.• .'il '¦*:li' AjiiP..,i.ij!JV.' 'd iHf'Jius .'liJadl-Js^ ... -/liJ*- : ¦ '. t.1 iAuiut, ,' ,¦ .r'J. X^ffi. ' Vl'i-'il" S-iSWvl!':.'; ACCESSION NO. 49372 BOOK NO. DtSCAKU PEA BODY LIBRARY ABSEE7IATEB SEaULAIIOHS. One voluirje can be taken at a time. Only tlie numbers of the books wanted must be on tbe card, and the figures made so as to be easily read. Books can be kept out two weeks, unless otherwise designated on the cover. No book can again he taken out by the same borrower or member of his household until thi; next library day after its return. Tranafer from one card to another will not be allowed. Lost cavd.s will not be replaced until the next library day after the loss is reported to the Li brarian. Fine for a book kept beyond the time speci fied by the Rules shall be two cents for each day it is f*o retained. No book deUvered tn a person owing a fine. All conversation and conduct inconsistent with the orderly use ot the Library Kooin nvo strictly forbidden. Marking books and turning down the corners of the lenves are also for bidden. f SKETCH SHOWING ROUTE TRAVERSED A SUMMER AND WINTER ON HUDSON BAY BY C. K. LEITH AND A. T. LEITH r. ¦"' '¦'Jij'\ ' <.. •/'¦', \ 4 9 3 7 2 MADISON, WISCONSIN 19 12 copyright 1912 By C. K. LEITH FiOS'H hi -b li^ CONTENTS Page Preface . _ _._.__.. 13 Part I. A summer on Hudson Bay, by C. K. Leith . 17 By canoe to Hudson Bay ... _ . 19 Moose Factory ... 25 Travel on James and Hudson Bays 28 Our guides 31 The Hudson's Bay Company 33 Relations of Hudson's Bay Company to natives 37 The Indians and the Huskies 42 Moral development of the natives 46 Conjuring . . 49 The syllabics 51 The post managers 52 French competition _ 56 The Hudson's Bay Company and the government 59 Lack of medical care _ - - . 59 Game and hunting methods . . ... .61 The east shore - . - 64 Travel near Richmond Gulf — The Huskies 66 Travel on Richmond Gulf . 77 Gulf Hazard . 78 Tenderfeet - 79 The start for home 80 The wreck of the sailboat . - .81 On foot to Great Whale river - 84 Packing - - .85 By kayak - - 92 Delays at Whale River Post . . 93 A disastrous start - - 97 Final departure from Whale River 103 10 Contents Page Moose Factory at last . . 107 Up the river to the railway . . . 108 Return of lost notes . 112 Return of abandoned equipment . 116 Part II. A winter on Hudson Bay, hy A. T. Leith 119 Diary for November, 1909, Great Whale Post 122 Records of October, 1902, Great Whale Post _ 131 Record of the hunting season of 1876-77, Little Whale River Post .... 136 Harold Udgarden, philosopher . . 145 Challa, the cook ... . 149 John Meluktuk, dog driver ........ 151 Bill, the unlucky 152 Nero . 159 Notes made during our stay at Whale River 162 Whale River to Moose Factory by dog team . 169 Halt at Fort George 179 Fort George to East Main . _ 181 Stop at East Main Post 184 East Main to Moose Factory . 186 Moose Factory to Cochrane on snowshoes . 191 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Sketch showing route traversed Frontispiece A river vista; birch-bark canoe under construction 18 Falls of the Missinaibi 20 A portage; a river-side camp for the night 22 In the course of travel down the river eleven moose were seen; an obstacle to travel 24 Gorge of Missinaibi river at Conjurer's House . 26 Falls on the Missinaibi river; supplies for Hudson's Bay post, headwaters of Missinaibi 26 The streets of Moose 28 Old dining room. Moose Factory . 30 Old mess house, Moose Factory 32 View of Ruperts House 34 View of Ruperts House 36 Stephen at East Main 38 The cosiest interior on Hudson Bay — parsonage at Fort George 46 Husky congregation. Great Whale _ 48 Eskimo, Great Whale 66 Eskimos launching kayaks through the surf to save sailboat, east coast of Hudson Bay 68 Eskimo woman 72 Entrance to Richmond Gulf; scene, Richmond Gulf 76 Hudson's Bay post at Great Whale river, looktng to ward Hudson Bay 92 View up the river at Great Whale 94 Indian tepees. Fort George; old Fort George 104 Eskimo woman. Great Whale 124 Eskimo woman 130 Whale River Huskies 136 12 Illustrations Page John Meluktuk; Husky dog 150 Fox drying house. Great Whale 152 Nero; Bill 154 Nero's wife. Great Whale 160 Husky igloos. Great Whale; Bill's dog team and sled. Fort George 164 Preparing for a "snack'' 168 William Snowboy, Cape Jones 170 Nepacktuk; Ackperuk 172 French post, Fort George; bake oven. Fort George 174 Shaouk, wife, family and all possessions 176 Arrival of furs. Fort George 178 Rat, a famous Fort George Indian; sled showing black earth runners 180 Indian woman. Fort George 182 PREFACE In a geological expedition to Hudson Bay in the summer of 1909, the writers saw and experienced so much that was new and strange and interesting, that it seems worth while to write a narrative of the ex pedition, [principally as a matter of record, but partly also in response to the kind interest expressed by friends in parts of the story which they have heard. It is a plain account of things and events, thrown together from miscellaneous notes, diaries and memories, with little claim to literary form or finish. The geological results of the trip have been pub lished by C. K. Leith in Economic Geology for 1910. PART I A SUMMER ON HUDSON BAY PAET I. A SUMMER ON HUDSON BAY By C. K. Leith Summer as applied to Hudson Bay is a compli mentary misnomer. At any rate, it was summer where we started our trip. James Bay, although it is but 225 miles from the railway, is one of the most isolated and least known areas in North America. The available small- scaled maps and reports of this north country fail to con vey adequate notions of the conditions of travelto be met with in a journey to this region, or, to be more specific, they failed to develop in us a proper appreciation of what we were attempting, when in the spring of 1909 we started to study the geological formation on the east coast of the Bay. To bring this narrative within readable limits one might se lect the unusual and accidental features, making the tale one of adventure, or special attention might be given to the physical conditions of the country, always interesting to the traveler, or to the history of the Hudson's Bay Company, operating today at its old stand, as it has operated for over two hun dred years past. During the summer, when delayed by storms, I attempted to write up a detailed narra tive from our daily log. This narrative suffered one of the vicissitudes of travel, and rested for a year in the waters of Hudson Bay. Not having the courage 2 (17) 18 Summer on Hudson Bay to reproduce it, the present narrative was written with less regard to details and the chronology of the trip, and with random emphasis on some of the im pressions which come most vividly to mind. Since the larger part of the second narrative was written the first one miraculously appeared in a manner to be described, but too late to be effectively used with out extensive rewriting. With a party of three assistants, F. S. Adams of Duluth, Minn., H. M. Roberts of Superior, Wis., and A. T. Leith of Washington, D. C, a start was made the first of July from Missinaibi, Ontario, on the main line of the Canadian Pacific Eailway, 50 miles north of Lake Superior. Our party proceeded by way of the Moose river, by canoe, to Moose Fac tory, a Hudson's Bay post, near the mouth of the Moose river; thence with sailboats around the south and east coast of James Bay, around Cape Jones, and up the east side of Hudson Bay to Richmond Gulf, a treeless Eskimo (Husky) country — a dis tance of about 1000 miles. For the return trip the party was divided. Mr. Roberts and myself re turned in the fall by sailboat, canoe, kayak, and