1^-1/73 ¦'8 44-jc' jS-^jt CHRONOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION HISTORY or THE CHURCH. CHRONOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, BEING A NEW INQUIRY INTO THE TRUE DATES OF THE BIRTH AND DEATfi OP <©ttr fLorlf an"B SaSjiour Sfsus CTIirtBt; AND CONTAINING AN ORIGINAL HARMONY OF THE FOUR GOSPELS, NOW FIBST ARBAHOED IN THE OBDEB OF TIME. REV. SAMUEL FARMAR JARVIS, D.D., LL.D., HISTORIOGRAPHER OF THE CHURCH ; UEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA; THE AMERICAN ACAD EMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES OF BOSTON ; THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY OP WORCESTER* MASSACHUSETTS ; THE HISTORICAL SOCIETIES OF NEW- YORK AND CONNECTICUT ; COBRESFONDINO MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE AT WASHINGTON, ETC., ETC., ETC. NEW-YORK: PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, No. 82 Clipp-stkeet. 1845. Entered, according to Act of-Congress, in the year 1844, By Samuel Faemae Jaevis, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut. ^\2y 73 PREFACE. The immediate occasion and motives of the following work will be best shown by the annexed extracts from the Journals, for 1838 and 1841, of the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. The Introductory Chapter wiU also explain all that needed to be said at the beginning concerning its purpose and plan. It remains now, after the task has been accomplished, to give the reader a concise statement of the results. n the First Part, appertaining to ancient history in general, the following have been obtained : First. The ancient dates have been accurately adjusted to the modem, from the year 776 before to the year 238 after the received Christian asra; a period of 1014 solar or tropical years. Secondly. The supposed discrepancy of one year, be tween the computations of Varro and the Fasti Capitolini, and other public records of the Roman government, has been shown not to exist. Thirdly. The consular chronology of Rome has been corrected. The computations of Bianchini, in opposition to those of PetaAdus and other modems, have been proved to be the most correct ; while the untenable hypothesis ol VI PREFACE. Bianchini, of a suppressed consulship at the close of the reign of Caligula, has been disproved ; and the consulship suppressed, not by the ancients, nor by any act of autho rity, but by the moderns, in consequence of an error of computation, is shown to have been taken from the last year of the reign of Antoninus Pius. Fourthly. By a careful induction from the Greek and Latin historians of the Roman empire, aided by astrono mical calculations, the true dates of the deaths of Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Tiberius, are shown to have been each one year earlier than the dates assigned to those events by modem, in opposition to ancient, writers. Fifthly. The interesting subject of the three times in which the temple of Janus was shut by Augustus, is illus trated by a careful comparison and examination of ancient historians ; and the truth of the facts recorded by OrosiuS and other Christian writers, established as distinct from the dates of Orosius, which are proved to be incorrect. Sixthly. The exact date of the associate or proconsular government of Tiberius is shown to have been so much earlier than his sole reign, as to make the nineteenth year of the one coincide partly with the fifteenth year of the other. Seventhly. The chronology of the Roman emperors has been accurately adjusted by consulships, from the destruc tion of the republic to the death of the Maximini, and the accession of the younger Gordian. That being the year in which Censorinus wrote, the correctness of his dates, and the exact series of the consulships herein given, are thereby confirmed and demonstrated. In the Second Part, appertaining to our Lord's personal history, the following results have been obtained: I. That the ministration; of John the Baptist began about the great day of Atonement, at the beginning of PREFACE. VU, Hlate's administration, the fifteenth year of the associate government of Tiberius, and the twelfth of his sole reign. II. That our Lord's ministry began with his baptism, in the fifteenth year of the associate government, and the twelfth year of the sole reign of Tiberius ; and was ended by his crucifixion, in the nineteenth year of that associate government, and in the fifteenth year of his sole reign. III. That our Lord was exactly thirty-three years and three months old at the time of his passion. IV. That the annunciation of his birth by the angel Gabriel probably took place in the very same month in which Augustus shut the temple of Janus the third time, in token of universal peace. V. That our Lord's birth most probably took place on the day in which it is now celebrated; and that the con fusion and apparent uncertainty with regard to this subject arises principally from the neglect of direct testimony, and from uncertain and even contradictory computations. VI. That the year of his birth preceded the common Christian sera six years, having taken place in the 747th year of Rome, the year silently adopted by the French Benedictines in their learned work on the Art of Verifying Dates. When it is recollected that the present work is strictly and truly'' written from original evidence, unbiassed by theory, and untrammeled by any previous investigation of modern writers, the fact that its results should be in such perfect harmony in various points with some of the most learned and laborious of modern computations, aifords internal evidence of its truth, and is in itself a sufficient recommendation to public favour. In saying that it has been written from original evidence, the author must except the calendar of Julius Ca3sar, and that of the ancient Church, in the third chapter of the Wil PREFACE. First Part, which he took from Blondel's " Calendrier Remain." On communicating this calendar, after it was in print, to a learned English friend, various objections were raised to the sixth column, in which the rising and setting of constellations and single stars are nientioned as occurring on certain days. It was further objected, that " Sirius" is never used for the constellation, but only for the brightest star in it ; and that Sirius and the Pleiades rise and set every day, but heliacally only at one particular time. On the whole, the calendar has been pronounced to be a patch work from Greek, Egyptian, and Chaldean fragments; showing plainly, if it be Caesar's calendar, that the Romans had no science of their own. And it has been earnestly recommended that the author should add a note upon the subject, if it be only to shelter himself from the imputation of ignorance. But to this he has been averse, for many reasons. That the sixth column is of Roman origin, is evident from the notices it contains of the festivals of the Roman religion, and the dates of political events, many ot which relate to the reign of Augustus Caesar, and do not come down . later. They were added, therefore, after the formation of the calendar, and before the reign of Tiberius. This afi"ords strong internal evidence that the calendar is genuine; and the question whether the Romans were or were not correct, has no special bearing upon the author's purpose. His argument does not depend upon the accu racy or inaccuracy of astronomical terms. For the benefit of the English reader, a literal translation is given, first, from the French of Blondel, who was no mean astronomer, and, secondly, from the Latin of Petavius, who has given the same calendar in substance as gathered from Ovid Columella, and other Latin writers. Of what consequence; is it whether oritur and occidit are translated "rises" and "sets," or "ascends" and "descends"? The latter may be more consistent with astronomical accuracy, in relation PREFACE. IX to those stars which never sink below the horizon, but the purpose for which the calendar is inserted in the following work is not thereby alFected. As far as the astronomical notices in the sixth column are concerned, that purpose was merely to show that the ancients were too observant of the movements of the heavenly bodies, to depart very materially from the true length of the tropical year. But the great use of the calendar, for which it was principally inserted in this work, is of a much higher and more useful nature. It exhibits, first, the origin of the Sunday from the nundinal series of letters; and, secondly, the pains taken by the ancients in arranging the golden numbers, so as to calculate the lunations of any given year. By the calendar of the ancient Church, the reader will be able to find the approximate new and full moons at any epoch of the Julian period. On account of the prtecession of the equinoxes, it will be only an approximation ; but even this will greatly assist his labours, if he wishes to. arrive at astronomical accuracy. Any year of the Julian period divided by 19, will give him the golden number, and opposite to that number the new moon of each month, and the number of lunations in the given year. The same may be done by Cassar's calendar, if it be examined by Caesar's cycle. His reformation of the calendar having taken place 45 solid years before the common Christian aera, that number being added to any year of Christ, until the change of the Gregorian calendar, and divided by 19, will give the golden number according to Cassar's arrange ment. Opposite to that number is the day of the new moon. A difference of from one to two days will invari ably be found between that and the Nicene computation; but this, it is believed, only shows the progress which astronomical science had made between Caesar's time and the fourth century after Christ. b X PREFACE. Other suggestions have been made by English friends, principally with a view of meeting objections which may arise from the celebrity of modern writers, whose compu tations or conjectures differ from the results obtained in the following pages. But to meet objections is always an odious as well as an endless task; and the author can only repeat here in less quajint language, what he has elsewhere said, that if truth be established, error will fall of itself* He venerates, for example, the labours and the name of Niebuhr; but that great historian, in his remarks on the Roman computation of time, has committed mistakes 5 principally from relying too implicitly upon the confident assertions of Scaliger, and neglecting in some cases his owo canon, of always examining the original sources of evidence. This canon the author of the present work has endeavoured always to follow ; grateful for the aid of pro found thinkers and clear writers, but never willing " jurare in verba magistri." Owing to his retired situation, he had not had the advantage of consulting Mr. Clinton's admirable "Fasti Hel- lenici," till he arrived in London ; and, during his residence there, the most learned " Ordo Sasclorum" of Mr. Browne was published. Both, however, have adopted the faulty arrangement of the Consular Chronology, probably froni considering it as definitively settled ; and so far they differ from the present work. With this exception, the author has been happy to find a great deal of harmony between their inductions and his ow;i: and it is very satisfying to perceive so many points of agreement among writers in * Allusion is here made to a note relating to Pagi, the learned commen tator on Baronius. The concluding paragraph of that note is in bad taste, and the author intended to have cancelled it ; but in the haste with ¦which a part of the work has been sent to press, he found to his mortifi cation that it was printed before his correction was received. PREFACE. XI distant countries who are simultaneously pursuing like objects of inquiry. Mr. Greswell's learned and laborious work the author has had no opportunity to examine ; but if Mr. Browne's judgment of it be correct, the method pursued is the very reverse of that which has here been followed. It may here be proper to remark, that the author's anxiety to give his quotations accurately, has led to some apparent unsteadiness, and even contradiction in spelling, especially proper names. In his own writing he has en deavoured to preserve correctness and uniformity; some times, however, variations have occurred from inadver tence; and sometimes where common usage is unsteady, one or the other practice has been indifferently followed. In order to render the present work more useful, the plan of a new harmony of the Gospels, the result of pre ceding proofs and calculations, and a sjmoptical table of the hundred years from the birth of Augustus to the death of Tiberius, have been added as the concluding chapters of tiie Second Part. According to the arrangements recom mended in the first, the reader may easily arrange for him self the Evangelical history; and the last he will find of great use, if he keeps it before him, and at every step of his progress refers to it as he reads, whenever dates are mentioned, and the course of history is pursued. The author cannot close his preface without acknow ledging, as he does most gratefully, the uniform kindness and encouragement which he has received, both in England and America, in the prosecution of his laborious work. His thanks are more especially due to the Rev. H. H. Norris of Hackney, his earliest English friend ; the Rev. T. Bowdler; the Rev. T. H. Home; the Rev. W. Palmer, the well known author of the Origenes Liturgicas, and other learned works; the Rev. W. Scott, of Christ Church, Hox- 3pi PREFACE. ton; and the Rev. Lancelot Sharpe. The two last-named have kindly aided in revising the- press, and the author is greatly indebted to their critical acumen arid accuracy. Among the laity of the English Church, Sir R. H. Inglis aided him much by his influence. To his beloved friend Mr. Faulkner of Phillippines, whose acquaintance he first formed in Italy, who then relieved him by his sympathy in hours of deepest anguish, and who has, ever since, been more like a brother than a friend, he wishes to pay this public tribute of regard, not only for his aid in the present work, but for all that he has done heretofore. The labour of superintending the press confined the author in London, and prevented his enjoying the delight of visiting the venerable Catholic remainder of the Scottish Church ; but her bishops have cheered him by their cor respondence and kind encouragement. As to his own country, beside the sanction given to his work by the proceedings of the bishops, which will be found in the following extracts from the Journals of the General Convention, he is happy to say, not only that the mem bers of the Protestant Episcopal Church generally, but many other intelligent and pious persons, who are not of his own communion, have evinced an interest in the under taking highly, honourable to their charity. But he is bound more especially to return his thanks to the friends who first suggested and counselled his voyage to England. To that suggestion and counsel he is ultimately indebted for one of the brightest periods of his clouded life. But there is one, to whose opeii hand and generous heart an especial tribute is due. Others can bear like testimony for most efficient and vigorous assistance ; and indeed there is no one, and especially no Anaerican, whose labours tend to promote the cause of learning and science, and who has come within the reach of his influence, who wiU not join PREFACE. Xni with the author in this tribute of heartfelt gratitude to Mr. R. K. Haight, of New York. And now having discharged what he deemed a duty towards his fellow-Christians, the author cannot conclude without humbly imploring the Divine blessing on the work now submitted to the public eye. Though a distinct work in itself, it is only the commencement of those labours which the office of an historiographer of the Church re quires. But aU depends on His will, " without whom nothing is strong, nothing is Holy." Vigour of body, and healthiness of mind — a discernment of truth amid conflict ing opinions — a charity ever warm though dispassionate among angry assailants — an enduring patience under the fatigues of research, — aU these are as much the gifts of the Holy Spirit now, as were those more expanded gifts which on the day of Pentecost were shed^ abroad on the infant Church. May the same Holy Spirit dwell in the author's heart, and in the hearts of all who shall read these pages. Extracts from the Journals, of 1838 and 1841, of the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church. House of Bishops, Saturday, 16lh September 1838. " On: motion of the Eight Eev. fiishop Hopkins, the two following resolutions were passed, and sent to the House of Clerical and Lay Depu ties for concurrence. " Resolved, (the House of Clerical and Lay Deputies concurring), That the Eev. Samuel F. Jarvis, D.D., LL.D., be appointed Histo riographer of the Church, with a view to his preparing, from the most original sources now extant, a faithful Ecclesiastical History, reaching from the Apostles' times, to the formation of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States." 33y PREFACE. The second resolution had reference to the History of the Protestant Episcopal Church, by the Rev. Dr. Hawks. House of Deputies, Journal, p. 79. " A message was received from the House of Bishops, transmitting certain resolutions, appointing the Eev. Drs. Jarvis and Hawks to pre pare an Ecclesiastical History. "Whereupon, on motion, the House concurred with the House of Bishops in passing the said resolutions." House of Bishops, Wednesday, October \Zth, 1841. " A letter from the Eev. Dr. Jarvis, Historiographer of the Church, accompanied by certain manuscripts, was read as follows : Eight Eeverend Fathers in Christ : — Having been honoured by the General Convention of 1838, with the appointment of " Histo riographer of the Church," I think it my duty to report to the House of Bishops, with whom the resolution originated, the progress which has been made. It seemed to me that in order to effect the object proposed, it would be necessary, if possible, to settle several contested points, in such a manner as to satisfy both learned and unlearned readers. This could be done in no other way than by laying before them in English, that evidence which is now locked up in foreign languages, and scattered through a great number of volumes, and which, from the paucity of public libraries in our country, is inaccessible even to persons who by their education are fitted to examine the original authors. It is obvious, indeed, that this cannot be done in the whole course of ecclesiastical history, without swelling the work to an enormous extent. It must be confined, there fore, to points of great importance ; and with respect to the rest, much must be left to the fidelity and accuracy of the historian. But if he be found faithful, and accurate in the discussion of these important points, he will establish a character, both as a reporter and a jndge, which will make his readers more ready to trust him when called upon to credit his assertions. The exact time of the birth and death of our Saviour, the key-stone by which prophecy as well as history must be sustained, seemed to be one of those important points. This I have attempted to ascertain ; and the attempt has succeeded beyond my most sanguine expectations. "With no theory to sustain, and fearing to be misled by the theories of others, I have made use of modern writers, only so far as to be led by them to their authorities. In all cases where it was possible, I have gone back directly PREFACE. XV to ancient heathen as well as Christian authors, as being, in the language of your resolution, " the most original sources now extant." Not only has every question been settled on their testimony, but the testimony itself has also been exhibited. "With regard to Latin writers, the original text has been generally subjoined. The fear of swelling the work too much and increasing the expense of publication, has prevented the addi tion of Greek quotations ; an omission which I regret, but which I have endeavoured as much as possible to remedy by exact references. I have laboured hard to finish the work before the session of the present Convention ; but the cares of a parish, the necessary instruction of pupils, and domestic afflictions, have rendered it impossible to get it ready for the press. I am obliged, therefore, to lay it before you in an imperfect state, but it is sufficiently advanced to show its plan, its object, and its success. If it be honoured. Eight Eeverend Fathers, with your approbation, I propose, after it is published, to add some other dissertations which are nearly ready for the press, and then to go on with the Ecclesiastical His tory, down to the great schisms by which the Catholic Church was rent in the fifth century. Whether I shall be able to accomplish thiSj or more than this, depends upon the will of Him, " to whom alone belong the issues of life and death." Being unable myself to attend the General Convention, I have re quested my assistant, the Eev. John Williams, to proceed to New York, for the purpose of submitting my manuscript to your venerable body. I have the honour to remain, Eight Eeverend Fathers, Tour faithful son, and servant in the Lord, SAMUEL FAEMAE JAEVIS, Rector of Christ Church, Middletown. " Whereupon, on motion of Bishop Hopkins, seconded by Bishop Doane, it was resolved, that the letter and manu scripts be referred to a committee of the House. " Bishops Hopkins, Doane, and Whittingham, were ap pointed the Committee. " The Committee to whom were referred the letter and manuscripts of the Rev. Dr. Jarvis, reported as follows : — The Committee to whom were referred the letter and the manuscripts of the Eev. Dr. Jarvis, Historiographer of the Church, beg leave to report as follows : — That they regard, with great satisfaction, the progress which the XVI PREFACE. learned author has made, in preparing for the press the first volume of the series which his appointment as Historiographer was designed to bring forth : and consider it a duty on the part of the Church, to give all the encouragement in their power to its publication. It appears to them, as well from the synopsis of its contents, as from the best examination which their limited time would allow, to be a thorough and comprehensive analysis of all the evidence extant, whether sacred or profane, upon the most difficult and important points in ecclesiastical chronology, namely, the precise years of the birth and death of our Saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ. And the Committee take pleasure in the acknowledgment, that notwithstanding their familiarity with the author's long-established repu tation for deep and accurate learning, they were struck with the extra ordinary research and exact fidelity exhibited in the work submitted to them, and hail its production as being calculated to reflect honour upon himself, and the body to which he belongs. With these views, the Com mittee respectfully recommend the following resolution : — Resolved, That the House of Bishops receive with great satisfaction, the assurance that the first volume introductory to the Ecclesiastical His tory of the Eev. Dr. Jarvis, their Historiographer, is now ready for publication. They have examined and approve the plan of the work, and commend it to the patronage of the Church. John H. Hopkins, G. W. Doane. W. E. Whittingham. " Whereupon, on motion of Bishop de Lancey, seconded by Bishop Onderdonk of New York. '¦'¦Resolved, That the resolution appended to the Report be adopted." INTRODUCTION. It is an old and familiar observation, that Chronology and Geo graphy are the two eyes of History. Without a knowledge of both, no historian can write accurately, and no lover of history can read with complete satisfaction or profit. Yet It must be obvIouB to every one who has at all attended to sacred or profane hlstoiry, that in both the above-named sciences many disputable points stUl exist. Among those of chronology are the precise dates of the birth and death of our Lord Jesus Christ. Not surely that any one who takes a Christian view of history can suppose for a moment that either of those events was In itself obscure. Botli were predicted, even from the fall ; and a succession of prophecies, brighter and clearer as they advanced, prepared the minds of men for the coming of the Saviour. At the very time of our Lord?8 birth an intense expectation prevailed. Many were waiting for redemption in Jerusalem. It was revealed to the aged Simeon that he should not die tUl he had seen the Lord's Christ. Even among the heathen, as we learn from Virgil, Suetonius, Tacitus, and the Magi, rumours of this expected and extraordinary event had gone forth. The heavenly host announced the day and place to the shepherds ; and the providence of God so ordered, that a census was taken in Bethlehem, by command of the Roman em peror, at the very moment In which the Virgin brought forth, and both she and her infant son were then and there enrolled. 1 2 INTRODUCTION. In like manner the death of our Lord took place under the cog nizance and by the express permission of the Eoman government. Any one who adverts to the jealous scrutiny of that government, and especially to the gloomy and suspicious character of Tiberius, must be convinced a priori that such an event would be noticed in the annual returns of administration sent to Rome. In a word, the birth and death of our Lord Jesus Christ are the centre around which all history moves. These events alone can unfold the operations of the Divine government from the beginning to the end of time ; and therefore they furnish the key to the civil as well as ecclesiastical history of man. No two events in history being then more certain, how comes it to pass that the generality of ecclesiastical historians have left almost unnoticed the chronology of our Saviour's life ? — have aban doned the subject in despair, and pronounced it to be utterly impossible to ascertain the day of his birth, or the year of his cru cifixion ? It may well be asked, whether this general abandonment does not proceed, either from an exaggerated estimate of former labours, or from a reluctance to engage anew In dry and laborious investigation. At the revival of learning, many illustrious men engaged with ardour and untiring effort in the attempt to reconcile the ancient with the modern computations of time ; and It may safely be said that no one applied himself to it without clearing up some diffi culty, and adding something to the stock of general knowledge. But their labours were progressive. Errors were rectified. New discoveries took place. Inscriptions, coins and medals, were con tinually found, which ascertained dates, and narrowed the grounds of controversy. Lost works were from time to time recovered, either in their original languages or in ancient translations. Even now the researches of the learned are often rewarded with valuable fruit, and the stores of antiquity are found to be yet unexhausted. The progress of astronomical science has shod light upon the dates INTRODUCTION. 9 of ancient history, by the more accurate calculation of eclipses ; and from time to time there have been some, though few, who have ventured, in opposition to the tendencies of the age, to Investigate anew and with success the vexed questions of remote antiquity. Where an object, therefore. Is of Importance, there Is no reason to despond, because men of great names have failed, or because much or all of the ground which they have trodden Is to be gone over again, and the way Is beset with thorns, and Is difficult and tedious. If It be asked why the author feels himself called upon to under take this task anew, the only answer Is that he thinks It his duty. By the terms of his appointment he Is required to prepare " from the most original sources now extant, a faithful Ecclesiastical His tory." He could not meet this requisition fully without a new examination of the original evidence concerning the true time of our Saviour's birth and death. If he fails, he will only share the fate of far abler and riper scholars than himself. If he succeeds, he win be fiilrly entitled to the thanks of the Christian world. It is no presumption in him to say that the obscurity of the dates now to be made the subject of renewed inquiry, has arisen in great measure from the faulty methods of modern investigation. Some writers have had pre-existing theories to support, by which their judgments have evidently been biassed. Others have taken up the Inquiry at wrong points. They have built on the founda tion of ancient dates and epochs supposed to have been established by preceding writers. Where those writers are at variance, they have often, from various motives, decided In favour of one, without duly weighing the contradictory evidence advanced by others. In this way they have been led Into untenable hypotheses ; and In stead of untangling the mazes of controversy, have rendered the whole subject still more perplexed and intricate. Mistakes of this nature may be looked upon as floating lights In a passage of diffi cult navigation, warning the cautious mariner to avoid the shoals and rocks which have occasioned former shipwrecks. INTRODUCTION. There is another defect in the character of all former treatises oil this subject, which it is important to avoid. They have been written only for the learned, and have referred to, but not produced their authorities. The author, on the contrary, writes for the un learned as well as the learned ; and his object will be in every case to make his readers acquainted as fully as himself with the testi mony on which the decision of every question must be founded. For this purpose the following work will be divided into two parts, — the first appertaining to ancient history in general, — the second, to the history of our Lord In particular. The first part, concerning ancient history in general, will be occupied In giving the evidence from original sources of the ancient methods of computing time, and exhibiting the certain laws by which they are to be connected with modern computations now in Use. This has been neglected or erroneously stated by most of the writers who have attempted to determine the true dates of our Lord's birth and death. Yet the establishment of the one is abso lutely essential to the due computation of the other. The first is the foundation, — the second, the superstructure. Unless the foundation be strongly and firmly laid, the superstructure will be weak, and liable to be overturned. But if both are of solid mate rials, the whole building will be fitly framed together, being com pacted by that which every joint supplleth. In the prosecution of this plan, the rules which the writer layfe down for his own guidance are the following : 1. To take nothing for granted. Every necessary question, from beginning to end, must be examined on its own merits, and decided by acknowledged authorities from history, verified, wherever the case allows it, by astronomical observations, and arithmetical computation. 2. With regard to all such questions, conjecture is never to bfe allowed. In the adjustment of a series of events, where the truth is to be arrived at by approximation, and in the absence of positive INTRODUCTION, 5 testimony, probabilities are to be weighed. But in all cases they are carefully to be distinguished as probabilities only. The reader must be enabled to see where certainty ends, and where probability begins : so that even if the reasoning of the author be found in conclusive on any point of this nature, the certainty of established facts will not thereby be weakened. The ordeal of criticism may consume the perishable, but cannot demolish the solid parts of the building. 3. No theory before examination is to be assumed. Testimony is to be followed, whithersoever it may lead. The two great objects to be constantly kept In view must be the investigation of truth for its own sake, and the lucid communication of that truth to others. 4. In the examination of testimony, the original author is, if possible, to be consulted. This rule ' is as necessary. In order to ?irrive at the truth of history, as it is in a court of justice to reject hearsay evidence. A fruitful source of error is the copying autho rities from the works of modern writers on chronology. Each generally brings forward such testimony as he thinks adapted to sustain the point he wishes to prove. They are special pleaders arguing a case. Undoubtedly they are entitled, from their learning and ability, to great respect, and all they say is to be duly weighed ; but the judge notes down the authorities they offer, and then examines them for himself. 5. The testimony of the original witnesses Is, as far as possible, to be laid before the reader in the very language of each witness. It has been usual, in writing for the learned, to give only a sum mary of the ancient testimony, in the modern writer's own words, because it is presumed that the learned will examine the authors referred to for themselves. But with the best Intentions, the modern writer may make mistakes ; and even if he quote correctly, the passage, separated from its context, may convey wrong im pressions to the reader. Nor to the reader can there be the same INTRODUCTION. satisfaction in the mere statement of evidence, as there Is In having the very language of the witness laid before him, with such account of the context as will show that no violent disruption takes place, and no perversion of the author's meaning. The present work being designed for the unlearned as well as the learned, literal translations are given in all cases ; and the original text is placed in the margin, or cited so accurately, that the reader who possesses the original may easily turn to it. The author's pains will be amply rewarded, if the subject be placed in so clear a light that any man of plain common sense, who reads his own vernacular tongue, may thereby be enabled to comprehend it. With such rules for his own guidance, the plan he has made for himself In the first part of the work is the following. The Olympiads, being the earliest certain measure of time among profane historians, are the first to be considered ; and their proper adjustment with the modern computations of time, the first question to be decided. The next subject of attention must be the age of Kome. The Latin historians often speak of events as occurring in such or such a year after the building of the city. Hence it is absolutely necessary to determine the connexion of that event, as far as pos sible, with the Olympiads. After the expulsion of the kings, annual consuls were appointed, and their office became, in consequence, the measure of time. Events are said to occur in such or such a consulate ; and that consulate was understood as denoting a year. Therefore the consideration of the Roman method of computing their years becomes necessary. We must ascertain whether we can rely on their computations as denoting what we mean by the astronomical, solar, or tropical year. The Roman calendar, therefore, as it existed in the dif ferent changes, from the building of the city to its reformation by Julius Caesar, must be carefully examined. As the reformed calendar of Julius Caesar became the basis of INTRODUCTION. 7 ail our modern computations of time, the next object must be to state the methods taken by modern chronologers to create an universal measure applying equally to ancient and modern com putations. Hence the formation of Scaliger's Julian Period, and its adaptation must be explained. The mode by which this most important arrangement was accomplished being ascertained, the next step must be to connect with it all the ancient computations of time necessary to our purpose. And, lastly, the verification of the whole must be subjected to a rigid examination of historical testimony, and, wherever it can ap ply, of astronomical computation. This will occupy the remainder of the first part, appertaining to ancient history in general, and serving only as the foundation of the present inquiry. The second part, relating to the personal history of our Lord, until his ascension into heaven, and the descent of the Holy Ghost, with which great event the history of the Apostolic Church begins, will be arranged In the following manner. The reign of Herod the Great must, in the first place, be care fully examined, and the date of his death determined as far as It can be, on the testimony of Josephus. This decides the latest possible date of our Lord's birth. The next step will be to determine the extreme limits within which the death of our Lord could have happened, by ascertaining the beginning and end of Pilate's administration. This being decided, the testimony of the Christian Church as to the year of his death must be laid before the reader. It will then be proper to enter Into a careful examination of the Gospel history ; — first of his passion ; then of the duration of his ministry, which began from his baptism ; and, lastly, of his age at that time. These points being ascertained, we can then count back to the year of his birth, exhibit the evidence as to the month and day in 8 INTKODUCTION. which it took place, and examine the calculations of the learned, by which, on the supposition of its utter uncertainty, they have endeavoured to establish their respective opinions. Such is the plan which the author has formed for his own guidance, and which at the outset he thinks proper to lay before his readers, as a sketch or outline of his design, that they may, with the more satisfaction and confidence, accompany him in the iirduous investigation on which he is now about to enter per lo cammino alto e silrestio. PART I. APPERTAINING TO ANCIENT HISTORY IN GENERAL. CHAPTER I. ON THE OLYMPIADS. Section I. Proposition to be solved. — Extract from Geminus to show" the Grecian methods of computing time. — Direct proofs from Pindar and his scholiasts. — Inductions from Ptolemy, Diodorus Siculus, Thucydides, Plato.— Sect. II. Correct list of Olympiads, from the Armenian vercion of the long-lost Chronicon of Eusebius. part 1. — Sect. III. Method of adjusting the Olympiads to the modern computation of time. X. Historical evidence ; Censorinus on the authority of Varro. ri. Astrono mical computation ; eclipses mentioned by Thucydides. — Calculation of these eclipses given by Petavius. § I. — The Olympic Games were celebrated from the eleventh to the sixteenth of the first month after the summer solstice, at the beginning of every fifth year. But before we attempt to prove this, or to show the connexion of the Olympiads as measures of time with other fixed and deter minate standards of computation, it is necessary to our purpose to lay before the reader some evidence of the manner in which the ancient Greeks reasoned on the general computation of time. This we prefer to do, so far as a translation can represent the thoughts of the original, in the very language of a Greek philosopher who flourished about a hundred years before the Christian era. Geminus wrote an " Introduction to the Study of Astronomy," first printed at Altdorf, by Eno Hilderic, in 1590, and afterwards collated, and more accurately edited, by Petau, or Petavius, In his " Urano- logium." From this edition we here Insert "Chapter VI — con cerning Months." " A month is the time from one conjunction to another, or from one full moon to another. A conjunction takes place when the sun and moon come to the same place in the circle ; that Is, about the Trlacas [f, rplaKag] or thirtieth day of the moon. The full moon Is so called when the moon Is diametrically opposite to the sun ; and that is about the Dichomenia [^ ^/x"/"'''"'"] °^ middle of 12 THE OLYMPIADS. [PART I. .* the month. The monthly interval consists of 29J+-^days; and in this monthly interval, the moon passes through the entire circle of the zodiac, and also that periphery which the sun passes over in the same monthly interval into the subsequent signs of the zodiac, or as nearly as po'ssible one sign. In the monthly interval, therefore, the moon moves nearly through thirteen signs. The exact monthly Interval, as hath been said, is 29^+^ days; but the monthly intervals, as they are generally taken for civil compu tation, consist of 29^ days, and so the time of two months amounts to 59 days ; for which cause the civil months are computed alternately full [30 days] and hollow [29 days], because the two lunar months together make 59 days. " From these, the lunar year Is computed to have 354 days ; for, if we multiply the 29^ days in each month by 12, the days of the lunar year will amount to 354. The solar year differs from the lunar. The solar, is the revolution of the sun through the twelve signs of the zodiac, which takes place in 363^ days ; but the lunar comprehends only the time of 12 lunar months, which is 354 days. Since, then, neither the month, nor the solar year, consists of who(le days, it became a question among the astronomers to find a perio4 of time which might comprehend whole days, whole month% and whole years. " It was the purpose of the ancients to measure the months by the progress of the moon, and the years by that of the sun. For it was commanded, both by the laws and by the oracles, that the country rites required sacrifice to be made according to three par ticulars : months, days, and years. All the Greeks agreed in the rule of measuring years by the sun, and days and months by the moon. To measure years by the sun, is for the purpose of offering the same sacrifices to the Gods at about the same seasons of the year; the spring sacrifice continually in the spring, that of the summer In the summer, and In like manner that the same sacrific^p should fall according to the remaining seasons of the year : for this they conceived to be acceptable and agreeable to the Gods. But this could not otherwise be done, but by having the solstices and equinoxes arrive at about the same places. To measure the days according to the moon, consists in making the denominations * According to our method this would be equivalent to 29"' 12'' 43' 38" 10'" 54J|"" v 0'. dog, " the lovely light of the fair-faoed Kai fttyaXuiv diiXiov ayv&v Kpiaiv, moon," as meaning " the full moon." — Pin- Kai TtvTaiTjjpid' d/id dar. Ed. 0.xon, fol. 1698, p. 40, and p. 128. CHAP. lJ THE OLYMPIADS. 19 third year of the first of these olympiads, the second In the first year of the second olympiad, the fifth of the octaeterlde, and the last In the fourth year of the second olympiad, which would be the eighth and last of the octaeterlde. Consequently, the first olym piad would have forty-nine months, and the second fifty. So, again, where Pindar says Six twin altars Hath he honoured For the feasts of the Gods With the greatest sacrifices of bulls, And the five-day combats of the games:"* The scholiast explains "the five-day combats," by saying: "Because these contests were carried on for five days, from the eleventh to the sixteenth," that is, for five days preceding and including the dichomenia. Whence it must follow, that the month began at the preceding new-moon, and thus that the whole olympiad was reck oned from the new-moon preceding the games. It was, therefore, the first month of the fifth year, reckoning from the preceding olympiad, according to the expression of Pindar, in the passage first cited. That it was the first month after the summer solstice, at least as early as the formation of the Metonic cycle, may, I think, be proved, by induction from incidental notices in several of the Greek writers. Ptolemy, as quoted by Dodwell,' expressly Informs us, that the period of the summer solstice was first accurately observed by Meton and Euctemon.'^ And Diodorus Siculus asserts, that the cycle of Meton began on the thirteenth of the month Sklrrophorion, in the fourth year of the eighty-sixth olympiad, when Apseudes was archon of Athens. Sklrrophorion was the last month in the Grecian calendar, as Hekatombajon was the first. From this Dod well infers, and as it seems justly, that in consequence of the defective cycles previously in use, an error of seventeen or eighteen days had occurred ; which was then rectified, by leaving out the remainder of Sklrrophorion, and on the thirteenth of that month, * * Bw/iotis ?? SiSi- TTTafiipoie nfiiWais. pove lyipapiv top- OXvpv. E'. v. 10. Ed. Oxon. p. 52. ToiQ Qt'Siv, ptyi-;aie ' Diss. i. Usus Cycli Metonici Civihs, Ytto BovSrvcriaig, diSrXoiv re iriu- Sec, iv. ' Ptol. Mey. XvvT. lib. m, c. ii. p. 62. 20 THE OLYMPIADS. [pART L ^according to the old computation, commencing the first month, Hekatombseon, at the first new moon after the summer solstice.' This seems to be corroborated by the statement of Thucydides,^ that the Peloponneslan war began by the treacherous occupation of Platsea early In the spring, when Pythodorus had been ten months archon of Athens. This was the year after that In which Meton had commenced his cycle. Meton's cycle began at the first new moon after the summer solstice, in the fourth year of the eighty- sixth olympiad, when Apseudes was archon.^ The Peloponneslan war began within two months of the close of the first year of the eighty-seventh olympiad, towards the end of the archonship of Pythodorus, the immediate successor of Apseudes, as we learn From Diodorus,'' one year and ten months after the cycle of Meton began. " The inhabitants of Ells," says Diodorus, " cele brated the eighty-seventh olympiad, In which Sophron the Ambra- clote was victor in the Stadium." This was the beginning of the year in which Pythodorus was archon ; and two months after, In the spring, began the Peloponeslan war. Consequently, the year of Pythodorus would expire two months after, or about the summer solstice. So Plato speaks of all the magistrates assembling In one of the sacred edifices, " when the new year is ahout to commence after the summer solstice, at the coming in of the month."^ Without, therefore, going Into Dodwell's argument to prove that a change was made at the Introduction of the Metonic cycle, in the beginning of the Athenian civil year, from the winter to the summer solstice, we are safe in asserting that, after that event, the Athenian civil year was invariably so reckoned that it might accord with the computa tion of the olympiads. " As far as we know," says Dodwell, " the Inhabitants of Ells never reckoned the beginning of their cycles from any other point than the summer solstice. For that solstice was the most suitable time, not only for the games, but also for travelling, that all the Greeks might come together at a public assembly, which was of all by far the most numerously attended."^ Whether, therefore, the Athenians did or did not change the ' Dodw. Diss. I. sec. xvi. compared with ' Ut sup. p. 501-2, compared with Thu- Diss. III. De Cyclis Ketone Antiquioribus, cyd. ut ^up. sec. xxviii. " De Legib. lib. vi. 767 c. ' Lib. n. c. ii. ' Diss. iv. Cycli Olj'mpiadum Civiles, ' Diod. Sic. Bihl. Hist. lib. xn. Olymp. sec. iii. Ixxxvi. 4. Ed. Wesseling, lom. i. p. 501. CHAP, l] the OLYMPIADS. 21 commencement of their year at the time above stated. It Is highlj' probable that the olympiads had always been celebrated from the eleventh to the sixteenth of the first lunar month after the summer solstice. There would, of course, be a considerable variation from the days of our months, so that to date exactly the beginning of each year according to our computation, would oblige us. In every instance, to calculate the lunations. This would be unnecessary trouble. It will be sufficient to take the first of July as the be ginning of an olympiad, and thus to reckon the first six months of our year as belonging to one, and the last six months as belonging to another, of the four years, consisting of forty-nine or fifty lunar months, into which the olympiads were divided. § II. — Our next step must be to lay before the reader a correct list of the olympiads ; and this we are enabled to do, by the recovery of the long-lost part of the Chronicon of Eusebius, a copy of which had been preserved in the Armenian language. A Latin translation was published at Milan In 1818; and the Armenian text, with a Latin translation, at Venice in the same year. Both are accompanied with such fragments of the original Greek as had been preserved by Syncellus and the Chronicon Paschale. These were previously collected and published by Joseph Scaliger, but were justly suspected of not being the pure text of Eusebius. The publication of the Armenian version, has shown what parts are genuine, and what had been added by the later chronologers. In this list, the victors in the Stadium are mentioned, — an Invaluable addition to the reader of the ancient historians. " How Important," exclaims Scaliger, " that these victories in the Stadium have not perished ! For the whole memorial of Grecian affairs may be con tained in these titles ; so that when the olympiad is unknown, the name of the victor in the Stadium survives, and suffers neither the olympiad nor the time of any achievement to perish. For not un- frequently it is the custom of Pausanlas to note how each one conquers, and not what olympiad it is. ' In the third year,' he says, for example, ' of that olympiad in which such a person con quered.' " These names are occasionally corrupted in the Armenian version ; and in all such cases where the Greek text is preserved, it is here inserted between brackets. 22 the OLYMPIADS. [part I. THE OLYMPIADS OF THE GREEKS. FROM THE FIRST TO THE TWO HUNDRED AND FORTY-NINTH, IN WHICH AUTONINTJS THE SON OF SEVERUS WAS EJTPEROB OVER THE BOMANS. i. Olympiad in which Coioebus the Elean conquered in the stadium ; for in this only did they contend until the thirteenth olympiad ii. Antimachus, Elean. Romulus and Remus are born. iii. Androclus, Messenian iv. Polychares, Messenian V. Eschides [Gr. jEschines], Elean vi. O'ibotas [Gr. Oibolas], Dymsan vii. Darcles [Gr. Diodes], Messenian. Romulus founded Rome viii. Anticles, Messenian ix. Xenocles, Messenian X. Dotades, Messenian xi. Leochares, Messenian xii. Oxythemis, Coronsean xiii. Diodes, Corinthian xiv. Desmon, Corinthian The Diaulon (or double stadium) was added (Pausan. Diaulos.) and Hypenius [Gr. Hypenos. Paman.] the Elean conquered XV. Orsippus, Megarean. The Dolichus was added and they ran naked. Acanthus the Lacedemonian conquered xvi. Pythagoras, Lacedemonian xvii. Potus, Epidaurian xviii. Tullus [Gr. Tellis], Sicyonian Wrestling {iraXri) was added, and Eurybatus [Gr. Hybato], the Lacedemonian, conquered. The Pentathlon was added, and Lampis the Lacedemonian conquered Menus, Megarean Atheradas, Lacedemonian Pantacles, Athenian The same, the second time Icarius, Hyperessian Boxing was added , and Onomastus the Smyrnaean conquered. He also made laws for boxing Cleoptolemus, Lacedemonian Thalpis, Lacedemonian The chariot with four horses {A^pmirov) was added, and Paoron [Gr. Paton. Pausan. Pagondas] the Theban con quered xxvi. Calisthenes, Lacedemonian Philimbrotus the Lacedemonian conquered in the Pentathlon at three olympiads. The carnia or contest of harpers first established in Laceda;mon xxvii. Eurybus [Gr. Euribotcs or Euribotas. Pausan."], Athenian ¦ XIX. XX. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. XXV. StadiumStadiumStadiumStadium StadiumStadium StadiumStadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium StadiumStadiumStadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium chap, l] the OLYMPIADS. 23 xxviii. Charrais, Lacedemonian, who lived upon dried figs Stadium The Pisaus conducted this olympia, because the Eleans were detained by a western war. [Greek reads " a war with the Dymeans or people of Dyme"] xxix. Chionis, Lacedemonian Stadium One of his leaps was 22 cubits [Greek reads 7ro5<3j' feet] XXX. The same, the second time The Pisans revolted from the Eleans, and carried on this and the following 22 xxxi. Chionis, Lacedemonian, the third time Stadium xxxii. Cratinus, Megarean Stadium When also in boxing Comseus conquered three brothers xxxiii. Gygis, Lacedemonian Stadium The Pancratium was added, and Lygdamis the Syracusan, of enormous stature, conquered. He measured the Stadium with his feet, and made it only 600 paces. The Celes (Race horse) was also added, and Craxilas [Gr. PiaxiUas] 4he Thessalian conquered xxxiv. Stomus [Gr. Stomas], Athenian Stadium XXXV. Sphaerus, Lacedemonian Stadium And in the Diaulon Cylon the Athenian conquered, who endeavoured to seize the supreme power. xxxvi. Phrynon, Athenian Stadium Who in the Island of Coos was slain in single combat. [Gr. who was slain in single combat with Pittaous] xxxvii. Euryclidas, Calonus Stadium [Calonus must be a mistake for I-aconus. The Greek reads, Lacon the Lacedemonian.] The stadium of boys was added, and Polynices the Elean conquered. The wrestling of boys was also added, and Hipposthenes the Lacedemonian con quered; who having once failed, in the five succeeding olympiads conquered in the wrestling of men xxxviii. Olyntheus, Lacedemonian Stadium The Pentathlon of boys was added, and then Ihey only con tended. Deutelidas the Lacedemonian conquered xxxix. Ripsolaus [Gr. Ripsolkos], Lacedemonian Stadium xl. Olyntheus, Lacedemonian, the second time xli. Cleonthus [Gr. Cleondas], Theban Stadium The boxing of boys was added, and Philotas the Sybarite conquered xlii. Lycotas, Lacedemonian Stadium xliii. Cleon, Epidaurian Stadium xliv. Gelon, Lacedemonian Stadium xlv. Anticrates, Lacedemonian Stadium xlvi. Chrysomachus [Gr. Chrysamaxos], Lacedemonian Stadium And Polymnestor, Milesian, in the boys' stadium. While feeding his goats, he overtook a hare 24 THE OLYMPIADS. [pART I, xlvii. Euryces [Gr. Em'ycles], Lacedemonian Stadium xlviii. Glycon, Crotoniate. Stadium Pythagoras the Samian being admitted to the boys' boxing, and being laughed at as effeminate, goes forward, and com pletely conquers all the men. xlix. Lycinus, Crotoniate Stadium 1. Epitelidas, Lacedemonian , Stadium The seven wise men, as they were called Ii. Eratosthenes, Crotoniate Stadium Iii. Agis, Elean Stadium liii. Anon [Gr. Agnon], Peparethian Stadium liv. Hippostratus, Crotoniate Stadium Aregion, [Gr. Arichion. Pausan. Arrachion] Pbygalean, con quering in the second Pancratium, dies of a broken skull. His dead body is crowned. His adversary, previously conquered, confessed that one of his feet had been broken by the victor.* Iv. The same Hippostratus the second time Stadium At this time Cyrus reigned over the Persians Ivi. PhEedrus the Pharsalian Stadiuia Ivii. Lagramus [Gr. Ladromos], Lacedemonian Stadium Iviii. Diognetus, Crotonian Stadium lix. Archilochus, Corcyrean Stadium Ix. Apellajus, Elean Stadium Ixi. Agatharcus, Corcyrean Stadium Ixii. Eryxias, Chalcidean Stadium In wrestling Milo the Crotoniate. He conquered in the Olympic games six times, in the Pythian six times, in the Isthmian ten times, in the Nemean nine times Ixiii. Parmenides, CamariuEean Stadium Ixiv. Menandrus [Gr. Evandros], Thessalian Stadium Ixv. Anachus [Gr. Akochas Tarantinos.}, Tarantinian Stadium The Oplites added, and Damaretus the Erean conquered. [Gr. ripauvQ. al. SpaKktiSrjs] Ixvi. Ischyrus, Imeraean Stadium Ixvii. Phannas, Pellenian. He was the first who gained a triple victory, — in the stadium, — the diaulon, — the oplon Stadium Ixviii. Isomachus, Crotoniate Stadium Ixix. The same, the second time Ixx. Niceas, Opundian [Gr. Nicaistas. Opuntian] Stadium Ixxi. Tisicrates, the Crotoniate Stadium Ixxii. The same, the second time Ixxiii. Astyalus, the Crotoniate Stadium Ixxiv. The same, the second time • The story is told by Pausanias. Lib. viii. c. 40. CHAP. I.] THE OLYMPIADS. 25 Ixxv. The same, the third time.* Ixxvi. Scamandrus, Mitylenian " Ixxvii. Dandinus [Gr. Dandes], Argive Ixxviii. Parmenides, Posidoniate Ixxix. Xenophon, Corinthian Ixxx. Turymmas, Thessalian In wrestling, Amesinas the Barosean ; who, when feeding his herd, contended with a bull, and bringing the same to Pisa, he contended with it again. Ixxxi. Polymnastus, Cyrenean Ixxxii. Lycus, Larissean Ixxxiii. Crisson, Immesaean. [Gr. Himeraean} Ixxxiv. The same, the second time. Ixxxv. The same, the third time. Ixxxvi. Theopompus, Thessalian Ixxxvii. Euphranor, [Gr. Sophron] Ambraciote Thence the Pelopponesian war. Ixxxviii. Symmachus, Messenian Ixxxix. The same, the second time. xc. Hyperbius, Syracusan xci. Exigentus, Agrigentian [Gr. Exagentos, Acragantinos] xcii. The same, the second time. xciii. Eurotas, [Gr. Eukatos] Cyrenean Polydamas the Scotussaian, a man of immense stature, conquered in the Pancratium (or contest of all strength). He went to Persia, and in the presence of Ochus killed lions, and fought naked with armed men. — The Synoris [Gr. cvvupte, Biga, or two-horse chariot] was added, and Evagrius [Gr. Euagoras] the Elean conquered. xciv. Crocinas, Larissaean xcv. Minon, [Gr. Menon] Athenian. xcvi. Eupolemus, Elean The trumpeter [Gr. SaXTriy/crjjs] was added, and Tima^us the Elean conquered. — The Herald [Gr. Krjpv^'] also was added, and Aerates [Gr. Krates]'the Elean conquered. xcvii. Tirinaeus [Gr. Terinaios Eleios, the Elean] xcviii. Sosippus, Delphian Aristodemus the Elean in wrestling; whom no one could seize by the waist [Gr. oii /liaa oiSeis tXagfj/]. xcix. Dicon, Syracusian The pony [or more properly the colt] chariot IriSipnrirov TTwXiKbv'] was added, and Emybasus [EvpvjSdTag] the Lace demonian conquered Stadium Stadium StadiumStadium Stadium StadiumStadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium StadiumStadiumStadium StadiumStadium Stadium Stadium * The Olympiads from the 7.5th to the ligtii are preserved in Diodorus Siculus (Lib. xi. — XX.) These the learned reader will iind it useful to compare with the list here given by Eusebius. In the 75th Olym. Diodorus calls the victor, Asylus the Syracusan, — because Astylus, or Astyalus, though a Crotoniate, professed himself to be a Syracusan. See Pausanias, vi. 13. 26 THE OLYMPIADS. [part L C. ci, cii. ciii. civ. cv. cvi. evil. cviii. cix. ex. cxi. cxii. cxv. cxvi. cxvii. cxviii. cxix. cxx. Dionysodorus, Tarentinian Damon, Thurian The same, the second time. Pythostratus, Ephesian Phocides, Athenian This Olympic was ordered by the Pisans. Porus, Cyrenean The same, the second time. Micrinas, Tarentinian Polycles, Cyrenean Aristolochus, Athenian Anicles, [Anticles. Diod. Sic] Athenian. Cleomantis, Eclitorian. [Cleopantis Clitorius. Gr.] Euvylas, Chalcidian Alexander took Babylon and killed Darius. Clito, Macedonian Ageus the Argive in the Dolichus ;* who going to Argos, announced there his own victory on the same day. Micinuas, Rhodian Alexander died; after whom, the empire being divided among many, Ptolemy reigned in Egypt and at Alexandria. Damasias, Amphipolitan Demosthenes, [Dinosthenes. Pausan. Dinomenes. Diod. Sic] Lacedemonian Parmenides, Mitylenian Andromenes, Corinthian Antenor, an Athenian or Milesian, irayKpdnov UKovnov, mptoSovinric, oXijTTToe iv rate rpiaiv jjXi/ciaiS. The Armenian text, according to the edition of Milan : " Antenor Athe- niensis, aut Milesius, in pancratio, adversatus circumstan- tibus si victor extitit sine unctione tribus in aetatibus." The Armenian text according to the edition of Venice: " Antenor Aiheniensis vel Milesius in certamine omnium virium, in congressu et circulo invictus et minime unctus in tribus aetatibus reperitur."f Andromenes, Corinthian Pythagoras, Magnesian. [Greek reads, Magnes, and the Stadium StadiumStadiumStadiumStadium StadiumStadiumStadium StadiumStadium Stadium Stadium Stadium StadiumStadium Stadium Stadium Stadium * AoXtxoc, says Suidas, with the accent on the antepenultima, is the name of a course ; with the accent on the last sylla ble, SoXixoQi it is an adjective, and signifies, long. The dolichus contains 24 stadia. He says in another place [voce AiavS.os'} that there were eight contests, the Stadium, the Diaulus, the Dolichus, the Oplites or heavy armed race, boxing, the Pancratium, wrestling, and leaping. + The Greek of this obscure and diffi cult passage is laid before the reader, as well as the two versions from the Arme nian. The Armenian translator seems to have read dvaXtiirTog instead of aXj)irro£ ; for this latter word, according to Suidas and Hesychius, signifies dicaraXiiTrroc, one who cannot be overtaken, i. e. in run ning, or one who cannot be conquered. May it not mean, that he was unconquered in boyhood, youth, and manhood ? CHAP. I.J THE OLYMPIADS. 27 Armenian adds ex Menandra, or ad Moeandrum, according to the conjecture of Mai] Stadium In wrestling, Cerasus [Keras Gr.] the Argive, who tore off the hoofs of a bull. cxxi. The same Pythagoras, the second time. cxxii. Antigonus, Macedonian Stadium cxxiii. The same, the second time. cxxiv. PhUomelus, Pharsalian Stadium cxxv. Ladas, .Egean Stadium cxxvi. IdaBus or Nicator, Cyrenean Stadium cxxvii. Perigenes, Alexandrian Stadium cxxviii. Seleucus, Macedonian Stadium cxxix. Philinus, Coan Stadium The pony two-horse chariot was added, and Philistiaehus the son of Macetus conquered. Gr. BiXiarixri yvvrj, airo TTiQ M.aKeSoviag r^e IttJ SaXaaay, avvinp'iSi vioXixy IviKrjat. Olymp. cxxviii. cxxx. The same Philinus, the second time. cxxxi. Ammonius, Alexandrian ' Stadium The pony single horse was added, and Hippocrates the son of Thessalus conquered. The Greek is very different. TXjjiroXejuos Xixiog KkXr]Tt woiXiKip irpuirog kviKijn. cxxxii. Xenophanes, jEtolian from Amphisia Stadium cxxxiii. Simelus, Neapolitan Stadium The Parthians revolted from the Macedonians, and first Arsaces reigned, from whom the Arsacidae. cxxxiv. Alcidas, Lacedemonian Stadium. cxxxv. Eraton, jEtolian Stadium In boxing, Cleoxenus the Alexandrian, in the circle of vic tory, unwounded. [Gr. ncptodoviKrjg drpaujttari'jos.]'' cxxxvi. Pythocles, Sicyonian Stadium cxxxvii. Menestheus, Barcylite Stadium cxxxviii. Demetrius, Alexandrian Stadium cxxxix. Jola'idas, Argive Stadium cxl. Zopyrus, Syracusan Stadium cxli. Dorotheus, Rhodian Stadium cxlii. Crates, Alexandrian Stadium Carus, Elean, both in wrestling and in the Pancratium, con- * This is the second time in which batur victoria quam quis in quatuor illis the word irepioSoviKrig occurs, the first sacris certaminibus adeptus esset, qui. ita having been under Olym. 118. It is vicisset periodum vicisse dioebatur." This strange that I can find no notice of this explanation the Milan editors adopt word in Hesychius, Suidas, ^milius Por- (Euseb. Chron. Can. lib. i. p. 152, note .'5.) tus, or any other lexicographer I have been In the present case, Cleoxenus was not only able to consult, excepting Hedericus. He victor in the contest of the csestus suc- defines it, " Periodical victor, or one who cessively in the Olympian, P3'thian, Isth- conquers in all kinds of games." Constan- mian, and Nemean games, but also escaped tinus says more accurately (voce TnpioSog"), unwounded in all of them, " In gymnicis certaminibus irepiodog dice- 28 THE OLYMPIADS. [PART I. quers after Hercules, and is enregistered as the second from Hercules. [The Armenian reads, " in the stadium and the pancratium;" but this is a manifest error, since Crates con quered in the stadium. Gr. kuI ndXrjv Kai irayKpanov] cxliii. Heraclitus, Samian Stadium cxliv. Heraclides, Salaminian Stadium [Armenian adds, " From the Island of Cyprus"] cxlv. Pyrrhias, .ZEtolian Stadium In the boxing of boys, Torchus [Gr. Moschus] the Colopho- nian. The only victor in the circle of Boys. [Gr. Movoq iraiSiKiiv irepioSov.] The Pancratium of boys was added, and Phaedimus the Alexandrian conquered. cxlvi. Micion, Boeotian Stadium cxlvii. Agemachus, Cyzicene Stadium In wrestling, Clitostratus or Clistostratus [Gr. KXsooTparog. Mil. Ed. KXeiroc. Venice Ed.] the Rhodian ; who conquered only by grasping or twisting the neck. [Gr. og rpaxtiXiZmv diTEXaiitavtv] * cxlviii. Arcesilaus [Gr. AKEjiXaoe], Megalopolitan Stadium cxlix. Hippostratus, Seleucian. [Armenian adds, from Pieria] Stadium cl. Onesicratus, Salaminian Stadium cli. Thymelus, Aspendian Stadium clii. Democrates, Megarean Stadium cliii. Aristandrus, Lesbian. [Armen. adds, ex Antissa] Stadium cliv. Leonidas, Rhodian, victor in the triple contest.f [Gr. Tpiaarrjg, rendered in the Milan version, triplici in certamine victor; in the Venice Armenian Version, Triplicator] Stadium civ. The same, the second time Stadium clvi. The same, the third time Stadium Aiistosenes [Mil. ed. Aristoxenus] the Rhodian, the. third from Hercules both in wrestling and in the Pancratium. The name of the victor is wanting in Greek, and ttoXi/v, wrestling, in the Armenian ; but both are obviously to be supplied clvii. The same Leonidas, the fourth time. This was the first and only one who received twelve Olympic crowns in four olympiads. clviii. Orthon, Syracusan Stadium clix. Alcimus, Cyzicene Stadium " Suidas quotes this passage, but does and smite the neck as the Pancratiastse not explain it. His editor, the learned were wont to do. Kuster, thinks it corrupt or mutilated, and + I infer from Suidas(vooe rpiax^iivai), gives it, he says, the best interpretation he that rpiaar^g means, one who conquered can- "qui adversariorum coUa obtorquere in all the three courses, the Stadium the solebat"— who was in the habit of wrench- Diaulum, and the Doliclmm— the course ing the necks of his antagonists. Constan- the double course, and the quadruple tinus interprets it, "Cervicem casdere et course. ferire, ut solent Pancratiastae" — to beat CHAP. lJ THE OLYMPIADS. 