate and parochial, there are double stairs to the tower,
2n2

548 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
for the use of the several ringers before the respective ser
vices ; and at Lynn there are two stairs in the double chapel,
one for the priest and the other for the people. Two sets of
stairs also lead to the upper chapel at Christchurch, Hants,
probably for the accommodation of persons visiting the relics,
one being for access and the other for egress. At Barnack
there is an octagonal Early English staircase within the
Prenorman tower, and at Whitchurch a simdar wooden stair
case of the fourteenth century. At Wolverhampton the
pulpit stair winds round a pillar. There were usually three
stairs to an altar ; at Salisbury on Palm Sunday the bene
diction of palms was made on the third step, flowers and
palms were presented on the altar for the clergy, and for
others on the stair only.
Stalls. (Fr. stalle, Sp. sillar, Germ, stuhl, It. stallo ; at Chi
chester locally called books.) Ranges of seats placed in
the choirs of churches, or chapter-houses, for the use of the
clergy, for the religious in a monastery, or for canons. In
the most ancient churches of the West, in the cathedrals
and great minsters, the abbot or bishop sat at the head of
the choir, behind the altar. Around them, on semicircular
benches of stone, marble, or wood, were ranged the capitu
lars. The arrangement survives in some of the oldest Ita
lian churches. Since the thirteenth century the seats of the
clergy were placed in front of the sanctuary, on either side of
what is now called the choir, and is comprehended between
the crossing and the steps of the sanctuary leading up to the
altar. In Italy and Sicily the stalls were generally of marble
or stone, but in Germany, France, and England were always
of wood. The ancient rule was that the clergy should stand
during the greater part of divine service, when the Gospel
was read and the Psalms sung. SS. Chrysostom and Atha
nasius mention this custom in the East, and St. Benedict in
monasteries; Chrodogang at Metz in capitular churches, and
the Council of Aix (816) in all churches, required canons and
monks to observe it in the West ; but a relaxation occurred in
course of time, for at Besancon, in the eleventh century, we
find that Peter Damian condemned the practice of the canons
sitting. To this day at Tours a vestige of the old practice
prevails, where the canons stand at the Compline of Holy
Thursday, and during the Lesser Hours of the two following

stalls. 549
days. In Greece the aged monks are allowed the concession
of a T-shaped staff, on which they lean during service. In the
West a similar indulgence in the use of a staff by the infirm
was the first modification of the ancient severity of practice.
St.- Benedict and Chrodogang, however, furiously inveighed
against such effeminacy, whilst on the other hand Amalarius,
who took a foremost part on the reorganization of cathedrals
as wed as the old Ordo Romanus, merely required the rest-
ing-crutch to be laid aside during the reading of the Gospel.
At length some of the monks or canons at a time were al
lowed to sit at Clugny, Citeaux, and St. Benignus, Dijon.
At Lichfield, in the fifteenth century, and in Austin canons'
minsters, half the choir stood and half sat during the Psalms,
or one between two sat at the Psalms, Alleluia, Gradual, and
Epistle, and those who could not endure the fatigue sat in a
place set apart for them. At Ratisbon and Braunschw, and
elsewhere, sitting, standing, and genuflection only are re
cognized ; but we find also prostration on forms, or bending
over the misericord, occasionally mentioned. The words for
the seat preserve at once the traditionary rule and the indul
gence — stall from the Latin stare, to stand ; and misericord,
mercy ; the latter forming a compromise to rest the canons
without their deviating from a standing position. St. Gre
gory of Tours first used the word " form" in a sense analo
gous to that of a staff; from the ninth to the eleventh cen
tury it became more and more familiar, as the designation of
a bench with a back and desk, and divided by arms of wood
into separate seats. The stall is mentioned at Maestricht in
1088, at Antwerp in 1201, at Meaux 1240, by Matthew Paris
in 1250, and at Paris 1388. In 1121 Peter of Clugny ap
pears to allude to the misericord when he speaks of the
scabeda sedihis inhserentia which were raised at a particular
part of the service ; about the same time, at the Convent of
Hirsaugh, in Germany, the word misericord is distinctly
mentioned, and the stalls are caUed sedilia. The dignitaries
and senior monks only occupied such stalls, the simpler
canons and junior monks sat on benches, the choristers and
vicars knelt on the floor. At Amiens stalls (116) date 1508-
22; Poictiers (70), c. 1237; Auch, 1529; Civita Vecchia, c.
1330-40 ; Roeskilde c. 1420 ; Sanlieu, of the thirteenth cen
tury; Rodez, of the fifteenth century; Rouen (86), 1457-1467 ;

550 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Solesme, 1553 ; Ulm (92), c. 1459-1462. At Ratisbon there
are some specimens, of the middle of the twelfth century, of
very coarse workmanship, and in a dilapidated condition ; at
St. Gereon, Cologne, and at Bamberg, of the fourteenth cen
tury ; Flavigny and St. Claude Jura, of the fifteenth century ;
Alby and Montreal, of the sixteenth century; Auch, 1520-
46 ; Lisieux (50), of the fourteenth century; St. Mary De-la-
Roche, near Paris, of the thirteenth century; Bruges, 1477;
Gerona, Palencia, Tarragona, and Zamora, with a series of
Scriptural subjects, of the fifteenth century; and Toledo,
carved with the Conquest of Granada, 1495-1543; Civita,
of the fifteenth century; Burgos (103), 1497-1512; Cadiz
(63), 1527; Leon 1468-81; Saragossa, 1452 ; Seville (125),
1475-1548. Early English benches maybe seen at Roches
ter ; three unique shafts, with capitals of gilded wood, are
preserved at Peterborough. At Chichester (40), Exeter( 51),
are stalls of the thirteenth century; at Lincoln (62), c. 1380 ;
Winchester (60), Early Decorated; Worcester (52), 1379,
misericords and elbows ; Hereford (60), temp. Edw. III. ;
Gloucester (60) and Ely of the fourteenth ; at Carlisle (46),
St. David's, Ripon (32), Norwich (62), Chester (48), of the
fifteenth; at Manchester (30), Beverley, and Bristol, of the
sixteenth centuries. Perpendicular stalls still remain at
Cartmel, Sherborne, St. Helen's Bishopsgate, Westminster,
Selby, and Dorchester; of the Cinque-Cento period, at
Christchurch ; Jacobean at Wimborne ; and of the seven
teenth century at , Salisbury and Durham. There are also
some stalls preserved at Hexham, Hull, Ottery, and Tewkes
bury. Stalls with panelled backs remain at Etchingham,
but more commonly the side-screens divide them from the
aisles; at Capel-le-Ferne, St. Margaret's Westminster, and
St. Mary's Oxford, there are simply long benches with desks.
The introduction of tabernacles and canopied backs was
of later use than the stalls or forms. Bishop Lacy, at Exeter,
in the fifteenth century, gave hangings, to be placed behind
the canons and vicars, of damask for summer use, and of green,
powdered with flowers, in winter time, to preserve them from
wind and cold, and sixty years later cloths were hung in the
choir for a similar purpose. In the thirteenth century the
stalls of Peterborough had paintings of Scriptural sub
jects. The wall at Rochester, Bamberg, and Llandaff, and

STALLS. 551
the stone screen at Canterbury, c. 1304, enabled the occu
pants to dispense with canopies.
The stall consists of (1 ) a misericord, patience, subsellium;
Gr. sumpseUion, sediculum, or sedette, a folding seat turning
on hinges or pivots ; (2) the book-desk, prie Dieu, podium ;
(3) the parclose, sponda, the lateral pillar or partition, the
upper carved part forming the museau ; (4) croche, accou-
doir, or accotoir, the elbow-rest ; (5) the dorsal, dossier, the
wainscot back ; (6) dais, baldaquin, the canopy or tabernacle
work. In the east of France and Germany there is usually
only one range of stalls. Gangways with stairs, entrees, are
openings permitting access to the upper stalls, which are
raised on a platform. The lower stalls stand on the ground,
or upon an elevation of one step. The upper or hindmost
range of stalls (hautes stades, or formes) were restricted to
the capitulars or senior monks, from the time of Urban II.,
sitting in order of installation or profession. In cathedrals
the four dignitaries occupy the four corners to overlook the
choir, the dean on the south-west, the praBcentor on the
north-west (hence the term decani and cantoris to designate
the two choirs), the chancedor on the south-east, and the
treasurer on the north-east ; next to them sat archdeacons,
and in some places the subdean and subchanter of canons
occupied the nearest stads to them westward, as the priest-
vicars did on the eastern side, but the latter had no kneeling
mats or cloth-covered hassocks, but sometimes they sat in
the central stalls. In the middle range, basses stalles, were
canons, deacons or subdeacons, and their vicars, annuellars,
and chaplains ; and in the lowermost range were clerks and
choristers (bas-choeur or clergeons at Vienne), occupying
forms or benches without arms or backs. At Pisa the
canons' stalls were distinguished by coverings of green
cloth, and in Italy generally by cushions. The hebdomadary,
principal cantor, and master of the choir sat at the head of
the second row. The ranges were reckoned as first, second,
and third, sometimes from the wad and sometimes from the
floor. The cantors had their folding chairs in England and
France, and the celebrant was provided in many places with
an elbow or armed chair. In some cathedrals the arch
deacon fronted the bishop as his " eye." At Exeter books
for devotional use were chained before the altar ; antiphonars

552 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
chained before the dean, chancellor, and treasurer; ordinals
in front of the prsecentor and succentor ; and books chained,
like those stdl remaining at Selby, between the choir-step
and altar-step. At Durham there was a bell behind the stads
for signading to the sacrists the time for ringing or stopping
the church-bells. The name of his prebend and the antiphon
of the psalm which each canon was bound to recite dady for
benefactors and departed canons were written up over his
staU, as at St. Paul's, Lincoln, Chichester, Weds, etc., to
which was added afterwards a notice of his preaching turn
at Hereford. Citations to residence were affixed by the pre
bendary's vicar upon his stall. At Lichfield every canon
was provided with his own Hght and book in choir.
Staurophylax. The keeper of the sacred cross on the Church
of the Resurrection at Jerusalem.
Stanchion. An iron bar between mulhons.
Standard. A massive standing candlestick in front of an altar.
A large chest. An iron bar in a window.
Standing at the Gospel. Pope Anastasius ordered that at the
reading of the Gospel the people should not sit, but stand
with heads bowed. Formerly those who had staves laid
them down, as a sign of submission to the Gospel, and the
mditary orders, after the example of the Polish king Miecze-
laus in 968, drew their swords. When the Gospel was
commenced ad in church crossed themselves on the brow,
Hps, and breast, and the reader kissed the book. [At Car-
Hsle, in 1686, at the name of Jesus ad bowed or knelt, and in
1641 "bowing towards the east, with three congees in every
motion, access' or recess, and advancing candlesticks upon
the altar, and crucifixes and images upon the parafront or
altar-cloth," and " standing at the Gloria Patri " are men
tioned.] Ad said, " Gloria Tibi, Domine," and at the conclu
sion, " Deo Gratias " or "Amen." Men bared their heads and
the clergy had their hair short, that they might hear the better.
Unmarried women covered their heads, and if they had no
ved their mothers placed a cloth upon them. The sign of
the cross was also made at the end of the Creed, the Lord's
Prayer, Gloria in Excelsis, and evangelical canticles, which
were all said standing.
Standing Cup. One that stands upon its foot, in distinc
tion to a tumbler, which must be emptied at a draught.

STAR — STATIONS. 553
There is a fine specimen, of the time of Edward III., at
Lynn.
Star, Golden. A vessel for the exhibition of the Host at the
Communion of the Pope on Easter Day. One, with twelve
rays, is used to cover the paten when carried by the cardinal
deacon to communicate the Pope. From their roofs, pow
dered with golden stars, the chancels of St. Mary's, Stamford,
and Tonge are called the golden choirs. Seven stars — the
Great Bear, which never sets — is the emblem of the ever
lasting state of the Catholic Church (Rev. i. 20).
Stations. (1.) According to Rabanus, the observation of stated
days or times ; but, as Beleth says, so called because the
participants stood and rendered praise, unlike the peniten
tial posture and supplication of a litany. General stations
were the visits of the members of a diocese to the cathedral
church in Whitsun weeks ; particular, those made in thanks
giving to a saint, whose prayers had been invoked in time of
national distress or peril. The choral habit was used by the
clergy. Tertullian thus calls the Wednesdays and Fridays
of the Lent fast ; the fast accompanying visits to the mar
tyrs' tombs. In the Greek Church on these days, and also
on Saturday, the stational Mass in Lent is celebrated, and
they were called semijejunia, half-fasts, because the fast was
broken after communion. St. Athanasius mentions the
Saturday as a station. (2.) Station (in distinction to col-
lecta, the rendezvous or place of assembly) denoted the
halting-place of a pilgrimage, or processions, carrying relics
of saints, usually marked by a cross, stone, or one of those
buildings which served both as a place of shelter and prayer
for travellers, called in France reposoir. Gang days meant
stations or visits to shrines or relics. (3.) Bishops, before
their enthronization, paused to pray at a station (like knights
before their creation), either at the cathedral gate, as at Chi
chester, or in some adjoining church, as at Winchester, Bour
deaux, Tours, Rouen, Autun, Noyon, Laon, Quimper, Rennes,
Clermont, and Paris. In some parts of France the vassals
carried the new bishop to the church-door. (4.) Solem
nities, stated masses and litanies, were sung in stated
churches at Rome on stated days, by enactment and statute,
or, as TertulHan suggests, from the watch of a Roman senti
nel, as the Christians " keep to their station in church untd

554 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
noon," that is, on the fast days or anniversaries of martyrs.
So station meant also the actual procession to the station or
church. The Lenten and "uptide" (bumbled or veded)
crosses were used in the stations of Palm Sunday. On cer
tain occasions when a procession was made through the city
it set out from the principal church and halted at certain
churches, where the great doors stood open, and the clergy
appeared to receive it as it stopped to make a station, with
the measured chant, sung by multitudes, rising and falling
with slow sonorous rhythm, filling the streets with mournful
music or the solemn cadence of the Latin litanies. The
Roman churches in which the Pontiff officiates on stated
days are called churches of the stations or mansionary, and
the assistant clergy are spoken of as stationars, a name de
rived from the body-guard of the emperors. Gregory I.
ordered masses and litanies to be sung on certain daysin
the principal Roman churches. These, being continued on
stated occasions, were called stations. At Rome Malmesbury
mentions a sanctuary church of Jerusalem, at which on three
Sundays, called the Jerusalem stations, the Pope sang Mass,
and at Westminster a Jerusalem chamber adjoined the sacristy.
In Clugniac processions on Sundays there were four stations
— (1) in the Lady-church; (2) before the dormitory; (3) in
front of the refectory ; (4) in the porch or vestibule. The
stations of the way of the cross, since the end of the fifteenth
century, greatly promoted by Benedict XIV., are — (1*) the
condemnation of our Lord; (2*) Christ bearing His cross;
(3) Christ falling under the cross ; (4*) the meeting of Jesus
and the Virgin ; (5) the Cyrenian bearing the cross ; (6) the
veronica; (7) Jesus fading to the earth; (8) He consoles the
daughters of Jerusalem; (9) He falls again; (10) He is
stripped of His dress; (11*) He is crucified; (12) He dies;
(13*) the taking down from the cross; (14*) the entomb
ment. Those marked with a star may be traced back nearly
three centuries earlier. The Franciscans and Capuchins
were especially privileged with making stations, the former
having had charge of the holy places in 1342. If in a church,
they commence on the Gospel side and terminate on the side of
the Epistle. In 1730 Pope Benedict XIII. required a cross
to be set up over each picture. The pilgrims who returned
to Nuremberg constructed stations on a hill-side. Pave-

STATUTES  STOLE. 555
ments wore constructed with labyrinths, representing tho
pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Alvaro, a Dominican, established
stations in his convent at Cordova. Ho died in 1420, and,
years after, the Franciscans once more revivod tho idea and
disseminated it far and wido. -Se-; Jubilee.
Statutes. The particular and domestic rule binding members
of a cathedral with regard to Divino worship, or capitular
property, mado as occasion required, confirmed by the
bishop, and committed to writing, after receiving the assent
of tho doan and greater part of tho chapter. Those of tho
now foundations aro codilied into chapters, and were mainly
drawn up by Hishops Heath, Day, and Cox, Tonstal, Thirlby,
and Bonnor, and Mawson, and Laud.
Stayned. Painted. Stained cloths aro paintings on linen.
Step of Satisfaction. The choir-step on which a delinquent
knelt in acknowledgment of a fault.
Sticharion. Tho Greek albe or tunic, used by bishops and
priests llowing and aniplo, and narrow and close by deacons.
It is purplo in Lent, except on Sundays, Saturdays, and the
Annunciation.
Stichos. A short varying vorsiclo and response in the Greek
liturgy, answering virtually to the Latin Gradual. The
koinonikon is a sacramental hymn and stichos, sung a littlo
before the Communion.
Stilted or Surmounted Arch. One which has the capital be
low its curve, tho moulding in tho interval being straight.
Stocking, (Oaligir.) A footed legging, reserved to bishops
after having beon forbidden to tho clergy when of a green
colour.
Stole, [Sntlariuvi., sti>la>, orarium-, so called by the Councils of
(Fourth) Toledo and Ib-nga.J The name of Orarium is de
rived either from ora, denoting its strip-like appearance, or,
ns Rode suggests, from its use at tho hours of prayer, but
according to Rabanus and Alcuin, because it was worn by
preachers (oratorcs). Probably it was, Hke the maniple, at
first a kerchief or towel. It denotes the yoke of Jesus, or,
as Tyndnlo states, the ropo with which our Lord was bound
to the pillar of scourging. Tho Fourth Council of Toledo
says that it was worn by deacons on the loft shoulder "be
cause ho preaches," and by a priest on the right shoulder
that ho may bo ready for his ministrations. Tho Council of

556

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Braga requires it to be worn over both shoulders. Stoles
have been worn by priests, crossed in front under the cingu-
lum (the part thus covered being the subcingulum), since
the end of the fourteenth century. A bishop, as he wore a pec
toral cross, wore his stole straight. In Flanders the stole was
narrow, and worn uncrossed. Two of the time of Henry VI.
are in the possession of Lord Willoughby de Broke. The
stole of the Eastern priests, called orarion or epitracheHon,
is merely a long strip of silk or stuff more than double the
width of the Western stole, and with a hole in the middle of
the upper part, through which the celebrant puts his head.
It has an embroidered seam down the middle.
Stone of Dedication. The original stone, inscribed with the
date of the dedication, 1192, remains at Clee Church, Lin
colnshire.
String. A thin projecting horizontal line of masonry on
walls.
Stuffs used in the middle ages. The names Damask ; Sarcenet
(Saracenorum opus) ; Sypers, cloth of Cyprus; and Levantine
brocades of sdver and gold, made in the Lebanon ; Orphreys,
"the gold of Phrygia;" Attalic robes, splendid cloths of
Asia Minor ; and the embroidery, veds, sdks, and cloths of
Alexandria, bespeak the place of manufacture. Byzantium
was also a considerable producer. The earlier patterns are
Byzantine, with flowing and geometrical designs, animals,
birds. In the thirteenth century arms of donors were intro
duced, and in the fourteenth century splendid borders, repre
senting saints, angels, and evangelists, were added to vest
ments. In England embroidery of Alexandria, Indian samit,
color de Painaz, Turkey work, cloth of Antioch, TripoHs,
Tartaryn, Tiretaine, cloth of Tyre (so called from its bright
red tint), Tarsus, India, Tarse de Nak, Tuly, Inde di Gangi,
Moire de Tarse, are mentioned as used in vestments, all be
ing of Eastern importation.
Stylites. (Pillarists.) Monks who lived on the top of a pillar
(stulos). Symeon, "the ambassador between earth and
heaven," spent thirty-seven years on the summit of a column
•in Asia Minor, and crowds of admirers came to see him. A
bishop of Adrianople spent sixty years in a similar position,
assisted in his devotions by choirs singing below ; and so did
a Longobardic deacon, near Treves, until his bishop wisely

SUBCHANCELLOR — SUBDEACONS. 557
called him down. Evagrius mentions one who lived sixty-
eight years on his eminence, but there were not a dozen
persons who became imitators of this strange humour.
Subchancellor or Scribe. The notary of Italian cathedrals is
the chancellor's vicar, called also registrar or matricular, and
at St. Paul's in 1280 as scriptor librorum. He acted as
assistant-secretary, librarian, lecturer in theology and law,
and teacher of reading.
Subchanter, Succentor. (Gr. hypoboleus ; Fr. chantre ; Sp.
sochantre ; Ger. unter-cantor.) _ (1.) One who sings after the
prsecentor. (2.) The deputy of the prsecentor ; the princi
pal among the vicars in choir. The prsecentor sat on the
right-hand side of the choir, and the succentor on the left.
His office was usuady in the gift of the chapter ; occasionally,
however, he was nominated by the prsecentor. There were
two kinds of subchanters : (1) The succentor of canons, or
succentor-major (first mentioned in the eleventh century), at
York, Bayeux, Paris, Amiens, Glasgow, Chalons, Girghenti,
WeUs, and SaHsbury, acted as prsecentor's deputy with re
gard to the canons ; he ranks after the subdean ; the office
was given by the diocesan. At A miens he installed
canons in the lower stalls ; at Rouen he holds a pre
bend and regulates processions ; he often is called pre-
chantre, in distinction to the grand chantre ; (2) a vicar,
the deputy and assistant of the prsecentor. At Sevdle and
Placentia, and in England, he tables the ministers for ser
vice. At Chichester and Hereford he chastised the boys,
and ordinarily his duties were confined to ordering proces
sions, delating offenders, and general supervision of the
lower choir ; he could not correct a canon. His office ap
pears at Chichester and St. David's in the thirteenth
century; he corresponds to the precentor of the new
foundations. At Lichfield and St. David's the subchanter
is head of the Vicars' College.
Subdeacons. The term is first used by St. Athanasius to de
signate a clerical order hitherto known as that of hyperetai.
In the end of the third century the order existed. In the
fourth century, both in the East and West, subdeacons were
appointed to assist deacons. Eusebius mentions seven at
Rome, but at length their number was tripled about the
eleventh century, and divided into three classes : palatines,

558 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the immediate assistants of the bishop ; stationaries, those
connected with the arrangement of stations and processions ;
and regionaries, occupied in particular districts of the city.
At Constantinople there were ninety in the time of Justi
nian, who were reduced to seventy by Heraclius. In the
Greek and African Church the subdeacons did not receive
imposition of hands at ordination, and are still regarded as
in minor orders. In the West they were at first, as in the
East, the bishop's messengers, doorkeepers, servers at the
altar, but in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries began to be
classed with the superior orders. At their ordination a
book of the Epistles and an empty chalice and paten were
given to them. They were not allowed to distribute the
sacred elements. The subdeacon is not allowed to wear
a stole. His vestment at Mass is a narrow tunic, called by
Sicard the subtile ; this author also mentions his maniple,
of larger size than that of a priest. In the twelfth century
in England he was forbidden to marry. The Apostolic sub
deacons were established by Pope Fabian in 240. In the
year 1057 their number amounted to twenty-one. Owing
to their irregularities, they were suppressed by Pope Alex
ander VII. in 1656; the auditors of the rota have succeeded
to their ecclesiastical functions. The voters of the signa
ture, since 1 656, have replaced the apostolic acolyths ; they
furnish the bearers of the incense-cruets, Hghts, the Papal
gloves and ring, when the Pope officiates. In 957 his duties
in England were to bring the vessels to the deacon, and
minister with him at the altar. The newly-crowned emperor
acted as subdeacon at Milan, and offered the chalice and
paten to the archbishop. The Circumcision was called in
France the Feast of Subdeacons, held also on Epiphany or
its octave. There were four solemn dances after Christmas
in church : those of priests, deacons, subdeacons, and boys
or minor orders. -See St. John's Day.
Subdean. (Sous-doyen, the deutereuon of the Greek.) (1.)
There were three kinds of subdeans : (1) the vice-dean; (2)
the dean's vicar, his sub-officer, assistant when present, and
deputy when absent ; vice gerens in choir, as at Lichfield ;
both had a similar office, that of supplying the duties of the
dean in his absence, but the one was personal delegation
made to an individual named, the other was real, being ap-

SUBDEAN. 559
pointment to an office ; in some cathedrals the dean, with the
consent of the chapter, nominated a locum tenens to a per
petual office ; in the other case the dean simply deputed a
person temporardy, and as capable of removal ; (3) the capitu
lar subdean ; the perpetual subdean, who is said to hold a place
which is a quasi dignity in the gift of the bishop. He has a
stad, and corresponds to the foreign archpriest having paro
chial charge of the close. The office was founded at Salis
bury in 1021 ; at Wells and Lincoln in the twelfth century ;
at St. David's, York, and as penitentiary at York and
Exeter, in the thirteenth century. In all these instances he
ranked after the dignitaries, and sat in the third stall on the
dean's side at Exeter. At Chichester he is mentioned in
1383 apart from the dean's vicar; he was vicar of St. Peter's
the Great in the cathedral, and had a seal of office. At
Cologne there is a subdean. In the absence of the dean, the
senior canon at St. Paul's, the prsecentor at Lichfield, and the
archdeacon -ef Llandaff was president of chapter. At Salis
bury and Wells the subdean exercised archidiaconal authority
in the city and suburb, but not in the close, and over schools,
except those of the cathedral. At Llandaff, till recently,
the archdeacon was subdean, the bishop being dean. At
Exeter and York he was the penitentiary. At Lincoln he
took his turn in celebrating on greater doubles. At Wells
he could give leave of absence and promote the vicars.
The Council of Autun mentions an arch-subdeacon, and sub
deacon is the term applied to the subdeans of St. Paul's,
Chichester, Lincoln, and York, and used by Innocent III.
Probably, as there were archpriests who became deans, and
archdeacons who held external authority in the diocese, these
subdeans were, in point of fact, arch-subdeacons with a
limited jurisdiction within the cathedral city, outside the
close, and apart from the archdeaconry, acting as confessors,
and representing the dean, in his absence, within the cathe
dral. At Dunkeld he was commissary and rural dean of the
diocese ; and at Utrecht there were four arch-subdeacons or
chorepiscopi. At Cologne, Brechin, Ross, Glasgow, Elgin,
and at Chartres, where they ranked after the prsecentor,
there were subdeans. (2.) The dean's vicar, that is, his sub
stitute in choir only, is mentioned at Lichfield in the twelfth
century ; this subdean was necessarily in priest's orders, and

560 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
is a minor canon at St. Paul's. The subdean of Hereford
acted as a kind of provost or bailiff of manors. At St.
David's he is a vicar.
Subucula, Poderis. A cassock like a rochet worn under the
albe.
Subsacrists. Servants of the treasurer, usually acolyths or
ostiarii ; a later name than that of hebdomadary servers, and
not earlier than the fifteenth century. They were keepers of
the vestry and sacristy, church-cleaners, bell-ringers, door-
openers, lamplighters, and searchers at nightfall to see that all
was safe ; they kept order during divine service, and attended
to the good condition of the cemetery. At Lincoln they
were called stallkeepers, and at York, clerks of the vestibule
and sacrists ; and at Canterbury, vesturers.
Substrati. The prostrate or genuflectentes, kneelers ; the
second class of candidates for baptism, who after the ser
mon had part in the prayers, or, rather, because they sought
baptism prostrated.
Subtreasurer. The deputy receiver of certain rents in a cathe
dral of the new foundation, and deputy treasurer; the
sacrist ; a minor canon who had charge of the church goods,
acted as parish priest in the precinct, provided necessaries
for divine service, and was librarian. The office is still par
tially preserved as an assistant in divine service and paro
chial cure of souls. At Hereford he ranked after the suc
centor, and sang the Founder's Mass. He is mentioned in
1290 at York, and at Chichester in the fourteenth century,
being the treasurer's vicar, where he made the chrism of oil
and balsam.
Succinctory. (1.) The part of the priest's stole (subcingulum)
passed under the belt. (2.) A peculiar ornament of the
Pope, resembling a maniple, and embroidered with the Holy
Lamb, and worn on the left side, either as a substitute for an
alms-purse or the ancient belt of chastity, which was the
cincture of the albe. In the East bishops wear one pendent,
of a lozenge form, tasselled, and with a cross on it called
epigonation.
Sudary. (1.) The purificatory for wiping the chalice. (2.)
The mappula; the maniple. (3.) The veronica. Blessing
the priest's eyes with the sudary was forbidden 1549. (4.)
The banner of a bishop's staff.