packing, following the coast dowii as far as Moose Factory, thence up the Moose, Abitibi, and Frederick House rivers to Cochrane, the junction of the Tem- iscaming and Northern Ontario railroad with the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, the new transconti nental line. The round trip required four and one- half months of almost continual travel, the party having made during that time 104 camps, with 18 crews of natives, aggregating 46 individuals. A. T. A RIVER vista Pil BIRCH-BARK CANOE UNDER CONSTRUCTION By Canoe to Hudson Bay 19 Leith and Adams remained at Whale river until Christmas, when they traveled over the same route by dog team and snow shoes. By Canoe to Hudson Bay Our canoe travel across the Canadian interior to Hudson Bay contained few features unfamiliar to any one who has paddled through our northern waterways. Supplies for the trip were carried from the starting point, Missinaibi, for no habitations are passed on the way, except Brunswick Post, only 40 miles from the Canadian Pacific railroad. The route is a rough one, as are most canoe routes in the north ern interior, with swift and numerous rapids and falls. Rising at 5 A. M. and taking a hearty break fast, we packed the camp outfit and loaded it into the canoes, and the start was made, usually before 7 in the morning. Then followed hours of monoto nous paddling, broken only by the change in pro gram necessary to meet the obstacles encoun tered, such as rapids and falls. We stopped for din ner at 12, repeated our labor until 5 or 6, then stopped again for supper and camped on the river bank, our party usually being sound asleep by half past eight, still broad daylight during that time of year. Vivid memories of the trip are the swarms of black flies and mosquitoes waiting to pounce upon us as soon as the canoe touched the shore, and sometimes attacking us even on the river; the monot ony of the paddling, the frequent wading through shallows and rapids to avoid portages, and the occa sional unavoidable portages, thirty-six in number on 20 Summer on Hudson Bay this route, when canoes and outfits had to be labori ously packed along trails, around rapids, ranging in length up to a mile and a half. Our first experience was the Height pf Land portage, beyond which the waters flow north to Hudson Bay. We reached this portage at dusk the first day out. Yet the unpleas ant features of the trip were more than counterbal anced by others giving the keenest enjoyment; glorious vistas along the river, picturesque rapids and falls between rocky banks, rare sunrises and sunsets, the joy and exhilaration of running rapids, always with their element of danger, the feeling of supreme content and physical fitness which came, with a good pipe after a hot breakfast, during the first hour of paddling in the morning, and the short peaceful interval of quiet between the evening meal and bed. On a trip of this sort one soon forgets his prejudices in favor of certain kinds of food, or in favor of dry clothes or of dry soft beds, or of many other things that seem indispensable in our artificial habits of life. Important only is the amount of food and sleep. The quality of either becomes a matter of indifference. It takes only a few long portages to convince one that tinned milk, tinned butter, fruit, etc., are luxuries and not necessities. Pork and flour are ample. An Indian at Brunswick House tried to dispose of a fresh moose tongue, but the hot weather and flies had combined to render it anything but a delicacy and we declined to trade for it. The monotony of paddling 350 miles, even with the continually changing panorama along the river, becomes almost unendurable, were it not for the in terruptions caused by the rapids and falls. For V FALLS ON THE MISSINAIBI Rapids and Portages 21 fifteen days after leaving Brunswick House we saw neither white man nor Indian. Even a portage sometimes is welcome as affording a change, if the portage is not too long, too rough, or does not come too soon after another one. Usually we preferred wading even waist deep in the rapids, and letting the water lift the- load through, to avoid portage. There was a constant temptation to run rapids, thereby getting a free ride, saving time, and avoid ing a heavy carry. I must confess that discretion sometimes came off second best in this conflict of influences, especially as the portages along this route, as also on the Abitibi route by which we re turned in the fall, have a curious way of taking off in the middle of the rapids, and ending in rap ids, making it difficult to see the portages and thus to distinguish dangerous rapids from others which it is customary to run. These routes have been traveled so long by the Hudson Bay voyageurs that every foot of unnecessary carry is avoided. When we reached the Bay we learned that the Mis sinaibi route had been abandoned for some years and the Abitibi was the only one used. Naturally the trails were unusually bad, through neglect and windfalls. I need not describe the obvious delight and exhilaration of shooting successfully through savage fast waters, coming as near as possible to destruction in the shape of boulders, and bobbing out merrily at the foot of the rapids, in less time than the canoe could have been unloaded for a port age. To me one of the most notable sensations of shooting the rapids is that of quiet and stillness which sometimes comes when the canoe is going fast- 22 Summer on Hudson Bay est, because the canoe keeps pace with the racing water. It is only when a boulder, emerging from the water, seems to be rushing into one's face, or when one gets a glimpse of the fleeting shore, that the speed is appreciated. In view of the fact that for this part of the trip we had no guide with us, we were fortunate in coming through with only two "spills;" neither especially dangerous, but sufficiently exciting to give a little zest to our experiences and show us what to look out for. On one of these occasions, one of our canoes, which had been loaded more heavily than usual, was swamped in the big waves at the foot of the rapids, and required the combined efforts of four men hang ing on to the canoe for support, to drag themselves and outfit safely to shore. Another time the loads were carried over the portage and an attempt made to run the light canoes through the rapids. The first canoe was taken through successfully. The second, going apparently over the same course, struck a rock almost at the start, threw its crew into the river, and promised a disastrous ending. Fortunately a reef some 500 feet below served to stop both crew and boat, a happy reunion was effected, and the voyage continued. The first of these experiences meant the spoiling of much food, and the second the ruining of the shutter of a camera, which we had much cause to regret before we got through our trip. About a week out we passed the projected line of the new Grand Trunk Pacific railway, where there was an unoccupied log cache for surveyors' supplies. On a paddle stuck in the bank was a notification that certain camp equipment to be found on a portage \ rORT\0F A P.I\ER-SIDE (:.