29 clx. .Anodorus [Gr. ' A.vdiSoxog'], Cyzicene Stadium clxi. Antipater, Epirote Stadium clxii. Damon, Delphian Stadium olxiii. Timotheus, Trallian Stadium clxiv. Boiotus, Sicyonian Stadium clxv. Acusilaus, Cyrenean Stadium clxvi. Chrysogonus, Nicene Stadium clxvii. The same, the second time Stadium clxviii. Nicomachus, Philadelphian Stadium clxix. Nicodemus, Lacedemonian Stadium clxx. Simmeus, Seleucian from the Tigris Stadium clxxi. Parraeniscus, Corcyrean Stadium clxxii. Eudamus, Coan Stadium Protophanes the Magnesian in wrestling and the pancra tium the fourth from Hercules. [Arm. adds, Magnesian ad Maeandrum Mil. ex Menandra. Ven.] clxxiii. Parmeniscus, Corcyrean, the second time Stadium clxxiv. Demostratus, Larissean. [The Greek is here wanting] Stadium clxxv. Stadium of boys, and Epaenetus the Argive conquered. For the men did not contend, because Sylla had called them all to Rome. clxxvi. Dion, Cyparissean Stadium clxxvii. Hecatomnus, Elean Stadium clxxviii. Diodes, Hypepenean Stadium Stratonicus, the son of Corovagus [Gr. Coragus] the Alex andrian, in wrestling and the pancratium the fifth from Hercules. At Neraea, on the same day, he received four crowns of boys and bearded men.* [Thus far the Greek and Armenian ; but the Armenian adds a passage variously rendered in the two editions, and to me unintelligible. I therefore add them both without translation. The Veilice Edition reads : " gymnicis peractis certaminibus sine equitatione; idque per gratias accidit, sive ad amicos, sive ad reges soribere; unde neque usum (vel equitationem) fieri arbitrati sunt." The Milan Edition renders the Armenian thus: "Et gymnica certamina sine equo peragens, gratia amicorum vel regum adseoutus est ut in Album referretur : quare nee egisse Olympiadem putabatur."] clxxix. Andreas, Lacedemonian Stadium clxxx. Andromachus, Lacedemonian [Gr. Ambraciote] Stadium clxxxi. Lamachus, Tauromenite Stadium clxxxii. Anthestion, Argive Stadium Marion the son of Marion, Alexandrian, in wrestling and the pancratium, the sixth from Heicules * Gr. dytvut/)v, beardless. " Imberbium," 30 THE OLYMPIADS. [pART I. clxxxiii. Theodorus, Messenian Stadium Julius Caesar became monarch of the Romans. clxxxiv. The same Theodorus, the second time. Augustus reigned over the Romans. clxxxv. Ariston, Thurian. [Arm. Thodensis] Stadium clxxxvi. Scamandrus, Alexandrian. [Arm. adds, from Troy] Stadium clxxxvii. Ariston, Thurian, the second time Stadium clxxxviii. Sopater, Argive Stadium clxxxix. Asclepiades, Sicyonian. [Gr. Sidonian] Stadium cxc Auphidius, Patrian [Gr. HarpttiE] Stadium cxci. Diodotus, Tyanean Stadium cxcii. Diophanes, .ilolian Stadium cxciii. Artesidorus [Gr. Artemidorus], Thyatirian Stadium cxciv. Dimatrus [Gr. Demaratus], Ephesian Stadium cxcv. The same, the second time cxcvi. Pasenes [Gr. Pammenes] Magnesian from the Maeander Stadium cxcvii. Asiaticus, Halicarnassian Stadium cxcviii. Diophanes, Prusaean [Arm. adds, from Olympia] Stadium Aristeas, the Stratonician or the Maeandrian, in wrestling and the pancratium, the seventh from Hercules. Tiberius reigned over the Romans. cxcix. .Sschines the Milesian, the son of Glaucia Stadium The course of horses is renewed, and the four-horse chariot (Ti^piTTTrov) of Tiberius Caesar conquers. cc Polemon, Petraean Stadimn cci. Damas, Cylonian [Gr. Damasias, Cydoniates] Stadium ccii. Hermogenes, Pergamenian Stadium cciii. Apollonius, Epidaurian Stadium cciv. Sarapion, Alexandrian Stadium Nicostratis, Argian ["Apysarije] in wresUiug and the pan cratium, the eighth from Hercules. After him there hath been no one from Hercules to our times, the Eleans having neglected to give the crown even to those who excel in strength. Caius reigned over the Romans. ccv. Eubulidas, Laodicean Stadium Claudius reigned over the Romans. ccvi. Valerius, Mitylenean Stadium ccvii. Athenodorus, Mgix&n Stadium xcviii. The same, the second time Stadium Nero reigned over the Romans. ccix. Callicles, Sidonian Stadium ccx. Athenodorus, jEgiaean Stadium ccxi. This olympiad was not celebrated, Nero having postponed it till he could be present. But it was celebrated two years after. In the stadium, Tryphon the Philadelphian con- CHAP. I.] THE OLYMPIADS. 31 ccxui. ccxiv. ccxvi. ccxvii. ccxviii. ccxix. ccxx. ccxxi. ccxxii. ccxxiii. ccxxiv. ccxxv. ccxxvi. ocxxvii. ccxxviii. ccxxix. ccxxx. ccxxxi. ccxxxii. ccxxxm. ccxxxiv. ccxxxv. ccxxx vi. ccxxxvii. quered. Nero was crowned by the heralds, because he conquered the tragic and lyric poets, and in the race of pony chariots and the ten young coursers. Polites, Ceramite Vespasian reigned over the Romans. Rhodon, or Theodorus, Cymaean Straton, Alexandrian Titus reigned over the Romans. Hermogenes, Xanthian Domitian reigned over the Romans. ApoUophanes, who is also called Papes [Arm. Patis], Tarsian Hermogenes, Xanthian, the second time ApoUinus [Gr. Apollonius], Alexandrian, or Heliodorus Stephanus, Cappadocian Nerva reigned over the Romans, after whom Trajan. Achilles [Arm. Chilleus], Alexandrian Theonas, also called Smaragdus, Alexandrian Callistus, Sidetes Horses again run. Eustolus, Sidetes Isarion, Alexandrian Adrian reigned over the Romans. Aristeas, Milesian Dionysius Samaeus [Gr. Aioviaiog 'Offa/ttw/iic] Alexandrian The same, the second time Lucas, Alexandrian Epidaurus, also called Ammonius, Alexandrian Antoninus Pius reigned over the Romans. Didymus Clideus [Gr. AtSviiog ] Alexandrian Cranaus, Sicyonian Atticus, Sardian In the Pancratium enrolled by the Eleans, he was crowned by Dionysius, the son of Seleucius. Such is the Armenian, but the Greek is very different. " Socrates in wrestling and the pancratium, being enregis tered by the Eleans, was prevented from receiving the crown, or defrauded of the crown (napetpaptv^^]) by Dionysius the Seleucian." The name of Socrates is omitted in the Arme nian ; and after the name of Atticus, instead of Sardianus it. reads Vardianus Demetrius, Chian Heras, Chian Mnasibulus, Elatean, [Gr. 'EpartAs] Verus and Antoninus reigned over the Romans. Aithales, Alexandrian Eudaemon, Alexandrian Stadium StadiumStadium Stadium StadiumStadium Stadium Stadium StadiumStadium Stadium Stadium Stadium StadiumStadium StadiumStadium Stadium StadiumStadiumStadium StadiumStadium Stadium StadiumStadium 32 THE OLYMPIADS. [PART I. ccxxxviii. Agathopus [Gr. AinviTt,g or Aiyivr,Trts, as corrected by Sca liger], ^ginean Stadium ccxxxix. The same, the second time. Comodus reigned over the Romans. ccxi. Anubion, also caUed Phidus, Alexandrian Stadium ccxli. Heron, Alexandrian Stadium ccxlii. Magnus, Lybian, Cyrenean. [Gr. Magnes Cyi-enean.] Stadium ccxliii. Sidoms, caUed also Artemidorus [Gr. Isidorus], Alexandrian Stadium Pertinax, and then Severus, reigned over the Romans. ccxliv. The same, the second time. ccxlv. Alexander, Alexandrian Stadium ccxlvi. Epenicus [Gr. Epinicius], the Cyzicene, who is also caUed Cynas Stadium ccxlvii. Satuminus, Cretian. [Gr. Saropviog Ven. XaropvCXog Mil. Gortynian] Stadium Antoninus Caracallus, Ven. Antoninus Bassianus, MU. reigned over the Romans. ccxlviii. Heliodorus, who is also called Trosidamas, Alexandrian Stadium ccxlix. The same, the second time Thus far, we have found the Register of the Olympiads. § III. — Having thus shown at what period of the solar year the Olympic Games were celebrated, and given an authentic register of the olympiads, from the first to the two hundredth and forty-ninth, a period of 996 years, we proceed now, in the third section, to show the method by which these ancient dates are adjusted to the modern computation of time. This is done partly by historic tes timony, and partly by astronomical computation. And first, as to historic testimony. A small book, written by the grammarian Censorinus, in the year of the vulgar tera 238, has come down to our times, in which, under the modest title of "The Birth-day," he discusses many points of great Importance, and, especially, exhibits uncommon accuracy in the adjustment of dates. It was printed for the first time at Bologna, in 1497 ;* afterwards at Venice, by Aldus, in 1581 ; at Leyden, by Llndenbrog, in 1642, reprinted with additional notes at Cambridge in 1695 ; at Leyden, "¦ In the library of Count Boutourlin, the type to have been printed at Venice, at Florence, there is, or was, a copy of by Beruardinus de Vitalibus. See Cata- Censorinus, marked in the catalogue 684, logue de la Bibl. de S. E. le Comte D. without date, which may possiblj' be older Boutourlin par Mr. Audin. Florence, than the Bologna edition. It appears from 1831. CHAP. I-J THE OLYMPIADS. by Havercamp, in 1743, reprinted, or with a new title page, in 1767 ; and, finally, at Nuremberg, by Gruber, In 1805. From this work we proceed to give a translation of the twenty-first chapter, according to the Cambridge edition. Caput XXI. Nunc vero id intervallum tera- poris tractabo, quod iaTopiKov Varro appellat. Hie enim tria discrimina temporum esse tradit. Primum, ab hominum principio ad cataclysmum priorem : quod propter ignorantiam vocetur ct^jj- Xoj'. secundum, a cataclysmo priore ad olympiadem primam ; quod quia in eo multa fabulosa referuntur, /ivBiKov nominatur : tertium, k prima olympiade ad nos, quod dicitur iaropiKov, quia res in eo gestae veris historiis con- tinentur. Primum tempus, sive habuit initium, sive semper fuit, certe quot annorum sit non potest comprehend! : secundum non plane quidem scitur, sed tameu- ad mille circiter et do annos esse creditur, a priore scilicet cata clysmo, quern Ogygium dicunt, ad Inachi regnum, anni circiter cccc. bine ad Olympiadem pri mam pauUo plus cccc* Quo.s solos, quamvis mythici temporis postremos, tamen quia k memoria scriptorum proximos, quidam cer- tius definire voluerunt. Et qui dem Sosibius scripsit esse cccxcv. Eratosthenes autem, septem et cccc. Timaeus ccccxvii. Are tes DXiiii. et priBterea multi di- I come now to treat of that interval of time which Varro calls historic. For he states that there are three divisions of time ; the first from the beginning of mankind to the former deluge, which on account of our igno rance may be called obscure ; the se cond, from the former deluge to the first olympiad, which, because many fabulous things are related in it, may be Qo^A&di. fabulous i the third, from the first olympiad to our days, which is called historic, because the transactions in it are contained in true histories.. The first time, whether it had a be ginning or was everlasting, certainly cannot be comprehended by us, as to. the number of its years. The second, though not plainly known, is believed to have been about sixteen hundred years ; that is, from the former deluge, called the deluge of Ogyges, to the reign of Inachus, about 400 years, thence to the first Olympiad, a little more than 400.* These alone, though the last of the fabulous period of time, some have wished to define with greater accuracy, only because they were nearer to the memory of histo rians. In particular, Sosibius hath written that they were 395 years, but Eratosthenes, 407; Timreus, 417; Aretes, 514 ; and many others diffe- * The text is here evidently incorrect. 34 THE OLYMPIADS. [part 1. verse, quorum etiam ipsa dissen- sio incertum esse declarat. De tertio autem tempore fuit quidem ahqua inter auctores dissensio, in sex septemve tantummodo annis versata. Sed hoc, quodcumque • caliginis, Varro discussit ; et pro caetera sua sagacitate, nunc diver- sarum civitatium conferens tem- pora, nunc defectus, eorumque intervalla retro dinumerans, eruit verum, lucemque ostendit, per quam numerus certus non anno rum modo, sed et dierum perspici possit. Secundum quam ratio- nem, nisi fallor, hie annus, cujus velut index et titulus quidam est, Ulpii et Pontiani consulatus, ab Olympiade prima millesimus est et quartus decimus, ex diebus duntaxat aestivis, quibus agon Olympicus celebratur, a Roma autem condita dccccxci, et qui dem ex Parilibus, unde urbis anni numerantur. Eorum vero anno rum, quibus JuHanis nomen est, ccLxxxiii, sed ex die Kai. Jan. unde Julius Cassar anni a se con- stituti fecit principium. At eo rum, qui vocantur anni Augus- torum ccLxv, perinde ex Kai. Jan. quamvis ex ante diem deci- mum sextum Kai. Februarii Im- perator Caesar, D.F.* sententia L. Munatii Planci, a Senatu, ca?terisque civibus, Augustus ap- pellatus est, se vii, et M. Vipsa- nio Agrippa iii. Coss. Sed iEgyptii, quod biennio ante in po- rently. The very disagreement of these writers shows that the matter itself is uncertain. Concerning the third period of time, there was also some disagreement among authors, turning, however, upon six or seven years only. But this obscurity, what ever it was, Varro dissipated; and with his usual sagacity, at one time comparing the computations of time of different nations, at another, count ing backward the eclipses and their intervals, he has detected the truth, and exhibited a light by which the certain number, not of years only, but also of days, may be clearly seen. According to which computation, if I mistake not, this year, of which the index and title is the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus, is the thou sand and fourteenth from the first Olympiad, at least from the summer season in which the Olympic contest is celebrated ; from the building of Rome the 991st, that is from the pari- lia (April 21) whence the years of the city are reckoned ; but of those years to which the name of Julian is given the 283rd, reckoning from the first of January, which Julius Caesar made the beginning of the year constituted by hin). Of those years which are called Augustan, the 265th, com mencing also with the first of Janu ary, although the Emperor Caesar, the son of Julius,* on the motion of L. Munatius Plancus, received the title of Augustus from the Senate and the rest of the citizens on the 16th before * D. F. stands for Divi filius, the Son of the God ; the Romans having deified Julius Ceesar. chap. 1.] THE OLYMPIADS. 35 testatem ditionemque Pop. Rom. venerunt, habent hunc Augusto- rum annum cclxvii. Nam, ut a nostris, ita ab JEgyptiis, qui dam anni in literas relati sunt, ut quos Nabonnazaru nominant, quod a primo Imperii ejus anno consurgunt, quorum hie dcccc. Lxxxvi. Item Philippi, qui ab excessu Alexandri Magni nume rantur, et ad hunc usque perducti, annos dlxh consummant. Sed horum initia semper a primo die mensis ejus sumuntur, cui apud jEgyptios nomen est Thoth. qui- que hoc anno fuit ante diem vii, Kai. Jul. cum abhinc annos cen tum, Imperatore Antonino Pio II, et Bruttio Praesente Coss. iidem dies fuerint ante diem xii Kai. August, quo tempore solet canicula in ^gypto facere exor- tum. Quare scire etiam licet, anni illius magni, qui, ut supra dictum est, et solans, et canicu- laris, et Dei annus vocatur, nunc agi vertentem annum centesi- mum.* Initia autem istorum annorum propterea notavi, ne quis eos aut ex Kai. Jan. aut ex alio aliquo tempore simili putaret jncipere; cum his conditorum voluntates, non minus diversae sint, quam opiniones philosopho- rum. Idcirco aliis a novo sole. the kalends of February (Jan. 17) in the year when he the seventh time, and M. Vipsanius Agrippa the third, were consuls. But the Egyptians consider this as the 267th of the Au gustan years, because they came under the power and dominion of the Roman people two years before. For among the Egyptians, as well as among us, certain years are used in their docu ments as dates. Such are those which they call the years of Nabcnnazar, because they begin with the first year of his reign ; of these this is the 986th. Also the years of Philip, which are counted from the death of Alexander the Great, and being brought down to this present year complete 562 years. But the begin nings of these years are always taken from the first day of that month which the Egyptians call Thoth, and which this year was on the seventh before the kalends of July (June 25) whereas, a hundred years ago, when the em peror Antoninus Pius the second time, and Bruttius Praesens, were con suls, the same days were on the twelfth before the kalends of August (July 21), at which time occurs the rising of the dog-star in Egypt. Wherefore it is evident that the current year is the hundredth of that great year which is called, as before said, both solar and canicular, and the year of God.* I * Censorinus here refers to the follovv- ing passage in the 18th chapter of his work: "Ad jEgyptiornm vero annum magnum luna non pertinet, quem Graece KvviKOV, Latine, Canicularem yocamus, propterea quod initium illius sumitur, cum primo die ejus mensis, quem vocant -lEgyp- tii Thoth, Caniculte sidus exoritur. Nam eorum annus civilis solos habet dies cccLXV, sine uUo interkalari. _ Itaque quadriennium apud eos uno circiter die minus est, quam naturale quadriennium; eoque fit, ut anno mcccclxi ad idem revol- vatur principium. Hie annus etiam r;Xto- Kog a quibusdam dicitur ; et ab aliis o Seoi iviavTog." In the present chapter be 36 THE OLYMPLLDS. [PART I. id est a bruma, aliis ab ffistivo have especially noted the begmnings solstitio, plerisque ab aequinoctio of all these years, lest any one should verno, partim ab autumno aequi- suppose them to begin on the first oi noctio, quibusdam ab ortu vergi- January or other similar time; whereas liarum, nonnuUis ab earum oc- the wills of the founders [of these ca- casu, multis a canis exortu, inci- lendars] were, in these matters, no less pere annus naturalis videtur. various than the opinions of philoso phers. To some, therefore, the natural year seems to begin with the new sun, that is, from the winter ; to others, from the summer solstice ; to many, from the vernal equinox ; and to a part, from the autumnal equinox ; to some, from the rising of the Pleiads ; to others, from their setting ; and to many, from the rising of the dog-star. This passage is the more important, because the author founds his statement on the computations of Varro. Unfortunately, the works of Varro are lost ; but the account which Censorinus here gives, plainly shows that Varro's computations were made with great care, by the collation of historic proofs, and the calculation of eclipses. Varro was the contemporary of Cicero ; and the praises bestowed upon him by the great orator, show the high estimation he was held in by his countrymen for accuracy, integrity, and learning. "We were like travellers and strangers in our own city," he exclaims to Varro, " when your books brought us home, as it were, and showed us our place and origin. You have dis closed to us the age of our country, the arrangement of times, the laws of our religion and priesthood, civil and military discipline, the position of places and countries, the names, the classifications, the operations, and the causes of all things, divine and human ; you have shed the greatest light upon our poets, and upon Latin lite rature in general."' Relying on the computations of such an author, Censorinus informs us, that the year in which he wrote, that is, the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus, was asserts that this great Egyptian Canicular year in which he vTote was the hundredth year began on the 21st of July in the from that time. year when Antoninus Pius n. and Brut- ' Cic. Acad. lib. i. 3. tins Praesens were consuls, and that the CHAP, l] the OLYMPIADS. 37 First, reckoning from the summer solstice, when the Olympic Games were celebrated, the thousand and fourteenth year from the first olympiad of Iphitus ; in other words, the second year of the 254th olympiad. He says this expressly in the eighteenth chapter: " Now among them (the Greeks) the 254th olympiad is reckoned, of which this is the second year."' Secondly, reckoning from the Parllia, or, the 21st of April, it was the 991st year of Home. Thirdly, reckoning from the kalends, or 1st day of January, it was the 283rd year of the reformed Julian calendar, of which we shall speak hereafter. Fourthly, reckoning also from the 1st of January, it was the 265th year from that in which the title of Augustus was conferred upon the emperor by, the senate and Roman people. Fifthly, the same year was, by the Egyptians, called the 267th year of Augustus, reckoning from the 1st day of their month Thoth, because they dated from the year in which they became a Roman province. Sixthly, as the Egyptians computed according to the sera of Nabonnassar, reckoning from the 1st day of Thoth, it was the 986th year of that period. Seventhly, reckoning from the 1st day of Thoth, that year completed the five hundred and sixty-second from the death of Alexander the Great ; and the 1 st day of Thoth fell on the 25th of June in the year when Censorinus wrote. But, lastly, in the year when Antonius Pius ii and Bruttius Prffisens were consuls, the 1st of Thoth fell on the 21st of July, and then commenced the great Egyptian period of 1461 years, of which the year then current was the hundredth. These particulars will serve as a key for the adjustment of ancient chronology ; but the application of it must be deferred until the several computations of time which he has thus compared have been considered. The remainder of this chapter will, there fore, be occupied in showing the adjustment derived from astro nomical computation. Diodorus Siculus states, that when Pythodorus was archon at ' Et nunc apud eos ducentesima quinquagesima quarta olympias numeratur ejusque annus hie secundus. 38 the OLYMPIADS. [PABT I. Athens, and T. Quintius and T. Menenius Agrippa consuls at Rome, the eighty-seventh olympiad was celebrated by the Eleans, in which Sophron, the Ambraciote, conquered in the stadium. He adds, in the same paragraph, that " Thucydides the Athenian, beginning his history from this time, wrote of the war carried on by the Athenians against the Lacedemonians, which is called the Peloponneslan."' If the reader now turns to the preceding list of olympiads, he win see that the Greek text accords with Diodorus in the name of the victor, and that the commencement of the Peloponneslan war is there recorded. Thucydides himself states, that the war began " when Pytho dorus had yet two months to remain archon at Athens, In the sixth month after the battle at Potideea, and In the very beginning of the spring."^ The war commenced therefore, as I have before had occasion to remark, towards the close of the first year of the 87th olympiad. " During the same summer," he elsewhere observes, " on the first day of the lunar month, for then only does it seem to be possible, there was an eclipse of the sun In the afternoon. The stars appeared, and the sun, after becoming like a moon, recovered its splendour."^ AU this is verified by astronomical calculation. The eclipse took place in the 4283rd year of the Julian period,* on Wednesday the third day of August ; and the moon changed at Athens one minute and three seconds after three o'clock In the afternoon. A little more than eight digits were covered by the shadow, and the eclipse continued two hours and eleven minutes. Eighty-six whole olym piads, or 344 years, had preceded, and the first year of the eightv- seventh olympiad, ending about the last of June preceding the eclipse. Deducting, therefore, these 345 years from 4283, It brings the beginning of the first olympiad to about the first of July In the year 3938 of the Julian period. _ ' Biblioth. lib. xii. sect. 37. Ed. Wesse- of the Hebrew Bible. It was produced by ling, torn. i. p. 502. multiplying the lunar into the solar cycle, * Hist. lib. ii. 2. and these again by the cycle of the indic- ' lb. lib. ii. 28. tions, thus: 19 x 28 X If) = 7980. The * The Julian period is a fictitious aera, first year of Christ, according to the invented by Joseph Scaliger, to serve as a Dionysian or common aera, was the 4714th general measure of time, because it em- year of this period. A fuller account of braces a longer period than the duration the Julian period will be given in its of the world according to the chronology proper place. CHAP, l] the OLYMPIADS. 39 Thucydides mentions another solar eclipse, which took place just at the beginning of the eighth year of the Peloponneslan war.' This, by astronomical calculation, Is found to have been on Wednesday the 2ist of March, in the year 4290 of the Julian period. If the war began In the spring preceding the second year of the eighty-seventh olympiad, then the seventh year ended, and the eighth began, In the spring preceding the eighty-ninth olympiad; and the solar eclipse, being on the 21st of March, was more than three months before the expiration of the fourth year of the eighty- eighth olympiad, that is (88x4=352) before the close of the 352nd year. This sum being subtracted from 4290, gives 3938 as the beginning of the olympiads. In perfect accordance with this computation. Is the fact men tioned In the fifth book of his history, that early In the twelfth year of the war, a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, was entered into by .the Athenians, Arglves, Eleans, and Mantineans. One of its articles was, that the Athenians should renew their oaths at Ells, Mantlnea, and Argos, thirty day's before the Olympic Games; and another, that the transactions should be recorded on a pillar of stone, and a brazen pillar be erected at Olympia, at the common expense, 'OXvfiTrwig rols wvi, during the Olympic Games now to talce place. He then adds : " The Olympics were celebrated this summer, at which Androsthenes the Arcadian conquered the first time in the pancratium." ^ If the eighth year of the war began in the spring preceding the eighty-ninth olympiad, then the twelfth year of the war began in the spring preceding the ninetieth olympiad. Diodorus Siculus states, that " when Aristophulus was archon of Athens, and Lucius Quintius and Aulus Sempronius were consuls at Rome, the Eleans celebrated the ninetieth olympiad, in which Hyperbius the Syra cusan conquered in the stadium."^ This agrees with the register given by Eusebius ; but, in that register, the Pancratlan victor is not usually named, unless when, like Hercules, he had previously conquered in wrestling. Pausanias incidentally mentions Andros thenes as having been twice the pancratiastes, or victor in the pancratium;'' and here Thucydides states that he conquered the ' Lib. ir. 52. ' Lib. v. 40-49. ' Biblioth. lib. xii. sec. 77. Ed. Wess. tom. i. p. 532. ' Lib. vi. cap. vi. Lipsise, 1696, p. 465. 40 the OLYMPIADS. [PART I. first time at the 90th olympiad. This olympiad then took place about four years and three months after the last mentioned eclipse, consequently at the end of June or beginning of July In the year 4294 of the Julian period. Eighty-nine solid olympiads, or (89 X 4) 356 solid years had preceded it. Deducting these from 4294, we obtain the same result, — that the first olympiad was celebrated the last of June or beginning of July a.j.p. 3938. Thucydides further mentions a very remarkable lunar eclipse in the nineteenth year of the Peloponneslan war. The Athenians, under NIcIas, were preparing to embark by night, near Syracuse, when at the very moment of being ready to sail they were terrified, and Induced to abandon their purpose, by an eclipse of the moon.' The disastrous consequences of this delay to Nicias and the Athenians, caused Plutarch to make this eclipse the subject of much reflection In his life of Niclas. It is also mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, who places it in the fourth year of the 91st olympiad, when Cleocritus was archon of Athens.^ By the astronomical tables for that meridian, It began at Syracuse a little after ten o'clock p.m., lasted three hours and forty-eight minutes, and ended at nearly two o'clock in the morning of August 28th in the year 4301 of the Julian period. There were fifteen digits eclipsed; so that we need not wonder at the consternation it pro duced, or the notice taken of it by ancient historians. If the first year of the Peloponneslan war coincided with the year 4283 of the Julian period, then, by adding eighteen solid years [42fe3-t-18=i:4301] we are brought to the 4301st year as being the nineteenth; and if it was in the fourth year of the 9 1st olympiad, then 90 X 4 -f- 3 ^ 363 will give the number of solid years which preceded it. These subtracted from 4301, give the year 3938 of the Julian period as the first year, reckoning from midsummer, of the first olympiad. And as the first of January of the year 4714 of the Julian period coincides with the beginning of the common Christian aera, by subtracting 3938 from that number, it appears that the first olympiad commenced in the 776th year before Christ, according to the com putation of time now in use. I have been the more particular in exhibiting the proofs con cerning the date of the first olympiad, because It is in fact, as 'Lib. vii. 50. ' Bibl. lib. xiii. sec. 12. Ed. Wess. tom. i. p. 551. CHAP. lJ THE OLYMPIADS. 41 Petavius calls It, the torch-light of ancient history. For the more complete satisfaction, therefore, of the scientific reader, I conclude the present chapter by copying from Petavius the calculations of the several eclipses therein mentioned.' ®15. Calculus NovUunii ecUptici^ quod contigit anno Periodi JuUaniz 4283, anni belli Peloponnesiaci, ut refert Tliucyd. lib. ii. anno mundi 3553. Aureus Numerus VIII. Cyelus Soils XXVII. B. Novilunium medium Lutetise contigit August! in. feria iv. hora 8, 52' 40". Athenis hora 10, 44' 40" ad quod tempus iequales motuS isti coUiguntur. Longit. Soils. o. , 6 14 Anom. Solis. 5 18 52 Anom. Lunse. s. G. , 2 19 55 Motus latit. s. G. , „ 5 22 34 42 Prosthaphjeresis \^^^ \ ff 52' g } Differentia 3 2' 24" Temp. hor. 5 59' 26" Anomalia 5Lunae2 23 11' 1" I Solis 2 5 33 38 Prosth. 4 55' 13" Prosth. 1 50 6 ^Diff. 3 5' 11" Hora 6 4' 38" Novilunium verum Augusti m. feria 4, hora 16, 49' 18" Athenis. Medius locus tempore verse conjunctio- nis, Sign. 4 6 28' 56". Verus locus Sign. 4 4 38' 50" Subtra- henda itaque 9' 28", ut sit novilunium ve rum physico tempore hora 16 39' 38". Parallaxis ( Longitudinem 34' 37" Athenis in t Latitudinem 37 27 Motus horarius verus 30' 8". Ita Scrupula 34' 30" conficit. Apparens ergo Novilunium hora 17 48' 38". _ „ . J , .. fLongitudinis 36' 13" Parallaxis ad tempus apparentis^j^^j-f^^^i^ij 4^ 23 Differentia parallaxeon longitudinis 1' 36" auferenda de priore. Igitur Scrupula 33' 0" apparente motu Luna peragrat spatio unius horae, et sorup. 9'. Unde scrupula 35' 0" pereurret intervaUo hora, 1 13' O". Asoensio veri loci Sign. 4 6' 59" ad quse, quoniam novilunium Athenis meridie posterius est horis 4 40', gradus adjiciendi sunt 70. Ascensio recta meridianas sectionis Sign. 6 16' 59", in Librae gradu 18 24'. Altitude solis 26 24'. Angulus longitu dinis 42 44'. Latitudinis 47 16' Luna spatio horse 1 9'. Novilunium visum Athenis hora 17 52' 38". Motus latitudinis persequatus ad tempus apparentis, Sign. 5 26 30' 35". Ajiomalia Lunae cosequata, 2 23 47' 45". Prosthaph. 4 55' 39" s. C Lunae 13' 31" Verus motus latitudinis Sign. 5 21 35'. Latitude vera 43' 37" borea. Deducta parallaxi de vera latitudine, restat apparens 2' 15". Semidiametri (Solis 15 26 Summa<28'49" Ergo, Detracta apparenti latitudine de summa semidiametrorum restant 26' 34", DIGITI ECLIPTICI 10 25. Quadratum semidiametrorum Solis et Lunse 2989441") pjg'gj.entia 2971216" Qaudratum latitudinis apparentis . _. 18225 J _ Radix quadrata 1722', sive 28' 42" quaa sunt incidentias scrupula. Parallaxis una circiter hora ante apparentem synodum est 34' 30". Sub apparentem vero, 36'. Differentia est 2' 0", quss detracta de motu horario vero, qui est 30' 8", relinquit mo- tum apparentem horarium 28' 0". Ergo tempus incidentiae est horae i. ferS. Paraflaxis ad horam i. post apparentem minuitur, estque scrupul. 35'. Differentia 1', quoad motum horarium verum adden dum est : ut sit scrupulorum 32' 8" motus horarius apparens. Ita scrupula emersio- nis 27' 35", peragrantur hora 0 54' 15". ' See De Doc. Temp. Lib. viii. cap. 13, ed. Ant. 1703, fol. tom. i. pp. 491-3. 6 42 THE OLYMPIADS. [part L Initium eclipsis visae Athenis, hora 16 53' 38'' Medium .... hora 17 52 38 iPost mediam Finis hora 18 47 53 ( noctem. Duratio .... hora 1 54 15 Occidit Sol Athenis hora post meridiem 7. Ergo quadrante circiter ante occasum, Sol penitus emersit. Examen Novilunii eclipticL Distat apparens a vera syzygia hora 114' 0". Parallaxis ad tempus apparentis est 36' 13". Motus horarius verus est 30' 8". Igitur hora 1 14' dant scrupula fere 37'. ^16. Calculus Novilunii ecUptici, quod ineidit anno Periodi Juliance 4290, anno octavo belli Peloponnesiaci Aureus Numerus XV. Cyelus Solis VI. G. Novilunium medium Lutetise contigit Martii xxi. feria 4, hora post mediam noctem 21 5', Athenis hora 22 57'. Ad quod tempus hi motus asquales sunt. Longit. Solis. s. G. , „ 11 22 59 17 Anom. Solis. s. G. , „ 9 21 57 21 Anom. Lunae. s. G. , „ 1 6 53 12 Motus latitu. s. G. , „ 5 17 35 37 ¦o VI. I. • ( Solis 2 55' 17" s ) Prosthaphaeresis j^nn^ i 52 17 aJ Summa 4 27' 34" Tempus horse 9 26' . r (Solis 9 22 20 36 Anomalia ^-^ , , „ , , „ (Lunae 1 12 1 19 Prost. 1 52 0 A Prost. 3 15 42 S Summa 5 7 42 Horae 10 6 a Novilunium exactum Martii xxi. feria 4, hora 9 3' a media nocte. Medius Solis locus 11 23 24' 59". Solis locus verus in gradu 25 16' 59" Piscium. Ob sequationem dierum subtrahuntur Parallaxis ad tempus ver.{l;°[;|i',fjf Motus horarius varus est 28'. Itaque scrupula 15', exigunt hor. 0 32'. T> ,1 • . ... (Longitudinem 19' 17" ParaUaxis tempore apparentis m|L^ti»„^„g^ „ ^^ Differentia parallaxeon longitudinis ad I Ergo scrupul. 1 5' exigunt horam 0 44'. tempus verse et apparentis, 4'. | Novilunium apparens hora 8 17' 24'. Parallaxis denu6<^°"Situdinis 22' 0" Jr-arauaxis aenuo^j^^jjj^^jjjj^ 48 14 serupulal 36',utsitNoviluniumbor.9 1'24". Ascensio recta veri loci. Sign. 11 25 40' antecedit meridiem horis 3. Deductis ergo grad. 45, remanet ascen sio meridianae sectionis in Sign. 10 10 40', id est Aquarii gradu S 14' 15' 0" 44 30 Apparens conjunctio bora 8 29' 24", post mediam noctem die; xxi Martii. Motus latitudinis peraequatus ad tempus apparentis est 5 22 50' 56". Motus verus 5 19 35' 11". Latitudo vera 53' 54". Detracta parallaxi, fit ap parens latitudo 5' 40" borea. Semidiametri i^^^^ Jg' ^fiSiimma 28' 20" Deducta apparenti latitudine de summa semidiametrorum, restant 22' 40". DIGlfl ECLimici. 9. Quadratum summse semidiametrorum 2890000") T\-a? i- «>....„»» - - J jggQQ ^Differentia 2774400" Quadratum latitudinis apparentis Eadix differentiae 1665", sive 27' 45". Parallaxis una hora ante apparentem major est ea, quse tempore apparentis ex- stitit, scrupul. 4'. At una post apparen tem hora minor est scrup. 8'. Itaque mo tus horarius apparens ante oppositionem apparentem est 24': post apparentem 20'. Proinde incidentia postulat horam 1 10'. Emersio horam 1 24 . CHAP. I.J THE OLYMPIADS. 43 Initium defectionis Athenis . . hora 7 7' 24"^ Medium hora 8 17 24 >• Post mediam nociem. Einis hora 9 41 24 ) Duratio hora 2 34 0 ©8. Calculus Plenilunii ecliptici, quod anno Periodi Juliance i30\, Mundi 3571, contigit, belli Peloponnesiaci XIX. Aureus numerus vii. Cyelus Solis xvil. A. G. Plenilunium medium Lutetise Augusti xxviii. feria 3, hora 10 58' 27" accidit. Syracusis vero hora 12 1' 27" ad quod tempus hi motus sequales eruuntur. Longit. Solis. 1 35 33 Anom. Solis. 0 21 52 Anom. Lunse. s. G. , „ 8 29 56 55 Motus latitud. 7 27 28 Prosthaphffiresis \^^^^ 4 gf If l\ Summa 7 1' 5" Tempus horse 13 49' s Anomalia 5 Solis 2 29 47' 49" (Lunse 8 22 25 37 Prosth. 2 2' 40" s Prosth. 4 56 54 A Sum. 6 59' 34" Hor. 13 46' s Plenilunium verum Syracusis Augusti xxvn, feria 2, hora post mediam noctem 22 15' 27". Medius Solis locus tempore verse Sign. 5 1 1' 38 . Verus locus 4 28 58' 54". Subtrahenda itaque de tempore Novilunii veri scrupula 8' 36": ut fiat apparenti tempore hora 22 6' 51 '. Semidiametri {^Xr^ J^' ifjSumma 61' 18" Motus latitudinis medius ad verse tempus Sign. 11 29 52' 9". Verus Motus Sign. 0 4 47' 3". Latitudo Lunse, 24' 51".^^ Differentia latitudinis, et summse semidiametrorum 36' 42". Ergo, DIGITI ECLIPTICI 13 ferS. Quadratum semidiametrorum 13527684"! pjfferentia 11304603". Quadratum latitudinis est 2223081 J Badix 3362", sive 56' 2". . v, , ^=' Motus horarius verus est scrupul. 31'. Ergo scrupula 67 peragrat hora 1 48 . Tanta est incidentia cui par est emersio. „„,,„„ . , , occq^o^ " Differentia semidiametrorum umbrae et Lunse, 27' 12", cujus quadratum 2663424. Differentia huius et quadrati latitudinis 440343". Eadix differentia; 663 , sive 113. Tanta est mora dimidia, cui quidem ratione motus horarn ven tribuuntur scrupula horaria 21' 20". Tota ergo mora tenuit horam 0 42' 40". ^^ hora 8 27 27 \ bora 10 15 27 hora 11 55 27 post meridiem. hora 9 54 7 hora 10 35 47, horam 0 42 40 boras 3 20 0 Examen calculi vera Oppositionis. a. G. , „ Medius locus solis - - • . 5 1 1 38 Initium defectionis . Medium Einis Obscurari tota coepit Morari in umbra desiit Mora Integra tenuit Eclipsis vero tota Media Lunse distantia Medius Lunae locus Prosthaphaeresis Lunae Verus Lunse locus Locus Solis verus . Residuum 5 23 0 27 A. 10 24 2 5 0 4 66 54 A. 10 28 58 59 4 28 58 58 s. 6 0 0 1 44 [part l CHAPTER II. TEAE IN WHICH ROME WAS EOUNDED. DifSculty from the disagreement of ancient authors. — Testimony of the Greek histo rians — ^Dionysius of Halicamassus, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch. — Testimony of the Latin historians. — ^Eragments of Fabitis Pictor, Livy, VeUeius Paterculus, Eutropius. — All the discordant dates reduced to two. — ^Illustrated by a table. — ^Preference given to the computation of Varro. Following the order of Censorinus, we come now to consider In what year Rome was founded. And here we are met by a diflS- culty which does not exist with regard to the olympiads; for we find ancient authors of acknowledged authority disagreeing In their testimony. Dionysius of Halicamassus, who flourished about the time of our Saviour's birth — for he published his history In the 193rd olympiad, — speaks thus of the conflicting opinions of more ancient authors: " Tlmseus the Sicilian, using I know not what measure of time, asserts that Its foundation was contemporaneous with that of Carthage, in the thirty-eighth year before the first olympiad. Lucius Cinclus, on the other hand, a man of senatorial dignity, asserts that it was founded about the fourth year of the twelfth olympiad [and Quintus Fablus, In the first year of the eighth olympiad.]* But Porclus Cato, though he defines it by no Greek computation of time, yet, being second to no one as a careful col lector of archffiological history, afifirms that it took place In the 432nd year after the destruction of Troy. This date, being measured by the chronographical tables of Eratosthenes, coincides with the first year of the seventh olympiad. That the canons * The passage enclosed in brackets is reads, by an evident error, Erintus Eabius. not in the editions of Dionysius; but it is See the Milan edition of the Chronicon of preserved by Eusebius, and is found also Eusebius, p. 208, and the Venice edition, in the Vatican manuscript of Dionysius. vol. i. p. 383- The Armenian translation of Eusebius CHAP. II. ] YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. 4,'j which Eratosthenes used were sound, and ho-^v Roman dates may be adjusted to the Grecian, has been shown by me in another treatise;* for I did not see fit, like Polybius of Megalopolis, to say this only, I am persuaded that Rome was founded about the second year of the seventh olympiad, nor to adhere without examination to the sole authority of the tables of the Anchlsenses; but to submit the reasons I have advanced to all who desire to examine them. In that treatise, therefore, an accurate account was given In detail. In the present work will be stated only what Is most necessary, as follows: — "The expedition of the Gauls, when they captured the city of the Romans, took place, as all authors agree, when Pyrgion was archon of Athens, In the first year of the ninety-eighth olympiad. The time previous to this capture being carried back to Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarqulnius CoUatinus, the first consuls in Rome after the subversion of the kings, embraces one hundred and twenty years. This is evident, as well from many other sources, as from the so-called records of the censors, which are transmitted from father to son, and are highly valued as sacred inheritances. Of these censorial families there are many illustrious men who have carefully preserved them. I find in these that a census was taken by the Roman people, the second year before the capture, in which, among other things, the following date is recorded: 'Lucius Valerius Potltus, and Titus Manllus Capito- llnus being consuls, in the hundred and nineteenth year after the expulsion of the kings.' We find, therefore, that the Gallic expe dition was in the second year after the census, when one hundred and twenty years had been completed. As this interval of time contains thirty olympiads, It necessarily follows, that the first persons appointed consuls held their cflSce when Isagoras was archon of Athens, in the first year of the sixty-eighth olympiad. And if from the expulsion of the kings the time be carried up to Romulus, the first ruler of the city, it will amount to 244 years. This is evident from the succession of the kings, and the number * That treatise is now unfortunately Clemens Alexandrinus." See Note in lost "It appears from this passage," Hudson'sandEeiske'seditionsof Dionysius says Casaubon, " that Dionysius wrote and loc. cit. and Clem._ Alex. Stromat. lib. i. published on the computation of times, sec 21. Ed. Potter i. 379. His work is repeatedly mentioned by 46 YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. [pART I. of years during which each held the sovereignty. For Romulus, the founder of the city, reigned thirty'seven years. After his death the city remained without a king one year. Then Numa Pompllius, chosen by the people, reigned 43 years. ¦ Tullus Hosti- llus after Numa, 32 years. Ancus Martins, who succeeded him, 24 years. After Martins, Lucius Tarqulnius, surnamed Prisons, 38 years; and Servius TuUius, who succeeded him, 44 years. Servius being taken away, the tyrannical Lucius Tarqulnius, sur named the proud, on account of his contempt of what was just, continued to reign for 25 years. The two hundred and forty-four . years held by the kings being summed up, amounting to sixty-one olympiads, it necessarily follows that Romulus, the first ruler of the city, began to reign In the first year of the seventh olympiad, when Charopus was archon of Athens, in the first year of the decennial period. For this the computation of years requires. That each of the kings reigned so many years, has been shown by me In that treatise; but what I have now said concerning the time in which this dominant city was founded, Is partly from those who have written before me, and partly from my own researches." ' In this passage Dionysius mentions the persuasion of Polybius that Rome was founded in the second year of the seventh olympiad; and he gently censures that historian for relying too much upon certain tables preserved by the Anchlsenses. But Polybius was not alone in this opinion ; for It was held also by Diodorus Siculus, who, as he brought down his history to the time of Julius Ca3sar''s wars In Gaul, must have flourished early In the Augustan age. The passage In which he gives this opinion occurred in one of the lost books; but it is preserved in the Armenian version of the Chronicon of Eusebius, and Is as follows: " From the seventh book of Diodorus concerning the ancient origin (f th-i Romans. " Some historians, writing erroneously, have thought that Rome was founded by Romulus and his companions, who were born of a daughter of ^neas. This is not true; for in the Intervening time between JEneas and Romulus there were many kings; and we have discovered that Rome was founded In the second year of the ' Dion. Halic. Antiq. Eom. lib. i. §§ 74, 75.— Ed. Hudson, tom. i. 'p, 59. Ed. Keiske. tom. i. 187—192. CHAP, IL] YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. 47 seventh* olympiad; so that this foundation was posterior to the Trojan war more than 433 years'." Diodorus then proceeds to give an account of ..iEneas and his descendants — fifteen In number; In the course of which he men tions the number of years of each reign. He then gives the same series in the form of a table, also with the length of each reign annexed. As these numbers difier, owing perhaps to the negli gence of transcribers, both are here subjoined; together with a third list, in which the largest number in the other two Is taken, and which is proved to be correct because it accords with the con cluding summary. 1. .^neas obtained the Latin kingdom three years after the capture of Troy. In the subsequent table he says after the fourth year from the capture ofTroy • - - - - He then reigned three years 2. Ascanius his son reigned - - - - 3. Sylvius, the brother of Ascanius, succeeded him, and reigned (the Milan edition says 49 years, but in the table 28) - . . - - 4. JEneas Sylvius, the son of Sylvius, succeeded, and reigned thirty years or more ... 5. Latinus Sylvius reigned . - . . 6. Albas Sylvius his son ... 7. Epitus Sylvius -.-..- 8. Capys Sylvius ..... 9. Caipetus or Carpentus Sylvius 10. Tiberius Sylvius - ... 11. Agrippas Sylvius - _ . 12. Aramulius Sylvius .... 13. Aventius or Aventinus Sylvius 14. Procas Sylvius his son .... 15. Amulius, the younger son of Procas, usurped the throne, and reigned till he was killed by Eomulus and Eemus (the Milan edition says 43 years) Total number of years from the taking of Troy to the foundation of Rome - - - - Diodorus, as quoted by Eusebius, then proceeds as follows: "Romulus founds Rome, and reigns in the seventh olympiad. The years, therefore, from .Sineas to Romulus are 448.t But from the capture of Troy are 431 years. , Venice Edition. Milan Cor Hist. Table. Edition. rected. 3 4 3 4 3 3 3 3 38 38 38 38 29 28 49 29 30 31 30 31 50 60 50 50 38 39 38 39 26 26 26 26 28 28 28 28 13 13 13 13 8 8 8 8 41 35 41 41 19 19 19 19 37 37 37 37 23 23 23 23 42 42 43 42 428 424 449 431 * The Armenian version here reads, by an evident mistake, the third instead of the seventh olympiad. ' Syncellus (Ed. Paris, p, 194, Ed. Venet. p. 155) who has preserved only a portion of this extract, instead of 433 years, reads 430 years. It will be seen by the following computations that the text of Syncellus is the most correct. + According to the Milan edition, the whole number of years from JEneas to Romulus are 449, but in the table it agrees with the Venice edition. 48 YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. [pART L " From Romulus, who founded Rome, these kings are enu merated. i. Eomulus years xxxviii. ii. Numa Pompilius „ xli. iii. Tullus Hostilius „ xxxiii. [The Milan edition says xxx.] iv. Ancus Martins years xxxiii. v. Tarquinius „ xxxvii. vi. Servilius „ xliv. vii. Tarquinius Superbus „ xxiv. " The seven kings of the Romans who succeeded Romulus being brought down to 244 years, ended. From the taking of Troy, therefore, to Romulus were 441 years;* and together all the years are 675." ^ The Milan editor of the Armenian Eusebius is so perplexed by these numerous errors in dates, that he says he shall leave the whole Ethiopian to be washed by others. Not to engage in so useless a labour. It Is sufificient to observe that in the whole num ber of years in the reigns of the- seven kings of Rome, Diodorus agrees with Dionysius. He makes them 244 years; and these being added to 431, the number of years from the taking of Troy to Romulus, make up the whole number of years 675, as above stated. Dionysius also, on the authority of Porcius Cato, places the foundation of Rome In the 432nd year after the destruction of Troy. In other words, 431 solid years intervened. There is, therefore, no real difference between the authorities on which the two historians have founded their computations. Plutarch, in his life of Romulus, places the date of the building of Rome on the 21st of April, in the third j^ear of the sixth olympiad. " The day on which the city was founded is universally allowed to be the eleventh before the calends of May [April 21st], and it is annually celebrated as a festival by the Romans, who call It the birth-day of their country. They say that in the beginning they sacrificed no living thing, supposing that they owed It to their country to keep what was surnamed the natal feast pure and un bloody. Nevertheless, before the city was built, they had kept on that same day a pastoral feast, which they called Palilia. At pre sent, the first days of the Roman months do not coincide with the Grecian ; but that day in which Romulus founded the city is said to have happened exactly on the Trlacas or thirtieth day. It Is also said that on the same day there was an ecliptic conjunction of the moon with the sun, which, it Is supposed, Antimachus the * Instead of 441, it should evidently be ' Diod. Sic. apud Euseb. Chron. Ed. 431. Mil 210-214. Ed. Ven. tom. i. d. 386-392! CHAP. II.] YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. 49 Telan poet saw, since It took place in the third year of the SIXTH OLYMPIAD." Plutarch then proceeds to state that Varro the philosopher, who was most learned in Roman history, requested his friend Tarru- tius, who was both a philosopher and mathematician, to cast the nativity of Romulus. He found that Romulus was conceived in the first year of the second olympiad, on the twenty-third of the month called by the Egyptians Choiak, at the third hour, while the sun was totally eclipsed ; that his birth took place about sun rise on the twenty -first of the month Thoth ; and that Rome was founded by him between the second and third hour on the ninth of the month Pharmuthl."' Both Scaliger and Petavius agree that the two eclipses men tioned in this vague manner by Plutarch, are entirely fabulous ; and though many have attempted to calculate them, they have been found to be utterly irreconcilable with the accurate calcula tions of modern astronomy.^ If we proceed to the Latin historians, we find a similar diversity. Fablus Pictor, the oldest among them, is spoken of with great res pect by Cicero, Livy, Pliny, and many later writers. His works are not extant ; but in the fragments of this author annexed by Havercamp to his edition of Sallust, occurs the following passage :. " Rome was founded in the first year of the eighth olympiad." ^ Livy, when speaking of the building of the city, does not men tion any date ; but in a subsequent part of his history he intro duces this expriession : " It Is now, Romans, the three hundred and sixty-fifth year of the city." ^ It occurs In a speech attributed by the historian to Camillus, during the year in which Rome was taken by the Gauls. A little computation will show that this date- coincides -with the calculations of Dionysius. Livy states that Rome was governed by kings for two hundred and forty-four years.* The first consuls, therefore, were created in the 245th. year, which sum being dfeducted from 365, leaves 120 solid years between the expulsion of the kings and the Invasion of the Gauls. According to Dionysius, as we have seen, there was no debate as to the time of the latter event. It took place in the first year of ' Pint. Vitffl. Ed. Bryan, Lend. 1729. ' Trecentesimus scxagesimus quintus vol. i. p. 50-51. annus urbis, quirites, agitur. Lib. v. c. 64.. ' See Pet. de Doc. Temp. lib. ix. c. 50, = Eegnatum Eoma ab condita urbe, ad. and especially c. 54. liberatam, annos ducentos quadraginta. ' Anno primo octavea olynipiadis Ro- quatuor. Lib. i. c. 60. mam conditam fuisse. 7 50 YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. [pART 1. the ninety-eighth olympiad. One hundred and twenty years being deducted, which are equal to thirty solid olympiads, the date of the first consulate was, as stated by Dionysius, the first year of the sixty-eighth olympiad. Three hundred and sixty-four years had intervened from the foundation of the city until its .occupation by the G-auls. These are equal (*|-*-) to ninety-one olympiads ; and this sum subtracted from ninety-seven, leaves six solid olympiads before the foundation of the city. Velleius Paterculus addressed his history to the consul M. Vlni- clus Quartlnus ; and he determines the date both of the consulship ¦of Vinlclus, and of his writing, by saying that " Iphitus instituted the Olympic games 804 years before you, M. Vinicius, entered upon your consulship." ' The consulship of M. Vinicius was, therefore. In the 805th year from that of the first olympiad. We Iiave seen that the first olympiad is to be dated from about the first of July in the year 3938 of the Julian period. Add to this sum 804 years, and we have the year of the consulship of Vinicius A. J. p. 4742. Divide 804 by 4, and we have 201 solid olympiads. The consulship of Vinicius, therefore, was in the first year of the 202nd olympiad. But Velleius, as we shall soon see, confounded the Olympic years, beginning at the summer solstice, with the Roman, which began on the first of January. " In the sixth olympiad," continues Velleius, " two-and-twenty years after the first was instituted, Romulus, the son of Mars, having avenged the wrongs of his grandfather, founded the city of Rome, on the feast of the Parllia,* upon the Palatian hill ; from which time to you, consuls, are 783 years. That event took place 437 years after Troy was captured." ^ This author has suffered much, as to his dates, by the careless ness or presumption of transcribers. Hence there are great differ ences in the printed editions. In this passage, for example, the Editio princeps reads 823 instead of 804, and 981 for 783. The Basil edition reads 985, and the edition of Ruhnken {Leyden, 1779) ' Olympiorum initium habet auctorem because prayers were then made for the Iphitum Elium. Is eos ludos mercatumque fruitfulness of sheep. instituit ante annos quam tu, M. Vinici ' Sexta olympiade, post duo et viginti consulatum inires Dccciv. annos, quam prima constituta fuerit, * Plutarch calls this feast Palilia, and Romulus, Martis filius, ultus injurias avi, Velleius Parilia. Both are used indis- Romam urbem Parilibus in Palatio condi- criminately. It was called Palilia, or the dit, a quo tempore ad vos Coss. anni sunt feast of Pales the goddess of shepherds, DccLXxxin. Id actum, post Trojam cap- or Parilia, from parere, to bring forth, tarn annis cdxxxvii. Vel. Pat. Hist. Eom lib. i. c 8, Lips. 1800. 8to. p. 17-19. CHAP. 11. "I YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. 51 has 782. "We shall see hereafter that the consulship of Vinicius continued only for the last six months of the fourth year of the 201st olympiad, — that Is, from January to July a.j.p. 4742. On the 1st of July, L. Nsevius Surdlnus was substituted instead of M. Vinicius Quartlnus. If then Velleius Paterculus meant that the twenty-two years were fully complete and ended before the foundation of Rome, — and this I am Inclined to believe, — then its foundation took place in the third year of the sixth olympiad, or on the 21st of April a.j.p. 3961 ; and so his computation would agree with that of Varro, adopted by Plutarch. Eutropius, who lived in the time of the Constantlnes, says that Romulus founded the city when he was eighteen years old, on the 11th before the kalends of May [April 21st] in the third year of the sixth olympiad.' That modern authors should differ, when the ancient are so much at variance, is not surprising. The extremes embrace a period of eighty-six years, from the thirty-eighth year before the first olympiad to the fourth year of the twelfth, or the forty-eighth year from the first. But as Dionysius, on whose testimony only we learn these computations of Tlmseus and Lucius Cinclus, has himself rejected them, they are universally abandoned by the moderns. There remain then to be considered, A.J.P. 1 . The opinion of Velleius Paterculus, Plutarch and Eutropius, that Rome was founded April 21 Olym. vi. 3 3961 2. That advanced by Porcius Cato, according to Dionysius, and which he and Livy appear to have adopted, that Eome was founded Apr. 21 Olym. vii. 1 i 3963 3. The statement of Diodorus Siculus, as preserved by Eusebius, that Rome was founded Olym. vii. 2 8964 4. The opinion of Quintus Fabius, or Fabius Pic tor, the most ancient of the Latin historians, that it was founded Olym. viii. 1 3966 This last date of Fabius Pictor Is assumed by archbishop Ussher, in the adjustment of his chronology. He assigns no reason for this preference, unless it be the antiquity of Fabius. But Fabius lived during the second Punic war ; and Livy, who often quotes his authority In other matters, has in this paid it no regard. The statement of Diodorus Siculus Is founded on the same sources of > Eomanumlmperium-aRomuloexor- post Trojse excidium, ut qui plurimum dium habet Is cum inter Pastoresla- minimumque tradimt, trecentesimo nona- trocinaretur,octodecim annos natus, urbem gesimo quarto. Eutr. UreTiarium, Jia. exiguam in Palatine monte constituit, xi Vcrheyk. L. B. 1762, p. 1 5 Kai. Maji, olympiadis sextae anno tertio, 52 TEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. [PABT I. computation as that of Dionysius of Halicamassus, and may well be looked upon as the mistake of a year. Ascending, therefore, in our series, we come next to the compu tation of Dionysius and Livy. This, it was observed, appears to have been that Rome was founded in the first year of the seventh olympiad. It Is, however, only in appearance. In reality, both Dionysius and Livy meantthatit was founded on that 21st of April which was near the end of the fourth year of the sixth olympiad. This we shall endeavour to show from their own computations. Plutarch, in his life of Camillus,* states that the battle on the Allla between the Romans and Gauls, by which the fate of Rome was decided, " was fought when the moon was at the full, about the summer solstice." Consequently the occupation of Rome by the Gaids was at the very beginning of an Olympic year; and according to Dionysius, that year was the first of the ninety-eighth olympiad. Hence ninety-seven solid olympiads, or (97 x 4) 388 Olympic years had preceded it. Dionysius further computes back 120 years to the first consuls, equal, he says, to thirty olympiads; so that they held their office In the first year of the sixty- eighth olympiad. He e-vldently means Olympic years beginning at the summer solstice. He did not advert to the fact that the consuls had been in office nearly six months when the sixty-eighth olym piad began ; and hence that the 244 years of the kings, which he calls sixty-one olympiads, were not Olympic but Roman years. The whole ninety-one olympiads taken from ninety-seven, leave six solid olympiads or twenty-four years; but they are Olympic years, beginning and ending at the summer solstice, not Roman years, which began on the calends of January. The 244 years must be carried up to the twenty-first of April preceding the end of the sixth olympiad. Such also is the fair deduction from the speech of Camillus in Livy. " It is now, Romans, the 365th year of the city." This was spoken in the summer. The 364th year of the city had ended the preceding twenty-first of April; that is, the April preceding the 389th olympic year, more than two months before the end of the 388th Olympic year. Deducting 364 years from 388, it will follow that Rome was founded, accordmg to Livy, more than two months before the termination of the twenty-fourth year of Iphitus, or the fourth year of the sixth olympiad. Ed. Bryan, tom i. p. 304. CHAP. ILJ YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. 53 All these discordant dates may, therefore, be fairly reduced to two, — the third year of the sixth olympiad, or April 21st, a.j.p. 3961, and the fourth year of the sixth, or April 21st, a.j.p. 3962. The whole confusion arises from the difference between the Roman and Olympic years — the last six months of the third, and the first . six months of the fourth year of the sixth olympiad, and so again, the last six months of the fourth of the sixth, and the first six months of the first of the seventh, constituting each one Roman year. This will be seen and understood by the following table. 3938 B.C. 776 3939 B.C. 775 3940 B.C. 774 3941 B.C. 773 3942 B.C.772 3943 B.C. 771 3944 B.C. 770 3945 B.C. 769 Olympiads. Olym. L 1 „ 4 Olym. n. 1 „ 3 3946 B.C. 768 3947 B.C. 767 3948 B.C. 766 3949 B.C. 765 3950 B.C. 764 3951 B.C. 763 3962 B.C. 762 3953 B.C. 761 10 11 01ym.It[. 1 13 14 15 16 Olympiads. „ i 01ym.IV. 1 3954 B.C. 760 3966 B.C. 759 3956 B.C. 758 3967 B.C. 757 3958 B.C. 756 3959 B.C. 755 3960 B.C. 754 3961 B.C. 753 3962 4 J B.C. 752 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 Olym.V. 1 Olympiads. „ 4 Olym. VI. 1 April aist 4 April 21st Oly.VH. 1 Rome Founded. — According to Vai-i'o,PIu tarch, Eutro. pius, &c. — According to Dionysius and Livy. 54 YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. [PART I. We have seen, in treating of the olympiads, that Censorinus follows the computation of Varro, and that these computations were held in the highest estimation among the Romans, as appears from the praises bestowed on him by Cicero. According to these computations, the 991st year of Rome began the 21st of April preceding the 1014th year of Iphitus, which began at the summer solstice. The difference between 1014 and 991 is 23. Five com plete olympiads, or twenty years, ended at the summer solstice. Consequently, twenty-three years would end at the summer solstice; and the foundation of Rome must be dated from the twenty-first of the preceding April, that is, in the third year of the sixth olympiad, or April 21, a.j.p. 3961. CHAP, ni.] ,1/5 CHAPTER III. THE ROMAN YEAR. Extract from Censorinus. — Three periods. 