SUFFRAGAN BISHOP — SUNDAY. 561
Suffragan Bishop. . (1.) A diocesan prelate who has the right
of suffrage or voting in a provincial synod or at the
election of a metropolitan. (2.) A coadjutor. By 26 Henry
VIII. c. 14, suffragan sees were proposed to be erected at
Cambridge, Hull, Gloucester, Taunton, Shaftesbury, Bed
ford, Bristol, Berwick, St. German's, Thetford, Ipswich,
Grantham, Huntingdon, Southampton, Guildford, Leices
ter, Nottingham, Marlborough, Dover, Shrewsbury, Pen
rith, Molton, Bridgenorth, Isle of Wight, and Colchester.
The following were actually for awhile suffragan sees : —
Taunton, 1538 (Bath and Wells) ; Shaftesbury, 1537
(Sarum); Marlborough, 1537 (Sarum) ; Bristol, 1538 (Wor
cester) ; Dover, 1537, again till 1558, again 1569-97 (Can
terbury) ; Bedford, 1537-60 (Lincoln) ; Shrewsbury, 1537
(Lichfield); Ipswich, 1536 (Norwich); Thetford, 1536-70
(Norwich); Colchester, 1536 (London), again 1592-1607;
Hud, before 1552 (York), again 1553-79 ; Berwick, 1536-70
(Durham) ; Penrith, 1537-9 (Carlisle) ; Nottingham, 1567-70
(York). An archbishop or bishop presented two names
for the selection of one of them to the crown. A permissive
Act for bishops suffragan in Ireland was passed in the early
part of the present century, and others have recently been
consecrated in the colonies. In 1210 the Councd of New
town enjoined the appointment of archpriests (rural deans)
in place of chorepiscopi and bishops of small sees.
Suffrages. The versicles after the Creed.
Sunday. First of the week, St. John xx. 26; Acts xx. 7;
1 Cor. xvi. 1, 2. Dies Dominicus, the Lord's day (Rev. i.
10), in 1064, began at Nones (eight p.m.) on Saturday and
lasted until Monday. In 994 parishioners were required to
attend Evensong and Nocturns on Saturday. In 696 the
Lord's day was reckoned from evening to evening, but in
958 from Saturday Nones tdl light on Monday morning.
Islip's Constitutions and the Councils of Aix (789), Frejus
(791), and Frankfort (794) assign as the cause that Vespers
are the first office of the morrow. The medieval tradition
was that our Lord was born on Sunday, baptized on Tues
day, and began His fast on Wednesday. In the EngHsh
Church, before the Norman invasion, markets and work
were forbidden on it. No malefactor could be executed,
but friendly entertainment of strangers and neighbours was
2 o

562 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
permitted. Public business, in 321, and labour, by the
Council of Laodicea (360), confirmed by Theodosius in 420,
were prohibited on this day. The Christians reinterpreted
the heathen name as implying the Sun of Righteousness.
St. Chrysostom called it the day of Bread, as the Eucharist
was always celebrated. No one fasted or knelt on Sunday
from the fourth to the seventh century, as a sign of joy, in
the West.
The Sundays in Advent and Epiphany are called in the
Greek Church by a certain number, in connection with St.
Luke's Gospel ; thus Advent Sunday is the " Tenth of Luke,"
and the Second Sunday after Epiphany the " Fifteenth of
Luke." (See Lessons.) The Third Sunday in Advent is
called Gaudete, from the Introit. In the Greek Church
most Sundays are called after the Gospel, but in the West
ern Church they are designated from the Introits.
Sunday after Epiphany. Gr. Sunday after the Lights.
At Brough on Epiphany Eve the hollins, or holy tree, an
ash illuminated with rush torches, was drawn, to the sound
of music, through the streets. In the north of Italy, Mar
riage Sunday, from the Gospel.
Sunday before Septuagesima. In the Greek Church the
Sunday of the Publican and Pharisee.
Septuagesima. (Seventieth.) So called either in allusion
to the captivity of seventy years, as the counterpart to the
forty years of wandering in the desert, to which Lent corre
sponded, or as reckoning, in round numbers, from Quadra
gesima to the First Sunday in Lent, including Sexagesima
and Quinquagesima by analogy. It is the third Sunday before
Ash Wednesday (sometimes in England written Pulver Wed
nesday), and caded by Greeks the Sunday of the Prodigal,
from the Gospel, and in the West (in the sense of the Greek
apodosis) the Close of Alleluia, which Beleth says was ac
companied by a solemn dance ; and at Toul a sod of turf
was carried in procession and buried in the cemetery. The
week following was called Apocreos or Carnis privium, be
cause meat was forbidden.
Sexagesima (Sixtieth.) The Sunday of Apocreos of the
Greek Church, because meat is not eaten beyond it.
Quinquagesima. (Fiftieth.) Dominica in Capite (Quadra-
gesimse) ; De Carne Levanda; Esto Mihi (Ps. xxxi. 2), from

SUNDAY. 563
the Introit ; in Germany, the Priests' Fortnight, ecclesiastics
commencing their fast on this day ; and in the Greek Church,
Tyrophagus, because cheese is no longer eaten. In France
the morrow was caded Collop Monday, as the last day in
which meat (and then only in small quantities) was per
mitted. The name of Shrove-Tuesday, instead of Fastens, occurs in
1512. It was derived from the shrift or confession prac
tised on this day, which was popularly devoted to the coarse
and wild merry-making from which the carnival took its
origin. Sundays in Lent : — (I.) Invocavit, from the Introit (Ps.
xci. 15) ; in France, from an ancient ceremonial, Sunday in
Brandons (torches) or of Hearths; Germ. Spark Sunday;
Quadragesima; in the East, Orthodoxy Sunday, from the
overthrow of the Iconoclasts ; in 994, in England, Holy
Day, because all parishioners were shrived on the evening
before, and in 877 "the day on which Christ prevailed
against the devil;" in Germany, Freed Sunday, from the
freedom permitted to servants. This week was called Chaste
Week, or Clene Lenton. (II.) Beminiscere, from the Introit
(Ps. xxv. 16) ; in France, Transfiguration, from the Gospel
in the Paris use. (III.) Oculi, from the Introit (Ps. xxv.. 15) ;
in the East, the Adoration of the Cross, which was then
kissed with great reverence. (IV.) Laitare, from the Introit
(Is. Hv. 1) ; Refreshment Sunday, from the Gospel and lec
tion at Matins (Gen. xliu.) ; Mi-Careme ; Midlent Sunday;
Mediana; Sp. Mediante, Pasques Charnicula; in the Greek
Church, from a special hymn, Sunday of the Great Canon ; and
at Rome, Sunday of the Golden Rose. (-See that word. Henry
VI.. received one in 1446 and 1452.) In England, Care
Sunday, as it were Penance Sunday, from kar, a penalty ;
Mothering Sunday, in allusion to the Epistle (Gal. vi. 21),
when all persons made their offerings in the cathedral or
mother-church, 'until the thirteenth century, when other
churches or stations were appointed. From eating fine
wheat-cakes or- beans on this day Simnel, or Carhng Sunday.
The popular name was Mid. Tid. Mis. ra, a corruption of
Mid-Tide-Miserere, the Psalm used in Lent continually.
(V.) Judica, from the Introit (Ps. xliu. 1) ; Passion Sunday ;
Dimanche Reprus, from veihng the images ; the Sunday of
2 o2

564 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the Quintain, from the sports of the day, in France; in
Germany, Black Sunday, from the veiling of the crosses when
the words of the Gospel are read, " Jesus hid Himself."
The Saturday before is called in southern Europe Alms
Saturday, because our Lord said on this day, " The poor ye
have always." In the East it is known as St. Lazarus's Satur
day. The Greeks cad it Acathisti, from a hymn to the
Virgin sung standing. (VI.) (-See Palm Sunday.) The week
was called " Greater " from the length of the services. Beleth
says that on the previous evening the Pope and bishops made
the Maundy. On Easter Day, Beleth says, in some places
in the yard or porch a large vessel was placed to contain all
that was to be eat and drunk by the parishioners, and these
were blessed with the cross and holy-water, the priest taking
what he would. After communion also a morsel of bread
and sip of wine were given to each of the faithful on leaving
church. At Rheims and other places the bishops and clergy
played at ball, a game known as the Liberty of December,
in imitation of -the heathen Saturnalia. Women beat their
husbands on Easter Monday, and the men retorted on the
next day. On the following Saturday, called, like Easter
Eve, the Sabbath in Albes, white dresses were worn. Easter
. Eve was called the Sabbath of Lights.
Greater Sundays. The First Sunday in Advent, the First,
Fifth, and Sixth in Lent.
Sundays after Easter: — (I.) Low Sunday; Quasimodo,
in allusion to man's renovation by the Resurrection (1 Pet.
ii. 2), from the Epistle; Anti-Pasch; Missae Domini; Quin
quagesima of Joy ; Neophytes' Day ; Sunday in Albes ; and
Octave of Infants, in allusion to the newly-baptized. On
this day, or the Fourth Sunday after Easter, was kept the
commemoration of the last Easter baptism, called the Anno-
tine Easter. Fordun says Easter Monday was popularly
called Black Monday, and the ' Chronicle of Dunstable '
derives the name from a great blackness of the sky at Paris
on April 14, 1361. (II.) Three Ointment Bearers, from the
Gospel; St. Thomas, or Renewal Sunday (St. John xx. 27) ; in
the Latin Church, Misericordias Domini, from the Introit
(Ps. xxxiii. 5) ; Sunday of White Cloths, or after the exhibi
tion of relics. (III.) Of the Paralytic, from the Gospel, in the
Greek Church ; in the Latin, Jubilate, from the Introit (Ps.

SUPER-ALTAR — SUPERFRONTAL. 565
lxvi. 2). (IV.) Mid-Pentecost ; Of the Samaritan, in the Greek
Church, from the Gospel ; in the West, from the Introits,
Cantate (Ps. xcviii. 1), Rogate (Sol. Song ii. 14), Exaudi
(Ps. xxvii. 7). (V.) Rogation; in the Greek Church, from the
Gospel, " Of the Blind Man."
Sunday after Ascension. In the East, Sunday of the 318,
in adusion to the Nicene Fathers ; at Rome, the Sunday of
Roses, so called by Innocent III. in 1130, as roses were
thrown down from the roof of Santa Maria Rotunda, sym
bolically of the gifts of the Spirit. This week was called
that of expectation (Acts i. 4).
Trinity Sunday. In' the East, All Saints' Sunday ; in
France, the King of Sundays, or Blessed Sunday.
Super-Altar. (Altare viaticum, gestatorium, portatile, para-
tum, itinerarium, and propitiatory until the ninth century.)
(1.) The supertable of Cranmer. Becon says both the altar and
super-altar were covered with " cloth of hair." Mass might
not be celebrated but upon an altar, or, " at the least, upon
a super-altar, to supply the fault of the altar." " Superal-
teries," or trentals of communions, were forbidden by Ridley,
1550. The ornamental slab of an altar, often jewelled and of
jasper. It was a removable, precious, and often a very costly
covering of marble or metal upon a frame of wood, which
was placed on an altar for purposes of magnificence and de
votion. St. Cuthbert's grave was found to contain a port
able table of oak. Another was discovered in St. Acca's
grave at Hexham, also of wood. One of ivory was given to
Exeter in 1050. The slab was usually quadrangular or cir
cular, with a sepulchrum or hollow for relics, and was made
of jasper, marble, or ebony. Hincmar, in 867, allowed the
use of a consecrated slate, marble, or a black stone slab,
probably owing to the needs of the Crusaders and the defi
ciency of churches. It was large enough to contain the
chahce and host. Guilds, the merchants of the staple, and
private persons had the privilege under certain restrictions
by special favour. (»See Antiminsion, anti-mensa.) (2.)
The reredos or retable in the twelfth century at St. Alban's,
carved, with a cross over it, and colouring, and wrought
sides, over the Mary-altar : this is either a local term or an
application of the word by Matthew Paris.
Superfrontal. The tabula superfrontaHs, retro-tabula, or post-

566 sacred archeology.
tabula, was the decoration attached to the wall behind and
above the altar, as the tabula frontalis was the perma
nent ornament of its forepart. (2.) Modern name for the
decorative hanging which overlaps a frontal. Lyndwood
defines the frontal to be the pad or apparel hanging in front
of an altar. In 1641 the Puritans objected to " crucifixes
and images on the parafront or altar-cloth," and bringing up
" children from the baptism to the altar to offer them up to
God," and " making three congees " to it eastward " at every
access and recess and motion."
Superstitions. In 960 the Church forbade the worship of foun
tains, groves, trees (especially elders), and stones, or the
drawing of chddren through the earth on the " night of the
year." St. Agatha's letters were used against burning
houses and fire ; a holy candle on the hawthorn was a charm
against lightning ; and the hallowed bell rung in thunder ;
St. Blaise preserved horses, and saved men from the ague
and choking. According to Becon, " If we fast the blessed
saints' evens . . . St. George will defend us in battle ; St.
Barbara will keep us from thundering and Hghtning; St.
Agape will save our house from burning; St. Antony wiU
keep our swine ; St. Luke will save our ox ; St. Job wid
defend us from the pox ; St. Gertrude wid keep our house
from mice and rats; St. Nicholas will preserve us from
drowning ; St. Loye (Eloi, Bishop of Noyon) will cure our
horse ; St. Dorothy wid save our herbs and flowers ; St.
Sith (Osyth, a princess of East Anglia, martyred by the
. Danes) wdl bring again whatever we lose ; St. Apolline will
heal the pain of our teeth ; SS. Sweetlad and Agnes will send
our maids good husbands." Prayers are also mentioned : —
" Unto Rock (St. Roche), for the pestdence ; to St. Christopher,
for continued health ; to Clement, for good beer ; St. Ger
main's, evil ; St. Sithe's, key ; St. Uncomber's (Rhadegund's
or St. Wylgeforth), oats ; Master John Shorne's boot (into
which he conjured the foul fiend ; preserved at Merston,
near Gravesend) as a cure for the ague ; St. Fiacre, for the
ague ; St. Gadtian, for lost thrift ; St. Walstone, for good
harvest; St. Cornells (Cornelius, Bishop of Rome), for the
foul evil ; St. Hubert, for dogs ; beans were offered to St.
Blyth and St. Blaise, and children to St. Clement." " Invo
cations were made to Anne for a husband ; unto Margaret,

SURPLICE — SURCINGLE. 567
for women with child ; to Blaise, for the ague ; to Catherine,
for learning ; to Crispin and Crispinian, for shoes making ;
to Cosmas and Damian, for physic," and St Barbara, for
gunshot. The following were " extolled " : — St. George's colt,
St. Anthony's pig, St. Francis' cowl, St. Leonard's bowl,
St. Cornelys' horn, and St. Parson's breech. St. John's
Gospel was hung as a charm about the neck. The (Re
deemer's) Blood of Hales (Abbey), like that of St. Januarius
at Naples, was exhibited as liquefied to persons not in a state
of mortal sin ; to those that were it appeared opaque.
Surplice. (Over the pelisse; Lat. supcr-pelllceum; the Greek
samisia or cpiraptaria ; Fr. surplis; Sp. sobrepellle; Ger.
chorhemd, a choirocke, is a vestment ; sirpcloth in the north
of England in the seventeenth century). Paulinus sent a
lambs' -wool coat to Severus, and St. Ambrose complains of
the use of beaver skins and silk dresses. The monks pro
bably adopted the pelisse in allusion to Heb. xi. 37, and wore
it in the eleventh century. The white garment of the clergy
is mentioned by St. Gregory Nazianzen, Jerome, and Cle
ment of Alexandria, Honorius, and Ivo of Chartres. It was
used only in ministering at the altar, or in proceeding to
church, or carrying the Eucharist. Angels and other blessed
persons are recorded in Scripture to have appeared in white
linen (St. Matt. xvii. 2 ; xxviii. 3 ; St. Mark xvi. 5; Acts i.
10; Rev. iv. 7, 9, 10). The name and colour signify holi
ness of life joined to penitence, denoted by the skins of dead
beasts, the evil affections of the heart. The name is first
mentioned by Odo of Paris and Stephen of Tournay, in the
twelfth century, and by Duraud. The Council of Basle re
quired the surplice to reach below the middle of the thigh.
The Gdbertines wore a hooded surplice. At Burgos, in
summer, the canons wear, instead of a cope and mozzetta
(their winter habit), a sleeved surplice raised on the shoulders.
In 1322 Reynold's Constitutions order the server at the
altar to wear a surplice. Lyndwood says it was worn by a
priest who went to the altar to do anything with regard to the
Eucharist. In 1305 chaplains or conducts wore it in choir.
Surrogate. The deputy of a bishop for granting licences of
marriage and probate of wills.
Surcingle. (1.) The part of the stole crossed under the
girdle. (2.) A belt with two purse-like appendages, used in
the old English Church.

568 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Sursum Corda. The words " Lift up your hearts," with the
response " We lift them up unto the Lord." They occur in
St. Cyprian, St. Cyril of Jerusalem, St. Augustine, St.
Chrysostom, and Csesarius of Aries.
Susceptores. (St. Matt, xviii. 16; Is. viii. 2.) One man and
two women for each child. Beleth says, godparents who
held the child at the font and took it from out the priest's
hands after its baptism, a custom alluded to by Walter's
Constitutions, 1195, and those of Langton, 1223. They in
early times, according to Albinus, held the child on their
left arm whilst the priest wiped the child's face with a linen
cloth. Sureties who undertake, as the Canons of Cealcythe
in 785 explain, renunciation of Satan and acceptance of the
Creed. The religious, heathens, persons unconfirmed, and
a husband and wife together were not permitted to be
sureties.
Swords and a ducal cap (It. stocco e beretto) are blessed on
Christmas Eve at the midnight Mass by the Pope, in order
to be sent to favoured kings, as Edward IV., 1478 ; Henry
VIL, 1505 ; Henry VIII., 1517. The last gift of this kind
was made by Leo XII. to the Due d'Angouleme in 1825.
Symbol. The Creed, as the bond of intercommunion and test
of fellowship and brotherhood among Christians ; that dis
tinctive sign by which they recognized each other when it
was not as yet committed to writing, and was restricted to
the initiated.
Symphony. Simple melody, in opposition to diaphony.
Synagogue. The Jewish Church is in the Catacombs repre
sented as a woman of majestic presence in flowing robes ;
but in medieval examples, as on a doorway at Rochester
Cathedral, with her eyes bandaged, the Tables of the Law
falling from one hand, and holding a broken staff in the
other (Jer. v. 16, 17). The Church is crowned and sceptred,
and holds a church and a cross. -See Graal.
Synapte. The Greek collect in the Liturgy of St. Mark, re
sembling the ectene in those of St. James and St. Chry
sostom.
Synaxarion. An abridged form of the Greek menology ; an
account of the festival being celebrated.
Syncelli. Household clergy living with a bishop as witnesses
to his pious conversation.

SYNOD — TABERNACLE. 569
Synod. (Gr. sunodos, an assenfbly.) A diocesan assembly,
as a provincial synod was called a council : in 1070, the
bishop was to summon them twice a year. By the Apostolic
Canons and the Council of Antioch there were to be provin
cial councils convened by the metropolitan in the third week
after Pentecost, and on October 15th. Theodore's Canons
in 673 enjoined a yearly synod at Cloveshoe on August 1st,
in place of the usual half-yearly meetings ; but in 785 the
latter were restored by the legate at Cealcythe.
Synodals. (1.) Provincial constitutions or canons read after
the synods in parish churches. (2.) Procurations, so called
because formerly the bishop held his synod and visitation
together.
Tabernacle. (Bepositorium, theca; Gr. skene; Germ, sacra-
menthaiis.) (1.) A niche or hovel for an image. (2.) An
aumbry on the right side of the altar or behind it, for the
reservation of the Host, chrism, and oil of the sick. It was
always locked. (3.) A throne carried like a litter on the
shoulders of Spanish priests in the procession of Corpus
Christi, and supporting the Host. (4.) A small temple over
the central part of an altar, for reservation of the Eucharist,
contained in the pyx, and often decorated with a crown of
three circlets.
The name is allusive to the ark of the testament contained
in the Mosaic tabernacle, and holding the pot of manna.
The Third Council of Braga calls the tabernacle the ark of
the Lord, and so the Apostolical Constitutions name it the
pastophorion, which in Ezek. xl. means the priests' dwelling,
in adusion to our great High Priest. Possibly the word may
refer to Ps. Ixxxiv. 1. Its earliest form was a coffer of wood
or a little arched receptacle, then it became a tower of gold,
or of circular shape, being a casket for the chalice and paten,
in fact a ciborium. At Amiens and in the north of France
a dove suspended by chains over the high-altar, or a vessel
like an elongated aumbry, was employed. The Greek skene,
a box surmounted with precious stuff, is sometimes sus
pended in a bag, but more commonly is set upon the high-
altar. In Italy the tabernacle is set upon the altar-shelf,
flanked by the accessory lights, the two candles used at
Mass being set, as usual, upon the altar. In the thirteenth

570 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
century the tabernacle almost universally was placed near
the altar. Two tabernacles, before the twelfth century, were
often placed in churches, one to hold the reserved Eucharist,
and the other to contain the Gospels, according to the Church
proverb, " Verbum Dei sicut Corpus Christi." At St. Alban's,
about that date, there was a gold vessel, richly jewelled, for
the Host, hung above the high-altar, and Henry II. gave a
cup of price to contain this " theca." There was a similar
cup at Chichester in the twelfth century. On Palm Sunday
the Eucharist was carried in a shrine-shaped vessel to a tent
in the cemetery, then to the chapter-house, and back into
the church, by an old monk in a white chasuble, supported
by two others in copes. Lyndwood says that in Hodand
and Portugal the aumbry near the altar formed the taber
nacle, [and Moleon mentions similar instances in France] ,
whilst the English custom of having a pendent pyx was
better for adoration, but worse in respect to danger of theft
or falling down. Bonner, however, ordered the pyx to be
" hanged upon the altar," and Cardinal Pole desired that
the tabernacle, under lock and key, should be elevated in
the midst of the high-altar, or near it, with a light before
the Sacrament, — a lamp or taper ever burning in honour of
the Host ; but even then common usage did not sanction
such a position upon the altar. In the fifteenth century the
tabernacle became a magnificent piece of furniture over or
on the left side of the high-altar, with statues, towers,
foliage, buttresses, and superb work full of grace and
delicacy, as at Grenoble, St. John Maurienne, Leau, Tour-
nay, Louvaine, Augsburg, and St. Laurence, Nuremberg,
the latter sixty-four feet high and of white stone, " Hke a
foaming sheaf of fountains," made by Adam Kraft. At
Moltot there is a tabernacle, of the time of Louis XII., serv
ing both for reservation and for exposition. Another of the
same kind at Senauques, of the thirteenth century, resembles
a tower of wood. At Kintore, Foulis, and Kinked are taber
nacles like aumbries, with angels kneeling before a mon
strance, of the sixteenth century ; and others remain on the
north side of the choir at St. Clement's, Rome, Cologne,
Ulm, Esslingen, Louvaine, Frankfort, and Bonn. -See Cibo
rium, Cup, Dove, Pyx, Corporax Cups.
In Italy the Host is carried in a box enveloped in a pre-

TABLE. 571
cious veil. (-See Canopy.) By Edmund's Constitutions, 1236,
the Eucharist was carried to the sick in a clean decent box,
containing a clean linen cloth, and Peckham, in 1279, direc
ted the employment of a tabernacle or a covering of purple
silk or clean linen, with a decent enclosure, within which the
Lord's body was to be laid, not in a purse or bag, but in a
fair pyx, lined with the whitest linen. In many Cistercian
churches, and at Marseilles, in the procession of the Fete
Dieu, an image of the Virgin held the tabernacle. The
Greeks use a pendent silk bag over the altar.
Table, Holy. (1.) The altar, "the table at which the holy
bread which came down from heaven is eaten," as Othobon
defined it in 1268. That in the Vatican is of firwood, which
was considered incorruptible. The words table and altar
are indifferently applied (Ezek. xxni. 41 ; xii. 22 ; xliv. 16),
as priest and minister were (Joel i. 9). In regard to the
oblation it is an altar, and in respect to the Communion, God's
board, or the table of the Lord (1 Cor. x. 21). The earHest
altars were of wood. The martyrs' tombs in the catacombs
served as altars. After the edict of Felix I., who died in
274, they were covered by a slab of tufa and called by Pru-
dentius the mensa. The church built over St. Cyprian's
tomb was called Cyprian's table. Gregory of Tours speaks
of an ancient stone table, set on two upright slabs, as " the
ark." The Greek Church has always called it hagia trapeza.
It is simply a wooden table, with a rich cloth ; on it are laid
the tabernacle for the Eucharist reserved for the sick, the
enkolpion in which it is carried round the neck by the priest,
the antiminsion, folded, and the Book of the Gospel. (2.) A
flat piece of board; a level surface; any construction for
superficial decoration. (3.) A frontal to an altar at St.
Alban's in the twelfth century. Such tables were partly of
metal and partly of wood. Some had rich carvings, and
some were coloured. One given to Glastonbury in 1071 was
of gold, silver, and ivory. Another, of the same date, at
Ely was bordered with jewels, and represented the throne
of God, and figures. (4.) Mensa, the upper stone altar- slab.
(5.) Pensdis contained the names of benefactors, registers of
miracles, a list of indulgences, and the course of officiants,
officiating clergy at the Hours, and celebrants of Masses.
-See Altar.

572 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
Table Tomb. A raised solid structure erected over a grave,
and shaped Hke a table, closed at the sides.
Taper-Stand or Sconce. (Pro tortidis.) A socket to hold a
pricket, on which a taper was set. They occur on the sides
of windows and in brackets, being used for night-lights in
church, or the offerings, by the devout, of candles, which
were kept burning before a shrine. The Greeks call the
hand-candlestick manoualion, and a group of lamps polei-
elaion.
Tapestry. (Sp. colgaduras.) Hangings are stdl used in the
coros of Spanish churches. The hooks for them remain
along the nave walls of Winchester, and examples are pre
served at Beauvais; St. Peter's, Mancroft (1573) ; Denbigh,
a dorsal (1530) ; at Chester, of French manufacture, till
lately used as a dossal; atMerton Codege, Oxford; and West
minster, of the time of James II. Polydore Vergil, in the
sixteenth century, gave hangings, embroidered with his
arms, for the stalls at Weds. Those given by Prior Gold-
stone to Canterbury are now at Aix. The screen-hangings
used for shelter and ornament at Exeter represented the
story of the Duke of Burgundy, and were blazoned with the
arms of the Courtenays. At Peterborough, in the transept,
tapestry, with the deliverance of St. Peter out of prison, of
the time of Henry VIII., is the solitary relic of sixteen pieces
used on festivals, and suspended, till 1643, from the choir
triforium. At Manchester there is tapestry, c. 1661. From
Christmas to Purification, from Easter Eve to the octave of
Trinity Sunday, from the Assumption to Michaelmas, and
on St. Chad's Day, Lichfield was adorned with sdken hang
ings and cloths. At York Archbishop Lamplugh gave
tapestries for hanging the reredos. At Westminster tapes
tries were hung round the easternmost bays at the corona
tion of Charles I., and remained till the last century. Until
1 765 the bays between the pdlars were hung with tapestry
at Carlisle. The tapestry hangings remained at Norwich
tdl 1740.
Tassels. (Tasse, a hay-mow.) In the twelfth century chasu
bles and copes were ornamented with gold tassels. The
word also denotes a thin plate of gold or silver worn as an
orphrey on the back of a cope or glove, like the Greek anti-
panon.

TAWDRY  TENEBRE. 573
Tawdry. A necklace of thin silk worn in memory of St.
Audrey or Etheldreda, who mourned for her vanity in wear
ing gold necklaces, when she was smitten with swellings in
the neck.
Te Deum. This hymn (commonly called that of SS. Ambrose
and Augustine, and said by Dacius, Bishop of Milan in the
time of Justin the Elder, to have been first sung at the bap
tism of the latter's father in the basilica of Milan) occurs in
the Matin service, but has also been frequently used as a
separate thanksgiving with a procession or litany, as at St.
Paul's, for the victory of Musselburgh, 1547, and at the close
of the Coronation Service. This glorious hymn certainly
dates a century later than the time of St. Ambrose, and the
chronicle of Dacius is regarded as not genuine. It probably
was written in Gaul, and has been variously attributed to
the monk Sisebutus, and Nicetus, Bishop of Treves in 527.
The first mention of it occurs in the Rules of St. Benedict
and Csesarius of Aries.
Te Igitur. The beginning of the Canon of the Mass after the
Ter Sanctus and Secrets was written by one Scholasticus in
the time of Gregory I. It was also caded Obsecratio.
Tenebrae. (Tenables.) The usual office of Nocturns and Matin
Lauds for Thursday, Friday, and Saturday in Holy Week,
said at the Vespers of the preceding day. At the end of
the Benedicite the top candle of the Tenebrse candles was
removed and placed behind the altar ; at the prayer Respice
it was brought out again by the casrimonar, to kindle all the
church lights at a signal from the officiating priest and those
in choir, by making a sudden noise with books, or beating
on their desks, symbolicafly of the confusion of disciples at
the Lord's betrayal, and the convulsion of nature at His
death. In Florence and other places the laity joined in
with discordant noises and irreverent levity. At Seville a
volley of musketry customarily is fired. The name of the
office has been traced to the fact that it was formerly cele
brated at midnight, as an allusion to Christ walking no
more openly with the Jews, as Cranmer says ; others suggest
that it is derived from the gradual extinction of Hghts which
originady were put out one by one as the morning began to
grow clear ; or in symbol of grief and mourning ; or, as
Beleth suggests, of the eclipse of three hours at the Passion.