\.MP FOR THE NKIHT A Depressing Incident 23 some twelve miles down the river was that of two Grand Trunk employees who had been drowned in the rapids a few days before and that passersby find ing the bodies would please notify Grand Trunk offi cials at North Bay. Evening brought us to this port age. Smoke seen for some distance was a source of much curiosity. On our arrival it proved to be from a small forest fire spread from the drowned surveyors' camp fire of some days before. The camp, evidently left only for the day with all its equipment scattered about, had been burned. Camping that night along side of the noisy rapids, with the forest fire fitfully lighting up the forest and the abandoned camp, and a heavy wind moaning through the trees, we were much oppressed by the sad fate of our predecessors, probably then lying somewhere in the rapids close at hand, their end still unknown to relatives. The next morning all confessed to a restless night and to "hearing things" in the forest and rapids, one of our number insisting that he lay awake most of the night listening to some one playing old tunes on an accordion. It was with some relief, perhaps selfish, that the rapids were passed without discovering the bodies. This episode put a damper on our spirits for some days and was the cause of additional care in running succeeding rapids.* Not the least interesting incident on our river travel was the occasional sight of moose lazily feed ing in the river to avoid flies, and stupidly watching the close approach of the canoe — unless the wind * The body of one of the men, named Wordsworth, was recovered later. He had been over from England about five years and was said to be a lineal descendant of the poet. 24 Summer on Hudson Bay allowed them to scent the approach, when they were off with mighty crashing through the brush. Eleven moose were seen on the down trip, but all after our one camera had been rendered useless by wetting. We had one fire-arm, an automatic high-power re volver, which would have stopped them at the close range we sometimes reached, but no effort was made to kill them, for in this warm weather it would have meant the waste of nearly the entire carcass, even if much could have been carried with us. Also the law forbids. The order in which reasons are stated illustrates the average regard for game laws under such surroundings. On Missinaibi lake we met two large birch bark freight canoes racing south to procure supplies for Brunswick House. Each canoe was manned by a crew of ten Indians and at every stroke the canoe fairly leapt forward. The short quick typical Hud son Bay stroke is the only one used in the north. The blade of the paddle hardly touches the water, but the stroke is more powerful than it appears, and long distances are covered in remarkably short time. The first part bt the journey, down the Missinaibi and Moose, from the Height of Land, is over pre- Cambrian rocks known technically as the Laurentian peneplain or base level, with surface rough in detail but with maximum difference of elevation of not more than 200 or 300 feet. Just before the waters of the Missinaibi join the Moose they plunge down off this plain through a series of picturesque gorges into a low-lying area forming the coastal plain of Hudson Bay, occupied by younger rocks. Here is the Con jurer's House, made famous by Stewart Edward i> if f t ,' i'l ' '. Arrival at Moose Factory 25 White's novel of that name, a great monolith of granite standing in the middle of boiling rapids, and rendered inaccessible by them, and since time imme morial regarded by the Indians as an object of superstitious veneration. From here down through the coastal plain to James Bay the rapids become less frequent and violent, the river expands, locally to a width of several miles, and becomes generally shallow. It races along smoothly at a rate of five or six miles an hour over shallows which can usually be waded and often scrape the canoe. Moose Factory After sixteen consecutive days of canoeing, we came suddenly in view of the French post near Moose Factory, located on an island in Moose river 12 miles from its mouth. We landed there, thinking it to be the post of the Hudson's Bay Company. Mr. Halley, the factor, greeting us, stated that his last visitors some years ago were two insurance men of New York who came to escape investigation. They spent the summer with him. We assured him that we were not friends of the gentlemen, and were not trying to escape from anything but civilization itself. A mile away on Moose island is the administra tive headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company for the bay, which w:e reached an hour later. It was established in 1675, and is operated today in much the same fashion as for the past 240 years. Some of the present buildings and parts of buildings run back to the period of our American revolution. We here first experienced the charming and unique at- 26 Summer on Hudson Bay mosphere of the Hudson's Bay posts; a charm which we also felt at each of the succeeding posts, although perhaps in a less degree. The small cultivated fields, substantial houses, with high hewn picket fences, church, rectory, school house, stores, ware houses, carpenter shop, saw mill, the great flagstaff guarded by cannon, the general air of permanence and respectability, all contrast vividly with the con ditions in the wilds about. On landing, we were greeted by Mr. Mc Alpine, the manager of the post, and the foreman, Mr. McLeod, who, as is the custom with whites at all posts, appeared neatly dressed, even to spotless collars and straw hats. We were quartered in the old mess building, one of the oldest buildings at the post, substantially built of hewn lumber, with fireplaces in every room, every part of it redolent with associations of the strenuous past of the Hudson's Bay Company. In the hall were crossed sabers and guns, formerly an essential part of the equipment of the post. Many old pieces of hand-made furniture were of shape and finish which would do credit to any home. We were especially interested in the old dining-room, with its fireplace, long table, massive chairs, sideboard, china and silver plate carrying the Hudson's Bay arms, and with a large oil painting of Sir George Simpson, a famous old governor of the company, in a conspicuous place on its wall. It required but little imagination to people this delightful room with some of the well-known characters of the Hudson's Bay service, entertaining royally as was their wont, when travelers and visiting post managers came in from the interior. On a cold winter's night, what GORGE OF MISSINAIBI RIVER AT CONJURER S HOUSE F.\LLS ON THE MISSINAIBI RIVER SUPPLIES FOR HUDSON'S BAY POST, HEADWATERS OF THE MISSINAIBI The Streets of Moose 27 cheer there has been in this room, with curtains drawn, fire lighted, an excellent dinner being served by the large corps of trained European servants, some old dignitary like Sir George Simpson presid ing from the big chair at the head of the table. Space forbids any detailed description of Moose. At every turn one sees features of interest. The place includes some 30 or 40 buildings, laid out in irregular streets, with a fringe of Indian tepees in the adjacent fields, with a permanent population of about 100 and a floating or hunting population of several hundred. It is a fully organized com munity with a post manager at the head of its temporal affairs, and a bishop, when in residence, at other times his assistant, in charge of its spiritual affairs. Here, as at other posts, it is not easy to define the jurisdiction of the two leaders. In general they live together in peace. Two services are held Sundays whieh are well attended, and dur ing the summer, when many Indians are at the post, there are daily services. Sunday services are con ducted in English, and repeated in Indian. Most of the half-breeds at the post attend the English serv ice, thus classing themselves with the whites; this being entirely optional. This fact will clear up any wonder one might have in looking over the congre gation