1. Year of Romulus ; disagreement as to its length ; Censorinus, Solinus, Macrobius, in favour of ten months ; Plutarch and ancient authors quoted by him in favour of twelve; reason of this diversity, the destruction of ancient archives by the Gauls ; reasons why preference should be given to the opinion of Plutarch ; probable that the Egyptian year was in use among the most ancient nations of Italy, and that Romulus improved it by intercalations. — 2. Year of Numa and the Republic, a modification of the Greek lunar year, but no improvement ; explanation of cycle of 24 years mentioned by Livy ; irregularities by which it was disturbed, their cause and dura tion; theory of M. De la Nauze, and of an anonymous author mentioned by Court de Gobelin; reasons for rejecting both. — 3. Year reformed by Julius Caesar; testimony of Latin and Greek authors ; comparative table of the last year of confusion ; calendar of Julius Caesar compared with the calendar of the Council of Nice ; use of the Nicene calendar abolished by Pope Gregory xui., but retained by the Church of England and the Protestants generally, though they have corrected the error of the old style. — Reflections on the science of the ancients. — General conclusion that from the beginning the Roman may be counted as solar years. We have been led to speak in the preceding chapter, of the Roman year as distinguished from the olympic. For the full understand ing of the subject. It becomes necessary to consider what the Roman year was, before and after the reformation of the calendar by Julius Cassar. We begin with an extract from Censorinus, who has treated the subject with his usual accuracy and clearness. In his nineteenth chapter he defines what he calls the annus vertens, or annual period, to be the time In which the sun passes through the twelve signs, and then returns to that from which It departed. He then pro ceeds to enumerate eight various opinions of ancient astronomers concerning the length of the solar year, ranging from 364^ to 366 days. When there is such a difference, he observes, among the learned touching the natural year, it is not surprising that there should be among various nations a great diversity In their civil years. After this, he proceeds, in the twentieth chapter, to treat of the Roman year as follows: 56 THE ROMAN YEAR. [part I. Censorinus de Sed, ut hos annos mittam, caligine jam profunda vetustatis obductos : in his q-joque, qui sunt recentioris memoriae, et ad cursum lunsB vel solis instituti, quanta sit varietas, facile est cognoscere, si quis vel in unius Italiae gentibus, ne dicam pere- grinis, velit anquirere. Nam ut aliura Ferentini, alium Lavi- nii, itemque Albani vel Romani, habuerunt annum : ita et aliae gentes. Omnibus tamen fuit propositum, suos civiles annos, varie interkalandis mensibus, ad unum verum ilium naturalem- que corrigere. De quibus om nibus disserere quoniam longum est, ad Romanorum annum transibimus. Annum verten tem Romse Licinius quidem Macer, et postea Fenestella, sta- tim ab initio duodecim mensium fuisse scripserunt. Sed magis Junio Gracchano, et Fulvio, et VaiToni, et Suetonio, aliisque credendum, qui decern mensium putaverunt fuisse : ut tunc Al- ;banis erat, unde orti Romani. Hi decem menses dies trecentos . quatuor hoc modo habebant . Martius xxxi Aprilis xxx Maius xxxi Junius ¦ xxx Quintilis xxxi Sextilis et September xxx October xxxi November et Deeemb. xxx quorum quatuor majores pleni, coBteri sex cavi vocahantur Die Natali, 'Caput XX. But, to omit these years now covered with the darkness of profound anti quity, how great is the variety in those even of more recent date, and adjusted to the course of the moon or of the sun, may be easily known, if any one will search carefully among the nations of Italy alone, not to speak of foreigners. For as the Ferentinians had one year, the Lavinians another, and so likewise the Albanians or Romans, so was it with other nations. All, however, had the same purpose, which was, by months variously intercalated, to cor rect their civil years by the one true and natural year. To speak of all these methods would be tedious, and we there fore pass on to speak of the Roman year. Licinius Macer, and after him Fenestella, have written, that from the very beginning, the annual period of Rome consisted of twelve months. But we are rather to believe Junius Grac- chanus, Fulvius, Varro, Suetonius, and others, who have thought that it con sisted often months, because such was then the year of the Albanians, from whom the Romans sprang. These ten months contained three hundred and four days, as follows : March 31 April May June 30 31 30 Quintilis Sextilis ana iseptember October 313031 November and December 30 Of these the four greater were called full, and the other six hollow. After- CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 57 Postea sive a Numa, ut ait Ful vius, sive, ut Junius, a Tarqui- nio duodecim facti sunt menses, et dies ccclv. quamvis luna duodecim suis mensibus cccliv. dies videatur explere. Sed, ut unus dies abundaret, aut per imprudentiam accidit, aut quod magis credo, ea superstitione, qua impar numerus plenus, et magis faustus habebatur. Certe ad annum priorem unus et quin- quaginta dies accesserunt : qui quia menses duos non implerent, sex iUis cavis mensibus dies sunt singuli detracti, et ad eos additi, factique sunt dies quinqwaginta septem : et ex his duo menses, Januarius undetriginta dierum, Februarius duodetriginta. At- que ita omnes menses pleni, et imparl dierum numero esse coe- perunt, excepto Februario, qui solus cavus, et ob hoc cseteris in- faustior est habitus. Denique, cum interkalarem mensem vi ginti duum, vel viginti trium dierum alternis annis addi pla- cuisset, ut civilis annus ad natu- ralem exEequaretur : in mense potissimum Februario,inter Ter- minalia et Regifugium, interka- latum est. idque diu factum, priusquam sentiretur, annos ci viles aliquanto naturalibus esse majores. Quod delictum ut corrigeretur, Pontificibus datum est negotium, eorumque arbitrio interkalandi ratio permissa. Sed horum plerique, ob odium, vel gratiam, quo quis magistratu wards, whether by Numa, as Fulvius says, or, as Junius says, by Tarquin, the months were made twelve and the days 355, although the moon in her twelve months seems to complete only 354 days. This excess of one day hap pened, either through ignorance, or, as I rather think, from that superstition which accounted an unequal number as being full, and more fortunate. It is certain that one and fifty days were added to the former year ; and because these did not fill up the two months, a day was taken from each of the six hollow months, and added to the 51, so as to make 57 days. From these, two months were formed ; January, con sisting of tw^ty-nine, and February, of twenty-eight days. Thus all the months became full and of an unequal number of days, excepting February, which alone was accounted hollow, and for that reason more unlucky than the rest. Finally, since it was determined that an intercalary month of twenty- two or twenty-three days should be added in alternate years, that the civil might be made equal to the natural year, the intercalation was made of preference in the month of February, between the Terminalia and the Regi fugium. And this was done a long time before it was perceived that the civil years were somewhat longer than the natural. To correct this error was made the business of the pontiffs, and the mode of intercalation was left to their arbitrament. Most of them, how ever, intercalated more or less wan tonly ; from hatred or favour ; that one magistrate might sooner leave his 8 58 THE ROMAN YEAR. [part I. citius abiret, diutiusve fungere- tur, aut publici redemptor ex anni magnitudine in lucre dam- nove esset, plus minusve ex libi- dine interkalando, rem sibi ad corrigendum mandatam, ultro depravarunt. Adeoque aber- ratum est, ut C. Casar Poatifex Maximus, suo iii. et M. iEmilii Lepidi consulatu, quo retro de- hctum corrigeret, duos menses interkalarios dierum sexaginta septem, in mensem Novembrem et Decembrem interponeret, cum jam mense Februario dies tres et viginti interkalasset, faceretque eum annum dierum CDXLV, simul providens in fu- turum, ne iterum erraretur. nam interkalario mense sublato, an num civilem ad solis cursum formavit. Itaque diebus ccclv addidit x, quos per septem men ses, qui dies undetricenos habe bant, ita distribuit, ut Januario, et Sextili, et Decembri bini ac- cederent, caeteris singuli : eos- que dies extremis partibus men sium apposuit, ne scilicet religi- ones sui cuj usque mensis a loco summoverentur. Quapropter nunc cum in septem mensibus dies singuli et triceni sint, qua tuor tamen illi ita primitus in stituti eo dinoscuntur, quod no- nas habent septimanas : cseteri, quintanas. Prseterea pro quad rante diei, qui annum verum suppleturus videbatur, instituit, ut peracto quadriennii circuitu, dies unus, ubi mensis quondam Bolebat, post Terminalia inter office, and another perform its functions longer ; or that the farmer of the public revenues might gain or lose by the length of the year. Thus a matter en trusted to them for correction was de signedly and wilfully made worse ; and to such a degree had the error pro ceeded, that when Caius Caesar was Pontifex Maximus, in the year of his third consulship with Marcus -lEmilius Lepidus, he interposed, in order to cor rect the error, two intercalary months of 67 days between November and De cember, when he had already interca lated 23 days in the month of February. Thus he made that year to consist of 445 days, providing at the same time that in future no error should again occur ; for taking away the intercalary month, he formed the civil year according to the course of the sun. To the 355 days, therefore, he added 10. These he distributed through the seven months which had only 29 days ; so that to January, Sextilis, and December, two were added, and to the rest only one. These days he annexed to the latter end of the months, that the religious rites of each month should not be re moved from their place. Wherefore, since now in seven months the days of each are 31, those four which were ori ginally instituted with that number are distinguished by having the nones on the seventh day of the month, while the rest have them on the fifth. As for that fourth part of a day which would complete the true year, a further ar rangement was provided, that at the end of every four years one day should be intercalated after the Terminalia, where formerly there was an intercalation of CHAP. III.J THE ROMAN YEAR. QQ kalaretur : quod nunc Bisextum a month, and this is now called Bissex- vocatur. Ex hoc anno, ita a turn. From this year thus arranged JuHo Cffisare ordinate, caeteri ad by Julius Cffisar, the rest down to our nostram memoriam Juliani ap- time are called Julian years, and they pellantur, iique consurgunt ex begin from the fourth consulship of iiii Caesaris consulatu, qui, Caesar. These years, even if they are etiam si non optime, soli tamen not perfect, are at least the only ones ad annum nature aptati sunt, adjusted to the natural year. For the nam et priores alii, etiam si qui others which preceded, even those which decimestres fuerunt, nee Romsc had ten months only, were corrected as modo, vel per Italiam, sed et far as possible, not in Rome merely, or apud gentes omnes, quantum throughout Italy, but among all nations. poterat idem, fuerunt correcti. Wherefore, when any number of years Itaque cum de aliquo annorum are here spoken of, it will be proper to numero hie dicetur, non alios consider them as no other than natural par erit, quam naturales acci- years. And if the origin of the world pere. Et, si origo mundi, in could come within the knowledge of hominum notitiam venisset, men, we should make that the begin- inde exordium sumeremus. ning of our dates. This extract from Censorinus clearly shows that the Roman year is to be considered by us as it existed at three separate periods: first, under Romulus; secondly, under the succeeding kings and the republic; thirdly as reformed by Julius Csesar. 1. Th^e Roman Year under Romulus. It appears that Latin writers of eminence were not agreed, even in the most ancient times of their literature, on the ques tion whether the year of Romulus consisted of ten or twelve months. To those who, with Censorinus, maintained that it con sisted of ten months, may be added Solinus, his contemporary, and Macrobius, who lived under Honorius and Theodoslus Junior, early in the fifth century.' The principal argument for this opinion is the fact asserted by these writers, that the year of the inhabitants of Alba Longa con sisted of ten months, and that in this they were imitated by their descendants the Romans. Plutarch, on the other hand, seems strongly inclined to the opinion that there were twelve months in the year of Romulus; and that January and February, instead of being the first and ' Saturnal. lib. i. cap. xi. ed. Volpii, p. 218. 60 THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. second months in the year, as afterwards in Numa's calendar, then constituted the eleventh and twelfth. He says that " the Romans in the time of Romulus had no idea of the anomaly between the courses of the sun and moon, but only laid down this position, that the year consisted of 360 days." He speaks also of Numa as alter ing the order of the months ; making' March the third, which had been the first ; January the first, which had been the eleventh of Romulus ; and February the second, which had been the twelfth and last.^ Censorinus mentions Licinius Macer and L. Fenestella as holding the same opinion. When ancient authors are so widely at variance, there can be no certainty; more especially as there Is reason to believe that the Latin writers themselves, whose opinions have been given by Censorinus, had no ground for them but conjecture. No docu ments could have been extant In their day with regard to the year either of Alba Longa, or of the Romans under Romulus. Had there been, they would have appealed to them, and their judgments would not have been so contradictory. Indeed, Plutarch speaks of the diversity of historians even with regard to Numa''s reign ; and, on the authority of some writer named Clodius in his emen dations of chronology, most distinctly intimates, that when Rome was sacked by the Gauls, most, if not all of the ancient archives were destroyed.^ Such being the case, we are fairly at liberty to choose among conflicting opinions; and that of Plutarch seems the most rational. If we may believe Herodotus, the Greeks in the time of Solon had not yet adopted the lunar year. For in his first book he relates a conversation between the Athenian lawgiver and Croesus king of the Lydlans; in which, estimating seventy years as the term of human life, Solon says, " they [the seventy years] contain, with- ' Pint, in Numa, Ed. Bryan, tom. i. p. the dead at the end of the year," &c. A 155, 156. So also in his Pmpdiica, or foreigner, and especially a Greek like Questions on Roman affairs (Plut. Opusc. Plutarch, long resident in Rome, would be ed. Stephens, 8vo. tom. i. p. 478, sec. xix.) more likely to search into and record the noticing the opinion that the ancient customs of the Romans than the Romans year consisted of only ten months, and themselves. To him are we indebted for that December, the tenth month from the name of Numa's intercalary month, March, was the last of the year, he adds, which is nowhere mentioned by any of the dXXoi Se iropoicti K.T.X. — " Others state the Latin writers whose works have come fact that December was the tenth from down to us. Plutarch says in one place March, January the eleventh, and Febru- (Numa) that it was called Merkidinus, in ary the twelfth, in which purifications are another (Csesar), Merkedonius. used, and expiatory sacrifices offered for ' Numa, ed. Bryan, tom. i. p. 129. CHAP. in.j THE ROMAN YEAR. 61 out any intercalary month, twenty-five thousand two hundred days."^ This sum divided by 70, gives 360 as the number of days In a year.* The Egyptians had from time immemorial reckoned twelve months of thirty days, adding at the end of each year five supernumerary days, which on this account were called e^^ay6f^eval, or complemental. Among the nations of Italy, the Etruscans, if they were not an Egyptian colony, at least rivalled the Egyptians, and greatly resembled them In the knowledge of arts and sciences. The Sabines and the Samnites were Grecian colonies. How, then, was it possible for the Inhabitants of Alba Longa, or their descendants the Romans, to be so ignorant of astro nomy as to make their year consist of only 304 days ? Tf the year of Romulus did consist of only 304 days, and there were no Intercalations, it would have ended 61;|: days before the solar year, as that year was then computed. Supposing that in the first year of his reign his first of March began, as Court c!e Gebelin asserts,^ at the vernal equinox, the next year the last day of December would be sixty-one days and a quarter before the vernal equinox; the year following, 122^ days; the third year, 183| days, or more than six months ; the fourth year, 245 days ; and the fifth year, 306^ days. Thus every five years the ten months would have travelled backward through all the seasons. And when It Is considered that all the religious rites of the Romans did not begin with Numa,— that festivals were, even In the rudest state of the nation, celebrated in honour of their Gods, as, for instance, the festival of Pales or the Palilia, on the twenty-first ol April, the day on which Rome was founded, — It will seem next to an impossibility that such disorder should have been permitted to exist. Macrobius says expressly that the month of March was so called, because It was dedicated by Romulus to his father the god Mars ; that on the first of that month, as the beginning of the year, new fire was solemnly lighted upon the altars of Vesta, and old laurels exchanged for new, in the palace, the curia;, and the 1 Herod Hb i c 32 Greek lunar year. I infer from this pas- * Herodotus, it is true, has given a con- sage, that the adoption of the lunar year fused account, by putting into Solon's of 354 days by the Greeks was later than mouth a computation of thirty-five inter- the time of Solon, and that Herodotus calations in the course of seventy years, himself had paid very little attention to amounting to 1050 daj's. This is one the subject , „ , , . ... , „„ month of thirty days in two years, which ' Hist. Civ. du Calendrier, art. u. chap. is more than the intercalations in the 2. p. 148. 62 THE ROMAN YEAH. [pART I. houses of the Flamens; that in the same month both public and private sacrifices were made to Anna-Perenna, &c.* Admitting all this to be uncertain tradition, it shows at least that the Romans did not consider all their religion as commencing with Numa. These very celebrations required the observance of times and seasons. Another argument to prove that the division of time by Romu lus must have been In accordance with the movements of the hea venly bodies. Is derived from the division of days In his calendar. Idus is not a Latin, but a Greek word (eKoc). It means aspect oi appearance, and was used to denote the full moon. The nones were always, as their name imports, the ninth day before the Idus. It Is evident, therefore, that this whole system is founded on the change of the moon, the nones being the completion of the first quarter, as the Ides are of the second.^ If the course of the moon thus governed the form and duration of the month, it is hard to tell why the apparent movements of the sun and moon together should not have regulated the year. The force of this argument will be best seen by the Table (given opposite) of The Year of Romulus, according to the opinions of Censorinus and Macrobius, and the authors quoted by them with approbation. By this table It appears that the four months which had thirty- one days, had their nones on the seventh, and their ides on the fifteenth ; while the other six, of thirty days each, had their nones on the fifth, and their Ides on the thirteenth. This seems to have been so contrived. In order to adjust the civil, to the course of the lunar month ; for by counting the thirtieth and thirty-first days of the preceding, with the following civil month, the nones fall on the seventh or first quarter of the moon, excepting only September and December, because the preceding months consisted of thirty days. The rest of the month after the full of the moon or Idus, is ' Haec fuit Romuli ordinatio; qui pri- atque Flaminum domibus laurete veteres mum anni mensem genitori suo Marti novis laurels mutabantur. eodem quoque dicavit. Quem mensem anni primum fu- mense et publice et privatim ad Annam isse vel ex hoc maxime probatur, quod ab Perennam sacrificatum itur; ut annare ipso Quintilis quintus est, et deinceps pro perennareque commode liceat. Saturnal. numero nominabantur. Hujus etiam prima lib. i. cap. xii. ed. Volpii, p. 218. die ignera novum Vestae aris accendebant: ' See Plut. Opuseula, tom. i. ed. Steph. ut inciniente anno cura denuo servandi p. 480, s. 239. Lat. tom. i. p. 448. B. novati ignis inciperet. eodem quoque in- sec. xxiv. gredienle mense tam in regia curiisque CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR, 63 Martius Aprilis Maius Junius 1 Quintilis Sextilis Septemb.j October Sfoverab. Deeemb. 1 Kai 1 Kai 1 Kai 1 Kai 1 Kai 1 Kai 1 Kai 1 Kai 1 Kai 1 Kai 2 VI a IV ii VI a iv 2 vi S iv H iv 2 vi 2 iv 2 iv a v 3 in a V '. iii 3 V Is iii p iii 3 V 3 iii 3 iii 4 IV 4 Prid 4 IV 4 Prid 4 iv 4 Prid 4 Prid 4 iv 4 Prid 4 Prid 66 111 b x^on ^ HI K Won 5 iii 2 6 Won 5 Non 5 iii 5 Non 6 viii 5 Non Prid 6 viii 6 Prid 6 viii 6 Prid viii viii 6 Prid 6 viii 7 i>Jon / Vll 7 Non 7 VU 7 Nori 7 VU 7 vii 7 Non 7 vii 7 vii « viu 8 VI 8 vni 8 VI 8 viii 8 VI 8 VI 8 viii 8 vi 8 vi 1 VU 9 V 9 Vll 9 V 9 vii 9 V 9 V 9 vii , 9 V 9 V U11 VI v 10 U IV 10 11 VI 10 11 iv 1 iii 1 0 vi 10 U IV 10 11 iv 10 vi 10 iv 10 iv 1 iii V 1 V iii iii 11 V 11 iii 1 J iii 2 Prid 12 IV 12 Prid 12 IV 12 Prid 1 2 iv 12 Prid 12 Prid 12 iv 12 Prid 1 13 111 13 Idus 13 HI 13 Idusl 3 iii 13 Idus 13 Idus 13 iii 13 Idus islldus i 14 Prid 14 xvm 14 Prid 14 xviii I 4 Prid 14 xvm 14 xviii 14 Prid 14 xviii 1 4 xviii 15 16 Idus xvii 15 16 XVll 15 16 Idus xvii 15 16 xvii 1 xvi 1 5 Idus 15 16 XVll 15 16 xvii 15 Idus 1 5 xvii 1 6 xvi 1 5 xvii 6 xvi xvi 6 xvii xvi xvi 16 xvii 1 17 XVI 17 XV 17 XVI 17 XV 1 7 xvi 17 XV 17 XV 1 7 xvi 1 7 XV 1 7 XV 18 XV 18 xiv 18 XV 18 xiv I 8 XT 18 XIV 18 xiv 1 8 XV 1 8 xiv 1 8 xiv 19 xiv 19 XUl 19 XIV 19 xiii 1 9 xiv 19 XIU 19 xiii 1 9 xiv 1 9 xiii 1 9 xiii 20 Xlii 20 XII 20 21 XIU 20 21 xii 2 0 xiii 20 21 xu xi 20 21 xii 2 0 xiii 2 0 xii 2 0 xii 21 xii 21 xi xii xi 2 1 xii xi 2 1 xii 2 1 xi 2 1 xi 22 XI 22 X 22 XI 22 X 2 2 xi 22 x 22 X 2 2 xi 2 2 X 2 2 X 23 X 23 IX 23 X 23 ix 2 J X 23 IX 23 ix 2 3 X 2 3 ix 2 3 ix 24 IX 24 vni 24 IX 24 viii 2 i ix 24 vm 24 viii 2 i ix 2 1 viii 2 1 viii 25 26 viu vii 2526 VU 25 VIII 25 vii 2 5 viii 5 vii 2526 Vll vi 2526 vii 2 vi 2 5 viii 2 3 vii 2 3 vi 2 5 vii vi 26 vii 26 vi 2 J vii 2 ; vi 27 VI 27 V 27 VI 27 V 2 " vi 27 V 27 v 2 I vi 2 7 V 2 7 T 28 V 28 IV 28 V 28 iv 2 ^ V 28 IV 28 iv 2f 5 V 2i i iv 2 < iv 2s) IV 29 111 29 IV 29 iii 2 ) iv 29 111 29 iii 2< ) iv 2' ) iii 2< ) iii 30 31 111 30 Prid 30 m 30 Prid 3( 5 iii 30 Prid 30 Prid 3( ) iii 3( ) Prid 3( )Prid PridJ 31 Prid 3 Prid 3 Prid Total, 304 days. 1 reckoned backward from the first day of the succeeding month. In the four months of thirty-one days, the day after the ides is called the seventeenth before the calends, and in the six months of thirty days, the eighteenth before the calends. Quintilis is so called, as Macrobius states, because It was the fifth month, reckon ing from March as the first. ^ This serves as a key to the grounds of the opinion that the year of Romulus consisted of only three hundred and four days, divided Into ten months. It was founded on the presumption merely that December was the last month in the year, and that its etymology proved It to be also the tenth ' Quod ab ipso [viz. Martio mense] Quintilis quintus est. 64 THE ROMAN YEAH, [pART I. month, as Quintilis was the fifth. But January and February may as well have formed the eleventh and twelfth months of the year of Romulus, as March, April, May, and June, the first four. Even if, as Plutarch says, the year of Romulus consisted of tnree hundred and sixty days, there was still a deficiency every year of five-and-a-quarter days, which at the end of every four years would amount to twenty-one days ; and as the reign of Romulus, and the Interregnum preceding the reign of Numa, con tinued, according to Livy, thirty-eight years, we may estimate the difference between the civil and the solar year at the accession of Numa, if there had been no intercalations, as amounting to (38x5|=199^) nearly two hundred days, or more than -six-and-a half months. If the first day of March in the first year of the reign of Romulus began at the vernal equinox. It would have tra velled back in the last year of his reign, so as to have begun before the autumnal equinox. Such disorder would have been utterly inconsistent with the religious observances of times and seasons; and If It did exist, would have been a sufficient cause for the changes Introduced by Numa. But we have no evidence whether intercalations were or were not Introduced in the time of Romulus. Macrobius says that " there are various statements as to the time when Intercalation was first practised by the Romans. Licinius Macer assigned its origin to Romulus. Antias maintained that it was invented by Numa ; Junius, that It was first practised by Servius TuUius." I omit other opinions mentioned by him, because they are only opi nions, but Insert the whole passage in the margin.' In this state of uncertainty, weighing well the account of Plu tarch, and comparing with It the Calendar of Romulus as given by Censorinus and Macrobius, in which four months have each thirty- one, and consequently four additional days, I am led to the con- ' Quando autem primo interkalatum sit, eosdem scribit auctores. Fulvius autem yarie refertur : et Macer quidem Licinius id egisse Manium consulem dioit ab urbe ejus rei originem Romulo assignat. Antias condita anno quingentesimo sexagesimo libro secundo Numam Pompilium Sacro- secundo, inito mox bello jEtolico, sed hunc rum causa id invenisse contendit. Junius arguit Varro scribendo, antiquissimam Servium Tullium regem primum inter- legem fuisse incisam in columna aerea a L. kalasse commemorat ; a quo et Nundinas Pinario et Furio consulibus, cui mentio institutas Varroni placet. Tuditanus refert interkalaris adscribitur. Haec de inter- libro tertio Magistratuum Decemviros, kalandi principio satis relata sint. Saturnal. qui decem tabulis duas addiderunt, de in- lib. i. cap. xiii. ed Volpii. p. 227-228. terkalando populum rogasse. Cassius CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 65 elusion that his calendar was founded upon the Egyptian, and v/as In fact an Improvement of it. To render this plain, It will be proper to insert here the following supposed TABLE OP THE YEAR OF EOMULUS. K^ ^^ ^ * I art. Aprilis Maius Junius Ouint. Sext. Sept. Oct. Nov. Deo. 1 Jan. Feb. 1 Ka I Ka 1 Ka 1 Kai 1 Ka 1 Ka J Ka Ka 1 Ka 1 Kail I Ka 1 Kai VI IV VI 2 IV 2 vi ii iv 2 IV :; VI 2 IV 2 ivia IV 2 iv V 3 HI V a Hi 3 V ; iii i iii ; V ' ;¦ iii s iii 3 4 IV 4 l-iid 4 IV 4 frid 4 IV 4 l'ri< 4 Pi-i< ' IV ' 4 Prif 4 Prid 4 Prid 4 Prid i m 6 Non a lU t Non b iii 6 Non 6 Non 5 111 5 Non 5 Non S Non 6 Non e Prid 6 viii 6 Prid e viii 6 Prid 6 viii 6 viii f Prid 6 viii 6 viii 6 viii H viii 7 Non 7 Vll 7 J!^on V v,i 7 Non 7 Vll 7 VII 7 Non 7 vii 7 Vll 7 Vll 7 vii 6 vui 8 VI » VJll t vi 8 VIU 8 VI 8 VI > viii 8 V] fl vi 8 vi 8 vi 11 VII 9 V 9 Vll 9 V 9 VU 9 V 9 V ! Vll 9 V 9 V 9 V 9 v lu VI W IV lU VI 10 iv 10 VI 10 IV 10 iv 10 VI 10 iv 10 IV 10 IV 10 iv 11 V 11 iii U V 11 iii U V 11 iii 11 iii 11 V II iii 11 iii II iii II iii 12 IV 12 fno 12 IV 12 fnd 12 IV 12 Pric 12 Priri 12 IV 19 Prid 12 Piid 12 Prir 1-2 Prid la m 13 Idus 13 111 I:) IdusJ 13 111 Ii Ldus IS Idus la lU !;¦ fdns 13 fdns 3 Idus 13 Tdns 14 Fnd 14 xvm 14 Prid 14 xviii 14 Pnd 14 xvin 14 xviii \4 Prid 14 xviii 14 xviii 14 xix 14 xviii 1.5 Idus 16 xvii 15 Idub 15 xvii 16 Idus 16 XVll 16 XVII ib Idus 15 xvii 15 xvii 16 xviii 15 xvii 16 xvii 16 xvi 16 xvii 16 -Xvi 16 xvii 16 xvi 16 xvi IB xvii Ifi xvi 16 xvi 16 xvii 16 17 XVI 17 XV 17 XVI 17 XV 17 xvi 17 XV 17 XV 17 xvi 17 XV 17 XV 17 17 IB XV IH XIV 18 XV 18 XIV 18 XV .8 XIV 18 xiv 18 XV Ifi XIV IS xiv 18 XV 18 19 XIV 19 Xlii 19 XIV 19 Xlll 19 xiv .9 xiii 19 xiii If xiv 19 19 19 XIV 19 ao Xlll m xii 20 xiii 20 xii 20 Xlll 20 xu 20 xii 20 XIU 20 xu 20 xu 20 Xlll 20 xii 21 xii 21 xi 21 xii 31 xi 21 xii i!l xi 21 xi 21 xii 21 21 xi 21 xii 21 22 XI 22 X 2i XI 22 X 22 xi 22 X 22 X 22 XI 22 29 2S 2? 23 X a ix iy X 23 IX 23 X 23 IX 23 IX 23 X 23 ix 53 IX 23 X 23 ix 24 IX ii viii 24 IX 24 Vlll 24 IX 24 VUI 24 viii 24 IX 24 Vlll 24 Vlll 24 ix 24 viii 25 Vlll 5.5 Vll 2b Vlll 25 Vll 26 Vlll 26 Vll 25 Vll 26 VIU 26 vii 25 vii 25 Vlll 25 vu 26 vii 26 vi 30 vii 2f> vi 26 vii 26 vi 26 vi 26 vii 26 vi 26 vi 26 vii 26 vi 27 VI >7 V J7 VI 27 V 27 VI 27 V 27 V 27 VI 27 V 27 V 27 VI n V 28 V 28 IV 2t V 28 iv 28 V 28 IV 28 IV 28 V 2K IV 28 IV 2R V ?fi IV 29 IV >9 111 29 IV 29 iii iU IV >y 111 29 HI 29 IV 29 iii 29 iii 29 IV 29 111 30 iii JO Prid JO 111 JO frid 30Jl iii Prid 10 Prid 30 Prid JO HI Prid 30 Prid 30 Prid 3031 m Prid 30 Prid 31 Prid 31 Prid Total 3SS days. I T heae Otl 1 day WE IS the T .rmir ali i.th 3 31st t le Kegif Ugl um. 330 337338339 340341 342.343 344 345 346347348 349360351 3623533.54 3.55 366367358359 360» 361»362363 364365 From an Inspection of the foregoing table it will appear that the 360th day of the year fell always on the seventh before the calends of March. This was the end of the twelve months of the Egypt- Ian year, which I suppose was the year In use among the inhabit ants of Alba Longa, and the most ancient nations of Italy. It was, therefore, the festival of the Terminalia. Here the Egyptians, and consequently the nations which followed their usage, Intro- • duced the i-Kayofitvai, or five complemental days. Instead of this, Romulus distributed them through the year, by adding them tci the five months March, May, Quintilis, October, and. If my con jecture be correct, January. He thus, by a very simple method, improved the arrangement, though he did not correct the error, of" 9 66 THE ROMAN VEAR. [part I. the Egyptian computation. There would still be nearly one day in four years to be added, in order to make the civil, commensurate with the true solar year ; and this would have made a difference of about ten days, when Numa Introduced his new arrangement. 2. The Roman Year under the succeeding Kings, and the Republic. We have seen from Censorinus, that the arrangement of Numa's year was evidently founded on the lunar year of the Greeks, con sisting of 354 days; but, having a superstitious dislike to equal numbers, which he considered as unlucky, he made his year to consist of 355 days, which were thus distributed : X. .Januarius 29 v. Majus 31 148 IX. September 29 266 n. Februarius 28 57 VI. Junius 29 177 X. October 31 297 rn. Martius 31 88 VII. Quintilis 31 208 XI. November 29 326 IV. Aprilis 29 117 VIII. Sextilis 29 237 XII. December 29 355 February only was left with an equal number, and was considered as an unlucky month, being dedicated to the God Februus, who presided over lustrations, and the rites due to the Manes, or in fernal Gods.' Numa was a Sabine ; and the Sabines were, probably, either wholly or in part, a Grecian colony.^ Macrobius Intimates that the chanrfes Introduced by him in the calendar, were the result of his acquaintance with Grecian learning.^ "We may add, that it was the effect of irrational fondness for Greek usages ; for the calendar of Romulus being nearer to the solar year, it was no im provement to substitute a system of Intercalary months, arising from the imperfections of the lunar year. Be this as It may, the change was made, and the Roman became similar to the Grecian year. " The lunar year," says Macrobius, " being thus adopted by the Romans from the Greeks, they were obliged, like the Greeks, to institute an Intercalary month, because they found that the solar exceeded the lunar year, eleven days and one-fourth, which. In eight years, amounted to ninety days. The Greeks divided this number Into three months of thirty days, but the Romans Into four intercalations. In the alternate years, of twenty- ' Macrob. Saturnal. lib. i. c. xiii. ed. ' Quia Grscorum observatione forsan "Volp. 225. instructus est. ' Dion. Halic. Antiq. Rom. lib. ii. 48, 49. CHAP, III.J THE ROMAN VEAR. "67 two and twenty-three days each. But as, for the sake of the unequal number, they had added one dsiy to the Grecian year, on the eighth year they found an excess of eight days. To correct this error, at the end of the third eight, or twenty-four years, they so disposed the intercalated days as to make the whole Intercalation, not ninety, but sixty-six days." ' This explains that passage In Livy, which Scaliger presumed to ¦call absurd. Speaking of Numa's year as lunar, the historian says that, by intercalary months, he so adjusted it, as, in the course of twenty-four years, to make it agree with the solar year.^ The whole subject will be rendered perfectly clear, if we place side by side the operation of the two systems. Twenty-four solar years, of three hundred and sixty -five and a quarter days, amount to eight thousand seven hundred and sixty-six days. (365ix24==8?66.) The Greek lunar year of 354 days, and the Roman lunar year of 355 days, with their respective intercalations, make up the same number of days In twenty-four years, as will be seen by the table at the head of the next page. ' Cum ergo llomaai ex hac distributione convenire numerus atque ordo non poterat. Pompilii ad lunse cursum, sicut Graci, sed nondum hoc errore eomperto, per octo annum proprium computarent; neoessario annos nonaginta quasi superfundendos "Ct interkalarem mensem instituerunt more Grajcorum exemplo computabant dies,; Grsecorura, nam et Grseci, cum ani- alternisque annis binos et vicenos, alternis inadverterent, temere se trecentis quin- ternos et vicenos interkalares expensabant quaginta quatuor diebus ordinasse annum interkalationibus quatuor, sed octave (quoniam appareret do aolis cursu, qui quoque anno interkalantes octo affluebant trecentis sexaginta q^iinque di.ebus et dies ex singulis ; quibus vertentis anni ¦tjuadrante zodiacum conficit, deesse anno numerum apud Eomanos, supra Grseoum suo undecim dies et quadrantem) in- abundasse jam diximufu hoc quoque terkalares stata ratione comment! sunt, erroro jam cognito, ha?c species emenda- ata ut octavo quoque anno nonaginta dies, tionis indncta est. Tertio quoque octennio ex quibus tres menses triceniim dierum ita interkalandos dispensabant dies, ut non composuerunt, interlialarent. id Grseci nonaginta sed sexaginta sex interkalarent, fecerunt, quoniam erat operosum atque compensatis viginti et quatuor diebus pro diificile omnibus annis undecim dies et illis qui per totidem annos supra Grseco- tjuadrant^m interkalare. itaque malue- rum numerum creverant. — Saturnal, lib. i. runt hunc numerum ooties multiplicare, cap. xiii. ed. Volpii, p. 225-226, et nonaginta dies, qui nascuntur si quad- ' Atque omnium primnm ad cursum rans cum diebus undecim octi«s compo- lun^, in duodecim menses describit annum, natur, inserere in tres menses, ut diximus quem (quia tricenos dies singulis mensibus distribuendos, bos dies iivtp^aivovTag., luna non explet, desuntque dies solido anno menses vero kjitoXipoug appellitabant. ' qui solstitiali circumagiturorbe) interca- Hunc ergo ordimem Romanis quoque imi- iaribus mensibus interponendis ita dispen- tari placuit, sed frustra ; quippe fugit eos, savit, ut quarto et vigesimo anno, ad metam unum diem, sicut supra admouuimus, ad- eamdem solis, unde orsi essent plenis an- ditum esse ad Graecum numerum in bono- norum omnium spatiis, dies congruerent rem imparls numeri, ea re per octennium lib. i. cap. 19. 68 THE ROMAN YEAH. [part Greek Lunar year of 354 days. Eoman Lunar year of 355 days. XXIV. Gr. Lun. years amount to da ys 8496 XXIV. Horn. Lun. years amount to days 8520 1 i. 0\ 1 i. 0\ 2 v u. 0 2 O) ii. First Intercal. days, 22 3 ¦c iii. First Intercal. days 30 3 •a iii. [or Merkedon. min. 0 4 5 iv. 0 V. Second Intercalation 30 ¦90 4 6 s •.Oi iv. Sec. In. or Merk.maj. 23 V. 0 ¦90 6 O vi. 0 6 ^ vi. Thirdln. orMer.min.22 7 1 ] vii. 0 7 vii. 0 89 viii. Third Intercalation 30' 8 9 viii. Fourtbl.orMer.maj. 23^ i. 0^ ii. 0 ' ¦'¦ ^ 10 T3 10 ^ ii. Merkedonius minor 22 11 u iii. First Intercalation 30 , 11 ¦s iii. 0 1213 1 iv. 0 Y. Second Intercalation 30 i-90 12 13 iv. Merkedonius major 23 Y. 0 ^90 .14 o vi. 0 14 d vi. Merkedonius minor 22 15 w vii. 0 15 Vll. 1617 viii. Third Intercalation 30^ 1617 viii. Merkedonius major 23' . i. 0, i. 0\ 18 .§ ii. 0 g iii. First Intercalation 30 18 ns ii. Merkedonius minor 22 19 19 B iii. 0 20 S iv. Olgo S V. Second Intercalation 30 [ 20 iv. Merkedonius minor 22 I .. Y. 0 r^ 21 21 a 22 O vi. 0 22 o vi. Merkedonius minor 22 23 H ™- ^ 23 1^ vii. 0 24 H viii. Third Intercalation 30/ 24 " viii. 0' Total of Intercalary days in 24 yea rs 270 Total of Intercalary days in 24 years 246 Adjusted to 24 Solar years=Days 8766 Adjusted to 24 Solar years=Days 8766 According to the Greek computation, the third, fifth, and eighth years of each octaeterlde consisted of 384 days, and therefore wei'e each 18f days longer than the natural year. According to the Roman computation, there were In the cycle of twenty-four years, seven years of 377 days, and four years of 378 days, thus exceed ing the solar year nearly twelve or thirteen days, as follows : Greek Computation. Roman Computation. 1. Octatiteride. II. Octaeteride. III. Octaeteride Eoman Cycle of three Octaeterides, or 24 yeai-a. i. days 354 i. days 354 i. days 354 i. days 355 ix. days 355 xvii. days 355 ,ii. 354 li. 354 ii. 354 11. 377 x. 377 xviii. 377 iii. 384 iii. 384 iii. 384 111. 355 xi. 355 xix. 355 iv. , 354 iv. 354 iv. 354 IV. 378 xii. 378 XX. 377 v. 384 v. 384 V. 384 V. 355 xiii. 355 xxi. 355 vi. 354 vi. 354 vi. 354 VI. 377 xiv. 377 xxii. 377 vii. 354 vii. 354 vii. 354 VU. 355 XV. 355 xxiii. 355 viii. 384 viii. 384 viii. 384 vm. 378 xvi. 378 xxiv. 355 2922 2922 2922 29222922 2930 2930 2906 29302930 Total 8766 Total 87661 CHAP. m. ] THE ROMAN YEAR. 69 According to the Greek computation, the three intercalary months in each octaeteride were introduced as a thirteenth moniii of the intercalated year. The Romans, on the contrary, incorpo rated their intercalation between the twenty-third and twenty- fourth of February, making that month, with the Merkedonius minor, fifty, with the Merkedonius major, fifty-one days long. The manner of doing this will be shown hereafter, when we come to speak of the reform introduced by Julius Csesar. It is montloned here, because It affords presumptive evidence that, in the calendar of Romulus, February, and not December, was the last month of the year. It was the custom of all nations, and must therefore have been a natural and obvious arrangement, to intercalate at the end of the civil year. Indeed Macrobius, in evident Inconsistency with his former account, says, in speaking of Numa's changes, that the month of February was selected for every intercalation, because it was the last of the year} Numa therefore only transposed January and February ; and that he might not disturb any of the religious festivals as arranged by Romulus, he continued to observe the festival of the Terminalia, the three hundred and sixtieth day of the year of Romulus, on the seventh before the calends of March, and there Introduced his Intercalary month. From this examination It appears to me, that the change of the Roman calendar Introduced by Numa was far from being an im provement. His year was not as near the solar time as the year of Romulus, nor as near the lunar time as that of the Greeks. His system of intercalation was not as regular as the Grecian, while Its machinery was more complicated. It required a cycle of twenty-four years, to adjust the civil to the solar year, while the same thing was accomplished by the Greeks In the course of eight. Still, If the Intercalations had been duly observed, there could have been at no period of the cycle any very inconvenient Irregularity. But Numa had made it the duty of the pontiffs to effect and to declare the Intercalation; and they were often led by political favouritism, to lengthen the year of a friend, or diminish that of an enemy. By such Irregularities, the agreement of the civil with the astronomical year was often disturbed. How long Numa's sys tem continued to be faithfully observed, cannot now be ascertained ; 1 Omni autem interkalationi mensis Februarius doputatus est : quoniam is ultimus anni erat. — Saturnal. lib. i. c. xiii. 70 THE ROBfAN YEAR.- [pART . but, if the inferences which have now been built on the scanty statements of antiquity be well founded, we may safely conclude that, from the very, foundation of Rome, the computations of time were nearly. If not perfectly, adjusted to the solar year, down to the expulsion of the kings, a period of two hundred and forty-four years, and possibly to the time of the second Decemviri, a.u.c. 304. Cicero incidentally remarks, that VIrglnius slew his daughter, to save her from disgrace and crime, the sixtieth year after the ex pulsion of the kings.' This fixes the epoch of the abdication of the Decemviri In the three hundred and fourth year of Rome ; and it agrees with the date assigned to that event in the Capltoline tables, of which we shall hereafter speak. It Is very probable that, as this was a tumultuous period of the Roman commonwealth, the irregularities In the computation of time may have then begun. Certain It Is, that a great irregularity did exist within the succeed ing three hundred years. Livy states that in the consulship of Lucius Cornelius Scipio and Caius Laelius, "during the Apollinarian games, the fifth day before the ides of Quintilis [July 11th], In the day time, when the sky was serene, the light was obscured by the passage of the moon over the sun's disc."^ This solar eclipse took place, by astronomical computation, March 14th, a.j.p. 4524.' According to Numa's calendar, then In use, the intervening time from March 14th to July 11th, was one hundred and seventeen days, or, according to present computation, one hundred and nineteen days. Here, then, was a variation of nearly four months between the solar year and that of Numa. According to the Capltoline tables, the consulship of L. Cornelius Scipio and C. Lselius, was A.tr.c. 563. Reckoning, therefore, from the Ides of Quintilis a.u.c. 304, to the Ides of Quintilis a.u.c. 563, there were two hundred and fifty-nine solid years ; and if the intercalations had been regularly made during that period, there would have been but a trifling variation between the year of Numa and the solar year, as the following table will show : ^ Tenuis L. Virginius, unusqne e multis, diem quintnm Idus Quinctilis, coelo sereno, ¦cxagesimo anno post hbertatemreceptam,^!^- interdiu obscurata lux est, quum Luna ginem filiam, sua manu occidit, potius, sub orbem solis subisset. Liv. lib. xxxvii. quam ea App. Claudii Ubidini, qui tum u. 4, compared with c. 1. erat summo in imperio, dederetur. — De ' The calculation may be seen in Peta- Finibus, lib. ii. cap. 20, ad fin. vius de Doctrina Temporum, tom, i. p. Per eos dies, quibus est profectus ad 509, ^ 23. bellum Consul, ludis ApoUinaribus, ante CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 71 259 Solar Years. Tears. 10 cycles of 24 years, or 240 = 4 solar years = 1461 days X 4, or - - 16 = 365^ days X 3, or - - 3 = Days. 87,660 5,844 1,095| Total number of days in 259 = Excess of 259 years of Numa over 259 solar 94,5991 years - - - - 7i 259 Years of Numa properly intercalated Years. Days. 10 cycles of 24 years, or 240 = 87,660 1 1th cycle 1 st period, con taining four intercala tions, or - - 8 = 2,930 2d period of four interca lations, or - - 8 = 2,930 17th year of llth cycle. 1 = 355 18th year of llth cycle. intercalated - - - 1 = 377 19th year of llth cycle. Total number of days in 1 = 355 259 = 94,607 94,607 Yet, in fact, there was a variation of one hundred and seventeen, or one hundred and nineteen days. This can be accounted for only from the irregularities of Intercalation. An Ingenious attempt, however, was made by M. de la Nauze, in a memoir read before the French Academy, June 18th, 1754, to solve the difficulties of the Roman calendar, by an entirely different system.* He supposed that the civil years were consular, and had no relation to the solar year. The consuls always entered on the duties of their office about the beginning of winter, whatever mio;ht be the name of the month in the Roman calendar. He con- tends that, In consequence of the unwillingness of the second Decem viri to resign their power, the consulship which Immediately followed that deCemvirate began on the Ides of December. In support of this opinion he quotes a passage in Livy,' which, however, relates to a consulship twenty-six years later. He then asserts that the consular year thus began on the ides of December for 48 succes sive years : that It then leapt to the 1st of October, and so con tinued 114 years; that by another leap it began on the 1st of July, and so continued 66 years ; then on the ides of March, 68 years ; and lastly, on the 1st of January, for 107 years, to the reformation of the calendar by Julius Cfesar. Thus, in the course of 403 years, the commencement of the consular year leapt In retrogradatlon from December to October, from October to Quintilis or July, from July to March, and from March to January. His whole theory turns upon the assumption that an alternate intercalation of 22 and 23 years took place regularly on all the equal years, 304, 306, 308, 310, fee, for 279 years; that on the 280th year there » This memoir is in the 44 th volume of I'Acad. Hoy ale des Inscriptions et Belles. theSvo. edition, p. 11 1-200, of Memoiresde Lettres, Paris, 1771. 1 Lib. iv. c. 37. 72 THE ROMAN YEAR. [pART I. was an intercalation of twenty-five days ; that the succeeding year there was no intercalation, but in the 282nd there were twenty- three, in the 283rd forty-six, and in the 284th twenty-two days, being an Intercalation of ninety-one days in three successive years; that, for the next ten years, the Intercalations continued regularly on the equal years, and then there were two successive years with out intercalation ; that In the 297th year the intercalations became again regular, and so continued for 91 years, but always on the unequal years, 601, 603, 605, 607, &c.; and lastly, that from the 387th to the 403rd year, there was but one intercalation of twenty- two days, in the 398th year. He strangely takes not the least notice of the cycle of twenty-four years, in which the years of Numa were adjusted to the solar years. On the contrary, he seems not to have adverted to that fact; for his whole system supposes that the Roman January passed successively through all the seasons, till at length there was an entire year of difference be tween the calendar and the solar years. An anonymous French author, of whose unpublished dissertation M. Court de Gebelin has given an abstract, dissatisfied with this plan, has given a different conjecture. Being aware of the cycle of twenty-four years, and admitting, therefore, that the confusion of the calendar was the effect either of neglect or design, he main tains that It was occasioned by the conspiracies to restore the Tarquins, a.u.c. 253 and 254. He thinks that the senate, in the last of those years, gave the pontiffs authority to abandon the use of Numa's cycle, in order to destroy the reverence of the people for their kings. From that time the alternate intercalations of twenty-two and twenty-three days were continued without any adjustment of the civil to the solar year. These intercalations fell on the unequal years ; and they were so arranged that the minor intercalation fell on the years which were afterwards called bissex tile, and, consequently, the major intercalation on common years. The reformation of the calendar by Julius Csesar fell upon an unequal year, a.u.c. 707 ; and, according to Censorinus, that year was entitled to an intercalation of twenty-three days.' ' M. Court de Gobelin, Histoire Civile Yolume, is a work of immense research. du Calendrier, p. 160-164. Court de Ge- He was an original and learned, but fan- .belin, the friend of our Franklin, was en- ciful writer. On the subject of the civil gaged with him, M. Robinet and others, history of the Calendar, he has given a in defending the cause of American inde- condensed view within a small compass of pendance. His Monde Primitif, of which the labours of bis predecessors. See lib. i. il'Histoire du Calendrier forms the fourth § iii. art. ii. CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 73 As no authorities are given for this conjecture, no refiitation need be attempted ; but, taking his premises, let us examine the con clusion to which they lead. The distance of time from a.u.c. 254 to a.u.c. 707, was 453 years, or 56 periods of eight years and five years ovet. The number of days in eight of Numa's years, with four intercalations, 2930X56=164,080. To these add five years of 355 days, with two Intercalations, 22-1-23^1820 days, and the whole 453 years of Numa so intercalated, Avould amount to 165,900 days. Take from these 165,458^^, the number of days In 453 solar years, and there remain 441| days, or one solar year and 76^ days, as the excess occasioned by over-intercalation. Thus a whole year would have been absorbed, and an encroachment made upon another year of nearly two months and a half. This would have obliged Julius Csesar to shorten. Instead of adding, as he did, to the year in which he adjusted the calendar. It seemed necessary to notice these modern attempts to break through one of the most thorny subjects in chronology, that the reader might see what the difficulties really are. That these attempts have not succeeded, proceeds not from want of industry or critical acumen, but from the scanty assistance contributed by ancient authors. It would be presumption In me, therefore, to think of effecting what they have not accomplished. But this truth may be considered as clearly established, that as In the year of Rome 563 the civil exceeded the solar year 119 days, an excess of interca lation had existed previously ; and that, as In the time of Caesar the civil year fell short of the solar, there had been a previous want of intercalation. This accords with the statement of Macrobius, that there was a time when, from superstitious motives, all intercala tion was omitted.' One extreme naturally leads to another, and the excess occasioned the subsequent defect. We are led, there fore, to consider 3. The Roman year as reformed by Julius Caesar. Suetonius gives the following account of this transaction : " He [Csesar] corrected the calendar, which had long been deranged, through the fault of the Pontiffs by unlawful Intercalations, so that the holidays (ferlse) of harvest did not accord with the summer, nor those of the vintage with the autumn. He accommodated the ' Verum fuit tempus cum propter superstitionem interkalatio omnis omissa est— Saturnal. lib. i. cap. xiv. ed. Volpii, p. 228. 10 <4 THE ROMAN YEAR. | PART t year to the course of the sun, so that it should consist of 365 days, and that, the Intercalary month being abolished, one day should be inserted every four years. That the computation of time from the new calends of January should in future be more exact, he Inter posed two other months between November and December; so that the year In which these arrangements were made, consisted of fifteen months. Including the intercalary month, which, according to custom, had taken place that year."^ So Dion Cassius : " The days of the years which did not agree well together (for even then the months were reckoned according to the periods of the moon), he [Caesar] regulated after the present manner, inserting 67 days, which were thought necessary to a complete computation. Some have said that more were Inserted ; but the truth Is as follows. By his residence at Alexandria, he learned that although they reckoned the months as consisting each of thirty days, they added to every year five days. These five days/ therefore, Csesar fitted into the months, adding two other days which he had taken from one of the months. The one day, formed from four quarters, he introduced every fourth year, leav ing only a small portion of their hours to be changed, so that it would be necessary to Insert one day In the 1461st year."^ Plutarch speaks of the erroneous computations by which the Roman year had been disordered, ascribes the fault to the arbitrary intercalations of the priests, and praises the regulations made by ' Conversus bine ad ordinandum reipub- derstand the subject. As they reckoned licse statum, fastos correxit, jam pridem only 365 days to the year, four of their ¦vitio pontificum per intercalandi licentiam years would amount to 1460 days; while adeo turbatos, ut neque messium feriae four Julian years amounted to 1461 days. aestati, neque vindemiarum autumno com- Consequently 1461 of their years, would peterent. Annumque ad cursum solis ac- be equal to 1460 Julian years. As the commodavit, ut trec,entorum sexaginta solar annual revolution is performed in quinque dierum esset, et intercalario mense 365 days 5h. 48' 454", ^^^ ""t i° 365 days sublato, unus dies quarto quoque anno in- 6 hours, four solar years amount not to tercalaretur. Quo autem magis in pos- 1461 days, but to 1460d. 23h. 15' 2", thus terum ex kalendis Januariis novis tem- falling short of four Julian years 44' 58". porum ratio congrueret, inter Novembrem In the course of 400 years, there would ac Decembrem mensem inteijecit duos be an excess in the Julian years of alios : fuitque is annus, quo haec consti- 3d. 2h. 56' 40". This led to the reforma- tuebantur, quindecim mensium cum inter- tion of the Julian calendar by Pope Gre- calario, qui ex consuetudine in eum annum gory xni, in March a.u. 1582, by the inciderat. — Sueton. Jul. Cses. § xl. ed. suppression of ten days, and the provision Wolfii, tom. i. p. 53-54, that one day should be omitted eiery ' Dion. Hist. Eom. lib. xliii. § xxvi. ed. lOOtb year, not divisible by four without a Reimar, tom. i. p. 359-360. What Dion remainder, i.e. that in all such years every Cassius here says of the 1461st year, must 25th bissextile should be counted as acom- refer to the great canicular year of the mon year. Egyptians ; but he evidently did not un- CHAP, m.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 75 Csesar ; but mentions no particulars, excepting that he acted by the advice of the ablest philosophers and mathematicians.' Pliny says that he acted under the advice of Sosigenes.^ Macrobius devotes a whole chapter to this subject. After speaking of the superstitious omission of all Intercalation and the favouritism' of the priests, he says that Caius Csesar reduced this vague and uncertain change of seasons to a fixed arrangement, by the assistance of his secretary M. Flavins. He then proceeds thus: " C. Csesar being about to introduce the new arrangement, con sumed all the days which could still cause confusion ; and thus it came to pass that the last year of confusion was extended to 443 days. Then imitating the Egyptians, who alone are acquainted with all sacred things, he resolved to regulate the year according to the number of the sun, which performs its course in 365 days and one fourth. For as the moon's year is one month, because the moon completes the circuit of the zodiac In little less than a month, so the sun's year is to be gathered from that number of days which he traverses till he returns again to the same sign from which he departed." This he says is called the annus vertens, and the word annus itself is derived from the obsolete an, signifying the same as circum. He then proceeds : " Julius Csesar, therefore, added ten days to the old computation, to make up the year of 365 days in which the sun passes through the zodiac ; and that the fourth part of a day might not be wanting, he decreed that every fourth year the priests who had charge of the months and days should Interca late one day, the Intercalation being made In the same month and place as among the ancients, that is before the last five days of February. He ordered this to be called Bissextum. The ten days which, as we have said, were added by him, he distributed In this manner: in January, Sextilis (afterwards called August), and December, he inserted two days ; and In April, June, September, and November, one. To February he made no addition, that the worship of the Infernal Gods might not be changed. March, May, Quintilis (July), and October, he preserved as they were, because they already had the full number of thirty-one days." He then proceeds to speak of his continuing the old arrangement of the ' See Plutarch's lives by the Lang- quartam Csesar dictator, annos ad solis homes: Julius Csesar. Tegg's Ed. Loud, cursum redigens singuloa, Sosigene perito 1834. p. 515. scientiee ejus adbibito.— Hist. Nat. lib. ^ Tres autem fuere sectse : Chaldsea, xxxviii. 25.ed.Brotier,tom. iii.p. 404.C.57. .Slgyptia, Graeca. His addidit apud nos 76 THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. nones, ides, &c., which I omit, because they will be best understood from an Inspection of the calendar itself.' Solinus seems strangely to have misconceived the whole subject, unless the passage be corrupted by false readings. He speaks of an intercalation by Csesar of 2 1^^ days, and of that year as con taining 340 days, while the subsequent years had 365:5." This last author alone excepted, the rest may easily be made to harmonize with what Censorinus has said in his twentieth chapter. The number ccccxlill. In Macrobius, may have been Inadvertently written, or carelessly copied, instead of ccccxlv. The latter must be the true number, because it is the sum of 355 -f 23 -f 67. It was the duty of Csesar, as Pontifex Maximus, to insert ' the Inter calary month In its proper place. This he did, and afterwards, between November and December, he Inserted sixty-seven days, as Dion and Censorinus both affirm, divided into two months of thirty-four and thirty-three days ; and thus, as Suetonius states, he made the last year of confusion to consist of fifteen months. Censorinus says that this correction took place in Caesar's third consulship with Marcus Lepidus. This, as we shall hereafter see, was subsequent to his return from Egypt. Macrobius says that he Imitated the Egyptians ; and Pliny states that he was aided by Sosigenes, who was an astronomer of Alexandria. M. Flavlus was also employed In the work. The following comparative table of the last year of confusion, will make the whole subject clear. The first column contains the number of days In that year. The Intercalary month being the Merkedonius major, the year consisted of 378 days, to which 67 being added, the number became 445. Column A shows the Year of Numa in Its confused state, occa sioned by Irregular Intercalations. Column B contains the Year of Numa, as it would have been if the cycle of twenty-four years had been strictly observed. Column 0 exhibits the last Year of Confusion, as it was arranged by Julius Csesar ; and Column D is the new Julian calendar reckoned backward, com monly called the Proleptic Julian Year. ' Sat. lib. i. c. xiv. cetero statuta ordinis sui tempera detine- ° Itaque Caius Csesar universam banc, rent. Die ergo solus annus trecentos incisa temporum turbatione, composuit, et quadraginta dies habuit ; alii deinceps ut statum certum prseteritus acciperet sexagenos quinos et quadrantem. — Solinus error, dies xxi. et quadrantem simul inter- Polyhistor, cap, iii. ap. Petav. Doct. Temp. calavit. Quo pacto regradati menses de tom. i. p. 160, last Year of Confii- BiOD of 445 A B C D Days. 1 1 Jan. Kai. 23 Oct. x 1 Jan. Kai. 13 Oct. iii 2 2 iv 24 ix 2 iv 14 Prid. 3 3 . iii 25 viii 3 iii 15 Idus. 4 4 Prid. 20 vii 4 Prid. 16 xvii 5 5 Non. 27 vi 6 Non. 17 xvi 6 6 viii 28 V 6 viii 18 XY 7 7 vii 29 iv 7- vii 19 xiv 8 8 vi 30 iii 8 vi 20 xiii 9 10 9 10 V iv 31 Prid. 9 10 v iv 21 22 xii xi 1 Nov. Kai. 11 11 iii 2 iv 11 iii 23 X 12, 12 Prid. 3 iii 12 Prid. 24 ix 13 13 Idus. 4 Prid. 13 Tdus. 25 viii 14. 14 xvii 5 Non. 14 xvii 26 vii 16 15 xvi 6 viii 15 xvi 27 vi 16 16 XV 7 vii 16 XV 28 v 17 17 xiv 8 vi 17 xiv 29 iv 18 18 xiii 9 Y 18 xiii 30 iii 19 20 19 20 xii xi 1011 iv iii 19 20 xii xi 31 Prid. 1 Nov. Kai. 21 21 X 12 Prid. 21 x 2 iv 22 22 ix 13 Idus. 22 ix 3 iii 23 23 viii 14 xvii 23 viii 4 Prid. 24 24 vii 15 xvi 24 vii 5 Non. 25 >25 vi 16 XY 25 vi 6 viii 26 26 V 17 xiv 26 V 7 vii. 27 27 iv 18 xiii 27 iv 8 vi 28 28 iii 19 xii 28 iii 9 v 2930 29 Prid. 2021 xi X 29 Prid. 1011 iv iii 1 Feb. Kai. 1 Feb. Kai 31 2 iv 22 ix 2 iv 12 Prid. 32 3 iii 23 viii 3 iii 13 Idus. 33 4 Prid. 24 vii 4 Prid. 14 xviii 34 5 Kon. 25 vi 5 Non. 15 xvii 35 6 viii 26 v 6 viii 16 xvi 36 7 vii 27 iv 7 vii 17 XV 37 8 vi 28 iii 8 vi 18 xiv 3839 9 10 V iv :29 Prid. 9 10 V iv 19 20 xiii xii ¦ 1 Dec. Kai. 40 11 iii 2 iv U iii 21 xi 41 12 Prid. 3 iii 12 Prid. 22 X 42 13 Idus. 4 Prid. 13 Idus. 23 ix 43 14 xvi 5 Non. 14 xvi 24 viii 44 15 XV 6 viii 15 XV 25 vii 45 16 xiv 7 vii 16 xiv 26 vi 46 17 xiii 8 vi 17 xiii 27 V 47 18 xii 9 v 18 xii 28 iv 48 19 xi 10 iv 19 xi 29 iii 49 50 20 21 x ix 11 12 iii Prid. 2021 X ix 30 Prid. 1 Dec. Kai. Last rear ot Confu sion of 445 Bays. A B C D 51 22 Feb. viii 13 Dec. Idus 22 Feb. viii 2 Dec, iv 5353 23 vii 14 15 xvii xvi 23 vii 3 4 iii Prid, 1 L"""Kal. I DOBIU5 ^^'• 54 2 MAjoa 7Y 16 XY 2 MAJOB iy 5 Non. 55 3 .i 17 xiv 3 iii 6 viii 56 4 Prid. 18 xiii 4 Prid. 7 vii 57 5 Non. 19 xii 5 Non. 8 vi 58 6 viii 20 xi 6 viii 9 v 59 7 vii 21 x 7 vii 10 iv 60 8 vi 22 ix 8 vi 11 iii 61 9 v 23 viii 9 v 12 Prid. 62 10 iv 24 vii 10 iv 13 Idus. 63 11 iii 25 vi 11 iii 14 xix 64 12 Prid. 26 v 12 Prid. 15 xviii 65 13 Idus. 27 iv 13 Idus. 16 xvii 66 14 xvi 28 iii 14 xvi 17 xvi 6768 1516 XV xiv 29 Prid. 1616 XY xiv 18 19 XY xiv 1 Jan. Kai. 69 17 xiii 2 iv 17 xiii 20 xiii 70 18 xii 3 iii 18 xii 21 xii 71 19 xi 4 Prid. 19 xi 22 xi 72 20 X 6 Non. 20 X 23 X 73 21 ix 6 viii 21 ix 24 ix 74 22 viii 7 vii 22 viii 26 viii 75 76 23 vii 89 vi v 23 vii 26 27 vii vi 24 Feb. vi 24 Feb. vi 77 25 Y 10 iv 25 Y 28 v 78 26 iv 11 iii 26 iv 29 iv 79 27 iii 12 Prid, 27 iii 30 iii 8081 28 Prid. - 13 14 Idus. xvii 28 Prid. 31 Prid. 1 Mait. Kai. 1 Mart. Kai. 1 Jan. Kai. 82 2 vi 15 xvi 2 vi 2 iv 83 3 V 16 XV 3 Y 3 iii 84 4 iv 17 xiv 4 iv 4 Prid. 85 5 iii 18 xiii 6 iii 5 Non. 86 6 Prid. 19 xii 6 Prid. 6 viii 87 7 Non. 20 xi 7 Non. 7 vii 88 8 viii 21 X 8 viii 8 vi 89 9 vii 22 ix 9 vii 9 V 90 10 vi 23 viii 10 vi 10 iv 91 11 v 24 vii 11 v 11 iii 92 12 iv 25 vi 12 iv 12 Prid. 93 13 iii 26 Y 13 iii 13 Idus. 94 14 Prid. 27 iv 14 Prid. 14 xix 95 15 Idus. 28 iii 15 Idus. 15 xviii 96 97 16 17 xvii xvi 29 1 Prid. 1617 xvii xvi 16 17 xvii xvi Feb. Kai. 98 18 XV 2 iv 18 XY 18 XY 99 19 xiv 3 iii 19 xiv 19 xiv 100 20 xiii 4 Prid. 20 xiii 20 xiii LmI Year of Coiil^i- Bion of 4^6 Days. A B C D 101 21 Mart. x;i. 5 Febr. Non. 21 Mart, xii 21 Jan. xii 102 • 22 xi 6 viii 22 xi 22 xi 103 23 X 7 vii 23 X 23 X 104 24 ix 8 vi 24 ix 24 ix 105 25 viii 9 T 25 viii 25 viii 106 26 vii 10 iv 26 vii 26 vii 107 27 vi U iii 27 vi 27 vi 108 28 v 12 Prid. 28 V 28 V 109 \ii) iv 13 Idus. 29 iv 29 iv 110 30 iii 14 xvi 30 iii 30 iii 111 112 -31 Prid. 15 16 XV xiv 31 Prid. 31 Prid. 1 April. Kai. 1 April. Kai. 1 Feb. Kai. 113 2 iv 17 xiii 2 iv 2 iv 114 3 iii 18 xii 3 iii 3 iii 116 4 Prid. 19 xi 4 Prid. 4 Prid. 116 5 Non, 20 X 5 Non. 6 Non. 117 6 viii 21 ix 6 viii 6 viii 118 7 vii 22 viii 7 vii 7 vii 119120121 89 10 vi Y iv 23 vii 89 10 vi V iv 89 10 vi Y iv 1 2 "'"""'¦Kai.D0NIU3-* .**^' MAJOE iv 122 11 iii 3 iii 11 iii 11 iii 123 12 Prid. 4 Prid. 12 Prid. 12 Prid. 124 13 Idus. 6 Non. 13 Idus, 13 Idus. 125 14 xvii 6 viii 14 xvii 14 xvi 126 15 xvi 7 vii 16 xvi 15 XV 127 16 XY 8 vi 16 XY 16 xiv 128 17 xiv 9 v 17 xiv 17 xiii 129 18 xiii 10 iv 18 xiii 18 xii 130 19 xii 11 iii 19 xii 19 xi 131 20 xi 12 Prid. 20 xi 20 X 132 21 X 13 Idus. 21 X 21 ix 133 22 ix 14 xvi 22 ix 22 viii 134 23 viii 15 XV 23 viii 23 vii 135 24 vii 16 xiv 24 vii 24 vi 136 25 vi 17 xiii 26 vi 25 v 137 26 v 18 xii 26 V 26 iv 138 27 iv 19 xi 27 iv 27 iii 139 140 141 2829 iii Prid. ¦¦ 202122 X ix . viii 2829 iii Prid. 28 Prid. 1 2 Mart. Kai. vi 1 Majus, Kai. 1 Majus, Kai 142143 2 3 vi v 23 vii 2 3 vi Y 3 4 V iv 24 Feb. vi 144 4 iv 25 v 4 iv 5 iii 145 5 iii 26 iv 5 iii 6 Prid. 146 6 Prid. 27 iii 6 Prid. 7 Non. 147148 78 Non. viii 28 Prid. 7 8 Non. viii 8 9 viii vii 1 Mart. Kai. 149 9 vii 2 vi 9 vii 10 vi Last Year ^^^ of Confu sion of 445 A B C D Days. 150 10 Majus vi 3 Mart. V 10 Majus vi 11 Martius Y 151 11 Y 4 iv 11 v 12 iv 152 12 iv 5 iii 12 iv 13 iii 153 13 iii 6 Prid. 13 iii 14 Prid, 154 14 Prid. 7 Non. 14 Prid. 15 Idus, 155 15 Idus, 8 viii 15 Idus. 16 xvii 156 16 xvii 9 vii 16 xvii 17 xvi 157 17 xvi 10 vi 17 xvi 18 XY 158 18 XV 11 v 18 XV 19 xiv 169 19 xiv 12 iv 19 xiv 20 xiii 160 20 xiii 13 iii 20 xiii 21 xii 161 21 xii 14 Prid, 21 xii 22 xi 162 22 xi 15 Idus, 22 xi 23 X 163 23 x 16 xvii 23 X 24 ix 164 24 ix 17 xvi 24 ix 25 viii 166 26 viii 18 XV 25 viii 26 vii 166 26 vii 19 xiv 26 vii 27 vi 167 27 vi 20 xiii 27 vi 28 V 168 28 V 21 xii 28 V 29 iv 169 29 iv 22 xi 29 iv 30 iii 170 171 172 30SI iii Prid. 23 2425 X ix viii 30 31 iii Prid, 31 Prid. 1 2 April. Kai. iv 1 Junius, Kai. 1 Junius Kai. 173 2 iv 26 vii 2 iv 3 iii 174 3 iii 27 vi 3 iii 4 Prid. 175 4 Prid. 28 V 4 Prid. 5 Non, 176 5 Non. 29 iv 5 Non. 6 viii 177 6 viii 30 iii 6 viii 7 vii 178179 7 8 vii vi 31 Prid. 78 vii vi 89 vi V 1 April. Kai. 180 9 v 2 iv 9 v 10 iv 181 10 iv 3 iii 10 iv 11 iii [ 182 U iii 4 Prid, 11 iii 12 Prid, 183 12 Prid. 5 Non. 12 Prid. 13 Idus. 184 13 Idus. 6 viii 13 Idus. 14 xviii 185 14 xvii 7 vii 14 xvii 15 xvii 186 15 xvi 8 vi 15 xvi 16 xvi 187 16 XV 9 v 16 XV 17 XV 188 17 xiv 10 iv 17 xiv 18 xiv 189 18 xiii 11 iii 18 xiii 19 xiii 190 19 xii 12 Prid. 19 xii 20 xii 191 20 xi 13 Idus. 20 xi 21 xi 192 21 X 14 xvii 21 X 22 X 193- 22 ix 15 xvi 22 ix 23 ix 194 23 viii 16 XV 23 viii 24 viii 195 24 vii 17 xiv 24 vii 25 vii 196 25 vi 18 xiii 25 vi 26 vi 197 26 v 19 xii 26 v 27 v 198 27 iv 20 xi 27 iv 28 iv 199 28 iii 21 X 28 iii •?.9 iii 200 29 Prid, 22 ix 29 Prid. 30 Prid, Last Year fit Confu sion of 445 A B c D Days. 201 1 Quint. Kai. 23 April, viii 1 Quint. Kai. 1 Majus, Kai. 202 2 vi 24 vii 2 vi 2 vi 203 3 V 25 vi 3 V 3 V 204 4 iv 20 V 4 iv 4 iv 205 5 iii 27 iv 6 iii 5 iii 206 6 Prid. 28 iii 6 Prid. 6 Prid. 207208 7 8 Non. viii 29 1 Prid. 78 Non. viii 7 8 Non. viii Majus, Kai. 209 9 vii 2 vi 9 vii 9 vii 210 10 vi 3 v 10 vi 10 vi 211 11 V 4 iv 11 Y 11 V 212 12 iv 5 iii 12 iv 12 iv 213 13 iii 6 Prid. 13 iii 13 iii 214 14 Prid. 7 Non. 14 Prid. 14 Prid. 216 15 Idus. 8 viii 15 Idus. 16 Idus. 216 16 xvii 9 vii 16 xvii 16 xvii 217 17 xvi 10 vi 17 xvi 17 xvi 218 18 XY 11 v 18 XV 18 XV 219 19 xiv 12 iv 19 xiv 19 xiv 220 20 xiii 13 iii 20 xiii 20 xiii 221 21 xii 14 Prid. 21 xii 21 xii 222 22 xi 15 Idus. 22 xi 22 xi 223 23 X 16 xvii 23 X 23 X 224 24 ix 17 xvi 24 ix 24 ix 225 25 viii 18 XV 25 viii 26 viii 226 26 vii 19 xiv 26 vii 26 vii 227 27 vi 20 xiii 27 vi 27 vi 228 28 V 21 xii 28 v 28 V 229 29 iv 22 xi 29 iv 29 iv 230 30 iii 23 X 30 iii 30 iii 231 232 31 Prid. 2425 ix viii 31 Prid. 31 Prid. 1 Sextil. Kai. 1 Sextil, Kai. 1 Jun. Kai. 233 2 iv 26 vii 2 iv 2 iv 234 3 iii 27 vi 3 iii 3 iii 235 4 Prid. 28 V 4 Prid. 4 Prid. 236 5 Non. 29 iv 5 Non. 6 Non. 237 6 viii 30 iii 6 viii 6 viii 238 239 7 8 vii vi 31 Prid, 78 vii vi 7 8 vii vi 1 Jun. Kai. 240 9 v 2 iv 9 V 9 V 241 10 iv 3 iii 10 iv 10 iv 242 11 iii 4 Prid. 11 iii 11 iii 243 12 Prid. 5 Non. 12 Prid. 12 Prid. 244 13 Idus. 6 viii 13 Idus. 13 Idus. 245 14 xvii 7 vii 14 xvii 14 xviii 246 15 xvi 8 vi 15 xvi 15 xvii 247 16 XY 9 Y 16 XV 16 xvi 248 17 xiv 10 iv 17 xiv 17 XV 249 18 xiii U iii 18 xiii 18 xiv 250 19 xii 12 Prid. 19 xii 19 Xiii 251 20, xi 13 Idus. 20 xi 20 xii 252 21 X 14 xvii 21 X 21 xi n Last Tear of Confu sion of 443 Days. A B C D 263 22 Sextil. ix 15 Jun. xvi 22 Sext. ix 22 Junius, X 254 23 viii 16 XV 23 viii 23 ix 256 24 vii 17 xiv 24 vii 24 viii 266 26 vi 18 xiii 25 vi 25 vii 257 26 v 19 xii 26 v 26 vi 258 27 iv 20 xi 27 iv 27 V 259 28 iii 21 X 28 iii 28 iv 260261262 29 Prid. 2223 24 ix viii vii 29 Prid. 29 30 iii Prid. 1 2 Sept Kai. iv 1 2 Sept. Kai. iv 1 Quint. Kai, 263 3 iii 26 vi 3 iii 2 vi 264 4 Prid. 26 V 4 Prid. 3 v 265 5 Non. 27 iv 6 Non. 4 iv 266 6 viii 28 iii 6 viii 5 iii 267 7 vii 29 Prid. 7 vii 6 Prid. Non. 268 8 vi 1 Quint. Kai. 8 vi 7 viii 269 9 V 2 vi 9 V 8 270 10 iv 3 V 10 iv 9 vii 271 11 iii 4 iv 11 iii 10 vi 272 12 Prid. 6 iii 12 Prid. 11 V 273 13 Idus. 6 Prid, 13 Idus. 12 iv 274 14 xvii 7 Non. 14 xvii 13 iii 275 15 xvi 8 viii 15 xvi 14 Prid. 276 16 XV 9 vii 16 XV 15 Idus. 277 17 xiv 10 vi 17 xiv 16 xvii 278 18 xiii 11 V 18 xiii 17 xvi 279 19 xii 12 iv 19 xii 18 XV 280 20 xi 13 iii 20 xi 19 xiv 281 21 X 14 Prid. 21 X 20 xiii 282 22 ix 16 Idus. 22 ix 21 xii 283 23 viii 16 xvii 23 viii 22 xi 284 24 vii 17 xvi 24 vii 23 x 285 25 vi 18 XV 25 vi 24 ix 286 26 V 19 xiv 26 V 25 viii 287 27 iv 20 xiii 27 iv 26 vii 288 28 iii 21 xii 28 iii 27 vi 289 290 29 Prid. 22 23 xi X 29 ' Prid. 2829 V iv 1 Oct. Kai. 1 Octob. Kai, 291 2 vi 24 ix 2 vi 30 iii 292 293 3 4 v iv 25 26 viii vii 3 4 V iv 31 Prid. 1 Sextil. Kai. 294 5 iii 27 vi 6 iii 2 iv 295 6 Prid. 28 V 6 Prid. 3 iii 296 7 Non. 29 iv 7 Non. 4 Prid. 297 8 viii 30 iii 8 viii 5 Non. 298 299 9 10 vii vi 31 Prid. 9 10 vii vi 67 viii vii 1 Sext. Kai. 300 11 V 2 iv 11 V 8 vi 301 12 iv 3 iii 12 iv 9 V Last Year ^™" of Confu sion of 445 A B C D Days. 302 13 Octob. iii. 4 Sextil. Prid. 13 Octob. iii 10 Sextil. iv 303 14 Prid. 6 Non. 14 Prid. 11 iii 304 16 Idus. 6 viii 15 Idus. 12 Prid, 305 16 xvii 7 vii 16 xvii 13 Idus, 306 17 xvi 8 vi 17 xvi 14 xix 307 18 XV 9 v 18 XV 15 xviii 308 19 xiv 10 iv 19 xiv 16 xvii 309 20 xiii 11 iii 20 xiii 17 xvi 310 21 xii 12 Prid. 21 xii 18 XV 311 22 xi 13 Idus. 22 xi 19 xiv 312 23 x 14 xvii 23 X 20 xiii 313 24 ix 16 xvi 24 ix 21 xii 314 25 viii 16 XV 25 viii 22 xi 315 26 vii 17 xiv 26 vii 23 X 316 27 vi 18 xiii 27 vi 24 ix 317 28 V 19 xii 28 v 25 viii 318 29 iv 20 xi 29 iv 26 vii 319 30 iii 21 X 30 iii 27 vi 320 321 31 Prid. 22 23 ix viii 31 Prid. 28 29 v iv 1 Nov. Kai. 1 Nov. Kai. 322 2 iv 24 vii 2 iv 30 iii 323324 3 4 iii Prid. 25 26 vi V 3 4 iii Prid. 31 Prid. 1 Sept. Kai. 326 6 Non. 27 iv 5 Non. 2 iv 326 6 viii 28 iii 6 viii 3 iii 327328 78 vii vi 29 Prid. 7 8 vii vi 45 Prid.Non. 1 Sept, Kai. 329 9 v 2 iv 9 V 6 viii 330 10 iv 3 iii 10 iv 7 vii 331 11 iii 4 Prid. 11 iii 8 vi 332 12 Prid. 5 Non. 12 Prid. 9 V 333 13 Idus. 6 viii 13 Idus. 10 iv 334 14 xvii 7 vii 14 xvii 11 iii 335 15 xvi 8 vi 16 xvi 12 Prid. 336 16 XV 9 V 16 XV 13 Idus, 337 17 xiv 10 iv 17 xiv 14 xviii 338 18 xiii 11 iii 18 xiii 16 xvii 339 19 xii 12 Prid. 19 xii 16 xvi 340 20 xi 13 Idus. 20 xi 17 XV 341 21 X 14 xvii 21 X 18 xiv 342 22 ix 15 xvi 22 ix 19 xiii 343 23 viii 16 XY 23 viii 20 xii 344 24 vii 17 xiv 24 vii 21 xi 345 26 vi 18 xiii 25 vi 22 X 346 26 v 19 xii 26 V 23 ix 347 27 iv 20 xi 27 iv 24 viii 348 28 iii 21 x 28 iii 25 vii 349 360351 29 Prid. 22 2324 ix viii vii 29 Prid. 26 27 28 vi v iv 1 2 Dec. Kai. iv 1 2 I. Inter. lr„l M.ofJul.