574 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
About the year 840, Theodore, the archdeacon of Rome,
told Amalarius that the lights were not extinguished on
Maundy Thursday in St. John's, Lateran. These lights are
arranged on a large candlestick supporting a triangular
frame or herse ; along its sides are fourteen yedow candles,
and one of white colour on the point itself. These are
variously interpreted, the lower lights as the Apostles and
disciples who fled from the Saviour at His betrayal, or the
patriarchs and prophets whose Hght was dark to the infidel
Jews, whilst the upper light is said to represent the Virgin,
who remained constant, or the True Light Himself. The
upper light is not extinguished, but concealed until Easter,
under the altar, which is left in darkness on the Epistle side
The number of Hghts varied. In some churches there was
a candle corresponding to each psalm and lesson of the
office. Thus we find seven, nine, twelve, fifteen, twenty-
four, twenty-five at York, thirty, seventy-two, or even as
many as each person thought fit to bring. These were ex
tinguished sometimes at once or at two or three intervals.
At Canterbury there were twenty-five, but since the twelfth
century the usual practice is to light fifteen on the triangle,
besides those on the altar. In some places they were
quenched with a moist sponge, and in others with a hand of
wax to represent Judas. St. Gregory of Tours says that on
the night of Good Friday the watchings were kept in dark
ness until the third hour, when a small light appeared above
the altar. Cranmer explains that the Lamentations of Jere
miah were read in memory of the Jews seeking our Lord's
life at this time. The Reproaches and Trisagion were not
sung until the fourteenth century on Good Friday.
Tenths of ecclesiastical benefices and lands were first paid in
1188 towards Henry II.'s. Crusade.
Terrer. The local name of the hostdlar at Durham. The
Greek guest-houses adjoining churches are called anakamp-
teria.
Terrier. A register or survey of Church property ordered by
the 87th Canon to be made and preserved in the bishop's
registry.
Ter Sanctus. (Thrice holy ; Is. vi. 3 ; Rev. iv. 8.) The invo
cation of God sung before the Canon of the Mass, at the end
of the Preface, alluded to by St. Cyril of Jerusalem. Pope

TESTER  THRONE. 575
Sixtus in the sixth century ordered the people to sing the
Sanctus with the priest. Charlemagne forbade the priest to
commence the Canon before the people had sung the Sanctus.
The Sanctus Deus, Sanctus Fortis, sung daily by the
Greeks, is chanted by the Latins on Good Friday only. -See
Hymns.
Tester. (1.) The upper hanging over a bed. (2.) Housings for
a horse. (3.) Covering of a trunk. (4.) A flat canopy, co-
opertorium. The co-operculum was the wooden case en
closing a precious shrine. The latest instance of a tester,
perhaps, is that over Bishop Montague's tomb at Bath, c.
1615.
Tetragammaton. The name of God in four letters, iTli"P-
Texts. The Book of the Gospels, which Rupert says were
enriched with precious metals and jewels.
Thanksgiving, The, is the prayer after the Memorial in the
Communion office.
Theca or Burse. (Lat. bursa, a purse.) A case-cover con
taining the corporals, and presented to the priest at Mass ;
it was of square form, made usuady of rich stuff, and lined
like a bag with fine linen or silk; on the upper side was a
sacred image or cross. One of the fifteenth century, of
canvas, remains at Hessett, painted with the Veronica and
Holy Lamb.
Thomas's, St., Day. (Dec. 21.) Observed by the Greek Church
on Oct. 6 , is mentioned by Theodoret, and in St. Gregory's
Sacramentary.
Throne. (1.) The bishop's chair was often decorated with
bronze and gold ornaments up to the thirteenth century ; in
Germany, England, and France, stone or marble was em
ployed, and, from a tradition of curule chairs, ivory in Italy
alone. At Vienne, Lyons, Autun, Metz, Arras, and Rheims,
where a cross was laid in it during the vacancy of the See,
the throne, provided with lights, was at the east end of the
church, as in Istria and Dalmatia since 1510, and at Mdan,
Augsburg, and Monreale ; at Canterbury it was in the same
place, and occupied by the archbishop until the Offertory or
Consecration; he returned to it to give the benediction. When
a bishop celebrated pontifically in his own church he read the
Mass of the Catechumens from his throne, but when in the
church of another bishop had a seat on the Epistle side of

f
576 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the altar. St. Martin of Tours sat in the sacristy, where, at
Ravenna, a seat of stone remains. At Autun, York, Mon-
reale, Parenzo, St. Mark's (Venice), Malta, and Gerona the
throne was of stone or marble, Hke those at St. Stephen's
(Verona), at Avignon, of the fourteenth century; at Ravenna,
at Torcello, of alabaster, with a cross between stars and
flowers, of the eleventh century ; and at Toul of the thir
teenth century. The throne given by Charlemagne is pre
served at Aix-la-Chapelle ; Bernini's bronze throne adorns St.
Peter's, Rome ; St. Maximian's throne, of ivory, of the sixth
century, is at Ravenna ; and the Royal Museum of France
contains the gilt and bronze chair of St. Dagobert, formerly
at St. Denis, the folding part being of the seventh century.
St. Sylvester's throne is in St. Martin's-at-Hill, and another
enriched with mosaics, of the thirteenth century, at St.
Laurence's, Rome. The thrones of Milan and Augsburg
rest upon lions, one at Sabino on two elephants, and a third
at Bari on three kneeling figures. At Ely and Carlisle the
bishop, being abbot, sat in the south-west stall, but his ordi
nary place was at the end of the stads on the south side of
the choir during the dady office, as the central position of
dignity ; but at a Pontifical Mass his faldstool was placed on
the north side of the altar. The throne of Durham is erected,
with a solemn meaning, over a tomb. Those of Hereford, of
the fourteenth century ; Exeter and Weds, of the fifteenth
century ; and a chair of the thirteenth century in the former
cathedral, are of wood ; that of Exeter has a superb canopy.
At St. David's the throne (c. 1500) has side stalls for the
collateral canons, and a low inclosure (c. 1342) round it. In
England three or two candles were set on the side of the
throne. The throne of Susa is of the thirteenth century.
The Greek thrones are domed. Wilfrid, at his consecration,
was carried, after the French custom, by bishops through
the church in a gilded sella. Casalius mentions, in the
seventeenth century, that the four principal magistrates car
ried the Archbishops of Tours, Bourges, Poictiers, and Auch
at their first entrance into the metropolitical city. On cer
tain days the Pope is carried on a sedes gestatoria, which is
canopied by eight prelates referendaries, and escorted by
two attendants waving feather-fans. The larger Greek
churches have a throne for the sovereign prince, and at

THUMBSTALL  TIPPET. 577
Monreale and Palermo the kings, having legatine power, oc
cupied enormous thrones near the altar. In Spain, since the
fifteenth century, except at Barcelona, the throne is at the
west end of the choir. Rodez retains a flamboyant throne,
and Tarragona one of Renaissance date.
Thumbstall, or Pouncer. A ring with pearls, rubies, or rich
ornament, worn by a bishop on his thumb, when it had been
dipped in chrism, out of respect to the holy oil, and to pre
serve his vestment from stains.
Thurible. A censer (Phiale, Rev. v. 8 ; the thumiaterion, Heb.
ix. 4). In the eighth century pans of incense were carried
about, and the censer was whirled round with short chains, as
by the Greeks. Charlemagne gave gold censers to Charroux,
and Chosroes made a similar gift to Jerusalem. Pope Sixtus
III. presented silver censers to the Liberian basdica. There
is an ancient silver thurible at Louvaine, and another of silver-
gilt and German workmanship at St. Anthony's, Padua. Cowel
supposes that the word "treble" came from the shrill voice
of the thuribler, and that the boy carrying a little bell might
give the name of treble to a smaller bell. High up in the
crossing of Westminster Abbey there are gigantic angels
censing.
Tiles, Encaustic. Used in pavements about the thirteenth
century for the first time apparently; there are some fine
examples at Winchester, Gloucester, Christchurch (Hants),
Westminster, Worcester, Ely, Romsey, Tewkesbury, Tin-
tern, Malvern, Warblington, and Bredon; and in France, in
the Hall of the Guards, Caen. Some early specimens are
preserved in the British Museum, which came from Castle
Acre. At Great Malvern tiles have been employed to form
a reredos ; in the Gaunt's Chapel, Bristol, Spanish ajuleios
are found Hke those of Granada. Heraldic ornaments, sacred
emblems and figures, are the usual decorations. In the six
teenth century Flemish tile was introduced, and in the seven-
tenth century there was a local manufactury in Devonshire ;
in medieval times Droitwich and Malvern were the chief pro
ducers. At Hamburg there was an ancient tomb, with an
effigy of a pope executed in tdework.
Tinsel. (Fr. estincelles, Lat. scintilla.) Sparkhng stuff; span
gled.
Tippet. The tip of a hood, or timp. (Liripipium or colli-
2 p

578 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
pendium; Germ, zipfel.) A tail-like appendage, lengthened
out so as to lie on the shoulder, and become a neck-wrapper.
In 745 cocculse round the head and wraps (fasciolce) round the
legs were forbidden to monks in England, because worn by
laymen. The Hripip (which the statutes of Ratisbon ex
plain as capitium vel cleri peplum, vulgo poff) lingers in the
ordinary hatband and that used at funerals. The tippets of
the almuce had rounded ends, to distinguish it from the
squared terminations of the stole ; they were worn hanging
down in front by canons, but by monks behind by way of
distinction. Latimer calls a halter the Tyburn tippet. The
tippets, or liripips, disappeared from the hood in the time of
Henry VII. At an early period the cape had only a bell-
shaped ornament, and at a later date an edging of tails.
The Hripip is not earlier than the time of Edward III., and
was worn by canons and rural deans ; it is mentioned in con
nection with a hood in the Constitutions of Bourchier (1463),
and Stratford (1343). Grindal uses it in the sense of a stole ;
Ducange explains it as an epomis. The short Hripip, or
cornet of silk or cloth, was worn by preachers in Queen Eliza
beth's time, and according to Act 24 Henry VIII. enforced
by Parker, of sarcenet by certain ranks. Latimer talks of
his cloak and tippet, Grindal and Whitgift mention caps and
tippets as distinctive of the clergy, and Cranmer complains
of a petty canon "jetting" or strutting about London in side
(long) gown and sarcenet tippet, the ensigns of dignitaries
and graduates. Grindal, in 1571, says the clergy were re
quired to wear commonly a square cap, and a kind of tippet
over the neck hanging from either shoulder, and falling down
almost to the heels. In Convocation the clergy wore long
gowns and tippets, 1553. Pilkington and Cranmer call the
time-serving clergy turn-tippets. A small triangular piece
of folded cloth, called the tippet or epomis, at Oxford is worn
behind the left shoulder by proctors, and should be by noble
men and baronets. Harding, in Queen Elizabeth's time, says
some wear square caps, some round caps, some button caps,
some only hats ; some wear side gowns, having large sleeves
with tippets; some Turkey gowns, gaberdines, frocks, or
nightgowns of the most lay fashion. The stuff tippet, liri-
pipium, of the ¦ canons of 1603, worn by literates, is the
stole.

TIRON  TITLE OF THE CROSS. 579
Tiron, Monks of the Order of. Founded by St. Bernard at
Tiron in 1109; their habit was light-grey, but afterwards
black. They had one house in this country, St. Dogmael's,
in Wales.
Tithes. St. Augustine calls them the tribute of the Church
and of needy souls. Before the Norman invasion they are
mentioned by Boniface, in 693 ; and besides them were paid
plough alms at Easter, within a fortnight of the festival ; of
young, at Pentecost; of fruits of the earth, at All Saints';
Rome fee, or Peter's pence, on August 1 ; Church scot, at
Martinmas; light-scot, first mentioned in 878, a halfpenny
worth of wax for every ploughland, paid on Easter Eve, All
Hallows', and the Purification; and soul-scot, given at the
grave of each parishioner. In 957 the bishops had surren
dered their fourth, and the tithe-payer attended at church,
and of his offerings one part went to the church repairs, a
second to the poor, and a third to the clergy. Tithes were
formally enforced within the Pale after the Synod of Cashel,
in 1172.
Title of the Cross, St. Augustine says, was written in Hebrew
for Jews who gloried in God's law; in Greek for the wise
of the nations ; in Latin for Romans, the conquerors of
the world. Hence churches were called titles, not only be
cause the clergy took titles from them which fixed them to
particular cures, but as dedicated to the Crucified. The ap
pellation is first used by the Council of Braga in 572. The
dedications (as distinct from consecrations to God) were
chosen with care : churches standing on a hill bore the name
St. Michael or St. Catherine, in allusion to the apparition of
the Archangel on Mount Garganus, and the angels carrying
of the virgin saint's body to Mount Horeb ; those by the
ferry were called after St. Christopher, who carried the in
fant Christ across the ford ; those near the sea were named
after St. Nicholas ; and such as were connected with the
factory of Hamburg merchants, St. Bodolph. The dedica
tions of Holy Trinity and Christchurch were synonymous.
A title was also a right to serve some church from which an
ordained clerk took his title, a name derived from the titles
of the martyrs' tombs, at which service originally was said,
and so called for the reason given above, or the fiscal titulus
which marked buildings belonging to the sovereign ; and
2 p 2

580 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
thus, also, churches dedicated to the King of kings. Pope
Cletus, c. 81, appointed twenty -five priests for Rome; these
Evaristus, in 112, divided as cardinal priests among the
churches of the regions or quarters in which they resided ;
he also instituted cardinal deacons ; and Stephen IV., in the
ninth century, appointed cardinal bishops for distinct sees.
The earliest title was St. Pudentiana, now called St. Prax-
edes. The Roman Cathedral had in 142 a title or parish
church (as in many modern instances) attached to it by Pope
Pius I. The Council of Lateran, 1179, enforced ordination
on a distinct title.
Titular Bishops. Bishops bearing the name of a See, but whose
diocese was extinct, or held by the heathen. They were em
ployed as suffragans or assistants to diocesan bishops in
consecration of churches, reconciliation of penitents, ordina
tion, and confirmation. Irish and Scotch bishops in the
middle ages, driven out of their sees by violence, or com
pelled by poverty, often thus assisted in England. The
Roman Church has 229 titulars and 865 effective prelates ;
the College of Cardinals should contain 6 bishops, 50 priests,
and 16 deacons.
Tone. (Gr. echos.) The ecclesiastical modes in the Greek
Church correspond to those of the Latins, and are numbered
the even, as II., Plagios A ; IV., Plagios B ; VI., Plagios G ;
and VIII., barus (grave) ; and the uneven, as I., A; III., B;
V, G; VIL, D.
Tonsure. Dionysius Areopagita first mentions the tonsure
(cutting of the hair of the priests), and St. Athanasius
speaks of the hairs cut in a round ; St. Jerome and St. Am
brose allude to the cutting of the nuns' hair in Italy, Egypt,
and Syria. The custom has been referred to the practice of
persons in sorrow among the Jews making themselves bald,
as related by Isaiah and Micah, which prevailed also in
Argos, Egypt, Syria, and other places. Penitents were
shorn, as appears from Paulinus and the Third Councd of
Toledo, and, in consequence, in the fourth and fifth centuries,
it was censured as unbecoming spiritual persons by St.
Jerome and Optatus. In the time of Julian it would appear
by the Tripartite History that the Christian clergy polled
their heads short. In 740 the Excerptions of Ecbright de
rived the tonsure from the practice of the Nazarites, and an

TONSURE. 581
imitation of Christ's crown of thorns. The Irish used the
Pauline or Greek tonsure, shaving the head from the front
to the ears, in distinction to the Western or Petrine, which is
on the crown, and large in proportion to the rank of the
wearer. By the Law, priests and Levites were forbidden to
shave their heads in a round (Ezek. xliv. 20) . St. Jerome uses
this fact as an argument against the fashion. Optatus brands
the Donatists for shaving the crown, whilst the Council of
Elvira permitted priests who had been shorn like the heathen
sacrificers' " crown " to be admitted to communion only
after a penance of two years. Casalius explains that the ton
sure betokens the sorrow of the priest for his own sins and
those of his people. At first the lowest Church servants
wore their hair short as a mark of servitude, and the monks,
out of humility, imitated them, and in the sixth century the
clergy adopted the fashion. The clipping of the priests'
hair, which was derived from the practice of the Nazarites, is
alluded to by Isidore, the Fourth Council of Carthage, that of
Agde, Evagrius, Ammian, Marcellus, St. Gregory Nazian
zen, Cyril, Eusebius, St. Augustine, St. Ambrose. St. Paul
had his head shaven. Pope Anicetus, e. 200, required the
French priests to shave their heads like a ball ; and Bede
says the custom for the Greeks to be shorn square was derived
from St. Peter. Germanus, Patriarch of Constantinople,
and Boniface of Canterbury, in 1261, compared the tonsure
to the crown of thorns set on the Saviour's head, and the
second tonsure to that of the Apostle. Isidore of Seville and
Gregory of Tours allude to the crown, and the Fourth Council
of Toledo, 633, enforced it. In 1195, in England, beneficed
priests who did not keep their tonsure and crown were
deprived, and the archdea.con or rural dean clipped the heads
of all others perforce. Hubert Walter, in 1200, enforced its
observation. The little round on the top of the head is a
modern abbreviation of the ancient tonsure, which embraced
the whole upper part of the head.. Bishop Hacket would not
admit candidates to holy orders who wore extremely long
hair ; and the Statutes of Oxford, as edited by Archbishop
Laud, forbid long locks to undergraduates. The old English
councds repeatedly proscribe long hair and beards, in accor
dance with the Council in Trullo and the Fourth of Carthage.
In 1102 and 1168 the hair was to be clipped so as to show the

582 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
ears and not overlap the eyes. The tonsure of a monk is
mentioned in England by King Withred's Dooms, 696, and
the Excerptions of Ecbright. The crown was to be of an
approved breadth, that is, worn larger by regulars than secu
lars, and by priests than by deacons, being, according to -the
legate Othobon, in 1268, tokens of their laying aside worldly
things and of the dignity of their royal priesthood ; coifs,
with which the crown was concealed, were forbidden, except
on a journey. Peckham, in 1281, calls it the distinguishing
mark of a soldier of the Church, and of a heart enlarged and
open to the celestial rays, but complains that the clergy
covered it out of sight with hair laces. Concealment had
been already forbidden in Edgar's Canon, and by Anselm in
1102.
Toothing Stones. Projecting stones left in a wad for an ad
ditional budding to be made to it.
Torch. (Torticius.) A large altar-taper ; two, provided from
the alms of the faithful, were required, according to common
practice, to burn in the Canon of the Mass, by the Synod of
Exeter in 1287; and two in France, at the same period,
were lighted at the time of the elevation. It has been
authoritatively ruled that the expression " before the Sacra
ment," beyond the sense of "in front" or "in presence of"
the consecrated elements, in distinction to the reserved Sa
crament (as suggested in page 96), means also that before
the time of actual consecration two candles set upon the altar
are to be lighted. In the Greek Church, Goar says, the per
petual light is kept burning between the altar and the place of
the Sacrament, in reverence both to it and to the Book of the
Gospels. In England, where there was not a single pendent
lamp, the number of sacrament-lights before the reserved
Host was unequal. -See Lamp, Gradin, Lights.
Totquots. An abuse of annates, whereby the Pope required
firstfruits, not only of a new preferment, but also of ad other
livings held with it, so that the annates were paid over and
over again for the same living.
Touch-Stone. A name given to dark marbles, hard black
granite, or limestone, used for tombs and effigies.
Towel. (Tuella.) (1.) A rich covering of silk and gold, laid
on the top of an altar, except at Mass. (2.) A linen cloth.
Two were frequently placed on the altar, under the corporal,

TOWERS. 583
and a third (the lavabo) was used at the lavatory for wiping
the hands. As the canon law required four towels (Cecco-
pelius says three), the corporal was usually doubled back.
(3.) Tela stragula was a coverlet of the altar after Mass.
(4.) A cloth in which the font was wrapped at its hallowing
on Easter and Whitsun Eves.
Towers obviously preceded the spires, but they were rare until
the eleventh century. The Roman mortuary pdlar may have
suggested them as a monument of the martyr to whom the
church was dedicated. Belfries were not mentioned till the
eighth century by the monk of St. Gall, and by Amalarius. The
earHest on record is one built either by Pope Stephen III.
in 770, or Adrian I. in 772, as a belfry, which was imitated
in that of St. Frances Romana, at Rome, in 836. Becon, in
his ' Potation for Lent,' fancifully suggests that " bishops
in early times Hved near unto the church, that the poor
people, beholding the steeple, which is the poor man's sign,
might know where to be relieved ;" but M. Viollet le Due
and M. Lenoir regard them as having been designed as land
marks and ensigns of power ; and it is known that the Cis
tercian order considered them pompous, and, in consequence,
forbade their construction. The earliest towers consist
merely of a succession of stages, pierced with windows, a
monotonous elevation reHeved by discontinuous arcades.
The western tower was the immediate imitation of the Lom-
bardic campanile. Owing to a faulty foundation or a subsi
dence of the soil, several towers lean considerably out of the
perpendicular, as that of St. Marian at Este, Pisa, and the
Garisenda at Bologna, of which Dante says that when a
cloud passes over its summit it seems to stoop to one standing
beneath the leaning side, and the towers of Vienna, Delft,
Saragossa, Weston (Lincolnshire), the Temple (Bristol),
Wynunbury (Cheshire), and Surfleet. Taking advantage of
the slope of the building at Pisa, Galileo, in the presence of
the learned, made from the summit his famous experiments
to calculate the direct fall of falling bodies ; and the oscilla
tions of the great lamp under the cathedral dome suggested
to him the idea of measuring time by means of the regular
movement of the pendulum. Like the towers of New and
Magdalen Colleges, Oxford, or in the South of France until
the middle of the thirteenth century, and in Italy and Spain,

584 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
they generally remained isolated. But in time, for the pur
pose of enabling the bellringers to avoid the inclemencies of
the weather in countries north of the Alps, they were con
nected with the church, at first on one side of the western
front or in advance of it. Then, out of regard to symmetry,
two western towers were built, and at last a tower rose out
of the very centre of the church, the most effective position
it can occupy. At a later period it would seem that the
central tower was the mark of a religious community, or its
dependency. The tower at the side of the nave was erected
by a lord of the manor, and the western tower by the
parishioners. At Lisieux, Chartres, St. Denis, St. Ger
main's, and Llandaff the towers are unlike in size and
outline. At Clonmel, and St. Patrick's (Dublin), Auxerre,
and Sens, one tower only was completed. Lyons has four
towers. Lincoln, Durham, and Ripon formerly possessed
two western spires, and they exist at Igregia Matriz, Vienna,
Chartres, Burgos, and St. Jean des Vignes. At Rouen, Weds,
Salisbury (though small), Chichester, Lincoln, and Dront
heim the towers extend beyond the aisles, thus giving
great breadth to the western front. The Angel Tower of
Canterbury derived its name from a gilded figure of an
archangel crowning it, like the statue of the Faith does
the Giralda of Seville. Three towers mark cathedrals,
and, with rare exceptions, Benedictine minsters. So pleasing
was the additional charm afforded by the multiplication of
towers that towers were built at the re-entering angles of
the nave and choir round the transept. Rouen-has seven
towers (as Clugny had) in memory of the seven Churches of
the Apocalypse ; Rheims has six and a fleche ; Chartres,
Peterborough, Tournay, and Canterbury have five. M.
Viollet le Due has traced two schools of towers, one of the
West, and the other of the East. One at Perigord probably
was derived from Venice, and the other from the banks of
the Rhine, which, in the middle of the twelfth century, gave
place to a national school. The monastic towers in Ireland
— Jerpoint, Kilconnel, Clare, Galway, and Knocking — have
a remarkable feature, a series of oblong holes pierced through
the parapet for carrying off water. A similar arrangement
prevails in the north of Italy. The parapets are crenellated
and stepped, Hke those of Maestricht. In the, fourteenth

TOWERS. 585
and fifteenth centuries narrow central towers were added to
churches. They are usually square, and inside the battle
mented parapet the roof rises with a high pitch, and is pro
vided with a flight of stone steps, as at St. Etienne, Caen,
up one side and down the other, at the ends, thus affording
easy communication and the opportunity of using the em
brasures with effect and safety. The enormous height of
many foreign towers may be due to the incentive for con
structing such ambitious structures afforded by rival towns,
or the flatness of the surrounding country, which rendered
them visible at vast distances ; but in many instances, as at
Amiens, the height of the roofs dwarfs the towers. On the
leads of the Magdalen Tower, Oxford, on May morning, at
sunrise, the choir still sings the eucharistic hymn, Te Deum
Patrem colimus," in lieu of a mass for the soul of Henry VIL,
formerly celebrated on it. Anthems used to be sung round
the spire of Old St. Paul's, and are still chanted yearly on
May 29th, after evensong, on the great rood-tower of Dur
ham, in memory of the monks singing Te Deum upon it
after the victory of Neville's Cross, 1346.
Towers as Places of Refuge. At Adare, c. 1230, the
central massive tower has a large turret at each angle as
places of safety for life and property. The only access is by
a wall staircase, which can only be reached by a ladder from
the interior. St. Doulough's, near Dublin, contains several
rooms. Many border towers, as at Newton Arlosh, are for
tified like that of Olite, in Spain.
Heights of Towers. Mechlin, 348 ; Bruges, 442 ; Tour-
nay, 320; Utrecht, 321; Grantham, 274; Ludlow, 294;
Boston, 268; Newark, 220; Canterbury, 229; Lincoln,
262 ; York, 198 ; Durham, 216 ; Gloucester and Westminster,
225. A steeple is a tower covered with a spire.
In the province of Toulouse the earlier churches had a single
western tower, as at Limoges in the eleventh, and Alby in the
fourteenth century ; and the same arrangement occurred at
Ulm, Studtgart, Fribourg, Mechlin, Rotterdam, Liege, Dort,
Ghent, Frankfort, Aarhuus, Strengnas, Avila, Zamora, Lime
rick, Stirling, Poictiers, Puy, Perigueux, and Limoges. Those
of Bangor and Manchester marked a parochial nave. (-See
Austin Canons.) Where there is a low central lantern, or
the inconvenience of tolling the bells from the crossing is to

586 sacred archeology.
be avoided, a western tower was attached to the front as a
belfry, as at Soignies, Leominster, Ely, Hereford, Wymond-
ham, and Furness. In France the cathedral towers served
as municipal belfries.
Tracery, (1.) The ornamental stonework in a window, formed
by the intersection of the mullions. This is called bar
tracery, in distinction to plate tracery, a ruder and earlier
kind, which looks as if cut out of a plate of metal. Flamboy
ant tracery is so caded from its combination of wavy, flame-like
lines. In Germany stump tracery is formed of flowing lines
ending abruptly. The noblest windows in England are
of Decorated date — at York, 78 + 33 ; Lincoln, 53 + 30 ; and
Carlisle, 58 -f- 32 ; and of Perpendicular date at Gloucester,
72 + 38, and Winchester, 55 + 32. (2.) Decorative patterns
on wood and metal work. Tracery was a gradual develop
ment. First a circle was set above two arches, without com
bination by any external mark ; then lancets were grouped
together, followed by their union by a hood; and then a
reduction of the intervening wall into an incipient mulhon ;
next a combination under one comprising arch succeeded;
and then the space between the comprising arch and the
lights below were occupied by apertures ; and finally the
complete development took place by piercing the spandrils
or eyes.
Tract. (1.) Plain-chant, introduced by SS. Ambrose, Gregory,
and Gelasius, and sung sadly and slowly (whence its name),
instead of the Alleluia, on fasts, or after the AUeluia at other
times. (2.) A psalm, or portion of a psalm, sung between
Septuagesima and Easter, and at the office of the dead.
(3.) The pointing in the Psalter. It is said that the psalm
or hymn chanted by one voice, was the Tract, and when the
singer was interrupted by the choir his part was known as
the versicle, and the portions allotted to them were caded
responsories.
Transept. Across the bar (the lantern) ; or cross-aUey. A
word derived from the balustrade in the old basilica, which
divided the place of the lawyers from the people standing in
the nave and aisles ; usually ill-defined in France, Spain, and
Scotland ; it is in England a feature of great importance in the
ground plan. The early type was that of an aisleless oblong,
with a single or double apsidal chapel to the east, and de-

TRANSFIGURATION — TRAOLED. 587
noting the arms of the cross in a church, called aisles at
Rochester, Gloucester, and Hereford. The Latin ala or
brachium were used, the former in a constructional, the
latter in a symbolic acceptation. Transept towers at Bar
celona, Exeter, Ottery, Angouleme, St. Germain des Pres,
Clugny, Alet, Chalons-sur-Marne, and Geneva were de
signed to consult the convenience of the canons or monks
in tolling the bells for the Hours and choir services. The
western towers contained the great bells used on festivals
and for summoning the laity.
Transfiguration or Jesus Day. Kept on August 6, and in
stituted in 1456 by Pope Calixtus III. in memory of the
victory of Uniades and the Hungarian army over Mahomet
and the Turks. In France, after consecration, the chalice
was filled with new wine, or, as at Tours, received some of
the juice of the ripe grapes, and the clusters are blessed in
Germany and the East on this day.
Transitorium. The antiphon in the Ambrosian rite sung after
the Communion.
Translation. (1.) The transference of a saint's day which
concurs with a greater festival to an unoccupied day. Gre
gory III. removed the feasts of All Apostles from May 1 to
November 1, because at the former time food was often
scarce. (2.) The removal of a saint's body to another grave.
Deposition was the death of a saint not a martyr. (3.) Or
of a bishop to another See. The first canonical instance was
that of Bishop FoHot, transferred from Hereford to London
in 1163.
Transom. A horizontal cross-bar in a window for the sake of
strength, which was sparingly used at first in the Early
EngHsh period, in glazed windows of the Decorated period
rarely, but generally in the Perpendicular style.
Trappists. Reformed Cistercians, founded in 1140 at La
Trappe, Orne, by Rotrow, Comte du Perche. About the
middle of the sixteenth century they were known, for their
disorderly lives, as the brigands of La Trappe, but in 1662
were displaced for Brethren of the Strict Observance, who
stid maintain the most rigorous discipline.
Traverses. Costers. Side curtains for the altar, used by
Bishop Andrewes.
Trayled. Tredised latticework. At Durham one of the inner

588 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
doors was thus grated, and provided with a row of spikes
for protection against thieves.
Treasurer. (1.) The keeper of the muniments and rehcs.
The fourth dignitary, by custom, not by canon law, in a
cathedral, called cheficier or chevet-keeper ; sacrist, from
charge of the sacristy ; cellarer, as providing the eucharistic
elements and canonical bread and wine ; matricular, as
keeper of the inventory ; coustre in France and Germany ;
custos and cimiliarch in Italy ; the Greek skeuophylax. The
custos had charge of all the contents of a church, but at
length became superintendent of deputies, discharging his
personal duties, and at length took the title of treasurer, as
having charge of the relics and valuables of the church. He
is the Old EngHsh cyrcward, and medieval perpetual sacris
tan, and now represented by the humbler sexton. Everyneces-
sary for the church and divine service was furnished by him.
The old title of custos descended, before the thirteenth cen
tury, to his church-servants. His dignity was founded at
York in the eleventh century; at Chichester, Lichfield,
Wells, Hereford, St. Paul's, in the twelfth ; and at St. David's
and Llandaff, in the thirteenth century. At the Reforma
tion the dignity fell into disuse at York (where he had in
stalled canons), Lincoln, and Lichfield, and at Exeter, Llan
daff, and Amiens is held by the bishop. (2.) The monastic
treasurer or bursar received all the rents, was auditor of ad
the officers' accounts, paymaster of wages, and of the works
done in the abbey. (3.) An annual officer, like the vice-
dean and receiver-general of the rents, elected from the
residentiary canons in the new foundations — as paymaster,
master of the fabric, sacristan, keeper of the muniments,
statutes, and chapter-seal.
Trecanum. An anthem sung after the Communion before the
sixth century, in honour of the Holy Trinity ; called by this
name in Gaul. Some think it was the Apostles' Creed. In
the Greek Church there is a Confession of the Holy Trinity
sung after the Hagia Hagiois. The latter form is mentioned
by St. Cyril of Jerusalem, St. Basil, and the Mozarabic and
Gallican liturgies.
Trefoil. A three-lobed figure.
Trendies. Long rolls of wax candles or tapers.
Trental. (Tricennalia, trigintalia.) A service of thirty Masses