attending the so-called white service. The first sermon we heard contained many references to the dangers to the young to be met with on the "streets of Moose," bringing us to a realization of the fact that we were in an organized community which regarded itself as a village or town. We sub sequently found that at other posts on the Bay the 28 Summer on Hudson Bay "streets of Moose" were regarded as a combination of Broadway and the Bowery. English is spoken by both whites and natives with a pleasing intonation, and particularly a rising in flection at each pause. One notes a curious combi nation of Scotch, English, and Indian characteristics in the language. This is one of the many small dis tinguishing variants which lend such interest to Hudson's Bay life and force upon the visitor the strangeness of it all. Travel on James and Hudson Bays In planning for the trip, and in fact after arriving at Moose Factory, we thought the worst of our trip was over, but we were to flnd that river travel, even as strenuous as the kind we had encountered, was mild relaxation as compared with travel on James and Hudson Bays. After two days at Moose Factory, a start was made along the coast of James Bay, traveling from post to post with such boats and guides as were available. Ruperts House, the next post visited, on the south east corner of the bay, is of special interest. This is nearly on the site of old Fort Charles, the first of the Hudson's Bay Company posts established in 1670. It was here also that Henrik Hudson was supposed to have wintered when he first reached the bay in 1610. It is one of the most important posts on the bay, being the distributing point for a chain of five posts in the interior, including Namaskow, Misstas- sini, and Nitchicun. We were the second party of visitors in several years at Ruperts, while Nitchicun, THE STREETS OF MOOSi: Our Boats 29 500 miles distant in the interior, has not seen a white man since 1870. Imagine our surprise to find cows at Moose and Ruperts House, and later at East Main and Fort George, furnishing plenty of good milk and butter for these posts. At Ruperts House there is also a creamery. Hay for the cows is gathered from the swampy areas near the mouths of the rivers by the Indian servants and each post has its large hay-boat used primarily for this purpose. Visiting successively Ruperts House, East Main, Fort George, and Whale River, our destination north of Richmond Gulf, 600 miles up the eastern coast, was reached in thirty days after we left Moose Fac tory. From Moose Factory to Ruperts House, our conveyance was a large hay-boat of bateau type, carrying a large area of sail; from Ruperts House to Fort George there was utilized a life boat of the Hudson's Bay sailing ship. Stork, sailing annually from London to Hudson Bay and return, in which some twenty-odd sailors had been saved from the wreck of the Stork during the preceding fall. Both of these boats, while safe and seaworthy, had little in the way of speed or appearance to commend them. From Fort George north, we were somewhat better equipped with a 30-foot center-board yacht carrying three sails. It soon appeared that there were other factors in the situation besides our desire to travel. It was necessary to wait for favorable winds, for the right tides, sometimes for the caprice of the guide. There were two, three, or four days at a time when we found it necessary to stay on land, curbing our 30 Summer on Hudson Bay impatience as best we could, waiting for a favorable conjunction of these factors. It is a custom of the country to sit down and wait patiently for fair winds or tide, regardless of time. At first we thought that by using a little extra energy we might be able to beat the combination, but it was soon apparent that the Hudson Bay custom was based on wise experi ence. By resting under unfavorable conditions it was possible to make the most of favorable condi tions of travel. It was not unusual to embark at 3 o 'clock in the morning, to travel all day, taking our meals on boat, and sometimes traveling late into the night. One trip was started at three in the morning, continued all day, by moonlight all night, and until 3 o 'clock the following afternoon. The long periods of enforced inactivity in the boat, accompanied with cold winds and fogs off the Bay, and the annoying delays on the shore, waiting for fair winds and tides, required the exercise of all the philosophy at one's command. There was no use worrying or fussing; there was nothing to be done, and in time one was forced into a cheerful frame of mind (or an imitation of it) which helped carry off the monotony of the trip. Under such conditions mat ters of food and clothing become topics of vital im portance in conversation. One could see the spirits of the party subsiding between meals, and rising like the telegraph wire to the next pole, as the next meal approached. Much time was killed by long and serious discussions of what to have for supper, or the relative merits of preceding meals, or what combination of flannel shirts and blankets might do most to ward off the cold, damp wind. A much Clothing 31 larger quantity of food seemed to be required on the sailboat, where we were inactive, than on the river, where we were forced to much physical exercise, probably because the cold winds on the Bay necessi tated fuel to keep up the body heat. The matter of clothing became a serious problem. Starting from the railway line with light summer underwear, we exchanged it for heavy underwear at Moose, and at each succeeding stopping place layers were added, until at the northern end of our trip, Richmond Gidf, we topped the whole by a covering of sealskin coats or shirts, obtained from Huskies. As one of the coldest blooded of the party, I counted nine lay ers of clothing at the most northern extremity of the trip. At night extra clothing was put on rather than taken off. Suggestion of a bath would set our teeth chattering. On rare occasion something was ac complished in this direction by bathing in pools on the rocks and changing the order of our shirts, put- ing the inside one out. Our Guides Most of the 46 guides with us from time to time on our trip could speak a little English, but a few could not. Roberts then acted as our interpreter with the aid of a vocabulary of about twenty words picked up at the posts and phonetically written in his notebook. With the notebook in one hand he approached the guide with up-raised finger, read off the desired Indian name, syllable by syllable, with a "got that, John?" and still holding up his hand to keep the attention of the Indian he hunted for the next word, and so on until the 32 Summer on Hudson Bay Indian began to show some signs of comprehension or amusement. The method was crude but effective. As Roberts slapped the notebook into his hip pocket, he would remark with satisfaction that he thought with a little time he could master the language. Guides are few in number at the various posts. Most of the natives tributary to a given post have never been to any other. As they say, they have never "voyaged." This is not strange, when it is considered that the posts are from 100 to 200 miles apart and the trip by the ordinary means of trans portation is a hazardous one and requires favorable weather and considerable time. The guides are usually servants of the factor, not hunters, and each year visit the nearest posts carrying the annual or semi-annual "packet." One guide, "Jimmy," cheered us at every camp ing place from East Main to Fort George, by hunting up pieces of wreckage and showing them to us. He was