^'^'- CBesar of yi 362 3 iii 25 vi 3 33 Days. V 29 iii ^4^050505050505050505050305 oocococScococococococooooo"oSoovlOlO. *.05tO — OtOOO 05 05 05 00 00 00 »^ O) en 05 05 05 05 03 05 00 QC or- Cn Ol Ol *. 05 Last Tear of Confu sionof445 Days. tOtOtOtO*— '' — ' — ¦^-^t^-'.— '•—•¦— '>-JH^ 05tO'-OCOOO iv iii Prid, Idus. xvii xvi XV xiv xiii xii xi X ix viii < 2. s: 1 21 B; o ,-. B Jan. Kai. iv iii Prid. |.:,..S.d:|:R-xb.S:g:a.Xgj|gH:5-.S. Non. viii vii p 1 js,.wtO'-'OCDOO'.WtOi— 1 05 05 to 1— O CO to to 00 -1 to to to to 05 Ol *. 05 t0^oSS-^Ol5<1^03IO^OCOOOVI010>*.03tOl- to to to CO 00 VI toOl w Nov. Kai. iv iii Prid. Non. viii vii vi v iv iii Prid, Idus. xvii S=i. < 3. bJiS'x Oct. Kai. vi Y iv iii Prid. Non. viii vii vi ¦ v iv iii Prid. Idus. xvii xvi XV xiv xiii xii xi p.',- COCD to — ocoait>.05to^occ 05 03 05 00 ^ Ol ^^ 05 05 03 01 03 to ?-• O gg^gg^gg^§ss5s;5;:5;MS:::Sccoo on *. 03 to ^ iii Prid. Non. i-R Prid. Non. viii vii vi v iv iii Prid. Idus. XX xix xviii xvii Intercalation of six y-seven day s by Julius CsEsar between the months of November and December of the year of Numa. ..301C;»rf^05lO^OCOOD^O^Cn»*. 05 to w 05 05 — O (o to to to CO QD ¦ccxLvm anno ejusdem Tyranni potius Epist. Prima Dionysii Exigui apud Petav. quim Principis inchoantes, noluimus cir- de Doct. Temp. tom. ii. Appendix, p. 498. , 4 CHOIUEBDS ANTIMA- CHDS ANDUO- CLUS POLY- CHAKES aSCHINES 21-22- 23-24-25-26- 27-28^ 29- 30-31-32- 33-34- 35- 36-37- 38-39- 40- 3958_ -Ol. VI. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. vn - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -O.vni.- ,. 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. IX. - „2 - ., 3 - ,. 4 - Ol. X. - „ 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 OlBOLAS DIOCLES or DAB,CL£S ANTICLES XENOCLES DOTADES 3939 .3959 3940 3960 3941 3981 1 3942_ 3962_ 2 3943 3963 3 3944 3964 4 3945 3965 5 3946_ 3966_ 6 3947 3967 Thoth 1 Fcbr. 26 7 3948 3968 2 89 10 3949 3969 3 3950_ 3970_ 4 T. Feb. 2S 3951 3971 56 11 3952 3972 3973 12 3953 7 13 3954- 3974_ 8 T. Peb. 2-1 9 14 3955 3975 39763977 15 3956 10 16 3957 11 17 Olym. years of Censo rinus. Julian I'mod. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. m ^ra Nabon. Olym. years of Censo rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. victors in Stadium. ^ra Nabon. 41- 42- 43- 44- 45-46-47- 48- 49- 50-51- 52-5.3- 54- 55- 56-57- 58- 69-60- 3978_ 3979 - Ol. xi. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xii. - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 - Ol. xm. - ,. a - .. 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xiv. ,. 2 - ,, 3 - „ 4 - Ol. XT. - ,> 2 - ,. 3 - ,, 4 LEOCHA- KES 'oxy themis DIOCLES DESMON OKSTP- PUS 18 12 T.Peb.23 61- 62- 63- 64- 65-66- 67-68- 69- 70-71-72-73- 74-75- 76- 77-78- 79- 80- 3998_ - Ol. xvi. - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. xvii. - „ 2 - >, 3 - „ 4 -Ol. xvm. - „ 2 -¦ » 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xix. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. XX. - >, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 PYTHA GORAS POTUS TULLUS or TELLIS MENUS ATHE RADAS 38 39 32 T.Feb.IS 13 3999 33 19 3980 14 4000 34 20 40 3981 15 4001 35 21 414243 3982_ 16 T.Feb.22 4002_ 36 T.Feb.l7 22 3983 17 4003 37 23 3984 18 4004 38 24 44 45464748 3985 19 4005 39 25 3986_ 20 T.i'eb.21 4006_ 40 T.Peb.lG 26 3987 21 4007 41 27 3988 22 4008 42 2829 3989 23 4009 43 49 505152 3990_ 24 T.Feb.20 4010_ 44 T.Feb.15 30 3991 25 4011 45 313233 3992 26 4012 46 3993 27 4013 47 53 3994_ 28 T.Feb.19 4014 48 T.Feb.M 34 54 3995 3996 29 4015 49 3536 37 55 30 4016 50 5657 3997 31 4017 51 124 THE TABLES. [part I. Olym. years of Censorinus. Jnlian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. ^ra Nabon. Olym. years ot Censorinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. Mm Nabon. 81-82-83- 84-85-86-87-88- 89- 90-91- 92- 93-94-95-96- 97-98-99- lOO- 4018_ - Ol. xxi. - „ 2 - >. 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xxii. - >. 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol.xxhl - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xxiv. - ., 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xxv. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 PANTA CLES i'ANTA- CLES.II.ICABIUS CLEOP TOLE MUS THALPIS 52 T.Pcb.l3 101- 102-103-104- 105-106-107-108-109- 110-111-112- 113- 114- 115- 116- 117-118-119- 120- 4038_ - OL.XXVI. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. xxvil - „ 2 - » 3 - „ 4 -OL.xxvm - » 2 - » 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xxix. - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xxx. - ., 2 - .. 3 - „ 4 CA LIS- THENES EURT- BUS, or EURIBO TAS CHAR- MIS CHIONIS CHIONIS II. 72 T. Feb. S 5859606162 78 4019 53 4039 73 79 80 4020 54 4040 74 4021 55 4041 75 81 4022_ 56 T.Peb.12 4042_ 76 T. Feb. 7 82 4023 57 4043 7778 63 83 4024 58 4044 64 65 84 4025 59 4045 79 85 8687 4026_ 60 T.Feb.U 4046_ 80 T. Feb. 6 66 4027 61 4047 81 67 4028 62 4048 82 68 88 4029 63 4049 83 69 70 89 4030 64 T.Feb.lo 4050_ 84 T. Feb. 5 90 4031 65 4051 85 71 91 4032 66 4052 86 72 92 4033 67 4053 87 73 93 94 4034_ 68 T.Feb. 9 4054_ 88 T. Feb. 4 74 4035 69 4055 89 75 95 4036 70 4056 90 76 96 4037 71 4057 91 77 97 CHAP. T.] THE TABLES. 125 Olym. years ot Censo- inus. Julian Period. Olympiads. ¦ 5' Years from bdg.Kome. Censorinus. jEra Nabon. 31ym. years Ilenso--inus. Julian Period. OlympiadSi ll Tearsfrom bdg. Bome. Censorinus. Mm Nabon. 121- 122- 123- 124- 125-126-127-128- 120-130- 131-132- 133- 134- 135- 136- 137-138- 139- 140 4058_ - Ol.xxxl - „ 2 - ,, 3 ;hionis III. 92 T. Peb. 3 141- 142- 143- 144- 145- 146- 147-148- 149-150-151- 152-153- 154-155-156-157- 407 8_ -Ol.xxxvl- „ 2 - ,, 3 - « 4 -0. xxxvn. - » 2 - » 3 - ,. 4 -O.XXXVIII - ,, 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 -Ol. xxxix - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 - Ol. XL. - » 2 - ,, 3 - „ 4 PHRT- NON EURY CLIDAS OLYN THEUS RIPSO LAUS, 01 RIPSOL KOS OLYN THEUS. II. 112 T.Jan.29 98 99 118 4059 93 4079 113 119 4060 94 4080 114 100 120 4061 95 4081 115 - ,, 4 101 121 4062_ -Ol. xxxn. - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 -OL.xxxin - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 -Ol. xxxiv - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol.xxxv. - „ 2 - .. 3 CRATI NUS GYGIS STOMUS SPHffi- RDS 96 T. Peb. 2 4082_ 116 T.Jim.28 102 122 4063 97 4083 117 103 123 4064 98 4084 118 104 124 40654066_ 99 4085 119 105 125 100 T. Feb. 1 4086_ 120 T.Jan.27 106 126 4067 101 4087 121 107 127 4068 102 4088 122 108 128 4069 103 4089 123 109 129 4070_ 104 T.Jan,31 4090_ 124 T.Jan.26 110 130 4071 105 4091 125 HI 131 4072 106 4092 126 112 132 4073 107 4093 127 113 133 4074_ 4075 108 T.Jali.30 4094_ 128 T.Jan,25 114 134 109 158- 159- 160- 4095 129 115 ¦135 4076 110111 4096 130 116 136 4077 - » 4 4097 131 117 137 ,^_^ 126 THE TABLES. [part I. _ Olyra. years of Censo- rlnus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. III III ^ra NaboD. Olym years of Censo rinua. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. III .^ra Nabon. 161-162- 163-164- 165- 166-167- 168-169- 170-171- 172- 173- 174-175-176- 177-178- 179- 180- 4098_ - Ol. xli. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xlil - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. XLnL - „ 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xliv. - „ 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xlv. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 CLEON* THUS LYCOTAS CLEON GELON ANTI- CRATES 138 132 T.Jan.24 181- 182-183- 184- 185- 186- 187-188- 189-190- 191-192- 193- 194-19.5-196- 197- 198-199-200- 4118_ - Ol. xlvi. - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 • Ol. xlvii ~ „ 2 - ,, 3 - „ 4 -OL.KLVin. - „ 2 - „ 3 - >, 4 - Ol. xlix. - „ 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 - Ol. l. - „ 2 - ¦„ 3 - „ 4 CHRYSOMACHUS or CHRYSA MAXOS EDBT- CLES OLTCON LYCINUS EPETE- LIDAS 1,52 T.Jan.19 158 4099 133 4119 153 139 159 4100 134 4120 154 140 160 4101 135 4121 155 141 161 4102_ 136 T.Jan.23 4122_ 156 T.Jan, 18 142 143 162 4103 137 4123 157 163164 4104 138 4424 158 144 4105 139 4125 159 145 165 166 167 4106_ 140 T.Jan.22 4126_ 160 T.Jan,17 146 4107 4108 141 4127 161 147 142 4128 162 148 168 169 170 4109 143 4129 163 149 4110_ 144 T.Jan.21 4130_4131 164 T,Jan.l6 150 4111 145 165 166 151 171 4112 146 4132 152 172 173 4113 147 4133 167 153 4114_ 148 T.Jan.20 4134_ 168 T.Jan.l5 169 154 174 4115 149 4135 4136 155 175 4116 150 170 156 176 177 4117 151 4137 171 157 CHAP, v."] THE TABLES. 127 Olym. years of Censo rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. Ill ^ra Nabon. Olym, years ot ;3enso- rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. III ^ra Nabon. 201- 202-203- 204- 205-206- 207- 208-209- 210-211- 212-213- 214- 215- 216- 217- 218- 219- 220- 4138_ 4139 - Ol. ll - „ 2 - „ 3 - .. 4 - Ol. lu. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. liii. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. liv. - „ 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 - Ol. lv. - „ 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 ERATOS THENES AGIS ANON, or AGNON HIPPOS TRATUSHIPPOSTRATUS. II. 172 T.Jan.l4 221-222- 223- 224-225-226-227- 228-229-230-231-232- 233-234-235- 236- 237- 238-239-240- 4158_ - Ol. lvi. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. lvil - „ 2 - ,, 3 - „ 4 -Ol. lviil - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,'> 4 - Ol. lix. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. lx. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 PH,E- DRUS LADRO- NIUS DIO GNETUS ARCHI LOCHUS iPEL- LiEUS 192 T. Jan, 9 178 198 199 173 4159 193 179 4140 174 4160 194 180 200 4141 175 4161 195 181 201 4142 _ 176 T.Jan.13 4162_ 196 T,Jan.8 182 202203204205 206 207 208 4143 177 4163 197 183 4144 178 4164 198 184 4145 179 4165 199 185 186 4146_ 180 T.Jan.l2 4166__ 200 T.Jan. 7 4147 181 4167 201 187 4148 4149 182 4168 202 188 189 183 4169 203 209 4150_ 184 T.Jan,ll 4170_ 204 T. Jan. 6 190 210 4151 185 4171 205 191192193 194 211 212 4152 186 4172 206 4153 187 4173 207 213 4154_ 188 T, Jan .10 4174_ 208 T.Jan, 5 214 4155 4156 189 4175 209 195 196197 215 190 4176 210 216 217 4157 191 4177 211 128 THE TABLES. [part I. oi™ yea' of Censo.Inus, Jnlian Period, Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. xS3 Sm Nabon. Olym years ot Censorinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. III;w3u ,£ra Nabon. 241- 242-243- 244- 245- 246-247- 248-249-250- 251- 252-253- 254- 255- 256-257- 258-259-260- 4178_ - Ol. Lxi. - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 - Ol. lxii. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - 0L.Lxni. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. lxiv. - „ 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 - Ol. lxv. - „ 2 - >¦ 3 - ,, 4 AGA THAR CUS ERYX IAS PARME NIDES MENAN DRUS, or EVAN- DRAS AMA- CHUS, or AXO- CHAS 212 T. Jan. 4 261- 262-263- 264r- 265- 266- 267- 268- 269-270-271-272-273- 274-275-276- 277- 278-279-280- 4198_ -OL.LXVL- „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 -Ol. LXVIL - >. 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol, LXVUI - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. lxix. - ., 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. lxx. - „ 2 - >. 3 - „ i ISCHY RUS PHAN NAS ISOMA CHUS rsoMA- CHUS.II. NICEAS, or NICAIS TAS 233 218 238 4179 213 4199 234 219 220 221 222 239 240 4180 214 4200 235 4131 215 4201 236 T.Dec.29 241 4182_ 4183 216 T. Jan. 3 4202_ 237 242 217 4203 238 223 243 4184 218 4204 239 224 225 244 4185 219 4205 240 T.Dec.28 245 4186_ 220 T. Jan. 2 4206_ 241 226 246 247 4187 221 4207 242 227 4188 222 4208 243 228 248 4189 223 4209 244 TJJec.27 229230 249 4190 224 T. Jan. 1 4210_ 245 250 4191 225 4211 246 231 251 4192 ,226 4212 247 232 252 4193 Bissext. 227 T. Jan. 1 228 T.Dec.31 4213 248 T.Dcc.26 233 253 4194_ 229 T,Dee.31 4214_ 249 234 254 4195 230 4215 250 235 255 4196 231 4216 251252 TJ)ec55 236 256 4197 232 T.DecaO 4217 237 257 CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 129 Olym. years ot Censo-rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. 1 ,fira Nabon. Olym. years of Censo rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads, Victors in Stadium, pi III Mm Nabon, 281- 282- 283- 284- 285-286- 287-288- 289-290-291-292-293- 294- 295-296- 297-298-299- 300- 4218_ -OL.LXXL- » 2 - ,. 3 - ,, 4 -Ol. Lxxn. - ,, 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 -OL.Lxxm - ,, 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 -Ol. ixxiv - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol.i,xxv.- „ 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 TISI CRATES TISI CRATES. II. ASTYA LUS ASTYA LUS. II. ASTYA LUS. III. 253 301- 302- 303- 304-305-306- 307-308-309-310-311-312-313-314- 315-316-317- 318- 319-320- 4238_ -OL.LXXVL- „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -0. LXXVIL - „ 2 - „ 3 - .. 4 -O.LXxvm- „ 2 - » 3 - „ 4 -Ol. LXXIX - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -OL.LXXX - ,, 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 SCAMAN DRUS DANDINUS, or DANDIS PARME NIDES XENO PHON TDRYM- MAS 273 258 278 4219 254 4239 274 259 279 4220 255 4240 275 260 280 4221 256 T.Dec.24 4241 276 T.Dec.l9 261 281 4222_4223 257 4242_ 277 262 282 258 4243 278 263 283 4224 259 4244 279 264 284285 4225 260 T.Dec.23 4245 280 T.DeclS 265 4226_ 261 4246_ 281 266 286 4227 262 4247 282 267 287 4228 263 4248 283 268 288 4229 264 T.Dec.22 4249 284 T.Decl? 269 289 4230_ 265 4250_ 285 270 290 4231 266 4251 286 271 291 4232 267 4252 287 272 292 4233 268 T,Dee.21 4253 288 T.Decie 273 293 4234_ 4235 269 4254_ 289 290 274 294 270 4255 275 295 4236 271 4256 291 276 296 4237 272 T,Dec.20 4257 292 T,Dec.l5 277 297 1.30 THE TABLES. [part 1, Olym, years of Censo rinus. Julian Period, Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. s,sg iEra Nabon Olym. years ot Censo rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. a us Mm Nabon. 321-322- 323-324- 325- 326- 327- 328- 329- 330-331- 332-333-334-335- 336-337-338- 339- 340- 4258_ -Ol.lxxxl- „ 2 - ,, 3 - „ 4 -Ol.lxxxii - „ 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 -O.LXxxni- ., 2 - .. 3 - .. 4 -O.Lxxxrv. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol.lxxxv - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 POLYM NASTUS LYCDS CEISSON CRISSON II. CRISSON III. 293 341- 342- 343-344- 345- 346-347- 348- 349- 350-351-352- 353-354-355-356- 357- 358-359- 360- 4278_ -O.LXxxyi.- „ 2 - ,, 3 - ,. 4 Ol. -.Lxxxvn. ~ „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. -LXXXVUL- „ 2 - „ 3 - .1 4 -O.LXXXIX.- ,, 2 - „ 3 - ., 4 - Ol. xc. - „ 2 - „ 3 - .. 4 THEO POMPUS EU PHRA NOR, or SO PHRON SYMMA CHUS STMMA- CHUS.ll. HYPER BIUS 313 298 318 4259 294 4279 314 299 319 4260 295 4280 315 300 320 4261 296 T.Dec.l4 4281 316 T.Dec 9 301 321 4262_ 297 4282_ 317 302 322 4263 298 4283 318 303 323 4264 299 4284 319 304 324 4265 300 T.DeclS 4285 320 T.Decs 305 325326 4266_ 301 4286_ 321 306 4267 302 4287 322 307 327 4268 303 4288 323 308 328 329330 4269 304 T,Dec,12 4289 324 T,Dcc7 309 4270_ 305 4290_ 325 310 4271 306 4291 326 311 331 4272 307 4292 327 312 332 333334 4273 308 T,Deo,ll 4293 328 T.Dec. 6 329 313 4274_ 309 4294_ 314 4275 310 42954296 330 331 315 335 4276 Sll 316 336337 4277 312 T,Ilec,10 4297 332 T.Decs 317 CHAP. V. ] THE TABLES. 131 DlymJ years of Censo rinus, JuUan Period. Olympiads. III ictors in Z'C Stadium, it: g JEm NaboD. )lym.years of :enso- inus. Julian Period, Olympiads. ^'^^'^ mOJra C HJSU JEra Kabon. 361- 362- 363- 364- 365-366-367-368-369- 370- 371-372- 373- 374- 375-376- 377-378- 379- 380- 4298_ - Ol. xcl - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. XCII. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xcui. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. xciv. - „ 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xcv. - „ 2 - ,. 3 - ,. 4 EXl- 3ENTUS EXI GENTUS II. EURO TAS, or EUKA TOS CROCI NAS MINON 338 333 581-382-383-384-385-380-387- 388- 389-390- 391-392-393- 394- 395-396- 397-398- 399- 400- 4318_ - Ol. xcvi. - „ 2 - .. 3 - >, 4 - Ol. xcvii. - .. 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 -Ol.xcvih.- ,. 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xcix. - „ 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 - Ol. c. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 EUPO LEMUS TIRI- N.£iOS SOSIP PUS DICON DIONY SODO RUS 358 359 353 4299 334 4319 354 339 340 341 4300 335 4320 355 360 361 362 363 4301 336 T.Dec 4 4321 356 T.Nov.20 4302 _ 337 4322_ 357 342 4303 338 4323 358 343 4304 339 4324 359 344345 346 364 365366 367 368 369370 371372 373 374 375376 377 4305 340 T.Decs 4325 360 T.NOY.28 4306_ 341 4326_ 361 4307 342 4327 362 347 348 349350 43084309 343 4328 363 344 T.Dec 2 4329 364 T.Nov,27 4310_ 345 4330_ 365 4311 346 4331 366 351 352353354 4312 347 4332 367 4313 348 T.Decl 4333 368 T.NoY,26 4314_ 349 4334_ 369 4315 350 4335 370 355 356 357 4316 351352 LNoyJO 4336 371 372 T,No».25 4317 4337 132 THE TABLES. [part I. Olym. years of Censorinus. Julian Period. Victors in Stadium III ^ra Nabon. Olym years of Censorinus. Jolian Period. Olympiads. Victors Ii Stadium sis Mm Nabon. 401-402- 403- 404- 405- 406-407-408-409-410- 411-412- 413- 414- 415- 416- 417- 418- 419-420- 4338_ - 0L.CI. - ,. 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. cn. - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 -OL.cm. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. civ. - ., 2 - ,, 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cv. - .. 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 DAMON DAMON. ir. PYTHO STRA TUS PHOCI DES PORUS 378 373 421-422-423-424-425- 426- 427- 428- 429- 430- 431-432- 433- 434- 435-436-437-138-139- 4358_ - Ol.cvi. - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cvn. - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. cvm. - ,. 2 - „ 3 - ., 4 - Ol. cix. - „ 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 - Ol. ex. - ,. 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 PORUS. n. MICRI NAS POLY CLES ARISTO LOCHUS ANICLES or ANTI CLES 398 393 4339 374 4359 394 379380381382 383 399400 4340 375 4360 395 4341 376 T.Nov.24 4361 396 TJtov.19 401 4342_ 377 4362_ 397 402 403 4343 378 4363 398 4344 379 4364 399 384 385 404 4345 380 T.Nov.23 4365 400 T.NOY.18 405 4346_ 381 4366_ 401 386 406 407 4347 382 4367 402 387 388 4348 383 4368 403 408 4349 384 T.Nov.32 4369 404 TJJov.17 389390 409 4350_ 385 4370_ 405 410411 412 413 414 4351 386 4371 406 391 4352 387 4372 407 392 393 394 4353 388 T,NoT.21 4373 408 T.Nov,16 4354_ 389 4374 4375 4376 409 4355 390 395 410 415 416 4356 391 396 411 4357 397 392 I.Nov JS) 140- 4377 412 r.Nov.l6 417 ^ - - CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 133 Olym. Jl. ra Censorinus. Juliaa Period. Olympiads, Victors in Stadium. fi'Ss 441- 442- 443-444- 445-t46- 447- 448- 449-450-451- 452-453-454-455-456- 457- 458- 459- 460- 4378_ 43794380 4381 4382_4383 4384 4385 4386_ 4387 4388 4389 4390_4391 4392 ; 4393 4394_ 4395 4396 4397 - Ol. CXL CLEO MANTIS - Ol. cxn. - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 ¦0i..cxni.¦ » 2 - „ 3 • „ 4 ¦ Ol. cxiv. „ 2 « 3 « 4 Ol-cxv. ., 8 ,. S „ 4 EURY- LAS MICIN- NAS 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 Mm Nabon. Olym. years I Julian of Period. Censo rinus, 413 414 415 461- 462- 463 416 T.Nov.14 417 418 419 420 T.Nov,13 421 422 423 429 430 DAMA SIAS 431 432 433 434 435 424 T.Nov,12 464- 465- 466-467- 468- 469- 470- 425 426 427 428 T.Nov.ll 429 430 436 437 431 471 472- 473- 474- 475 476- 477- 478- 479- 432 T.Nov.10 4398 4399 4400 4401 4402 4403 4404 4405 4406 4407 4408 4409 4410 480- Olympiads.* Victors in Stadium. Ol. cxvl „ 2 -Ol. cxvii. - „ 2 • ,, 3 - ,. 4 •OL.cxvni. 4411 4412 4413 4414 4415 4416 4417 y, 4 ¦ Ol. cxix, „ 2 ,, 3 „ 4 Ol. cxx. „ 2 DEMOS THE NES, DINOS THENES or DINO MENES FARME, NIDES 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 ANDRO MENES ANDRO MENES IL PYTHA GORAS 445 446 447 448 Mm Nabon. 433 434 435 436 T.Nov. 3 437 438 439 440 T.Nov. 8 441 442 443 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 444 T.Nov, 445 446 447 448 T. Nov. 6 449 450 451 457 452 T.Nov. 5 134 THE TABLES. [part? I. Olym years of Censo rinus Jnlian Period. Olympiads. Victors ii Stadium III Mm Nabon. Olym. years of Censo rinus ' Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors ii Stadium Ill s-.s s,sg f Mrti Nabon. 481- 482- 483- 484- 485- 486-487- 488- 489- 490- 491- 492- 493-494- 495- 496-497-498-499- 500- 4418_ - Ol.cxxl - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 -Ol. cxxii. - „ 2 - ,. 3 - ,, 4 -OL.cxxm. - .. 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol.cxxiv.- „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol.cxxv.- „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 PYTHA GORAS. 11. ANTI GONUS ANTI- GONOS. II. PHILO-MELUS LADAS 453 501- 502- 503- 504- 505- 506- 507- 508- 509- 510- 511-512- 513- 514-515-516-517-518-519-520- 4438_ -Ol.cxxvx- >, 2 - „ 3 - ., 4 -0L.CXXV1I ~ „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 -0. cxxvin - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. CXXIX. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - OL.CXXX. - „ 2 - „ 3 - « 4 ID.;£USj or NICA TOR PERI GENES SELEU CUS PHILI NUS PHILI- NTTS. II. 473 458 478 4419 454 4439 474 459 479 4420 455 4440 475 460 480 4421 456 T.Nov. 4 4441 476 T.Octao 461 481 4422_ 457 4442_ 477 462 482 4423 458 4443 478 463 483 4424 459 4444 479 464 484 4425 460 T.Nov, 3 4445 480 T.OCL29 465 485486 4426_ 461 4446_ 481 466 4427 462 4447 482 467 487 4428 463 4448 483 468 488 489490 4429 464 T.Nov. 2 4449 484 T.Oct28 469 4430_ 465 4450_ 485 470 4431 466 4451 486 471 491 4432 467 4452 487 472 492493 4433 468 T,Nov,l 4453 488 T.Oct,27 489 473 4434_ 469 4454 4455 4456 474 494 4435 470 490 475 495 4436 471 491 476 496 497 4437 472 T.OcUl 4457 492 T.Oct.36 477 CHAP, v."! THE TABLES. 136 Olym. years of Censo rinus.521- 522- 523-524- 525- 526- 527-528-529- 530- 531-532- 533- 534- 535- 536-537-538-539- 540- JulianPeriod. Olympiads. Hctorsin'*^l-CStadium. ssM g III Mm NalJon. Olym. years ot Censo rious, Julian Period, Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. ill Mm Nalion. 4458_ -Ol.cxxxl- » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -OL.CXXXII- ,, 2 - „ 3 - ., 4 -0. CXXXIII - „ 2 - » 3 - ., 4 -O.CXXXIV. - ,. 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. cxxxv - „ 2 - ,, 3 AMMO NIUS XENO- I'HANES SIME LUS ALCIDAS ERATON 493 541-542-543- 544- 54,5-546-547- 548-549- 550- 551-552-553- 554- 555-556-557- 558- 559- 560- 4478_ -O.CXXXVI.- „ 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 -O.cxxxvn- „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 Ol. - cxxxvm. - „ 2 - .. 3 - „ 4 -O.CXXXIX. - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. CXL. - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 PYTHO - CLES MENES THEUS DEME TRIUS lOLAI- UAS zopy- KDS 518 519 513 498 4459 494 4479 514 499 500 4460 495 4480 515 520521 522523524525,526 527 528 529530 531 532 533534 535 536537 4461 496 T,Oct,25 4481 516 T.OctJiO 501 4462_ 497 4482_ 517 502 4463 498 4483 518 503 4464 499 4484 519 504 505 506 4465 500 T.Oct,24 4485 520 T.0ct.l9 4466_ 501 4486_ 521 4467 502 4487 522 507 508509 510 4468 503 4488 523 4469 504 T,Oct.23 4489 524 T.Oct.ia 4470_ 505 4490_ 625 4471 506 4491 526 511 512513514 4472 507 4492 527 4473 .508 T.Oct.22 4493 528 T.0ct.l7 4474_ 509 4494_ 529 4475 510 4495 530 515 516 517 4476 511 512 T,0ct.21 4496 531 532 T.Oct.l6 4477 - » 4 4497 136 THE TABLES. f PART I. Olyra. vearfl uf Censo- rinOB. Jolian Period. Olympiads. Actors in Stadium. 3i5 Mm Nabon, Olym years of Censorious. Jnlian Period. Actors in S-f; Stadimn. s g S.gg "So Nabon. 561-562- 563- 564-565- 566-567- 568- 569- 570-571-572- f73-574-575-576- 577-578- 579- 580- 4498_ - Ol. cxli. - ,. 2 - » 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cxun. - „ 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 -OL.cxLm. - „ 2 - .. 3 - „ 4 -Ol. cxltv - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -OL.CXLV.- „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 DORO THEUS CRATES HERA CLITUS HERA CLIDES PYR RHIAS 538 539 540 541 542543 533 581-582- 583-584- 585-586- 587-588-589- 590- 591-592- 593- 594-595-596-597-598-599- SOO- 4518_ -Ol. cxlvi. - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 -0L.cxLvn - „ 2 - „ 3 - ., 4 -0. cxLvnj - „ 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 -Ol. cxlix. - ., 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cl. - „ 2 - .. 3 - .. 4 MICION m AGEMA CHUS ARCE SILAUS HIPPO STRA TUS ONESI- CRATDS 558 553 4499 534 4519 559560561 554 4500 535 4520 555 4501 536 T.OcUu 4521 556 T.OctlO, 4502_ 537 4522_ 562 563 557 4503 538 4523 558 559 4504 539 4524 544 545 564 4505 540 T.0ctl4 4525 560 T. Oct 9 565 4506_ 541 4526_ 561 546 566567 4507 542 4527 562 547 4508 543 4328 563 548 568 4509 544 T.OetlS 4529 564 T. Oct S 549 550 569 4510 545 4530_ 565 570 4511 546 4531 566 551 571 4512 547 4532 567 552553554 355 572 4513 548 T.OctlS 4533 568 T.Oct? 573 4514_ 549 4534_ 569 574 4515 550 4535 570 575576 4516 551 4536 571 572 T, Oct c 556 4517 552 T.OcUl 4537 557 577 ^^^^ CHAP. T.] THE TABLES. 137 Dlym. years of Censorinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Siadimu. w Ml Mm Nabon. Oiym, years ol Censo rinus, Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. tH,00 Mm Nabon. 601- 602- B03-604-605- 606- 607- 608- 609-610-611- 612-613- 614-615-616- 617- 618- 619-620- 4538_ - Ol. cli. - „ 2- - .. 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. CLn. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cLin. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cltv. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. clv. - „ 2 - ,, 3 - „ 4 THYME LUS DEMO CRATES ARIS TAN DRUS LEONI DAS LEONI DAS. 11. 578 573 621- 622- 623- 624-625- 626-627- 628- 629-630- 631- 632- 633- 634-635- 636- 637-638- 639-640- 4558_ - Ol. clvl - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. clvii - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 -Ol.clvhi. - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 - Ol. clix. - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. clx. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 LEONI DAS. Ill LEONI DAS. IV 0RTH03S ALCI MUS ANODO RUS, or ANO- DOKOS 593 598 4539 574 4559 594 579 599 4540 575 4560 595 580 600 4541 576 T. Oct 5 4561 596 T.Sep,30 581 601 4542_ 577 4562_ 597 582 602 4543 578 4563 598599 583 603 4544 579 4564 584 604 4545 580 T.Oct 4 4565 600 T.Sep.29 585 605 4546_ 581 4566_ 601 586 587 606 607 4547 582 4567 602 4548 583 4568 603 588 608 4549 584 T. Oct 3 4569 604 T.Sep.2S 589 609 4550 585 4570_ 4571 605 606 590 610 4551 586 591 592 611 4552 587 4572 607 612 4553 588 T. Oct 2 4573 608 T.Sep.27 593 613 4554_ 589 4574_ 4575 609 594 614 4555 590 610 595 615 4.556 i91 4576 611 596 616 4557 592 T. Oct 1 4577 612 T,Sep.36 597 617 18 133 THE TABLES. [part I. Olym. years of Censo rious. 641-642-643-644-645-646- 647-648- 649-650-651- 652-653- 654-655-656- 657- 658- 659- '¦eo- JulianPeriod. Olympiads. "^ictors in Stadium. w Mm Nabon. Olym. years of Censo rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Yearsfrom bdR.Uome. Censorinus. Mm Nabon. 4578_ - Ol. CLXI. - „ 2 - >, 3 - „ 4 -Ol. CLXII. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -OL.cLxm, - ., 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 -Ol. clxiv. - , 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 -Ol.clxv.- „ 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 ANTI PATER DAMON TIMO THEUS BOiOTOS ACUSI LAUS 613 661- 662- 663- 664- 66.5-666-667-668-669-670- 671- 672-673- 674-675- 676-677- 678-679- 680- 4598_ -Ol. clxvl - .. 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol.clxvii - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 -0. cLXvm - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. clxix. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. clxx - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 CHRYSO- GOKDS CHRYSO GONUS. II. NICOMA CHUS NICODE MUS SIM MEUS 633 618 638 4579 614 4599 634 619 639 4580 615 46004601 635 620 640 4581 616 T.Sep.25 636 T.Sepa) 621 641 4582_ 617 4602_ 637 622 642 4583 618 4603 638 623 643 4584 619 4604 639 624 644 4585 620 T.Sep.24 4605 640 T,Sep,19 625 645646647 4586_ 621 4606_ 641 626 4587 622 4607 642 627 4588 623 4608 643 628 648649 650 4589 624 T Sep.23 4609 644 T,Sep.l8 629 4590_ 625 4610_ 645 630 4591 626 4611 646 631 651 4592 627 4612 647 632 652653 654 4593 628 T,Sep,22 4613 648 T.Sep.17 649 633 4594_ 629 4614_ 634 4595 630 4615 650 635 655 4596 631 4616 651 636 656 657 4597 632 T,Scp.21 4617 652 T.Sep.16 637 _ ^^^^ CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 13^ Olym. years „ o*" Censo rinus. 681- 682-683-684-685-586- S87- 588-689-590-691- 692- 693- 694-695-696-697- 698-699- 700- Julian Peijod. Olympiacb, Victors in Stadium. Mm Nabon. Olym, years of Censo rinus, Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. Mm Nabon. 46I8_ -Ol,. CLXXI. - „ 2 - ,, 3 - ., 4 -Ol. CLXXII - ,. 2 - „ 3 - ., 4 -0. CLXXIII - „ 2 - „ 3 - ., 4 -O.CLXxrv.-¦ » 2 - ,, 3 - ,, 4 -Ol. clxxv - „ 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 PARME NISCUS EUDA MUS PARME NISCUS. 11. DEMOS TRATUS EP^NE- TUS 653 701-702- 703-704- 705-706-707- 708- 709- 710-711- 712- 713-714-715-716- 717- 718-719-720- 4638_ -0. CLXXVI. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -0. CLXXVII _ o It - - „ 3 - » 4 Ol. - clxxviii. - v 2 - » 3 - >, 4 -0. CLXXIX. - „ 2 - ,, 3 - „ 4 -Ol. clxxx - „ 2 - ., 3 - .. 4 DION HECA TOMNUS DIOCLES AN DREAS ANDRO MACHUS 678 679 673 658 4£19 654 4639 674 659 660 4620 655 4640 675 680681682683 4621 656 T.Sep.lS 4641 676 T.Sep.lO 661 4622_ 657 4642_ 677 662 4623 658 4643 678 663 4624 659 4644 679 664 684685 686687688 689 690691692693694695 696 697 4625 660 T,Sep.l4 4645 680 T.Sep. 9 665666 4626_ 661 4646_ 681 4627 662 4647 682 667 668 669670 4628 663 4648 683 4629 664 T.Sep.13 4649 684 T. Sep. 8 4630_ 665 4650_ 685 4631 666 4651 686 671672 673674 4632 667 4652 687 4633 668 T.Sep,12 4653 688 T.Sep. 7 4634 669 4654_ 689 4635 670 4655 690 675 676 677 4636 671 4656 691 4637 672 I.Sep.U 4657 692 T.Sep. 6 14'0 THE TABLES. [pAht r. Olym. years of Censorinus. Jolian Period. Olympiads. Victorain Stadium. III Mm Nab. Bef.Cal. of Julius Ca:sar Olym years of Censo.rinus. Jolian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. 1 Mm Nab. Ret, Cab of JuUusCxsar Mm ot Au. gUBtUS 721- 722- 723- 724r- 72.5- 726- 727- 728- 729-730- 731-732- 733-734-735-736- :!37-738-739- 740- 4658_ -CLXXXI- „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. CLXXXII.- .. 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 Ol. CLXxxm - „ 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 Ol. CLXXXIV - „ 2 - » 3 - „ 4 Ol. -CLXXXV- ,> 2 - „ 3 - .. 4 LAMA CHUS ANTHES TION THEO DORUS THEO DORUS. II. AEISTON 698699700 701702703 693 741-742- 743-744- 745- 746-747- 748-749-750-751- 752- 753-754- 755- 756-757- 758- 759-760- 4678_ CLXXXVI- „ 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 Ol. clxxxvii. - .. 2 - ,. 3 - ,. 4. Ol. CLXXXTin - ,, 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 Ol. CLXXXIX - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. - CXC. - ., 2 - ,. 3 - ,. 4 SCAMAN DRUS ARISTON II. SOPA TER ASCLEPIADES AUPHI DIUS 718 713 10 4659 694 4679 714 11 719 720 721 4660 4661 695 1 c 1 1 ssa Si g Tear of 44S daya. 4680 715 12 696 Sep.S 4681 716 Ang.31 13 4662_ 697 4682_ 717 14 722723 718 4663 698 4683 15 4664 699 4684 719 16 704 705 724 4665 700 Sep.4 4685 720 Aug^o 17 725 726 727 4666_ 701 4686_ 721 18 706 1 4667 702 4687 722 19 1 2 707 4668 703 4688 723 20 2 3 708 728 4669 704 Scp.3 1 4689 724 Aug.29 21 3456 7 4 56 7 8 709 729 4670_ 705 2 4690_ 725 22 710 730 4671 706 3 4691 726 23 711 731 732733 734 4672 707 4 4692 727 24- 712 713 714 4673 708 Sep.2 5 4693 728 Aug,28 25 4674_ 709 6 4694_ 729 26 89 10 9 1011 4675 710 7 4695 730 27 715 735 736 4676* 711 8 4696 731 28 716 4677 712 Sep.l 9 4697 732 Aug 27 29 11 12 717 737 CHAP. V. J THE TABLES. 141 Olym. years of Censorinus. Julian Period Olympiads, ajid Victors in Stadium. pi Mm Nab. Ret.Cal, ot JuliusCsesar, ,^ra of Au gustus, Vulg. Clirist ^ra. Olym years of Censo. riuus. JulianPeriod Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium, hi Mm Nab. Scf.Cal, of Julius Caisar Mm of Au gustus Vulg, Christ .Era, 56 761- 762- 763- 764-765-766- 767- 768-769-770-771-772- 773-774-775-776- 777-778- 779- 780- 4698 - Ol. CXCI. (Diodotus) - ,. 2 - ,. 3 - .. 4 -Ol. cxcn. (Diophanes) - .. 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 -0L.cxcm. (Artesidorus) - ., 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. cxciv. (Dunatms) - « 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cxcv. (Dimatrus. n.) - .. 2 - ,, 3 - ,, 4 733 30 781-782- 783-784-785- 786- 787- 788-789-790-791- 792- 793-794-795- 796-797-798-799- 800- 4718 -Ol. cxcvl nPasenes, or Pammenes) - ,, 2 - » 3 - ., 4 -Ol. CXCVII (Asiaticus) - » 2 - ,, 3 - ., 4 -O.cxcvm. (Diophanes) - ,, 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 -Ol. CXCIX. (^BChines) - ., 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 - Ol. cc (Polemon) - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 753 50 738 lb 758 33 34 34 35 4699 734 31 13 14 4719 754 5152 739 759 47C0 735 32 14 15 4720 755 7 740 760 4701 736 Aug,26 33 15 16 4721 756 Aug,21 53 35 36 8 741 761 4702 737 34 16 17 4722 757 54 36 37 9 742 762 4703 738 35 17 18 4723 758 55 37 38 10 743 763 4704 739 36 18 19 4724 759 56 38 39 11 744 764 4705 740 Aug.25 37 19 20 4725 760 Aug,20 57585960 61 62 3940 4142 4344 40 4142 434445 12 13 14 745 765 4706 741 38 20 21 4726 761 746747 766 767 4707 742 39 21 22 4727 762 47084709 743 40 22 23 4728 4729 763764 Aug,19 15 748 768 744 Aug.24 41 16 749750 2324 769 4710 745 42 2426 4730 765 17 770 4711 746 43 25 26 4731 766 63 45 46 18 751 771 4712 747 44 2627 4732 767 646566 67 4647 4748 19 20 752753 772 47134714 4715 748 Aug,23 45 27 28 47334734 768 Aog,18 773 749 46 28 29 1 769 770 4849 4950 21 7.54 774 750 47 2930 2 4735 47364737 22 755 775 4716 751 48 3031 3 771 68 50 51 23 756 776 4717 752 Aug,22 49 3132 4 772 Aug.17 69 51 52 24 757 777 ___ 142 THE TABLES. [part L Olym. years of Censo rinus. Julian Period Olympiads, and Victorj in Stadium. ^ra Nab Bet. '^^ JuliusCresar Mm of Au gustus Vulg Christ Mm 25 Olym years of Censo rmus JnlianPcrioil Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. ill ,«ra Nab, Kef.fab oi JuliusCassar of Au gustus Chnst Mm. 801- 802-303- 804-805-306- 807-808-809- 810-811- 312-813-314-315-816-317- 818-819- 320- i7Si - OL.CCI. (Damas) - » 2 - .. 3 - ., 4 - Ol. ccil (Hermogenes) - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 - Ol. com. (Apollonius) - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. ccrv. (Sarapion) - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol.ccv. (Eubulidas) - ., 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 778 773 70 52 53 821- 4758 - Ol. ccvi. (Valerius) - ,, 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 - 0L.CCVII. (Athenodorus) - ., 2 - .. 3 - „ 4 -OL.CCVIIL Athenodoros. ii. - „ 2 - „ 3 - .. 4 - Ol. CCIX. (Callicles) - „ 2 - „ 3 - .. 4 - Ol. CCX. (Athenodonis) - „ 2 - „ 3 - .. 4 798 793 90 7S 7£ 45 4739 4740 4741 4742 47434744 4745 4746 4747 4748474947504751 47524753 774 71 53 54 26 822-823- 824- 82.5- 826- 827-828- 829-830- 831-832- 833- 834-835- 836- 837-838-839-840- 4759 794 91 7i 74 46 779 799 775 72 54 55 27 4760 795 92 74 7.^ 47 780 800 776 Aug,16 73 55 56 28 4761 796 -iug.ii 93 rr 76 48 781 801 777 74 56 57 29 4762 797 94 76 77 49 782 802 803 778 75 57 58 59 30 4763 798 95 77 78 50 783 779 76 58 31 4764 799 96 78 79 51 784 804 805 806807 780 Aug.15 77 59 60 32 4765 800 Aug.lo 97 79 80 52 785 781 78 60 61 33 4766 801 98 80 81 53 786 782 79 61 62 34 4767 802 99 81 82 54 787 783 80 62 63 35 4768 803 100 82 83 55 788 808 S09 810 811 784 Aug.l4 81 63 64 36 4769 804 AugJ 101 83 84 56 789 785 82 64 65 37 4770 805 102 84 85 57 790 786 83 65 66 38 4771 806 103 85 86 58 791 787 84 66 67 39 4772 807 104 86 87 59 792 812 813814815 816 817 788 Aug.I3 85 67 68 40 4773 808 Aug.S 105 37B8 8889 60 793 4754 4755 789 86 68 697071 41 4774 809 106 61 794 790 87 69 42 4775 810 107 39 90 62 795 4756 791 88 70 43 4776 811 108 90 91 63 796 4757 792 lngl2 89 71 72 44 4777 812 Aug.7 109 9192 64 797 — :— L : : L 1 I.J _i - CHAP. V. THE TABLES. 143 Olym. years „ "*' Censo rinus. 841-842-843-844- 345- 346- 347- 348- 849-850-851- 352-353- 854-855-856- 857-358- 359- 860- Jiilian Period Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium, ^ra Nab. Ref. Cal. of JuliusCKsar. .^raof Augustus- Vulg. Christ MrtL Olyn,. years of Censo rious, Julian Period Olympiads,and Victors iu Stadium. Mm Nab, Ref, Cal, of JulinsCoisar Mmot Augustus. Vulg, Clmst. Mm 85 4778 -0. CCXI. ( — ) - ,. 2 - „ 3 (Tryphon.) - „ 4 Ol. - ccxii. (Polites) - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. - CCXIII. (Rhodon, or Theodorus) - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. - CCXIV (Straton) - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. - CCXV. Hermogenes - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 818 813 110 92 93 65 861- 862-863- 864-865-366- 367- 868- 369-870-871- 872- 873-874-875-876- 877-378-879-880- 4798 -O.CCXVI ApoUophanes or Papes - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. -CCXVII. Hermogenes, 11. - ,, 2 - » 3 - „ 4 Ol. -CCXVIII. (Apollinus.or Apollonius) - ,. 2 - „ 3 - >, 4 Ol. - CCXIX (Stephanus) - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. — CCXX. (.UhiUes) - „ 2 - „ 3 - .. 4 838 839 833 130 112 113 4779 814 111 93 94 66 4799 834 131 113 114 114 86 87 819 820 4780 815 112 94 95 67 4800 835 132 115 840841842 843844 845846 847 848 849 850 851 852853854 , 855 856 857 4781 816 Aug.6 113 95 96 68 4801 836 Aug,l 133 115116 117118 116 117 88 899091 821 4782 817 114 96 97 69 4802 837 134 822 4783 818 115 97 98- 70 4803 838 135 118119 823 4784 819 116 98 99 71 4804 839 136 824 825 826 4785 820 Aug.5 117 99 100 72 4805 840 July31 137 119 120 121122123 124 120 9293 94 4786 821 118 100 101 73 4806 841 138 121122 4 787 822 119 101 102 74 4807 842 139 827 828 829 4788 823 120 102 103 75 4808 4809 843 140 141 142 123124 125 126 9596 9798 4789 824 Aug.4 121 103 104 76 844 July 30 4790 825 122 104 105 77 4810 845 830 4791 826 123 105 106 78 4811 846 143 125 831 832 833 834835 836 837 4792 827 124 106 107 79 4812 847 144145 126127 127128 99 100 101 4793 828 Aug,3 125 107 108 80 4813 848 July29 4794 829 126 108 109 81 4814 849 146 128 129 4795 830 127 109 110 82 4815 850 147 129130 130 102 4796 831 128 110 111 83 4816 851 148 131 103 4797 832 Aug.2 129 111 112 84 4817 852 Jaly28 149 131 132 104 ^___ 144 THE TABLES. [part l Olym years of Censo rinus. Juliar Perio Olympiads, and Victors ^ in Stadium 1 !il m 858 r 1 859 860 861862 863864 865 866 Mm Nab. Bef.Cal. ot Juliu.Cffisai ,£raof Augustus. Vulg Chris ^ra 105 Olym years Censorinus. JulianPerio Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. ^11 .Era Nab. Hef. Cal. of JuliuCcesa] Mr&ot Augustus. Mra. 125 881-882-883- 884- 885- 886- 887- 888- 889- 890- 891- 392- 893- 894-895-396-397-"i98-^ 99-^ 00-^ 481! 481E482C4821 4822 4823 4824 4825 - CCXXI. (Theonas, o Smaragdus] - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. - CCXXII (Callistus) - » 2 - « 3 - « 4 Ol. -CCXXIIL (Eustolus) - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. -CCXXIV. (Isarion) - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. - CCXXV. (Aristeas) - .. 2 " - „ 3 ¦ 853 150 132133 134 133134 135 136 901- 4835483£484C48414842 4843 4844 4845 4846 - CCXXVI (Dionysius Ol. -ccxxvnDionysius.ii - „ 2 - ,. 3 - » 4 Ol. ccxxvm (Lucas) - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. -CCXXIX, Epidaurus, or Ammonius - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 Ol. - CCXXX. (Didymus) - „ 2 - ,, 3 ' „ 4 ¦ • 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 886 887 873 17C 152 1.53 854 151 106 107 108 902-903-904- 905- 874 171 153 154 126 855 152153 875 172 154 155 127 856 July2- 135 876 173 Ju]y22 155 156 128 857 154 136 137 138 139 140 137 109 877 174 156 157 129 858 155 138 139 140 110 906- 907- 908- 909- 910-911- 912- 913- 914- 915-916-)17- 18-" 19-^ 20-" 878 175 157 158 130 859 860 July 26 156 157 158 ill 879 176 158 159 131 112 113 114 115116 880 July21 177 159 160 132 48264827 861 141 142143 144 145 881 178 160 161 133 862 159 160 161 141 142 143 144 4847 882 179 161 162 134 867868 869 4828 4829 1830 483148321833 863 4848 4849 4850 4851 4852485318541855 _ 856 _ 857 _ 883 180 162 163 135 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895896 864 Julys.) 884 July20 181 163 164 136 865 162 117 885 182 164 165 137 138139 140 870 866 163 145 146 'l46 147 118 119 120 122 886 183 165 166 871 872 873 867 164 887 184 166 167 168 868 Uly24 165 147 148 148149 888 Inly 19 185 167 J8341835 836 _ 8.37 _ 869 166 889 890 186 168 169 141 874 875 876 870 167 149 150151 150 151 152 18r 169 170 142 1 871 168 169 123 g 891 188 170 171 143 872 Uly23 124 g 397 J 892olylS 189 IJl 172 144^ s ¦ ¦ „ 4 877 J CHAP, V.J THE TABLES. 145 Ulym, years of Censorinus, JulianPeriod Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. 1 ^a H^o ^ra Nab. Kef.Cal. of Julius CKsar, ^raof Augustus. Vulg, Christ, Mm Olym. years of Censo rinus, JuliauPeriod Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. = |3 is-s ,^ra Nab, Kef. Cal. of ulins ^[esar. ,^ra of , Augustus. Vulg.Christ.Mia. 165 166 167 168 169 170171 172 173 921- 922-923- 924- 925- 926-927-928-929-930- 931-932-933-934-935-936- 937-938- 939- 940- 4858 -CCXXXI. (Cranaus) - „ 2 - ,, 3 - „ 4 Ol. -CCXXXII (Atticus) - „ 2 - » 3 - „ 4 Ol. ccxxxm. (Demetrius) - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. ccxxxiv. (Heras) - „ 2 - „ 3 - ., 4 Ol. -ccxxxv. IVluasibulus - „ 2 - .. 3 - » 4 893 190 145 941- 942- 943- 944- 945-946-947-948-949- 950-961- 952-9.53-954-955- 956-957- 958- 969-9G0- 4878 CCXXXVI. (Aithales) - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. -ccxxxvii (Eudsmon) - ,. 2 - „ 3 - '„ 4 Ol. ccxxxviii. (Agathopus) - ,, 2 - , 3 - „ 4 Ol. CCXXXIX.Agathopus.ii- „ 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 -Ol.cc:xi (Anubiop , or PUdu.s) - „ 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 918 919 913 210 211212213214215 898 ll,} 4859 894 191 173 174 146 4879 914 193194 194 899 4860 895 192 174 175 147 4880 915 195 196197 900 920 921922923. 4861 896 July 17 193 175 176 177 148 149 150151152 4881 916 July 12 195196 901 4862 897 194 176 4882 917 902 4863 898 195 177 178 4883 918 197 198 198199 200 903 4864 899 196 178 179 4884 4885 919 216 904 924 925926927 928929 930 931 932 933 ' 934 935 936 937 4865 900 July 16 197 179 180 920 JnlyU 217218 199 200 905 4866 901 198 180 181 153 154 4886 4887 921 201 906907 4867 4868 902 199 181 182 922 219220 201202 S",i03 204 202 174 903 200 182 183 155156 48884889 923 203 175 176 177 908 4869 904 JulylS 201 183 184 924 JulylO 221 204 205 206 909 4870 905 202 184 185 157 4890 925 910 1 4871 906 203 185 186 158 4891 927 223 205 911 4872 907 204 186 187 !l59 4892 224 206 207 179 180 181 912 4873 4874 4875 908 July 14 205 187 188 160 4893 928 July9 225 226 207 913 909 206 188 189 161 162 4894 929 208 209 914 910 207 189 190 4895 4896 930 227 228 209 210 211. 210 915 182 4876 4877 911 208 190 191 163 931 211 212 183 916 912 July 13 209 191 192 164 4897 932 Julys 229 184 917 _.«. __:! 19. 146 THE TABLES. [part 1. Olym. years of Censo rinus. JulianPeriod Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. m ,^ra NaU Bef. Cah of JuUusCa:sar Mm of Augustus. Volg Chnst Mm. 185 Olym years of Censo rinus JulianPeriod Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. l|Jli Mm Nab. Ref,CaL ot Juliut Caisar ,£raor Augustus. 205 961- 962- 963-964- 965- 966- 967-968- 969- 970- 971-972- 973-974- 975-976-977-978- 979- 980- 4898 Ol.ccxl] (Heron) - „ 2 - ,. 3 - ,, 4 Ol. - CCXLIL (IMagnus) - ,, 2 - „ 3 - >, 4 Ol. -ccxLm, Sidorus, Isidorus, or Artemidorus - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 Ol. - CCXLIV, Sidorus, Isi- lorus, or Ar- emidorus,ii. - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 Ol. - CCXLV. (Aleiander) - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 933 230 981- 982- 983- 984- 98.5- 986- 987- 988- 989- 990- 991- 992- 993-994-995-996-997-998-999- 1000 4918 - CCXLVI (Epenicus, 0 Cynas) - „ 2 - „ 3 - .. 4 Ol. -CCXLVII (Satuminus] - „ 2 - » 3 - „ 4 Ol. ccxLvin. Heliodomsor Trosidamas - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 Ol. - CCXLIX. Heliodorus, or Trosida mas. II. - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol.ccl ( — ) - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 953 250 938 212 213 958 232 •^as 48994900 4901 4902 934 231 213 214 186 4919 954 251 233 234 206 939 959 935 232 214 215 187 4920 955 252 234 235 207 940 960 936 July7 233 215 216 188 4921 956 July2 253 235 236 208 941 961 937 234 216 217 189 4922 957 254 236 237 209 942 962 4903 938 235 217 218 190 4923 958 255 237 238 210 943 963 4904 939 236 218 219 191 4924 959 256 238 239 211 944 964 4905 940 July 6 237 219 220 192 4925 960 Julyl 257 239 240 2.12 945 965 966 967 4906 490749084909491049114912 941 238 220 221 193 4926 961 258 240 241 213 946 947 942 239 221 222 194 4927 962 259 241 242 214 943 240 222 223 195 4928 963 260 242 243 215 948 968 969970 971 944 Julys 241 223 224 196 4929 964 Jun. 30 261 243 244 216 949 945 242 224 225 197 4930 965 262 244 245 217 950 946 243 225 226 198 49314932 966 263 245 246 218 951 947 244 226 227 199 967 264 246 247 219 952 972 973974 1913 948 July4 245 227 228 200 4933 968 run,;29 265 247 248 220 953 49144915 949 246 228 229 201 4934 969 266 248 249 221 954 950 247 229 230 202 4935 970 267 249 250 222 955 975 4916 951 248 230 231 203 4936 971 268 250 251 223 956 976 977 4917 952 Julys 249 231 232 204 4937 972 lun. 28 269 251 252 224 957 CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 147 Olym. yearn of Censo rinus. ulian Period Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. ill ,£ra Nab. Ref. Cal. ot Julius Cssar. Mmoi Augustus. Vulg.Christ Mra. JulianPeriod Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. 8! Mth Nab. Ref. Cal. of Julius Cxsar. Augustus. Vulg. Chnst^ra. 1001- 1002- 1003- 1004- 1005- 1006- 1007- 1008- 1009-1010- 1011-1012- 1013-1014- 4938 -0. CCLI. C — ) - „ 2 - ,, 3 - ,, 4 Ol. - CCLIL ( — ) - ,. 2 - ,. 3 - ,. 4 Ol.- - CCLIII. ( ) - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -0. CCLIV ( ) - „ 2 973 270 225 4952 - ,, 3 - „ 4 Ol. - CCLV. ( ) - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. - CCLVL ( ) - „ 2 - „ 3 - >, 4 Ol. - CCLVII. ( ) - „ 2 - ). 3 - „ 4 992 987 284 239 978 266 iX>l 4939 974 271 253 254 226 4953 988 Jun. 24 285 267 268 240 979 993 4940 975 272 254 255 227 4954 989 286 268 269 241 980 994 4941 976 Jun, 27 273 255 256 228 4955 990 287 269 270 242 981 982 983984 995 4942 977 274 256 267 229 4956 991 288 270 271 243 996 4943 978 275 257 258 230 4957 992 Jun.23 289 271 272 272 273 244 997 4944 979 276 258 259 231 4958 993 290 245 998 4945 980 Jun, 26 277 259 260 232 4959 994 291 273 274 246 985 986 987 988989 990 999 4946 981 278 260 261 233 4960 995 292 274 275 247 1000 4947 982 279 261 262 234 4961 996 Jun, 22 293 275 276277 276277 278 248 1001 4948 983 280 262 263 235 49624963 997 294 249 250 1002 1003 4949 984 Jmi.2S 281 263 264 236 998 295 4950 985 282 264 265 237 4964 999 296297 278 279 279 280 2512.52 1004 4951 986 283 265 266 238 4965 1000 Jun. 21 991 1005 1 i ^^^ 148 [part I. CHAPTER VI. THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS CONNECTED WITH THE DATE.* NOW ESTABLISHED. Period chosen from the birth of Augustus to the death of Tiberius ; and why. Section I. — Series of Consuls from Cicero and Antonius to Proculus and Nigrinus, hovf known. 1. By fragments of the Fasti Capitolini and other marbles. 2. The history of Dion Cassius. 3. The ancient lists of Consuls. 4. Incidental notices in Latin authors. — Collation of these several authorities, showing the whole period to be one hundred years. Section II. Connexion of each Consulship with its proper year.— The whole difficulty grows out of the question as to the year of Csesar's war in Spain with the sons of Pompey. — This question decided: 1. By astronomical calculations. 2. By the testimony of historians and inscriptions. — Careful examination of this testimony with regard to the several years of the civil war, proving that the last year of Csesar's life was the Jirst of his reformed calendar, and not, as generally stated, the second. — The y^ar of Cicero's consulship ascertained by reckoning backward. — That year rendered memorable by three great events ; the conspiracy of Catiline, the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey, and the birth of Augustus. — The testimony of Josephus concerning the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey considered. — General conclusion, that the consulship of Cicero and Anto nius coincided with a.j.p. 4650, the sixty-fourth year before the common Christian eera. Our next step must be, to connect with the dates, thus established, the succession of consuls. As in the latter times, at least, of the republic, they entered upon their office on the 1st of January, and usually held it the whole year, it was sufficient, in order to designate any particular year, to name its consuls ; and such is the usual method of the Eoman historians. It is essential, therefore, to our inquiry, that we should connect with the tables we have framed, the consuls who entered on their office on the 1st of January of each year ; and, that we may limit the inquiry within proper bounds, we shall take only that period which extends from the birth of Augustus to the death of Tiberius. This interval includes all the dates which it is now important to establish, as connected with the subject of our Saviour's residence upon earth. CHAP. VLJ THE SUCCESSION /)F CONSULS. 149 The object of this chapter will therefore be two-fold : first, to givo a correct list of the consuls within that period ; and, secondly, to connect each consulship with the year to which it properly belongs. SECT. I. THE SERIES OF CONSULS. Suetonius informs us (in Octaviano, § 5) that Augustus was born when Marcus TuUius Cicero and Antonius were consuls, on the ninth before the kalends of October (ix, kalendas Octobres) ; which, according to the calendar of Numa Pompilius then in use, was the 22nd of our September, or, according to that of Julius Cassar, the 23rd of that month. Tiberius died, according to Suetonius and Tacitus, in the consulship of Proculus and Nigrinus. The object is now to show, by irrefragable evidence, the number of years which intervened between these two events. For this purpose, we are to examine the testimony of antiquity, as far as it has been saved from the ravages of time. This testimony may be divided under four heads : first, the fragments of inscriptions, principally on marble, which have been collected and preserved by modern care and industry ; secondly, the invaluable history of the accurate Dion Cassius ; thirdly, three ancient lists of consuls, two in Latin, and one in Greek ; and fourthly, such incidental notices of the consuls of each year as occur in various Latin authors. Of the inscriptions which remain, unquestionably the most im portant are, THE FASTI CAPITOLINL The fragments of the Fasti Capitolini, or, as they were anciently called, the Fasti Consulares, which now cover the walls of the fourth chamber in the hall of the conservators at Rome, were dis covered in the sixteenth century, near the church of Santa Maria Liberatrice, in the precincts of the Forum, and near the site of the ancient Comitium. It is reasonably believed, therefore, that they were exposed in the Comitium, and were perhaps affixed to the wall of the Roman Curia, or court of justice.^ They are evidently public records : and, if they were complete, there could be no appeal from their authority. Imperfect as they are, they extend ' Nardini Koma Antica, Koma, 1666, 4to. Nibby, Itinerario di Eoma, 1827, 4to. p. 222. Venuti Antichiti di Eoma, 8vo. tom. i.'p. 150-1. cdiz. 3, tom.i. p. 73. Roma, 1824, 2 tom. 150 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. from the reign of L. Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, to the death of Augustus. They are most perfect from a.u.c. 440, to A.u.c. 531. They designate the reigns of the kings, the suc cession of the consuls, the appointment of dictators, with their magistri equitum, or generals of cavalry, the tribunes of the people, the censors, the triumphs and ovations, with the year of the city, and day of the month on which each was celebrated, and such other notices and dates as Were thought worthy of observation. They were first published by Bartholomew Marliano, at Rome, in 1549, 8vo ; next at Modena, in 1550; and afterwards by the Aldi, at Venice, in 1555, folio. The following year, a second edition was published by the same printers, enriched with the commentary of Sigonius.' They were reprinted in the first volume of the works of Sigonius, published by Philip Argelati, at Milan, 6 vols, folio, 1732. From that work, the extracts here made are taken. The capital letters exhibit the inscription in its present imperfect state: and the smaller letters, the part supplied, by the industry and learning of the modern editors, taken either from other inscriptions relating to the same subject, or from the testimony of the Greek imd Latin historians. The other inscriptions are principally taken from the commen tary of Sigonius, and the Thesaurus of Gruter. The history of Dion Cassius is our principal guide. He gene rally names the consuls of each year ; and to the several remaining books of his history, the list of consuls during the period of time embraced in each book, is prefixed, with their names at full length, as they would be registered in public inscriptions and official docu ments. This is of the greatest use, because it serves to harmonize the testimony of the various Latin historians and other writers, who speak of their public magistrates with more familiarity, and, when the consul had several names, sometimes use one, and some times another. As Dion flourished about the year 229 of the common Christian aera, and was himself of consular dignity, his means of obtaining information were of the best character ; and, therefore, his testimony alone is of the greatest authority. But in addition to this, we have three ancient lists of consuls. > Muratori Vita Sigonii, prefixed to the Imprimerie des Aides, ed. 2, Paris, 1825, collection of his works edited by Muratori, tom. i. pp. 400 and 408. and printed at Milan in 1732. Eenouard, CHAP, vl] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 151 The first is attributed to Idatius, a Spanish bishop, who flourished about A.D. 428. The second is by Cassiodorus, who was consul A.D. 514, and prime minister of Theodoric, king of the Goths. After the subversion of the- Gothic dominion, he retired to a monastery in Calabria, where he wrote his works. The third is in the Greek language, aiid comes down to the twentieth year of Heraclius, or a.d. 629. It was found in Sicily, and was first quoted by Sigonius and others under the title of Fasti Siculi. The work which contains it was subsequently called the Chronicon Alexandrinum, and more justly the Chronicon Paschale, under which title it forms one of the volumes of the Byzantine Collec tion. The compiler of this latter work has endeavoured to con nect with his list of consuls, the years of the olympiads ; but he has committed constant metachronisms, and in the names and arrangement of the consuls made many omissions and palpable blunders. Indeed, all these catalogues have suffered by the errors of transcribers. Their mistakes, however, often serve a valuable purpose, since they prove that they were derived from different and independent sources. In addition to these are given, in a separate column, the inci dental notices of the consuls of each year as they occuv in various Latin authors. These will be found to coincide so exactly with the professed catalogues, and with the fragments of inscriptions which time has spared, that no doubt can be entertained as to the accuracy of the whole series. From the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, or the year of the birth of Augustus, to the consulshijo of Proculus and Nigrinus, during which Tiberius died, there are, including both extremes, one hundred pairs of consuls, or one hun dred years. This will be made apparent to the reader by the fol lowing collation of these several authorities. 152 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part I. No. of Years. Fasti Consulares seu CapitollQi. Various Inscriptions. 10 11 12 c. ivuvs C.F. C.N. Csesar L. C.iLPVENIVS, L J-.L.N. Piso CsE- [soninus p. OOENELIVS, p.F. Lentulus Spin- [ther CN. cORNELiv . I^eiitulus Mar- . . . . [celliis Chronicon of fdacius, or Fasli Idatiani. Cicerone et Anto nino , SUauo et Murseua Pisone Frugi et Messala Nigro Afronio et Metello' Celere Decio Csesare et Bi- bolo Pisone et Gabinio Lentulo et Metello Nepote Maicellino et Phi- lippo Pompejo II et Crasso II Ahenobarbo et Pul- chro Balbino et Messala Pompejo in ct Me tello Scipione chap. VLJ THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 153 Dion Cassius. M. Tullius Cicero C. Antonius D. Junius M.F.Sila- nus, L. Licinius L.F.Mu- M. Pupius Piso M. Valerius Messala Niger Lucius Afranius Metellus Celer C. J. Caesar M. Bibulus L. Piso A. Gabinius P. Cornelius Lentu lus Spinther Q. Cfficilius Metellus Nep6s Cn. Corn. Lentulus Marcellinus. L. Marcius Philippus Cn. Pompejus Mag nus II M.LiciniusCrassusii Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus Appius ClaudiusPul- cher C'neius Domitius Calvinus M. Valerius Alessala Pompejus III Quintus C35cilius Metellus Scipio Cassiodorus. M. Cicero C. Antonius D. Silanus L. MuriEna M. Pupius M. Valerius Qu. Metellus L. Afranius C. Csesar M. Bibulus L. Piso A. Gabinius P. Lentulus Qu. Metellus. Cn. Lentulus L. Philippus Cn. Pompeius M. Crassus App. Claudius L. Domitius Cn. Domitius M. Messala Cn. Pompejus Q. Metellus Various Authors. M. Tullius Cicero, C. Anto nius. Eut. vi. 16. Sallust. Bel. Cat. 25. D. Junius Silanus L. Mureua Eut. vi. 16. M. Pisone ; M. Messala Coss. Plin. vii. 57 viii. \^ xxxiii. J. M.Messala et M.Pisone Coss. Cic. ad Att. i. Ep. 13. Maico Messala et Marco Pisone Coss. Ccbs. Gal. 1. Quinto Metello L. Afranio Coss. Jul. Obsequens de Prod. 123, Cic. ad Att. Lib. i. Ep. 18 C. Julius Cssar ; L. Bibulus Eutrop. vi. 17 Lucio Pisone, Aulo Gabinio Coss. Cees. de Bel. Gal. L. i. c. 6. Lentulus Spinther Metellus 'N epos Valer. Maximus, ix. c. 14. Lentulo et Philippo Coss. Cic. ad Attic, v. Ep. 21. Cn. Pompejus Magnus M. Licinius Crassus Eutrop. vi. 18. Cn. Domitio ; Appio Claudio, Coss Jul. Obsequens de Prod. 124 Domitius Messala Cic, ad Q. fratrein, iii. Chronicon Paschale, or Fasti Siculi. Olympiad 178 15* Cicero and Antonius 16 Silanus and Murena 17 Piso ana Messala 18 Afranius & Metellus Olympiad 179 19 Decius Csesar and Bibulus 20 Piso and Gabinus 21 Lentulus and Mar- cellus 22 Marcellus ii and Philippus Olympiad 180 23 Pompeius & Crassus 24 Aenobarbus & Pul- cher 25 Balbinus & Messala 26 Pompeius ii and Metellus * The compiler of the Greek list of consuls has inserted too many. The numbers prefixed to each consulship from tt or 15 to X or 30, and then a or 1, € or 2, &c., till the indictions begin, are given here merely as proof that no subsequent interpolation has taken place in the Greek consecutive Est, and therefore that the original compiler was in fault. 20 154 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part I. >fo. of Years. 13 Fasti Consulares seu Capitolini. C. CLAVDTVS, M.F.M.N. MABCEILVS L. COR EODKM ANNO C. IVLIVS C.F.C.N. CAESAR DIC. C. TVLIVS. C.F.C.N. CAESAR. II P. SEH C. JULIUS C.F.C.N. CESAR II D ... M. InTONIUS M.F.M.N. MA EODEM ANNO Q. FUFIUS C.F.C.N. CALENUS P. VA C. JULIUS C.F.C.N. CaiSAE 111 M. A . . . . C. JDXIUS C.F.C.N. CaESAB III D M. .aiMILIUS M.F.Q.N. LEPIDUS MA EODEM ANNO C. JULIUS C.F.C.N. CaiSAR 1111 SINE 0. EODEM ANNO. Q.FABIUS Q.F.Q.N. MAXIMUS IN M... MOETUUS. EST. IN. EJUS. L... C. CANINIUS. C.F.C.N. RE... C IVLIVS C.F.C.N. CAESAR V P. CO C. VIBIVS IN MAGI C. IVLIUS. C.F. POSTEA IMP. EST ABD. IN Various Inscriptions. Mur. Nov. Thes. torn. i. p. 293. 1. SER. SVLPICIO ET M. MARCELLO '^*'^* Chronicon of Idatius, or Fasti Idatiani. Ch-uter. tom. i. pars. ii. p. ccxcviii. C. IVLIVS CAESAR HIT SINE. CON- LEGA. DIC SvF Q. FABIVS MAXIM. C. TRE- BONIVS C.F. C. CANINIVS. C.F. ...VLIVS CAESAR. DICT. IV. M. AEMILIVS. M. EQ. . IVLIVS CAESAR V. M. J NIVS M.F. SvF P. CORNELIVS. P.F. C. VIBIVS C. F. PANSA. A. HIR TIVS. A.F. C. IVLIVS CAESARC. CARRI- NAS. C.F. SvF SvF **• PEDIVS. Q.F. P. VENT4- DIVS. P.F. ..EMILIVS. M. ANTONIVS. IMP. CAESAR III VIR. R.P. EX A.D. V. K. DEC. AD PR. K. IAN. SEXT. Bufo et Marcello Marcello et Paulo Lentulo et Marcello CiBsare et Serviiio Isaurico Caleno et Vatino Csesare in et Lepido Caesare iv solo Cajsare v et Anto nino Pansa et Hirtio CHAP, vl] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 155 Dion Cassius. M. Claudius Mar cellus Serv. Sulpicius Ru fus Caius Claudius Mar cellus Lucius Aimilius Pau- lus Cornelius Lentulus Caius Claudius Mar cellus C. J. Caesar ii P. Servilius Isauricus C. Julius Csesar, Diet II. at the close of the year. Q. Fufius Calenus P Vatinius C. Julius Cassar in. M. jEmilius Lepidus C. Julius Caesar iv. without a colleague, afterwards Quintus Fabius Caius Trebonius ; thelastdayofthe year Caius Caninius C. Julius Csesar v. M. Antonius ; aft. the death of Cses. P. Dolabella Aulus Hirtius C. Vibius Pansa; after their death, Octavianus Csesar Quintus Pedius Cassiodorus. M. Marcellus Serv. Sulpicius L. Paulus M. Marcellus L. Lentulus C. Marcellus. C. Jul. Csesar ii P. Servilius Q. Fufius P. Vatinius C.Jul.CaBsariii. M. Lepidus C.Jul.CiBsar IV Fabius Maxi mus Various Authors. Sulpicio et Marcello, Coss. Cic. ad Attic, v. Ep. 21. L. Paullo; C. Marcello; Coss. Jul. Obseq. de prod. 125. M. Marcello, L. Lentulo Coss. Cic. ad Att. viii. Chronicon Paschale, oi fasti Siculi. C. Jul, Csesar v. M. Antonius C. Pansa A. Hirtius C. Julius Caesar 1 1 1 M. iEmilius Lepidus Jul. Obsequens de Prod. 126. Eutrop. vi. 23. C. Julius Caesar rv Eutrop. vi. 24. C. Caesare ; M. Antonio ; Coss. Jul. Obsequens de Prod. 127. M.Antonio; P. Dolabella; Coss. Jul. Obsequens de Prod. 128. Pansa, Hirtius. Eutr. vii. 1. Cajo Pansa; Hircio; Coss. Jul. Obseq. de Prod. 129. Kai. Oct. Caesar; Q. Pedius ; Coss. Veil. Paterc. ii. 65. Olympiad 181 27 Rufus & Marcellus 28 Marcellus ii and Paulus 29 Lentubis and Mar cellus 30 Caius Julius Caesar and Servilius Olympiad 182 1* Calinus & Vatinus 2 C. Julius Csesar ii alone 3 C. Julius Cjesar iii alone C. Julius Caesar iv alone Olympiad 183 1 6 Pansa and Hirtius ' The numbers here begin anew, in order to denote, as it would seem, the years of Julius Csesar's supreme power j and the Greek compiler appears to have continued them after Csesar's death, because 156 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [p.'VRT Fasti Consulares seu Capitolini. M. AGRIPPA L.F. Various Inscriptions. .mvnativs l.f. m. aemilivs. [m.f. .antonivs p. svlpicivs cens. [lvstr. N.F. .antonivs p. servilivs p.f. CN. DOMITIVS M.F. C. ASINIVS. CN. F. ...vF L. CORNE- SvF. P. CA- HVS. LF. NIDIVS. P.F. Cal. Amit. Foggini. p. 113, CENSORIN. ET CALVIS. COS. Chuter p. 299, cited in Sigonius, tom. i. p. 658 L. SEMPBONIVS. L. SCUIBONIVS K. JVX. P. iEMILIVS C. MEMMIVS K. NOV. C. HERENNIVS Gruter, cited in Sigonius tom. i. p._399 IMP. CiESAE II. L. VOLCATIVS K. IAN. L. ANTONIVS K. MAI. L. FLA VIUS K. IVL. M. ATTILIVS C. FONTEJVS K. SEP. L. VINVOIVS K. OCTOB. L. LiBNONIVS Sigonius tom. i. col. 560 CN. DOMITIVS. u. SOSIVS K. JVL. L. OOENELIVS K. NOV. N. YALEBIVS IMP. CiESAB in. M. VALEEIVS K. MAJ. M. TITIVS K. OCT. CN. POMPEJVS Chronicon of Idatius, or Fasti Idatiani. Lepido et Piano Antonino Pietateet Isaurico Galbino ii et PoUi- nione Bufo Censorino et Sabino Pulchro et Flacco Agrippa et Gallo Publicola et Nerva Cocceio Cornificio et Pom- peio Magno Antonino ii et Libone Octaviano Augusto II et Paulo Octaviano Auffusto IU et Corbilio CHAP. VlJ THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 157 Dion Cassius. INI. Aimilius Lepidus II Lucius Munatius Plancus L. Antonius Pictas P. Servilius Isauricus Cn. Domitius Calvi nus II C. Asinius Pollio Lucius Marcius C. Calvisius Sabinus Ap.Claudius Pulcher C. Norbanus Flaccus M. Vipsanius Agrippa L. Caninius Gallus L. Gellius Poplicola M. Coccejus Nerva L. Cornu'ficius Sex. Pompejus M. Antonius ii L. Scribonius Libo Csesar ii, L. Volcatius L. F. Tullus Cn. Domitius Ah eno barbus Caius Sossius C. Caesar Octav. Ill M. Valerius Messala Corvinus Cassiodorus. M. Lepidus L. Plancus P. Servilius ii L. Antonius C. Domitius C. Asinius L. Censorinus C. Calvisius App. Claudius C. Norbanus M. Agrippa L. Caninius L. Gellius M. Cocceius Sex. Pompeius L. Cornificius L. Scribonius L. Atracinus C. Caesar and L. Volcatius Cn. Domitius C. Sosius Various Authors. M. .Smilio Lepido; L. Mu- natio Planco; Coss. Suet. Tib. 5. Obsequens 130. L. Antonius Cos. Eutrop, vii. 3. 