TRIBUNAL  TRIKERION. 589
said for thirty days successively after the death of the de
parted, or a Mass on the thirtieth day only.
Tribunal. (1.) The ambo, pulpit, or step on which the deacon
read the Gospel, mentioned by St. Cyprian. (2.) The choir
tribunal was the bema. (3.) The monastic court-house.
Trichorum. The triapsidal ending of a chant.
Triforium. (Forus, Low Latin for a gangway.) A word
used first by Gervase to describe the thoroughfare or wall-
passage and middle storey of Canterbury Cathedral. It is
probably connected with the Italian traforare, to pierce, as
if transforium, and represents the foreign tribune. The
Cistercians seldom had a triforium, and where it existed it
had no wall-passage. The triforia of Christchurch, Durham,
and Westminster were called the nunneries. In the latter
church they are said to have been occupied on certain occa
sions by the nuns of Barking and Kdburn. At Notre Dame,
Paris, within the present century they have been used for a
simdar purpose ; triphoriatus or trifarie means a border. The
triple arrangement of the base arcade, triforium, and cleres
tory is analogous to the three storeys of the ark (Compare
Ezek. xH. 16 ; xlii. 3, 6). The nave, aisles, and clerestory are
often locally called the upper and lower walks, in distinction
to the triforium. At Paisley and in one bay at Ely the
clerestory-walk is carried on brackets. The galleried tri
forium, for the accommodation of spectators, occurs at St.
Ambrose (Milan), A miens, St. Michael's (Pavia), St. Gereon's
(Cologne), Coblentz, Tournay, Bonn, Paris, Chalons-sur-
Marne, and Laon, and noble galleries exist at Norwich,
Ely, and Peterborough. The simply arcaded triforium is
found in Cistercian churches, St. Mary Overye, Lausanne,
and in the Perpendicular period, except in Spain. At this
time the triforium was treated only as a portion of the clere
story window, whereas before it had been designed to com
bine additional height with constructional security. At
Westminster and Lichfield the windows are triagonal, and
round at Southwed. At Brionde there is a fireplace in the
tribune or triforium of the transept, of the thirteenth century.
Trikerion. (Gr. tria kerata.) A three-headed taper used by
the bishop when he signs the Gospel crosswise, to show that
the doctrine of the Trinity is contained therein at the Tris-
agion. He previously crosses the Gospel with the dikerion or

590 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
double taper, to represent the illumination to pass both in
heaven and earth by the incarnation of the Lord Jesus in
His two natures.
Trinitarians or Robertines. An order for the redemption of
captives, founded by Robert Rokesby at Mottingden in 1160.
Trinity Sunday. The office of the Holy Trinity was composed
by Alcuin in the reign of Charlemagne ; it was not observed
at Rome in the Pontificate of Alexander III., and was even
in 1268 in England known as the Octave of Pentecost. In
some churches the festival was kept on this Sunday, or on
the Sunday next before Advent. In 1305 it was established
by Pope Benedict XIII. as it is now observed, or, according
to others, by John XXIII., in 1334, or by Thomas A'Becket.
Triptych. A picture with two folding-doors set over altars.
A Russian example is in the museum of the Society of Anti
quaries of London.
Triquetral (i.e., three-cornered). A censer used by Bishop
Andrewes, in which the clerk put incense at the reading of
the first lesson.
Trisagion. A hymn attributed to the Patriarch Proclus in the
fourth century; mentioned in the Apostolical Constitutions.
Theodosius the Younger ordered it to be sung in the Liturgy,
after his vision of a child chanting it during an earthquake
at Constantinople. At the Council of Chalcedon the form
was amplified thus — " Holy God, Holy and Mighty, Holy
and Everlasting, have mercy upon us," as a proclamation of
the Trinity. Then, to oppose the heresy of the Theopaschites,
the words " Christ the King, who was crucified for us," were
inserted before the " have mercy upon us," but many churches
rejected them, and in their place in Europe was sung "Holy
Trinity have mercy upon us." After the Preface this hymn
was always sung, and, according to St. Cyril of Jerusalem,
St. Chrysostom, and the Second Council of Vaison, also at
all Masses, Matin Lenten or of the dead ; the Epinikion, the
same as the Western Tersanctus, the triumphal hymn, and
the longer and more modern, the Trisagion ; the former to be
used at the Masses of the faithful, and the latter at those of
catechumens.
Trisantia. One side of a cloister, mentioned at St. Alban's
at an early date; a recess in it screened off in Clugniac
houses.

TRIUMPHAL ARCH — TUNIC. 591
Triumphal Arch. The division between the nave and tran
sept in old St. Peter's at Rome, containing a rood beam.
Tropar. A Greek service-book containing anthems, hymns,
and responses, the trope being a short hymn not taken from
Scripture ; several made an ode, and many of the latter made
a canon. The Cathisma was one during which the congre
gation sat ; at the Catavasia both choirs came down together
and stood singing it in the midst of the church; the Theo-
tokion celebrated St. Mary, the Stauro-Theotokion, her stand
ing at the cross.
Trope. (Tropos, a change.) A verse sung on great festivals
immediately after the Introit, as if a continuation of it; or
interposed in the Kyrie and Gloria. It was at first a mere
modulation, to which words were set afterwards, so that it
may have derived its name from the change into a kind of
antiphon. The trope is not more ancient than the eleventh
century, and probably commenced in the monastery of St.
Gall. The Councd of Limoges in 1031 mentions its use in
secular churches. At Rouen, on certain days, acclamations
or praises were added to the trope, and such feasts were said
to be held with trope and laud. At Lyons, Sens, and Sois-
sons the trope was such words as " Orbis factor, fons boni-
tatis," put between Kyrie and Eleison.
Truce of God. A suspension of hostihties for hours or days,
in the eleventh century, and recommended by the Council of
Lateran in 1179.
Trullus. The dome, under which is the choir in a Greek
church.
Trunk. (Truncus; Fr. tronc.) (1.) An alms-box made out of
the trunk of a tree. (2.) A low seat, at which the novices
did penance at Bury St. Edmund's, in the choir.
Tudor Flower. An acute-angled fleur-de-lys, used as cresting
in Perpendicular work.
Tufa. A porous stone (called travertine when compact) found
in calcareous streams, and used, from its lightness, in vault
ings, as at Bredon and Canterbury.
Tunic or Tunicle. (Boccus, subtile; the mass-cope.) (1.) A dress
worn by the subdeacon, made originally of linen, reaching to
the feet, and then of an inferior silk, and narrower than
the dalmatic of the deacon, with shorter and tighter sleeves,
and devoid of the stripes or embroidery of that vestment,

592 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY..
but for some centuries the assimilation has grown so com
plete as to render the slight difference subsisting almost im
perceptible. Bishops wore both the tunicle and dalmatic
at Pontifical Mass. (2.) Tunicle, the parva tunica, or cotta,
a linen habit reaching to the knees, used at all kinds of ser
vices by simple clerks and others ; it differed from the rochet,
it being fuller. Amalarius speaks of a blue tunicle of jacinth
colour, or subucula, worn by the bishop, Rupert says, under
the chasuble, as emblematical of the seamless robe of Christ.
(3.) A dress worn by monks.
Truckle- or Trundle-bed. That used by an attendant, and run
under the standing bed when not required.
Typica. Ps. cni., cxlvi., and the Blessings on the Mount, rer
cited on Sundays from Low Sunday to Trinity Sunday in the
Greek Church, instead of the ordinary two anthems.
Typicum. (1). A book of rubrics and ecclesiastical order, di
recting what shall be said or omitted. (2.) Anthem from
the Psalms, sung on twelve vigils in the Greek Church.
Ultramontanes. The Italian theologians who uphold the para
mount authority of the Pope, in distinction to the Cismon-
tines (on the north side of the Alps) ; the French and Ger
man doctors who regard the general councd as superior to
the Papal decisions.
Umbrella. A privilege of bishops in Italy, in processions and
ecclesiastical sittings and acts ; a kind of baldacchino of red
velvet, with golden summits, erected in 1550 over the altar
of Winchester College ; in 1 641 it was called " a canopy over
the altar, with traverses and curtains on each side and before
it." In the eighteenth century it was used to shelter the
officiant at funerals.
Uniformity, Acts of, are 1 Eliz., c. ii., and 13 & 14 Charles
II., c. iv.
University. (Generale or solemne studium.) An assembly of
students of all countries, students in every branch of learning
in one great society, under one government, having a com
mon chest, their own seal, and place of business. Camden
says the term was generally used in the reign of Henry III.
During the twelfth century, besides our two English Univer
sities, Paris for theology, Bologna for civil law, and Salerno
for medicine were eminent. Italians, Spaniards, and French

URSULINES — VAULT. 593
rallied to Bologna, the English and Dutch went to Paris.
Spain and Germany had universities of schools, where the
students formed part of the corporation. Paris and England
had universities of masters only; some in Germany and
France were of either kind. Paris had four " nations "; Ox
ford was divided into two — Northerns and Southerns. The
two earliest Colleges in our Universities were organized in
the thirteenth century. Canons and beneficed clergy were
allowed by the bishop's licence to be absent from their duties
to read in the University, sometimes for three years.
Ursulines. An order combining conventual seclusion with
education ; called after St. Ursula of Naples, and founded in
1537 by Angela de Brescia.
Use. The ritual of a Church. In England there were five —
those of York, Lincoln, Hereford, Bangor, and Salisbury :
the latter was followed in the south of England ; at Durham,
out of jealousy to York; and in Portugal from 1300, owing
to the influence of Philippa, Duchess of Lancaster. St.
Paul's, London, was made the model of Peterborough and
Carlisle at the Reformation. Lincoln Use was followed in
some parts of Scotland. -See Liturgies.
Vacantivi. Clerks who left their diocese.
Vacant Sundays. The four Sundays after Ember weeks, which
have no proper office, owing to the protracted service of ordi
nation on the previous night ; the Sundays between Christ
mas and January 1st; and the Fourth Sunday in Advent — the
former because preoccupied with another office, and the latter
because the Pope devoted himself to almsgiving, as on Va
cant Saturday, the day before Palm Sunday.
Vair. Minever, the white fur of the ermine, with spots of the
black wool of Lombardy lambs.
Valance. Say, or serge, for bed-curtains or valances. A stuff
made at Valence or Valencia.
Vault. (Volta.) (1.) A vaulted chamber, like the refectory of
St. Martin's, Dover, or a crypt. (2.) (Testudo, fornix; Sp.
boveda; It. volta, or cielo; Fr. volte; Germ. GewoTbe.) The
stone covering of an alley, nave, or choir. The earliest
kind was cylindrical, and called barrel or waggon. Groined
vaulting is where vaults intersect each other at right angles.
At a later date ribs were introduced to cover the groins in
2Q

594 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the Early English style, and as thus it consists of four or
five or more vaults, it is called quadripartite, quinquepar-
tite, etc. In the Perpendicular style pendants and fan-
tracery were introduced. The span at Gerona is 73 feet;
Toulouse, 63 feet ; Perpignan, 60 feet ; York, 52 feet ; Char
tres, 50 feet; Amiens, 49 feet; Paris, 48 feet; Cologne, 44
feet ; Canterbury, 43 feet.
Veil. (1.) A cloth, called by St. Gregory the white birrus,
shot with red thread in memory of Christ's Passion, and worn
like a crown to preserve the chrism by the baptized ; it was
laid aside with the albe. In 1090 it fell into disuse, as the
chrism then was wiped off with some light material like sdk.
St. Augustine and Theodore of Canterbury mention them.
(2.)' A hanging in front of a church door, such as Nepotian
was so careful to see in their place, as St. Jerome says. (3.)
Bankers at the sides of altars, let down when the priest en
tered the sanctuary, and raised every Saturday during Lent
when the Sunday office began. Dossals and frontal veils (so
called in allusion to the Temple veil) were also in use at the
high-altars of large churches until the end of the sixteenth
century. Three ancient pillars with carved capitals, used for
the veils, remain at Monreale. (4.) Curtains of great rich
ness, used only in Lent ; one veded the altar, a second the
sanctuary, and a third the choir. They were raised by the
subdeacons or porters, according to the Council of Narbonne,
to represent the removal of the veil (Ephes. ii. 14). They
were succeeded by permanent screens ; hence in Spain, as
marriages were permitted or forbidden, such seasons were
called veilings open or shut. (5.) The bridal veil (poele,
palla), mentioned by St. Ambrose, and worn (as Durandus
says) as a symbol of maiden modesty and obedience to the
husband. (6.) A nun's veil (maforte, mitra; flammeum, be
cause of the colour of pure flame), an ornament used in the
time of St. Gregory, and given only to a woman of twenty-
five years of age, and, except in case of extreme sickness, at
no time but Epiphany, an Apostle's day, or Low Sunday, in
740. The colour was sometimes purple. (7.) A scarf in
which, at a solemn High Mass, the subdeacon muffles his
arms and shoulders as a sign of humility and reverence
when he elevates the paten, to announce the time of com
munion;' also that used by a priest to envelope his hands at

veil. 595
the time of the Benediction. (8.) Domiuiccdis, a woman's
ved or coif in church, and at the time of communion, called
in Provence a domino, and ordered by the Councils of Autun
(578) and Angers. (9.) The churching cloth, used in the
latter half of the seventeenth century at the churching of
women in England ; it was of white damask, fringed. (10.)
A black veil for the head, used by the Greek priest in read
ing the prophecies, in allusion to 2 Cor. in. 13-16. (11.) In
the Greek Church three communion veds are lifted over the
eucharistic bread on a paten by the cruciform and folding star
— (1) the diskalumma, (2) katapetasma, (3) the nebula or aer,
being made of very fine material, and of cloud-like appear
ance, in allusion to the cloud of Transfiguration. (-See Aire,
Asterisk.) (12.) At Christmas and Easter, in France, for
merly three veils were laid upon the altar and then removed —
(1) black, to represent the time before the law ; (2) pale, to
signify the time of the law; (3) red, showing the time of
grace; one was removed at each nocturn of Christmas.
(13.) A covering for the cross and images during Lent. This,
Cranmer says, " with the uncovering of the same at the re
surrection, signifies not only the darkness of infidelity which
covered the face of the Jews in the Old Testament, but also
the dark knowledge they had of Christ, who was the perfec
tion and end of the law, and not yet opened until the time of
His death and resurrection. The same is partly signified by
the ved which hid the secret of the Holy of Holies from the
people." Becon says that they were covered to stir the
people to repentance, that they might " be found worthy
against Easter, i.e. against the time of passing and going
out of this world, clearly to behold and openly to see in the
kingdom of heaven the shining face of God and His saints ;"
" to declare the mourning and lamentation of sinners for
their ungodly manners, the clothes that are hanged up in
church have painted on them nothing else but the pains,
torments, passion, bloodshedding, and death of Christ, that
the mind should be fixed only on the passion of Christ."
Beleth says the ornaments of the altar were veils, crosses,
shrines, gospels, and reliquaries ; and in Lent two veils were
used, one round the choir and the other before the altar,
which were folded back on Sundays, and at Tenebrae on
Maundy Thursday ad were removed, in memory of the rend-
2 q 2

596 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
ing of the Temple veil, except one altar-cloth, which com
memorated the seamless vestment of Christ. He also men
tions a veil, a pall, or table of metal before the altar, and a
veil which was removed from the front of the crucifix, be
hind which a pall was set, to show that the mystery of the
passion had been made manifest. In some churches ban
ners of triumph were hung about the cross. (14.) A veil
for the chalice, which in England was elevated without it;
in some French churches the chalice was covered at that
time (Gr. poterio kalumma). (15.) (See Corporax Cups.)
Sindon, pyx, or Corpus Christi cloth. At Winchester College
a canopy of linsey-wolsey, powdered with stars of gold, was
used to fall over the pyx on Palm Sunday and Corpus Christi ;
a Sacrament-cloth of guipure lace, with a fringe of gold and
scarlet, and gilded balls at the four ends, and a small central
aperture for the chain, remains at Hesset, of the sixteenth
century. Another is in the South Kensington Museum.
Verdour. Hangings for a bed, representing trees and grass.
Verger. (Virgifer, bastinarius.) A servant of the church who
carries the virge, usually a staff of silver, the fasces of the
dean and chapter, a sign of their authority, and formerly
hollow, and containing the rod with which the offending
choir-boys were whipped. At Wurtzburg the postulant for
a canonry had to run, bare to the waist, between two lines
of canons, who struck him sharply with virges. The verger
precedes the bishop, dean, and canon in residence in pro
cessions, there being usually one for each of those persons.
When Bishop Sherborne visited his cathedral pontifically
he was preceded by a verger ringing a small handbell. At
Palermo an apparitor or beadle carries a silver mace before
the canons. When Bishop Cameron, in the fifteenth cen
tury, visited Glasgow, he was preceded by twelve fertors
carrying his staff, and eleven large maces were borne before
him. The Suisse in foreign cathedrals is dressed in an old-
fashioned habit and cocked hat, and carries a halberd and
sword.
Veronica. (Lat. vera, true ; Gr. icon, image or likeness ; Fr.
suaire.) The sudary of the holy Veronica. A towel or
handkerchief with which a Jewish woman, named Prounice
or Berenice (Latinized Veronica), who had been cured of the
issue of blood, is said to have wiped the face of our Lord

VEliSICLE — VESPERAL. 597
when going to His Passion by the Way of Sorrows. Wet
with blood and spitting, on its triple folds His likeness was
stamped, and the cloth was brought in a wooden coffer from
Palestine to Rome, and eventually removed from the Ro
tunda to St. Peter's, where it is still preserved under the
charge of the canons, having been placed by Urban VIII. in
an upper chapel adjoining one of the great piers which sup
port the dome. It is exhibited in a silver case ten times in
the year to the Pope, cardinals, and faithful, who are placed
in the nave. As early as the fourteenth century painters
represented a woman holding a linen cloth, on which is a
radiating face, surrounded by a nimbus, with the cross. The
attribute has become the subject, and the accessory the
principal object; the inanimate substance has taken life, and
the woman is only known as the Veronica. There were icons
or veils preserved at Laon, Cologne, and Milan. The earli
est fresco of our Lord is in the catacomb of Calixtus, of the
fourth century. There are several so-called portraits — one
said to have been sent by our Lord to Abgarus, king of
Edessa (first mentioned by Evagrius, who died 590), in the
church of St. Sylvester in Capite ; another, by St. Luke or
angels, in the Benedictine sacristy at Vadombrosa ; and a
third, given by St. Peter to Pudens, shown every year by
the Abbot of St. Praxedes on Easter Day ; and a fourth in
St. Bartholomew's, Genoa. They are all indistinct and
faded, and the latter was covered with a crystal by Innocent
III. All the portraits painted by order of Constantine re- ,
produced the portraiture given in a letter by Lentulus to the
Roman senate, and the familiar features since the eighth
century follow the description of St. John Damascene.
Versicle. Written as V. (1.) A portion of a psalm, e.g., " 0
Lord, open thou our lips." (2.) A short antiphon sung to
wards (versus) the altar. (3.) The prayer or acclamation at
the beginning of the Hours. The word is derived from
verse, a sentence in a single line. Cassian first mentions
" 0 God, make speed," and St. Benedict added the response,
"0 Lord, open thou." The verse of Compline, " Converte
nos," is first alluded to by Durand in the eighteenth cen
tury.
Vesperal. A division in an antiphonar containing the chants
for Evensong.

598

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

Vessels for Holy Oil were arranged Hke three towers round a
central crown-topped spire, with which they are connected.
Each contained a small phial, which could be detached when
wanted, and a spoon. One of these phials held the oil for
baptism ; a second, chrism for confirmation ; and the third, od
for the sick. They were made in copper or silver-gilt. At
Laon they were kept in an aumbry next the piscina, but
very frequently, as in the Sainte-Chapelle at Paris, and usu
ally in England, this recess was in the north wad of the
sanctuary. The ampulla for chrism was sometimes made of
ivory and crystal, to distinguish it from the vessels contain
ing the oils.
Vessels, Sacred, of the Altar. The priests and Levites only
might touch the vessels of the Temple (Is. Hi. 11). Sub
deacons were forbidden to handle the plate or enter the
sacristy by the Council of Laodicea ; a reader or ostiarius,
by the Second Council of Rome ; and ad not in orders, by the
Councd of Agde.
Vexilla Regis Prodeunt. (The kingly banners forward go.)
A hymn sung in procession on Good Friday before the Mass
of the Presanctified.
Vexillum. (A banner.) (1.) The crucifix carried before the
Pope, with the figure towards him, to remind him that he
should have Christ crucified (who is always regarding His
Church) ever before his eyes. (2.) The banneroll attached
to a pastoral staff. (3.) A processional banner.
Viaticum. (Gr. ephodion.) A word mentioned by Bede,
Egbert, the Council of Auxerre, and Giraldus Cambrensis,
and rendered by Bishop Jewell " voyage provision," or
" viand for the way." It was originally the Communion sent
to excommunicate persons at the point of departing, but is
now the last Communion, where the sick man cannot long
survive or be able again to receive. The custom is traceable
to the Councils of Nicsea and Vaison, 442. By the Capitu
lars, priests carried the Eucharist about them for emergen
cies, and St. Laurence, an archbishop of the twelfth century,
did so. By the Council of Westminster, 1138, the Eucharist
was to be reserved for not more than eight days, and then
carried by a deacon, priest, or any person in case of necessity ;
but in 1195 the Synod of York required a priest in his habit,
with a houselling light, and that of Durham enjoined the use

vicar. 599
of stole and surplice, a bell and lantern, and a pyx and
burse, and clean linen cloth; in 1322 a processional cross was
required when the Viaticum was carried. Cardinal Pole de
sired "a little sacring-bell" to be used before it. In 1281
Peckham recommended that it should be given to persons
in a frenzy or alienated in mind with good assurance. Arch
bishop Edmund required the use of a clean, decent box and
a pure Hnen cloth, and desired, like the Synod of Exeter,
in 1287, the ablutions of the priests' fingers to be given in
a sdver or tin cup to the sick. In the Greek Church seven
priests in the patient's room consecrate the holy oil with
the euchelaion.
Vicar. (1.) Pope Boniface III. called himself the Vicar of
St. Peter. The Vicar of Christ was a title assumed in the
thirteenth century. (2.) The archpriest who presented candi
dates for Orders to be examined by the archdeacon, and
in the Celtic monasteries of Northumbria offered nuns at
their profession. (3.) A substitute in a parish. The word
originally signified a temporary vicar or assistant curate, as
in 1261 we read of vicars or chaplains of parish churches.
(4.) A perpetual vicar. The representative of a rector as
regards cure of souls. Usually the permanent incumbent
appointed by a monastery or college which held the great
tithes after they were impropriated. The word in this sense
of a perpetual curate is not earlier than the thirteenth cen
tury. In 1237 he was required to be competent to take the
diaconate at the following ordination, and to swear resi
dence. His assistant in 1306 is called a deputy. In 1268
the Cistercians were compelled by Othobon to nominate,
within six months, vicars who should be instituted by the
bishop. In 1439 the voluntary offerings, which formed a
chief source of a vicar's income, had become greatly dimin
ished, owing to the spread of Lollardism. Perhaps the ear
liest intimation of a subordinate cyric-then or church-minister
is in 963, when a mention occurs of " young men " or juniors
appointed to officiate and minister to God in certain newly-
built churches. In 1222 no perpetual vicar was to have a
less income than five marks a year, but in the fifteenth cen
tury a temporary vicar had eight or ten. (5.) A substitute in
a cathedral. When the common table and home was given
up by canons, and the common fund, about the middle of the

600 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
twelfth century, was divided into prebends or portions, hired
deputies were employed by those absent from the cathedral
to chant in their place in the dady services, and this led to
the permanent establishment of vicars-choral in the follow
ing century. At first these substitutes were only temporary,
but about a century later the rule of having a vicar became
permanent. These assistants within another century had pro
cured incorporation as a college under their own president,
and holding their own lands, just as the chapter rendered itself
as independent as possible of the bishop, and each member
of it secured his own separate prebend, patronage, and local
jurisdiction. Each dignitary and prebendary had his vicar;
the former were caded subdean, subchanter, vice-chancellor,
and sub-treasurer. These were, in fact, minor canons cele
brating at the high-altar in the absence of their masters.
In some cathedrals there were perpetual vicars, who received
a certain portion in the church from a foundation; they
were actual ministers of the church, who attended all the
Hours. Again, there were minor or petty vicars, who were
removable, vicars of the first, second, and third form, ac
cording to their place in church : these ordinary vicars-
choral, and conducts stipendiaries without endowment, re
ceived from their masters stad wages, which ranged from
£40 to 40d. ; two marks at Wells ; at Exeter, five shillings
quarterly ; fortj'- shillings a year at Lincoln. At Urgel they
were called statores, from standing in their masters' places
or stations. After their maintenance at their masters' table
fell into disuse, along with personal household service, they
received a payment called quotidian, varying from Id. to 3d.
a day, dependent on their attendance at High Mass and the
Hours, known as petty commons, and an allowance of bread,
and at an early date wine or ale. If they officiated as priests
they had an additional mark. Those in deacon's and sub-
deacon's orders acted as gospellers and epistolers ; those be
low this rank served as ministers at the altar and instru
mental and vocal musicians. At Canterbury two sackbut-
teers (players upon the pipe; Sp. sackbuche) and two
corneteers were appointed by Laud's statutes, and about the
same time instrumental music was in use at Exeter, Lincoln,
and Westminster, and at Durham after the Reformation, and
, even now drums, trumpets, and trombones- are used at St.