very successful in this, once bringing to camp a mast and sail, and our progress seemed to be in a very graveyard of boats and vessels. Later we con tributed our share, and to that extent Jimmy's work will be easier in the future. From Fort George to Great Whale, we had on board an Indian guide who brought along his wife and five children, the oldest about ten, and succe- sively younger down to a nursing child. This child was about two and a half years of age, walked and played with the other children, yet insisted on being nursed several times a day although it ate also what ever its brothers and sisters did. The squaw while in the boat disposed of the flock like an old hen with s^V --^ '- ¦ij/ Life at Hudson's Bay Post 33 chickens. They occupied very little space, and most of the time their presenee would not even have been suspected. The Hudson's Bay Company The Hudson's Bay posts visited were strikingly similar in architecture and atmosphere to Moose Factory. Indeed, this similarity extends through out fourteen posts which it has been my privilege to visit this and other summers. The comfortable house of the manager, with its well-kept yard, hewn picket fence, huge gate, usually a garden plot for potatoes and other hardy vegetables, and buildings and pens for cows and chickens, form the central feature of most of the posts. Near it is the store, containing everything necessary for the needs of the eountry, from pork and flour to sewing machines and phonographs. The large warehouses are con spicuous features. At a central point, a high flag staff is to be seen on which the Hudson's Bay flag is displayed on the approach or departure of visi tors. Life is ordered in much the same way at all the posts. Staff and employes rise at 5:30 A. M. and drink a cup of tea, work from 6:00 to 8:00, break fast 8:00 to 9:00, work from 9:00 to 1:00, dine 1:00 to 2 :00, and work from 2 :00 to 6 :00. A bell mounted on some central building announces each of these hours. Two additional formalities, tea at 11:00 and 4:00, are observed by some of the post managers. The complete control of the post manager over the affairs of his subordinates and dependent Indians, together with the regularity of the day's proceed ings marked by the bell, give an air of a certain 34 Summer on Hudson Bay military precision to the place quite at variance with the straggling architecture and the appearance of some of the inhabitants. The Hudson Bay region has been under the al most exclusive control of the Hudson's Bay Com pany for two hundred and forty years. A few brief attempts at [competition have hitherto met with failure, but for the past few years ReviUon Freres, of Paris, have been making a strong attempt to gain a foothold and have accomplished more than any of their predecessors. The Hudson's Bay Com pany has from the flrst devoted its attention exclu sively to the fur trade, and has discouraged all ef forts on the part of its own employes or others to develop other resources. So far have they gone in this direction as to discourage even minor changes in the manner of conducting their business, such as introducing more satisfactory means of travel and communication, which in their judgment would tend to take attention away from their principal business of securing fur. While the employes of the Company have done much geographical explo ration of a good grade, this has been often in spite of, rather than because of, the attitude of the Com pany. Even such knowledge as they have secured has been turned over to the public very tardily or not at all. The large blank areas on existing maps of the region about Hudson Bay are eloquent testi mony of the attitude of the Company in this regard. There is today, outside of the Hudson's Bay posts and the posts of their competitors, ReviUon Freres, so far as the writer knows, not one habitation of wood or stone. Probably nowhere else in the world could /-\vK...-' Conservatism of the Hudson's Bay Company 35 there be cited a similar case of arrested develop ment of a great region under control of white people. This is not written in a spirit of criticism. The Company was organized to trade in fur, and the characteristic British conservatism has kept it strictly to its text. The stock is in strong flnancial hands in England, largely in the nobility, whence a conservative attitude would be expected. The Company doubtless foresees that as soon as the region opens up for anything else which will bring in a population not giving its attention to trapping, its primary business of buying furs will rapidly disappear. Perusal of the daily journals kept at each of the Hudson's Bay Company's posts brings vividly to mind the permanence of the institution. Wishing to know the probable condition of the weather for some of our trips, we were able to ascertain exactly what had happened in the way of weather, hunt ing, and other incidents the same date the year before, two years before, fifty years or even one hundred years before, and so far as the nature of the record is concerned and the character of the events noted there is little evidence of change of conditions. These statements concerning lack of progress by the Company would perhaps be ques tioned by people living on the Bay. One hears many stories from them of change of conditions from the good old days when furs of a certain kind were more abundant, or when the Indians were more easily controlled, or news packets less fre quent, but to an outsider these differences seem so 36 Summer on Hudson Bay slight and the present conditions are so redolent of the past that the changes in the Hudson's Bay Company's method and condition seem almost neg ligible. The Hudson's Bay Company controls fifteen posts on Hudson Bay, located usually near the mouth of some river. Each post has its post manager, fore man, servants (natives and mixed breeds) from one or two to twenty, depending on the importance of the post, and its quota of natives dependent upon the post. It is only during the summer, when furs are not in prime, that most of the people are to be seen about a post. Then the Indians and their fam ilies come in with their furs of the preceding winter, trade for their supplies, and have a period of social relaxation before returning to their camp grounds in the wilderness. Then the neighborhood presents lively scenes, the buildings and yards being sur rounded by a fringe of tents of the visiting Indians. At this time church services are held by mission aries two or three times daily, and there is a con siderable amount of visiting, dancing, and feasting. Then comes the annual feast given to the Indians by the Company, consisting of tea. and cake, cake being the Hudson Bay name for a baking powder biscuit with dried currants in it. During the winter the Indians are scattered about the country in small groups within a radius of 150 miles or more from the post, and at the post there are only the people immediately concerned in its operation, together usually with a considerable number of natives in capacitated for trapping by age or infirmity. The The Indian's "Debt" 37 total population dependent upon each of the posts ranges from fifty to eight hundred or nine hundred people. Relations of Hudson's Bay Company to Natives The unit of trade is the "beaver," an arbitrary value represented by a brass token issued by the Hudson's Bay Company, nominally worth a dollar, that is, a dollar in trade. In cash a beaver is worth fifty cents. When, therefore, a native is paid a beaver, and takes it out in trade, as he must, he really gets something in the neighborhood of forty cents in