184th Olympiad. Caius Domitius Calvinus ii Caius Asinius Pollio Joseph. Antiq. xiv. c. 14. 185th Olympiad. Marcus Agrippa Caninius Gallus Joseph. Antiq. xiv. c. 16. Antonius abdicated on the day of his election, and for him was substituted L. Sem pronius Atratiuus, Dion Cass. xlix. 33. Ootavius abdicated after a few hours, on the kai. of Jan. Suet. Octav. 26. C. Sosius et Cn. Domitius, Suet. Octav. 17. Cn. Domitio, C. Sosio, Coss, Nepos. Atticus, xxii. Csesare et Messalla Cprvino consulibus Vel. Paterc. ii. 84. C. Caesar ii Csesare et Messalla Cprvino Olymp. 186 M. Messalla consulibus 12 Octav. Augustus in and Crassus * Beginning of indictions from Sep. 1, according to the Chronicon Paschale. See chap. iv. p. 99. CInouicon Paschale. or Fasti Siculi. 1* Lepidus & Plancus 2 Antonius &Isauricus 4 3 Albinus and Pollio Olympiad 184 4 Censorinus and Sa binus 5 Pulcher and Flaccus 6 Agrippa & Gallus 7 Publicola and Erva [Nerva] Coccius Olymp. 185 8 Cornificius and Pompeius 9 Antoninus and Libo 10 Octavianus Augustus and Cicero 11 Octav. Augustus il and Corvilius 158 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS, [part : No. of Yeai-s. 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 Fasti Consulares seu Capitolini Various Inscriptions. Inscr. cited in Sigonius tom. i ( ol^63 IMP. CJESAE IIII. M. LIOINIVS KAL. JVL. C. ANTISTIVS ID. SEPT. M. TVLLIVS K. NOV. L. s.«;nivs IMP. CiESAB V. SEX. APPVLEJVS IMP. CESAR VI. M. AGRIPPA II Chionicon ol Idatius. or Fas:i It.'adaui. CUSAB D STVS Villi M. rvNI . . . SILANVS C^SAR DIVI F. C. N. . . . VSTVS X C. N. . . . FLACCVS CIESAB DIVI F. C. N. AVGVSTVS XI A. HE . . . CO MVBENA EST IN E. L. F. E. [Mortuu.s est in ejiis loco f actus est] VS CN. F. CN. N. PISO NTIVS. LF. LN. [L. Arruntius lf. ln.] Gruter, p. 298. SvF. L. SESTIVS p. F. M. OLAVDIVS M. F. L.AE . . L. MVNATIVS PAVL. .SIMILIVS Q. iEMILIVS LEPID . . . M. LO . . . M. APPVLEIVS SEX. F. P. SI . . 0. SENTIVS SATVBN. Q. LV , SvF. M. VINVCIVS. P. F. Gruter, p. 298. p. OOENELIVS p. F. CN. C , Octaviano iv et Crasso Octaviano v et Pulchro Octaviano vi et Agrippa Octaviano vii et Agrippa ii Octaviano viii et Tauro ii Octaviano ix et Silano Octaviano x et Flacco Octaviano xi et Pisone jEsernio et Aruntio Celso et Hibei'o Lollio et Lepido Apuleio et Nerva Saturnino et Lucretiu Cinna Duobus TiCntulis ,:- 1 ; chap. VI.] the SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 159 Dion Cassius. Csesar iv M.Licinius Crassus Csesar v Sextus Apulejus Csesar vi M. Vipsanius Agrip pa II Caesar vu Agrippa iii Caesar Augustus vm T. Statilius Taurus Augustus IX M. Junius Silanus Augustus X C. Norbanus Flaccus Augustus XI Cn. Calpurnius Piso M. Claudius Marcel lus jEserninus Lucius Aruntius Marcus LoUius Quintus Lepidus M. Apuleius P. Silius Nerva C.Sentius Satuminus Q. Lucretius Vespillo C. Caesar iii M. Crassus C. CsBsar iv Sex. Appuleius C. Caesar v and M. Agrippa ii C. Caesar vi M. Agrippa iii C.Aug. Cses. VII T. Statilius C.Aug. CaBs.viii M. Silanus C.Aug.Caesarix C. Norbanus C.Aug. Caesar X Cn. Piso M. Marcellus L, Arruntius M. LoUius Q. Lepidus M. Appulejus P. Silius C. Sentius and Q. Lucretius Various Authors. Caesar vi, Imp. iv, consul cum Marco Licinio Crasso Orosius,\ib.\'i.deAntoniovicto Imp. Caeg. Augusto, Lucio » Appulejo Coss. Orosius vi. Imp. Augustus Imp. Augusto Csesare vi Marco Agrippa ii, Coss. Orosius vi. Jani Portas Julius Caesar Divi F. Imp. Augustus vii, M. Vip sanius Agrippa, Coss. Censorinus de Die Natal. Chronicon Paschale, or Fa^ti Siculi. Cn. Cornelius Lentulus P. Gomel. Lentulus Marcellinus Cn. Lentulus P. Lentulus Collegam Lepidum quo duxit Lollius Anno. Hor, Ep, lib. i. ep. 20. C. Sentio, Q. Lucretio, Coss. J, Frontinus de 'Aqvced, Art. x. 13 Octav. Augustus IV and Crassus ii 14 iEnobarbus & Sosius 15 Octav. Augustus v and Apuleius Olymp. 187 1 Octav. Augustus VI and Agrippa 2 Octav. Augustus vii and Agrippa ii 3 Octav. Augustus vm and Taurus 4 Octav. Augustus ix and Silanus Olymp. 188 5 Octav. Augustus x and Flaccus 6 Octav. Augustus ki and Piso 7 Octav. Augustus XII and Aruntinus 8 Celsus and Tiberius Olymp. 189 9 Lollius and Lepidus 10 Apuleius and Nerva 1 1 Satuminus and Lu cretius 12 Lentulus and Len tulus 13 Olymp. 190 Lentulus ii and Cor nelius 160 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part 1. ho. of Years. 47 48 Fasti Consulares seu Capitolini. 49 60 51 62 53 6465 56 6768 69 60 Various Inscriptions. C. FVENIVS. O. F. C. CL. DOMITIVS. CN.F. P. CO . , SvF. L. TA . . M. DEUSVS L. F. EVF. ABDIC. IX E. L. F. E. C. F. C. N. EEBIL. IN MAG. M.E. Chronicon of Idatius, or Fasti Idatiani. M. LIOINIVS. M. F. II. CLAVDIVS. II. F. M. VALEEIVS. M. F. C. VALGIVS. C. F. SvF' C. CANINIVS Ver. Flac. Cal. Foggini Rom. 1779, p. 17. DRVSO ET CRISPING C... Mur. Nov. Thes. tom. i. p. 297.4. C. ASINIO GALLO Cos C. MARCO CENSOR Ibid, same page, 6. D. LAELIO BALBO COS C. ANTISTIO VET. Ibid. p. 298. 1 . IMP CAESARE XII L. CORNELIO SVLLA Fornicio et Silvano Domitio Scipione et Ahenobarbo Libone et Pisone Crasso et Lentulo Nerone et Varo Messala et Quirino Robellio et Saturnino Maximo etTuberone Afiicano et Maximo Diniso et Crispino Censorino et Gallio Nerone ii et Pisone ii Balbo et Vetere Octaviano xii et Sylla Sabino et Rufino CHAP. IV. 1 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 161 Dion Cassius. C. Furnius Cl Junius Silanus L. Domitius Aeno barbus P. Cornelius Scipio M. Drusus Libo L. Calpurnius Piso M. Licinius Crassus Cn. Cornelius Len tulus Tiberius Claudius Nero P. Quintilius Varus M. Valerius Messala Barbatus P.SidpiciusQuiriniusPaulus Fabius Max imus Quintus jElius Tu- bero Julus Antonius Q. Fabius Africanus Claudius Nero Dru sus T.Quintius Crispinus C. Marcius Censori nus C. Asinius Gallus Tiberius Claudius ii Cn. Calpurnius Piso D. Laelius Balbus C. Antistius Veter Augustus xn Lucius Sylla C. Calvisius Sabinus if L. Passienus Rufus C. Furnius C. Silanus L. Domitius P. Scipio M. Drusus L. Piso Cn. Lentulus M. Crassus Tiberius Nero P. Quinctilius M. Messalla P. Sulpicius Paulus Fabius Quintus iElius Julius Antonius Afr. Fabius Drusus Nero L. Quinctius C. Asinius and C. Marcius Tib. Nero Cn. Piso D. Lselius C. Antistius C.Aug.Caesarxi L. Sylla C. Calvisius L. Passienus Various Authors, Cajo Fumio, Cajo Syllano, Coss. Julius Obsequens, 131. Chronicon Paschale, or Fasti Siculi. Paullo Fabio, Quinto jElio, Coss. Jul. Obsequens Q. -35110 Tuberone, Paullo Fabio Maximo, Coss. Jul.Frontin deA qued.Art. 99. Julo Antonio, Fabio Africano, Coss. Sueton. Claud, c. 2. C. Marcio Censorino, C. Asinio Gallo, Coss. Censorimis de die Nat. Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiii. 47. Claudius Nero ii Calpurnius Piso, Coss. Dion Halic. i. 3. Divo Augusto XI 1 Lucio Sulla, Coss. Plin. Nat. Hist. vii. 14 Fornicius & Silanus 15 Domitius and Aena barbus Libo and Piso Olymp. 191 2 Crassus& Lentulus 3 Nero and Clarus 4 Mpssala & Cyriniiis 5 Rubellius and Satur- niuns Olymp. 192 6 Maximus & Xubero 7 Africanus and Max imus II 8 Drosus & Crispinus 9 Censorinus & Gallus Olymp. 193 10 Nero II and Piso II 11 Balbus and Veter 12 Octavianus xm and , Sylla 13 Sabinus and Rufinus 21 162 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PARTt No. of Years. 61 62 63 64 65 66 Fasti Consulares seu Capitolini. Various Inscriptions. Chronicon of Idatius, or Fasti Idatiani. Mur. Nov. Thes. tom. i.p. 298-3 IMP. CAESABE XIII. M... Ibid. COSSO CORNELIO L. PISONE C. Ibid. C. CAESAEE. L. PAVLO. COS. 67 68 69 70 71 73 74 M. FVEIVS P. F. P. N. CAMILL SEX. NONI VS L.F.L.N. QVINCTILIAN C. POPPiEVS Q. F. Q. N. SABINVS Q. SVLPICIVS Q. F. Q. N. CAMEEINVS P. COEHELIVS P.F.P.N. DOLABELLA C. IVNTVS C. F.M.N. SILANVS FLAM. MAET. , . . MILIVS Q. F. M. N. LEPIDVS ESKl. IVL. L.CASSIVSL.F. N.LON- GINVS Ibid. p. 299-1. L. AEEVNTIO. M. LEPIDO. COS. Inscr. quoted mSigonius, tom. i c. 694 p. COENELIVS P. F. DOLABELLA C. IVNIVS C. F. SILANVS FLAMEN MAET, COS. Lentulo et MessaJino Octaviano xin et Silano Lentulo et Pisone Caesare et Lucio Paulo Vindicio et Varo Lamia et Serviiio [M\io Cato et Satutr nino] . , Magno Pompejo et Valeric Lepido et Aruntio Csesare et Capitone Cretico et Ner\'a Camillo et Quin- tiliano Camero et Sabino Dolabella et Salino Lepido et Tauro CHAP. VLJ THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 163 Dion Cassius, L.Cornelius Lentulus M. Valerius Messala or Messalinus Augustus XIII M.Plautius Silvanus Cossus Cornelius Lentulus L. Calpurnius Piso C. Csesar Augusti fil. L. Aimilius Paulus P. Vinicius or Minu- cius P. Alfenus or Alfl- nius Varus L. ^lius L. F. La mia M. Servilius Sex, Aimilius Catus C. Sentius Saturni- L. Valerius Messala Valesus Cn. Corn. Cinna Magnus M. Aimilius Lepidus L. AiTuntius A. Licinius Nerva Silianus Q. CiEcilius Metellus Creticus 51. Fi.rius Camillus Sex. Nonius Quin- tilianus Q, Sulpicius Came- rinus C. Poppseus Sabinus P. Cornelius Dola bella C. Junius Silanus M. Aimilius Lepidus T, Statilius Taurus Cassiodorus. C. Lentulus M, Messalla C.Aug.Caes.xii M. Plautius Cossus Lentulus L. Piso ' C.A.Caesar xm L. Paulus P. Vinicius P. Alphenus M. Servilius L. Lamia Sex, .Jllius C, Sentius Cn, Cinna L. Valerius M. Lepidus L. JijTuntius Q. Csecilius A. Licinius M, Furius Sex, Nonius Qn. Sulpicius C, Poppaeus P; Dolabella C, Silanus M, Lepidus T, Statilius Various Authors M, Valerio Messala, Cn, Lentulo Coss, Sueton. Galba iv. P. Vinicio Vel. Pat. ii, 103. M. Serviiio, (L. Lamia) Coss. Valer. Max. i, c. 8, jElio Cato, Sentio, Coss. Velleius Pat.'n. 103, C, Poppaeo, Q, Sulpicio, Coss, Plin. Nat. Hist, vii, ||. Chronicon Paschale, or Fasti Siculi. Olymp. 194 14 Octav, Augustus xiv and Silvanus 15 Lentulus and Piso 1 Publius Cajsar and Paulus 2 Indicius and Varius Olymp, 195 3 Lamia and Servilius 4 Magnus & Valerius 5 Lepidus and Plancus 6 Tiberius Caesar and Capito Olymp. 196 7 Cretius and Nerva 8 Camillus and Quin- tilianus 9 Camerinus and Sa binus 10 Dolabella & Silanus Olymp. 197 11 Lepidus and Taurus 164 the SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part I. No. of Years. Fasti Consulares seu Capitolini. Various Inscriptions. Chronicon of Idatius, or Fasti Idatiani, 75 GEEMANICVS TI. F. AVGVSTI N. C, FONTBIVS C. F. C. N. CAPITO From an insc. cited in Sigonius tom. i. c. 596 Geimanico Csesare et Capitone EX K. IVLIS C. VISELLIVS C.F.C.N. GEEMANICO 0 r-. E COS. VAEEO C. FONTEJO CAPITONE 76 0. SILIVS P.F.P.N. Mur. Nov. Thes. tom. i. p. 300. Flacco et Silano L. MVNATIVS L.F.L.N. PI,.ANCVS C. SIL. L. MVN. cos. 77 - Cal. Amiter. Foggini, p. ll3 SEX. APVL, SEX. POjy. COS, Duobus Sextis .Pom pejo Magno et Apulejo 78 Ver. Flac. Cal. Foggini, Rom. 1779, p, 28, DRVSO ET NOBBANO, Bruto et Flacco 79 Tauro et Libone 80 Mur. Ut Sup. p, 301-1, 0, CAECILIO EVFO. COS. L. POMPONIO FLACCO. Crasso et Rufo - 81 Tiberiano Csesar ii et Druso Germanico u 82 4 Silano et Salbo 83 • t Messala et Grato 84 Tiberiano Ca's;ii'e in et Druso Gemianieo iii 85 Agrippa et Galba 86 C. ASINIO. C. ANTISTIO, COS. Visconti Opera Varia. Labus, tom, i, p. 80. PoUione et Vetere 87 Cethego et Varo 88 Agrippa ii et Leii- tulo Galva CHAP. VLJ - THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 165 Dion Cassius. Cassiodorus. Germanicus Cses. f. Csesar C. Fontejus Capito L. Munatius Plancus C. Silius Csecina Sex. Pompejus Sex. Apulejus Drusus Csesar Tib. fil. C. Norbanus Flaccus T. Statilius Sisenna Taurus L. Scribonius Libo C. Csecilius Nepos or Rufus L, Pomponius Flac cus Tiberius Caesar Aug. fil. Ill Germanicus Caesar Tib. fil. II M. Junius Silanus L. Norbanus Flaccus or Balbus M, Valerius Messala M, Aurelius Cotta Tiberius Csesar Aug. fil. IV Drusus Julius Tib. fil. II Decimus Haterius Agrippa C Sulpicius Galba C. Asinius Pollio C, Antistius Veter Sergius, or Sixtus, Cornelius Cethegus L, Visellius Varro M. Asinius Agrippa Cossus Cornelius lentulus German. Csesar C. Fontejus L. Plancus C. Silius Sex. Pompeius Sex. Appuleius Drusus Csesar C. Norbanus Sisenna Sta tilius L, Scribonius L. Pomponius C, Caecilius Tiberius Caesar German. Caesar M. Silanus O, Norbanus M, Valerius M, Aurelius Tiberius Csesar Drusus Csesar D. Haterius C. Sulpicius C. Asinius C, Antistius Ser, Cornelius L. Visellius M. Asinius Cos. Cornelius Various Authors. L, Planco, C. Silio, Coss. Suet. Octav. 101. Duobus Sextis Pompeio, Appuleio, Coss. Suet. Octav. 100. Tac. Ann. i. 7. Dmso Csesare ; C. Norbnno Coss. Tacit. Ann. i. 55. Sisenna Statilio Tauro, L. Libone Consulibus Tac. Ann. ii. 1, C, CsEcilio; L. Pomponio Coss. Tac. Ann. ii. 41. Tiberius m ; Germanicus ii Coss. Tac. Ann. ii. 53, M, Silano ; L. Norbano ; Coss. Tac, Ann. ii. 59, M, Valerius ; C. Aurelius Coss. Tac. Ann. iii. 2. Tiberius iv; Drusus ii; Coss, Tac. Ann. iii. 31. C, Sulpicius; D. Haterius Coss. Tac. Ann. iii. 52. C. Asinio; C. Antistio; Coss. Tac. Ann. iv. 1. Comelio Cethego ; Visellio Varrone; Coss Tac. Ann. iv. 17. Comelio Cosso ; Asinio Agrip pa ; Coss, Tac. Ann. iv, 34, Chronicon Paschale, or fasti Siculi. 12 Tiberius Csesar ii and Scipio 13 Flaccus and Silanus 14 Sextus and Sextus Olympiad 198 15 Pompejus Magnus and Apuleius 1 Bmtus & Flaccus ii 2 Taurus and Libo 3 Crassus and Rufus Olympiad 199 4 Tiberius Caisar iii and Rufus ii 5 [Silanus & Balbus] 6 Messala and Gratus 7 Tiberius Caesar iv and Drusus Olympiad 200 8 Agrippa and Galba 9 Pullo and Veter 10 Cethegus & Varus 11 Agrippa 11 and Len tulus 166 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part I. No. of Years. 89 90 91 92 93 94 96 9697 98 99 100 Fasti Consulares seu Capitoliui. Various Inscriptions. Mur. Nov. Thes. tom, i. p, 302, 1, M, CEASSO FEVQI cos. l, OALPVBNIO PISONE Ibid. tom. i, p. 301. C. FVFIO GEMINO cos. L. EVBEI.L10 GEMINO Ibid. tom. i, p, 303, 1, L. SVLL. L. SVLP. Ibid, p, 303, 2. CN, ACEEEONIO ET PONTIC NIGEO COS. Fabretti ap. Mur. ut sup. fcN. ACEEEONIO PROCVLO _ PETEONIO PONTIC NI- *'**®®' I [geino. ChTonicon of Idsnot,' or Fasti Idatiani, Getulio et Sabino Crasso et Pisone, Silano et Nerva Rufo et Rubellione Vinicio et Longinp Cassio Tiberiano Caesare )v solo Aruntio et Ahenobarbo Galba Libolo et Sylla Persico et Vitellio-Pulo Gallo et Nonniano Emiliano et Plautio Proculo et Nigrino CHAP. VLJ THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 167 Dion Cassius. Cn. Lentulus Gastu- licus C. Calvisius Sabinus M. Licinius Crassus L. Calpm-nius Piso Ap. Junius Silanus P. Silius Nerva L. Rubellius Gemi nus C. Fufius Geminus M. Vinicius Quartl nus L. Cassius Longinus Tiberius Augustus v L. Jilius Sejanus Cn. Domitius Aeno barbus Furiiis Camillus Scribonianus' Serv.SulpiciusGalba L. Cornelius Sulla L. Vitellius Paulus Fabius Per- C. Cestius Gallus M. Servilius Noni- anus Sex. Papinius Q. Plautius Cn. Acerronius Pro cuius C. Pontius Nigrinus Cassiodorus. C. Calvisius Cn. Gaetulicus L. Piso M. Crassus Ap. Silanus P. Silius C. Rubellius C, Fufius M. Vinicius L, Cassius Tib. Caesar v Vinicius Longinus Sulpicius Silla Persicus Vitellius Gallus Nonianus Galienus Plautianus ProculusNigrinus Various Authors. Lentulo Gaetulico; C. Calvisio Coss. Tac. Ann. iv. 46. M. Licinio ; L. Calpurnio Coss. Tac. Ann. iv. 62. Junio Silano ; Silio Nerva Coss. Tac. Ann. iv. 68. Rubellio et Fufio consuli bus quorum utrique Geminus cognomentum erat... Tac. Ann. v, 1, Cn, Domitius; Camillus Scri bonianus ; Coss, Tac. Ann. vi. 1. Ser. Galba ;L. Sulla; Coss. Tac. Ann. vi, 15. Paullo Fabio ; L. Vitellio ; Coss. Tac. Ann. vi, 28. C. Cestio ; M. Serviiio ; Coss. Tac. Ann.y\.S\. Q. Plautius, S. PapiniuSjCoss, Tac. Ann. vi, 40. Cn. Acerronio Proculo; C. Pontic Nigrino ; Coss. Suet.Tib.73. Tac.Ann.yi.45. Chronicon Paschale, or Fasti Siculi. Olympiad 201 12 Getulicus & Sabinus 13 Crassus and Piso 14 Silanus and Nerva 15 Geminus &Gerninus Olympiad 202 1 Rufiis & Rubellinas 2 Vennicius and Lon ginus 3 Tiberius Csesar v alone 4 Persicus & Vitellius Olympiad 203 5 Aruntius and Aeno barbus 6 Galba and Sulla 7 Gallus & Nonnianus 8 Selianus & Plautus Olympiad 204 9 Proculus and Nigri- 168 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [pART L SECT. II. CONNEXION OF EACH CONSULSHIP WITH ITS PROPER YEAR. We have now, without the possibility of gainsaying, a hundred connected links in the chain of time, which we are to apply to the general measure of the Julian period, and the other dates we have connected with it. If then we can fasten any one of these links to a given year, it is evident that the whole will be connected! But here there is a difficulty growing out of the question, whether the war of Julius Csesar in Spain, which ended in the sub jugation of the sons of Pompey, occurred during the year of confu sion, or in the first year of Csesar's reformed calendar? In other words : whether that war occurred in the years 4667 and 4668 of the Julian period, or in the year 4669 ? As it is universally agreed that Csesar was murdered on the 15th of March in the year which followed that war, the decision of this question, on whichever side it may turn, makes a difference of one year In the subsequent chronology. There are two methods of deciding this question, — the former by astronomical calculations, the latter by comparing and harmo nizing the testimony of historians. Wherever these two axe com bined, the evidence amounts to moral certainty. ASTRONOMICAL CALCULATIONS. On the first of January of the first year of Julius Csesar, there was, as we have seen, a conjunction pf the sun and moon. This is evident from his calendar, which begins with the golden number one, according to the lunar cycle of Meton. Instead of beginning his year as that of Numa's calendar began, at the winter solstice, he waited for the first new moon after the solstice, that the revolu tions of the sun and moon might commence together. The new moon, then, having been on the 1st of January in the first year of the reformed calendar, we are to see whether by astro nomical calculations we can decide the above-mentioned question respecting Cesar's war in Spain. Hirtius, or whoever was the author of the history of Csesar's war in Spain, states that on the third before the nones of March, or, according to our computation, the 5th of March, occurred the battle of Soricia ; that on the same day Pompey removed his camp against Hispalis, and was followed by Caesar; but that before CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS, 169 Csesar commenced his march, the moon had risen about the sixth hour.' The sixth hour, according to the E.oman computation of time, was about midniglit ; and that the moon could not have risen at that hour on the 5th of March of the first Julian year, will be made evident on the slightest calculation. It was new moon on the 1st of January ; and two lunations (29d. 12h. 44' x 2=59d. Ih. 28') ended early on the 1st of March. Consequently, on the 5th of March, the moon was not five days old. It could not pos sibly, therefore, have risen about midnight. If, on the other hand, this event took place in the year of confusion, it will be seen, on consulting the third column in the foregoing table of that year,^ that, according to the new arrangement of Csesar, the 5 th of March, in consequence of the intercalation, was the 85th day of that year; and therefore, (445 — 84) the 361st 'day, reckoning backward, from the 1st of January of the first Julian year. Twelve complete lunations, reckoning backward, from the new moon on the 1st of January, would amount to 29d. 12h. 44' x 12==354d. 8h. 48'. That sum deducted from 361 days> leaves 6d. 15h. 12' as the time wanting to complete a thirteenth lunation, which, being taken from 29d. 12h. 44', leaves 22d. 21h. 32' as the moon's age on the 5th of March in the year of confusion. Consequently, the moon must have risen that night about 59 minutes past 11 o'clock: "Luna hora circiter vi visa est." TESTIMONY OF HISTORIANS, AND INSCRIPTIONS. Let us now proceed to compare and harmonize the testimony of ancient authors. Under this head are to be included inscriptions as well as historians. Petavius justly observes, that " to ascertain with certainty the precise epoch of the Julian year, it is necessary to have a distinct 1 till the close of the year. Both Plutarch a,nd Appian agree with the Eoman historians as to this point. " Being now consul the fourth time," says Appian, " he led ,his army {larparevev) against the younger Pompey into Spain." * " These transactions being finished," says Plutarch, " and being designated consul the fourth time, (iarpaTzvaev) he led his army into Spain, against the sons of Pompey." " Cseiir," says Eutropius, " having returned to Eome, made himself consul the fourth time, and immediately set out for Spain, where the sons of Pompey, Cn.seus and Sextus, had ' October 23, A.J.P. 4666. ' Hist. Eom. lib. xliii. c. 14. ' Hirt. de Bel. Afr. c. vi, ad fin, = Hist. Eom. lib. xliii. c. 25, 26. ' Hirt. de Bel. Afr. ad fin. c. 98. ' De Bel. Hisp. c. 1 ad fin. * De Bel. Hisp, o. 1. » Appian de»Bel. Civ. lib. ii. c. 103. 174 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART L again prepared a mighty war.'" "C. Csesar," says the author of the history of his war in Spain, " being dictator the third time, and designated the fourth ,•" that Is, as Oudendorp justly under stands it, designated consul the fourth time, when by rapid marches he had come into Spain, &c.^ Dion says that Csesar, being then dictator, was created consul towards the close of the year, the people being assembled for that purpose by Lepidus, who was then master of the horse, calling himself so even in his consulate, con trary to precedent.' It cannot be doubted, therefore, that Csesar waited for the Comitia, which preceded the calends of January, and which occurred before the 13th of October, according to his reformed calendar. Fifth year of the Civil War. Appian states that he arrived in Spain the twenty-seventh day from his leaving Eome ;* performing Sthis very long journey with a powerful army. It was in the ulterior province, near the Boetis and Corduba, — the modern Guadalquivir and Cordova. So great was his rapidity, says Dion, that he preceded the news of his coming.' The time when he left Eome cannot be exactly determined ; but he must have arrived in Bcetica towards the close of January, or according to the correct computation of time, early in November. The formidable force of the sons of Pompey, the fears of his own army, and the conviction that this was the crisis of his fortunes, caused him to proceed with great caution, and even to incur the reproach'of timidity.^ Attegua was taken on the eleventh before the calends of March, or the 19th of the intercalary month Merke donius, the 71st day of the year of confusion, and about forty or forty-five days after Csesar's arrival in Spain. The decisive battle of Munda was fought, according to Plutarch, on the day of the Liberalia, the sixteenth before the calends of April, or the seven teenth of March, the ninety-seventh day of the year of confusion. After the battle, Csesar said to his friends that he had often fought for victory, but now the first time for his life.^ ' Brev. lib. vi, c, 24, > Hist. Eom, lib. xliii, c. 33. ' " C, Caesar dictator m, designatus rv, ? De Bel, Civ, lib, ii, c, 103. multis itineribus ante confectis, quum * H. Eom, lib, xliii, c, 32. celeri festinatione ad bellum conficiendum ' Appian dc Bel. Civ. lib. ii. c. 103, 104. in Hispaniam venisset," &c. — De Bel, Hisp, ' Plut. in V. J» Cses. n, ii. ed, Oudend, tom, ii. p. 941, & note 3, CHAP, vl] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 175 After this battle, Corduba and Hispalis soon fell into the hands of the victor ; and on the twelfth of April,' the 123rd day of that year, corresponding with the twelfth of February of the proleptic Julian year, the head of the elder Pompey was brought to Hispalis.^ Dion states that the news of this victory arrived in Jlome the evening before the Parilia ; that is, on the 20th of April, or the 131st day of that year. A triumph was decreed to Csesar for con quering Spain, and also to his generals Fabius and Pedius; religious rites were appointed for fifty days; and the Parilia were celebrated, not as the birth-day of the city, but on account of Csesar's victory.^ Let us now consider these dates as they would have fallen in, the several months of the first Julian year, and we shall see that it would have been morally impossible to have accomplished all in; so short a space of time. That Csesar was in Eome on the first day of that year, is evident from the fact, that on the last day of December one of the consuls, C. Fabius Maximus, died, and Csesar substituted C. Caninius Eebilus as consul for the few hours which yet remained. Supposing, therefore, that he left Rome on th0 second of January, he would have arrived at the seat of war on the twenty-eighth of that month. Such an arduous and rapid march in mid-winter, as it must then have been, and not in October as in the year of confusion, would have required a few days' repose ; so, that we cannot date the commencement of his operations earlier than the first of February. Yet on the eleventh before the calends of March, or the nineteenth of February, Attegua was captured. From the account of Hirtius, the supposed author of the history of the Spanish war, there must have been at' least eleven days Spent in the siege. It began, therefore, not later than the seventh of February, leaving at most from seven to ten days for all the previous operations of the war. And when the caution, not to say timidity, of Csesar's movements is taken into view, it cannot be supposed that he could have thrown supplies into Ulia, marched upon Corduba, and thus caused the siege of Ulia to be raised, crossed the Boetis, and, after various manoeuvres, have drawn out of his stronghold the army of the elder Pompey, in so very limited a space of time. In the year of confusion, on the other hand, there must have been from twenty-eight to thirty-three days spent in these operations. ' Pridie Id, ApriUs, De Bel. Hisp. c. 39. ' Dion Cassius, H, E. lib, xhii, c. 42 176 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART L "But to resume the thread of the narrative. No bounds were now set to the honours heaped upon Csesar. He was allowed to create all the officers of government — even those elected in comitia by the people, — to have sole power over the army, and entire control over the public treasury. He was saluted Pater Patriae, created dictator for life, and consul for ten years.' His statue was carried in procession with those of the Gods. Another, inscribed "to the invincible God," was placed in the temple of Quirinus, and another at the capitol, with those of the kings and Brutus who expelled the Tarquins. This, as Dion states, was the chief circumstance by which Marcus Brutus was excited to conspire against him.^ According to Velleius Paterculus,' Csesar returned to Eome in the month of October. But before he returned, says Dion, he accepted the consulship which had thus been conferred upon him by the senate for ten years. He did not, however, keep it till the end of the year, but on his return gave it to Quintus Fabius Maximus, who had been one of his generals in Spain, with Caius Trebonius for his colleague. Fabius died on the last day of his consulship, that is, on the 445th day of that year; and Csesar, to gratify Caius Caninius, appointed him to fill the vacancy for the few remaining hours. He designated himself and Antony, his master of the horse, as consuls for the ensuing year, and appointed Lepidus to be master of the horse in place of Antony, allowing him to administer the government of Spain — of which he was prsefect — ^by deputies.^ The last year of Cwsar''s life. On the first of January commenced his reformed calendar, and his fifth consulate. He was also dictator the fourth time, and that for life. He used his power with great moderation; passed an act of amnesty for all who had fought against him, recalled them from banishment, and restored them to their former rank; gave pensions to the widows, and a portion of their patrimony to the orphans. He employed himself in rebuilding or improving the cities of Italy and other parts of the empire. To gratify the wishes of the people, by avenging the defeat of Crassus and the loss of ' Appian de Bel. Civ. lib, ii, c, 106; ' Hist. Eom, lib, ii. 56. Plut, Vita J. Cses, ? Appian de Bel, Civ, lib, ii, c, 107. ' Plon Cass, Hist, Bom, lib, xliii. c. 4S. CH.4.P. VLJ THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 177 his army, he began to prepare for an expedition against the Par- thians, which he intended to command in person. To provide, during his absence, for the peace and tranquillity of the city, he appointed the officers of government for three years. Among these, Octavius, then a youth, was named master of the horse; Dolabella was to be consul in Csesar's stead; Antony was to retain his consulate; and Lepidus to have the command in Gallia Narbo- nensis and Hispania Citerior.' But a secret conspiracy was then forming against him, to which the servility of his flatterers, and his own want of caution and con tempt of danger, added power. On the feast of the Lupercalia, the 15th of February, his fellow-consul offered him a crown; and on the 1 5th of March he was assassinated. From this review of the honours of Csesar during the last years of his life it appears: — 1. That his first appointment as dictator was towards the close' of the fii'st year of the civil war, in the consulship of Marcellus and Lentulus; that according to law it could not exceed six months; but that he voluntarily abdicated it after having held it eleven days, his election as consul the second time for the ensuing year,. with P. Servilius for his colleague, having first taken place. 2. That during the second year of the war, while he was consul the second time, he was appointed by the senate, about the begin ning of September, dictator for one year and consul for five years. His second dictatorship began in September; but there having been no comitia, and consequently no election of consul or prsetor by the people, Csesar appears to have disregarded his appointment to the office of consul by the senate. 3. That during the third year of the war, no consuls having been elected in comitia by the people, the year could not be designated as usual by the names of the magistrates who entered upon their annual office on the first of January, but by the second dictatorship of Caesar, which by its own term would not expire till September. It does not appear whether he summoned the comitia, or whether by his supreme power he appointed Q. Fufius Calenus and Publius Vatinius as consuls for the remainder of the year. It is probable that the forms of law were observed; but that Csesar in reality appointed them, all agree. 1 Dion Cass. H,E. lib. xliii. 50, 51, 2a 178 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. 4. That during- the fourth year of the war, he was consul the third time, ivith M. ^Emilius Lepidus for his colleague; and that in the interval between the thirteenth of June and the twenty- seventh of Quintilis or July, the senate appointed him dictator for ten years. This was his third dictatorship. — That after that appoint ment he celebrated four triumphs, and continued in Eome till the ¦close of that year, waiting for the comitia, in which he was appointed consul for the ensuing year. 5. That in the fifth year of the war, which was the last year of confusion, he was consul the fourth time, but having been appointed dictator for ten years, and not having resigned that office, it was his third dictatorship; that his march into Spain and his war with the sons of Pompey occupied of that year 124 days, and the news of his victory at Munda, of March 17th or the 97th day, arrived in Eome on the 131st day; that the senate soon after created him dictator for life, and consul for ten years; that when he celebrated his triumph in Spain, he returned to the city in October, and abdicated his fourth consulship, appointing Q. Fabius Maximus and C. Trebonius, and on the death of Fabius, the last day of the year of confusion, he appointed for a few hours C. Caninius Rebilus ; that by virtue of his fourth or perpetual dicta torship, he nominated himself and Marcus Antonius as consuls for the next year. 6. That in the last year of his life, which was the first of his reformed calendar, he was consul the fifth time, and dictator the fourth, and so continued till he was murdered on the fifteenth of March. Testimony of the Fasti Capitolini. The following extract contains all the years in question, from the first of the civil war till the year after Csesar's death. The capital letters exhibit the inscription in its present mutilated state, and the smaller letters the parts supplied by modern learning and industry. C, CLAVDIVS. M.F.M.N, MAECELLVS L, COEnelius p,f. lentulus V EODEM AMNO C. IVLIVS, C.F. CN CAESAE DICt sine mag. eq. comit. hab. caussa C. IVLIVS. C.F.C.N. CAESAE II P. SEEvUius p.f. cn, n, vatia isauricus CHAP, vl] the SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 179 C. IVLIVS. C.F.C.N. CAESAE n DICT M, ANTONIVS. M.F.M.N, MAG. equitum EOUEM ANNO [q,] FVFIVS. Q.F.Q.N CALENUS P, VAtinius, p,f. C. IVLIVS, C.F.CN. CAESAE III M. Aimilius lepidus C. IVLIVS, C F.C.N. CAESAE HI Diet M, AIMILIVS, M.F,Q.N. LEPIDVS MAg. equitum EODEM ANNO C, IVLIVS. C.F.C.N. CAESAE iTlI SINE conlega KODEM ANNO , Q. FABIVS. Q.F.Q.N, MAXIMUS, IN Mag. MOBTVVS, EST. IN EIVS Locum factus est C, CANINIVS, CF.CN, EEbilus, [IDVS. OCT. Q. FABIVS. Q.F,Q,N, MAXIMVS COS EX HISPANIA AN. DCCVIII IH Q. PEDIVS, M,F, PEO COS EX HISPANIA AN, DCCVIH. IDIB, [DEC, C. IVLIVS. CF.CN, Cssar iiii, diet, M, AIMILIVS m.f,q,n, lepidus ii mag, equit, VT QVM m, aimilius lepiDVS PALVDATVs exisset iniret CN. DOMITIVS, M.F.M.N, CALVInus IN, INSEQVENTEM ANNum designatus ERAT NON. INIIT. C. IVLIVS, C,F,C,N, CAE.SAR V, m. antonius, m.f.m,n. P. COrnelius p,f, dolabella C IVLIVS. CF.CN, CAESAE. VL DICT.IHL OVANS EX MONTE AL- [BANO AN DCCix. VII K, FEBB, DCCX, C VIBIVS c,f,c,n, pansa a, hirtius a.f, IN. MAG. occis. e, in c, loc. fact, est, in mag, occis e, loc, fact est. C IVLIVS. C.F cn. csesar qui q. pedius m.f. in mag. mort. est. in ejus locum factus est POSTEA IMPerator csesar augustus appell. EST. ABD, IN ejus locum fact est, c. carrinas c.f. p.ventidiusp.f. qui idem prsetor erat, m, aimilius II.F.Q.N. lepidus p m. antonius m.f.m.n, > iiivirir.p.cexa,d.v,k,dec,adpr.k.jan.sex, imp, caesar c,f,c.n, j L, MVNATIVS. L,F.L,N, PLANCVS. PEO. COS. EX. GALLIA, AN. [Iin. K, IAN. M, AIMILIVS M,F.Q.N. LEPIDVS. H, HI VIR. E.P. c. PEO. COS. EX [HISPANIA, PEIDIE. K, , , . 180 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. Imperfect as these fragments are, they are sufficient, with the lights afforded by other inscriptions, historians, and the incidental notices of contemporaneous writers, to establish the facts respecting the honours paid to Csesar, and the true year of his death. For the accommodation of the reader, a line has been drawn to distin guish the several years. The triumphs of Quintus Fabius Maxi mus and Quintus Pedius, for their successes in Spain, are distinctly stated to have been on the third before the ides, or thirteenth of October, and on the ides, or thirteenth of December, in the year of the city 708. Consequently it was that year which from the first of January to the twenty-first of April was reckoned as the 707th year of Eome. By reckoning backward, therefore, it appears that the year when Claudius Marcellus was consul, or the first year of the civil war, was that which before the 21st of April was called the 703rd, and after the 21st of April, the 704th year of Eome. "In that same year" (eodem anno), it is said, Csesar was dictator — namely, the first time — and he retained the office eleven days, for the sake of promoting his election as consul for the ensuing year. This, as all agree, was his second consulship with Publius Servilius for his colleague. It was, therefore, the 704th year of Eome till the 21st of April, and the 705th after it. Ten years had elapsed since his first consulship, — the time required by law to intervene, in the purest days of the republic, before a person who had once been consul was again eligible. From this year, in which Pompey was defeated and murdered, Ceesar became master of the republic, and all the established laws which did not suit his views or convenience were disregarded. The next year (a.u.c. 705-6) is therefore very properly marked, not by consuls, but by the name of Csesar as dictator, and that of Marc-Antony as his master of the horse. The inscription is added, that " in the same year" (eodem anno) Fufius Calenus was consul, with P. Va[tinius] for his colleague; for though the abbreviation cos. be not added, the sense is plain, because the consuls for each year are always placed on one line, whereas the masters of the horse are named after the dictator in the line below. Thus, in the succeed ing year (a.u.c 706-7), Caesar was consul the third time, having M. uiEmilius Lepidus for his colleague. And hence Cassiodorus, in his list of consuls for these two years, names for the first Q. Fufius and P. Vatinius, and for the second C. Julius Caesar CHAP. VI,] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 181 and M. ^milius Lepidus. The next year (a.u.c. 707-8), that is, the year of the war in Spain, is begun by naming Ctesar as dictator, and M. ..^milius Lepidus as his master of the horse; for which reason his name is placed in the line below. And then it is added, "in the same year" (eodem anno), Csesar was consul the fourth time, without a colleague. By his dictatorial authority, *'in the same year" (eodem anno) he substituted in his stead as consul Q. Fabius Maximus, who died on the last day of the year of confusion, and then Cfflsar appointed for a few hours C. Caninius Eebilus. The next year, — the first of the reformed calendar, and the last of CfEsar's life, — (a.u.c. 708-9), is begun by the names of Ccesar as dictator, and M. ^miliiis Lepidus as master of the horse; but there is a peculiarity which can be explained only by the history of that year. For after the name of M. ^milius follow the words, (ut quum M. Aimilius Lepidus paludatus) "that when M. ^milius Lepidus should put on the military garment," that is, should pub licly march out of Rome on a military expedition, another might take his place. The inscription is lost; but this other, as Dion Cassius testifies,' was C. Octavius, afterwards better known under the name of Augustus. And as the Parthian expedition, for which Cffisar was preparing, was likely to continue three years, he nomi nated for the following year Cn, Domitius Calvinus. He also nominated P. Cornelius Dolabella to be substituted for himself as consul after his departure for Parthia. For this reason, after the death of Csesar, Dolabella assumed the fasces as of right, without waiting for any confirmation of his authority by the senate or the people. Hence also in the inscription, after the name of Domitius Calvinus, occur the words, "in insequentem annum [designatus] erat non iniit" (he was designated or appointed for the following year, but did not enter upon his office). No notice is taken of the death of Casar, but immediately after his name as consul for the fifth time, follows the name of P. Co ... . i.e. P. Cornelius Dola bella.^ Then follows the notice of Caesar's ovation. The number vi. after his name, denotes that it was his sixth triumph; and it is expressly said that he was dictator the fourth time.* From all this ' Lib. xliii. last section. " I say nothing about the year, because ' See Appian de Bel. Civ, lib, ii. s. 122, I have suspicions that the date is mutilated «d. Schweigh. tom, ii, p. 344. or altered. As it stands in Sigonius, it is 182 THE succession of consuls. [part I. testimony, it follows that Csesar was slain in his fifth consulship, his fourth or perpetual dictatorship, and in that year which, before the feast of the Parilia, was designated as the 708tb, and after the Parilia, as the 709th year of Eome. The combined evidence of astronomical calculation and historic testimony having so clearly established the fact, that Csesar's war in Spain in his fourth consulship was during the last year of con fusion, and not in the first year of his reformed calendar, it may be proper, before we proceed further, to anticipate an objection which may possibly arise, that the preceding years were also years of confusion and irregularity. To some extent, this must be admitted; but if any error arise from this source, it is of small moment, and of short continuance. In the third section of the chapter on the Eoman year, in speaking of the year of confusion, it was shown that in the course of the last 144 years, compensation had been made for past errors, excepting the neglect of three intercalations amounting to 67 days. This error, therefore, could not have operated more than eight or nine years. It may have shortened some of the preceding consulships, but the difference is too trifling to be noticed in the present adjustment. We proceed, therefore, to connect the preceding and succeeding series of consuls with the years to which they properly belong. The fourth consulship of Csesar began on the thirteenth of October, in, the year 4667 of the Julian period. Supposing no intercalations to have taken place in the preceding period of eight years, and consequently that each consular year consisted of only 355 days, the result would have been as follows: The third consulship of Csesar with Lepidus beginning nomi nally with the first of January, would have begun in reality October 23rd, 4666 of the Julian period. The first of January in the year when Csesar was dictator the second time, and as such appointed Q. Fufius Calenus and P. Va tinius consuls, fell on the second of November, a.j.p. 4665. That year being bissextile, the first of January of the year in which thus: DCCix, But the year 709 began of the city were reckoned in the Fasti April 21, more than a month after Csesar's Capitolini as if they began on the calends dea h. and nearly three months after his of January, if it was afterwards inserted, ovation. If IX formed a part of the on- it is of no value as an authority. The day gmal inscription, it proves that the years of the mouth was vu, k. Feb. or Jan. 26tli. CHAP, vl] the succession OF CONSULS. ' 183 Csesar was consul the second time, with P. Servilius, fell on the thirteenth of November, a.j.p. 4664. In the first year of the civil war, when Lentulus and Marcellus were consuls, the first of January fell on the twenty-third of November, a.j.p. 4663. In the preceding year, when Marcellus and Paulus were consuls, the 1st of January was on the 3rd of December, a.j.p. 4662. In the consulship of Marcellus and Sulpicius, the 1st of January was on the 13th of December, a.j.p. 4661, that being leap year. The 1st of January of the preceding year, the third consulship of Pompey the Great and Q. Metellus, fell on the 23rd of Decem ber, a.j.p. 4660. In the consular year of Domitius Calvinus and Messala, the 1st of January of the year of Numa, coincided with the 2nd of January of the year 4660 of the Julian period. Here, then, are the eight irregular years, preceding the last year of confusion ; and they bring us back to the true 1st of January, and show that the aberration was only for that limited number of years. The consulship of Cicero and Antonius, was the tenth before the consulship last named, and, consequently, it coincided with the year 4650 of the Julian period. In the summer of that year was the 179th olympiad. It was rendered memorable by the conspiracy of Catiline, detected and punished, the capture of Jeru salem by Pompey, and the bicth of Augustus Caesar. Both Dion Cassius' and Josephus,' affirm that Jerusalem was taken in the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, and the latter adds, that it was xara rijv lyyaTriv Kai i^lopirti:oaTr)v ea'i kKaroarrtv oXv/ATnaSa, at the CpOch of, during, or upon the 179th olympiad. It was before the Parilia, the 689th, and after the Parilia, the 690th year of Eome ; the nine teenth year before the reformed Julian calendar ; and the sixty- fourth before the Dionysian, or common Christian aera. But here it becomes necessary to speak of a difficulty which has been raised concerning this testimony. Josephus, while he mentions in his Jewish Antiquities that Jerusalem was taken by Pompey in the 179th olympiad, and in the consulship of Antonius and Cicero, mentions, also, that it was on the fast day in the third month. A doubt has been raised as to the 1 Lib. xxxvii, see. 10-15. ' Antiq, lib, xiv, c, 4, sec, 3. 184 the succession of consuls. [part I. day and month here meant. The Jews began their ecclesiastical year, at or near the vernal equinox ; their civil year, at or near the autumnal equinox. The ecclesiastical year began with the month Abib, or Nisan ;' the civil, with the month Tisri, or Ethanim. The third month of the one, was Sivan ; of the other, Casleu. In the con sulship of Cicero, the equinoxes were nearly where they were at the time of Csesar's reformation of the calendar; that is, on the 25th of March, and the 24th of September. Abp. Ussher supposes that Josephus meant the third civil month, or Casleu, the twenty- eighth day of which was a fast among the Jews, because Jehoiakim burned the roll on that day.' Petavius, on the other hand, affirms, that it was the third ecclesiastical month, or Sivan, on the twenty- third day of which was the fast for Jeroboam's sin, in forbidding the ten tribes to worship at Jerusalem. Other critics have thought that because Josephus,^ in his history of the Jewish war, speaks of the temple being taken rpir^ — /xjjrl Trjg iroXtopKiag, in the third month of the siege, he speaks also, in this passage, not of the third month of the year, but of the third month of the siege. Now I appre hend that, in this passage, Josephus speaks of the capture of the city, aXovarii rrjg iroXeiog, and in his work on the Jewish War, of the temple, which are two different events. We do not know exactly the time when Pompey approached the city, but it appears that it was delivered up to him, and that he entered it in the third month, on the fast day, and then laid siege to the temple, which held out much longer. As this question will hereafter be found to have an important bearing on the chronology of Herod's reign, it may be as well to examine it now. For this purpose, it seems expedient to connect the Jewish months with the Eoman, not only in the year 4650 of the Julian period, but also in the preceding year. By the use of the chapters on the Eoman year and the Julian period, the reader will be enabled to examine these calculations, and judge for himself of their accuracy. 1 Exod. xii. 2 ; xiii. 4 ; Dent xvi. 1. ' Jerem. xxxvi. 22, 23. ' Jos. de Bel, Jud, lib. i, c, 7. s, 4. chap. VL] THE SUCCESSION OP CONSULS. 185 Lunations of the year when Jerusalem was taken by Pompey, the day of the fast, in the third month, in the 179th Olympiad, Caius Antonius and Marcus Tullius Cicero, coss., corresponding with a.j.p. 4650. Astronomical signs, as reckoned backward, from the first year of the vulgar sera, according to Dionysius Exiguus, and Bede, are (0 2, J) 14, epact 23, Sunday Letter E ; and the calculations are made according to the calendar of the Council of Nice. Astronomical signs, as reckoned backward from the first year of Csesar's reformed calendar, are @ 10, B 1, epact 0 ; and the calculations are made by the Golden Numbers, as arranged in Csesar's calendar. Proleptic Vulgar ^ra, and Cal, of Nice, Proleptic Eeformed ^ra of Julius Csesar, A.j,p, 4649, Ql,)) 13. and the Golden Numbers as arranged Epact 12 Sunday Letters G. F, Bissextile, by him A.j,p. 4649, ¦ig 9, J) 19, Ep, 18, Bissextile, Jan. 11 Shebeth 30 Jan, 13 Shebeth 30 Feb. 9 Adar 29 Feb, 11 Adar 29 Mar. 11 Nisan 30 [14 d. of pasch. Mar, 13 Nisan 30 [14 d. of pasch. Apr. 9 lyar 29 moon Mar, 24 Apr. 11 lyar 29 moon Mar. 26 May 9 Sivan 30 May 11 Sivan 30 June 7 Tammuz 29 June 9 Tammuz 29 July 7 Ab, 30 July 9 Ab. 30 Aug. 5 Elul 29 Aug. 7 Elul 29 Sep. 4 Tisri 30 Sep. 6 Tisri 30 Oct, 3 Marchesvan 29 Oct. 5 Marchesvan 29 Nov, 2 Casleu 30 Nov, 4 Casleu 30 Dec, I Teheth 29 Deo, 3 Tebeth 29 „. 31 Shebeth I 354 355 +Epact if last year 12 — Epact of this year 12 343 366 + Epact rf next year 23 366 A.J,P. 4650, © 2, D 14, Ep. 23, Sun. Let, E, A,J,P, 4650, sQt 10, B 1, Ep. 0. Jan, 1 Shebeth Jan, 30 Adar „ 31 Adar Feb. 28 Veadar Mar, 1 Veadar Mar. 30 Nisan [14 d, of pasch, B „ 31 Nisan [14 d. of pasch. J Apr, 28 lyar Apr. 12 Apr, 29 lyar Apr. 13 May 28 Sivan [23 or fast, June 19 May 29 Sivan "23 or fast, June 20 June 26 Tammuz [Olymp. 179, 1 June 27 Tammuz 'Olymp, 179, 1 July 26 Ab. July 27 Ab. Aug, 24 Elul Aug, 25 Elul Sep. 23 Tisri Sep, 24 Tisri Oct. 22 Marchesvan Oct, 23 Marchesvan Nov. 21 Casleu [28 fast, Dec, 18 Nov, 22 Casleu [28 fast. Dee. 19 Dec. 20 Tebeth Dec, 21 Tebeth It is evident that, according to the proleptic calendar of Julius Csesar, there were, in the year 4650 of the Julian period, thirteen lunations, and, according to the calculations of the Council of Nice, which differ one day, thirteen lunations, a.j.p. 4649. Hence it was necessary to insert the intercalary month Veadar, or the 24 186 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. second Adar, in a.j.p. 4650, in order to bring the paschal full mocii after the vernal equinox. Sivan, the third month of the ecclesiastical year, began on the 28th or 29th of May, and the fast day, or 23rd, on the 19th or 20th of June, seven days before the 179th olympiad began. Casleu, the ninth of the ecclesiastical, but the third month of the civil year, began November 21st or 22nd; and the fast, on the 28th of that month, coincided with the 18th or 19th of December, which was only the thirteenth or fourteenth day before the consulship of Cicero and Antonius expired ; or, if the next year of Numa began on the 27th of January of the solar year, at most thirty-nine days before Cicero and Antonius went out of office. Hence, I see no reason for the opinion of Arch bishop Ussher, but much to favour that of Petavius. 1. In all ecclesiastical arrangements, the ecclesiastical order of the months would be observed. In the passage of Jeremiah, where the burning of the roll by Jehoiakim is mentioned, it is expressly said, that " the king sat in the winter house, in the ninth month" ' This was the ecclesiastical order of the months. 2. Josephus says the city was taken t^ rijc yijTtmc ripip<}, on the fast day. The very force of the article, shows that it was a well- known, and very solemn fast day ; and, surely, the defection of the ten tribes, from the worship of the true God to the worship of idols, was a far more solemn occasion for a national fast, than the mad action of Jehoiakim. 3. The circumstances of the narrative, show that the capture of the city was in the third ecclesiastical month. In the chapter pre ceding that in which the capture of the city is mentioned, it is stated, that, " early in the spring, Pompey brought his army out of winter-quarters, and marched rapidly upon Damascus." While there, he received deputations both from Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. This, as appears from the second chapter, was after the passover, which followed the murder of Onias. After some delay, occasioned by various artifices and negotiations, Pompey, being irritated, marched first to Jericho, and thence to Jerusalem. Aristobulus having been imprisoned by the Eoman commander, the Jews of his faction entrenched themselves in the temple, destroyed the bridge which connected it with the city, and prepared to sustain the siege. ' Jer. xzxvL 22. chap, vl] the succession of consuls. 187 The opposite faction delivered up both the city and the royal palace to Pompey. And then it follows, that the city was taken in the third month ; evidently the third ecclesiastical month, or Sivan.' 4. It may be considered as an objection, that the fast day in Sivan was seven days before the 179th olympiad began, and eighteen days before the games were celebrated. But when the language of Josephus is duly weighed, this circumstance corrobo rates the fact, and shows the accuracy of the historian. His language on this occasion is peculiar. Usually in naming the olympiads, if it be not the year in which the games were cele brated, he names the year in the dative and the number of the olympiad in the genitive case;^ or if it be the year of the games, he puts tie number of the olympiad in the dative.^ But here he uses the preposition rara governing the accusative, which, accurately rendered, signifies at, or upon, or during, or at the epoch of, the 179th olympiad. He says also that the city, not the temple, was taken on the fast day. The temple held out for some time longer; and it required great preparation of machinery, and very persever ing efforts of Pompey, to take it. It is probable, therefore, that he was actually engaged in the siege of the temple during the very days in which the olympic games were celebrated. Archbishop Ussher, and the critics quoted by Hudson in his note on the passage, make no distinction between the capture of the city and that of the temple. The archbishop's words are, " The temple was taken on the fast day, C. Antonius and M. Tullius Cicero being consuls, in the first year of the 179th olympiad, on the solemn fast of the third month, which is to be taken as the third month of the civil year, called by the Hebrews, Cisleu."'* He gives no reason for his opinion ; but probably he considered it impossible for Pompey to take the temple so early as the third month of the ecclesiastical year. This difficulty would have been obviated by adhering strictly to the language of Josephus. Dion Cassius says that Jerusalem was taken on Saturday, or the Jewish Sabbath; but he probably confounded the fast day with the Sabbath, If we take the Nicene cycle, which alone can be followed for the Sunday letters, in 4650, the 23rd of Sivan and the 28th of Casleu both fell on Thursday. With the Jews, the Sab bath was a festival, and would never be observed as a fast. ' Jos. Antiq. lib. xiv, c. 2, § 2; comp. with c, 3, and c, 4, ' Ant. lib. xiv. c, 1, /?. ' Ant, lib, xiii, c, 8. j3. * Usserii Annales, ,/Etas Muudi vi. ad a.m. 3941. 188 the succession of consuls. [part I. To sum up the whole: The city was delivered up by the faction of Hyrcanus, and Pompey marched into it with his army on Thursday, the 19th or 20th of June a.j.p. 4650. He immediately carried on the siege of the temple with greater vigour, being assisted by Hyrcanus and his party, and at length took it by storm, soon after the celebration of the games of the 179th olympiad, and in the third month from the time in which he commenced the siege of the city. CHAP, vn.] 189 CHAPTER VII. HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS C^SAE, AFTEBWAEDS- NAMED AUGUSTUS, FEOM THE DEATH OF JULIUS CiESAE TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. Prefatory remarks, — The younger Csesar with his uncle in Spain in his eightcentb year. — Appointed Master of the Horse, and sent into Macedonia, — Eeturned to Eome after his uncle's death.— The consuls, Hirtius and Pansa killed, and Ciesar appointed consul in his twentieth year. — Triumvirate from Nov, 27, A,j.p, 4670, to the end of December a.j.p. 4675. Its renewal for five years. — Total defeat of Sextus Pompeius, and abdication of Lepidus irtluly a.j.p, 4677. — Decree proposed in the senate against Csesar by the partizans of Antony in A j.p. 4681, This brought on the war, which ended with the victory at Actium, Sep. 2, a.j.p. 4682, by which Csesar became sole master of the Eoman empire in his thirty-second year. In the last chapter, it has been shown, I hope to the satisfaction of the reader, that the year in which Augustus was born, the con sulship of Cicero and Antonius, coincided with the year 4650 of the Julian period, the first year of the 179th olympiad, from the last of June, and the 690th year of Eome, from the twenty-first of April or the Parilia. It has also been shown, that between the consulship of Cicero and the fifth consulship of Julius Csesar, in which he was murdered, there were eighteen pairs of consuls, and consequently eighteen years; thus bringing down the chronology to the end of the last year of confusion, or the end of the year 4668 of the Julian period, when the reformed calendar of Csesar, and the accurate calculation of the solar year, began to operate. And having thus adjusted the list of consuls with the Julian period, the olympiads, the years of Eome according to Varro, the years of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, and the Augustan years — as they are called by Censorinus, — we are prepared, and now only jDrepared, to examine with accuracy the ancient historians of the empire. For their dates are constantly reckoned by the olympiads, the consuls, or the years of Eome. With regard to the latter, we 1 90 history of octavianus CESAR. [part I, can never be certain, unless we know whether the historian adopts or not the computation of Varro. But with regard to the olym- j)iad3 and the list of consuls, there cannot now be any mistake, unless the historian himself has committed an error. This may be the case sometimes, especially where the testimony is not con temporaneous. But in general the Greek historians are very accurate when they name the olympiads, and the Eoman equally so when they name the consuls. Some of the Greek writers, Dion Cassius, for example, and Josephus, are remarkably accurate with regard to both. But of the first thirty-six books of Dion's history we have unhappily but small portions remaining. The work is perfect, however, with few interruptions, from the consulship of Cicero to the beginning of the consulship of Antistius Vetus and Lselius Balbus, or from a.j.p. 4650 to a.j.p. 4707, a period of fifty- seven pairs of consuls, or fifty-seven years. For the next ten years, the history has come down to us much mutilated; and the remainder, to the reign of Claudius, has been abridged by some unskilful hand. From that time, with the exception of a few fragments, the history is lost; and we are indebted for all we know of it to the more concise but better executed compendium of Xiphilinus. With these prefatory remarks, we proceed to the history of the Eoman empire; and, our object will be to connect, the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius with ,the dates now established. The discussion of dates is of necessity dry and tedious; and to relieve the reader, as well as the writer, more perhaps of the history of the times will be introduced than logical precision may require. But wlmt is lost in that respect will be more than counterbalanced by the conviction arising from the general harmony of the narrative. The first period will extend from the rise of Augustus to the battle of Actium, when he became sole master of the Eoman empire; or from the eighteenth year of his age, a.j.p. 4668, to his thirty-second year, or a.j.p. 4682. Suetonius states that Augustus, or, as he was then called, Octa vius, was prevented from accompanying Julius Cfesar to Spain against the sons of Pompey, by severe illness; but that he followed him thither.' How soon after his uncle's departure he followed, is uncertain ; but Dio expressly asserts that he was present during ' Suet, lib, ii. c 8. chap, vil] history of octavianus CjESAH. 191 that period of the war which comprised the capture of Attegua and the decisive battle of Munda.' At this time, according to Velleius Paterculus, he was seventeen years old.^ In attempting to show that the war of Csesar in Spain occurred during the year of confusion, it was stated that Caesar must have arrived in Bcetica towards the close of January of that year ; which, according to the correct computation of time, would have been early in November In the year of the Julian period 4667. Attegua was taken on the llth before the calends of March, the seventy-first day of the year of confusion, and the nineteenth of the intercalary month Merkedonius, corresponding with the 22nd day of December a.j.p. 4667, as will appear by consulting the table of that year. The battle of Munda was fought, according to Plutarch, on the sixteenth before the calends of April, the ninety- seventh day of the year of confusion, or the I7th of January A.J.P. 4668. If then Augustus was born on the 23rd of Septem ber in the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, he must have com pleted his seventeenth year on the 23rd of September in the con sulship of Julius Cassar iii and M. .^Emilius Lepidus, in the year of the city, according to the Capltoline tables, 707, being after the Parilia, and in the year of the Julian period 4667. Ca3sar returned to Eome, according to Velleius Paterculus, in the month of October.' On consulting the table, it will be seen that October began on the 290th day of the year of confusion, and consequently 156 days before its termination. To these if we add the months of January, February and March, to the ides, in the first year of the reformed calendar, it will make the whole period from his return to his assassination about six or seven months and a half, or from about August a.j.p. 4668, to March 15th, a.j.p. 4669 ; and the ides of March being a little more than a month before the Parilia, it was during the 708th year of the city. Caesar was now making preparations for the Parthian expedition ; and among the appointments for three years made iu view of his absence, the young Octavius was named master of the horse. On account of his youth, however, he was sent to ApoUonia, on the ' Dion H. E, lib, xliii. c, 41, comp, with ensis militise, adsecutum se, postea comitem cc, 38, 39, 40, habuit, &c. Vel, Pat, Hist, Eom. 1, ii, c, 59, ' Quem C, Csesar, major ejus avunculus, * Quippe cum mense Octobri in urbem educatum apud Philippum vitrieum dilexit revertisset, &c, Vel, Pat, Hist. Eom, ii, 56. ut suum, natumque anuos xvii, Hispani- 192 HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS CffiSAR. [pART L Ionian sea, to pursue his studies, and practise, says Appian, the military art in company with a wing of the Macedonian horse.' He had been at ApoUonia, aecording to the same author, about six months, when he heard of Caesar's death. His friends in Eome differed in opinion as to the course he ought to take ; some ad vising him to take refuge with the army in Macedonia, and, as soon as he should find that the conspiracy was not general, to avenge his uncle's death; and others, on the contrary, recom mending his immediate return to Eome as a private citizen. He took the latter course, and landed at a little place called Lupia, not far from Brundusium, and out of the direct road. But finding the sympathies of the people to be in his favour, and the army at Brundusium ready to receive him as Csesar's son, he took courage, assumed the name of Csesar, and advanced towards Eome with a constantly increasing retinue.'' The date of this progress Is ascer tained from Cicero's letters to Atticus.' Octavianus Csesar, as he now called himself, came to Naples the 18th of April (14 cal. Maj) and the next day visited Cicero at his CumEcan villa. This fixes the date of his arrival at Eome not far from the 1st of May, when he was about eighteen years and seven months old. Consequently he was nineteen years old complete on the 23rd day of the follow ing September, a.j.p. 4669. On the 1st of January of the second year of Csesar's reformed calendar, corresponding with the 1st of January of the year 4670 of the Julian period, the new consuls Hirtius and Pansa entered upon their office. Through Cicero's influence, the young Caesar was appointed to co-operate with them in the war against Antony. A letter of Galba to Cicero fixes the date of the battle of Mutina, in which both consuls fell. It was fought on the seventeenth before the calends of May, or April 15th ;* and it thus left Csesar the sole commander, at the age of nineteen years, six months, and twenty-three days. His ambition was now to be appointed con sul ; and in. opposition to the will of the senate, and in violation of all the forms of law, he accomplished his purpose by the power of his army, and the favour of the people. Velleius Paterculus says that he entered on his consulship on the 22nd day of September, ' App, de Bel, Civil, lib. iii. c. 7, ' Lib. xiv, ep. 10, comp. with Epistles » Ibid, ut sup, lib. iii. c. 9-12. 