VICAR. 601
Paul's and Westminster on special occasions. (-See Cho
risters.) Within memory parish churches retained musi
cians. Vicars were admitted to probation for a fortnight
without wages if unknown, or if known with pay at once,
by the dean, prsecentor, or succentor, and the majority of
the residentiaries or vicars, and for one year were en
gaged in learning the antiphonar, psalter, and hymnal under
the charge of an auscultator appointed by the prsecentor.
If guilty of absence or misbehaviour they were discommonsed;
if they revealed chapter secrets, were excommunicated ; and
if absent from choir during six months, were deprived. The
tabler marked their names for weekly duty, and if they sang
or read badly at Hereford the deacon or subdeacon was
flogged on the bare back " like the religious " by the heb-
douiadary ; a priest was compelled to beg pardon on bended
knees ; those in inferior orders received a yet sharper chas
tisement. If any failed in reverence to the dean, they stood
for a day and night before the rood-light. The vicars fur
nished the weekly hebdomadary, celebrant, and his assist
ants, and the rectors of choir on festivals, and attended all
processions. The chamberlain, custos, or hebdomadary
noted their absence. If a canon did not appoint a vicar
within a month (or two months in some churches) after his
installation or the demise of a vicar, the patronage lapsed to
the dean. The vicar could be dismissed by his master at a
notice of three months, but the dean and chapter might
retain him at their own charges. In most cathedrals they
formed what was called the lower chapter. At Wells there
were fifty- two, incorporated in 1347 under a principal; at
York there were thirty-five (with nine persons, six deacons
and subdeacons, two vestry clerks, twelve thuriblers and
choristers), incorporated in 1252, and again in 1461 under a
custos ; at Exeter there were twenty -four (and twelve secon
daries), incorporated under a custos in 1401 ; at Chichester
there were twenty-nine (and twelve choristers), incorpo
rated in 1277, and 1334 under a principal; at Lincoln
there were twenty-five, incorporated under a principal in
1396 ; at Lichfield there were thirty-one, incorporated in
1240 ; at Hereford, twenty-seven, incorporated under a
custos in 1396 ; at St. Paul's, thirty vicars ; and at Salis
bury, twenty-one priests, eighteen deacons, and eleven sub-

602

SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.

deacons, incorporated under a procurator in 1410; at Kil
kenny there were four vicars and four stipendiaries, founded
in a college in the thirteenth century ; at St. Patrick's, six
teen, incorporated in 1431 ; at Waterford there were twelve,
and at Aberdeen twenty vicars. Vicars wore a surplice, a
black almuce of cloth or Calabrian fur, and by day a doubled
cap, but no hood. The title of lay clerk or vicar, as distinct
from priest-vicars, dates only from the Reformation, and a
trace of his having once been in minor orders lingers in the
unseemly practice of a layman singing the litany in some
places with a priest.
In the foreign cathedrals the system of vicars also exists :
there are mansionarii or assisn in Spain and Italy ; perpetual
vicars, the inferior beneficiaries, called in Spain chaplains of
the cope, numerales at Nola, demies; at Beauvais, Sens, Seez
and Auxerre ; quartans ; mdlenarii and centenarii at Paler
mo ; portioners, assizars, from their holding a portion or allot
ment of food of the commune, and mace canochi (canons
of the massa or common fund) at Milan and Genoa; and
machicots at Paris. Stipendiaries having no freehold were
called altarists at Wells, and frequenters of choir at Here
ford. At Christchurch and Manchester, both codegiate
churches, the vicars are called chaplains, as at Rouen, where
there were forty-eight chaplains choral, who lived in four
colleges, sixty-nine chanting priests, and seventy chaplains,
like English annuellars, who took their titles from the
chapels in the cathedral. At Pisa there were two classes,
that of the quinterno or register being the higher, and hav
ing a share in the daily distribution. In Germany the name
was convicars, socii vicarii, as at Salisbury in former times.
At Paris the perpetual priests, and at Vienne the chanter-
priests sat in the upper stalls. At Lyons, Angers, Bourges,
and Rouen they were called chanters, or semi-prebendaries ;
at Dunkeld and St. Patrick's, choristers or personists. In
1480 the vicars of Chichester wore uniform caps or almuces ;
and in 1391 vicars of York were forbidden to use clogs or
pattens (long-peaked boots) in choir. -See Almuce.
Vicars' College. The residence of the non-capitular members
of a cathedral ; at Wells the court, entered by a gate-house
and lined with the houses of the vicars, remains, with its hall,
chapel, and library ; at Hereford it forms a beautiful cloistered

VICARS APOSTOLIC  VIDAM. 603
quadrangle, with the same adjuncts ; at Chichester and Exe
ter the halls of the fourteenth century only have been pre
served ; and at York the bedern retains considerable portions
of the ancient buildings. Until the civil wars the collegiate
life was everywhere maintained, and at Hereford so lately as
1828. At Lincoln Bishop Oliver built the college. There
were colleges at St. David's, Armagh, Dublin, Kilkenny,
Limerick, Cashel, Tuam, Cork, Cloyne, Lismore, Ross, Ard.-
fert, and Glasgow at the close of the fifteenth century.
Vicars Apostolic. Eight were appointed in England and
Wales by the Pope in 1840 ; there were four in 1688,
superintendents of districts. The vicars apostolical of
Aries, Seville (in the fourth and fifth centuries respectively),
Mayence, and Canterbury first received the pall, the first
having it c. 500; Mans in 685, and ad metropolitans of
Gaul in 743 were given the privilege. In the time of Henry
I. the Archbishop of York paid £10,000 for it. Gregory
VII. made the grant of the paU the condition of a metro-
pohtan's right to consecrate churches or ordain clergy.
Vicars Episcopal. The Greek chorepiscopus. In Africa the
city priest was one of the cathedral body, who ministered in
the adjoining vidages. According to Sidonius, he was the
bishop's chaplain, vidam, notary, treasurer, theologian, and
steward.
Vicar-General. A principal official, now called chancellor of
the diocese ; an ecclesiastical judge in the bishop's court, as
the official belonging to the archdeacon.
Vicars of the Holy See. First appointed in Gaul by Pope
Zosimus in 417.
Vice-Dean. An annual officer elected from the residentiaries
in cathedrals of the new foundation, ranking next the dean,
acting as his representative and locum tenens, and regarded
as a paterfamilias. In his absence the senior residentiary
acts ; he usually sits in the north-west stall, although that
is properly appropriated to the hebdomadary or canon in
residence. At Pistoia a prefect of choir is annually elected,
and the city prior, senior dignitary, or senior canon is the
deputy of the dean when absent.
Vidam. (Vice dominus, vice-lord.) (1.) The bishop's steward
in the administration of the Church revenues, as the viscount
represented the count; at Rheims and Chartres the vidam s

604 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
, raised their office into a fief. (2.) The provost or bailiff of
the capitular rents, as at Lincoln, Cambrai, Rouen, Chartres,
Sens, Laon, Beauvais, Amiens, Parma, Piacenza, Halberstadt,
and Miinster. (3.) Heirs of founders of religious houses who
had certain rights over their estates and attached churches.
Vigil. (1.) An office sung anciently at night. Honorius of
Autun says that in former times there was on great festivals
an office sung by the bishop before midnight, and another
by the clergy about that time, and the people watched all
night in praise ; but the custom ended in dancing, drinking,
singing, and impurity, and was therefore abolished, so that
the day of the previous fast, which was the compensation for
its disuse, alone retained the name of vigil. In Beleth's
time, in Poitou, ad the young people, with players and
minstrels, attended on the day before the feast of dedication
of a church. (2.) The office for the dead. (3.) The night
watch. St. Ambrose, in his commentary on the 109th
Psalm, says, " We fast on the Saturday, keep vigils, and re
main in prayer through the night." St. Augustine has a
homily on the vigils of St. John Baptist and SS. Peter and
Paul ; St. Bernard, on those of St. Andrew and the Nativity.
They were called vigils because the faithful passed the night
before a festival watching, in prayers, hymns, spiritual read
ing, and fast ; they also had the name of lucernarise preces
or gratiarum actiones, the prayer and thanksgiving of
lamp-light. (4.) The fast-days before a festival. The holy-
days of the English Church having vigils correspond nearly
to the doubles of the ancient use, and on such days the
first Vespers of the feast commence on the evening next
before, but if a Sunday intervenes, then on the Saturday
also. The festivals of Circumcision, Epiphany, and the
three feasts of St. Stephen, St. John, and Holy Innocents,
which follow in sequence, as occurring within the octave
or season of Christmas; St. Mark, SS. Philip and James,
and St. Barnabas, falling within Easter and Whitsuntide ;
St. Michael and All Angels, as those who have not entered
into joy through suffering ; the Conversion of St. Paul, as not
connected with martyrdom; and St. Luke, from the pre
ceding day being that of St. Etheldreda, or because he is not
believed to have been a martyr, — have no vigils. Beleth
says neither St. Barnabas, because he was not of the number

VIRTUES AND VICES — VISITATION. 605
of Apostles, nor St. Matthias, because his festival often
fell in Lent, had a vigil. (5.) In Beleth's time the first noc-
turn and the day before a feast. Vigils, otherwise called
watchings (says Cranmer) , remained in the calendars upon
certain saints' evens, because in old times the people watched
all those nights. The vigd begins at Vespers, and lasts
tid the first Mass of the morrow is said. Beleth says that
if a Sunday and vigil . coincided, the Vespers of both were
said in that order; or, as at Mayence and in minsters, the
proper collect of the saint's day with the Magnificat ; but if
there was no vigil the collect and antiphon were used.
Virtues and Vices. A favourite impersonation under human
forms, in the middle ages, as in the chapter-house of Salis
bury. Prudentius alludes to figures of Love and Hope, De
spair and Hate, in churches ; and the Roman de Rose describes
personifications of Envy and Sorrow.
Virgin, the Blessed, in the Catacombs, is depicted in a pall,
tunic, and dalmatic, and at a later date in a blue mantle,
a white veil flowing over the shoulders, an inner tunic scarcely
showing, a long wide-sleeved robe, and cincture. The tradi
tional features are copied from a description given by Epipha-
nius. The portraits attributed to the hand of St. Luke are of
the Greek school, of the seventh or eighth century, and were
brought to Italy during the crusade after the Latin siege of
Constantinople. In the catacomb of St. Agnes, in a mosaic
of the fifth century, without nimbi, the Virgin is veiled, and,
praying with hands outspread, the Holy Chdd stands before
her. Her old English designation of " Our Lady " is retained
in the Table of Lessons. In the ninth century sometimes she
, appears of advanced age, and sometimes as a queen ; and in
the seventh century as a central figure among Apostles and
saints. The first invocation addressed to her is attributed to
Justina, in the Diocletian persecution ; the first representation
of the Assumption, a legend recorded by Gregory of Tours
and John Damascene, is at Assisi ; in one of Pisano's fres
coes, c. 1230, the Mater Dolorosa is represented, as in St.
Luke ii. 35. -See Pieta,
Virgin Chimes. The bells rung in peal on Christmas Eve.
Visitation. The inspection of a province, diocese, archdea
conry, or parish church. In 1179 Pope Alexander III. for
bade, in the Council of Lateran, an archbishop to visit with

606 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
not more than forty or fifty horses or men, bishops with
above twenty or thirty, an archdeacon with more than five
or seven, and a rural dean with more than two. This rule
was enforced in 1200-1268 in England, and again in 1342,
.when it is said that archdeacons used to arrive on the pre
vious night at a rectory or vicarage with a numerous retinue
and horses, indulging by the way in hunting with hawk and
hound ; the order was made that the expense thus incurred
was to be deducted from his procuration, and that if he.
visited several churches in a day they should all contribute
their quota to make up a single procuration. Innocent III.
and Gregory X. forbade procurations in money, but they
were allowed in 1298 by Pope Boniface VIII. In 1250 his
namesake of Canterbury was repulsed before the doors of St.
Bartholomew's, when his breastplate was seen gleaming
through the folds of his rochet. In some cases the sum was
fixed by immemorial custom or privilege. In England they
paid eighteenpence for the archdeacon and his horse, and one
shdling for each of the other horses and men. The arch
deacon might require supper and dinner, but was not allowed
to invite guests. The Council of Toledo forbade the pay
ment of procurations if the visitation was not duly made.
In the early English Church, as for instance in 747, bishops
were required to make an annual visitation, teaching in
assemblies of the people convened by him. By the sixtieth
Canon they must hold triennial confirmations. In the old
foundations a bishop might visit triennially with eight per
sons and demand two entertainments. By the Laudian
Statutes of Canterbury the archbishop may hold a visitation,
with a retinue of thirty persons, and demand two refections,
once in every three years ; and in the new foundations the
bishop may visit as often, with eight or ten persons, and, if
desired, by the dean or two canons.
Voice Tube, Set at an angle in confessionals. Said to exist at
Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, Yarmouth, Colton, and Hag-
ham, on the north side of chancel.
Volowing. From the response "Volo," baptism was called
volowing, and the priest a volower.
Voluntary. A piece of music played' on the organ after the
Psalms, and so called because the choice of the music is left
to the organist. It is a kind of gradual, accompanying the

VOUSSOIE  WALL-PAINTINOS. 607
reader to the lectern or eagle. It should cease when he
reaches the desk.
Voussoir. (Claveau.) A wedge-shaped stone used in the con
struction of an arch or vault.
Vulgate (i. e. for vulgar or common use) . The Latin version
of the Bible, by St. Jerome, used in the Roman Church.
The authorized edition is dated 1592.
Waits. (1 .) Watchmen, from guet, a sentry, outpost, or night-
watch. There is a waits' tower at Newcastle. At York
they were minstrels who assisted the choristers in the min
ster. At Durham they wore a regular livery and a silver
badge. (2.) Musical watchmen at York, who played on the
cornet, fiddle, curtel, and theorbo to pipe the Hours : hence
their conversion into minstrels. (3.) Angelic musicians with
horns represented on corbels and cielings.
Wake. (Goth, weihan, to consecrate.) The anniversary of the
dedication of a church ; the vigil and revel on the day, also
called revel-day and feast-day. It was usually kept, for con
venience of people meeting, between Lady Day and Michael
mas, but at Chichester in October. The Irish call it a
"patron" (saint's day). In 1229 in the diocese of Wor
cester every altar had its patron's name written round it.
In 1225 wrestling matches, lawsuits, and dances were for
bidden in Scottish churches and cemeteries, and in 1364
the Primate in England prohibited the mummeries of the
Feast of Fools on January 1, sports, and raising rams upon
wheels, and folhes. In 1367 Archbishop Thoresby con
demned the indecent merriment at vigils of the dead.
Wall Arcading. A series of niches added as an ornament in
the interior walls of aisles. At Leuchars, and All Saints',
Stamford, it adorns the exterior of the church. At Battle,
Merton, Rochester, and Brecon there is a very lofty series
of arcading.
Wall-Paintings were added at an early date to ornament the
building and teach the people. It was not till the close of
the thirteenth century that the hideous practice of white
washing churches became common. St. Wilfred, however,
employed it in England, whilst Benedict Biscop painted the
walls of his churches with figures of our Lord, the Apostles,
St. Mary, the incidents of the Gospel and Revelation, and

608 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
the harmony of the two Testaments. St. Gregory of Tours
and St. Paulinus mention pictures near the altar, proba
bly on the ciborium, and also on the walls. The Popes
John III. and Pelagius II. adorned the churches of Rome
with mosaics, and the catacombs with paintings. The paint
ing in the underground church of St. Nazarus at Verona is
said to be of the sixth or seventh century. Charlemagne
sent out royal envoys as commissioners to inspect yearly the
churches and paintings on vaults and walls. There is a re
markable series of wall-paintings on the clerestory of Battle
Church, of the twelfth century, and some fine specimens at
Winchester. A common embellishment was the morality of
the Trois Morts et Trois Vifs, the living in their pride and
only skeletons in their death, as at Bardwell, Charlwood,
and Ditchingham ; the Dance of Death, as at Croydon, Hex
ham, Newark, Salisbury, and Wimborne ; the Angelic Hier
archy and legends of saints, as at Barton-Turf, and Carlisle ;
the Months, as at Salisbury, and on the font of Burnham,
Deepdale ; the Rota Fortunse (Wheel of Fortune), at Roches
ter ; the Doom or Last Judgment, and the Tree of Deadly
Sins. The Vintage appears on the baptistery of Constan
tine at Rome. At Royston, Yorkshire, the Creed, the Lord's
Prayer, and Ten Commandments are painted in black letter
on the chancel walls. At Catfield, Norfolk, there is a most
interesting series of mural decorations, and at Exeter the
panels above the rood-screen have paintings of the time of
Charles I.
Wall Passage. (1.) A covered way, sometimes with an open
arcade leading to a refectory pulpit, as at Beaulieu, Chester,
and the Minims' Church at Toulouse. (2.) A passage
through the triforium for admission to its galleries, in front
of the clerestory, used by the sacristan to close the shutters
of the windows when unglazed or simply filled with trellice-
work, in case of storms ; or through the walls of the base
storey, as at Westminster, for the supervision of the priests
at the minor altars in the chantry chapels. At Marburg
there is an external passage all round the church in front of
the windows, with apertures through the buttresses, and an
other in the lower storey, no buildings being allowed to stand
before it. These were intended for the use of processions
carrying the relics of St. Elizabeth in sight of thousands of

WARDEN  WAYSIDE CHAPEL. 609
pflgrims assembled in the open air below. An altar is
placed in the whispering gallery of Gloucester, a passage
formed above the porch of the Lady-chapel. In the choir
and transept aisles of Westminster and in the chapter-house
of York there are wall passages. The former are said to
have been used for purposes of supervision.
Warden (1) of the Courts, or Curiarius. At Abingdon a monk,
who had charge of the court of the abbey, acted as hos-
pitaUer, and had charge of the larder and granary. (2.) The
title of heads of codeges at Winchester and Oxford. (3.)
The principal of the vicars at Exeter, Hereford, and St.
Paul's.
Watchers, or the Sleepless. (Akoimetai.) (1 .) Monks who lived
in the monastery of the Stoudion, near Constantinople. (2.)
Also the keepers of the Easter Sepulchre. Usually there were
two or three, who sang psalms and maintained the watch.
In the early monasteries the cross was laid on Good Friday
in a space within the altar, across which a curtain or veil
was drawn until Easter morning, but at length the fuller
ceremonial already described came into vogue. Moleon says
the watchers at Orleans, habited as soldiers, broke their
lances before the third stall, in presence of the chanter, and
marched round the church with bare swords, and the sub
dean began the Te Deum. (3.) The keepers of the church,
who went the rounds at night. A curious pierced cross in
the east wad of the choir of St. David's was used by them
for looking eastward or westward.
Watching Lofts, from which the great shrines were observed,
remain at Oxford, Nuremberg, Lichfield, St. Alban's, West
minster (over Henry VI.'s chantry), Worcester (in the north
aisle), and other places. Those of St. Alban's and Oxford
are beautiful structures of wood ; that of Worcester is a stone
oriel ; at Lichfield it is a gallery over the door of the sacristy.
A smaller watching loft remains in the transept of St. Al
ban's. At Bourges there was one on the left side of the
altar. (2.) At Exeter, Hereford, and Christchurch (Hants)
there is a room over the north porch. The watchers at
Lincoln went round the church at nightfall to see that all
was safe.
Wayside Chapel. These buildings were commonly attached
to bridges at the entrance of towns, as at Rochester, Stam-
2 R

610 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY,
ford, Elvet, Durham, Exeter, Newcastle, and London. Two
still exist at Castle Barnard and Wakefield, the latter being
of the fourteenth century ; it has a remarkable carving of
the Resurrection. In France, Switzerland, and Italy they
are still common ; there is a good example at Pisa, c. 1230.
They were frequented sometimes as objects of pilgrimage,
but more commonly by pilgrims going and returning from a
shrine, and by ordinary travellers when the dangers of the
highway and bypaths were considerable. Untd recent times
the Bishop of Chichester was met at St. Roche's Hill by the
civic authorities on his return from Parliament, to congratu
late him upon his safe arrival home.
Wayside Cross usually marks the boundary of a monastic or
capitular or parochial jurisdiction. One, removed from the
site of the abbey, is preserved in Langley Park, Norfolk.
The Weeping Cross at Shrewsbury was a station on Corpus
Christi Day, when the various gudds, religious and corporate
bodies visited it, and there offered prayers for an abundant
harvest, returning to hear Mass in St. Chad's. There was a
weeping cross at Caen, erected by Queen Matilda in memory
of her sorrows at the cruel treatment of her husband, WilHam
of Normandy. Sometimes it commemorated a battle, as the
Neville's Cross, near Durham, erected in 1346 ; or a death,
like the memorial of Sir Ralph Percy, who was kided on
Hedgeley Moor in 1464 ; or the halting-place of a burial
procession, like the fifteen Queen Eleanor Crosses, erected c.
1290, of which only three remain, at Geddington, Northamp
ton, and Waltham. There are remains of wayside crosses
near Doncaster, and at Braithwell, with inscriptions inviting
the prayers of the passing traveder. In Devonshire alone
there are 135 places called by the name of . the cross. At
Pencran and St. Herbot, Brittany, there are superb speci
mens ; and others, carved richly, at Nevern, Carew, and
Newmarket. Valle Crucis Abbey took its name from Eli-
seg's sepulchral cross of the seventh century. These
crosses served as stations at Rogations, preaching places,
and at every meeting of roads, to remind the folk who went
by of Him who died upon the cross. In Spain, Italy,
Lubbeck (near Louvaine), Willebrock, and on Boonhill,
Berwickshire, they are memorials of a violent death. By the
roadside, and on the rocky summit of the mountain, the

WEEPERS  WELLS OF PITY. 611
wanderer, or the traveller returning home, may greet it from
afar, and breathe his prayer. In the life of St. Wdlebald
the English labourers are said to have gathered round a cross
in the middle of a field for daily prayer as an ordinary custom.
Weepers. (Prosklaiontes, flentes.) The class who lay in the
porch weeping, and beseeching the prayers of all who en
tered.
Wells occur in crypts, some of which were regarded as pos
sessing waters of miraculous powers, as at Pierrefonds ; but
very possibly they were made in imitation of the baptismal
weds of the Catacombs. There was usually a well or foun
tain in the centre of a cloister garth. There is a highly-
enriched well in the south nave-aisle of Strasbourg. Probably
these wells, as in cathedrals, served to drain water and sup
ply the baptismal font, as in St. Patrick's, Dublin, and at
York, Carlisle, Glasgow, and Winchester. Weds were for
bidden to be worshipped without the bishop's authority in
960, 1018, and 1102. In 950 they were made sanctuaries.
Round them were frithgeards, for sanctuary, which were re
puted holy ground. They were determined as holy by the
diocesan, by canons passed in 960 and 1102, and abuses
were condemned by the Synod of Winchester in 1308. In
many of the small Cornish oratories or baptisteries there
is a well. St. Keyne's well was an object of frequent visits,
as was St. Winifred's, which was budt in 1495, and contains
a star-shaped basin, formerly surrounded with stone screens,
and contained within a vaulted ambulatory under an upper
chapel. In many of the ancient Cornish churches of the
fifth and seventh centuries, at Marden, Kirk Newton, and
Durham there are wells. Joubert's wed at Poictiers is a
good medieval specimen. At Ratisbon, in the south wing of
the transept, there is a well with figures of the Saviour and
the Woman of Samaria. There is an ancient well in the
cloister of Aries. St. Aldhelm's well, at Shepton Mallet ;
St. Chad's, at Lichfield; St. Julian's, at Wellow, Somerset;
St. Thomas's, at Canterbury, and numerous others in Wales,
are stid regarded as possessing medicinal virtues.
Wells of Pity. The five wounds of Christ, distilling His sacred
Blood, — for grace, from the right foot ; for ghostly comfort,
from the left foot; for wisdom, from the right hand; for
mercy, from the left hand; and from the heart, for everlasting
2r2

612 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
life : each represented by a drop of blood in rich ruby
glass, issuing from a gash which bears a golden crown, as in
a pane of Perpendicular glass at Sidmouth.
Whimple. (Bindai.) A linen cloth passing under a nun's
chin, and across her brow.
Whipped Work. Needlework.
Whitsun-Day, or Pentecost, of which the first name is a corrup
tion through different dialectic forms. The commemoration
of the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the infant Church,
and, according to St. Ambrose and Hdary, instituted by the
Apostles (Acts xx. 16.) Hesychius says the first celebration
of Holy Communion occurred on it. The Poles called the
day Ziclone Swiatke, green holly ; the Finns speak of it
as Hellun Tai ; and the Welsh, as Y Sulgwyn, with the idea
of brightness and bliss ; but all other European nations pre
serve the original word Pentecost, either plainly or under a
thin disguise. By the law of the Younger Theodosius, the
Acts of the Apostles, and by the Councd of Toledo, 633, the
Revelations were read during the great forty days between
Easter and Whitsun-Day ; alms were distributed, slaves libe
rated, and all prayer was made standing. At length, in the
fourth century, the word Quinquesima or Pentecost was re
stricted to the actual day of commemoration, as, in round
numbers, the fiftieth after Easter. At Lichfield, 1197, " On
Pentecost and the three days ensuing, whdst the Sequence
was being sung, clouds were by custom scattered." A circular
opening still exists in the centre of the vault of Norwich,
and there are simdar apertures at Exeter. Through it, on
Whitsun-Day, a man habited as an angel was let down to
cense the rood. At St. Paul's a white dove was let to fly out of
it, and a long censer, reaching almost to the floor, was swung
from the west door to the choir steps, " breathing out over
the whole church and company a most pleasant perfume."
At Dunkirk, in 1662, the ceremonial was always performed
during the chanting of the Veni Creator, as in Spain. Bal-
samon alludes to the loosing of the dove in the East. At
Orleans, on Whitsun-Day, during the singing of the Prose,
birds, lighted tow and resin, wildfire, and flowers were
thrown into the cathedral. At St. Jullien's, Caen, until the
end of the sixteenth century, seven kinds of flowers were
showered down. In Sweden churches are on this festival

widows. 613
still decorated with the wind flower and Pentecost lily — the
daffodil. The eves of Easter and Whitsun-Day were occasions
of solemn baptism ; and Pentecost was one of the three great
feasts appointed for the reception of Holy Communion by
several councils, as Gloucester in 1378, and Paris in 1429.
At Durham the convent went in procession with two crosses,
One of gold and the other of silver, and St. Cuthbert's ban
ner going foremost ; every monk wore a rich cope, and that
of the prior, being of cloth of gold, was so heavy that his
attendants bore it up on either side, as he walked mitred,
and holding his golden cross in his hand; then followed
the shrine of Bede, carried by four monks on their shoulders ;
then the picture of St. Oswald, and the cross of St. Margaret,
and the rehcs, through the great north door, down Lyd
gate, up the South Bailey, and so home through the abbey
gates, amid a crowd of spectators. In most cathedrals the
country folk came in procession on this day, and Sir Thomas
More mourns over the unwomanly songs of the women who
followed the cross; their offerings then made were called
Whitsun-farthings or Pentecostals. On Monday, Tuesday,
and Wednesday in Whitsun week the famous Whitsun plays
of Chester were acted from the fourteenth century until
1574, on Whitsun Wednesday " Whitsonday, the making of
the Creed," being performed. Tilts and tourneys amused
knights and fair dames ; the morris-dancers delighted the
common folks ; and in many a rural parish the church ale, a
sort of parochial picnic, was kept in an arbour called
Robin Hood's Bower, fodowed by dancing, bowls, and
archery. Eton Montem was kept on Whitsun Tuesday, and
untd the present century the scholars of Winchester sang
their Sweet Song of Home round the college courts on the
evening before Whitsuntide, at the time when the swallows
come. Whitsun-Day was also called the Easter of Roses. A
Whitsun ale was a feast such as that sculptured on the porch
of St. John's, Chalke. At Angers, in 1448, the cathedral
clerks used to drag out the bed-furniture of the citizens into
the streets and deluge it with water.
Widows were consecrated to the estate of perpetual widow
hood by the bishop on any day, and in the sacristy only,
where they received a peculiar dress if they became ecclesi
astical, that is, did not live in the world. From this class

614 SACRED ARCHEOLOGY.
deaconesses, priestesses, were selected. They wore at one
time the whimple veil and brow-band.
Wig, Episcopal. An innovation of the time of Tdlotson, and
first laid aside by Dr. Shute Barrington, but Archbishop
Sumner was the last Primate and Dr. Monk the latest
bishop who used it, although in recent times Bishops Bagot
and Blomfield had given it up. In 1668 the use of wigs by
priests without episcopal Hcence was forbidden in France.
Wilkyn. Weak ale, the commons of minor canons of St. Paul's.
Windows. In the Norman period windows are deeply splayed
within, often elaborately ornamented with carved mouldings,
and sometimes divided by shafts. In Early EngHsh they
are mostly long, narrow, and lancet-headed, and often
grouped together, sometimes under a comprizing arch, or in
such proximity that the intervening stonework becomes
almost a mullion, and the jambs are shafted. In the Deco
rated period mullions are used as the window space is en
larged, and filled in the head, which is of different shapes,
with tracery. In the Perpendicular style the heads become
flattened, the mullions extend from the base to the top, and
transoms, often embattled, are constantly employed. A
dormer window (lucarne) lights rooms under the roof. There
is a fine example at Chapel Cleeve.
Wine, Eucharistic. The Greeks use warm water and the
Latins cold water in the mixed chalice. Red wine was pre
scribed in order to avoid accidents by the use of white wine,
and also more sensibly to represent the mystery. The
Roman Church now uses white wine. In the seventeenth
century claret, and in the eighteenth century sack was em
ployed in England.
Women, Churching of (Gr. to ecclesiasthenai) , is alluded to by
Pope Gregory in 601 as the thanksgiving, and by the Em
peror Leo's Constitutions, 460. The Salisbury use calls it
the purification after childbirth at the church door, evidently
in allusion to the purification of St. Mary. In 1549 the
"quire door" was substituted for the original place. A
ved or churching-cloth, of white material, was used in 1560
by the woman, and a pew or seat was allotted to her from
an earlier date.
Wooden Churches. Nether Peevor, built in the time of Henry
II.; a chapel at Bury St. Edmund's until 1303; St. Aid-

WREST. 615
helm's, Durham, 998 ; St. Stephen's, Mayence, 1011 ; a stud
Lady-chapel at Tykford, and another at Spalding in 1059,
were ad built of wood, as many of the Norwegian churches
(like Little Greenstead, 1013; Newtown, Montgomeryshire;
and Newland, Worcestershire) are to this day. The latter
may have been a grange altered to form a church. Ribbes-
ford has wooden nave-arcades. The excellence of EngHsh
carpentry is conspicuous in the woodwork preserved to us in
roofs, as at Peterborough, Ely, Old Shoreham, Polebrooke,
Warmington, and St. Mary's Hospital, and the palace kit
chen, Chichester ; the Guesten-hall, now in a church, at Wor
cester ; and St. Mary's, Reading ; doors, as at Beaulieu and
Luton; cloisters, like the dean's at Windsor, of the four
teenth century ; lychgates, as at Beckenham ; windows, Hke
those of Englefield; stalls, as at Lancaster, and some of
Early EngHsh date at Salisbury ; screens, as at St. John's
Hospital, Winchester, Roydon, Ewerby, the palace chapel,
Chichester, Lavenham, and St. Margaret's, Lynn ; or early
stall-desks, like one preserved at Rochester of the twelfth
century. The curious "fish-scale" ornament of Norman
spires is an imitation of the oaken shingle so common in
Kent and Sussex, a clear proof that there were earlier spires
of wood. Probably the Gothic stone spire was derived from
Normandy, where the earliest — the pyramid of Than — forms
a succession of steps, of the end of the twelfth century, and
was the prototype of Comornes, Basly, and Rosel. But
England never produced such a grand example of orna
mental carpentry and lead as the fleche of Amiens.
Wrest. A screw in a cross or banner-staff.