value. When we take into account the low scale of prices for furs arbitrarily fixed by the Com pany, it appears that the dependents of the Com pany have little opportunity to "get rich quick." Each Indian has a debt to the Company. When he buys his supplies for the year's hunting he is said to "get his debt." The size of the debt the Company will allow him depends somewhat upon his ability as a hunter. At the end of the year he turns in his furs in liquidation of his debt. Often he does not succeed in getting a surplus. The re sult is that the Company has a debt on the books for most of the Indians over whom it has control. On death or prolonged sickness the debt is wiped off. Under these circumstances it is apparent that strict business methods cannot apply. The post manager must use his judgment as to the size of the debts to be allowed to different Indians, in or der to get the maximum results. The principle is to get all the furs possible, and to allow the men such debts as will in individual cases bring the best 38 Summer on Hudson Bay results. ( With two companies now in the field, there has been a marked tendency for the Indian to "get his debt" at one company and tum in his furs to the other. The church, however, has been active in preaching against this particular form of dishon esty and seems to be checking it. None of the natives are independent. Attached to each of the posts are natives said to be well-to-do. These possess few evidences of worldly wealth be yond suitable clothes, substantial food, and good rifles and guns, but they have such credit with the Hudson's Bay Company as will enable them to buy certain articles they may need to help them live comfortably. This simply means that they have been sufficiently successful as hunters and have turned in enough furs to establish a certain pres tige with the Company, and the Company treats them well as a reward for faithful services and as an incentive to others. The advances made to the Eskimo are small and only to the best hunters. The average Husky, as the Eskimo is called, must be content with whatever his furs bring. Advances to them have not proved profitable to the Company. To the stranger on the Bay, at first thought, the native's lot does not seem an enviable one. The Indian is in a condition not far removed from slavery. With his best efforts he can secure for himself only food and clothes. He cannot secure independence. On the other hand, he is certain of a living if he is reasonably diligent in trapping; he will be taken care of in case of incapacitation; his family will not be allowed to starve, and above all, he is in a reasonably contented and happy frame of A, f-f \>;. ''-^' Message to Garcia 39 mind over the situation. He is better off than in the days of uncertain supplies, before the Hudson's Bay Company came, and he seemed to us better off and happier than most of our laboring people. While he undergoes hardships, he seldom endures the extremes of poverty, never feels that he is suf fering injustice, greater than that of his feUows; he is on a substantial social equality with the rest of the population, and altogether is a decent, self- respecting, efficient, and contented being. The attitude of the Company toward the Indian is a curious combination of stern, relentless control with a sort of furtive kindliness. When an Indian is asked to do certain arduous work or make a dan gerous trip, he has been taught to obey unquestion- ingly and to accomplish his mission at any cost of life or limb. He carries his message to Garcia with out the prospect of being greeted as a hero on his return. If he fails to carry out his orders abso lutely he will get no sympathy from either the Com pany or his friends. While traveling from post to post we had occasion to use a number of Indians who were picked out by the post manager to accom pany us, sometimes on a trip which meant exposure and hardship for weeks; and while these Indians often disliked leaving a comfortable post and fami lies to go off with strangers in whom they had no interest, there was never a murmur when once they had been selected to go. In coming out in the fall from Moose Factory to the railroad track, so late in October that there seemed every prospect of be ing frozen in before we could reach civilization, the three Indians sent with us were ordered by the post 40 Summer on Hudson Bay manager to see us through at any cost. We had everything to gain by getting out and much to lose by being frozen in. They had nothing to gain in making the trip. One eould not but admire the grim, even fierce, persistence with which they drove their way through most discouraging conditions. About the posts the Indians are, for the most part, treated rather gruffly. Some post managers spend their time mostly at the house rather than at the store. The Indian wishing to trade hangs around the kitchen door until he learns through the servants that the manager may be seen, then timidly knocks and comes in, hat in hand. The manager, after a time, looks up from his business or paper, or interrupts any conversation he may be carrying on and asks what is wanted, and if the Indian's credit is good gives him an order on the store for such things as he needs. The length of time the Indian is kept waiting and the graciousness of the post manager's behavior toward him are an excel lent barometer of the Indian's standing with the Company and in the community. Let an Indian come in who has not been diligent in his trapping, and has allowed himself to get considerably in debt, and it is almost painful to see how servilely he has to approach the manager. With all this external show of authority and harsh control, there is much quiet kindliness and generosity toward the Indians which does not al ways come to the surface. While the Indian is away on duty for the Company his family is taken care of. If there is sickness, some attention is given the un fortunate one and extra supplies are granted. As Loyalty to the Hudson's Bay Company 41 a reward for faithful service the Indian is al lowed to purchase an unusually good rifle or other desired equipment, even if beyond his credit. By this combination of sternness and kindliness the Company has been able to foster a loyalty among its servants and natives which is very un usual in a commercial concern. Loyalty to the Company is a watchword more effective than money. Natives take pride in telling of the number of years they and their ancestors have been in the Company's service. This same loyalty is true of the post managers. When an employe leaves the Com pany's service to join the competing company he is branded as a renegade. In the recent competition with the ReviUon Freres the few Hudson's Bay Company men who have gone over to the new com pany, have felt keenly the force of public opinion about the Hudson's Bay Company's posts. This public opinion has, of course, been fostered and encouraged by the Hudson's Bay Company to help in fighting the competition of the French company. Miss Laut's lively history of the Hudson's Bay Company summarizes the salient features of the Company's attitude toward its wards in the fol lowing paragraph: "In the charter lay the secret of all the petty pomp — ^little kings in tinsel — with which the Com pany's underling officers ruled their domain for two hundred years. In the charter lay the secret of all the Company's success and all its failure, of its most paternal care of the Indians and of its out rageous, unblushing banditti warfare against rivals; of its one-sidedness in driving a bargain — 42 Summer on Hudson Bay the true caste idea