5th and 7th, • Cio, ad Fam, lib, x. ep, 30. CHAP, vil] history OF OCTAVIANUS CSSAR. 193 just as had completed his twentieth year.' But Velleius is cer tainly mistaken as to the month, though not as to the year ; for Macrobius has preserved a decree of the senate, which expressly states that he entered on his first consulship In the month Sex- • tUis ;* and the accurate Dio states that he became consul for the first time on the same day on which he died, — that is, on the nine teenth day of August.* In the meantime the junction took place between Antony and Lepidus, as we learn by a letter from Plancus to Cicero, on the 29th of May.* The news of this junction so exasperated the senate, that on the last day of June they unanimously declared Lepidus an enemy of his country.^ Previous to this event, Csesar,. by the advice of the dying Pansa, had effected a reconciliation with Antony, but had conducted his designs so artfully, that the senate, ignorant of this fact, gave him the command of the army which was to march against Antony and Lepidus. Thus was the way prepared for the formation of the Triumvirate. That event took place on a little Island in the river Eeno, between Bologna and Modena. Appian, who gives a minute account of the trans action, states that Cssar was seated between Antony and Lepidus on account of his official dignity, and one of the articles of their covenant required, that Caesar should, for the remainder of the year, resign the consulship to Ventidius. The government of the triumvirs was to be established for five years, to relieve the Republic ¦from its civil dissensions !^ The Inscription found on the Palatine, In the Oolocci gardens, now known by the name of Mills, fixes the date of this event : .. ..EMILrVS M. ANTONIVS IMP, CAESAE HIVIE, E,P.C.- EX A,D,V,K. DEC. AD PE, K, IAN, SEX. That is, that by consent of the Eoman people the triumvirs were to continue in office from the 27th of November (the fifth before the calends of December) to the day before the calends of the sixth 1 Consulatum iniit Csesar pridie quam a.d, iiii, kai, Junias, Ep. ad Fam, lib, x. viginti annos impleret x kai, Octobres cum Ep. 23, ooUega Q, Pedio, Lib, ii, 65. ' Lepidus — pridie kai, Quintiles, scnten- " Cum Imperator Csesar Augustus mense tiis omnibus, bostis a senatu judicatus est. Sextili et pnmum consulatum inierit, &c, M, T, Cio. C. Cassio, Epist. ad Fam. lib.. Saturnal, lib, i, e, 12, xii, ep, 10, ' Dion Cobs. H. E, Ub, lvi. ,30, ' Appian de Bel. CivU. lib. iv, c. 2. ' Lepidus — se cum Antonio conjunxit 25 194 HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS CESAR. [PART I. year, — or, in other words, for five complete years from the lasli day of the following December. The Capltoline tables record two triumphs as belonging to the same year, which, according to their computation, was the year of Home 710: L. MVNATIVS. L.F,L.N. PLANCVS PEO COS, EX GALLIA AN DCCX. [IIII K, IAN. M. AIMILIVS M,F,Q.N. LEPIDVS H, m VTR, E,P,C. PEO COS, EX HIS- [PANIA PEIDIE K. IAN. Plancus and Lepidus were designated consuls for the ensuing year ; and, for some triffing successes, both chose to triumph in the midst of proscription and slaughter, and attended by the jeers :and stifled execrations of all Eome.' Appian has preserved the form of the edict by which Lepidus, with the consent of his col leagues In the triumvirate, decreed his own triumph. "May fortune be propitious ! Be It proclaimed to all men and women, to sacrifice and banquet on the present day. Whosoever shall not be seen doing these things, shall be among the proscribed." The historian adds that Lepidus conducted the triumphal pomp to the temples, attended by all, with the form of gaiety, but the Inward feeling of malevolence,^ Plancus triumphed on the 29th, and Lepidus on the 31st of December, in the year of Eome 710, the second year of Csesar's reformed calendar, and the 4670th year of the Julian period. The next day commenced the first of the five years of the Trium virate. It ended, therefore, by its own limitation, on the 31st of December of the seventh year of Caesar's reformed calendar, — that is, A.u.c. 715, and a.j.p. 4675, at the close of the consulship of Appius Claudius Pulcher and Caius Norbanus Flaccus. The next year, known In the Eoman Fasti as the consulship of Marcus Agrippa and Lucius Gallus, and, according to the Caplto line tables, the 715th until the Parilia, and, after the Parilia, the 716tli year of Eome, Antony and Csesar, accompanied by Octavia, met at Tarentum, the modern Taranto. This meeting, as Appian states, took place early in the spring ; and as the time of the tri umvirate was expired, they decreed the continuance of their own jiower for another five years, without asking the consent of the > Vel. Paterc. lib, ii, c. 67, * App. de Bel. Civil lib, iv. u, 31. CHAP. VII. J HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS C^SAK. 195 people.' Die's account, though less circumstantial, agrees with that of Appian : " They continued their government for another five years, the first having expired."^ Hence In the remaining fragment of the Capltoline tables, the names of the triumvirs are Inserted a second time, immediately before the names of the con suls for that year. Thus : M. AIMILIVS M,F,Q,N M. ANTONIVS M,F IMP. CffiSAEDIVI M.AGEIPPAL.F The great contest which ended^ In the total defeat of Sextus Pompeius, the destruction of his fleet, and the subjugation of Sicily to the power of Csesar, began, according to Dio, early in the spring of the next year, when Lucius Gellius Poplicola and Marcus Cocceius Nerva were consuls.* Appian, with greater precision, and probably with more accuracy, states that Csesar and Lepidus, with their respective squadrons, and Taurus with the ships fur nished by Antony, set sail for Sicily, by previous concert, on the first day of July. The conduct of Lepidus, who chose a most inauspicious moment to betray his jealousy of his powerful col league, caused his soldiers to desert him, and led to his abdication of the triumvirate. On the return of Csesar to Eome, of the many honours offered by the Senate he accepted only an ovation, which is thus Inscribed in the Capltoline tables : IMP. CAESAE DIVLF, CN, IL inVIE. E,P.C, IL OVANS, EX SICILIA, A, [DCCXVn, IDIB, NOVEMB. The Ides of November are the thirteenth of that month, and it was after the Parilia, in the year of Eome 717. Appian says that Csesar was then In the twenty-eighth year of his age, and that cities had enrolled him among their gocis.'' He had completed his twenty-seventh year on the 23rd of the preceding September. Suetonius remarks that nine years intervened between the first consulship of Csesar and the second, and one year between the second and thlrd.^ The first being in the year of Eome 710 and the year 4670 of the Julian period ; the second, with Lucius Volcatius ' Appian lib. v. c, 93-95, ed, Schweigh, Kai eiKom- Kai avrbv al iroXeig rolg tr^f- tom, ii, pp, 832-837. Ttpoig SreoXg avviSpvov. App. de Bel. civ. ' Dion lib. xlvui, at the end, Ed, Eeimar, lib, v. o. 132. tom. i. p. 568, ' Secundum consulatum post ix. annos ' Dio, lib. xlviii. end, comp. with xlix. 1, tertium, anno interjecto, gessit. Suet, lilt ' Kat ijv 0 Kaiaap iriSv ig rare oKrii ii, u. 26, 196 HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS CSISAR, [PART I. Tullus, commenced Jan, 1, 4680, the year of Eome 719, and after the Parilia 720. The third commenced Jan. 1, 4682, of Eome 721 until the Parilia, and after the Parilia 722. The intervening con suls were Onelus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Caius Sossius, both, as Dio tells us, partisans of Antony ; and on the very first day of their entrance upon their office, Sossius, being a rash and Inexpe rienced man, spoke in praise of Antony and disparagement of Csesar, and proposed a decree against the latter, which would have been carried, but for the opposition of Nonius Balbus the tribune. This evidently shows how strong the party of Antony was in the senate. Csesar, under some pretext, but in reality for the purpose of gaining time, had left the city. On his return he assembled the senate, surrounding It with guards, and his friends having daggers concealed under their robes. He seated himself on his curule chair between the consuls, and with great moderation began his defence, accusing much both Sossius and Antony. Not one In the senate dared to utter a word In reply. He therefore appointed another day when he would bring before them written proofs against Antony. The consuls, not daring to speak, and not en during to be silent, fled on the same day, and were followed by not a few of the senate,' Thus began the contest which was termi nated the following year by the victory of Actium. It was on the occasion of this victory, as we shall hereafter see, that by a decree of the senate the temple of Janus was shut the first time by Csesar, in token of universal peace. During the short reconciliation with Sextus Pompeius, which took place in the year 4674 of the Julian period (a,u,c. 713-714), Caesar, and Antony In conjunction with him, had appointed con suls for eight successive years, commencing with Appius Claudius Pulcher and Caius Norbanus Flaccus, a.j.p. 4675. Of this series Domitius and Sossius, and Csesar and Antony, formed the two last, as follows : 4675 Appius Claudius Pulcher and C. Norbanus Flaccus 4676 M. Vipsanius Agrippa and L, Caninius Gallus, 4677 L, Gellius Poplicola and M, Coccejus Nerva, 4678 L. Cornificius and Sextus Pompeius, 4679 L, Scribonius Libo and M, Antonius ii, 4680 Cajsar ii, and L. Volcatius Tullus, 4681 Cn, Domitius Ahenobarbus and C, Sossius, 4682 Cffisar iii. and M, Antonius, for whom was substituted M, Valerius Messalla Corvinus. ' Dion H. E. Ub. 1. c. 2. CHAP, vn.] HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS CSISAR. 197 Csesar therefore entered upon his third consulship on the 1st of January in the year of the Julian period 4682 ; but Antony being now adjudged an enemy to his country, Valerius Messalla, a man whom both triumvirs had formerly proscribed, became consul in his stead. All authors agree that the battle of Actium was fought in the consulship of Csesar and Messalla Corvinus ;' and DIo, who states that the day of this eventful action was the 2nd of Septem ber, observes that he was so particular in mentioning the very day, because the whole sovereignty was then for the first time in Csesar's hands, and the years of his monarchy were counted from it.* Thus have we, by this harmonized view of the Greek and Latin historians of Eome, ascertained the exact date of the battle of Actium; from which time Augustus, when he had nearly com pleted his thirty-seoowi year, was, by the unerring providence oi God, sole emperor and arbiter of the destinies of the world ! The date of this great event was September 2, a.j.p. 4682, a-u.c. 722, the first year of the 187th olympiad, and the 14th of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar. ' VeL Pat. lib. iL c. 84. * Dion H. E. lib, li, c i. 198 [part I. CHAPTER VIII. HISTOEY CONTINIIED, FEOM THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM TO THE THIRD DECEEE OF THE SENATE FOE SHUTTING THE TEMPLE OF JANUS. Eeason why this period is taken, — Proceedings of Csesar tiU the commencement of his fifth consulship, Jan, 1, A.J.P. 4684,— First decree of the senate to shut the gates of the temple of Janus passed that day. — Tide of emperor given him that year, — Occasion of his receiving the title of Augustus in his seventh consulship, Jan. 1 7, A,J,P, 4686. — The peace of the empire undisturbed until A.J,P. 4688, — Eevolt iu GaUia Cisalpina, and Spain, When it was quelled, Augustus shut the temple of Janus the second time, — The testimony of Orosius considered. Correct as to his facts, but not as ;to his dates, — The temple probably shut the second time early ia the eleventh consulship of Augustus, a,j,p, 4690, — Inscription at Merida. — Augustus appointed proconsul and tribune of the people for life. — Secular games, a,j,p. 4696, and Horace's ode on the occasion, proofs of continued repose, — New commotions in A.J.P, 4697, — ^Death of Agrippa, and adoption of Tiberius, A,J,P, 4701, — Barbarous nations subjugated towards the close of a,j,p. 4702, — Third decree of the senate to shut the temple of Janus, passed probably in Jan, a j.p. 4703. Prevented from taking effect by a new insurrection. Probable reasons for believing that it was to have been carried into effect on the 30th of March following. The decree, therefore, may have been suspended in February aj,p. 4703, in the 21st year after the battle of Actium. We are next to consider, and adjust to the modem computation of time, that portion of the reign of Augustus, which extended from the battle of Actlum to the year In which It was decreed by the senate that the temple of Janus should be shut by him the third time. This period is taken, because we can ascertain, with some degree of precision, the dates of the first and second times in which Augustus shut the temple of Janus, and also the date of the decree for shutting it the third time ; but a very great difficulty arises, as to the precise time when that decree was carried into effect. On the decision of that question. Indeed, as we shall here after more distinctly see, depends one of the most essential points In our present Inquiry. chap. VlILJ HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS CffiSAR. 199 After the battle of Actium, Csesar went first into Macedonia, and, during the remainder of his third consulship, was occupied chiefly In settling the affairs of Greece, and securing his position, with regard to the Asiatic auxiliaries. From Greece he went into Asia, Intending, as we learn from Suetonius, to take up his winter quarters In Samos ; but, being disturbed by information that the soldiers he had sent back to Brundusium were In a state of mutiny, he suddenly and secretly departed for Italy. While In Asia, he had entered on his fourth consulship, with Marcus Licinius Crassus for his colleague, the 1st of January, a. 4683 of the Julian period. We have already had occasion to observe, when considering the Egyptian computation of the years of Augustus, that Caesar returned to Italy " in the middle of that winter," to use the lan guage of Dio. It win be seen, by consulting the calendar, that mid-winter was the fourth before the Ides, or the 10th of January.' The arrival of Csesar at Brundusium may, therefore, be placed about the middle of that month. As he staid only thirty days, according to DIo, or twenty-seven, according to Suetonius,^ he must have returned to Greece not far from the middle of February. Causing his vessels to be transported across the Isthmus of Corinth, in order to gain time, he passed rapidly into Asia, and thence, through Syria, into Egypt. Alexandria was taken on the 27th of March.^ After remaining some months in Egypt, he returned, through Syria, Into Asia, and, according to his intention the pre ceding year, established his winter-quarters at Samos. In the mean time, many decrees in honour of him were made at Eome. A triumph over Cleopatra was granted, and two triumphal arches ordered to be built, one at Brundusium, the other in the Eoman forum. Both his birth-day, and the day on which the news of the victory was received at Eome, were to be religiously observed ; and that in which Alexandria was taken, was mdtrked in the calendar as fortunate. On the other hand, all the honours which had been paid to Antony were rescinded, the day of his birth denounced as polluted, and no one of his family allowed thereafter to take the prsenomen of Marcus. From an inscription published by Sigonius, it appears that three consuls were substituted, in the course of this year, for' Licinius ' Chap, iii, Eoman year, p, 87. ' Octavianus^ c, 17- ' See Calendar p, 83.. 200 HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS CJESAR, [pART I, Crassus, or for the emperor himself, viz, : the 1st of July, the 13th of September, and the 1st of November. IMP. C^SAE nn. M. LICINIUS K. JUL, C, ANTISTIUS ID. SEPT, M, TULLIUS K. NOV, L, S.ffiNIUS. Marcus Tullius, who became consul on the ides of September, was the son of the great orator Cicero, whom Antony caused to be proscribed and murdered ; and DIo says it was remarked, as an instance of Divine retribution, that the news of the death of Antony was received at Eome in that part of the year in which the son of Cicero was consul.' It is evident, therefore, that the news of Antony's death arrived at Rome between the middle of September and the last of October, In the year 4683 of the Julian period. Eight consulships, from the fourth to the eleventh, were held by Csesar in successive years. He entered on the fifth (a.j.p. 4684), In the island of Samos.^ His colleague was Sextus Appu leius, to whom Orosius alone gives the prsenomen Lucius. On the Ist day of January, while he was at Samos, the senate passed many decrees In his honour ; but of all these decrees, says Dio, that by which the gates of the temple of Janus were ordered to be shut gave him the most pleasure, as implying that, by his victories, all wars for them were at an end.' This was the third time only of those gates being shut since the existence of the Roman people; " a huge argument," as Velleius Paterculus observes, " of their ^warlike character."* In the same year (a.j.p. 4684, a.u.c. 723-4) he received the name of emperor (Imperator, AiroKpdrwp), not In the sense in which It •was anciently given, after victories achieved, for in that sense he received it, before and after, twenty-one times, but In that other : sense. In which it had been decreed to Julius Csesar, as denoting supreme power.' In his seventh consulship (a.j.p. 4686, a.u.c. 725-6), he proposed 1 Dion Cass. H. E, lib, li, 1-19, pp, 442- Manlio consule, tertio Augusto principe 457. Ed. Eeimar, tom, i, p, 631-650. (certae pacis argumentum), Janus Geminus ' Sueton. Octavianus, c. 26. clausus dedit. Vel, Paterc. H, E. lib, ii ' Dion, H, E. lib, li. c. 20, p. 457, c. 38, See also Livy, i. u. 19, * Immane bellioae civitatis argumentum, "^ Dion, H, E. lib. hi. c. 4 1, p. 493-4. quod semel sub regibus, iterum hoe T. ^ CHAP. VIII.] HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS CiESAR. 201 to the senate to lay down his imperial dignity, and restore the republic. From various motives, which are well detailed by Dio, the senate unanimously entreated him to retain his authority ; and their request was confirmed by the people. On this occasion, he made his adroit division of the provinces, by which a portion of authority was seemingly given to the senate, but by which, in reality, all power was kept within his own hands.' According to the accurate Censorinus, on the 17th of January, when Csesar was consul the seventh, and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa the third time, he received the title of Augustus, proposed by L. Munaclus Plancus, and decreed by the senate and Eoman people.'' It is evident, from DIo's account, that this name was given at the time of his offering to resign the imperial dignity. He says that Csesar himself greatly desired to be called Eomulus ; but, perceiving that he was, on that account, suspected of a design to restore the monarchy, he aspired to it no longer. The Eomans hated the name of monarchy so much, that they would not suffer their emperors to be called either dictators or kings. But, In reality, the whole power of the senate and people was transferred to Augustus, and, from that time forth, a perfect monarchy was established.' • The peace of the Eoman empire appears to have remained un disturbed until the year 4688 of the Julian period, the ninth con sulship of Augustus with Marcus Silanus (a.u.c. 727-8), when the revolt took place of the Salassi, the Astures, and the Cantabri. The Salassi inhabited the deep valley covered by the Alpis Pen- nina and the Alpis Graia, or the Great and Little St. Bernard ; the Cantabri and the Astures occupied the modern Biscay and Asturias. Terentlus Varro was sent against the Salassi, and Augustus him self marched Into Spain. More than 36,000 of the Salassi were publicly sold as slaves, and their lands given to a new colony, called Augusta Prsetorianorum, the modern Aosta.* The Can tabri and Astures made a more vigorous resistance, and were con quered with great difficulty. Augustus himself fell sick from care and fatigue, and the war was brought to successful issue by Caius ' Dion, H, E, lib, liii. o, 11-15, p, 503-6. sanio Agrippa tertium consulibus, Cens. ' Ex ante diem decimum sextum kai, de Die Natali, c, 22. Februarii, sententia L. Munacii Planci, a ' Dion, ut sup. liii, c, 16-17, senatu cseterisque civibus Augustus ap- * Strabo, lib, iv, p, 206, pellatus est, sese septimum, et M, Vip- 202 HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS CSISAR. [PART I. Antistius, The veterans were rewarded by the foundation of a new colony, called Emerlta Augusta, which, still preserves its name, with little alteration. In that of Merida, About the same time, Marcus Vinicius obtained a victory in Germany, for which the senate decreed him the honours of a triumph ; and Augustus again shut the gates of the temple of Janus, which had, on account of these wars, been reopened.' As Orosius has made some mistakes In his account of the first and second time In which Augustus closed the temple of Janus, as well as In that of his closing it the third time, which will be con sidered in its proper place, and, as these mistakes have injured the credit of his testimony more than they ought. It may be as well to point them out here. He is, in general, correct as to his facts, but rot as to his dates. For example, in speaking of the events after the battle of Actlum, he says that, " in the year of Eome 726, when Csesar Augustus and Lucius Appuleius were consuls, Csesar, returning victorious from the east, entered the city in threefold triumph, on the 6th of January ; and then first he shut the gates of the temple of Janus, all the civU wars being quelled and finished. On that same day he was first saluted by the name of Augustus."* And again : " In the year 726 from the building of the city, the emperor Augustus Csesar being consul the sixth, and Marcus Agrippa the second time, Csesar, perceiving that little had been done In Spain for the last two hundred years, if he should permit the Cantabri and Astures, two powerful nations of Spain, to use their own laws, opened the gates of the temple of Janus, and marched in person with his army into Spain." " From the conquest of the Cantabri, Csesar obtained this honour, that then also he ordered the gates of war to be barred. Thus the temple of Janus was now shut for the second time by Csesar, and the fourth since the foundation of Eome." ^ ' Dion. H. E. lib. liii. c, 25-26, p, 513- Marco Agrippa consulibus, Csesar, parum 515, Vel. Paterc, lib, ii, 104. in Hispania per ducentum annos actum ' Anno ab urbe Dccxxvi, ipso impc- intelligens, si Cantabros atque Astures rante Csesare Augusto et Lucio Appuleio duas fortissimas gentes Hispanise suis uti consulibus, Csesar victor ab oriente rediens legibus sineret, aperuit Jani portas, atque octavo idus Januarii urbem triplici tri- in Hispanias ipse cum exercitu profectus umj)hoingressus est: ac tum primum ipse est Cantabricse victorise hunc hono- Jaui portas, sopitis omnibus finitisque rem detulit Caesar; ut tunc quoque belli bellis civihbus clausit. Hoc die primum portas claustro cohiberi juberet, Ita nunc, Augustus consalutatus est, secundo per Csesarem, quarto post urb em ' Anno ab urbe condita dccxxvi, im- conditam, clausus est Janus, Orosius, peratore Augusto Csesare sexies, et bis Hist, lib, vi. CHAP. VIILJ HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS CffilSAR. 203 Though the facts hetre stated are, In the main, true, they are, as to dates, jumbled confusedly together. The senate passed the first decree to shut the temple of Janus, on the 1st of January, In the fifth year of Csesar's consulship with Sextus (not Lucius) Appu leius. But Csesar was then at Samos, and it was impossible for him to have entered Eome in threefold triumph on the 6th of January I He was saluted Augustus on the 17th of January, two years after ; and he marched Into Spain two years later still. But to resume the narrative. Although Dio speaks of the temple of Janus being shut the second time, while relating the occurrences of the ninth consulship of Augustus, It is probable that it did not take place tiU his eleventh consulship, or a.j.p. 4690 ; for the emperor was detained by his illness, so that he had not yet arrived in Eome when his tenth consulship commenced (a.u.c. 728-9, A.J.P. 4689), on the calends of January, though notice had been given of his approach. The Cantabri and Astures again revolted, as soon as he left Spain, and were again subdued, though not without great difficulty, by the cruel measures of Lucius .^mUIus.' That the temple of Janus was shut in the eleventh consulship of Augustus, appears from an inscription, discovered at Merida, which bears the date of that year : IMP, C.ES, DIVI F, AVGVSTVS, PONT„.X, MAX, COS, XL TEIBVNIC, POT. X. IMP, VHIL OEBE . MAEI ET , TEEEA PACATO . TEMPLO lANI CLVSO," How long It continued shut we are not informed ; but In the very next year, In the consulship of M. Claudius Marcellus ^serninus ' Dio, ut sup, c, 28-9, p, 516, and the ninth year of that name would be ''I am indebted for this inscription to A.u.c, 731-32, a.j.p. 4692. Possibly Imp. a note in the Delphine edition of Horace, ix. may be dated from the battle of Ac- Carm. lib, iv, o, 15, But if it be there tium, a,j,p, 4682, In the ode to which correctly given, and I understand it, the the note is appended, Horace connects dates do not accord, Augustus was ere- the restoration of the standards taken at ated Pontifex Maximus on the death of the defeat of Crassus by the Parthians Lepidus, A,n.c, 739-40, a,j,p, 4700, He with the shutting of the temple of Janus : was consul the eleventh time, A.u.c. 729- "Et signa nostro restituit Jovi 30, A.J.P, 4690, His tribunicial authority Derepta Parthorum superbis began to be reckoned, according te the Postibus, et vacuum dueUis Capltoline Tables, the next year, a,j,p, Janum Quirini clausit." 4691, and consequently the tenth year of But Phraates restored these standards to that power would be a.j.p. 4700. The Augustus, a.u.c, 732-33, A.J,P, 4693, title of emperor was given A.U.C. 723-24, 204 HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS CESAR. [PART I. and Lucius Arruntius, the Cantabri and Astures again revolted, and the former were either taken prisoners and sold, or perished rather than submit.' The severe illness by which Augustus was attacked in Spain, appears to have greatly injured his constitution;* for, in his eleventh consulship (a.u.c. 729-30, a.j.p. 4690), he was again reduced so low, that no hopes were entertained of his recovery. He had made his will, and had named in It no successor, though Marcellus was then living. His recovery was attributed to the care and skill of Antonius Musa ; and, as soon as he was restored to health, he abdicated the consulship, substituting for himself Lucius Sestlus, who had been the steady friend of Brutus. These evidences of moderated ambition, and subdued resentment, gave such general satisfaction, that the senate appointed him perpetual proconsul of the Eoman empire, empowered him to assemble their order whenever he pleased, and made him tribune of the people for life, with all the immunities and privileges of that dignity. As this office was originally created to shelter the people from the power of the patricians, It was peculiarly acceptable to Augustus ; and, although neither he nor any other emperor actually bore the name of tribune, yet they were careful to insert in the public records, among their other titles, the possession of tribunicial authority.' In the consulship of C. Sentius Saturnlnus and Q, Lucretius Vespillo (a.u.c. 733-4, a.j.p, 4694), on account of the disturbances attending the consular election, the senate appointed Augustus consul for life, and decreed that he should always, and everywhere, be attended by twelve lictors, and should sit on a curule chair, between all the future consuls.* We are still without any testimony as to the re-opening of the temple of Janus ; but, during that same year, such of the Cantabri as had been taken and sold, murdered their masters, and recovered their former possessions. The military skill they had acquired, during their servitude under Eoman masters, and their despsdr of pardon if captured, rendered them a dangerous enemy, Agrippa was therefore sent against them, by whom they were, with great loss, both of life and reputation, to the army, finally subdued, J Dion. H, E. lib. Uv, c, 5, p, 523-4, » Dion. H. E, lib, liii. u, 32, p, 519. Suet, lib, ii, c. 81, • Dion. H. E. lib. liv, c. 10, p. 528 chap, vm.] HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS CSSAR. 205 and almost exterminated. Many of the Eoman soldiers were dis graced, and the whole Augustan legion, as a mark of ignominy, were forbidden to retain that name.' Possibly, the revolt of a few slaves, in a distant province, may not have been considered of sufficient importance to disturb the general tranquillity. DIo states, that Agrippa did not write letters to the senate concerning his successes, nor did he accept the triumph with which Augustus wished to honour him. That the next year, when the two Lentuli were consuls (a.u.c. 734-5, a.j.p. 4695), was a year of peace, may be Inferred from the continual presence of Augustus and Agrippa at Eome; the latter employed in em bellishing the city, and promoting the comfort of its inhabitants ; the former, engaged in reforming abuses, and establishing whole some laws. The following year, when Caius Furnius and Caius Silanus were consuls (a.u.c. 735-6, a.j.p. 4696), the secular games were cele brated for the fifth tlme.^ Why celebrated then, we can only con jecture. Augustus loved shows of this kind ; and the confusion of the civil wars, ever since the time of Julius Csesar, had probably caused them to be neglected. The " Carmen Saeculare" of Horace, was written for the occasion ; and the language of the poet leads us to Infer that the empire was in repose : " Jam Fides, et Pax, et Honos, Pudorque Priscus, et neglecta redire Virtns Audet ; apparetque beata pleno Copia comu." — Carm, Ssec, v, 121-4. " Faith, Honour, Peace, celestial maid. And Modesty in ancient guise array'd. And Virtue (with nnhallow'd scorn Too long neglected) now appear, While Plenty fills her bounteous horn. And pours her blessings o'er the various year." — Fbakcis. The second period, therefore, In the reign of Augustus during which the temple of Janus was shut, extended probably from his tenth or eleventh consulship to that of Furnius and Silanus, — from the 729th or 730th to the 736th year of Eome, or from the year of the Julian period 4689 or 4690 to 4696 inclusive, a period of seven or eight years. 1 Dion, ut Slip, ell, ' Dion. H. E. lib. liv. c, 18, p, 533, c. 206 HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS CJESAR. [PART I. In the next year, when Domitius Ahenobarbus and Cornelius Scipio were consuls (a.u.c. 736-7, a.j.p. 4697), new commotions arose, which continued with more or less violence for ten years, Agrippa was sent into Syria; and Augustus, confiding the govern ment of the city, with all Italy, to Statilius Taurus, departed hastily into Gaul. Dion assigns other motives for his going, but says that he went ostensibly on account of the wars which at that time were set in motion.' The Vennones above the Lago di Como, and the Cammuni near the sources of the OUius or Ogllo, took up arms. The inhabitants of Noricum and Pannonia made an Incur sion into Istria. Tumults were excited in Dalmatia and Iberia. The DentheletsB and the ScordlscI ravaged Macedonia. The Sau- romat«e advanced beyond the Danube. The SIcambrI, UsIpetsB Teuchteri, and other German tribes, crossed the Ehlne, and were so formidable that Augustus went in person to the war. Tiberius and Drusus were actively engaged in repelling the Inhabitants of Ehoetia and the other Alpine tribes.* The commotions In Gaul, Germany, and Spain, being allayed, Augustus left Drusus in Germany and returned to Eome, In the consulship of Tiberius and Quintilius Varus (a.u.c. 739-40, a.j.p. 4700). Dion says, that on the news of his approach, the senate erected an altar in the very senate-house, to show by their suppli cations, that while Augustus was within the Pomoerium they were without fear. The historian adds, that he would not accept of this idolatry to his own person; and he entered the city by night, to avoid being received by a public procession of the citizens.' This year, occurred the death of Lepidus the former triumvir. He had been Pontifex Maximus, a dignity which was held for life ; and that office was now conferred by the senate upon Augustus.* The date of this appointment is given in the ancient calendar of Verrius Flaccus, discovered in 1770 at Palestrina, the ancient Prseneste. In the table for March, is the following inscription : IMP, c, A PE. NP p. IMP, CAESAE, AVGVST, PONT. which means that Augustus was created Pontifex on the day before the nones, or the sixth of that month. As this was forty-seven ' I>ion, liv. 19. • Dion ut sup. c. 25. - ' Dion, H.E. lib. liv. c, 22, p, 536, c.d,e, •• Dion, H.E. ut sup, c, 27 j Suet 1, ii.c. 31. chap. VIIlJ history of AUGUSTUS CJ3SAE. " 207 days before the Parilia, It was towards the close of the 739th year of Eome,* In the following year, M, Valerius Messalla and P, Sulpicius Quirinus being consuls (a.u.c. 740-1, a.j.p. 4701), Agrippa died. He had for five years shared with Augustus the tribunicial autho rity, and was now appointed the second time for the same period. He was then sent into Pannonia, "with greater powers," says Dio, " than any other commander had ever possessed out of Italy." On his return, he died in Campania, so suddenly, that Augustus, who hastened from the city on the news of his illness, did not find him living. The Pannonians, who had been frightened Into submission by his presence, revolted again as soon as they heard of his death ; and Augustus, compelled by this event to adopt Tiberius, sent him against them. Drusus also was engaged in continual wars with the Cherusci, the Suevi, and the Sicambri. Other incursions took place of the barbarous nations in the Thracian Chersonesus and Macedonia, against whom Lucius Piso, who commanded in Pam- phylia, carried on the war, and after some reverses of fortune, succeeded in subduing them, and received the honours of a triumph. These events principally took place when Quintus -351Ius Tubero and Paulus Fabius Maximus were consuls (a.u.c. 741-2, a.j.p. 4702). The senate, deceived by the apparent calm, now "decreed that the temple of Janus, which had been opened, should be shut, as if these wars had ceased." " Nevertheless," says Dio, " it was not shut ; for the Dacians having passed the Ister (or Danube) on the Ice, had ravaged Pannonia, and the Dalmatians, on account of the exactions on their property, had revolted." ' From this account, two inferences may fairly be drawn ; first, that the news of the Dacians having crossed the Ister must have arrived after the senate had passed the decree, and before the day appointed for the solemnity, or It would have been carried into effect; and, secondly, that as the Dacians crossed in the winter season, it must have been that winter In which the consulship * Ovid alludes to this appointment of Quisquis ades, canaeque colis penetralia Augustus in the third Book of his Fasti Vestae; V. 41 5, and assigns to it the same date; Cratera Uiacis turaque pone focis. Sextus ubi Oceano clivosum scandit olym- Casaris innumeris, quem maluit tile mereri, pum Accessit titulis Pontiflcalis honos, Phcebus, et alatis sethera carpit equis ; ' Dion. H.E. lib. liv, c, 28-36, p, 541, c. to p. 546 D. 208 HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS C^SAR, ^PART I. of Tubero and Paulus Fabius ended, and the succeeding consil- ship of Julus Antonius and Quintus Fabius began ; that Is, in December of the year 4702 of the Julian period, or January or February of the year 4703. The emperor was in Eome, and in good health ; and however solemn may have been the ceremonies which attended the closing of the temple of Janus, there could have been no cause for much delay after the passing of the decree. Let us, then, consider In what month the ceremony of shutting the temple of Janus would be most likely to take place. From all that we know of the sacred rites of the Eomans, It would seem most probable that some day sacred to Janus would be chosen. On consulting the calendar, we find five days in the year In which he was honoured : F Kai, Januar. Sacred to Janus, Juno, Jupiter, and Esculapius. C vi, Idus. Jan, or Jan. 8th. Sacrifice to Janus. C iii. Kai. Apr, or March 30. Sacred to Janus, Concordia, Salus, Pax. N.P, xii, Kai, Jun, or May 21. Agonalia or Agoniana of Janus. N.P.xvi. Kai. Sept. or Aug. 17. Poitumnalia to Janus. Macrobius says that Janus was Invoked In their sacred rites under the names of Janus Geminus, Janus Pater, Janus Junonius, Janus Consivius, Janus Quirinus, Janus Patulcius and Clusivlus. The reasons of these titles, he gives as follows : 1. Janus Geminus, because he represented the sun, who, when he rises, opens, and when he sets, shuts, the gates of heaven. 2. Janus Pater, as being god of gods — quasi Deorum Deum, 3, Janus Junonius, as holding the entrance not of January only, but of all the months, because all the calends were under the dominion (In ditlone) of Juno, 4, Janus Consivius (a conserendo, id est, a propaglne genens humani quse Jano auctore conserltur), because to him is ascribed the seed-sowing of the human race, 5, Janus Quirinus, as having power over wars, from the spear which the Sabines call Curls. 6. Janus Patulcius and Clusivlus, because in war his gates are open, and in peace are shut.' Of these six titles, the second, third, and fourth, have no con- ' Macrob, Saturnal. lib. i. c. 9. CHAP. VIIlJ history OF AUGUSTUS CffiSAR. 209 nexioii with the subject ; nor do we find the sixth title mentioned, though applicable to it. But the two remaining titles of Janus Geminus and Janus Quirinus seem to be used interchangeably. Dio and Velleius Paterculus speak of shutting the temple of Janus Geminus ; Suetonius, and Augustus himself, of shutting the temple of Janus Quirinus. The question now recurs as to the day. It is not likely that it was the first of January, for several reasons. That day was dedi cated to Juno, Jupiter, and Esculapius, as well as to Janus ; and the only reason why his name is connected with theirs, seems to be that the month was named from him, that as he represented the sun, it was the beginning of another revolution, and hence that his double face was symbolical of past and future time. But there is another reason, which applies particularly to the present case. The ice could hardly have been strong enough for the Dacians to cross the Ister early in December, as they must have done, that the news of their Incursion might reach Rome before the first of January. It is more likely, then, that the ceremony of closing the temple was to have taken place on the thirtieth of March,. That day was dedicated to Janus, in connexion with the personified divinities. Concord, Peace, and the Safety of Eome (Salus publica) ; and all these ideas are more in accordance with the design and nature of the ceremony than any other. If, then, the decree of the senate was passed in the month of January, and the day of the solemnity was fixed for the thirtieth of March, there would be time for the news respecting the Dacians and Dalmatians to arrive in Eome during the preparations for the ceremony ; and the decree would be suspended merely, with a view of quelling these insur rections as early as possible. We may, therefore, place the arrival of this news, and the suspension of the decree, in the month of February, at the beginning of the consulship of Julus Antonius and Quintus Fabius; in the year 4703 of the Julian Period, the eighth month of the first year of the 192nd olympiad, the 742nd year of Rome, being before the Parilia, the 35th year of Cesar's reformed calendar, and in the sixth month of the 21st year after the battle of Actium. 27 210 [part I, CHAPTER IX. INQUIEY WHEN THE TEMPLE OF JANUS WAS SHUT THE THIED TIME BY AUGUSTUS. Testimony to the fact that it was so shut. — Suetonius. — The Ancyra Inscription. — Orosius.— Birth of Christ placed by him in the same year. — Dionysius Exiguus pro bably governed by his dates. — These dates examined. — Execution of the senate's decree prevented in the winter of A.J.P. 4702-3. — Transactions of the subsequent years examined. — Augustus went to Gaul, Tiberius into Pannonia and Dalmatia, Drusus into Germany. — The insurrections quelled, they returned to Eome a.j.p, 4703. — The next year Drusus died, — His body conveyed to Eome in the depth of winter, — The campaign in Germany renewed early in A.J.P. 4705. — Tiberius crossed the Ehine; expatriation of the Germans.— Tiberius received the supreme command of the army in place of Drusus, was designated consul for the next year, and tri umphed. — The month Sextilis called Augustus, and the Julian calendar received its last correction in the twentieth year of Augustus, — Tribunicial authority granted to Tiberius, A.J.P, 4707, — The tribunicial authority of Augustus considered. — Tibe rius retires to Ehodes. — The history of Dio defective for more than three years, and exactly at the period in which the temple of Janus must have been shut the third time. — Inscription preserved by Pliny of this year, the seventeenth of the tribunicial power of Augustus, from which it is inferred that the temple of Janus was then shut the third time. — Proofs of profound peace from that year. — Augustus consul the twelfth and thirteenth times, to do honour to his grandsons Caius and Lucius. — History of Caius considered. — His consulship, a.j.p, 4713. — Interesting letter oi Augustus, preserved by Aulus Gellius. — Eteturn of Tiberius to Eome, in July a.j.p. 4714. — Death of Lucius, Aug. 21 following,— Death of Caius, Feb, 21, A.j.p. 4716. — Tribunicial authority conferred the second time upon Tiberius. — Chronology now exactlj' determined. — Augustus forbids the people to salute him by the title of Domi- nus, or Lord. — Agrippa Posthumus receives the toga virilis, a.j.p. 4717. — ^Extent and position of the Eoman army. — A ,j.p, 4 718, an eventful year, Eevolts of Germans, Dalmatians, and Pannonians, From this time forth continual wars till the death ot Augustus. — Temple of Janus closed nearly twelve years, from a,j.p. 4707 to a,j,p. 4718, — Our Saviour bom during this period. The question when the temple of Janus was shut the third time by Augustus, is now to be considered ; a question which it is the more important to answer, because our Saviour was born during that period. CHAP, IX. J THE TEMPLE OF JANUS. 2 : 1 Dio, as we have seen, expressly states, that the temple of Janus was shut twice by Augustus ; and that, by a decree of the senate, it was ordered to be shut the third time. He says, however, that It was not shut at that time ; and that part of his work is unfor tunately lost In which he would have had occasion to mention the fact of its being shut afterwards. But Suetonius asserts that " the temple of Janus Quirinus, which from the building of the city had before the time of Augustus been shut only twice, he, in a much shorter space of time, shut thrice, peace having been obtained both by sea and land." ' The celebrated Ancyra inscription, copied from the brazen tablets at Eome, and composed by Aug-ustus himself, or in his name, accords perfectly with the historian, as far as It goes, but is, unhappily, mutilated.* Orosius, the friend and pupil of St. Augustine and St. Jerome, is the only historian who has mentioned any particulars respecting this third closing of the temple of Janus. I have before had occa sion to observe that this author, though he generally states facts, is inaccurate as to his dates. He says : " In the year from the foundation of Eome 752, all nations from east to west, from north to south, and through the whole circle of the ocean, being quietly settled in unbroken peace, Csesar Augustus himself shut, for the third time, the gates of the temple of Janus. That these, in this most quiet period, remained continually barred for nearly twelve years, was indicated even by their very rust; nor were they ever opened until, in the extreme old age of Augustus, they were beaten down by the sedition of the Athenians, and the commotion of the Dacians. The gates of the temple of Janus, therefore, being shut, he was desirous in peace to nourish and enlarge that empire which he had obtained by war. He therefore enacted many laws, by means of which the human race might, with voluntary reverence, become submissive to his discipline. As man, he declined the appellation of Lord; for when he was present at the public games, and an Janum Quirinum semel atque iterum a peR . totvm . Imperium . popvli . Ro- condita urbe, memoriam ante suam clau- mani , parta est terra marique pAX , cum sum, in inulto breviore temporis spatio, a condita urbe [or post Eomam conditam] terra marique pace parta, ter clusit, — Suet, lanum quiEinumnis . omnino , clavsvm , hb, 11, c, 22,^ ^ ^ ante me fuissE , peodatvr , memoriAE , * The capital letters indicate those which ter . me . principe . clavdendvut. esse. remain ; the smaller letters the conjectural decrevit Senatus. restorations made by learned moderns: 212 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [PART I. actor having uttered the words, O just and good Lord, all the spectators applauded, as If they were spoken of him, he Immedi ately repressed, by his gestures and his countenance, the Indecorous adulation. On the following day, he censured it by a severe edict, and would never afterwards suffer himself to be called Lord, either In jest or earnest, by his children or grand-children. Therefore, in that time, that is, in that year in which Csesar, by the command of God, established a most permanent and real peace, Christ was born."' Orosius, if I mistake not, is the only ancient writer, before Dionysius Exiguus, who places the birth of our Saviour so late as the year of Eome 752. I am Inclined to think, therefore, that Dionysius was governed by his authority ; and, if so, the whole modern computation of time, from the sera of our Saviour's birth, Is derived from the passage now under examination. It is the more Important, therefore, that we should examine his dates by the light which more accurate writers throw on the events occurring in this part of the reign of Augustus. The revolt of the Dalmatians, and the incursion of the Dacians, which prevented the execution of the senate's decree to close the temple of Janus, took place, as we have seen, in the winter of A.J.P. 4702-3. We have now to examine the transactions of the several subsequent years. On receiving this news, Augustus went Into Gaul, and stopped at Lyons, there to watch the progress of events. Tiberius, who had accompanied him, went into Pannonia and Dalmatia; and Drusus engaged the Chatti, the Sicambri, and other German tribes. These insurrections being quelled, Tiberius and Drusus 1 Anno ab urbe condita dcclu, Caesar mini appellationem ut homo declinavit, Augustus ab oriente in occidentem, a sep- Nam cum, eodem spectante ludos, pro- tentrione in meridiem per totum Oceani nunciatum esset a quodam mimo 0 Domi- circulum cunctis gentibus una pace com- num aquum et bonum, universique, quasi de positis, Jani portas tertio ipse clausit. ipso dictum esse, exultantes approbavis- quas sevo per xii fere annos quietissimo sent, statim quidem manu vultuque inde- semper obseratas ocio ipsa etiam rubigc coras adulationes rcpressit, et in se^uenti signavit : nee prius unquam nisi extrema die gravissimo corripuit edicto, Dominum- senectute Augusti pulsatse Atheniensium que se post hoc appellari ne liberis quidem seditione et Dacorum commotione patue- aut nepotibus suis vel serioveljocopassus rant. Clausis igitur Jani portis, rempub- est. Igitur eo tempore, id est, eo anno licam quam bello qusesiverat, pace enutrire quo firmissimam verissimamque pacem atque amplificare studens, leges plurimas ordinatione Dei Csesar composuit, natus statuit, per quas humanum genus libera est Christus. — Orosius, Hist. lib. vi, cap, reverentia disciplinse morem gereret. Do- ult. CHAP, IX.] SHUT THE THIRD TIME. 213 returned with Augustus to Eome, and there received triumphal honours. " These things were done," says Dio, " when Julus (Julus Antonius) and Fabius Maximus were consuls;" that is, A.U.C. 742-3, A.J.P. 4703,' The next year, Drusus and Crispinus being consuls (a.u.c 743-4, A.J.P. 4704), Drusus himself died in Germany, at the age of thirty.^ He had penetrated as far as the Albis, or Elbe, laying waste the whole country. Here a woman, says Dio, of more than mortal stature, met him, and said, " Whither, then, O insatiable Drusus, art thou hastening ? The Fates do not permit thee to see all these things. Be gone ! for the end of thy deeds, and of thy life, is at hand." What ever may be thought of an event which the historian has repre sented as a prodigy, it shows clearly the awe created by this wild enthusiasm in the mind of a superstitious general, and the im pression which the stern cruelty of Eoman warfare had produced on the terrified, though brave inhabitants. Drusus immediately retreated, and had not reached the Ehine when his leg was frac tured, by the falling of his horse upon It. He lingered thirty days, and then died.^ Augustus, who was two hundred miles distant, was soon Informed of his illness, and sent Tiberius to him in haste.* The body was conveyed in funeral procession to Eome ; as far as the winter quarters of the army, on the shoulders of the centurions and military tribunes, and thence from city to city, by their most distinguished inhabitants, till it arrived in the metropolis. The exact time of the year when this procession took place, appears also from Tacitus ; for he states, that Augustus went, in the depth of winter, to Ticinum, to meet the body of Drusus.* The most solemn and magnificent funeral rites were celebrated in the forum, and the senate passed a decree giving the name of Germanicus to Drusus and his sons.^ " Augustus did not enter the city, on account of the death of Drusus," being prevented by religious ' Dion, H.E. lib. liv, 36, p, 546, d.e, die longissimum iter vehiculis tribus Tibe- ' VeL Paterc, lib, ii, 97. rium Neronem emensum, festinantem ad ' Liv. Epitome, lib. cxl. Drusum fratrem segrotum in Germania : * We know the exact distance from a in eo fuerunt cc. millia passuum," — ^Nat. curious passage in Pliny's natural history, Hist. lib. vii. c. 20. What would Pliny which states that Tiberius performed the have thought of our railroads and loco- journey in a day and a night. Speaking motives ! of several wonderful instances of speed, he * Tac, Ann. lib. iii. c. 5, says: " Cujus rei admiratio ita. demum = Dion, H, E. lib. Iv. e, 1, 2, p, 548, A, to solida perveniet, si quis cogitet nocte ac 549, c. 214' THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [pART I. motives ; " but the next year," says Dio, " in which Asinius Gallus and Gains Marcius were consuls" (a.u.c. 744-5, a.j.p, 4705), "he made his entrance, and, contrary to usage, offered the laurel in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius. But he did not celebrate any festival on that account, estimating his loss, in the destruction of Drusus, as far greater than the profit derived from his victories." * It was common for the victorious general to lay his laurel wreath on the lap of Jupiter Capitolinus ; but, on account of the death of Drusus, Augustus would not enter the city in triumph till the year of the consulship of Drusus had expired ; and, even then, he varied from the general custom, in token of his grief. How early In this year the campaign in Germany was renewed, we cannot ascertain with precision ; but, from the expressions of Dio, we may infer that no time was lost. He tells us, that the new consuls, and the other magistrates of that year, had been accused of detaining their offices by bribery; and, though Augustus stifled inquiry, he made it a rule for the future, that all candidates should deposit a pledge before the election, to be forfeited on con viction of unlawful practices. After this and other regulations, he again accepted the imperial power for ten years, and then marched » against the Celts, or Germans, with his army. The regulations of which Dio speaks, could not have taken up much time. Augus tus himself did not advance beyond the Eoman territory ; but Tiberius crossed the Ehine. Terrified by their force, all the bar barians, except the Sygambri, sent their ambassadors to treat for peace. Augustus refused to grant it, unless the Sygambri would unite with them ; and afterwards, even when the Sygambri did send their ambassadors, these were so far from being able to effect any thing, that all of them, and many others of their most illus trious men, perished ; for Augustus having seized and distributed them in certain cities, they could not endure the expatriation, and laid violent hands upon themselves.^ What this expatriation was, we learn from Suetonius : " The Germans beyond the river Albis he [Augustus] removed; of whom the Ubii and the Sygambri, who had surrendered themselves, he caused to migrate into Gaul, and established them in the territories along the Ehine." And again : " In the German war, he [TiberiusJ iBion„H. E.lib. Iv.c. 5,p. 551, o, ' Dion, H. E. lib.lv. c, 5, 6, p. 551. CHAP. IX.] SHUT THE THIRD TIME. 215 compelled forty thousand of those who had surrendered themselves, to remove into Gaul, and placed them in territories assigned to them along the bank of the Ehine."' Dio adds, " that all these tribes, though they thenceforth re mained for some time quiet, finally repaid the Eomans for this heavy debt of suffering with large Interest." What a wonderful Instance is this of Divine retribution, which, sooner or later, over takes guilty nations even in this world ! " Tiberius received from Augustus the supreme command of the army in the place of Drusus, was designated consul the second time, and graced with triumphal honours. In these Augustus himself would take no share ; but he permitted the perpetual celebration of equestrian games on his birth-day, enlarged the bounds of the pomoerium, and changed the name of the month, which had been called Sextilis, into that of Augustus. Others desired to give that name to September, because he was born in It; but he himself preferred Sextilis, because In that month he had first been made consul, and been victorious in many great battles."^ From these premises, we infer that the campaign in Germany extended probably from the month of March to that of August, inclusive, because the triumphal honours of Tiberius evidently preceded the birth-day of Augustus, or the 23rd of September. It appears also, from Dion's account, that in this year, the con sulship of Censorinus and Gallus (a.j.p. 4705), the name of August was substituted for that of Sextilis in the Eoman calendar. This year, therefore, was the twentieth of those called by the gramma rian Censorinus the years of Augustus,^ as that accurate author , has stated, and as we have already seen, in the fifth chapter of this work. It was a bissextile year ; and it was the duty of Augustus, as Pontifex Maximus, to regulate the intercalation. It was now found that an error had taken place by excess of intercalation ; and therefore, from this year forward, Augustus ordered the bis sextile day to be omitted for the next twelve years. It was the thirty- seventh year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar. ' Germanosque ultra Albim fluvium sub- cavit. — Ibid. lib. iii. c. 9. The very words movit: ex quibus Ubios et Sygambros de- here used (traduxit and trajecit) show dentes se traduxit in Galliam, atque in that force was employed in the removal of proximis Eheuo agris coUocavit.^ — Sueton, these brave people. lib. ii. c, 21, Germanico, quadraginta mil- ' Dion, H. E, lib. Iv. c. 6, p. 551, B,c,D, lia dediticiorum trajecit in Galliam, juxta- ' De Die Natali, u, xxi, comp. with c. que ripam Eheni sedibus adsignatis coUo- xxii. 216 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [pART I. The next year, Tiberius and Cnelus Piso being consuls, (a.u,c, 745-6, a.j.p. 4706), soon after the calends of January, commotions having again arisen In Germany, Tiberius set out for the seat of war ; but nothing worthy of mention was done there during this year.' The following year, when Caius Antistius Vetus and Lselius Balbus were consuls (a.u.c. 746-7, a.j.p. 4707), Augustus granted the tribunicial authority to Tiberius for five years, and sent him into Armenia, which had revolted.^ We have seen that the perpetual tribunicial authority was given to Augustus after he had abdicated his eleventh consulship, — an event which took place in the 730th year of Eome after the Parilia, and probably In the summer of the 4690th year of the Julian period. Authors seem not to be entirely agreed whether that year is to be Included or not. In the computation of his tribu nicial power. Tacitus, speaking of the eulogies on Augustus, pronounced after his death, mentions, among other things, his tribunicial authority continued for seven-and thirty years.^ But the Fasti Capitolini reckon the year of his death as the thirty-sixth; for the last of the remaining fragments has the following : AVGVSTVS PONT,- MAX, TE. POT. XXXV TI CAESAE AVGVSTI F, DIVI N, TE. POT. XIUI C. SILIVS. P,F.P.N. L. MVNATIVS. L,F,L.N. PLANCVS But the consulship of Caius Silius and Lucius Munatius Plancus, immediately preceded that of the two Sexti, in which Augustus died ; and, c(3nsequently, the last year of his life would be the thirty-sixth oi his tribunicial power. Let the reader count the consulships backward from that of the two Sexti, and he will see that, to make thirty-seven years, he must include the eleventh consulship of Augustus. The Fasti Capitolini compute from the 1st of January of the following year. The discrepancy, therefore, is easily reconciled. The thirty-fifth year of the tribunicial autho rity of Augustus, and the fourteenth year of that of Tiberius, coincide. Suetonius says, that Augustus chose his colleagues in -that office by single lustra, or periods of five years.* He had twice ' ToaaSra iiiv lv riji Ini rovTif ETrpajj- ' Continui'ta per septem et triginta an- Srf iv yap Sn ry rip/jiaviif ovSkv dKiov nos tribunicia potestas. — Annal. lib. i- c. 9. ^/ivrintig avvf^ri. — Dion. Iv. c. 8, p. 554, B. * Tribunitiam potestatem perpetuam re- ' Dion, ut sup. p. 554, D. cepit : in qua semel atque iterum per sin- CHAP. IX.] SHUT THE THIRD TIME. 217 before chosen Agrippa In that manner ; and now Tiberius was appointed by him. In the seventeenth year of his own tribunicial authority. But, instead of being satisfied with this high honour, which, for a limited time, made him the equal of Augustus, " the second light and head of the republic," as his mean flatterer Vel leius expresses himself,' he disobeyed the order of the emperor to go into Armenia, and retired to the island of Ehodes. All the historians are utterly at a loss how to account for this strange conduct, and offer nothing but conjectures. Suetonius states, that Augustus complained in open senate of being deserted by him. He was deaf to all the entreaties of his mother, and, for four days, abstained from food, till he obtained permission to depart. When the term of his tribunicial power was ended, he solicited permission to return, assigning as the reason of his retirement, that he had wished to avoid all suspicion of rivalry with Caius and Lucius, the sons of Agrippa and Julia and grandsons of Augustus. His application was refused, and he remained in Ehodes, against his own will and as a private citizen, more than seven years.^ The commotion In Armenia, of which Dio speaks in the passage above cited, not being mentioned by the other historians, must have been quickly subdued. Unfortunately the history of Dio is defective from the consulship of Antistius Vetus and Lselius Balbus, to that of Augustus and Plautius Silvanus, a period of more than three years. And this is the more to be lamented, because it is precisely the period in which the temple of Janus must have been for the third time shut by Augustus. Pliny has preserved the inscription of a monument erected In honour of Augustus, by the senate and people of Rome, in the Alpine regions, recording the fact, that under the command and auspices of Augustus, all the Alpine nations, from the upper to the lower sea,— that is, from the Gulf of Venice to that of Genoa, — were brought under subjection to the Eoman empire In the seven teenth year of his tribunicial authority. Of these nations or tribes, Pliny enumerates forty-four ; and then adds, that he had not men- gula lustra collegam sibi cooptavit. — Suet, caput. — Vel. Paterc. lib. ii. c. 99. lib. ii. c. 27. ' Suet. hb. iii. o. 10-14 ; compared with ' Et vere alteram Eeipnblicae lumen et Vel Pat. Ub. ii, u, 99, 28 t 218 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [PART fw tioned the Cottian cities, twelve in number, which had not been hostile.' This monument was erected in the year which we are now con sidering, the consulship of Lselius Balbus and Antistius Vetus, and the 4707th year of the Julian period. In Itself it furnishes the most indubitable testimony of that peace which consists In victory. No historian gives any account of other wars carried on at this period ; and though Livy had ended his history before this time, and we are deprived of the faithful chronicle of Dio, yet the silence of Suetonius and Velleius Paterculus warrants the assertion that during the three succeeding consulships (a.u.c. 747-8, 748-9, 749-50), or from a.j.p. 4708 to a.j.p. 4710, the whole Roman empire was in a state of profound tranquillity. The following year (a.u,c, 750-51, a.j.p. 4711), Augustus him self resumed the fasces, being consul the thirteenth time, with Marcus Plautius Silvanus for his colleague. His twelfth consul ship, with Lucius Cornelius Sulla for his colleague, was In the year 4708 of the Julian period. " Seventeen years," as Suetonius says, "had elapsed between the eleventh and twelfth, and two years between the twelfth and thirteenth."^ His object in both cases was to do honour to his two grandsons Caius and Lucius, by pre senting to them in person the toga virilis, on the completion of their fifteenth year. On these two occasions, as we learn from the Ancyran marble, they were designated consuls by the senate and people of Eome, to enter upon that office at the expiration of five years, with permission to be present at the public councils from the day in which they were brought into the forum. ^ While these ' " Imperatori Cffisari Divi F. Aug, turi, Nementuri, Oratelli, Nerusi, Velauni, Pontifici Maximo Imp. xini. Tribunicise Suetri," — Plin, Nat, Hist. lib. iii. u. xxiv. Potestatis xvii. s.p.q.r. quod ejus ductu 20, ed, Brotier, tom, i. p, 302, auspiciisque gentes Alpinse omnes, quEe a ' Duodecimum magno, id est, septem- mari supero ad inferum pertinebant, sub decim annorum intervallo, ct rursus ter- imperium pop,Eom. sunt redactse. Gentes tiumdecimum biennio post, ultro petiit ; ut Alpinse devictae : Triumpilini, Camuni, Cajum et Lucium filios amplissimo prse- Venostes, Vennonetes, Isaroi, Breuni, ditus magistratu, suo quemque tirocinio Genaunes, Focunates. Vindelicorum deduceret in forum. — Suetonius, lib, ii. gentes quatuor, Consuanetes, Eucinates, i;, xxvi, Licates, Catenates, Ambisontes, Eugusci, ' Inter illios meos. qvos, sisistra sors Suanetes, Calucones, Brixentes, Lepontii, mihi. eripvit, eorvm, caivm. et. lvcivm, Viberi, Nantuates, Seduni, Veragri, Sa- ca:sAREs honoris, mei, cavsa. se- lassi, Acitavones, MeduUi, Uoeni, Catu- natvs, popvlvsqve, romanvs, annvm, riges, Brigiani, Sogiontii, Brodiontii, qvintvm. et. decimvm. agentis. consv- Nemaloni, Edenates, Esubiani, Veamini, les. designavit. VT. evm. magistratvm. Gallitse, Triulatti, Bctini, Vergunni, Equi- inibent. post, qvinqvennivm, et, ex, eo. CHAP. IX. J SHUT THE THIRD TIME. 219 honours were conferred upon the sons of Julia, she herself, for her infamous conduct, was exiled to the island of Pandateria, on the coast of Campania, now known by the name of Santa Maria,' Agreeably to this enactment, Caius became consul, with Lucius -^milius Paulus for his colleague. In the year of Eome 752-3, and in that of the Julian period 4713. Whether he was sent Into Armenia in that or the following year, it is difficult to determine. Unhappily there is another chasm In the history of Dio, and the Latin authors are not equally precise in mentioning the consulships during which the several transactions occurred. A passage in the first book of Ovid de Arte Amatoria, evidently written while preparations were making for this expedition, com pliments Caius upon his being appointed to command in the east at the same age in which his grandfather, Augustus, had first commanded ; that is, in his twentieth year.