APPENDIX

OF

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

P. X 1. 12. Archangels often have a cross on the brow. St.
Raphael carries a pdgrim's scrip and a fish (Tobit v. 4 ; vi. 3)
Chamael, a staff and cup (St. Luke xxii. 43) ; St. Haniel, a cross,
crown of thorns, and reed (St. Matt. xxvi. 53) ; St. Jophiel, a
flaming sword (Gen. hi. 24).
P. 8, 1. 17. Each company contained 6666 legions!
P. 11, 1. 33. For 492, read 429.
P. 22, 1. 9. For 1458, read 1485.
P. 43. A Frank priest addressed St. Aldhelm as archimandrite.
There was an archpriest at Armagh in the thirteenth century.
P. 65. Bedel. A verger (from pedo, a staff, or bede, a prayer).
He gave notice for academical devotions at Cambridge in 1276.
P. 74. Barretta is the French form of biretta, bis rectum, from its
original two-folding sides by which it was handled. It has now
four sides and a central tuft, as in the time of Louis XIV. The
Council of Basle allowed the use of caps, and they appeared in
England c. 1224.
P. 80, 1. 3, and p. 33, 1. 12. The genuflexion at the words " and
was made man " was introduced by St. Louis after the First Cru
sade. Raoul of Tongres mentions that it lasted from " came
down from heaven" to " He rose again."
P. 90. Buttress. A projection from a wad to give additional sup
port, classed as face- or angle-buttresses, according to their posi
tion. Pdaster buttresses are the shallow forms used in the Nor
man period. For the various characters of buttresses, see under
the several styles of architecture. Owing to a defective spacing

618 APPENDIX OF ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
at Amiens on the north-east angle of the nave, the first side-chapel
external to the aisle was erected as a mask. Buttressing arches
at Canterbury, Wells, and Salisbury are subsidiary arches set
under the grand arches of the lantern.
P. 91, 1. 31. The doors are sometimes described as (1) holy, be
tween the bema and choir ; (2) angelic, between the choir and
nave ; (3) royal, between the narthex and nave ; and (4) beautiful
(or aioi), the outer gate of the narthex.
P. 104, 1. 14. For Repitz, read Hippo.
P. 106, 1. 8. Add, the Count of Barcelona in that cathedral.
P. 113. Cardinal. No doubt the name comes from the assistants
at the cardines or horns of the altar.
P. 121, 1. 24. For canons, read catechumens.
P. 122, 1. 31. Several abbeys in France became cathedrals, as Aleth,
Vabres, Tulle, Luc,on, Condom, Castres, and Rochelle. Utrecht
was once monastic, and the Benedictines of Ghent in 1536 were
made seculars. Farfa, Subiaco, and Urbania were monastic.
P. 142, 1. 38. At St. Pierre-sur-Dives, Fontenay, Badeix, and the
Jacohines, Toulouse, which is apsidal, of the fourteenth century,
pillars divide the building.
P. 145. At Chester there is a chest with ironwork of the thirteenth
century.
P. 151. Chrismal. A small receptaele for the Host within a
pyx-
P. 158, 1. 6. Ruffinus mentions the cross over the altar.
P. 177, 1. 6. Nuns, in 1279, were confessed near the altar in Eng
land.
P. 183. Lyndwood says the priest wore the cope when incensing
the altar or saying the collects.
P. 184. Sleeved copes were forbidden in the twelfth century hy
Pope Innocent III. The Greek bishop's mandyas is waved
with red and white bands, hke the stream of the word of God
which should ever be in his mouth. Festa in Cappis denoted
special festivals in secular minsters, when the precious copes were
worn by the ministers of choir. On the richness of the sacristy-
depended the frequency of such days in the local rite. See p.
386.
P. 186, 1. 26. The other names were the pyx or Corpus Christi
cloth. There is one in the South Kensington Museum.
P. 188. Credence. In 1641 a " credentia or side-table " was ob
jected to hy the Puritan party in England. Prothesis is the term
used in St. Matt. xii. 4 ; Heb. ix. 2.
P. 208. So late as 1611 mention is made of " maidens dancing after
evensong in churchyards " in England.

APPENDIX OF ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 619
P. 193. Preaching crosses remain at Iron Acton (fourteenth cen
tury), and Didmarton. The Sailors' Cross, which mariners
saluted when sailing up or down the Severn, remains at King's
Weston. The Wayside Cross of Calmsden (fourteenth century)
stands near an elm-shaded spring. A cross, formerly at Bristol,
is now at Stourhead ; and that of Cirencester in Oakeley Park.
Yarnton and Bisley retain their crosses.
P. 203, 1. 25. At Bamberg there is a large opening to the crypt
behind an altar which stands between the two flights of stairs
leading up to the choir platform.
P. 223, 1. 18. Gabriel Biel. The Schoolmen (Scholastici, doctors
of the church schools.) Professors of scholastic, in distinction to
positive theology, in which divinity was codified and treated after
a philosophic manner. There were three distinct periods, one
from Abelard to Albert the- Great ; the second, from Thomas
Aquinas to Durand, the age of Scotists and Thomists ; and the last,
from Durand (d. 1333) to Gabriel Biel. Most of these teachers
were friars — Anselm, Lanfranc, Hildebert of Tours, St. Lombard
("Master of the Sentences"), W. Burly (sometimes called "the
Invincible," the title of "Subtle" being given to W. Occham),
and G. de Colonna, the " most profound," are among the pro
minent teachers of the system which St. Bernard and Gregory
IX. opposed.
P. 2^7. Fillets, hy the Council of Worcester (1240), were worn for
three days, and, if not burned, were retained as cloths on which
the priest wiped the chrism from his fingers. The water used in
washing away the unction was poured into the font. Staurogatha
crosses, of red and white ribbon, are attached for eight days to
the dress of the newly-baptized in the Greek Church.
P. 2^9. The Golden Rose was sent to King Ferdinand of Naples
in 1849, and to Queen Isabella of Spain in 1868.
P. 240, 1. 19. At Bamberg, a church peculiarly rich in bronze
effigies, there is a sarcophagus of the third or fourth century
under the tomb of Pope Clement II., who died 1047.
P. 249, 1. 14. Add, Bishop Beckington's, at Wells.
Ibid. Bona says the Latins elevate the Host and Chalice after
consecration, and the Greeks, following ancient precedent, just
before the Communion. William of Paris, in the thirteenth cen
tury, ordered that a bed should ring at the elevation or just be
fore, to stir the minds of the faithful to prayer.
P. 256. Emblems. Add, St. Anselm, the apparition of the Ma
donna ; St. Apollinaris, amidst flames ; St. Bibiana, a dagger and
palm ; St. Bridget of Scotland, a flame on her head ; St. Corbi-
nian, a bear carrying a wallet ; St. Columban, a bear and sun ;

620 APPENDIX OF ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
St. Emerentiana, stones in her cap ; St. Eulalia, a cross-hook and
dove ; St. Eustace, with a bugle ; St. Martina, an iron comb and
temple ; St. Maurice, a flag with seven stars ; St. Genevieve, a
candle and a demon with bellows ; St. Richard, King, a pilgrim
with two sons.
P. 262, 1. 4. The antiphon Psalm xlvi. 4, Beleth says, was sung in
allusion to this rite.
P. 266, 1. 2. Bead, by the Maronites, and at Lyons.
P. 271, 1. 26. The "forty hours," with the salut, special prayers
and exposition, were instituted at Rome to counteract the licence
of the carnival on the three days previous to Lent.
P. 282, 1. 4. There is another at Claydon, Oxon. The Guernsey
font is of the time of George II. There are leaden fonts at
Walmsford, Wolstane, Pyecombe, Churton, and BrundaH.
P. 291. The transept of Boxgrove has screened galleries.
P. 293. There are fine examples of gatehouses at St. Vigor, St.
Gabriel, Ardaines, Longues, and Penmarch.
P. 303, 1. 8. Strictly speaking, the prayer before meals is the
benediction of the table ; the grace (gratias), thanksgiving, follows
at their conclusion.
P. 309, 1. 28. This festival, which is mentioned by Bede and St.
Gregory on November 1, was enforced by Gregory II. at Rome,
and in 835 on the other side of the Alps. In 998 the feast of
All Souls was first observed in Clugniac monasteries. In 603
Pope Boniface established a festival of St. Mary and All Martyrs,
which was kept on May 13. All Martyrs' Day is observed in the
Greek Church on the octave of Pentecost.
P. 315. Hood. (Caputium.) The badge of a graduate in a uni
versity (see Cowl), derived from the fur edgings or colours of
the lining of almuces, used in cathedrals which had schools, the
chapter being termed a university. The hoods of Aberdeen and
Paris, of St. Andrew's and Louvaine, and of Glasgow and Bo
logna were identical ; just as Dublin adopted that of the Oxford
D.D. and M.A., although the lining of the latter has of late years
been converted by the tailors into a deep blue. The D.D. hood
is of scarlet cloth, lined with silk, black (Oxford, Dublin) ; pink,
like that of D.M. and LL.D., and LL.D. DubHn (Cambridge) ;
purple (Durham). The D.C.L. hood is of scarlet cloth, fined
with silk, of rose-colour at Oxford ; the LL.D hood is scarlet,
lined with white (Durham) ; the B.D. (Oxford) is of black silk,
but shaped like that of a D.D. ; at Cambridge it is of the same
shape as that of an A.M., and common to the B.M., and, as at
Dublin, to the LL.M ; the D.M. hood is of scarlet cloth, lined
with silk, crimson (Oxford) ; rose-coloured (Dublin). The

APPENDIX OF ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 621
B.C.L., B.M., and Mus. Bao. hood is blue silk, edged with
white fur (Oxford) ; and for LL.M., purple, furred (Durham) ;
the B. Mus. hood is blue, lined with black silk (Cambridge) ; the
B.M., black silk, lined with rose-colour (Dublin) ; the M.A.
hood, black sdk, lined with crimson [coccineum] (Oxford) ; white
(Cambridge) ; episcopal purple (Durham) ; dark blue (Dublin) ;
the B.A. hood is black silk (Oxford) ; or stuff (Cambridge, Dub
lin, Durham), edged with fur ; the S.C.L. hood, blue at Oxford ;
the same as A.B. at Cambridge. The full-dress M.A. hood at
Oxford, since the seventeenth century only worn by the proctors,
is of ermine, as that of the Cambridge LL.D. was formerly scarlet,
lined with that fur; the Mus. Doc. hood is white brocaded
silk, lined with pink (Oxford) ; buff silk, lined with cerise (Cam
bridge) ; white figured satin, lined with rose-colour (Dublin) ;
and purple cloth, lined with white silk (Durham). At Paris,
the prascentor and chancedor of Notre Dame held office in the
university.
P. 333. Irish Architecture. The churches have Httle or no rich
ness of ornament, probably owing to the hardness of the material
employed. Spires and pinnacles are rare and exceptional ; apses
and vaulting are unknown ; parapets consist of battlements taper
ing in steps ; and tracery usually consists of intersecting mullions,
and is unfoliated. Rooms occur frequently above the chancel and
other parts. The conventual remains embrace churches of Austin
canons, Cistercians, and Friars. The churches of the latter ex
hibit a nave, with or without an aisle ; a choir, usuady aisleless ;
a large transept ; and a central tower, generally slender and ob
long, frequently a later insertion (about the fifteenth century),
and always blocking off the chancel, which was reserved for the
convent, from the nave, which was used for preaching to the peo
ple, whereas the Cistercians absorbed a large portion of their
naves for their choirs. It is difficult to trace any buddings before
the thirteenth century; two chapels, however, at Killaloe and
Cashel are, like the former cathedral, of the twelfth century.
The EngHsh at that date, and the Cistercians from Clairvaux,
introduced the styles of their respective countries, which the
Irish gradually modified, as it is suggested, by influence derived
from Wales and Italy. The only crypt existing is at Christ
church, Dublin. St. Cormac's chapel, Cashel, c. 1135, and the
round towers are genuine examples of early national architecture,
which comprises (1) oratories, square or of beehive shape ; (2)
small aisleless rectangular buildings, often in groups of seven ;
the windows are of one light, often triangular-headed, with sides
battering inwards, like those of the doorways, which have a mono-

622 APPENDIX OF ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
lithic lintel ; the smaller churches (basilicm) had stone roofs, hut
no chancels ; (3) Romanesque, ninth to twelfth century, c. 1150,
with a throne or bench table in the east wall, and a detached altar.
P. 339, 1. 28. Add, Sabaoth.
P. 3^2. The mortar was an iron vessel filled with oil and a wick,
which was lighted during Matins, before the choir door at Safis-
bury, as at Durham one of twelve cressets on a stone pillar, set
against the south-east pillar of the crossing, was lighted from
sunset till the close of Matins.
P. 347, 1. 18. A legendary from the patristic writings was drawn
up by Paul the Deacon in 883 at the command of Charlemagne
for use in church.
P. 352, 1. 9. St. Jerome says, " At the reading of the Gospel, even
whilst the sun is shining, lights are kindled, as a sign of joy," and
cites Scriptural authorities.
P. 352. Linen Pattern. An ornament Hke a plaited linen cloth
used on panelling in the Perpendicular period.
P. 360. Manciple. A provider of victuals in a college. Manci-
pia includes generally all subordinate university officials in the
Cambridge charter, 1276.
P. 382. Mitre. Bishops had not commonly the use of the mitre
until the eleventh century ; commendatory abbots, who were
always secular, used the mitre only on their coats of arms. The
prior and chanter of Loches were mitred.
P. 396, 1. 9. Add, corpus (body).
P. 402, 1. 38. For laws, read lays.
P. 40^5. Ogival. [From ogive, a diagonal rib, or the structural
aid (augere) afforded by the pointed arch.] The French medieval
style of architecture, which succeeded to Romano-Byzantine.
(-See pp. 91, 92.) (1.) Primitive, or lancet, thirteenth century.
(2.) Secondary, or radiating, fourteenth century. (3.) Tertiary,
or Flamboyant, fifteenth century. (See also pp. 91, 22.) The
ill-developed transept, the chevet with its radiating crown of
chapels, the chantries set between the large buttresses which
stride out to support the enormous height of the vaults and roofs,
and frequently unfinished or discordant western towers, are the
chief characteristics of the style. The mutual debt of France and
England in architecture, which began with Wflfred, Lanfranc,
Ernulph, and William of Sens, and was reciprocated by the
English during their occupation of several French provinces, is
so intimate that the greatest living French authority pronounces
part of Lincoln to be English, whilst his English rival regards it
as French. In Hungary, Servia, and Austria many churches have
no pointed arches even late in the fourteenth century.

APPENDIX OF ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 623
P. 431, 1. 25. A paten of the early part of the fifteenth century,
enamelled with a crucifix held by the Ancient of Days, remains at
Cliffe, Kent. A silver paschal candlestick (1216) five feet high,
a monstrance and vestment of the fourteenth or fifteenth century,
an ivory crucifix of the eleventh century, and some ancient reli
quaries remain at Bamberg.
P. 432. Venice was made patriarchal by Nicholas V., and Paul III.
created the patriarch of the Indies.
P. 442. Per-saltum. Ordination immediately to the superior order
without passing over the intermediate orders, on the principle
that the episcopate virtually contains ad others.
P. 457, 1. 22. There is a superb Perpendicular example at Ciren
cester.
P. 468. The Bishop of Gran was Primate of Hungary, and the
Bishop of Magdeburg, for a time, of Germany.
P. 469. Canterbury was the imperial capital of the Bretwalda at
the coming of St. Augustine : hence its archbishopric became the
ecclesiastical metropolis of the Primates of All England. So
York, the chief city of the Northumbrian princes, became metro
politan, with the primacy of England in the northern province.
P. 511. Rock Monday. The Monday following August 16th, St.
Roche's Day, the general harvest home.
P. 520. Rubric Rules and instructions for the conduct of divine
offices inserted in Church books, sometimes in red letter (rubrica)
or ItaHcs, to distinguish them from the text. The word is de
rived from the old Roman law, in which the summaries or con
tents of chapters were written in red. Gavanti says that in the
Vatican few missals have rubrics in red letter. Formerly the
rubrics were marginal directions, like those in the Alexandrine
Codex, and were only hy degrees inserted in the text.
p. 566, 1. 8. The orarion is properly the deacon's stole, em
broidered with the word " agios " (holy) thrice repeated.
Dimensions of the chief churches in the world in internal length,
breadth at transept, and height : —Rome, St. Peter's, 613 X 450
X 152 ; Canterbury, 514 X 130 x 80 ; [Old St. Paul's, 590 X
300 X 102 ; New] St. Paul's, 460 X 240 X 88 ; Winchester, 545
X 209 x 78 ; St. Alban's, 543 x 175 x 66 ; Ely, 517 x 185 x
72 ; York, 486 x 222 X 101 ; Lincoln, 468 x 220 x 82 ; Dur
ham, 473 x 170 x 70; Westminster, 505 x 190 x 103 ; SaHsbury,
450 x 206 X 84 ; Florence, 458 x 334 X 153 ; Cologne, 445 X
250 x 161 ; Milan, 443 X 287 x 153 ; Saltzburg, 466 ; Seville,
398 X 291 X 132 ; Granada, 425 x 249 ; Valladolid, 414 x 204 ;
Amiens, 442 X 194 x 140 ; Paris, 432 X 186 ; Rouen, 415 x 176
x 89 ; Chartres, 418 x 200 X 114 ; Lubeck, 316 x 206 ; Dront-

624 APPENDIX OF ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
heim, 334 x 166 ; Upsala, 330 x 140 x 105 ; Dublin, St.
Patrick's, 300 x 157 x 58 ; Glasgow, 282 ; Vienna, 337 x 115
x 92 ; Ratisbon, 384 x 128 x 118 ; Palermo, 346 x 138 x 74 ;
Constantinople, 360 ; Venice, 205 x 164. Interior diameter in
feet of Chapter Houses : — Circular, Worcester, 56 ; Margam, 50 ;
octagonal, Lichfield, Early English, 47 X 28 ; Sahshury, Early
Decorated, 58 ; Wells, e. 1298, 59 ; Westminster, c. 1250, 62 ;
decagonal, Lincoln, Early English, 62 [Hereford was 40] ; York,
c. 1320, 60. Scotland has some square chapter houses with cen
tral pdlars.

SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX

OF

SYNONYMS AND MINOR TERMS.

AbatVoix, 111.
Accotoir, 551.
Accoudoir, 551.
Acerra, 126, 538.
Acrostic, 277.
Aou plumario, 11.
Adjutor, 536.
Admiral, 337.
Adoration of the Cross, 563.
Advowson, 73.
^Editua, 360.
Aer, 595.
Afferentes, 298.
Affusion, 324.
Agenda, 364.
Aiguille, 544.
Aithrion, 46.
Ajuleios, 577.
Akakia, 453.
Akathisti, 564.
Akoimetai, 609.
Akroteleuteia, 6.
Ala, 587.
Alara, 278.
Albe, 345 ; flaps of, 265.
Album, 101.
Alexandrine Liturgy, 355.
Aliturgio, 367.
Alleluia, 339, 509, 513, 586.
All Saints' Sunday, 565.
Alms Saturday, 563.
Altar-Breads, 263, 264.
Altar of Revestry, 307.
Altars Washed, 372.
Amanuenses, 350.
Ambon, 336, 484, 544.
Ambrosian Liturgy, 356, 357.
Amice, flaps of, 265.

Ampulles, 296, 309, 445.
Amula, 202, 406.
Anabologion, 26.
Anadochoi, 298.
AnagnoBtes, 491.
Anakampteria, 574.
Analobos, 529.
Anaphora, 356.
Anathema, 269.
Andrew's, St., Cross, 285.
Andron, 61.
Angel Choir, 378.
Angelic Door, 91.
Anointing the Lead, 272.
Annotine Easter, 564.
Ansata, 200, 285.
Ante-Church, 457.
Antependium, 33, 290.
Anthem, 304, 332.
Anthony's, St., Cross, 285.
Antidora, 266, 349, 357.
Anti-Panon, 572.
Anti-Paseh, 564.
Antiochene Liturgy, 355.
Antiquarii, 350.
Aphorismos, 268, 438.
Aphorkismos, 270.
Aploma, 420.
Apocreos, 562.
Apocrisiarius, 403, 460.
Apodeipnon (Compline), 374.
Apolusis, 365.
Apostle, the, 262, 346 ; Spoons, 546.
Apostoleia, 479.
Apostolical, 375; See 432.
Apostolical Liturgy, 355.
Apostolo-Evangelia, 346.
Apotaxis, 498.
2 s

626

SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX

Apparailleur, 371.
Apparatus, 417.
Apparel, 25.
Apparition, 261.
Appropriations, 270.
Aquileian Liturgy, 356.
Arch-Subdeacon, 559.
Ark of the Lord, 569.
A retro Altaris, 477.
Armarius, 460.
Armenian Liturgy, 355.
Arrhse, 362.
Arriere Dos, 345, 498.
Ascension, 448.
Aserota, 436.
Aspastorion, 217.
Assizars, 602.
Auditorium, 24.
Auditors, 47 ; of the Rota, 558.
Aule, 46.
Aumoniers d'Armee, 139.
Auriclave, 144.
Auriphrygiata, 417.
Anscultator, 601.
Authentic, 305, 315.
Auto da fe, 525.
Autokepbalous, 268, 468.
Autos Sacramentales, 379.
Avant-Portail, 458.
Backpiece, 498.
Baculus Pastoralis, 429.
Bahut, 539.
Bailey Gate, 293.
Bailiff, Grand, 337.
Bajula, 68.
Balcony, 443.
Baldaquin, 551.
Baltheus, 295.
Bangu, 458.
Bar Tracery, 586.
Bas Choeur, 551.
Basil's, St., Liturgy, 355, 358.
Basilicani, 361.
Basses Stalles, 551.
Bastinarius, 596.
Beacon, 343.
Beatification, 109, 525.
Beautiful (Oraioi) Doors, 91.
Before the Sacrament, 96, 582.
Beguines, 404.
Bell of Lamborne, 343 ; the Choir,
552.
Bema, 62.
Bematis Diakonikon, 218.
Benedictine Nuns, 404 ; Oblates, 405.
Benediction, 266, 300, 495, 515, 425.
Benediction of the Waters, 262.
Benitier, 314, 315.
Bernardines, 159.
Besom, 278.

Betrothal Ring, 507.
Bibliotheca, 156.
Bindffi, 614.
Birthday of Chalice, 372.
Bisomi, 246.
Black, 169, 171; Crosses, 353; Mon
day, 525, 564 ; Sunday, 564.
Blaise's, St., Day, 488.
Blasphemers, 344.
Bleeding Host, 264 ; Rood, 322.
Blessed Sunday, 565.
Blue, 169, 172, 192.
Bocca, 343.
Bocardo, 344, 471.
Boeta, 343.
Bonhommes, 376.
Book of Life, 79, 90.
Books, 548.
Boreion Meros, 402.
Botse, 528.
Bourdon, 63.
Boveda, 593.
Brachium, 587.
Brandeum, 176.
Brank, 447.
Brethren of Strict Observance, 587.
Brevier, 79.
Bridget's, St., Cell, 387.
Bridgetine Nuns, 404.
Bridgetines, 311.
Brief, 308, 396.
Bright Day, 238, 245.
Brothers of Blessed Virgin Mary, 225.
Buckram, 384.
Bumbled (veiled) Cross, 423, 554.
Burette, 202, 279.
Burning Coals, 264.
Bursaries, 459, 462.
Burse, 523, 575.
Buttress, 617.
Buttressing Arch, 617.
Bye Canons, 103, 106.
Byssus, 384.
Cabiscol, 132.
Cadaver, 249.
Caesarean Liturgy, 355.
Calamus, 480.
Calceamenta, 528.
Calefactory, 427, 451.
Calendar, 364.
Calepungnus, 451.
Caligae, 555.
Callis, 318.
Calvary, 192.
Calvary Cross, 285.
Camail, 149.
Cambuca v. Cambutta, 429.
Camisiai, 11, 143.
Campana, 68, 162.
Campanella, 521.

OF SYNONYMS AND MINOR TERMS.

627

Campo Sanfo, 125.
Canna, 92.
Canon, 79, 409.
Canonarcha, 459.
Canonica, 102.
Canonical Letters, 350.
Canonical Singers, 542.
Canonici in Aere, 106.
Canonici in Herba, 106.
Canopy, 592.
Cantate, 564.
Cantel or Cantor's Cope, 459.
Cantharus, 61, 315.
Canticum, 484.
Canto Fermo, 447; Canto Modulato
or Variato, 536.
Cantoris, f 51.
Cantors, 332, 551.
Cantus Planus, 447 ; Cantus Psalmo-
rum, 448.
Capilla Mayor, 396, 544.
Capiscol, 459.
Capitalavium, 422.
Capitium, 145, 188, 467, 577.
Capitula, 139, 347, 469.
Capitular Mass, 368.
Cappa Magna, 184.
Capsa, 192.
Caput Jejunii, 46.
Cardinal Altar, 20, 113.
Cardinal Virtues, 256, 537.
Care Cloth, 113 ; Care Sunday, 563.
Careme, 348, 540.
Caritas, 166, 447.
Carling Sunday, 563.
Carmelite Nuns, 404.
Carnis Privium, 562.
Caroccio, 54.
Carthusian Communion, 264; Carthu-
Bian Novices, 402 ; Carthusian Nuns,
404.
Castrum Doloris, 311.
Catafalco, 311.
Cataract, 176.
Catavasia, 591.
Catechumens, Mass of, 357.
Cathedra Petri, 442.
Cathedraticum, 122.
Cathisma, 591.
Ceele, 52.
Cellarer, 588.
Centenarii, 602.
Centon, 35.
Cereus, 534.
Cerimoniar, 491.
Cerostata, 95.
Chad's Pennies, 122.
Chair, St. Peter's, at Antioch, 442.
Chaire, 484.
Chancel- Veil, 177.
Chancellor, Grand, 337.

Cbancon, 506.
Chantre, 459, 557.
Chantry Chapels, 247.
Chapelle, Ardente, 311.
Chaplains of the Core, 602.
Chaplet, 65.
Chapter Mass, 20.
Chartophylax, 133.
Chasse, 539.
Chaste Sunday, 563.
Cheficier, 588.
Cheirotonia, 413.
Chernibozeston, 61.
Chevet-Eeeper, 588.
Chivalret, 247.
Chlamys, 183.
Choirocke, 567.
Choral Cope, 183.
Choremd, 567.
Chorepiscopus, 459.
Chorus Cantorum, 91.
Chrismal, 431, 508.
Christus Resurgens, 244.
Chrysostom's, St., Liturgy, 355, 358.
Churching Cloth, 595.
Church Light, 427, Church Scot, 577,
Churchwarden, 541.
Ciborium, 489.
Ciel, 533.
Cierge, 534.
Cimborio, 544.
Cimeliarch, 588.
Cingulum, 295.
Circadas, 388.
Circlet, 292.
Cismontane, 592.
Cistercian Nuns, 402.
Clappers, 69, 85.
Claustral Abbot, 470.
Claveau, 607.
Clementine, 107 ; Clementine Liturgy
326.
Clene Lenton, 563.
Clergeons, 551.
Cleri Peplum, 578.
Clerk of Chapel or Organs, 416.
Clerks of the Vestibule, 560.
Clinic, 397.
Clocca, 68, 491.
Close of Alleluia, 562.
Clugniac Nuns, 404.
Cochlear, 546.
Cock-crow, Mass at, 369.
Ccena Domini, 372.
Coenobite, 388.
Colatorium, 546.
Colgaduras, 572.
Coliberti, 360.
Colidei, 204.
Collar, 517.
Collateral, 305, 492.
2 s2

628

SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX

Collect or Prayer after the Names,
220.
Collecta, 364, 409, 553.
Collegiates, 87.
Collipendium, 577.
Collop Monday, 563.
Colobium, 386.
Cologne Plate, 345.
Colum, 546.
Columella, 92.
Comes of St. Jerome, 261, 262, 346,
371.
Commander, Grand, 337.
Commandery, 337.
Commandes, 68.
Commendatory Letters, 350.
Common Chamber, 427 ; Common Ta
ble, 245.
Common Hall, 377.
Commonitory Letters, 349.
Common Life, 105.
Common of Saints, 35.
Communicatory Letters, 350.
Communion, 357.
Compater, 298.
Complement, 178.
Compline, 316.
Compostella, 338.
Concelebration, 366.
Conclusion of Christmas-tide, 262.
Concur, 409.
Confession, 62, 335.
Confessional Letters, 349.
Congees, 551.
Congregation, 144.
Consacramentals, 488.
Consecration of Church Plate, 72.
Consecration, The, 364.
Consignatorium, 153.
Consors Pater'ni, 319.
Constructor, 371.
Contestatio,. 465.
Contre-Maitre, 371.
Contre Retable, 23, 500.
Conventual Mass, 20, 368.
Conventuals, 288.
Convicars, 602.
Cooperculum, 575.
Coopertorium, 575.
Cope of Profession, 183.
Coptic Liturgy, 351.
Corbana, 295.
Corbeliers, 241.
Cordeliers, 288.
Cornet, 577.
Cometeer, 600.
Coro, 396.
Corona, 382.
Corpus Christi Cloth, 596.
Corpus Fictum, 249, 311.
Corrector, 376.

Corrigiatos, 528.
Corset, 498.
Counterpoint, 468.
Costers, 587.
Cotta, 592.
Couronne, 343.
Coustre, 588.
Cover, Font, 283.
Crates, 304.
Crecelle, 491.
Credence, 522.
Croccia, 116, 429.
Croche, 551.
Crocus, 169.
Cross-Alley, 586 ; Cross-Flower, 293.
Cross-Bearers, 332.
Cross-Buns, 301 ; Cross Double, 476.
Crossed-Keys, 335.
Cross-legged Effigies, 248.
Cross-let, 285.
Ctobs of St. John, 337.
Crotalus, 491.
Crowds, 203.
Crown, 581 ; Crown of Flowers for
Thorns, 300 ; Crown on Towers, 343.
Crozier, 194.
Crucero, 544.
Crusaders, 445.
Crux Gestatoria v. Stationaria, 476.
Cubicula, 119.
Cubiculars, 241.
Culcitrum, 490.
Cum Nota, 491.
Curfew, 31.
Curiarius, 609.
Cursus, 381, 409.
Cussinus, 490.
Custodes Ordinis, 370.
Custodia, 489.
Custos, 588.
Custumal, 181, 413.
Cuve, 233.
Cyling, 533.
Cymbal, 68.
Cyric-Then, 599.
Cyril's, St., Liturgy, 355.
Dais, 551.
Dalmatic, Use of, 266.
Dance of Poulis, 210.
David's Shield, 440.
Day of Bread, 562 ; Day of the Lord's
Passion, 198, 300.
Dead Light, 343.
Deadly Sins, 537.
Death's Head and Cross-Bones, 248
Death-Watch, 399.
Decade Ring, 507.
Decani, 87, 551.
De Came Levando, 562.
Decimffl, 235.

OF SYNONYMS AND MINOR TERMS.

629

Decollation, 333.
Decree, Gratian's, 106.
Decretals, 106, 349.
Decumans, 102.
Decussata, 285.
Defensores, 433.
Deflection, 517.
Degrees, Psalms of, 483.
Delices, 279.
Deo Devotee, 404 ; Deo Sacratss, 404.
Deosculatory, 436.
Deposition, '397, 405.
DeProfundis, 483.
Deputy, 597.
Descant, 468.
Deus Creator, 319.
Deutero-Canonical, 35.
Deuteroon, 558.
Devant L'Autel, 289.
Devil Looking after Lincoln, 250, 308 ;
Devil's Door, 402.
Devolution, 502.
Diadem, 382, 399.
Diakonikon, 406, 429.
Diaphonia, 221.
Diary, 502.
Diaspro, 218.
Didaskalias, 535.
Dies in albis, 386 ; Dies in Cappis, 386 ;
Dies Iras, 480 ; Dies Dominicus, 561.
Dieta, 483.
Dignities of York, 384.
Dimanche Reprus, 563.
Dimensions of Churches and Chapter
houses, 623.
Dipsalma, 6.
Diptera, 9.
Directorium Sacerdotum, 445.
Discant, 393.
Discipline of the Secret, 56.
Diskalumma, 595.
Dismes, 235.
Dismissory Letters, 349.
Disputations, 535.
Distaff's Day, 262.
Diurnal, 335.
Doctor Audientium, 121.
Dog-tooth, 237.
Doniicellars, 103.
Dominica Broncherii, 422 ; Dominica
in Capite, 562.
Dominical, 175, 490, 594.
Dominican Nuns, 404.
Dominicum, 157, 179, 364.
Dominus, 524, 542.
Domus Operaria, 371.
Dorian, 305.
Dorsal, 144, 551.
Dortor (dormitory), 307.
Dossal, 498, 572.
Dossier, 551.