that the many are created for exploitation by the few — of its almost royal gener osity when a dependent fell by the way — ^the old monarchical idea that a king is responsible for the well-being of his subjects, when other great com mercial monopolists cast their useless dependents off like old clothes, or let them rot in poverty." Eskimos are found as far south as Charlton Island and Fort George, and Indians as far north as Richmond Gulf, though the dividing line may be considered at Cape Jones. There are few Indians north nor Eskimos south of that point. The Indians are Crees. The Indians and the Huskies. The natives, both Indians and Huskies, show many shades of color, which fact may be correlated with the prevalence of Scotch and English names and characteristics. There is a strong family pride, much observance of form, and the language even shows Scotch modification, especially in inflection. A universal habit on the Bay is to shake hands in meeting and parting. Wherever we stopped we found it necessary to shake hands with all members of the party, men, women, and children. Neglect of this duty was likely to be resented. In some cases, where fifty or more people were met simul taneously, the ceremony became a formidable one. The natives work hard and lack what most of up would call the comforts and conveniences of life, but they and their ancestors have known no other way of living, and therefore do uot miss the things we regard as desirable, if not essential. There is Family Life of Natives 43 little social competition, for all are substantially on the same level. Their lives are not complicated by a multiplicity of interests and distractions, but are concentrated on the hunt which furnishes the where withal to live, and incidentally affords most of their pleasure. Their family life seems to the outsider remarkably happy, notwithstanding a common method of choosing mates which is often intensely practical and lacking in sentimental consideration. Mr. Nicolson, post manager for Ruperts House, told of an Indian from one of the interior posts coming to him just before our arrival, and after buying his supplies over the counter, added that he would like a wife. The post manager did not have one in stock, but not to be stumped, had a can vass made of the post, found a suitable woman, and before night had the pair wedded and started for their camp five hundred miles inland. That mar riages so made could result satisfactorily is aston ishing at first thought. I suspect the explanation lies largely in the unity of material interests in the family and the lack of outside distractions. From the start the entire energies of the family are de voted to making a living by hunting under stren uous conditions. The man kills the game and the woman skins it and prepares the fur and food from it. There is scarcely a day in which close co-opera tion is not necessary. In times of stress and ad versity they must look only to themselves for help. The result is a close welding of interests and devel opment of team work which enable them to cope with their many difficulties and which seem to make a contented, if not ideal family. To active 44 Summer on Hudson Bay women, adapted to complex social environments, this life would be quite unendurable, but in the absence of possibilities of other interests, in fact without knowledge of them, this simple and stren uous life accomplishes wonderful results. Time and again in our travels, as we spent a few hours in some lonely Indian camp, we felt the good cheer and inspiration of a happy and well regulated family life. The solicitous, detailed, and unremit ting care of each of the members of the family for the others could not but reach the sensibilities of the onlooker. Coming from a part of the continent where the Indian has not inspired great respect, it took a little time to realize that we were with intelligent and self-respecting people who had solved the problem of living under the local conditions better than we had yet done, and to learn to follow their judg ment rather than direct them. We came to trust them implicitly in all matters relating to travel, even where at first we could not see reason for some of their decisions, and to admire their sim plicity, directness, and efficiency in solving their difficult problems. The diversity of methods used by the natives in meeting a given situation was often bewildering. Scarcely had we come to know the methods of one group of Indians and feel some confidence in ourselves, than we had to begin over again with a new crew. The differences were es pecially marked between posts, so little is the in tercourse between them. Their separation is greater in some respects than between countries separated by oceans on which travel is common. Good Humor as an Asset 45 The result is a certain provincialism and dogma tism about methods at the posts conspicuous to a traveler visiting them in rapid succession. On the other hand, as soon as the natives pass the boundary of their field of experience they are as ehiidren. They have not the mental training which enables them to reason successfully from known to unknown conditions. An Indian can scarcely be improved upon as a guide over ground he knows, but is inferior to the skilled white man in new and unknown fields. Perhaps the most striking of the natives' charac teristics is their prevailing good humor. Their chatter, jokes, and laughter, sometimes under dis tressing circumstances, often served as an antidote to our own tendencies to growl over adverse condi tions. Their method was so much more effective as a practical proposition than ours that we tried conscientiously to adopt it, thereby adding much to our pleasure and peace of mind. Especially is this characteristic marked in the Husky, who gets en joyment out of the most trivial incidents. The In dian has a certain reserve which hides this good humor for a time, but with few exceptions he is found on acquaintance to be the same interesting, good-natured individual. The northern Indians feel superior to the Eskimos because they have driven them north, and because their neighbors are dirty and eat many things they consider unfit to eat. On the other hand the Eskimo looks upon the Indian with contempt because he hugs the coast with his canoe, not daring to go out as he fearlessly does in his kayak, and because the Indian can not kill a 46 Summer on Hudson Bay seal with a spear; also he is dependent on the white man for supplies and goes to the post often for them, while the Eskimo loves his independence and has the ability to live away from civilization, many com ing to a post only at intervals of four or five years. Many Eskimo women and children never visit a post. Moral Development of the Natives Simplicity and honesty are remarkable in deal ing with the natives. Especially is this true of the Husky, whose contagious frankness contrasts some what with the reserved and sometimes more com plicated mental processes of the Indian. While it is perhaps not well to generalize as to the causes of this condition, one cannot but attribute it, at least in part, to the example of the post managers, who ac cording to local standards have been square in their dealings with their dependents. Equally important, however, is the influence of the missionaries, espe cially in recent years and at certain posts. The na tives delight in attending church services as often as possible. Most of them take vociferous part in responses and hymns. Morning and evening prayers are commonly observed in their tents, not only when at the posts, but when in the wilderness, and special