* Caius was born (a.u.c. 732-3, a.j.p. 4693) when Marcus Appu leius and Publius Silius Nerva were consuls ; and from the connexion In which Dio speaks of this event. It appears to have occurred before the birth-day of Augustus, and after the dedication of the temple of Mars the Avenger, which took place, according to Ovid, on the twelfth of May.^ A decree was passed by the senate appointing a perpetual sacrifice on the day of his nativity ; and of this surely Ovid would have taken some notice if it had occurred as early as June, with which month the Fasti of that poet end. It may reasonably be Inferred, therefore, that it took place after the first of July, and before the twenty-third of September.^ If, then, Caius was born in the summer of the year 4693 of the DIE. Qvo. dedvcti. svnt. IN. FORVM. VT. Auspiciis annisque patris, puer arma mo- interessent. consilIs. pvblicis. — Mon. vebis : Ancyr. ad Calc. ed. Sueton. Wolf. tom. i. Et vinces annis auspiciisque patris. Lipsise, 1802. ¦ Tale rudimentum tanto sub nomine debes ' Dion, H. E. lib. Iv. c. 10, p. 555. Nunc Juvenum princq)s, delude future * It is necessary to read the whole pas- senum. sage from line 177, "Ecce parat Csesar," It must be observed, however, that some &c. to line 225, " Hos faolto Armenios," copies read " Auspiciis animisgue patris" &o. in order to see that it was written in the first of these lines, and " animis aus- during the preparations for this expcdi- piciisque patris" in the second. If this tion, and that it can apply only to Caius, reading he followed, the foundation of the on whom, with his brother Lucius, the inference is destroyed. But the best cri- title of "princeps Juventutis" had been tics prefer annis. See the note on the conferred by the senate. The lines to passage in Burmann's edit, of Ovid, tom. which especial reference is here made are i. p. 555, Amstel. 1727, 4to. the following : ' Fasti, lib. v. 1. 575-598, = Dion, H, K. Ub, liv, 8, p, 526. 2?0 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [PART L Julian period, he completed his nineteenth year at midsummer in the year 4712, andconsequently was about nineteen years and six months old when he entered on his consulship, the first of January a.j.p. 4713. It is probable, therefore, that he was sent to Armenia in that year. That he was absent from Eome, is clearly evinced by the fragment of a letter preserved by Aulus Gellius, written by Augustus to Caius, at the beginning of his sixty-fourth year: " On days like the present, my eyes look around for my Caius. Wherever thou hast been on this day, I hope thou hast celebrated joyfully and in good health my sixty-fourth birthday; for I have escaped, as you see, the common climacteric of all old men — ^my sixty-third year," &c. It was the grand climacteric of Augustus, supposed to be a critical period of human life. The expression, "Wherever thou hast been on this day," shows that Caius was far distant; and that it was in the year 4713 of the Julian period may be easily proved. The letter is dated on the eighth before the calends of October, or September 24th. Most probably it should be the ninth before the calends, as that was the emperor's birth-day, and a careless transcriber might easily write viii for villi.* Augustus was born September 23 A,j,p, 4650 Add sixty-three solid years 63 And it brings us to the date of the letter. Sept, 23 4713 No war took place ; for Phraates, the king of the Parthians, as soon as he knew of the arrival of Caius In Syria, consented to evacuate Armenia, as a condition of peace.' On his way to the east, Caius stopped at Chios, according to Dio, or at Samos, according to Suetonius, and Tiberius went from Ehodes to visit him. He was received with the most mortifying coldness; and Caius, to whose pleasure the whole matter was * The reader will not be displeased to quartum et sexagesimum natalem meum, see the original letter. It is impossible, in nam, ut vides, KXiiiaKTijpa communem a translation, to do justice to the expres seniorum omnium tertium et sexagesimum sions of endearment in this most interest- annum evasimus, decs autem oro, ut, quan- ing monument of parental tenderness : tum mihi superest temporis, id salvis vohis " VIII calond, Octobr. Have mi Cai, mens traducere liceat in statu reipublicfe felicis- ocellus jucundissimus : quem semper me- simo dvdpayaBovvTuiv iipav Kai SiaStxo- dius fidius desidero quum a me abes ; jxivoiv statiouem meam," — A, Gell. Noc, sed prsecipue diebus talibus, quails est Att. lib. xv. c. vii. He had soon the bitter- hodiernus, ocnli mei roquirunt meum Ca- ness of knowing that this last prayer was jum: quem, ubicumque hoc die fuisti, denied him. spero Isetum et bene valentem celebrasse ' Dion, H. E. lib. Iv. c, 1 1, p, 555 e. CHAP. IX.] SHUT THE THIRD TIME 221 referred by Augustus, permitted him to return to Eome, only on the express condition that he should take no share in the govern ment.' Velleius Paterculus accompanied Caius Csesar In his eastern expedition, and was an eye-witness of the transactions which he records. He states that Caius had his first interview with the king of the Parthians on an island in the Euphrates ; that after wards, having entered Armenia, affairs went on prosperously during the first part of his progress ; but that finally, in a conference in which he had rashly ventured himself, he was severely wounded by a person named Adduus, near Artagera. Disabled by this wound in mind and body, he chose to remain in the east; and after long hesitation, he reluctantly set out for Italy, but died of disease at Limyra a city of Lycia. His younger brother Lucius had died about a year before at Marseilles, as he was on his way into Spain, ^ Zonaras, from a portion of DIo's history now lost, or from some other source, states some particulars which further illustrate this narrative : " One Addo, commanding at Artagira, enticed Caius to approach the walls, as if to tell him a secret, and wounded him ; on which the city was attacked, and he was taken prisoner. But Caius fell sick from the wound, being otherwise of a feeble consti tution. As his mind became weakened, and his health declined, he asked permission to lead a private life. Augustus being greatly afflicted at this, urged him to return into Italy, and there live as he pleased. He therefore sailed for Lycia in a merchant vessel, and there died, Lucius his brother had previously become extinct, dying suddenly of disease. On account of their deaths, both Livia and Tiberius, who had not long before returned from Ehodes to Eome, were suspected."' Tiberius returned to Eome in the consulship of Vinicius and Alfinlus Varus, A.u.c 753-4, a.j.p. 4714.' He had remained seven years at Ehodes, and returned in the eighth year after his departure ; and Velleius expressly states that it was before the death of both the Caesars.® 1 Suet, lib, iii, c. 13. ' Zonarse Annales, lib. x. u, 36, ed. Par. ' Diu delude reluotatus, invitusque re- 1686, tom, i. p. 539, D. vertens in Italiam, in urbe Lycise (Limyra * Vel, Pat, lib. ii. c. 103, nominant) morbo obiit ; cum ante annum ' Ante utriusque horum obitura, patre ferme L, Csesar, frater ejus, Hispanise pe- tuo P. Vinicio consule, Tiberius Nero re- tens, Massilise decessisset, — Vel. Paterc, versus Ehodo. — Septem Annos Ehodi H.E. lib. ii. c, 102. moratum,— Lib. ii. 99 and 103, Eediit 222 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [PART I- Suetonius says that Augustus lost both Caius and Lucius in the space of eighteen months ; Caius having died in Lycia, and Lucius at Marseilles.' These particulars enable us to fix the dates of the several events mentioned with tolerable precision. Tiberius could not have arrived in Ehodes before the month of June a.j.p. 4707. His seven years expired at that time, a.j.p. 4714; and If he returned to Rome in July of that year, it would be, as Suetonius states. In the eighth year after his departure. The condition of Caius being well known, Lucius only remained in the way of his ambition ; and shortly after his return, Lucius died suddenly on his way to Spain, not without strong suspicions of foul practices on the part of Livia and Tiberius. We may place his death, therefore, as occurring towards the close of August A.u.c. 754, and that of Caius eighteen months after, in the month of February a.u.c. 755-6, A.J.P. 4716, when Sextus >iElius Catus and C. Sentius Saturnlnus were consuls.* On the 27th of June In the same year, Augustus conferred the tribunicial authority again upon Tiberius, and adopted him and Marcus Agrippa his only surviving grandson.^ octavum post secessum anno," — Sueton. The second inscription, occasioned by lib. iii. c. 14. the death of Caius Caesar, expressly states ' Cajum et Lucium in duodeviginti that he died on the ninth befor e the ea- mensium spatio amisit ambos; Cajo in lends of March, or February 2 1 ; and that Lycia, Lucio Massilise defunotis, — Sueton, the news of his death arrived on the fourth lib. ii. c. 65. before the nones, or, as we reckon, on the * Not having, nor being able to find in 2nd of April. It is very satisfactory to any of our libraries, the learned work of find that my inductive reasoning from the Cardinal Noris, I had written thus far Eoman historians was so accurate. before I saw the ancient inscriptions called * Perseveravit ut et tribunitiie potes- by him Cenotaphia Pisana. I have since talis consortionem Neroni constitueret, found them in the second volume of an multum quidem eo cum domi tum in Senatu Italian work entitled " Pisa illustrata neUe recusante, et eum jElio Cato, Sentio con- Arti del disegno da Alessandro da Mor- sulibus v kai. Jul. post urbem conditam rona," Livomo, 1812, p. 330-36. The au- annis dcclvii abhinc annis xxvii, adopta. thor states that he has corrected some ret — Adoptatus eadem die etiam M. mistakesof Noris, and has faithfully copied Agrippa, quem post mortem Agrippae them from the marble. Tlie first inscrip- Julia enixa erat, — -Veil, Paterc. H. E. lib, tion is a decree of the Pisan colony to ii. o. 103, 104, See also Suet. lib. ii. c. 65, honourthememory of their patron, Lucius There is only one manuscript extant of Cajsar, by erecting an altar and sacrificing Velleius Paterculus, and that reads here, publicly and yearly to his manes on the "post urbem conditam annis dcoliiii." twelfth before the calends of September, This being evidently erroneous, modern or August 21,' The decree is dated on the critics have amended the text according to thirteenth before the calends of October, their own opinions as to the year in which or September 19, The inference is, that Eome was built. The j'ounger Aldus and Lucius died the 21st of August, and the Burmann read dcclvi. The Leipsic edition news of his death was received at Pisa of 1800, here copied, reads doclvii, September 19th. Euhnken follows the ed, Princ, and the chap. IX. j shut THE THIRD TIME, 223 The chronology may now be very exactly determined. The preamble in the second decree of the Pisan senate states that Caius passed his consulship prosperously, carrying on war beyond the farthest bounds of the Eoman people.' Pliny states incidentally that he went into Arabia, as far as the Sinus Arabicus or Red Sea.^ Orosius mentions, that having been sent by Augustus to set in order the provinces of Egypt and Syria, he passed through Palestine, and on his way showed his contempt for the true God, by refusing to worship in the temple at Jerusalem.^ For this, Suetonius says that Augustus commended him ;¦* but Orosius adds, that for this contempt Augustus was punished, by the severe famine with which Eome was subsequently visited.® This famine Dio mentions under the consulship of -ZEmilius Lepidus and Lucius- Arruntius, the fifth year after the consulship of Caius. From Syria, Caius proceeded to the Euphrates, where he had his inter view with the king of the Parthians, and thence into Armenia, where he was wounded. Caius, therefore, went early in his consulship to the east, and while at Samos or Chios, gave permission to Tiberius to return to Eome ; but before Tiberius went he received his wound. Tiberius returned to Eome probably in the month of July a.j.p. 4714 ; Lucius set out on his way to Spain, but died at Marseilles, August 21, A.J.P. 4714; Caius died just eighteen months after his brother, February 21, 4716. The news of his death arrived at Pisa the second of April, and probably, therefore, a few days earlier in Eome. Augustus being thus deprived of his grand children, and obliged to take Tiberius again into favour, conferred upon him the tribunicial authority again, and adopted him as his son, but adopted also his only remaining grandson, the posthumous son of Agrippa, on the 27th of the following June. Dion adds, that Augustus gave him the tribunicial authority for ten years; but suspecting that he would on that account be too highly elated, and fearing lest he should attempt innovations, he compelled him, though he had a son of his own, to adopt Germani cus, the son of his brother Drusus,^ manuscript. As the adoption was after . ' Hist, Nat, lib. ii.c. 67, and lib. vi. t. 27, the Parilia, it was in the year of the city ' ^ Ores, lib. vii. c. 2. DCCLVI, ' ¦> Octavianus, c, 93, 1 POST , CONSVLATVM . QVEM , VLTBA. ' OrOS, ut SUp. PINES . EXTREMAS , POPVLI . ROMANI , BEL- " Diou, H. E. lib, Iv, c, 13, p, 557. LUSI , GEKENS . FELICITER . PEREGERAT. 224 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS LPART L Suetonius states that the tribunicial authority was given to him for five years.' This Is the most probable statement; but as it was afterwards continued for five years more, the difference is not important. The Fasti Capitolini begin to enumerate this second period on the first of January of the following year, and not from the day of the appointment. In this year, Dion records the fact, that Augustus being saluted by the people with the title of Lord (atfrirorjjc) not only forbade any one to address him by that ajopellatlon, but forbade it under a severe penalty.^ Suetonius mentions the same fact in the form of an anecdote, without specifying the time In which it occurred; and Orosius, who has copied Suetonius nearly word for word, applies the transaction, as we have seen, to the year in which our Saviour was born ; thereby intimating that Augustus acted under a divine impulse, in refusing a title which the sacred writers apply exclusively to our Lord Jesus Christ. We have had occasion before to observe, that Orosius is correct as to facts, but is inaccu rate in his dates. He has here transferred to the year of the city 752, In which he supposed that Christ was born, a fact which Dion records In the year 756. A. u, C. 756-57, A. J. p. 4717. Cn, Cornelius Cinna Magnus, L, Valerius Messalla Corvinus, Cos, August: Trib, Pot. xxvii. Tiber: vi. In this year, Agrippa, surnamed Posthumus, the son of Agrippa and Julia, and now the only surviving grandson of Augustus, received the toga virilis, but with none of the honours which had been paid to his brothers.^ The Roman empire was still at peace, but there were evident signs of approaching commotions. The army amounted to twenty- three or twenty-five legions, without counting the auxiliaries, both infantry and cavalry, and the marines, of which Dio could form no estimate. These were dispersed over Spain, Gaul, Germany, Pannonia, Dacia, Britain, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, Egypt, and Numidia.* Such an immense force kept down opposition ; and nothing but the most cruel extortion, and the most galling injuries and provocations, could rouse even the bravest to opposition. It '' Data rursus potestas tribunicia in ' Dion. lib. Iv. c. 22. qmnquenniura. — Suet. lib. iii, c. 16. ' Dion. H, E, lib. Iv. c. 23, 24. p, 56^ » H, E, Jib, lv, e. 12, to 565, c. CHAP. IX.] SHUT THE THIRD TIME. 225 was the courage of hopeless bravery maddened by despair. Bato, the leader of the Pannonians, being afterwards asked by Tiberius why they had revolted from the Eoman dominion, replied, " because you send wolves to guard your flocks, instead of dogs or shepherds.'" A, n. c. 757-58, A. J. p, 4718, M, Aemilius Lepidus, L, Arruntius, Cos, Augusti Trib, Potest, xxviii, Tiberii, T, Pot, vit. This was an eventful year. Difficulties with regard to the pay of the army had begun the preceding year, and great efforts were required to replenish the exhausted treasury. In addition to this- evil, a very great famine prevailed at Eome, so that, by a decree of the senate, all the gladiators, supernumerary slaves, and all! foreigners, excepting physicians and teacljers of youth, were obliged, to leave the city. Frequent conflagrations took place, which occasioned the establishment of a city watch ; and the people, oppressed by want, taxes, and the loss occasioned by incendiaries, were ripe for revolt. These troubles continued till the scarcity had ceased, and the gladiatorial shows were re-established.^ In this year Dio places the banishment of Archelaus. " Herod of Palestine, on account of some accusation by-his brethren, was sent into exile beyond the Alps, and his territory confiscated."' Josephus, a better authority on this particular fact, places it a year later. About this time (k^iV roig Lvroig TovTotQ xpovoig, in these very times), many wars took place. Eobbers overran many regions, and not a few cities were in a state of insurrection ; but, as it would be useless to mention all, Dio confined himself only to the most important. The Isaurians, from prsedatory incursions, came at length to all the horrors of war, until they were finally subdued. The Gsetullans made so powerful an insurrection, that the subju gation of them obtained for Cornelius Cossus Lentulus the honours of a triumph, and the surname of Gsetullcus. Tiberius and other commanders made expeditions against the Germans, advancing first to the Visergis, or Weser, and afterwards to the Albis, or Elbe. '' Velleius Paterculus, who was himself in that campaign, states 1 Dion, H. E. lib. Iv. c, 33. p. 570, E, * Dion. H. E. lib. Iv. c. 25-27, p. 565 D, and again, lib. Iri, c, 16. p, 582. 567 B. ' Dion, ut sup. * Dion, ut sup, c. 28. 29 226 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [pART I, that Tiberius, after his adoption, was engaged for three years In breaking down their strength.' The Dalmatians and Pannonians were again in arms. Velleius •says, that the whole number which revolted were more than eight hundred thousand, and that their army consisted of nearly two hundred thousand infantry, and nine thousand horse.^ A part of this immense multitude, under their brave and skilful leaders, had determined to pour down upon Italy ; and the mind of Augustus was so terrified, that he declared in the senate the enemy might appear in the sight of Eome in ten days.' They were not reduced to sue for peace till the consulship of Furius Camillus and Sextus Nonius Quintilianus (a.u.c. 759-60, a.j.p. 4720) ; nor was the war then terminated; for it broke out again with greater violence, and with very doubtful Issue, two years after, in the consulship of Dolabella and Silanus. Scarcely were they subdued, when Quin tilius Varus and more than three legions were slain in Germany. On hearing of this misfortune, Augustus put on mourning, and never recovered his spirits till the day of his death.* It is evident, therefore, that from the year which we are now considering, the consulship of Lepidus and Arruntius, there was no period during the remaining life of A ugustus, in which the gates of the temple of Janus could have been shut. Here, then, we fix the termination of that series of years, during which, as a sign of universal peace, the temple of Janus was closed ; and, counting backward from this year to the consulship of Balbus and Vetus, the seventeenth year of the tribunicial power of Augustus, the year when monuments, of victory Were erected by the Eoman people, we find precisely a period of nearly twelve years, according to the language of Orosius, in which the empire was In a state of tranquillity.* As far, therefore, as concerns the fact, his com- ' Lib. ii. c. 122. born in a time of universal peace, and that ' Gentium nationumque, quse rebella- it continued for twelve years. The fol- verant, omnis numerus amplius docc milli- lowing passage occurs in one of the ser- bns explebat. cc fere peditum collige- mons on our Lord's nativity, ascribed to bantur, armis habilia ; equitum novem. St. Ambrose, but considered by his Bo ' Audita in senatu vox Principis, de- nedictine editors as apocryphal: "Tanta cimo die, ni caveretur, posse hostem in quippe fuit Pax, Filio Dei apparente in urbis Eomae venire conspectum, — Vel, Came, per duodecim annos, ut omnes, se- Patero. II. E. lib. ii. c. HO, 111. cundum Esaise vaticinium, contunderent ' Dion. H. E. lvi. 18-22. — Vel. Paterc. gladios suos in aratra et lanceas suas in lib, ii. c. 117. falces." — Sermones Sancto Ambrosio hac- * Orosius is not the only writer who has tenus adscripti, serm. iii. tom. ii. Opera S. recorded the fact that our Saviour was Ambr. ed, Bened. appendix, col. 394. CHAP. IX. J SHUT THE THIRD TIME. 227 putation is correct, but not so as to his dates. He commences this period of nearly twelve years, in the year from the foundation of Eome 752. Consequently, its termination would be in the year 763, or three years before the death of Augustus, But it has now been shown, by the most indubitable testimony, that six of these years were passed in perjietual wars. His dates must, of necessity, be abandoned ; and, during the whole life of Augustus, no other period of peace for nearly twelve years "can be found, excepting from the fifty-seventh to the sixty-eighth year of his age, or from the 4707th to the 4718th years inclusive, of the Julian period. What Orosius means, when he speaks of the gates of the temple of Janus being broken down by the sedition of the Athenians and the commotion of the Dacians, it is not easy to determine. There is no evidence on record of any sedition at this time among the Athenians, and the fierce Dacians could hardly be said to have been subdued by the Eomans; at least, never until the time of Trajan. There must either be an error in the text of Orosius, in the edition which I possess, which is one of the earliest (a.d. 1483), or the author must have strangely confounded the people whom he names with the Pannonians and Dalmatians.* It is universally admitted that our Saviour was born during the period in which the temple of Janus remained closed for the third time by Augustus. The decree to close it, was passed by the senate in the consulship of Tubero and Fabius Maximus, but was hindered by continual commotions till the fifth year afterwards, in the consulship of Balbus and Vetus. The temple was then shut, and continued shut for nearly twelve years, until the consulship of Lepidus and Arruntius. During this period our Saviour was bom. According to our calculation, the earliest date of this period was in the year of the city 746-7 ; and this is all that, in the pre sent stage of our inquiry, it is important to determine. * The author, during his stay in Lon- that it agrees with the edition he has don, has examined at the British Museum quoted, excepting in a few slight verbal the accurate edition of Orosius by Haver- variations, which do not affect the sense. camp (4to, Lugd. Bat. 1738), and finds 228 THE ASSOCLATION OF [PART L CHAPTER X. ON THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBEEIUS WITH AUGUSTUS, AS COLLEAGUE OF THE EMPIEE. Asserted by Velleius Paterculus, Suetonius, Tacitus, and perhaps Dio, — Obscurity as to the year, — To be ascertained by tracing history from some established point of time, — Die's testimony lost, — Tiberius adopted, June 27, a,j.p. 4716. — His history traced from that date to A.J.P, 4720. — Suspected by Augustus, — Germanicus sent to rein force him. — ^Augustus hastens to Ariminum, to be near the seat of war, — Operations of the army in a,j.p. 4721, ending with the slaughter of Varus and his legions about the autumnal equinox, — Tiberius hastens to Eome, — Triumph postponed, on account of the general mourning. — Operations in Germany in a.j.p. 4722. — Deferred triumph celebrated, Jan. 16, A.j,p, 4723. — Temple of Castor and Pollux dedicated, Jan, 27, — Not long after, Tiberius associated, — ^Probably m February.— The abbreviator of Dio at variance with Suetonius. — The latter preferred. — Tiberius and Germanicus went to Germany in a.j.p, 4723, and returned to Eome after the birthday of Augus tus, the same year. — Consulship of Germanicus, a.j.p, 4724, — Commendation of the Senate to Tiberius probably a different event from the association of Tiberius in the empire. — The associate reign of Tiberius, from Feb. A.j,p, 4723, to Aug, 19, A.J.P. 4726, or about three years and six-and-a-half months. There remains but one point more in the life of Augustus which It is important to our purpose to ascertain ; and that Is, in what year he associated Tiberius with himself in the government of the empire ? As to the fact, we have the concurrent testimony of Velleius Paterculus, Suetonius, Tacitus, and possibly Dio. " At the request of his father Augustus," says Velleius, " the senate and people of Eome decreed that Tiberius should have an equal right with him in all the provinces and armies." ' " Tiberius dedicated the temple o'f Concord," says Suetonius, " and also the temple of Castor and Pollux And, not long after, 1 Et senatus populusque Eomanus, quam erat ipsi, decreto complexus esset.— postulante patre ejus, ut sequum ei jus in Veil, Paterc. Hist. Eom. lib, ii, c. 121, omnibus provinciis, exercitibusque esset. CHAP. X.] TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 229 a law being proposed by the consuls that he should administer the government of the provinces in common with Augustus, and, at the same time, carry on the census, and celebrate the lustral purifi cation, he departed into lUyrlcum.'" Tacitus, enumerating the honours conferred upon Tiberius, says that he was made colleague of the empire.'' ^ Dio merely says that Augustus, being now old, commended the senate to Tiberius.^ But, though the fact be certain, there is some obscurity as to the year when this took place ; whether during the consulship of ^milius Lepidus and Statilius Taurus, or in that of Germanicus Csesar and Fonteius Capito. To ascertain this, or, at least, to place before the reader the actual amount of testimony on the subject, we must, as we have before done, trace the history from some known and established point of time. We are unhappily deprived, in great measure, of the light which has formerly guided us ; for, as the learned editor of Dio remarks, the six books of his history, " from the 55th to the 60th, inclusive, are evidently an earlier abridgment than that of Xiphilinus." They want the clearness and precision of the original author ; and the narrative is oftentimes meagre and incoherent. Tiberius was adopted June 27th, in the consulship of ^lius, or JEmilius Catus and Sentius Satuminus, a.u.c. 755-6, a.j.p. 4716.'' Velleius Paterculus, himself an eye-witness, says that he was soon after sent into Germany, and remained there till the month of December.' Early In the following spring, in the consulship of L. Valerius Messala and Cn, Corn, Cinna (a.u.c. 756-7, a.j.p. 4717), he left Rome, and returned to Germany, penetrated to the Albis, or Elbe, subdued the Langobardi, who dwelt between that river and the Viadrus, or Oder, and finally returning to his former winter-quarters, on the Lupia, or Lippe, which runs into the Ehine, hastened back to Eome.® ' Dedicavit ct Concordiae sedem item censors tribunicia potestatis adsumitur, Pollucis et Castoris. Ac non multo omnesque per exeroitus ostentatur. — An- post, lege per consules lata, ut provincias nal. lib. i. c. 3. cum Augusto oommuniter administraret, ' Dion, H, E. lib. lvi, c. 26, p, 587 B. simulque censura ageret condito lustro, in * Vel, Pat. lib. ii. c. 103. Ulyricum profectus est. — Sueton. lib. iii. ' Anni ejus sestiva, usque in mensem c. 20-21. Decembrem perducta, immanis emolu- ' Nero solus e privignis erat : illuc mentum fecere victorise. — ^Lib. ii. c. 105. cuncta vergere: filius, collega imperii, * VeL Pat lib. ii. u. 105-107. 230 THE association of [part I. The next year, in the consulship of M. jEmillus Lepidus and L. Arruntius (a,u,c. 757-8, a.j.p. 4718), Tiberius determined to attack Maraboduus, the leader of the Marcomanni, who, from his position, the number and discipline of his forces, and his personal character, had become formidable. Maraboduus inhabited the country north of the Danube (the modern Bohemia), being divided by that river from Noricum and Pannonia. Tiberius had made preparations during the winter to cross the Danube, and had ordered Sentius Satuminus to advance with his forces from Ulyricum, to act as a body of reserve In the intended expedition ; but the whole move ment was checked by the sudden revolt of the Pannonians and Dalmatians, of which we have already spoken. This revolt, then, took place in the spring of the year 757-758 of the city, and 4718 of the Julian period, and occasioned, according to Suetonius, the most serious foreign war which had arisen since the Punic. It was carried on by Tiberius, with fifteen legions, and an equal number of auxiliaries, for three years.' To the consulship, therefore. In which it began, must be added the two following : A.J.P, 4719, A,u,c, 758-59, A. Licinius Nerva Silianus, Q. CSecilius Metellus Creticus. „ 4720, „ 759-60, M, Furius Camillus, Sex, Nonius Quintilianus. This is corroborated by Dio, who says that Tiberius reduced the Pannonians and Dalmatians to sue for peace. In the consulship of Marcus Furius and Sextus Nonius,^ In the consulship of Nerva Silianus and Metellus Creticus, Augustus, suspecting that Tiberius was lengthening out the war from selfish motives, sent Germanicus with a reinforcement, Dio adds, that he sent Germanicus rather than Agrippa, on account of the low and vulgar propensities of the latter. Agrippa was now the only remaining grandson of Augustus. Being born after the death of his father, he was called Agrippa Posthumus. His father died, as we have seen, a.j.p. 4701 ; and he was adopted, with Sed nunciata lUyrici defectione, tran- ultro cedentibus. Ac perseverantiae grande silt ad curam novi belli: quod gravissi- pretium tulit: toto Ulyrico, quod inter mum omnium externorum bellum post Italiam, regnumque Noricum, et Thra- ii-umca, per xv, legiones paremque auxilio- ciam, et Macedoniam, interque Danubium om'^i,?Tv"'' "¦'J'"^"*, S^.u''= '" """S^"'^ ^"'^^" *' '''°""" ¦"""= Adriatici patet, C^ ,T f ™ d'fficultatibus, summaque perdomito et in ditionem redacto.-Suet. irugum inopia. Et quamquam suopras lib. iii. c.l6. revoearetur tameu perseveravit; metuens, • Dion. H. E. lib lv o \t r, 'i-lx r ne vicinus et praj valens hostia instaret i^- ^v. o. dj, p, 5/0 c. CHAP. X.] TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 231 Tiberius, after the death of his brother Caius, June 27, a.j.p. 4716. The next year (4717), he received the toga virilis ; but, in the consulship of which we now speak (a.j.p. 4719), he was degraded from his dignity, and banished, first to Surrentum, and afterwards to a small island near Corsica, then called Planasia, or Planaria, and now known by the name of Pianosa. The historians all agree as to his rough and clownish character, and that he was more remarkable for bodily than for mental vigour. Dio mentions that, in his fits of anger, he spoke disrespectfully of Livia, and even of Augustus ;' and Tacitus imputes his banishment to the influence of Livia over the mind of Augustus, as Agrippa had been guilty of no crime. These events, by depriving Augustus of every other support, prepared the way for the elevation of Tiberius, notwith standing the utter want of confidence In him which Augustus constantly manifested. That the war in Pannonia and Dalmatia continued until the next consulship (a.j.p. 4720), is affirmed by Dio, or rather by his abbreviator. His words are : " When Marcus Furius and Sextus Nonius were consuls, the Dalmatians and Pannonians sued for peace, in the first place on account of famine, and next of disease, which followed It, occasioned by unwholesome food." Dio proceeds, in the next section, to state, that Augustus then permitted the senate to pass many acts without his presence, and he no longer made his appearance in the comitia. He nominated, however, the candidates for the different offices, annexing certain letters to the names of those whom he desired. He applied him self also with great vigour to the affairs of the war, and hastened to Ariminum, that he might be nearer, for consultation, to the seat of war in Pannonia and Dalmatia. With these statements, he ends his 55th book. At the beginning of the 56th book, Dio proceeds to state, that Tiberius returned to Eome after that winter in which Quintus Sulpicius and Caius Sabinus were consuls.^ Augustus met him in the suburbs, and conducted him to an enclosure in the Campus Martius, called the Septa. Suetonius adds, that Tiberius entered the city clothed In the Prsetexta, and crowned with laurel; and, being seated with Augustus, between the two consuls, he saluted ' Lib. Iv 32, p. 570. » Dion H. E. lib. lvi. c. 1, p. 572. 232 THE ASSOCIATION OF [PART I. the people. Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus and Caius Poppseus Sabinus were consuls the next year after Marcus Furius Camillus and Sextus Nonius Quintilianus ; and it appears from the Caplto line tables, that they continued in office only six months. On the calends of July, M. Papius Mutilus and Q. Poppseus Secundus ¦were substituted for them. There was, therefore, but one winter in which they were consuls, comprehending only the months of January and February, a.u.c. 760-1, a.j.p. 4721. Consequently, the earliest date which can be assigned for the return of Tiberius to Eome, is the month of March in that year. Having introduced the speech of Augustus to the married and unmarried senators and knights, Dio speaks of the law enacted for the encouragement of marriage, called the Papia-Poppsea, because it was proposed by Marcus Papius Mutilus and Quintus Poppsus Secundus, in that part of the year in which they were consuls ; and then he adds : " While these things were transacted In Eome, the Eomans under Germanicus, coming to Khsetinum, a city of Dalmatia, received there a severe check." This must have hap pened, therefore, in the Interval between the return of Tiberius and the enactment of the Poppaean law, or between the months of March and July Inclusive, The historian adds, that " Sere- tium, which Tiberius had formerly besieged, but failed to take, was then subdued, after which some other places were easily added." But, as the rest resisted, the war being thus lengthened out, and a scarcity of provisions having been caused thereby in Italy, Augustus again sent Tiberius into Dalmatia, Finding the soldiers impatient of delay, and anxious to bring the war to a close at any hazard, and being fearful of a mutiny if t;hey were kept together, Tiberius divided them into three parts. The command of one division he gave to Silvanus, and of another to Marcus (or Manius) Lepidus, while he himself, with Germanicus, at the head of the third, marched against Bato.' Velleius states that, " in the beginning of the summer, Lepidus having drawn his army from their winter quarters,^'' in order to join Tiberius, had fought his way through whole nations who had not as yet been engaged in war, and were therefore the more savage and ferocious.^ These winter quarters appear to have been at 1 Dion. H. E. lib, lvi. c. 10, 1 1, 12, p.578 D. to 579 E. ' Vel. Pat. lib, ii, c. 1 14. CHAP. X.j TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 233 Siscia, the modern Visuck or Sisseck, at the confluence of the Colapis and Savus, the Kulp and the Save.' And hence Lepidus led his army into Dalmatia. From the difficulties which he had to encounter, his progress must have been slow. Velleius, the only author who has mentioned this march, speaks of the difficulty of places, the force of the enemy, the slaughter made by the Eomans of those who resisted them, the country laid waste. Its houses burned, and its inhabitants massacred. Even after the arrival of Lepidus, and the subsequent arrangement of the com mand, Tiberius found himself in a very critical position. The Perustse and the Desitiates in the mountainous region which divided Pannonia from Dalmatia, by the ferocity of their character, their wonderful knowledge of the art of war, and more especially the almost impregnable narrow passes of their mountains, not only tested his skill as a commander, but his personal strength and prowess in fighting, sword to sword and hand to hand,^ Suetonius says that, " although he was often recalled, yet he persevered ; fearful lest a neighbouring and successful enemy might greatly harass a retreating army. His perseverance," he adds, " was sig nally rewarded ; the whole of Ulyricum lying between Italy and Noricum, Thrace and Macedonia, and extending from the Danube to the Adriatic, being entirely subdued,"* With these statements, the narrative of Dio perfectly accords ; and he gives a frightful picture of the devastation and carnage Inflicted on the inhabitants, but which cost the Eomans many men and much treasure.* At length Arduba having been stormed by Germanicus, and all the neighbouring strongholds having voluntarily surrendered, Bato himself offei^ed to submit, if assured for himself and his associates of protection and impunity. This being promised, he presented himself at night before Tiberius ; and being again asked, as before, why he and his countrymen had rebelled and so lengthened out the war, again returned the same answer, that the Eomans were In fault, because they had sent to guard their flock, not dogs nor ' Vel. Pat. H.R. lib. ii. c. 113. regnumque Noricum, et Thraciam, et ' lb. c, 115, Macedoniam, interque Danubium flumen, ^ Et quamquam SEepius revoearetur, et sinum Maris Adriatici patet, perdomito tamen perseveravit j metuens, ne vicinus et in ditionem redacto. — Suet. lib. iii. et prsevalens bostis instaret ultro ceden- u. 16. tibus. Ac perseverantise grande pretium * Dion. H. E. lib, Iri.c. 12-16, p. 579 E. tulit: toto lUyrioo, quod inter Italiam 581 B. 30 234 THE ASSOCIATION OF [PART 1. shepherds, but wolves. Thus the war of Dalmatia and Pannonia was brought to a second termination. Germanicys carried the news of this conquest to Eome, and the senate decreed the title of Imperator again to Augustus and Tiberius;' but within five days after the war was ended, arrived letters from Germany announcing the slaughter of Varus and his legions.'' The date of the defeat and destruction of Varus and his army is nowhere expressly mentioned ; but Velleius Paterculus, describing the inert and fatal security of that commander. Intimates that he attempted to be as rapacious in Germany as he had been in Syria, and con ceived that men whom swords could not subdue were to be tamed by legislation. "With this intent, having advanced into the heart of Germany, as if he had been among men enjoying the sweets of peace and of good government, he dragged out the summer in acting according to the forms of law."^ From the expression of the historian, that he dragged out the summer, it must be inferred, I think, that his disaster took place early in autumn ; and as Tiberius was in the mountainous country now called the Tyrol, and, therefore, on the confines of ancient Germany, the news must soon have reached him. We may, therefore, place the event itself in September, and the arrival of the news in October, in the year known as the consulship of Camerinus and Sabinus, a.j.p. 4721. Dio mentions that a severe storm of/wind and rain overtook the Eomans in their march, rendering the ground slippery, especially round the trunks of trees, breaking down the topmost branches, and thus impeding and harassing their movements.* This may have been the equinoctial storm, which in the country of the Cherusci and near the VIsurgis or Weser, where Varus was, would be early and violent. On receiving this intelligence, Tiberius hastened to Eome, where he found Augustus in the utmost sorrow and consternation.* The news, however, raised the services of Tiberius to higher estimation among the people, because It was seen that if Ulyricum had not been previously subdued, the victorious Germans would have ' Dion. H. E. lib. lvi. 17, p. 582 B. ' Lib. lvi. 20, p. 584. ' Vel. Pat. lib. ii. c. 117, comp. with " His auditis revolat ad patrem Casar. Suet. lib. iii. c. 17, & Dion, H. E, lib, lvi. — Vel. Pat. lib. ii, c. 120, comp. with Dion, e. 18, p. .082 c. H, E, lib, lvi. c, 23, p- 585 B. ' Lib ii, c, 117, CHAP. X.J TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 235 formed a junction with the Pannonians. A triumph was decreed by the senate to Tiberius, with many other honours. Some thought that he ought to receive the cognomen of Pannonicus, others of Invictus, the unconquered, and others wished even to give him the name of Pius, on account of his devotion to his father. But Augustus disapproved or was jealous of these flatteries; and Tiberius himself postponed the triumph, as inconsistent with the general mourning.' The grief of Augustus did not prevent his acting with his accustomed energy. Collecting as many soldiers as he could from the veterans and the freedmen, he sent them immediately, and with the greatest haste, into Germany, under the command of Tiberius.^ It Is probable, from the language of Dio, that Tiberius left Eome In the same year ; and I know not else how to reconcile his pro gress with the fact subsequently mentioned by Suetonius, that he returned from Germany "post biennium," after the second year. Of this we shall soon have occasion to speak more particularly. As fears were entertained of the tranquillity of Gaul, Tiberius secured that on his way, arranged the troops to the best advantage, fortified the strongholds, and subjected the army to the strictest discipline,* In this manner he crossed the Ehine. Here he laid waste the country, burning houses, and slaughtering the inhabitants ; and then returned, says Velleius, without loss and with great glory into winter quarters.* This return to winter quarters must have taken place towards the end of the year of which we have been speaking, known in the Eoman fasti as the consulship of Q. Sul picius Camerinus and Poppaeus Sabinus. Early in the next year, that is, in the year when Dolabella and Silanus were consuls, or in the year 4722 of the Julian period, A.U.C. 761-2, Tiberius advanced again from his winter quarters Into Germany.* " The same courage and the same fortune," says Velleius, "attended him now, as at the beginning."^ By his naval and military expeditions, "classicis, peditumque expeditionibus," the strength of the enemy was broken down, and by restraint, rather than punishment, he subdued the rising dissensions' of the Viennenses, and settled the weighty concerns of Gaul. Perceiving, ' Suet, lib. iii. c. 17. ^ The words of Suetonius are, -proximo ' Dion. H. E. lib. lvi. c. 23, anno repetita Germania, • Vel, Pat. ii. c. 120. " Lib. ii. o, 121, « Vel. Pat. ii. c. 120, comp. Suet, iii. 18. 236 THE ASSOCIATION OF [PART I. as Suetonius says, that the slaughter of Varus and his legions had arisen from the rashnefes and negligence of the general, he proceeded with more than ordinary caution; and when about to cross the Ehine, would allow no more luggage to be forwarded than was absolutely necessary. Having crossed that river, he shared with his army all the fatigues, and hardships of the expedition, took his meals sitting upon the bare ground, and often passed his nights without any tent to cover him. A singular Instance of superstition Is here recorded by the historian ; that although Tiberius trusted little to fortune or chance, yet whenever, during his hours of watchfulness in the night, his light was suddenly, and without per ceptible cause, extinguished, he considered It as a good omen, and engaged in battle. At one time, however, he narrowly escaped assassination.' The narrative of Suetonius adds one fact which is very impor tant to our purpose. Tiberius returned to the city from Germany after two years, and then celebrated the triumph which had been deferred.^ Velleius mentions it as an effect of his moderation, that he cele brated only three triumphs Instead of seven.' How early In the autumn or winter of the consulship of Camerinus and Sabinus he went into G-ermany, we cannot ascertain ; but the two years men tioned by Suetonius necessarily include a portion of that and the whole of the following consulship of Dolabella and Silanus, and perhaps the commencement of that which followed, namely, the consulship of M. ^milius Lepidus and T. Statilius Taurus. The date of the triumph which had been so long postponed appears, from the Prsenestine calendar, discovered in 1770, to have been on the 16th of January, or the 17th before the kalends of February; that is. If our computation be correct, at the beginning of the con sulship of M. ^Emilius Lepidus and T, Statilius Taurus, or January 16, A,j,p. 4723. H . XVn C . TI . CAESAE EX PAnnoniis triumph A VIT. The 16th of January, as we learn from Ovid, was the festival of the goddess Concordia ; and the 27th of January, the 6th before the calends of February, that of Castor and Pollux.* We see the 1 Suet. lib. iii. c. 18-19. egit.— Suet. lib. iii, c, 20, " A Germania in urbem post biennium ' Lib, ii, c, 122. regi-essus, triumphum quem distulerat ' P. Ovid. Faster, lib, i. v, 640-705. CHAP X.J TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 237 reason, therefore, why Suetonius, after speaking of the triumph, immediately adds, that Tiberius dedicated the temple of Concord, and also that of Castor and Pollux. In the Prsenestine calendar, the dedication of the latter temple is thus recorded : C , VI . C . ABDes Castoris et PoLLVCIS , DEDICAta est. The dedication of the temple of Concord is not recorded, because In the consulship of Dolabella and Silanus (a.j.p. 4722, a.u.c 761-2) another temple, called the temple of Concordia Augusta, had been dedicated on the same day by Augustus. H . XVn . C . CONCOEDIAB AVgustae aedes dedicatA EST . P. DOLABELLA C . SILANO COS. It appears, then, that Tiberius triumphed on the 16th of Jan uary, A.J.P. 4723, and on the same day, dedicated the temple of Concord, because it was the festival of that goddess. He also dedicated, in the name of himself and his brother Drusus, on the 27th of January, the temple of Castor and Pollux, which he had erected with the spoils of his victories.' " And not long after," says Suetonius, "a law being proposed by the consuls that he should administer the government of the provinces in common with Augustus, and at the same time carry on the census, and celebrate the lustral purification, he departed Into lUyrlcum."^ Not long after the dedication of the temples of Concord and of Castor and Pollux, — that is, not long after the 16th and 27th of January, — the law was enacted by which Tiberius was associated with Augustus in the government of the provinces. We may fairly assume, then, that this took place in February ; and thus we arrive at the point of difficulty, in adjusting the language of the historians. We have seen that Suetonius expressly says It was after the second year from the slaughter of Varus and his legions that Tiberius triumphed and dedicated the two temples. This language is at variance with that which occurs in the remaining text of Dio : " In the following year," says Dio— that is, in the year following the departure of Tiberius with the army raised by Augustus, after the disaster of Varus and his three legions, — " Tiberius dedicated the temple of Concord, and inscribed upon it his own name and that of his deceased brother Drusus." But 1 Dedicavit et Concordise sedem, item mine, de manubiis.— Suet, lib, iii, c. 20, Pollucis et Castoris, suo fratrisque no- ' lb, c, 21. 238 THE ASSOCIATION OF [PART I, it was so far from being the following year, that it was not until the month of January in the second year. The language of the Latin historian is too precise to be disregarded. Velleius says nothing of the dedication of the temples, but connects with the return of Tiberius from Germany and Gaul, the decree of the senate, giving him equal authority with Augustus in the provinces and in the armies. He speaks, however, of his triumphs, and his singular moderation in being content with three when he deserved seven. After this event, until the death of Augustus, both Velleius and Suetonius speak only in general terms of the manner in which Tiberius and Germanicus were employed ; but Dio, as far as we have his testimony, proceeds to state their occupation during the remainder of that year, "In the consulship of Marcus .^inilius with Statilius Taurus, Tiberius, and' Germanicus as proconsul, marched into Germany, and overran some parts of it, but were victorious in no engagement, and subdued no nation, because no one encountered them. Fearing, however, lest they should meet with some disaster, they did not advance far beyond the Ehine, but after they had remained there till autumn, and had celebrated the birthday of Augustus (September 23rd) and some equestrian sports had been exhibited on that occasion by the centurions, they returned." After mentioning various regulations by Augustus, Dio proceeds as follows : " Germanicus after this received the con sulate, not having been prsetor, and retained the office for the whole year, but did nothing worthy of being recorded." And then he adds: "Augustus being now old, commended Germanicus to the senate, and the senate to Tiberius. He himself, however, did not read the document (for he was not able to speak loud), but Germanicus, as he had been accustomed.'" This commendation of the senate to Tiberius has been supposed to mean the association of Tiberius with himself in the empire ; it being afterwards common, in settling the succession, for the empe rors to commend their sons to the senate ; and commending the senate to Tiberius, seems, for the same reason, to mean the bestow- ment of imperial authority. If such be the meaning, then it is plain that Dio places the association of Tiberius with Augustus, in the consulship of Germanicus, and not in that of Lepidus and Taurus. We must keep in mind, however, that we have not here 'Dion. H, E, lib, Iri. t-, 25, 26, p. 586 c— 587 b, CHAP. X.] TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 239 the perfect text of Dio. The narrative bears internal marks of being a disjointed abridgment; and in placing the consecration of the temple of Concord a j'ear before the association of Tiberius with Augustus, it would contradict the express testimony of Sue tonius, who tells us the decree of the senate was passed but a short time after the dedication of the two temples. I am inclined to think, therefore, that the commendation of the senate to Tiberius was an event subsequent to that of associating him in the government of the empire. The first gave him equal authority with Augustus in the provinces and armies, but not in Eome ; the second extended that authority, in consequence of the increasing infirmities of Augustus, so as to include the authority of presiding in the senate in his stead. After weighing all these difficulties well, the most satisfactory conclusion appears to be this : that the triumph, the dedication of the two temples, and the decree of the senate, took place in the successive months of January and February, in the year when M. ..35milius Lepidus and T. Statilius Taurus were consuls, or in the year of the Julian period 4723. As it was before the Parilia, it was in the 762nd year of Eome, and in the first year of the 197th olym piad; in the 55th year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, and the tenth year of the Dionysian sera of Jesus Christ. The first year of this associate empire ended in February a.u.c, 763, a,j.p. 4724, when Germanicus Csesar and C. Fonteius Capito were con suls; and in that year Augustus enlarged the authority of Tiberius by commending to him the senate. The second year ended In February a.u.c. 764, a.j.p. 4725, when Caius Silius and Munatius Plancus were consuls. The third year ended in February a.u.c. 765, a.j.p, 4726, when Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Appuleius were consuls. During their consulship Augustus died, on the 19th of August ; which being after the Parilia, was in the 766th year of Eome, and being after July, was in the first year of the 198th olympiad, Tiberius was therefore associated with Augustus about three years, six months and a half, before he became the sole emperor. 240 LP'*^KT I. CHAPTER XL FEOM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBEEIUS IN THE GOVEENMENT OP THE PEOVINCES, UNTIL HIS DEATH. Tiberius associated in the 73rd year of Augustus, — The reign of Augustus by Decen nial periods, — Concise view of events till his death, — Total eclipse of the sun in thai year, mentioned by Dio and Eusebius, but denied by Petavius. The subject ex amined.— Proofs of a central eclipse in a.j.p, 4726, but none in a.j.p. 4727. — ^Lunar eclipse mentioned by Tacitus and Dio as occurring during the mutiny in Pannonia, — Question considered whether it was the eclipse of October 7, a.j.p. 4726, or Sep tember 27, a.j.p. 4727. — Decided in favour of the former, 1, By testimony, 2, As tronomical calculations, 3, Necessary length of time after the death of Augustus, — The years in which Julius and Augustus Csesar died, two of the most important for the settlement of chronology. — The narrative continued. — Death of Agrippa Posthu mus.— Germanicus suspected. — Poisoned, Nov, A.j,p, 4731, — His ashes brought to Eome early in a.j.p. 4732. — Tiberius goes to Campania A.J.P. 4733. — ^Eeturns in consequence of Liria's illness, a j.p. 4734. — ^Death of Junia, the widow of Cassius, in the 64th year after the battle of Philippi, — Drusus murdered, a,j.p, 4735, — ^Decen nial games, A.J.P. 4736. — The next year constant proscriptions. — ^In a.j.p. 4738, Tiberius left Eome never to return.^In 4739, retired to Caprese, where he spent the remainder of his life. — A,J,P. 4741, the consulship of the two Gemini — Livia died, aged 86 years. — Her character. — From this time the career of Tiberius unbridled. — All the family of Germanicus destroyed excepting Caligula, — In 4743 Sejanus consul, and publicly executed Oct, 18, — Tiberius died in March, a, J.p, 4749. — ^His character, as given by Dio, If the foregoing calculations be correct, Tiberius was associated with Augustus in the government of the provinces, that is, in the government of the whole empire, excepting the city of Eome and its dependencies, in the month of February, in the year 4723 of the Julian period, the 55th year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, in the sixth month of the 41st year after the battle of Actium, and In the seventy-third year of the age of Augustus. From this time, Augustus began' to cast off the burthens of chap. XI.J THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS. 241 empire. His speech to the senate, In which he commended Ger manicus to them, and them to Tiberius, was read, not by himself, but by Germanicus ; and, assigning the war in Germany as an excuse, he requested them not to come to the palace to salute him, and not to be offended if he did not entertain them.' " Lucius Munatius and Caius Silius being designated consuls, Augustus," says DIo, "unwillingly took the fifth decennial govern ment of the commonwealth, and again gave Tiberius the tribunicial power. To Drusus, the son of Tiberius, he gave the consulship for the third year, and permitted him to become a candidate for it before he had been prsetor."^ It must be distinctly observed, that Dio does not here say, as- usual, when Munatius and Silius were consuls, but when they were designated consuls. They did not become consuls till the 1st o£ January, a.j.p. 4725, A.u.c. 764-5 ; but they were designated con suls, by the vote of the people in the centuries, about the calends of the preceding August,* a.j.p. 4724, a.u.c. 763-4. It was, therefore, during the last six months of the year following that In which Tiberius was associated with Augustus in the empire, and- a year earlier than it was usual for him to renew his decennial, authority. This wIU be made evident, if we compare the several accounts which Dio gives of these decennial periods. His first statement is as follows : " Csesar, being desirous to lead the Eomans off from the suspicion that he meditated anything monarchical, undertook the government of those provinces which were assigned to him, for ten years ; for he promised to reduce them within that time, adding. In the boasting manner of a young man, that if he could pacify them sooner, he would sooner give them up to the senate."' This arrangement took place when Csesar was consul the seventh, and Agrippa the third time, A.U.C. 725-6, A, J.P. 4686. Shortly after, speaking of this arrangement, by which the provinces were divided between Cassar and the senate, Dio makes the following reflections : " These things, there- ' D. Cass. H. E. lib, lvi. c. 26, p. 587 B.C. foUovring year were called Designati till " D, Cass, H, E. lib, lvi. c. 28, p. 588 B.C. they entered upon their office ; but I have *" Magistratuum Comitia habebantur not been able to find any ancient authority circa Kalendas SextUeis," — Nieupoort de for the fact so confidently asserted by ritibus Eomanorum, p, 84, It is erident modern writers, that the elections took from the titles of many of Cicero's Epis- place in July or August, ties, that the consuls thus created for the ' Dion Hist. E. lib. liii, 13, p, 504 B,c. 31 242 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [pART I. fore, were, so to speak, thus arranged at that time ; but, in reality, 'Csesar himself was always, and of all things, the absolute master, having the treasury and the army entirely at his disposal. When, therefore, this period of ten years was ended, another five years was voted to him, and then another five ; and, after this, ten, and again another ten the fifth time : so that he was monarch his whole life, by a succession of decennial periods. On which account, succeeding emperors, though inaugurated once for their whole life, and not for a limited time, celebrated, notwithstanding, a festival •every ten years, as if they then renewed their government. And such," adds the historian, " is the practice even now." ' The reader will recollect, that the first five years of the trium virate expired, by its own limitation, on the 31st of December, In the seventh year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, or on the last day of the year 4675 of the Julian period. It must also be recollected, that. In the following spring, Antony and Csesar renewed the triumvirate for five years longer, without asking the consent of the senate and people. But this usurpation, Csesar, when he had obtained unrivalled authority, was very willing to bury in oblivion. He, therefore, artfully reckoned ten years, from the 31st of December a.j.p. 4675, to the 3 Ist of December a.j.p. 4685, when his sixth consulship ended ; and, at the commencement of his seventh consulship, asked the senate and people to confer upon him supreme authority for another space of ten years, commencing the 1st of January a.j.p. 4686, and ending the 31st of December A.J.P. 4695, in which year the two Lentuli were consuls. Hence Dio, speaking afterwards of that year, says: "During the consulship of Publius and Cneius Lentulus, Augustus — first prolonged his own authority five years, since the decennial period was now expiring, and then gave Agrippa the tribunicial authority for the same space of time, having made him, In .other respects, nearly of equal power with himself. For so much, he said, would then be sufficient for them both. Not long afterwards, however, he doubled the period of his imperial government, so that it be came again ten years."^ This second decennial period would expire, therefore, on the 31st of December a.j.p. 4705, when Caius Mar- -cius Censorinus and Caius Asinius Gallus were consuls, that is, ' H. E, lib, liii, 16, p, 506 E, & 507. » Dion. H. R lib. liv, 12, p, 529 B.C. CHAP. XI.J UNTIL HIS DEATH. 243 A.U.C, 744-5, at the close of the fifteenth year, according to the Capltoline tables, or the first half of the sixteenth year, dating from the decree of the senate, giving him his tribunicial authority. Accordingly, we again find the narrative of Dio stating as follows: " The next year, in which Asinius Gallus and Caius Marcius were consuls, although he had resigned the government, as he said, because the second ten years were expired, he unwillingly, forsooth, took it again upon himself."' This third decennial period would expire on the 31st of Decem ber A.J.P. 4715, when Lucius ..^lius Lamia and Marcus Servilius were consuls, A.u.c. 754-5, at the close of the twenty-fifth year of his tribunicial authority. During that year, therefore, the his torian says : " His third decennial period being fulfilled, h« by compulsion, forsooth, undertook the government for the fourth time." 2 This fourth decennial period would terminate December 31st,, A.J.P. 4725, A.u.c 764-5, in the consulship of Caius ^Silius and Lucius Munatius Plancus, at the close of the thirty-fifth or be ginning of the thirty-sixth year of his tribunicial authority, and, consequently, less than a year before his death. This, according to his usual practice, would have been the time to renew the decennial government ; whereas he, in fact, renewed it the year before, when Caius Silius and Lucius Munatius were designated consuls, but had not yet entered upon their office. No reason Is assigned for this change ; but It may naturally be accounted for, by the fact of his having the preceding year associated Tiberius in the empire, his weariness of the cares of goveminent, and the rapidly increasing Infirmities, which admonished him to provide for the peaceful transmission of his authority. A proposition was made at the same time by Augustus, and obsequiously assented to by the senate and people, which marks the wonderful hold he had either on their fears or their affections: " On account of his great age, by reason of which he very rarely met with the senate, he asked for twenty privy-counsellors, to be chosen annually ; for, before, he had associated with himself fifteen every six months.* Accordingly, a vote was passed that what- ' Dion. H, E. lib, lv, 5-6, p, 551, c,E. for six months were chosen from the ' Dion. H, E. lib. lv, 12, p, 556, c, senate by lot, to prepare beforehand the • Suetonius says that these counsellors business to be discussed in fuU senate. 244 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [pART L soever might seem good to him, consulting with Tiberius and with them (i.e. the twenty), together with the consuls for the time being, those designated consuls, those adopted by him as his grand children, and any others whom he might at any time add to them, should have the force of law, as if enacted by the whole senate."' This high-handed measure gave the finishing blow to Eoman liberty ; and one knows not whether most to wonder at the un blushing arrogance of the emperor, or at the rapid debasement, and utter servility, to which the nation had sunk In the course of a hundred years ! " At the celebration of his birth-day this year (September 23rd), a deranged person seated himself in the chair of Julius Csesar, took his crown, and put It on his own head. This to Augustus seemed a portent of his own death, and such it truly was ; for, In the fol lowing summer, in which Sextus Appuleius and Sextus Pompeius were consuls, Augustus went into Campania, and died at Nola. There was a total eclipse of the sun (o re yap ^Xioc Trag i^eXtire) and a great part of the heavens seemed to be on fire, and blood-red comets (aartpeg Kopirj-ai Kai aifiariiSeis) Were Secn."^ Livia was somewhat suspected of having hastened his death, because he had sailed to the island [sc. of Planasia, now called Pianosa], and had had a secret Interview with Agrippa. Fearing that Augustus would raise his grandson to the monarchy, she conveyed poison to him in a fig. He died on the 19th of August, the day in which he first became consul, having lived seventy-five years, ten months, and twenty-six days ; for he was bom on the 23rd day of September, and he had reigned alone, from the time in which he conquered at Actium, forty-four years, wanting thirteen days.^ Tacitus speaks of the suspicion resting on Livia ; and Pliny and Plutarch both allude to it.* Suetonius accords perfectly with DIoj as to the day and year of his birth and death, and the duration of his monarchy from the battle of Actium. And with the whole of these historians, our present computation harmonizes entirely. Of this we proceed to give a brief recapitulation. (Ociavianus, c, 35), But this was only a ' Dion. H, E, lib. lvi. c. 29, p. 589. standing committee. The subsequent ' Dion. H. E, lib, lvi, c, .30, p. 589-90. measure superseded the action of the * Tacit. Annal, lib i. c. 5, Plin. Hist. Senate entirely, Nat, lib, rii, c, xlvi, 45. Plut. vepi 1 Dion. Cass. H. E. lib. In, c, 28, p. 588, aSoXtuxiag. Ed, Steph, tom, ii, p, 503, CHAP. XI,] Until his death. 