Double benefices, 73 ; Double Cross,
Double Monasteries, 461; Double
Invitatory, 332.
Doxale, 230, 513.
Doxology of Lord's Prayer, 359.
Draconarii, 340.
Dragon, 308, 354.
Draper, 337.
Drop Arch, 237.
Drum (tympanum), 224.
Dry Mass, 369.
Duomo, 224.
Duplex, 409.
Echos, 580.
Eileton, 186.
Eirene, 336.
Ekton (Sext), 374.
Eleanor Cross, 193.
Elect, 508.
Embering Thursday, 46.
Emblems of Apostles, 256.
Embolismus, 357.
Eminence, 115.
Enchiridion, 469.
Endute, 420.
Energumens, 270.
English Mode, 105.
Enkolpion, 571.
Ennaton (Nones), 374.
Entre los dos coros, 544.
Entrees, 551.
Eparchy, 480.
Ephesine Liturgy, 356.
Ephodion, 598.
Epigonation, 560.
Epikeruxis, 542.
Epinikion, 320, 590.
Epiraptaria, 567.
Episcopium, 101.
Epitrachelion, 410, 556. "
Epomis, 577.
Eremites of St. Paul, 263.
E6mouchoir, 278.
Estincelles, 577.
Esto Mihi, 562.
Et cum spiritu tuo, 226.
Eucharist, 364, 465.
Euchelaion, 272.
Eulogise, 337, 364.
Euteria, 411.
Even Sang, 317.
Exaltation of Holy Cross, 332.
Exarch, 219, 375, 460, 468.
Exaudi, 564.
Executades, 221.
Exedra, 38.
Exequies, 84.
ExerciseB, 479.
Exomologesis, 538.
Expectation Week, 565.

630

SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX

Exposure of Children, 456.
Extraneous, 103.
Extravagants, 107.
Eye, 517, 586; Bishop's Eye, 518, 551 ;
and Dean's Eye 518.
Fabarii, 542.
Faburden, 468.
Familiar, 369.
Faneau, 343.
Fascise, 277.
Fastens, 273.
Fastingonge, 273.
Feast of Three Kings, 261.
Feretory, 538.
Feretrar, 370.
Feretrum, 538.
Feria Quinta, 372.
Ferula, 429.
Ferrum Characteratum, 263.
Ferruminatio, 208.
Ferrum Oblatarum, 263.
Festa in Cappis, 184, 617.
Fictitious, 166.
Fide-Jussores, 298.
Field Church, 137.
Fig Sunday, 422.
Filioque Clause, 305.
Firehouse of Kildare, 100 ; Fireplaces,
509.
Firmaculum, 390.
First Vespers, 231.
Fisherman's Ring, 506.
Fistula, 92.
Flabrum Museatorium, 278.
Flammeum, 594.
Fleche, 544.
Flentes, 611.
Fleury Cross, 285, 286.
Flos Deliciarum, 279.
Flower Sunday, 422.
Foliation, 206.
Fontevrault, Order of, 310.
Forbury, 512.
Forensic Parlour, 427, 457.
Forinsecus, 285.
Form, 549, 557.
Formal, 390, 491 ; Formal Letters, 347.
Fornix, 593.
Forty Hours, 271, 619.
Forus, 589.
Fossarii, 84.
Franciscan Cross, 285; Franciscan
Nuns, 404.
Freed Sunday, 563.
Front Church, 309.
Fruiterer, 405.
Full Services, 536.
Fumigatorium, 126.
Gabriel Bell, 31.

Gallican, 306 ; Gallican Mode, 512.
Gang Days, 553 ; Gang Flower, 292.
Gangways, 551.
Gathering (Alms), 81.
Gaudete, 562.
Gazophylakion, 406.
General, 333.
Genesse, or Geneste, 206.
Genuflectentes, 336, 560.
George's, St., Cross, 285.
Gesmas, 235.
Gestatoria, 458.
Gestatorium, 565.
Gewolbe, 593.
Gibeciere, 309.
Gilbertines, 311.
Gimmer Ring, 507.
Gisans, 249.
Glory, 49; Glory be to Thee, 301.
God's Board, 21 ; God's Work, 409.
Golden Choir, 553.
Gonuklinontes, 336.
Good, the, 364; Good Thursday, 537.
Gospel Reading, the, 346, 352 ; Gospel
Oak, 302 ; Gospel Tree, 475.
Gossips, 298.
Grabbatarian, 397.
Grace Cup, 303.
Gradale, 304.
Gradas, 547.
Gradual, 304 ; Gradual Psalms, 483.
Gradus, 24, 467, 513.
Grand Chantre, 459; Grand Guette
308.
Granouilli, 308.
Gratiarum Actiones, 604.
Greater Doubles, 231 ; Greater Litany,
353 ; Greater Sundays, 564 ; Greater
Week, 664.
Great Chapter, 463; Great Sabbath,
241 ; Great Sunday, 420 ; Great
Week, 315.
Grecian Stairs, 305.
Greek Bridal Crown, 292 ; Greek Cross,
285; Greek Tonsure, 581.
Green, 169, 172.
Grees, 547.
Gregorian Liturgy, 357.
Gregory's, St., Liturgy, 355.
Gremium, 396.
Grey Friars, 287.
Grille, 117, 515, 530.
Grin of Arius, 250.
Grissens, 305.
Grue, 69.
Guet, 607.
Gule of August, 342.
Guilds' Pageants, 380.
Gyrovagi, 389.
Gynecsea, 543.

OF -SYNONYMS AND MINOR TERMS.

631

Hagion, 91.
Hagion Elaion, 272.
Hagia Lonche, 314; Hagia Trapeza,
571 ; Hagia Xula, 491.
Hagiographa, 109.
Hagiologies, 220.
Hagioscope, 32, 276.
Hagiosideron, 491.
Hagoday, 526.
Hail Mary, 65.
HaUel, 483.
Hallelujah Psalms, 483.
Hammer-beam, 517.
Hangings, 558.
Haut-Pas, 285.
Haute Stalle, 551.
Hebdomadary, 3.
Hegoumenos, 386.
Hell, 471.
Hellun Tai, 612.
Herce, 311.
Herecius, 311.
Hermitages, 262.
Herse Lights, 100.
Hesperinon, 374.
Hexapterige, 278.
Hierarchy, 412.
Hiera Stole, 420.
Hierateion, 91.
Hierurgia, 364.
High Communion, 365 ; High Mass,
361 ; High Prayers, 312.
HiBtory, 347, 472.
Histriones, 377.
Hoch Schiff, 396.
Rollins, 562.
Holy Anointing, 272.
Holy Bema, 91.
Holy Bread, 266.
Holy Day, 313 ; Holy Door, 91, 563 ;
Holy Fasts, 250.
Holy Ghost, Mass of, 369.
Holy Hole, 203 ; Holy Lamb, 265, 314;
Holy Loaf, 266, 337.
Holy or Mystic Tablets, 220.
Holy Oak, 475 ; Holy Office, 329 ; Holy
Rood, 512; Holy Stone, 15; Holy
Tree, 562.
Homilies, 535.
Honor Virtus, 306.
Hood, 619.
Horns of the Altar, 303.
Horologiai, 483.
Horologion, 483.
Horopuiaion, 395..
Hosanna, 297 ; Hosanna Sunday, 422.
Hospice, 306, 318.
Hospitallers, 337.
Hostel, 306.
Hostia, 263.
Hours for Holy Communion, 317.

Hours for Marriage, 317.
Housel, 263.
Houselling, 264.
Houselling Bread, 265, 407.
Humerale, 25, 144.
Hundfogde, 221.
Hypapante, 488.
Hyperetai, 557.
Hyperoa, 543.
Hypoboleis, 542, 557.
Hypo-Dorian, 305.
Hypo-Mixo-Lydian, 305.
Hypo-Phrygian, 305.
Hypopodion, 395.
Hyrmen, 427.
Humming, 394.
Iconostasis, 83. 320, 513, 520.
Icons, 320.
Illatio, 465.
Illumination, 100.
Illuminators, 351.
Immolatio, 465.
Immovable Feasts, 275.
Imperatec, 353.
Impluvium, 61.
Improperia, 190.
In Ccena Domini, 269.
Incense Burners, 344; Incense Cups,
326.
Incised Stones, 246.
Idiotes, 343.
Indulgence Sunday, 420.
Ingenua, 388.
Ingressa, 331.
Inlatio, 465.
Inscripta, 446.
Insignia, 495.
Insignia, 168.
Institution, 327.
Interlude, 448.
Intermedia, 229, 530.
Intermediate Doubles, 73.
Interventor, 330.
Intromissa, 285.
Inventor Rutili, 242.
Invitatory, 231.
Invocation of the Holy Ghost, 356.
Invocavit, 563.
Irenic Letters, 350.
Irish Architecture, 620 ; Irish Cross,
286.
Iron Crown, 198.
Iron Slabs, 247.
Itineraria, 458.
Itinerarium, 565.
Jack in the Box, 264 ; Jack Snacker,
449.
Jail- Gate, 293.
James, St., Liturgy of, 355.

632

SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX

Jam Lucis Orto, 319.
Jerusalem, Liturgy of, 355.
Jesse- Candlestick, 333.
John, St., Liturgy of, 356.
Jube, 513 ; Jube Domne, 347, 514.
Jubilate, 564.
Judas Cup, 335.
Judica, 563.
Jugulum, 176.
Jus, 507 ; Jus Synodale, 388.
Katapetasma, 595.
Katechoumena, 543.
Katharine Knots, 339.
Kathierosis, 413.
Keeping Austins, 51.
Kerchief, 186.
Kidaris, 382.
Kiklis, 91.
King of Sundays, 565.
King's Evil, 309.
Kissing the Pope's Foot, 336.
Kiss Thursday, 537.
Knacker Jack, 512.
Knights of Calatrava, 339 ; Christ, 338 ;
Compostella, 338 ; Malta, 338 ; Ma-
rianis, 338 ; Mountjoye, 338 ; Rhodes,
337 ; St. George, 339 ; Teutonic,
338.
Knockers, 228.
Koinonikon, 555.
Kraula, 308.
Label of a Mitre, 273, 277.
Labis, 546.
Lacerna, 182.
Lacinise, 384.
Lady Psalter, 517.
Lsetare, 563.
Laiton, 345.
Lampadouehon, 431.
Lampra, 238, 245.
Laterals, 284.
Laticlave, 144.
Latin Cross, 285.
Latria, 364.
Latus pone Chorum, 477.
Lauds, 316.
Lauda sion, 479.
Lavacrum, 233.
Lavabo, 583.
Lavanda, 437.
Lay Clerk, 602.
Lazarus, St., Saturday, 564.
Lebitus, 386.
Lecticarii, 87.
Lectricium, 345.
Lectrier, 513.
Legatine Constitutions, 107, 347.
Legatus „ Latere, 347 ; Legatus Datus,
347 ; Legatus Natus, 347, 351.

Legend, 485.
Legenda, 347.
Legile, 490.
Leichen Wagen, 311.
Lenten Veil, 148.
Lesser Litany, 353, 354.
Lesson, 347.
Levite, 211.
Libellatici, 344.
Libera, 388.
Liberty of December, 564.
Libels, 344.
Lichtun, 351.
Lifting, 240.
Lights, The, 261.
Light-Scot, 579.
Linea, 510.
Linen Pattern, 621.
Linteamen, 490.
Lipsana, 495.
Liripipium, 577.
Litany of the Purification, 354.
Literata, 446.
Litten, 351.
Little Ease, 344, 471 ; Little Office of
Virgin, 469.
Livery Dole, 223 ; Livery Gowns, 308.
Loaf Mass, 242.
Locellus, 539.
Loculus, 119.
Locutorium, 427.
Lof Sang, 317.
Logion, 490.
Lollards' Tower, 344.
Long Friday, 300.
Longinus, 235.
Lord's Handmaiden, 403.
Lost Monday, 450.
Lower Walk, 589.
Low Mass, 368 ; Low Sunday, 564.
Lucarne, 614.
Lucernarise Preces, 604.
Luchnikon, 374.
Lucis Largitor, 319.
Luna, 38.
Lustrici, 298.
Lychni, 95.
Lychnoscope, 32.
Lych-Wake, 399.
Lydian, 305.
Lying House, 471.
Mace Canonichi, 602.
Machicots, 602.
Maforte, 386, 594.
Magister Operis, 370.
Magistral, 68.
Magots, 308.
Maison Dieu, 318.
Major Litany, 353.
Makarioi, 504.

OF SYNONYMS AND MINOR TERMS.

633

Maladrerie, 318.
Malluvium, 61.
Maltese Cross, 280.
Manciple, 621.
Mandyas, 183.
Manicularia, 417.
Manner-Chor, 291.
Manoualion, 572.
Mansionary, 554.
Mantelet, 116.
Mantellone, 360.
Mantile, 273.
Manual, 502. .
Mappula, 273.
Marche Pied, 285.
Mardi Gras, 540.
Marguillier, 151.
Mariola, 99.
Mark's, St., Liturgy, 355.
Marriage, Hours for, 317 ; Marriage
Ring, 507 ; Marriage Sunday, 562.
Marshal, Grand, 337.
Martyres, 298.
Marygold, 517.
Mary Mass, 369 ; Mary and John, 512.
Mass Cope, 591.
Master, 504 ; Grand Master, 337 ;
Master of Sacred College, 225.
Masters, 337.
Mater Dolorosa, 605.
Matin Altar, 20 ; Matin Mass, 369.
Matins, 316.
Matricular, 557.
Matrinre, 298.
Matronikon, 61.
Maund, 312.
Mazer, 303, 494.
Mediana, 563.
Mediante, 563.
Medium Altare, 22.
Megale Eisodos, 305.
Melotes, 386.
Memorial Letters, 349.
Memorials, 179.
Mensa, 571.
Mensa! 309.
Mensura, 249, 311.
Mercy, Order of, 439.
Meringlerii, 157.
Merlons, 260.
Mesonuktion, 374.
Metalepsis, 364.
Metatorium, 523.
Mi-Careme, 563.
Midday Sang, 317 ; Mid. Tid. Mis. ra,
563.
Middle Altar, 20.
Midlent Sunday, 563.
Mid-Pentecost, 564.
Militia of Jesus Christ, 225.
Milky Way, 447.

Millenarii, 602.
Ministerial, 431.
Ministerium, 189, 190.
Minor Doubles, 73.
Minoresses, 404.
Minorities, 287.
Minor Litany, 353.
Miserere, 483.
Misericord, 549, 551.
Misericordias Domini, 564.
Missa, 409; MisBa Sicca, 164, 369.
Missae Domini, 564.
Mitra, 594.
Mixo-Lydian, 305.
Moline Cross, 285.
Monitors, 542.
Moneaux, 68.
Monachi ad Succurrendum, 389.
Moniales, 394.
Moresco, 543.
Morning Star, 314.
Mortar, 621.
Mortuaise, 68.
Motet, 221.
Mothering Sunday, 563.
Mourners, 248.
Mousa, 546.
Movable Feasts, 275.
Mozetta, 116, 149.
Muffled Peal, 313.
Murus, 530.
Musical Instruments in Divine Service,
151.
Mutatorium, 523.
Mystery, The, 364, 378.
Naked Baptism, 325.
Naos, 396.
Nati Canonici, 103.
Navicula, 538.
Navis, 396, 538.
Nebula, 595.
Nef, 396.
Neophytes' Day, 564.
Nigellum, 399.
Night Sang, 317.
Nine Lections, 542.
Nola, 68, 162.
Nomination, 73.
Nones, 316.
Noon Sang, 317.
Nosing, 537.
Nosocomi, 318.
Note, 528.
Nullatenses, 373.
Nunneries, 589.
Nympheeum, 111.
Obit, 32.
Obla,ta, 263, 406.
Oblation, 364, 406, 407.

634

SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX

Oblations, 265.
Oblationarium, 62, 189, 406, 408.
Oblys, 263.
Obra de Godos, 543.
Obrero, 370.
Obsecratio, 573.
Observants, 288.
Octave of Infants, 564.
Oeuli, 563.
CEeumenical, 431 ; GScumenical Bishop,
452.
Offerenda, 407.
Offerers, 298.
Offering Days, 243.
Office, 364.
Offrande, 408.
Ogee, 215.
Ogival, 621.
Ointing box, 410.
Ointment Bearers, 564.
Olive Sunday, 422.
Omophorion, 144.
Onax, 279.
Onzaine, 311.
Open Cope, 184.
Operarius, 370.
Opus Anglicum, 410 ; Graecum, 410 ;
Intextum, 410 ; Reticulatum, 410 ;
Sectile, 392 ; Tesselatum, 392 ; Teu-
tonicum, 410; Vermiculatum, 392,
410.
Orans, 249.
Orarion, 556.
Orarium, 500, 553.
Oratorians, 495.
Orb, 215, 452.
Order of Ingham, 375 ; Order of Mercy,
375.
Ordinale, 445.
Ordination of a Church, 414.
Organisers, 416.
Oriental Liturgy, 356.
Orphreyed Mitre, 384.
Orthodoxy Sunday, 563.
Orthron, 374.
Osculatory, 436.
Ostensorium, 24, 390.
Our Lady, 605.
Over-Story, 161.
Overthrow of Idols, 369.
Owche, 390.
Pacific Letters, 350.
Psenula, 14.
Pactum, 478.
Pageant, 380.
Pain Beni, 406.
Palace, 306.
Palatines, 6, 558.
Palindrome, 284.
Palla d'Oro, 290.

Palliata, 144.
Pall, 508 ; Pall Veil, 186.
Pancake Bell, 540.
Paned, 419.
Pange Lingua, 319.
Panis DecusBatus, 263, 301.
Papa, 452.
Papai Arms, 335.
Paradise, 162.
Parafront, 15.
Paragauda, 169.
Paranymphi, 298.
Parasceve, 300.
Paratorium, 62.
Paratrapezon, 91.
Paratum, 565.
Parclose, 530, 551.
Pardon Bowl, 80; Pardon Door, 425 ;
Pardon Sunday, 420.
Parekklesias, 91, 520.
Parliament, 140.
Parochus, 43.
Paroikia, 425.
Paropsis, 302.
Parroquia, 426.
Partour de Choeur, 477.
Parva Cantaria, 373 ; Parva Tunica,
592.
Paseha Floridum, 421.
Paschal Candle, 98, 241.
Paschal Post, 99.
Pasch of Competents, 422 ; Pasch of
Passion, 238 ; Pasch of Resurrection,
238 ; Pasch of the Cross ; 300.
Pasques Charnicula, 563.
Passing Bell, 286.
Passionar, 156.
Passion Cross, 285 ; Passion Friday,
300 ; Passion Sunday, 563.
Passo, 429.
Past for Brides, 292.
Pastophoria, 91, 569.
Pastoral Letter, 349.
Patience, 529, 551.
Patonce Cross, 285.
Patriarchal Cross, 195.
Patriarchine Liturgy, 356.
Patron, 607.
Pattens, 602.
Patres Spirituales, 298.
Patrick's, St., Cross, 285.
Patrini, 298.
Patrocinia, 495.
Pauline Tonsure, 581.
Pavilion, 423 ; Pavilion Court, 293.
Peace, The, 328, 508.
Peasants' Church, 426.
Pectorale, 490.
Pectorals, 133, 144.
Peculiars, 269.
Pedalia, 437.

OF SYNONYMS AND MINOR TERMS.

635

Pedum, 429.
Pege, 281.
Pelican, 253.
Pellisse, 166.
Pendent Pyx, 570.
Penitence, Friars of, 439.
Penitents' of Blood, 278 ; Order of Peni
tents, 439.
Penitentiary, 299, 354.
Penniless Porch, 459.
Pensilis, 571.
Pensionary, 480.
Pentacle, 251.
Pentaptychs, 220.
Pentecost, 612.
Pentecostal Chapter, 140.
Pentecostals, 122.
Peplum, 277.
Pere, 452.
Peregrine, 306, 445.
Periama, 197.
Peribolos, 61, 91, 133.
Periptera, 9.
Peristerion, 233.
Penstethion, 491.
Perpeyn Wall, 442.
Perrone, 221.
Per-Saltum, 662.
Personists, 602.
Peter Mass, 369 ; Peter Pence, 579.
Peter's Keys, 335.
Petrine Tonsure, 581.
Phagiphania, 261.
Phare, 126, 198, 343.
Phiale, 61, 111, 281, 577.
Philema, 336.
Phcelone, 143.
Phoenix, 253.
Phrygian, 305.
Pica, 79, 445.
Pied Friars, 445.
Pietancia, 447.
Pie Zekais, 296.
Pignora Sanctorum, 495.
Pilgrims' Road, 447 ; Pilgrims' Songs,
483.
Pillar, 144.
Pillarists, 556.
Pinax, 443.
Pisalis, 92.
Placebo, 221.
Place of Tears, 290.
Plagal, 305, 580.
Plain Litany, 354,
Planeta, 143.
Planum Altaris, 467.
Plateresque, 543.
Plate Tracery, 238, 586.
Plenar, 381.
Pliant, 272.
Plough Alms, 579.

Pluviale, 182.
Pneuma, 479.
Poderis, 560.
Podium, 61, 91, 443, 551.
Pcenitentia, 438.
Poleielaion, 572.
Pole-Plate, 517.
Poly-Liturgic, 367.
Polyonumos, 297.
Polyptychs, 220.
Poor Clares, 404.
Popis, 454.
Popp, 577.
Poppoea, 454.
Portatile, 565.
Porticus, 454.
Portiforium, 459.
Portion, 265, 373, 546.
Portioners, 602.
Position of Chalice and Paten, 131.
Position of Gospeller, 222.
Post, 517.
Postabula, 565.
Postabulum, 498.
Postaltare, 498.
Postergule, 229, 498.
Postern, 293.
Posticnm, 498.
Postulant, 402.
Potehce Cross, 285.
Poterio Kalumma, 595.
Poupees, 454.
Praeco, 69.
Prasconium, 478.
Praedicatio, 542.
Praeculse, 65.
Praefeet of Sacristry, 522.
Prasmonstratensian Nuns, 404.
Prsepositus, 480.
Praise, Psalms of, 483.
Preacher of Papal Family, 226.
Preceptory, 173, 338.
Prechantre, 473.
Precious Cope, 183; Precious Mitre,384.
Precular, 64.
Predella, 303.
Prefect of Choir, 602.
Prelacies, 218.
Pregustation, 190.
Presanctified, The, 369.
Presbytery, 62, 532.
Presbytia, 467.
Presentation, 73.
Prester John, 467.
Priant, 249.
Pricksang, 468.
Prie Dieu, 551.
Priests' Fortnight, 563 ; Priest's Shrift,
538.
Primate of all Churches, 452.
Prime, 316.

636

SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX

Primer, 79.
Prime Sang, 317.
Primiclerus, 470, 482.
Principal Vestment, 266.
Prior of England, 338.
Prior Porticus, 33.
Priors, 337.
Prismatories, 532.
Proanaphora, 356.
Proa3teia, 219.
Processional, 183.
Processional Path, 10; Processional
Stones, 474.
Procession Day, 353.
Procurator, 477.
Profathers, 298.
Prolocutor, 182.
Promissum, 478.-
Promothers, 298.
Pro-Naos, 33, 61, 91.
Proper of Time, 35.
Prophets, 267.
Propitiatorium, 565.
Propyla, 91, 395.
Prosklaiontes, 611.
Prosphora, 364.
Prostrate, 560 ; Psalms, 483.
Prothesis, 91, 189.
Prothyrum, 91.
Proton (Prime) 374.
Protopapas, 43.
Protopsaltes, 459, 460.
Provinar, 490.
Provincial, 333.
Provinciale, 107.
Proviseur, 370.
Provost, 319, 337.
Provost of Church- House, 245.
Psalmists, 542.
Pulpitre, 345, 393, 544.
Pulver Wednesday, 562.
Pulvinar, 490.
Punctator, 461.
Purgos, 24.
Purificatorium, 488, 522.
Puxos, 488.
Puy, 443.
Pye Powder Court, 293.
Pyrale, 92.
Pyramidal Tombs, 246.
Pyx Cloth, 596.
Quadragesima, 348, 562, 563.
Quadriporticus, 61.
Quadrisomi, 246.
Quadruple Invitatory, 231, 332.
Q.uadruplum, 221, 393.
Quaestor, 425, 477.
Quarree, 117.
Quartans, 602.
Quarto-Deciman, 239.

Quasimodo, 564.
Quatember, 250.
Quatuor Tempora, 250.
Quechouez, 521.
Queen Anne's Bounty, 32.
Quest Men, 541.
Quinal Litany, 354.
Quinquagesima, 562 ; Quinquagesima
of Joy, 564.
Rafters, 516.
Raguly Cross, 201, 286.
Raines, 511.
Rastrum, 311.
Ratelier, 97, 311.
Rationale, 144.
RatteUe, 491.
Reception of the Cross, 178.
Rechaud, 451.
Rector Chori, 461.
Recluse, 27.
Red, 169, 171.
Reed, 17, 17"5.
Refreshment S unday, 563.
Regals, 415.
Regionaries, 6, 114, 363, 558.
Regir le Chant or Los Clerigos, 520.
Registrar, 557.
Regular Parlour, 427.
Regulars, 133.
Reja, 133, 530.
Relative, 305.
Reliquary Cross, 475.
Reminiscere, 563.
Remission Day, 372.
Remobothi, 389.
Renewal Sunday, 564.
RepoBitorium, 569.
Reposoir, 458.
Reproaches, 574.
Reredos, 290.
Responsory, 304.
Restituta, 179.
Resurrection, Cross of, 285.
Retable, 498.
Retaule, 498.
Reton, 507.
Retro-altare, 498 ; Retro-tabularium,
498; Retro-tabula, 565.
Retroehoir, 10.
Revestry, 523.
Reyretaule, 498.
Richard's Pence, 122.
Ridel, 498.
Ridge, 517.
Ringing the Chains, 69.
Ripidion, 278.
Roccus, 591.
Rock Monday, 622.
Rock, 510 ; Rock Cells, 262.
Rogate, 564.

OF SYNONYMS AND MINOR TERMS.

637

Rood Altar, 20, 514; Rood Tower,
515.
Rogations of Three Days, 354 ; Roga
tion Sunday, 564.
Rome Fee, 512, 579.
Rooms over Chancels, 620.
Rouchion, 510.
Roue, 518, 531.
Round Robin, 264.
Rosetta, 510.
Rota Fortunas, 608.
Rowed, 419.
Rowel Light, 518.
Royal Door, 91.
Rubric, 622.
Rule, Austin, 104.
Rule of Faith, 101.
Rulers of the Choir, 242.
Rush Bearing, 280.
Sabbath of Alleluia, 142 ; Sabbath
in Albes, 564; Sabbath of Lights,
564.
Sabbotiers, 288.
Sacerdotes, 521.
Sackbutteer, 600.
Sacrament, The, 364 ; Sacrament-Cloth,
596.
Sacrament of Chrism, 178 ; Sacrament
of Passing, 272.
Sacrament-Haus, 569.
Sacrario, 426.
Sacrarium, 233, 523, 524.
Sacrists, 560.
Sacristia, 523.
Sacrifice, The, 364.
Sacrificers, 344.
Sacro Catino, 302.
Saints' Bell, 527 ; Saints, Emblems of,
256.
Sakkos, 183, 206.
Sallow Sunday, 422.
Salt, 508.
Salutation, Letters of, 350.
Salutatorium, 217, 492.
Salvete Flores, 319.
Samisia, 567.
San Martedi, 540.
Sancta Sanctorum, 467.
Sanctus DeuB, 575.
Sanctuary, 176, 467, 495; Sanctuary
Ring, 507; Sanctuary Cross, 193,
289.
Sarabaitae, 389.
Sarcenet, 556.
Sarcophagi, 246.
Saunce-BelL 527.
Scaffold, 292.
Scallage, 351.
Scholarcha, 132.
Scholasticus, 132, 529.

Schoolmen, 618.
Schrage, 530.
Scintilla, 577.
Scribe, 557.
Scriptorium, 531.
Scriptor Librorum, 557.
Scrinium, 539.
Sconce, 547, 572.
Scotists, 288.
Scutum, 451.
Seat of the Dunghill, 453.
Second Vespers, 231.
Secretarium, 62, 523.
Secret of the Mass, 110.
Seeta Chori, 490.
Sedes Gestatoria, 576 ; Sedes Majes-
tatis, 532.
Sediculum, 551.
Segregation, 438.
Seises, 208.
Sella, 576.
Sellette, 551.
Semantron, 491.
Semee, 533.
Semi Jejunia, 553.
Senior, 101, 466, 471.
Semi-Doubles, 231.
Septanier, 310.
Septenal Litany, 354.
Septiform Litany, 353.
Septuagesima, 562.
Septum, 61.
Sepulchrum, 565.
Sequence, 502.
Serandola, 491.
Serges, 62.
Sermologus, 157.
Serpents, 511.
Serpentella, 547.
Service, The, 364.
Servitia, 537.
Servitores, 535.
Seven Sacraments on Fonts, 521 ; Seven
Stars, 553.
Sexagesima, 562.
Sexpartite, 490.
Sexton, 588.
Sext, 107, 316.
Shier Thursday, 372, 537.
Shrift Thursday, 537.
Shrove Tuesday, 563.
Shrowds, 203.
Side Gown, 578.
Siglae, 505.
Sign of the Cross, 192, 193.
Signum, 68, 162.
Silfrene Pipe, 92.
Siliquse, 508.
Sillar, 548.
Silver Door, 91.
Simnel Sunday, 563.