gatherings of little groups for prayers and hymns are common. Our guides intoned prayers when ris ing and retiring, and often would gather in a tent of an evening for some special service in which all took part. We liked to listen for and enjoy the faint drone of the prayers in the adjacent tent as we awakened or went to sleep. These things seemed the cosiest interior on hudson bay parsonage at fort george. from left to right : rev. mr. walton, mr. aldridge, manager of revillon freres, mrs. walton, and mr. griffith, manager of Hudson's b.a.y company. Religious Influences 47 at first incongruous in their surroundings. Later we came to regard them as a natural part of our environment. This strict observance of religious form is undoubtedly, for many of the natives, merely an expression of their desire for ceremony, form, and social intercourse. Yet it is equally cer tain that with it has come real improvement in moral and ethical stability. Especially note worthy has been the influence of Rev. and Mrs. Wal ton of Fort George, who have lived on the Bay for many years, speak and write both Cree and Husky, and have translated some literature into these languages. Knowing every individual Indian and Husky dependent on Fort George and Whale River posts, and much of their family history, and having gained their confldence and respect. Rev. Walton exercises a benevolent despotism over them which extends beyond spiritual affairs. Anything he says "goes," even to leaving home and making an unde sirable trip with strangers. One of our best guides. Bill, was thus secured at a time when ordinary suasion was having little effect. There come to mind several incidents illustrating the influence of the church. In the native camps, many miles from posts, we commonly heard well- known hymns sung in the native language. These seem quite to have taken the place of folk songs. A little Husky child in furs looks at you with serious round eyes while he lustily sings " Onward, Christian Soldiers. ' ' One of our Husky guides was wont to con sole himself on days when we were hung up by ad verse winds by standing on some high rock with his hands behind him, singing his repertoire of hymns. 48 Summer on Hudson Bay Once in Richmond Gulf, as we were about to start on a rough sea in a craft made by tying three kayaks side by side, this same Husky gave us pause by going back on the rocky shore and kneeling and praying before joining us. This did not reassure us as to the safety of the trip. Our guide. Bill, always gave a special gospel reading and singing when we struck a new camp of Huskies. During the summer a Husky appeared at Whale River from Fort Chimo, 500 miles across Labrador, merely to say his prayers with Rev. Walton. At Whale River post one Sunday morning, when the rest of the party had gone hunting with the post manager, Roberts and I attended a service in the chapel conducted by Nero, famous as probably the best Husky guide and hunter on the north coast. We were the only whites in the room. Nero had donned a black cutaway coat but retained his sealskin boots and red hand kerchief around his neck. Moreover, his coat collar was turned up. He met us at the door, ushered us to front seats and presented us hymnals (Husky) with the grace of a courtier. The service was earnestly read and responded to. We could not take part, though Nero repeated his hymn an nouncements in broken English and waited imtil we had located the place in the Husky hymnal, which of course we could not read. After reading, in Husky, the lesson about Peter denying the Lord, Nero with true courtesy attempted to tell us the story in English. His English, always picturesque, under this unusual excitement and embarrassment, became almost an unintelligible jumble, but he struggled on manfully with perspiration streaming HUSKY CONGREGATION, GREAT WHALE Fear of Conjuring 49 from his face, until he could go no further, when he stopped with "Me English can no more say him." It was difficult to restrain a smile, but Nero had done his best, and where could one find courtesy of finer quality? Conjuring Occasional evidences of a lingering faith in con juring and spirits of dead animals come to mind. On our first arrival at Moose Factory we were taken into an adjacent field to see an insane Indian brought in some months before from the west coast of the Bay and awaiting disposition by the Indian authorities at Ottawa. He was a strapping, happy looking fel low, clad gorgeously in strips of colored rags and blankets, and was chained by the leg to a huge anchor. He danced clumsily about, chanting a Catholic mass, singing ribald songs, and making eloquent speeches to bystanders. For shelter he had dug a hole with his hands. He appeared oblivious of cold and mosquitoes. The Hudson's Bay officers had tried to keep him in houses and tents, but he insisted on burning or otherwise de stroying all shelter by means of matches and tools secretly furnished him by the Indians, in spite of the most vigilant efforts of the guards. As a result, he had escaped twice, much to the fright of all, and was regarded as a menace to the safety of the camp. The Indians feared his power to conjure them more than they feared the results of his free dom, and therefore complied with his demands for axes, matches, tobacco, or anything else he desired. After hearing these stories and noting the man's 50 Summer on Hudson Bay dangerous strength and the obvious fear of him per vading the post, we were startled when early the following morning we were awakened by the shrill chant of the madman, mingled with the sharp cries of command from the Hudson's Bay men, coming down the street toward our sleeping quarters. He had again broken his great chain with the aid of tools furnished by the Indians. Before we could get out he was overpowered by a group led by the post manager. This time he yielded without a struggle, and good-naturedly aided in carrying the 600 pound anchor to a new spot in the field. The post manager remarked that if he did not get the Indian away soon his entire post would be demor alized and his Indians would leave, so great was their fear of conjuring. I do not admit that this episode hurried us away, but cheerfully confess to a feeling of relief when the boat took us out of the madman's possible reach. Another instance of superstition was brought to our attention by Rev. Woodall, the missionary at Ruperts. A few days before our arrival, an Indian at a church prayer meeting voluntarily confessed to having been a conjurer, and promised next time he came to the post to bring in his "conjuring drum" for the missionary to destroy. When an Indian kills an animal, he is likely to talk to it, explaining the necessity of his action in order to propitiate its spirit. Not uncommonly a plug of tobacco may be put in the jaws of a bear for the same purpose, and his skull is sometimes decorated and hung in a conspicuous place. The Native Writing 51 While this superstitious spirit is seldom noticed by the traveler, according to the missionaries it nearly always lurks beneath the surface in greater or less development, but is gradually decreasing as the church influence increases. The Syllabics On the portages of the Missinaibi we first saw signs on the trees and Cree letters on wood written in syllabics. They appeared to us combination of Hebrew and shorthand writing. These syllabics r*AJ'a-b/'-A«x drL-A-A»- bC -A onr<'!'x r«A- Ct^CJ-Ao- b'?' 'A Xbor-Ao. oco^r* jV«- nVSd'-t r^Q."- ^x*- bjb'' I t>r ALrwV^x •CL-A«i.* Lb «7- •<T. t> i<'^?l'7°; aLp prt>rLox pnLr)-ArLL'' •bV^ACn/'Atr-^:'. I'PVA'* Lb P'AAi^L*- b •4-<3