638

SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX

Simple Invitatory, 332 ; Simple Mitre,
384.
Sindon, 186, 596.
Sin Eater, 80.
Sine Nota, 491 ; Sine Regimine Chori,
542.
Singing Bread, 265.
Sinistrum Cornu, 402.
Siou Boule, 540.
Sirp Cloth, 567.
Sithesmen, 541.
Sitheundmen, 541.
Situla, 315.
Skene, 569.
Skeuophylakion, 62, 91, 218, 429.
Skeuophylax, 588.
Skew-Stones, 537.
Slype, 142, 143.
Smoke Farthings, 122.
Sobre Pelliz, 567.
Sochantre, 557.
Solea, 61, 91.
Solfeggio Musical System, 320.
Solemnities, 364.
Solium, 543.
Sommier, 543.
Sompnour, 37.
Sotulares, 528.
Soul-Scot, 577.
Sous-Chantre, 473, 557 ; Sous-Doyen,
558.
Source, 185.
Sozomene, 45.
Spacium Processionum, 477.
Span-Roof, 175.
Spark Sunday, 563.
Spatularia, 417.
Spectacle, The, 364, 448.
Speke House, 427.
Sphragis, 265, 314.
Spogubbe, 221.
Sponda, 551.
Spon sores, 298.
Spoon, 282.
Spousage, Gifts of, 507.
Spouse of Christ, 403.
Sprice, 162.
Sprinkle, 314.
Squilla, 68, 493.
Squint, 276.
Stabat Mater, 479.
Stacyons of Rome, 328.
Stafford Knot, 607.
Stagiarii, 103.
Stained Clothes, 555.
Stall Keepers, 560.
Stalle, 548.
Stallo, 548.
Stall Wages, 329.
Standing Stones, 246.
Stated Litanies, 353.

Stationaries, 6, 103.
Stationars, 554, 558.
Stations, 273, 334.
Stations of the Cross, 554.
Staurogatha, 618.
Stead, 423.
Steeple, 585.
Stephanos, 382.
Still Friday, 300.
Still Week, 315.
Stock, 314.
Stoicharion, 206.
Stola, 555.
Stoup, 314.
Struts, 517.
Studies in cloisters, 117.
Studium, 592.
Stuhl, 548.
Stump Tracery, 586.
Subeingulum, 556, 560.
Subdeacons, Feast of, 333.
Subtilis, 558, 591.
Subucula, 592.
Succentor, 551.
Sudarium, 273, 429, 555.
Suffront, 33.
Suiaire, 596.
Suisse, 596.
Suggestum, 62.
Suggestum Lectorum, 61.
Summarius, 543.
Summer Lords, 157, 229.
Summissarius, 543.
Summit, 284.
SumpseUion, 551.
Sunday in Albes, 245, 564 ; Apocreos,
562; of the Blind Man, 565; in
Brandons, 563 ; after the Exhibition
of Relics, 564 ; of the Golden Rose,
563; of the Great Canon, 563; of
Hearths, 563 ; after the LightB, 562 ;
of the Paralytic, 564 ; of the Prodi
gal, 562; of the Publican, 562; of
the Quintain, 565 ; of Roses, 565 ;
of the Samaritan, 565 ; of Ointment-
bearers, 564; Rogation, 565 ; of White
Cloths, 564.
Sunistamenoi, 181.
Suntassesthai Christo, 473.
Superaltar, 15, 290.
Superaria, 261.
Superfrontal, 290.
Superfrontalis, 565 ; Supertables, 565.
Superhumerale, 26, 144.
Supernumerary, 103, 106.
Super-Oblata, 532.
Super Pelliceum, 567.
Supertunic, 309.
Supervisor, 370.
Supper, The, 364.
Supplication, The, 364.

OF SYNONYMS AND MINOR TERMS.

639

Supreme Pontiff, 452.
Surcoat, 309.
Surmounted, 555.
Surplis, 567.
Susceptores, 298.
Symandres, 491.
Symbol, 67.
Synaxaria, 346.
Synaxes, 315, 364, 409.
Synods Men, 541.
Synthronoi, 38.
Sypers, 556.
Tabelliones, 403.
Table of Clerks, 101.
Table, The, 364.
Tabler, 601.
Tablets, 69.
Tabula frontalis, 566.
Tabulatus, 95.
Talaga, 529.
Talaris, 450.
Tapecium, 229.
Tartaryn, 556.
Tarturelle, 491.
Tau Cross, 285, 341.
Te Deum Patrem, 585.
Tela Stragula, 583.
Telesiourgia, 413.
Temple House, 338.
Ternal Litany, 354.
Tessarakoste, 348.
Tesseratio Hospitalitatis, 349.
TeBter, 247.
Testes, 298 ; Testes Synodales, 541.
Testimonials, 344.
Testudo, 593.
Tetrastulon, 61.
Thaddeus, Liturgy of, 356.
Thanks be to Thee, 301.
Theatines, 495.
Theca, 539, 569, 575.
Theofod-Steal, 132.
Theophania, 154, 261.
Theotokion, 591.
Theologal, 461.
Theological Virtues, 256, 537.
Therapeutae, 386.
Thomas's, St., Sunday, 564.
Three Lections, 542.
Thuricrerium, 126.
Thymiaterium, 126, 577.
Tiebeam, 517.
Tierce, 316.
Timbele, 521.
Time Deum, 306.
Timp, 577.
Tintinnabulum, 68.
Titles, 180, 246.
Tocsin, 67.
Tombland, 512.

Tongs or Irons for Making Hosts, 263 .
Tongue-Scapular, 529.
Torsel, 415.
Torticius, 582.
Touching, 309.
Toussaints, 309.
Touzeins, 309.
Towers Fortified, 286.
Trabes, 512.
Tract, 304.
Tractatus, 535.
Tradition Sunday, 422.
Traditores, 344.
Tramezzo, 530.
Transenna, 335.
Transfiguration, 563.
Transitional Decorated, 215.
Transitional Early English, 238.
Transitorium, 332.
Trapeza, 91, 396.
Trapezophoron, 420.
Trascoro, 544.
Travertine, 591.
Treble, 577.
Tree of Deadly Sins, 608.
Tree, The, 96, 97.
Trefonciers, 102.
Tribunal, 484.
Tribune, 61, 148, 291, 484, 589.
Tricanale, 385.
Tricennalia, 588.
Trigintalia, 588.
Trim-Trams, 351.
Trine Immersion, 324.
Trinitarians, 374.
Trinity Knots, 339.
Triphoriatus, 589.
Triple Invitatory, 332.
Triplum, 221, 393.
Trisagion, 574, 590.
Trisomi, 246.
Triton (Tierce), 374.
Triumphant Hymn, 320, 590.
Trochades, 93.
Trois Morts, 608.
Tronc, 591.
Tropes, 273.
Trullus, 91.
Trumpets, 70.
Truncus, 591.
' Trundle Bed, 592.
Trunk, 142.
Tudesco, 543.
Tuella, 582.
Tumbarer, 370.
Tumbler, 551.
Turcopolier, 337, 338.
Turn, 125 ; Turn-Tippets, 578.
Tympanum, 225.
Tyrophagus, 563.
Twelfth Night, 261.

640

SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX.

Uht Sang, 317.
Unbloody Sacrifice, 364.
Unction of Holy Oil, 272.
Undercroft, 203.
Uniculus, 451.
Universal Canon, 364 ; Universal Pope,
452.
Unleavened Bread, 263.
Unter-Cantor, 557.
Upper Walk, 589.
Uptide (Uptied) Cross, 554.
Urceolus, 202.
Urdell, 412.
Urim and Thummim, 255.
Ut Queant Laxis, 320.
Vade in Pace, 471.
Vailing, 79.
Vannel, 273.
Vas, 315.
Vat, 315.
V. D. 532.
Venerable, 504.
Venia, 142, 307.
Veni Creator, 320, 479.
Vere Nullius, 270.
Verse-Services, 536.
Vesica Piscis, 49.
Vespers, 316..
Vestibulum, 61, 523.
Vestry, 523.
Vesturers, 560.
Vexilla Regis, 319.
Vexillum, 429.
Viatica, 458.
Via Processionum, 479.
Vicar-General, 409; Vicar of Christ,
452 ; Vicar of St. Peter, 452.
Vice-Dean, 558.
Vice-Gerent, 558.
Victimae Paschali Laudes, 479.
Vigil of Lights, 100.

Vigil of the Dead, 221.
VigilB, 316, 399.
Vindication, 108.
Violet, 169, 172.
Violets, 237.
Virga, 429, 537.
Virgifer, 596.
Viril, 390.
Vittse, 384.
Voluntary Jurisdiction, 181.
Voters of the Signature, 558.
Votive Crown, 198; Votive
368.
Votum, 478.
VousBoirs, 227.
Vultum de Lucca, 202.
Wafer, 263.
Wafer Breads, 264. -
Wager of Battle, 412.
Waits, 377.
Washing of the Feet, 242.
Wayside Cross, 193.
Weepers, 248, 395.
Well Flowering, 280.
Western Tonsure, 581.
Whispering Gallery, 608.
Willow Sunday, 422.
Xenia, 495.
Xenodochion, 318.
Xerophagy, 348.
XII. Lections, 528.
Tear-Minds, 32.
Yew Sunday, 422.
Ymbren, 250.
Ysulgwyri, 612.
Ziclone Swiatke, 612.
Zipfel, 578.
Zone, 295.

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Wood-Engravings, 6*.; with 16 Coloured Plates by W. Fitch, 10*. Gd.
One of the -'New Series of Natural History for Beginners,' accurately de
scribing all the Ferns and then- allies found in Britain, with a Wood-Engraviug
of each Species, aud Coloured Figures of 32 of the most interesting, iucluding
magnified dissections showing the Venation and Fructification.
THE BRITISH FERNS; or, Coloured Figures and De
scriptions, with the needful Analyses of the Fructification and Venation, of
the Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland, systematically arrauged. By Sir
W. J. Hooker, F.R.S. Royal 8vo, 66 Plates, £2. 2*.
The British Ferns and their allies are illustrated iu this work, from the
pencil of Mr. Fitch. Each Species has a Plate to itself, so that there is ample
room for the details, on a magnified scale, of Fructification and Venation. The
whole are delicately coloured by hand. In the letterpress an interesting account
is given with each species of its geographical distribution in other countries.

GARDEN FERNS ; or, Coloured Figures and Descriptions,
with the needful Analyses of the Fructification and Venation, of a Selection
of Exotic Ferns, adapted for Cultivation in the Garden, Hothouse, and Con
servatory. By Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S. Royal 8vo, 64 Plates, £2. 2*.
A companion volume to the preceding, for the use of those who take an in
terest in the cultivation of some of the more beautiful and remarkable varieties
of Exotic Ferns. Here also each Species has a Plate to itself, and the details of
Fructification and Venation are given on a magnified scale, the Drawings being
from the pencil of Mr. Fitch.

FILICES EXOTKLE ; or, Coloured Figures and Description
of Exotic Ferns, chiefly of such as are cultivated in the Royal Gardens of
Kew. By Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S. Royal 4to, 100 Plates, £6. 11*.
One of the most superbly illustrated books of Foreign Ferns that has been
hitherto produced. The Species are selected both on account of their beauty of
form, singular structure, and their suitableness for cultivation.

FERNY COMBES; a Ramble after Ferns in the Glens and
Valleys of Devonshire. By Charlottte Chanter. Third Edition.
Fcp. 8vo, 8 coloured plates by Fitch, and a Map of the County, 5*.
NATURE-PRINTED FERNS, prepared according to a new
patented process. By H. C. Baildon. The Descriptions by Thomas
Moore, F.L.S. Folio, 4 Plates, printed iu colours. 10s. Gd.

MOSSES.

HANDBOOK OF BRITISH MOSSES, containing all that
are known to be Natives of the British Isles. By the Rev. M. J. Berkeley,
•M.A., F.L.S. Demy 8vo, pp. 360, 24 Coloured Plates, 21*.
A very complete Manual, comprising characters of all the species, with the
circumstances of habitation of each ; with special chapters on development and
structure, propagation, fructification, geographical distribution, uses, and modes
of collecting and preserving, followed by an extensive series of coloured illustra
tions, in which the essential portions of the plant are repeated, in every case on
a magnified scale.

SEAWEEDS.

BRITISH SEAWEEDS ; an Introduction to the Study of
the Marine khGM of Great Britain, Ireland, and the Channel Islands. By
S. 0. Gray. Crowu 8vo, 6*.; with 16 Coloured Plates, drawn expressly
for the work by W. Fitch, 10s. Gd.
One of L. Reeve and Co.'s ' New Series,' briefly but accurately describing,
according to the classification of the best and most recent authorities, all the
Alga; found on our coasts. *

PHYCOLOGIA BR1TANNICA; or, History of British
Seaweeds, containing Coloured Figures, Generic and Specific Characters,
Synonyms and Descriptions of all the Species of Algae inhabiting the
Shores of the British Islands. By Dr. W. H. Harvey, F.R.S. Royal
8vo, 4 vols., 765 pp., 360 Coloured Plates. {New Edition in the Press.
This work, originally published in 1851, is still the standard work on the
subject of which it treats. Each Species, excepting the minute ones, has a
Plate to itself, with magnified portions of structure and fructification, the whole
being printed in their natural colours, finished by hand.

PHYCOLOGIA AUSTRAL1CA; a History of Australian
Seaweeds, comprising Coloured Figures and Descriptions of the more cha
racteristic Marine Algte of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South
Australia and Western Australia, and a Synopsis of all kuown Australian
Algae. By Dr. Harvey, F.R.S. Royal 8vo, 5 vols., 300 Coloured Plates,
£7. 13*.
This beautiful work, the result of an arduous personal exploration of the
shores of the Australian continent, is got up in the style of the ' Phycologia
Britannica' by the same author. Each Species has a Plate to itself, with ample
magnified delineations of fructification and structure, embodying a variety of
most curious and remarkable forms.

L. REEVE AND CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 13

NEREIS AUSTRALIA; or, Algffi of the Southern Ocean,
being Figures and Descriptions of Marine Plants collected on the Shores
of the Cape of Good Hope, the extratropical Australian Colonies, Tas
mania, New Zealand, and the Antarctic Regions. By Dr. Harvey, F.R.S.
Imperial 8vo, 50 Coloured Plates, £2. 2*.
A selection of Fifty Species of remarkable forms of Seaweed, not included in
the ' Phycologia Australica,' collected over a wider area.

FUNGI.

OUTLINES OF BRITISH FUNGOLOGY, containing
Characters of above a Thousand Species of Fungi, and a Complete List of
all that have been described as Natives of the British Isles. By the Rev.
M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S. Demy 8vo, 484 pp., 24 Coloured Plates,
30*.
Although entitled simply 'Outlines,' this is a good-sized volume, of nearly 500
pages, illustrated with more than 200 Figures of British Fungi, all carefully
coloured by hand. Of above a thousand Species the characters are given, and
a complete list of the names of all the rest.

THE ESCULENT FUNGUSES OF ENGLAND. Con
taining an Account of their Classical History, Uses, Characters, Develop
ment Structure, Nutritions Properties, Modes of Cooking and Preserving,
etc. By C. D. Badham, M.D. Second Edition. Edited by F. Currey,
F.R.S. Demy 8vo, 152 pp., 12 Coloured Plates, 12*.
A lively classical treatise, written with considerable epigrammatic humour,
with the view of showing that we have upwards of 30 Species of Fungi abounding
in our woods capable of affording nutritious aud savoury food, but which, from
ignorance or prejudice, are left to perish ungathered. " I have indeed grieved,
says the Author, " when reflecting on the straitened condition of the lower
orders, to see pounds of extempore beefsteaks growing on our oaks, in the shape
of Fistuttna hepatica; Puff-balls, which some have not inaptly compared to
sweetbread ; Sydna, as good as oysters ; and Agaricus deliciosus, reminding us ot
tender lamb-kidney." Superior coloured Figures of the Species are given from
the pencil of Mr. Fitch.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF BRITISH MYCOLOGY, com
prising Figures and Descriptions of the Funguses of interest and novelty
indigenous8 to Britain. By Mrs. T. J. Hussey Royal 4to ; First Series,
90 Coloured Plates, £7. 12*. Gd.; Second Series, 50 Coloured Plates,
£4. 10*. , , , .
This beautifully-illustrated work is the production of a lady who, being an
accomplish artis't, occupied the leisure of many years in accumu Ming port
folio of exquisite drawings of the more attractive fo™a.^V40h Plate by her
Fnno-i The publication was brought to an end with the 14Utn lUate t>y ner
fudden a™ The Figures are mostly of the natural size, carefully coloured
by band.

14 L. REEVE AND CO.'s PUBLICATIONS.

SHELLS AND MOLLUSKS.

ELEMENTS OF CONCHOLOGY ; an Introduction to the
Natural History of Shells, and of the Animals which form them. By
Lovell Reeve, F.L.S. Royal 8vo, 2 vols., 478 pp., 62 Coloured Plates,
£2. 16*.
Intended as a guide to the collector of shells in arranging and naming his
specimens, while at the same time inducing him to study them with reference
to their once living existence, geographical distribution, and habits. Forty-
six of the plates are devoted to the illustration of the genera of shells, and
sixteen to shells with the living animal, all beautifully coloured by hand.

THE LAND AND FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS indi-
genous to, or naturalized in, the British Isles. By Lovell Reeve, F.L.S.
Crown 8vo, 295ipp., Map, and 160 Wood-Engravings, 10*. Gd.
A complete history of the British Land and Freshwater Shells, and of the
Animals which form them, illustrated by Wood-Engravings of all the Species.
Other features of the work are an Aualytical Key, showing at a glance the na
tural groups of families and genera, copious Tables and a Map illustrative of
geographical distribution and habits, and a chapter on the Distribution and
Origin of Species.

CONCHOLOGIA ICONICA ; or, Figures and Descriptions
of the Shells of Mollusks, with remarks on their Affinities, Synonymy, and
Geographical'Distribution. By Lovell Reeve, F.L.S. Demy 4to, pub
lished monthly in Parts, 8 Plates, carefully coloured by hand, 10*.
<*
Of this work, comprising illustrations of Shells of the natural size, nearly
2000 Plates are published, but the plan of publication admits of the collector
purchasing it at his option in portions, each of which is complete in itself. Each
genus, as the work progresses, is issued separately, with Title and Index ; and au
Alphabetical List of the published genera, with the prices annexed, may be pro
cured of the publishers on application. The system of nomenclature adopted
is that of Lamarck, modified to meet the exigeucies of later discoveries. With the
name of each species is given a summary of its leading specific characters in
Latin and English; then the authority for the name is quoted, accompanied
by a reference to its original description ; and next in order are its Synonyms.
The habitat of the species is next given, accompanied, where possible, by par
ticulars of soil, depth, or vegetation. Finally, a few general remarks are offered,
calliug attention to the most obvious distinguishing peculiarities of the species,
with criticisms, where necessary, on the views of other writers. At the com
mencement of the genus some notice is taken of the animal, and the habitats
of the species are worked up into a general summary of the geographical distri
bution of the genus.

L. REEVE AND CO.'s PUBLICATIONS.

15

CONCHOLOGIA ICONICS. IN MOUOGEAPHS.

Genera.

Plates.

f. «.

ii

 33 

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.... 5 12
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Coitus 
Coebula 
Chania  1 .
Ceassatella  3 ,
Ceenatitla  2 .
Ceepidtjla  5 ,
Cetjcibulum  7
CrCLOPHOBTJS  20 ,
Ctolostoma  23
Cyclottjs  9 .
Cymbium  26
CTPR2EA  27 .
Cypbicabdia  2
Cyxhebea  10
delphinula  5
DlONE  12 .
Dolium  8
Doitax  9
Ebubna .,  1
Ebato  3 .
EULIMA  6
Fasciolabia  7 •
FlCULA  1
FiaSTJEELLA  16  1
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0 16
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. 01
, 101
. 1
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
, 0
. 0
, 0
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Fusus  21
G-lauconome  1
HahaHaliotis 
Haepa 
Helix 
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Hl20TITES ....
Hippopus 
1 .
. 17 .
.. 4 .
..210
.. 1
.. 6
.. 1
.. 1
1
.. 0
.. 0
.. 1
.. o
..13.. 0
.. 0
.. 0
.. 0
Genera. Plates.
Ianthika  5 ..
lo  S ..
ISOCAEDIA  1 ..
Lampania  2 ..
Leiosteaca  3 ..
Leptopoma  8 ..
LlNGULA  2 ..
LlTHODOMUS  5 ..
LlTTOBIlTA  18 ..
LUCINA  11 .,
Lutbabia  5 ..
Mactea  21 ..
Malleus  3 ..
Makgelia  8 ..
Mabginella  27 ..
Melania  59 ..
Melanopsis  3 ..
Melaioma  3 .
Meboe  3 ..
Mesalia & Eglisia... 1 .
Mesodesma  4 ..
Meta  1 .,
MlTBA  39 ..
MODIOLA  11 ..
monocebos  4 ..
Miteex  87 ..
MXADOBA  1 .,
Mtochama  1 .
Mytilus  11 .,
Massa  29 ..
Natica  .'  30 ..
Nautilus  6 ..
NaVICELLA & IiATIA... 8 ..
Nebita  19 .,
Neeitina  37 .
Niso  1 .
Olita  30 .,
Oniscia  1 .,
Oebicula  1 ,,
Ovulum  14 ..
Paludiwa  11 ,,
paludomus  3 .,
PAETULA  4 .
Patella  42 .
Pecten  35 .
Pectunculus  9 .
Pedum  1 .
PEBITA  6 .
phasianella  6 .
Phobus  3 .
Pinna  34 .
Pibewa  2 .
placunattomia  3 .
pleubotoma  40 .
potamides  1 ..
psammobia  8 .
psammotella  1 .
Pteboceba  6 .
Ptebocyclos  5 .
PUEPUBA  13 .
Pybamidella  6 .
Pybazus  1 .
Pytutla  9 .
Eanella  8 .
BlCIKULA  6 .
Rostellabia  3 .
SANGUTIirOLAEIA  1 •
Scababus  3 .
BlGABETUS  5 .
&IMPULOPSI3  2 .
SlPHONABIA  7 .
16 6
8 0
1 6
16

L. REEVE AND CO.'s PUBLICATIONS.

Genera. Plates. £-. 8.
SOLAEIUM  3  0 4
SoLETBLLINA  4  0 5
SpOITDYLUS  18  1 3
Stbombus  19  1 4
stbuthio labia  1  0 1
Tapes  13  0 16
Telescopium  1  0 1
Terebba  27  1 14
Teeebellum  1  0 1
Tebebbatula & Eyn-
chonblla  11  0 14
Thbacia  3  0 4
tobttatella  4  0 5
Tkidacna  8  0 10
Tbigowia  1  0 1

<!.

Genera.

Plates.

£. s.

a.

0

 20 ....

.... 1 5

6

fi

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.... 0 4

0

0

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.... 1 0

6

f)

 1 ....
.... 0 1
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.... 0 16
6
fi
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.... 0 16
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fi
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.... 0 14
0
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.... 0 3
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.... 0 1
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6
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6
CONCHOLOGIA SYSTEMATICA; or, Complete System of
Couchology. By- Lovell Reeve, F.L.S. Demy 4to, 2 vols. pp. 537,
300 Plates, £10. 10*. coloured.
Of this work only a few copies remain. It is a useful companion to the
collector of shells, on account of the very large number of specimens figured, as
many as six plates being devoted in some instances to the illustration of a single
genus.
THE EDIBLE MOLLUSKS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND
IRELAND, with the modes of cooking them. By M. S. Lovell. Crown
8vo, 5*. ; with 12 Coloured Plates, 8*. Gd.
INSECTS.
CURTIS'S BRITISH ENTOMOLOGY. Illustrations and
Descriptions of the Genera of Insects found in Great Britain and Ireland,
containing Coloured Figures, from nature, of the most rare aud beautiful
species, aud, in many instances, upon the plants on which they are found.
Royal 8vo, 8 vols., 770 Plates, coloured, £21.
Or iu separate Monographs.
Orders.
Plates.
_ «.
d.
2
0 2
I)
 256 ..
8 0
0
Dbrmapteea 
 1 ..
0 1
I)
 1 ..
0 1
ll
 103 ..
3 5
0
 33 ..
1 1
0
0 14
0
Orders. Plates.
Hymenoetera  135
Lefidoftera  193
Nbuboptera  13
Omaloptera  6
Orthoptera  5
s'jrepsiptera  3
Trichoptera  9
£,. ». d.
4 0 0
6 0 0
0 9 0
0 4
4 0
3 6
6 6
' Curtis's Entomology,' which Cuvier pronounced to have " reached the ulti
matum of perfection," is still the standard work on the Genera of British In
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and accuracy, have never been surpassed, even if equalled. The price at which
the work was originally published was £43. 16s.
L. REEVE AND CO.'s PUBLICATIONS. 17

BRITISH BEETLES; an Introduction to the Study of our
Indigenous Coleojptera. By E. C. Rye. Crown 8vo, 16 Coloured
Steel Plates, comprising Figures of nearly 100 Species, engraved from
Natural Specimens, expressly for the work, by E. W. Rorinson, and 11
Wood-Engravings of Dissections by the Author, 10*. Gd.
This little work forms the first of a New Series designed to assist young per
sons to a more profitable, and, consequently, more pleasurable observation of
Nature, by furnishing them in a familial' manner with so much of the science as
they may acquire without encumbering them with more of the technicalities, so
confusing and repulsive to beginners, than are necessary for their purpose. In
the words of the Preface, it is " somewhat on the scheme of a Delectus ,- com
bining extracts from the biographies of individual objects with principles of
classification and hints for obtaining further knowledge. "

BRITISH BEES ; an Introduction to the Study of the Na-
tural History and Economy of the Bees indigenous to the British Isles.
By W. E. Shuckard. Crown 8vo, 16 Coloured Steel Plates, containing
nearly 100 Figures, engraved from Natural Specimens, expressly for the
work, by E. W. Robinson, and Woodcuts of Dissections, 10*. Gd.
A companion volume to that on British Beetles, treating of the structure,
geographical distribution and classification of Bees and their parasites, with lists
of the species found in Britain, and an account of their habits and economy.

BRITISH SPIDERS ; an Introduction to the Study of the
Araneid.e found in Great Britain and Ireland. By E. F. Staveley.
Crown 8vo, 16 Plates, containing Coloured Figures of nearly 100 Species,
aud 40 Diagrams, showing the number and position of the eyes in various
Genera, drawn expressly for the work by Tufeen West, and 44 Wood-
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One of the ' New Series of Natural History for Beginners,' and companion
volume to the ' British Beetles ' and ' British Bees.' It treats of the structure
and classification of Spiders, and describes those found in Britain, with notes on
their habits and hints for collecting and preserving.

BRITISH BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS ; an Introduc
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Crown 8vo, 16 Coloured Steel Plates, containing Figures of 100 Species,
eugraved from Natural Specimens expressly for the work by E. W. Robin
son, and Wood-Engravings, 10*. Gd.
Another of the ' New Series of Natural History for Beginners aud Amateurs,'
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INSECT A BR1TANNICA ; Vols. II. and III., Diptera. By
Francis Walker, F.L.S. 8vo, each, with 10 plates, 25*.

18 L. REEVE AND CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.

ANTIQUARIAN.

SACRED ARCHAEOLOGY; a Popular Dictionary of Eccle-
siastical Art and Institutions, from Primitive to Modern Times. Compris
ing Architecture, Music, Vestments, Furniture Arrangement, Offices, Cus
toms, Ritual Symbolism, Ceremonial Traditions, Religious Orders, etc., of
the Church Catholic in all Ages. By Mackenzie E. C. Walcott,
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Demy 8vo, 18*.
Mr. Walcott's ' Dictionary of Sacred Archaeology' is designed to satisfy a great
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special sources of knowledge of which the student of ecclesiastical lore has need,
is the object which has been kept in view in the compilation now offered to the
public. In no work of the kind has the English public, it is confidently believed,
had presented to it so large and varied a mass of matter in a form so conveniently
arranged for reference. One valuable feature to which attention may be invited
is the copious list of authorities prefixed to Mr. Walcott's Dictionary. The
student will here find himself put readily upon the track for following up any
particular line of inquiry, of which the Dictionary has given him the first outlines.

MAN'S AGE IN THE WORLD ACCORDING TO
HOLY SCRIPTURE AND SCIENCE. Bv an Essex Rector. Demy
8vo, 264 pp., 8*. Gd.
The Author, recognizing the established facts and inevitable deductions of
Science, aud believing all attempts to reconcile them with the commonly re
ceived, but erroneous, literal interpretation of Scripture, not only futile, but detri
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general principles, consistent alike with their authenticity, when rightly under
stood, and with the exigencies of Science. He treats in successive Chapters of
The Flint Weapons of the Drift, — The Creation, — The Paradisiacal State, — The
Genealogies, — The Deluge, — Babel and the Dispersion ; and adds an Appendix
of valuable information from various sources.

A MANUAL OF BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGY. By
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L. REEVE AND CO.'s PUBLICATIONS. 19

THE BEWICK COLLECTOR AND SUPPLEMENT. A
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WHITNEY'S "CHOICE OF EMBLEMES;" a Facsimile
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A beautiful and interesting reproduction by Photo-lithography of one of the
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SHAKESPEARE'S SONNETS, Facsimile, by Photo-Zinco-
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THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN; An Examination of Sir
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MISCELLANEOUS.

THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY; or, Notes on the
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CALIPHS AND SULTANS ; being Tales omitted in the
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LIVE COALS; or, Faces from the Fire. By L. M. Budgen,
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