245 Augustus was born in the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, in the year of the Julian period 4650, on the 23rd of September. From Sept, 23, a,j,p, 4650, to Sept, 23,4725, are 75 solid years. From Sept. 23, A.J.P. 4725, to July 23, 4726, are 10 solid months. From July 23, A.J.P. 4726, to August 19, 4726, are in July (not including the 23rd), days 8 in August (not including the 19th), days 18 — 26 solid days. According to Die's computation years 75, ms. 10. days 26 Again: The battle of Actium took place, as we have before seen (p. 197), in the third consulship of Csesar with Valerius Mes salla Corvinus, on the 2nd day of September, in the year of the Julian period 4682. From September 2, 4682, to September 2, 4725, are 43 solid years. From September 2, 4725, to August 2, 4726, are 1 1 soUd months. From August 2 to August 19, both included, are 1 8 solid days. 43 11 18 To which add 13 days, according to Die's comp. 13 Making a total of 44 years 44 0 0 After 'the will of Augustus had been opened and read, Drusus read also in the senate four manuscripts ; the first of which con tained the directions for his funeral ; the second, an enumeration of his actions, which he ordered to be inscribed on brazen columns placed before his mausoleum ; the third, a summary of the army, the revenues, public expenses, contents of the treasury, and other things pertaining to the government; the fourth, his injunctions and counsels to Tiberius and the republic' The assertion of DIo,^ that there was a total eclipse of the sun in the year when Augustus died, has been called in question by Petavius, and, on his authority, by other modern chronologers of ' Dion. H, E, Iri, c, 33, p. 591, B. Sueto- tamm Divi Augusti, quibus orbem terra- nius mentions only the first three (lib. ii, rum imperio populi Eom. subjecit, et c. 101), The second is that of which there impensarum, quas in rempublicam popu- are fragments remaining, and of which lumque Eomanum fecit, Incisarum iu occasional notice has been taken in the duabiis aheneis pilis quse sunt Eomse present work. They were discovered by a positse, exemplar subjectum," The work learned dirine and antiquarian of the of ChishuU I have seen in the British Church of England, the Eev, Edmund Museum; and the inscription itself, with Chishull, and were published by him the commentary of Isaac Casaubon, is an- under the title of " Monumentum Latinum nexed to the second volume of the works Ancyranum," annexed to his great work of Suetonius, edited by Fred, Aug. Wolff, Antiquitates Asiaticae, foL 1728, The Lipsise, 4 tom, 8vo. 1802. tom, ii, 369-400. monument itself is entitled, " Eerum ges- ' Lib. lvi, c, 29. 246 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. note. It becomes necessary, therefore, to examine the grounds on which the rejection of such positive testimony has been founded. The following is a literal translation of the words of Petavius : "Eusebius states In his chronicon, at the 56th year of Augustusj, the year of Abraham 2029, and the first of the 198th olympiad, that there happened an eclipse of the sun, when Augustus died. Dio likewise relates. In his fifty-sixth book, among the prodigies that preceded the death of Augustus, a total eclipse of the sun. But Eusebius has placed the death of Augustus one year too early; for, according to the method,* by adding 2696 years to the number given by Eusebius, it will make the year of Abraham 2029 begin in the year 4725 of the Julian period ; and hence it will make Augustus to have died in the year 4726, whereas he died In the year 4727. Mercator computes, that in the year when Augustus died — the consulship of the two Sexti, the sun was eclipsed In the year of Nabonassar 760, the sun being in 6° 15' of Taurus. This was the year of Christ 13. But in that year there was no eclipse of the sun,' neither at Eome, nor in any of the provinces of Gaul or Spain. For the true new moon took place at Eome near the twentieth hour, that Is, 19h. 49m. after midnight, on the 28th of April, being one hour after sunset. According to the Parisian tables, and the true motion of the sun, it had then arrived at 5° 44' of Taurus. Wherefore, since no eclipse of the sun was seen, neither In that year in which Augustus died [i.e., according to Petavius, 4727], nor in the year preceding, either Dio is false, or some unusual paleness and obscurity of the sun, furnished the spec tators with the idea of an eclipse, such as happened, as we have before shown, at the death of Julius Caesar."^ This Is a bold and sweeping way of evading testimony, especially of such writers as Dio and Eusebius ; and it must not be suffered to pass without careful scrutiny. Petavius acknowledges what he could not deny, that Eusebius places the death of Augustus in the year of Abraham 2029, which * This alludes to a perpetual method any given Eusehian year of Abraham, provided by Petavius (Doct, Temp, lib. you have the year of the Julian period in ix, c, 1) of turning the Eusebian years of which it began, Abraham into years of the Julian period. l Neque Eomae, neque in Galliis, aut He there shows that the first year of Hispaniis. Abraham, according to Eusebius, fell in * Petav de Doet, Temp lib, xi. c, 6, - the autumn of the year 2697 of the Julian tom, ii, p 1 66. period. Hence by adding 2696 years to CHAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 247 by his own showing, corresponds with the year 4726 of the Julian period, and the year 13 of the Dionysian sera ; whereas he himself places It in the year 4727 of the Julian period, corresponding with the year 14 of the Dionysian sera. We trust we have shown to the satisfaction of the reader that Augustus died on the 19th of August, A.J.P. 4726 ; and consequently that Petavius was wrong and Eusebius right. Petavius acknowledges that Eusebius speaks of an eclipse of the sun in the same year In which Augustus died. The words are, as translated from the Armenian version, "Defectio solis facta, et Augustus mortuus est" — an eclipse of the sun takes place, arid Augustus dies. St. Jerome, in his translation of Eusebius, and Syncellus, say the same thing. Petavius further acknowledges that this eclipse was calculated by Gerard Mercator, an astronomer of no mean reputation, and found to have taken place in the year of Nabonassar 760, when the sun was in 6° 15' of Taurus. The sera of Nabonassar began February 26th, a.j.p. 3967; and 759 Egyptian years are equal to 758 Julian years and 176 days. The first of Thoth, or the beginning of the 760th year of Nabon assar, was, therefore, the 20th of August In the year 4725 of the Julian period ; and as, according to Mercator's calculation, the sun was In, Taurus, the eclipse took place in the spring of the year 4726 of the Julian period, and the year 13 of the Dionysian sera. This Petavius admits ; but adds immediately, that in the year 13 there was no eclipse of the sun visible at Rome, or in the Gallic and Spanish provinces. What if there was not ? Does Dio say any thing of Eome, or Gaul, or Spain ? Not a word. He merely says that the sun was totally eclipsed. Wherever seen, by any of the Eoman soldiery, in any part of the world, such an event would be spoken of, and the superstitious would construe it into a prodigy. What, then, was the fact ? Petavius admits that the moon changed at Eome on the 28th of April in the year 13 of the Dion ysian aera, 19 hours and 49 minutes after midnight, that is, at 49 minutes past seven o'clock In the evening of that day. In the great work of the learned Benedictines entitled " The art of verifying dates," there is a calculation of all the eclipses, both lunar and solar, visible in Europe, Asia, and that part of Africa known to the Eomans, In every year from the first of the Dionysian sera to the year 2000, calculated by M. PIngre, and approved by a com- 148 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [pART I. mlttee of the French Royal Academy of Sciences. On turning to this table it will be seen, that in tte year 13 there were three eclipses, two partial of the moon, and one of the sun. That of the sun is thus described : * 28 April at 7^ evening. Small part of Europe, to the west and north-west. Central^ In latitude 52. Annular. It appears, then, that on the 28th of April, the day on which Petavius mentions the change of moon, and nearly at the same hour (the difference being probably that of the meridians of Paris and Eome), there was an annular eclipse of the sun, seen only In a small part of Europe to the west and north-west, and in the 52nd degree of north latitude central. It was sufficiently near to a total eclipse to be so designated by the historians. A method of proving the truth of what has now been said is given in Gregory's Astronomy, chap, xix., which, in conjunction with the tables of eclipses here referred to, will show, we presume, to the satisfaction of the reader, that the historian Is wrongly accused by the modern chronologer. It is as follows : " Since the nodes move backwards 19^° every year, they would shift through all the points of the ecliptic in 18 years and 225 days; and this would be the regular period of the return of the eclipses, if any complete number of lunations were performed In It without a fraction ; but this is not the case. However, in 223 mean lunations, after the sun, moon, and nodes, have been once In a line of conjunction, they return so nearly to the same state again, that the same node which was in conjunction with the sun and moon at the beginning of these lunations, will be within 28' 12" of the line of conjunction when the last of these lunations Is com pleted ; and in this period there wiU be a regular return of eclipses, till it be repeated about forty times, or in about 720 years, when the line of the nodes will be 28' X 40 from the conjunction, and will consequently be beyond the ecliptic limits. This is called the Pllnian period, or Chaldean saros ; It contains, according to Dr. Halley, 18 Julian years, lid. 7h. 43m. 20s,; or according to Mr. Ferguson, 18 years, lid. 7h. 42m. 44s. In an Interval of 557 years, 21d. ISh. 11m. 51s., in which there are exactly 6890 mean lunations, the conjunction or opposition coincides so nearly with the node, as not to be distant more than 1 1". If, therefore, to the mean time of any solar or lunar eclipse, we add this period, and CHAP. XI.J UNTIL HIS DEATH. 249 make the proper allowance for the Intercalary days, we shall have the mean time of the return of the same eclipse. This period is so very near, that in 6000 years it will vary no more from the truth than 8\ minutes of a degree.'" This rule we proceed now to apply to the eclipse In question. The eclipse Is stated to have taken place a.d. 13, April 28th, 7^ P.M., and to have been central. From the first of January to the 27th of April at midnight, there are 117 days ; and from midnight to half-past seven In the evening of the 28th, 19 hours and 30 minutes. The sum, then, may be thus stated : Y, D. H. M, s, January 31 12 117 19 30 0 February 28 Add the period of return 557 21 18 11 51 March 31 • April 30 569 139 13 41 51 Mav 19 Or May 20th, a.d, 570, as 139 days, the time for the regular return of the same eclipse. On examining the table of eclipses for the year of our Lord 570, it will be found that there were two partial eclipses of the moon and one central eclipse of the sun, and that the latter is thus described: * 20 May, 7h. 45m. evening, Europe to the N.W. central in 42° lat. Asia to the N.E. central in 17° lat. Annular. Again, T. D, 557 21 H.18 11 s. 51 2 January 31 February 28 March 31 April 30 May 31 June 10 1114 43 12 117 1219 23 30 •42 0 Add 1126 161 7 53 42 161 days. Or June llth, a,d, 1127, as the time of the second periodical return of the eclipse of A,D, 13. On examining the table, we find in a.d, 1127 two partial eclipses of the moon, and one central eclipse of the sun, which is thus described: * 11 June, at 7h. evening, to the N.W. of Europe central. In 31° lat. Annular. T, B. H. M, 8. T. D. H, M, S, Jan. 31 Again: 577 21 18 11 51 X 3 = 1671 65 6 35 33 Add 12 117 19 30 0 Feb. 28 Mar. 31 Apr. 30 1683 183 2 5 33 May 31 June 30 July 2 Or July 2, A.D- 1684. In the mean time the change of calendar had taken place, and ten days been omitted. Hence July 2, became July 12. 183 days. * Cavallo's Philosophy, vol. iv, p, 261-2, 32 250 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. The table for the year 1684 exhibits, as before, two partial eclipses of the moon, and one central of the sun, described as fol lows: * 12 July, 3 o'clock p.m. Europe, Africa, Asia, to the W. central in lat 42" — 18°. The fourth periodical return of the eclipse of a.d. 1 3 has not yet taken place. The calculations not being given in detail, but only the results, perfect accuracy could not be obtained. Sufficient however is shown by this mode of proof, to make it certain that in the year 4726 of the Julian period, which we have shown to be the year In which Augustus died, there was on the 28th day of April such an eclipse as DIo has described, and the other writers have mentioned. Petavius would not have accused Dio of falsehood, if he could have shown any solar eclipse such ^s the historian described In the year 4727 of the Julian Period, a.d. 14. In that year there were two total eclipses of the moon, but a very inconsiderable eclipse of the sun. I subjoin the tables of the periodical returns of the eclipses of that year, in order that the reader may see the negative as well as the positive side of the argument. A.D. 14 0 4 Apr. lb. 30' morn. ^ 18 Apr, Oh, 30' morn, Asia N. and n.e. % 27 Sept. 5 mom, A.D, 571 © 25 Apr, 6h, even. 5)< 9 May, 9h. even, to N,E, of Asia, 0 18 Octob, lib, evening, A,D, 1 128 9 16 May, 6h, 30' morn, ^ 30 May, 8h, 30' even, Asia n,e. ^ 25 Oct, 5h. even, Europe to the w, ¦ © 8 November, 9h. even, almost central, A.D. 1685 © 16 June, 6h. even. ^ 1 July, at 8h. even. Europe to N. Asia, to n.e, ;)< 26 Nov, at 7h, morn, Asia to N, % 10 Deeemb, at lib, evening. Before we leave this subject It may be important to notice an eclipse of the moon which, according to Tacitus and Dio, took place after the army in Pannonia had heard of the death of Augustus and the accession of Tiberius. The first of these historians relates, that, on receiving this intelligence, Julius Blsesus, the general, granted a suspension of military duty. This relaxation of discipline led to a fierce and violent mutiny. After some days, a calm was produced, by sending the general's son to Eome, to obtain a redress of their grievances ; but the return of some detached companies from Nauportus, the modern Laybach, renewed the commotion, and redoubled Its violence. As soon as Tiberius heard of these transactions, he sent his son Drusus, accompanied by Sejanus and two prsetorian cohorts, with CHAP. XI. I UNTIL HIS DEATH. 251 a body of cavalry and some other troops, to quell the insurrection. For some time, however, the arrival of Drusus only increased the violence of the mutiny; nor was it checked till the eclipse took place, an account of which we proceed now to give in the language of the historian : " That night, so threatening and ready to burst forth into crime, an accident mitigated ; for the moon, in a clear sky, was suddenly seen to grow dim. Ignorant of the reason, the soldier received that as an omen of present occurrences; and, assimilating the eclipse of the planet to his own difficulties, supposed that if brightness and clearness were restored to the goddess, there would be a prosperous termination of passing events. Therefore a noise was made with the sound of brazen instruments, and the concert of trumpets and clarions ; as she became brighter or more obscure, they rejoiced or mourned ; and after clouds had arisen and snatched her from their view, they believed that she was buried in darkness. As minds once smitten with fear are easily moved to superstition, they lamented that never-ending labour was portended for themselves, and that their misdeeds had brought upon them the aversion of the gods. Csesar, thinking that he ought to avail him self of this state of mind, and that what chance had presented should be turned into wisdom, ordered the tents to be surrounded." ' Dio briefly speaks of the revolt in Pannonia, and then adds, that on the arrival of Drusus with the prsetorian guards, the army were in great commotion, because he said nothing to them certain. Some of his retinue were wounded, and he himself was guarded by night lest he should escape. In this situation, having their imagination excited by an eclipse of the moon, they became so dejected, that no mischief was done by them, and they again sent messengers to Tiberius.^ ^ The only eclipse of the moon which happened a.d. 13 after August 19th, was on the seventh of October, at 7h. 45m. evening, and there were only three digits and a quarter eclipsed, or less than one third of the moon's disc. On the other hand, the eclipse in A.D. 14, on the 27th of September, took place at five o'clock in the morning, and was total., The question now is, to which of these eclipses had Tacitus or DIo reference ? ' Tac, Ann, lib. i. c. xri.-xxviii. I do every body's hands. not give the Latin, because this part of ^ Hist. Eom. lib. Ivii. c. 4, p. 604, Ed, Tacitus is made a school book, and is in Eeimar, tom, ii. 252 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. We might answer, that as DIo evidently means the same year when he speaks of the solar eclipse as preceding, and the lunar eclipse as following, the death of Augustus, the proof given of the one, necessarily determines the question with regard to the other. But not to Insist upon what might justty be deemed a corollary from a preceding demonstration, the very circumstances of the narrative. If I mistake not, show that it must have been the eclipse of October 7th, a.d. 13, and not that of September 27th, a.d. 14, In the first place, the eclipse of September 27th, a.d. 14, was in the morning ; that of October 7th, a.d. 13, in the evening. Petavius has Inserted in his work the calculation of the former. Beginning, 3h, 18' 32", Middle, 5h, 14' 32"- End, 7h, 6' 32". Whole duration, 3h, 52', or nearly four hours, — Post meridiem, Septemb xxriii. What Petavius means by saying p.m. September 28, I cannot tell ; for he had previously said that the true opposition in Pannonia was September xxvii. 5h. 1 4' 32"; and Brotier, In his note on the passage in Tacitus, refers to Petavius as his authority, and says : This eclipse of the moon happened in the morning, on the 27th day of September, a.u.c. dcclxvil j.c. 14. Its beginning was at 3h. 18' 32", its end, 7h, 6' 32". The table of eclipses In « The art of verifying dates," as we have seen, represents it thus : © 27 Sept. at 5 morning. But whether morning or afternoon, it is equally at variance with the narrative. The 27th of September was but a few days after the autumnal equinox, and consequently the sun rose not far from 6 a.m. The middle of the eclipse was near the dawn, and the moon, hidden probably from the soldiery by the sur rounding mountains, sunk below the horizon eclipsed. If the eclipse had been in the afternoon of September 28, from 18 minutes past three to 6 minutes past seven, it would have risen totally eclipsed ; and this would have been equally contrary to the narrative. On the other hand, the eclipse of October 7th, a.d. 13, Is thus described by M. PIngre, In the "Art of verifying dates": > 7 Oct. at 7 and 3 qu. evening, greatness of the eclipse, 3 digits 1 quarter. As only the middle of the eclipses are mentioned, the beginning of the eclipse must have been not far from seven o'clock; and as that part of Pannonia was somewhere near Lat. 46° 30', and Long. 34°, the sun must have set, and the moon have risen, on the seventh CHAP, xl] tnJTIL His DEATH, 253 of October, about half-past five. The moon was, therefore, an hour and a half high when the eclipse began. The whole army was up and In action. Their passions were highly excited; and not, as they would have been In the morning, lulled and tranquil. It may possibly be supposed that the total eclipse of a.d. 14 would accord better with the facts mentioned by Tacitus than the partial eclipse of a.d. 13. Let us proceed, therefore, to examine these facts, on the supposition that it was the partial eclipse. The moon being an hour and a half high, and the heavens perfectly serene, the eclipse began on the -eastern limb in the sight of the whole army. Jt increased for about three quarters of an hour, and then began to decrease. The superstitious soldiers, considering the moon as a divinity assailed by some calamity, with which she was struggling, thought to help her, and to frighten away her enemy, by the noise of their Instruments. Considering the event as ominous of their own destiny, they mourned as the eclipse increased, and rejoiced as it decreased. Their joy would have been complete, If they had seen the moon perfectly escaped from the eclipse, and restored to her brightness and clearness ; but, during the decrease, and in the midst of their joy and hope, black clouds arose, which hid her entirely from their view, so that she seemed buried. The night, at first so serene, became dark and dismal, and, to their terrified imagina tions, portentous of Divine vengeance. All these circumstances are perfectly reconcilable with the partial eclipse In the evening, but, to me, do not appear to be so with the total eclipse in the morning. There Is another argument, arising from the length of time between the death of Augustus and the date of the two eclipses, which it is proper to mention, but which I shall pass over as lightly as possible, because It amounts only to a collateral probability. If his death took place August 19th a.d. 14, there were only thirty-eight days between that event and the eclipse on the morn ing of September 27 ; if In the preceding year, there were nearly forty-nine days to the evening of October 7th. Considering the course of events, which of these periods is the most probable ? " The death of Augustus," says Dio, " was not immediately made known ; for Livia, fearing lest there should be some Innova tion, because Tiberius was still in Dalmatia, concealed it until his 254 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. arrival. Such," he adds, " is the statement of the greater part of the historians, and of those most worthy of credit ; though there are some who say that Tiberius was present with him in his illness, and received from him certain injunctions." ' Tacitus speaks of it as a doubtful question.* We may place the announcement on the 20th or 21st of August. "Tiberius," says Dio, "immediately sent letters from Nola, as emperor, to the several armies, and to all the provinces, but not calling himself emperor."' The body of Augustus was carried to Eome on men's shoulders ; "borne," says Dio, "from Nola, by the principal Inhabitants of each city in succession ; but, on Its arrival at Eome, drawn into the city at night by horses. The next day the senate convened, the members being clothed in the garments of the equestrian order, and the presiding officers, without the prsetexta. Tiberius and his son Drusus, clothed in black forensic cloaks, offered sacrifice with incense, but without the flute player. The senators sat in their accustomed seats ; the consuls, not In the curule chairs, but lower down ; one In the seat of the prsetors, the other In that of the tribunes." The will of Augustus was read, and the other documents already mentioned.^ After this, the body was laid in state In the senate house. DIo describes the ceremonies, and gives a summary of the funeral ora tion pronounced by Tiberius, The body was then carried through the triumphal gates, by the senators and knights, attended by all Eome, to the Campus Martius, and there placed on the funeral pile. Around it were ranged first the priests, then the knights, then the military, all of whom cast on the pyre the triumphal ornaments they had received from him as the rewards of their bravery. The centurions applied the torches, and an eagle was let loose, as the flames ascended, bearing the soul of Augustus, as it were, into heaven. The crowd departed ; but Livia remained on the spot five days, with the chiefs of the equestrian order, to collect his bones, and deposit them In the mausoleum. The mourning was, according to law, of the men, not many days ; of the women, a whole year. Dio adds, emphatically, " In truth, at that time not many, but finally all, mourned."' All these circumstances being duly weighed, it will not be con- ' H. E, lib. lvi. c. 31, p. 590. • H. R. lib. lvi. ut sup. ' Ann, lib, i, e, 5, ' Lib, lvii. c, 2. ' H, R. lvi. ut sup. 34-43. CHAP. XI,] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 255 sidered too large an estimate, if we allow seventeen days, from his death to the end of the funeral ceremonies. At the most moderate calculation, Nola was 150 miles "from Eome, and ten days must have been consumed in the funeral procession. The ceremonies in the senate, reading the will and other documents, the body laid in state, the funeral oration, the procession to the Campus Martius, and burning the body, could hardly have been crowded into a single day. Five days more were passed, before the ashes were collected and deposited in the mausoleum. In the meantime, the news of the emperor's death had been re ceived In Pannonia, the mutiny had followed, and the younger Blsesus had left the army for Eome, a distance of at least seven hundred Eoman miles. However expeditious he may have been, we cannot reasonably place his arrival there earlier than the ter mination of the funeral obsequies. Several subsequent meetings of the senate are spoken of by Tacitus, before the subject of the mutiny is Introduced. On hearing of the disturbances, Tiberius dispatched Drusus, with a powerful body of infantry and cavalry. How long would It take these heavy-armed troops to march seven hundred miles ? Would not twenty days have been an astonish ingly rapid movement? And yet they must have marched thirty- five miles a-day for that length of time, to arrive at the camp in Pannonia by the 26th of September.* If^ on the other hand, the death of Augustus happened in the preceding year, where Eusebius places it, and where, by our calcu lations, it ought to be placed, then the various events recorded by the historians as having occurred in the interval between his death and the lunar eclipse which followed it in that year, may easily have been performed. In that case, there would be at least forty- eight days, and that would leave a month for the march of Drusus and his Praetorian cohorts. To ascertain the years in which Julius Csesar and Augustus * Dr, Eobinson, estimating the distance Western Asia, i, p, liv, as his authority, of the land of Goshen from the place and then adds : "1 am informed by Prus- where the Israelites crossed the Eed Sea, sian officers of rank, that the usual march observes that "the usual day's march of of their armies is three German miles a the best appointed armies, both in ancient day, equal to twelve geographical miles of and modern times, is not estimated at sixty to the degree. Forced marches are higher than fourteen EngUsh, or twelve reckoned at five German miles a day. In geographical miles." He refers to Major either case the whole army rests every Eennell's Comparative Geography of fourth day," — Bib, Ees, vol, i, p, 75, and note 2, 256 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. died. Is to settle two of the most important points In chronology. It was Impossible, therefore, to avoid the discussion of the several questions relative to these eclipses, because there Is no evidence more certain than the concurrent testimony of history and astro nomical computations. I proceed now with the narrative. The death of Augustus left Tiberius sole master of the Roman empire. According to Suetonius, he was born at Eome, on the sixteenth before the calends of December, or November 16th, in the year when Marcus ^milius Lepidus, the second time, and Lucius Munatius Plancus were consuls, after the battle of Philippi. Thus it Is related In the Fasti and the public acts. He observes, however, that some writers place his birth In the preceding year, the consulship of Hirtius and Pansa, and others in that which fol lowed, or the consulship of Servilius Isauricus and Antonius Suetonius justly gives the preference to the public registers. In a preceding chapter, we have seen that the consulship of Hir tius and Pansa began on the 1st of January of the second year of Csesar's reformed calendar, corresponding with the year 4670 of the Julian period. Consequently, the consulship of Lepidus ir and Plancus, began January 1st a.j.p. 4671, the third year of the calendar of Julius Ceesar. Tiberius was born on the 16th of No vember in that year. His early history, it is not necessary to our purpose to pursue ; and. In tracing the history of Augustus, we have had occasion to examine the dates of his political and military life, to his adoption as colleague of the empire. Where he spent most of his time, and what he did after that adoption, is not very apparent, because both Velleius and Sueto nius pass It slightly over, and the scanty abridgement of Dio adds but little to our information. He appears to have been much in Ulyricum, as the principal seat of war, but going frequently to the city, and sharing with Augustus the councils of the empire. That he had recently gone to Ulyricum when Augustus was taken ill at Nola, and that he was thence recalled in haste by Livia, we have seen in the present chapter ; and this clearly appears from the nar rative of Velleius and Tacitus.' At the time of his accession to undivided empire, he wanted eighty-seven days, or nearly three months, of completing his fifty- Vel. Pat. lib. ii, c. 123 ; Tac, Ann, lib. i, c, 6, GHAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH, 257 fifth year. Previous to that time he appeared amiable and mode rate, though he could never entirely deceive the penetration of Augustus. His first official act was a crime ; for, no sooner was the death of Augustus made public, than orders were sent to the island of Planasia to put the young Agrippa to death. These orders were written ; but, when the military tribune who had the charge of Agrippa, informed the emperor that what he had commanded was done, he received an answer, dictated by that deep dissimula tion which marked all the subsequent life of Tiberius, that he had never commanded it, and that the tribune should render an account to the senate for his conduct.' The next year (a.j.p. 4727), Drusus Csesar, the son of Tiberius, and Caius Norbanus Flaccus were consuls ; and the following year (a.j.p. 4728), Titus Statilius Sisenna Taurus and Lucius Scribonius Libo. " For two whole years," says Suetonius, " after Tiberius had obtained the empire, he never set his foot out of doors ; and afterwards he was never absent, unless, very rarely, and for a few days, in some of the neighbouring towns, and, at the utmost, as far as Antium. He frequently promised the provinces and the armies that he would revisit them ; and, almost every year, made preparations for departure, engaging carriages, providing supplies (commeatibus), in the various municipia and colonies, and suffering prayers and vows to be offered publicly for his safe departure and return. This was so common, as finally to become a topic of popu lar ridicule."^ Gennanicus was In Gaul when Augustus died. He was the commander-in-chief of the two armies on the upper and lower Ehine; the former under Caius Silius, the latter under Aulus Csecina. A mutiny much more dangerous than that of Pannonia, broke out in the camp of Casclna. Germanicus hastened to quell it. He was the idol of the soldiers ; and they wished to march to Eome and proclaim him emperor. Faithful to Tiberius, he with great difficulty allayed the tumult, and, late as it was In the season, marched against the Independent Germans under Arminius, to avenge the slauo-hter of Varus and his legions. These transactions are fully detailed in the first book of the Annals of Tacitus. ' Suet Tiberius, c. 22. » Suet. Tiber, o. 38 2 'S FROM THE ASSOCLiTION OF TIBERIUS {pART I. ' Though the war was not yet ended, a triumph was decreed by. the senate to Germanicus, In the consulship of Drusus and Norbanus (a.j.p. 4727). Agrippina accompanied her husband in this expedition, sharing all his fatigues and dangers, attending to the wants of the soldiers, distributing medicines to the sick and clothes to the Indigent The gloomy and suspicious temper of Tiberius took the alarm, and irom this time forth he secretly determined to destroy Germanicus and his hated family. The disturbances among the Parthians, which began during the consulship of Statilius Taurus and Libo (a.j.p. 4728) afforded him a convenient pretext. He invited Germanicus to return to Eome and enjoy his triumph. The army being in winter quarters, and the Germans weakened and disheartened, Germanicus, after peti-r tloning in vain to continue another year in command, reluctantly returned.' In the following consulship of Caius Caecilius Eufus and Lucius .Pomponius Flaccus (a.j.p. 4729), on the seventh before the calends of June (May 26th), Germanicus thus publicly celebrated his triumph over the Cherusci, Chatti, Angrlvani, and other nations ,of Germany, extending to the Elbe.^ It was the policy of Tiberius to load with honours those whom he sought to ruin. He therefore named Germanicus to be consul, rand himself to be his colleague, for the ensuing year. This done, he laid before the senate the affairs of Cappadocia, Comagene, Cilicia, Syria, and Judea, and advised that the provinces beyond the Mediterranean should be put under the supreme command of Germanicus, with full authority over all other governors. He then appointed Cneius Piso governor of Syria, while Planclna, the wife of the governor, had full instructions from Livia to mortify the pride of Agrippina.' On his way to the east Germanicus paid a visit to Drusus, In Dalmatia. lie then sailed along the coast of Ulyricum, and through the Ionian sea, till he came to Nicopolis, the trophy of the victory at Actium. Here, on the 1st of January, a.j.p. 4730, be entered on his consulship with Tiberius; the latter for the third time, the former for the second. From Nicopolis he went tO; Athens, and thence, by the Island of Euboea, to Lesbos. Here ' Ta(!...Ann. lib. iL 1-26. ' Tac. Ann. lib. ii. c. 41, > Tac, ut supr. c, 43. eSAP. xl] until his death. 259 Agrippina was delivered of a daughter, her last child. After the delay which this occasioned, he proceeded along the coast of Asia Minor into the Euxine, and finally returned to Ehodes. During his stay on that island he saved the life of Piso, by sending boats and galleys to his aid when he was shipwrecked. Piso, who knew no gratitude, proceeded on his way to Syria, there to plot against his benefactor, while Germanicus visited Armenia, Cappa docia, and Comagene, everywhere re-establishing tranquillity.' Proceeding south from Comagene, he met Piso at Cyrrhus, the winter quarters of the tenth legion, about twenty-three or twenty- four Roman miles north of the modern Aleppo. In this interview their smothered resentments burst forth; that of Piso in rude insolence ; that of Germanicus with the dignified moderation of an offended superior. With these transactions the year of his con sulship ended. In the consulship of Marcus Junius Silanus and Lucius Nor banus (a.j.p. 4731), Germanicus visited Egypt. Augustus had formerly, as a measure of state policy, prohibited senators and knights from, entering that province without his express permis sion. This could not apply to Germanicus, because in putting all the provinces bevond the Mediterranean, without exception, under his command, Egypt was of course included. But It was now con sidered as an offence, and, as Suetonius informs us, complained of openly in the senate by Tiberius.^ The summer was spent in Upper Egypt, and he went up the Nile as far as the island of Elephantine. On his return to Syria, he found all his arrangements, civil and military, changed by PisO. The dissensions which this occasioned increased more and more, until Germanicus was suddenly taken ill, and this occasioned strong suspicions that he had been secretly poisoned. He died soon after at Epldaphne, but his remains were carried to Antioch and there burned. Agrippina collected his ashes In an urn, and with that and her younger children set sail for Italy. Suetonius speaks of the mourning, when the news first arrived at Eome, as having con tinued during the December festivals f whence it may be inferred that Germanicus died in November. Agrippina's voyage was in the midst of winter. She landed at Brundusium, and the funeral > Tac, ut sup, 53-56.' « Siiet, Tiber, c. 52 ; Tac. ut sup, c,59. ' Suet, Calig. c. 6. 260 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. procession along the Appian way moved slowly onward with mili tary honours, attended by crowds of people, who wept as they walked. Drusus advanced as far as Terracina to meet his remains, and the new consuls, Marcus Valerius Messalla and Marcus Aure lius Cotta, who had lately entered on their office, went out of the city for that purpose, with the whole senate and a numerous body of mourning citizens.' It arrived, therefore, early in January, in the year 4732 of the Julian period. Dio remarks that the death of Germanicus occasioned great delight to Tiberius and Livia, but to all others the greatest grief.^ The public grief was especially manifested when the urn con taining the ashes of Germanicus was deposited in the mausoleum of Augustus. Its universality, continuance, and sincerity may be Inferred from the proclamation by which Tiberius sought to relieve himself from its manifestation. " The Megalesian games," he ob served, " were at hand, and the people ought to resume their diver sions."^ By turning to the calendar, the reader will see that the Megalesian games continued for eight days from the fourth of April. Piso and Plancina, the tools of Tiberius and Livia, were now to be sacrificed to the popular cry for vengeance. They arrived In Eome, and the trial of Piso began. All the charges, except that of poisoning Germanicus, were fully substantiated. A call for papers was made, and refused no less by Tiberius than by Piso. • They would have been produced, it was fully believed, but for the arti fices of Sejanus, who fiattered Piso by false promises, because they would have implicated the real authors of the tragedy.'' Piso put an end to his own life to avoid the disgrace of a public execution, and Plancina obtained a respite under the powerful protection of Livia. In the same year Tiberius commended to the senate Nero, the eldest son of Germanicus, requesting that he might be a candidate for the office of qusestor five years earlier than the law allowed. In like manner Tiberius himself had been made qusestor at the age of nineteen,^ which, according to Dio, was five years earlier than by law.". In this manner we arrive at the age of this eldest son ' Tac, Ann. lib; iii. c. 1, 2. ' Tac, ut sup. c. 14, 16, & Suet. Tib, 52. Hist. Eom. hb. lvii, c, 18. ' Vel, Paterc, lib, ii, c, 94. ' Tac, Ann, lib, iu. o, 6. ' H. K Ub, liii. 28. CHAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 261 of Germanicus. He was born In the consulship of Vinicius and Alfinlus Varus, the year 4714 of the Julian period, and. the first of the Dionysian sera. His marriage with Julia, the daughter of Drusus, soon followed ; and both events gave great satisfaction to the Eoman people.' The next year (a.j.p. 4733) Tiberius for the fourth time, and Drusus for the second, were consuls. "Men," says Dio, "imme diately predicted the destruction of Drusus, because whoever had been consul with Tiberius, (Quintilius Varus, Cneius Piso, and Germanicus), had died a violent death."^ In the beginning of the year Tiberius went into Campania for the alleged reason of re cruiting his health ; " whether,'' says Tacitus, " gradually medi tating a long and continued absence, or that Drusus, his father being no longer with him, might alone perform all the duties of the consulship."' Decimus Haterius Agrippa and Caius Sulpicius Galba were the next consuls (a.j.p. 4734). In this year, Tiberius, by letters to the senate, desired that his son Drusus might receive the tribunitial authority. Livia was taken so alarmingly ill, that her danger occasioned the return of Tiberius to Eome. Tacitus adds, that hitherto the mother and son had lived together, either in sincere harmony, or in well-disguised hatred.* Junia, the sister of Brutus and the widow of Cassius, died this year, " the sixty- fourth," says Tacitus, " from the battle of Philippi." That battle, as we have seen, took place in the same year in which Tiberius was bom, and before his birth. The death of Junia must have been after his birth-day ; for if the consuls are counted from the consulship of Lepidus and Plancus to that of Haterius and Galba, they will be found to be sixty-four, both included. Tiberius commenced his sixty-fourth year on the sixteenth of November. Dio, or rather the abridgment of that author, speaks of the death of Drusus as taking place this year ; but as Tacitus places it In the next, the latter date Is probably the most correct. In the consulship of Caius Asinius Pollio and Caius Antistius Vetus (a.j.p. 4735), the ninth year of Tiberius, all things were tranquil and prosperous, when a sudden reverse was occasioned, by 1 Tac. Ann. lib, iii. o, 29 ' Tac, ut sup. e. 31. • Dio, lvii. 20, « Ann, lib, iii. c. 64. 262. FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PAKT JT, the treachery of Lucius iElius Sejanus, the commander of the prse torian guards, and the prime minister and favourite of Tiberius. This man, influenced by revenge for an affront he had received, and by motives of personal ambition, determined to murder Drusus. He chose a poison which, by Its slow and gradual advances, would have the appearance of an accidental disease. The draught was administered by the eunuch Lygdus, so secretly, that the fact was not discovered till eight years afterwards. Thus was Tiberius rendered childless.' Tacitus adds, that the mourning of the senate and people on this occasion was not real. In their hearts they rejoiced, because they now hoped that the house of Germanicus would again flourish. This hope was frustrated by their own exultation, the Imprudence of Agrippina, the increasing boldness and villany of Sejanus, the inveterate hatred of the elder Livia, and the gloomy suspicion and cruelty of Tiberius. In the year of the Julian period 4736, the consulship of Corne lius Cethegus and Visellius Varro, " Ten years of his empire being finished," says Dio, " he had no need of a decree to resume It, for he did not think it necessary to divide it into decennial periods as Augustus had done. Nevertheless," he adds, " decennial games were celebrated."^ During the consulship of Marcus Asinius Agrippa and Cossus Cornelius Lentulus (A.j.t. 4737), constant proscriptions and accu sations, led to public executions or self-murder. Many of these were for words spoken against the' emperor ; and Tiberius was often mortified in listening to the details of sarcastic language with which m private his character and conduct had been assailed. This led him to avoid the meetings of the senate ; and Sejanus had the craft to turn the disgust of the emperor to his own advantage. He affected to disrelish the noise and bustle of the city, and talked much of the pleasures of rural seclusion.* This probably accelerated the determination which took effect during the next consulship (a.j.p. 4738), that of Cneius Lentulus Gsetulicus and C. Calvisius Sabinus. Tiberius set out for Cam pania, with the ostensible motive of dedicating a temple to Jupiter at Capua, and another to Augustus at Nola, but, in truth, with a determination never to return tp Eome. On his way, at Spelunca, ' Tac, Ann, lib. iv. 1-8. • H. E. lib. lvii 24. » Tac. Ann, lib. iv. c. 34-42. CHAP. XL J UNTIL HIS DEATH. 263 a villa near Fundi, he narrowly escaped being crushed to death by a falling wall. Sejanus, to protect his master, fell on his knees, and supported the incumbent weight. Thenceforth, his Influence knew no bounds.' During the next consulship, that of Marcus Licinius Crassus and Lucius Calpurnius Piso (a.j.p. 4739), Tiberius retired to the island of Caprese, the modem Capri. The solitude pleased him the more, because the sea which surrounded it was without harbours, it had few conveniences, even for vessels of the smallest size, and no one could land upon the island unobserved. In winter It was mild, and in summer open to the western breeze, and the prospect, before the burning of Vesuvius had changed the scene, was in the highest degree beautiful.^ There he principally passed the remain der of his infamous life ; casting off all the cares of empire ; chang ing none of the military tribunes or prsefects or presidents of the provinces ; leaving Sjjain and Syria for many years without consular legates; siiffering Armenia to be occupied by the Parthians, and Moesia by the Dacians and Sarmatians, and the provinces of Gaul to be laid waste by the Germans, to the great disgrace and danger of the commonwealth.* The loathsome narrative of his enormities is given by Tacitus with a freedom and accuracy suited only to the mind of a heathen. "It is a shame even to speak of those things which are done of them in secret," In the consulship of Lucius Rubellius and Caius Fufius (a,j.p. 4741), both of whom bore the cognomen of Geminus, Livia died, at the advanced age, according to Dio," of 86 years. She possessed a masculine understanding, . and great power of pleasing, with an implacable temper, a corrupt and wicked heart, entire self-control, a,nd profound dissimulation. During the latter years of his life, she had ruled Augustus with well-disguised but absolute sway. " To one who asked how she had made him so subservient to her will, she replied, 'by the most scrupulous discretion and modesty, by cheerfully complying with what seemed to him good, by never officiously intermeddling with his affairs, and by never examining Or appearing to know his secret and Illicit pleasures.' "* By such" arts, she finally raised her son to empire; and having done so, she 1 Tac, ut sup. c, 57-59. ' Suet, Tiber, c. 39-41. • Tac. ut sup, u, 67, * Dio B. E, lib. lviii. 2. 264 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [pART I. expected to rule him, not as she had ruled her husband, but as his mother and his benefactor. The jealous temper of Tiberius took the alarm, and he began to envy the influence and hate the power which overshadowed and restrained him. To this, as the principal cause, many attributed his retirement from Eome.' Certain it Is, that he neither visited her in her sickness, nor was present at her funeral, nor did he permit the honours which the senate were ready to decree, and to which she was entitled. Her remains were de posited in the mausoleum of Augustus.'' From this time may be dated the unbridled and headlong career of Tiberius and his favourite. All the arts which hatred and treachery could invent, were practised against Agrippina and her two sons Nero and Drusus, till they all perished : Nero, banished to the Island of Pontia, there put himself to death, to avoid the executioner. Drusus, confined at Rome, in the lower part of the palace, after attempting to support life by eating the wool of his mattress, was literally starved to death.' Agrippina, treated with every indignity, deprived of one eye by a blow of the brutal soldier who guarded her, forced to eat when she sought to end her miseries by death, was at last starved in the island of Pandataria.' Of the sons of Germanicus, Caius, surnamed Caligula, alone was left, to be, in the language of Tiberius, "a serpent to the people of Eome, and a Phaeton to the whole world." In the year 4742 of the Julian period, Tiberius began to suspect his favourite; and to remove hiiri from his presence, and lull him into a false security, he determined to assume the consulship himself, for the fifth time, the next year, and to make Sejanus his colleague. Accordingly, on the first of January a.j.p. 4743, Sejanus entered on the duties and enjoyed the honours of the consulship ; and on the fifteenth before the kalends of November (Oct. 18th) In the same year, was publicly executed with every mark of Infamy. The year of Nero's death is uncertain. Drusus survived Sejanus more than a year, having been put to death in the consulship of Servius Sulpicius Galba and Lucius Cornelius Sulla, in the year 4745 of the Julian period. Agrippina died on the eighteenth of October in the same year, the very same day of the month In Avhich, two years before, Sejanus had been executed.* ' Tac, Ann, lib. iv, c, 57. ' Suet. Tiber, c. 53. Tac. Ann. lib. vi. ' Dio, lviii. 2. Tac. Ann. lib, v, c. lr2. c. 25, Suet. Tiber. «, 54. ' Tac, Ann, lib. vi. 25. CHAP. XI.] UNTIL His DEATH. 265 The next year, a.j.p. 4746, in which Tiberius completed the twentieth year of undivided sovereignty, the consuls, Lucius Vitellius and Paulus Fabius Persicus, announced the decennial period, as if, according to the practice of Augustus, the senate were conferring the government again upon Tiberius. They therefore celebrated the festival, says Dio, and at the same time were punished ; for no accused person was then pardoned. Tiberius was at Albanum and Tusculum, but would not enter the city.' In the next consulship, of Caius Cestius Gallus and Marcus Servilius Nonianus (a.j.p. 4747), Tiberius celebrated at Antium the nuptials of Caius Caligula.^ Tacitus places this event in the consulship of Galba and Sulla, two years earlier.* In the course of the following year, the consulship of Sextlus Papinius and Quintus Plautius (a,j.p. 4748), a dreadful fire laid In ruins the whole of the Aventine Mount. Tiberius paid the whole loss from the public treasury. Among so many crimes, it is cheer ing to record a single act which has the semblance of a virtue. Public honours were decreed to the emperor; but it is doubtful whether he received or rejected them, as he was near his end. Eestless, and unwilling to acknowledge to himself or others the decay of nature, he wandered from place to place, and finally ended his life at a villa near the promontory of Misenum, on the seven teenth, according to Tacitus and Suetonius, or, according to DIo, the seventh, before the calends of April, in the consulship of Cneius Acerronius Proculus and Caius Pontius Nigrinus. The latter date may be attributed to carelessness, and the former, being supported by two such eminent historians. Is probably correct. We may therefore consider the sixteenth of March, and not the twenty-sixth of that month, aa the day of his death, in the year 4749 of the Julian period ; in the third year of the 203d olympiad ; thirty-six days before the end of the 788th year of Eome; the 81st year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar ; and the 36th year of the Dionysian or common Christian sera. As he was born on the six teenth of November, a.j.p, 4671, he completed his 78th year on the sixteenth of November, a.j.p. 4748, and the fourth month of his 79th year on the day of his death. Dio, of course, makes his life ten days longer. If we date from February a.j.p. 4723, when ' Dio, H, E. lib, !vui. 24. ' Dio, lib, lviii. 25. ' Lib. vi, 20. 34 266 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [part r. he was associated with Augustus, he reigned twenty-six years, one month, and 16 days; If from the death of Augustus, August 19th,. A,j,p, 4726, twenty-two years, six months, and twenty-six days ; or according to Dio, twenty-two years, seven months, and seven days. Clemens of Alexandria, who fiourished at the end of the second and beginning of the third century, and was one of the most learned; writers of his age, says that Augustus reigned 43 years, Tiberius 22, Caius 4, &e. And then he adds : Some compute the times of the Eoman emperors thus ; Caius Julius Csesar 3 years, 4 monthg^', 6 days ; after whom, Augustus reigned 46 years, 4 months, and 1 day; then Tiberius, 26 years, 6 months, 19 days. Caius Gsesar succeeded him, 3 years, 10 months, 8 days, &c.' - We shall have occasion hereafter to revert to this testimony, as to the double computation of the reign of Tiberius. The object of Introducing it here is to show, that while it Is correct as to the number of years, it is undoubtedly Incorrect as to the months and days. If the period mentioned by Clemens were correct, then, by subtracting it from the date of the death of Tiberius, we should- arrive at the date of his association with Augustus as colleague of the empire. Taking the two dates of his death given by the his torians, we shall find that six months and nineteen days amount to exactly 200 days ; and that they lead back from the 16th of March to the 28th of the preceding August, and from the 26th of March; to the 7th of the preceding September, a.j.p. 4748 ; from which, subtracting 26 solid years, we arrive at the 28th of August, or the 7th of September, a.j.p. 4722, as the commencement of his associate, reign. Ace. to Tac. & Suet. /¦Aug. 28 to Sep. 27 im. Sep, Mar. 16 Mar. 26 „¦ /Peb, 28 Feb, 28 ' ¦s Jan. 31 Jan, 31 a ao Dec. 31 Deo, 31 £¦ S Nov. 30 Nov. 30 PH •X Oct. 31 Oc. 31 '^ VSep, 30 Sep. 23 Aug, 3 200 200 E 28 Oct. 28 Nov, 28 Dec. 28 Jan, 28 \Feb, 25 Oct, 27 1 Nov. 27 1 Dec, 27 1 Jan, 27 1 Feb, 24 1 Mar. 16 19A 6 19 From Aug. 28, a.j.p. 4722 Accovdiug to Dio. /Sep. 7 to Oct, 6 Oct, Nov, Dec, Jan. Feb, Mar, Nov. 6 Dec, 6 Jan, 6 Feb, 6 Mar, 6 Mar. 26 \m111 11 19d. 6 19 From Septemb. 7, a.j.p, 4722. 4748— 26=4722.— Aug, 28 or Sep, 7, But the year 4722 of the Julian period was, as we have seen in ' Strom, lib, i, 339. Ed, Potter, tom, i, p, 406. CHAP, xl] , UNTIL HIS DEATH. 267 the last chapter^ the consulship of Dolabella, and SilanuS ; and the narrative of Suetonius makes it certain that Tiberius spent the whole of that year in Germany. The decree of the senate associating him with Augustus, was passed not long after his triumph and dedication of the temples of Concord and of Castor and Pollux; all which events, as we learn from the Prsenestine calendar, took place in the month of January, a.j.p. 4723.* The reign of Tiberius being now brought to a close, and all the dates important to our purpose examined and adjusted, I shall end the present chapter with the masterly delineation of his character by the Greek historian, to whose accuracy and fidelity I am so nauch Indebted. " Tiberius," says Dio, " was of a patrician family, and well in structed ; but his natural disposition was peculiar. He never said what he desired, and he never desired what he said. His words were always in direct opposition to his preferences. All that he longed for, he denied; all that he hated, he offered. When irritated to the least possible degree, he was in a passion ; and when he felt the greatest indignation, he seemed most moderate. He showed compassion for those whom he punished most severely, and he raged most against those whom he pardoned. The man whom he most hated, he treated, when he saw him, with the most familiarity; and towards him whom he most loved, he conducted himself as if he were the greatest stranger. To sum up the whole, he thought It unworthy of an absolute ruler to make manifest his thoughts ; for the discovery of them produced many and great mischiefs, while the concealment led to many more and greater advantages. If this, however, had been all, it would not have been necessary for those * Pagi assuming the computation men- out; audit obliged him to consider the tioned by Clemens to be correct, dates testimony of Velleius Paterculus and Sue- the decree of the senate from the fifth tonius as contradictory, when in fact they before the kalends of September, or the are in perfect harmony, — See Pagi Critioa 28th of August, in the year ten of the in Annales C, Baronii Antwerp. 1727, 4 Dionysian aera, A.u.c. 763, which he tom. fol. tom. 1, ad. ann. xi. J. C. p. 10. wrongly names the consulship of Dola- The object of the present work is not, bella and Silanus. The decree did indeed like that of Pagi, to attack error, but to take place in the tenth year of the Dio- establish truth. The former, by its almost nysian eera ; but being before the Parilia, interminable labour, would disgust and it was in the year of Eome 762, and in weary; while the latter, though sometimes the consulship, not of Silanus and Dola- difficult, is always delightful. Let truth bella, but of Lepidus and Taurus, This be made conspicuous, and like the fabled mistake led the learned author into a goddess of wisdom be armed with her labyrinth of difficulties, which it would own segis, and she will altvays defend require much time and labour to point herself and turn her enemies into stone. 268 THE ASSOCL4TION OF TIBERIUS. [PART I. who came In contact with him to be on their guard ; for by taking all things In a sense precisely opposite, they would have judged equally, that he did not wish for that which he most ardently desired, and that he longed for that against which he declaimed most pointedly. But now, he was enraged, if any man showed that he comprehended his meaning ; and he put many to death against whom he had no other cause of reproach, than that they did com-' prehen(^hlm. It was, therefore, dangerous indeed not to under stand him at all, as they mistook who assented to many things which accorded with his speech but not his will ; yet It was much more dangerous to understand him, because they Avere suspected of scrutinizing the habits of his mind, and, on that account, to such a mind, became more odious. He alone, therefore. If I may so speak, lived through the danger (and such Instances were extremely rare), who neither exposed his natural character, nor was ignorant of it. Such were neither deceived by believing him, nor hated by showing that they understood what he was doing; for he manifested very great disturbance, whether any one opposed or assented to what he said. Whether, on the one hand, there was a desire to be sincere, or, on the other, to give a feigned opinion, he held such on either side to be entirely opposed to him; and, on this account, hated, the one for their truth, the other for their dli- elmulation."' 1 Dio. H. E. lib. Irii. 1. CHAP. XII.5 269 CHAPTER XII. ADJUSTMENT OF THE CHBONOLOGY FEOM THE DEATH OF TIBE^ EIUS TO THE YEAE WHEN CENSOEINUS WEOTE. The present chapter added in order to remove the difficulty occasioned by modern computations. — This done in two ways : first, by examining and adjusting the lists of consuls; and, secondly, by computing the reigns of the emperors. Section L List of consuls in inverted order from a.d. 238, the year in which Censorinus wrote, to a.d. 28, the consulship of the two Gemini, a period of 210 j-ears. The list of Cassiodorus found to have 211 pairs of consuls, or one too many; the lists of Ida tius and the Chronicon Paschale 208, falling short two. — The several lists compared, and each consulship adjusted to its proper year. In this manner, the error of the suppression of a consulship detected, a.d. 160; and this error the occasion of all the confusion. — Section II. Chronology of the emperors adjusted, from Caligula to the Maximiui. Sum of the reigns exhibited in a comparative table, showing the same result as that obtained by the series of consuls. Thus the whole series of chronology is adjusted, from the birth of Abraham to the year when Censorinus wrote ; after which, dates in general are so certain as to give little or no occasion for dispute. The period of Eoman history which it was proposed to consider, from the birth of Augustus to the death of Tiberius, has now been carefully surveyed. Where facts are found to arrange themselves so harmoniously, without any effort to support a system, or to weave a theory, there must be truth. As a luxated limb moves with pain and difficulty, but by a slight touch of the surgeon is restored to ease and vigour, so is it with chronology. To prove that we are well, we have only to get up and walk ; and the truth of chronology must be tested by the ease with which the events of history fall into their proper places! Nevertheless there is one difficulty remaining, which has, in fact, been the source of almost all the other difficulties and errors on this subject by which the minds of the learned have been bewildered and perplexed. It relates, indeed, to a subsequent period of history ; so that even if the difficulty were insurmount able. It would not in reality affect the truth of what has already been established. But the reader will, of course, be more tho roughly satisfied If the difficulty can be removed ; and that I shall now attempt. 270 FRO.M THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS " [pART I. In speaking of the Eoman year after Eomulus, under the kings and the republic,' it was stated on the admission of M. De la Nauze, that for at least one hundred and seven years before the reforma tion of the calendar by Julius Csesar, or from a.u.c 600, the consuls entered upon the duties of their office on the first of January. The office was held for one year, and consequently expired the last day of December. Hence it became the annual measure of time ; and as the Eoman writers In general speak familiarly of events as oc curring when such and such persons were consuls, it is impossible to state their course with accuracy until we have arranged and synchronized the series of consuls. But after the subversion of the republic, the consular office, which had been in fact an annual royalty, was degraded and cheapened. To the ambitious mind of Csesar, it seemed a bauble, to be put on and off as convenience or caprice dictated. The practice of substituting consuls for a few months, and even, as in the case of Rebilus, for a single day, was Introduced. The year. Indeed, was always designated by the names of the consuls who came Into office on the first of January, however short might be the term of their service. But the degra dation of the office naturally led to neglect ; and the frequency of change caused the care of recording to be less faithfully observed. The public Fasti consulares ended with the death of Augustus ; and after the death of Tiberius there was another change, which reached its height in the time of Claudius. The office was usually held only for two months ; so that there were often twelve consuls in the space of a single year. Hence events occurring in different months of the same year, might be mentioned as occurring under different consuls. Another source of error likely to affect modern critics, would be the possession of several names by the same consul, and the omission of one or other of these names by different writers, or by the same writer in different places. This the reader must have ialready observed in the series of consuls from the birth of Augustus to the death of Tiberius. With these prelimind,ry observations, I proceed to compare the lists of consuls given by Cassiodorus, Victorius, Idatius, and the Chronicon Paschale. The list from Dion Cassius is discontinued, because it extends only seventeen years after the death of Tibe rius ; and the list annexed to Xiphilinus appears to be the labour ' Chap. iii. see, 2, p. 71. CHAP. XIlJ to the tear WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE, 271 of the modern editor, and therefore not of equal authority with the former. In lieu of it I insert the list of Victorius, which extends from A.D. 28 to A.d. 457, or from the consulship of the two Gemini to that of Constantinus and Eufus, the year in which Victorius wrote. According to the system hitherto pursued, I take a point of time, in the first place, concerning which there can be no dispute. Cen sorinus states that "the index and title" of the year in which he wrote, was " the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus," and that it was " the thousand and fourteenth year from the first Olympiad," ......" the nine hundred and ninety first year from the building of Eome," "the two hundred and eighty-third of those- years to which the name of Julian is given, reckoning from the first of January which Julius Csesar made the beginning of the year con stituted by him.'" It has been shown by the tables (chap. v. sec. 2, p. 147), that the year in question coincided with a,j,p. 4951, A.D. 238. From that year, therefore, the four lists are here given in Inverted order, and are continued back not only to the consulship of Acerronius Proculus and Pontius Nigrinus, in which Tiberius died, but also to that of the two Gemini, which, as we have seen in the preceding chapter, corresponded with a,j,p. 4741, a.d. 28. In the list from the Chronicon Paschale, it has not been thought necessary to add the Olympiads therein given, because they are manifestly erroneous ; but the Indictions have been inserted, be cause they show that the original order of the compiler has been preserved, and they enable us to ascertain the exact number of years in which the manuscript is defective. When these lists are thus laid before the reader, he will at once see the nature of the difficulties, and be enabled to appreciate pro perly the critical remarks which will be then subjoined, and of which the object will be to reduce the whole series to its true order. It may be proper heie to observe, that as Cassiodorus was consul in a.d. 514, and Victorius wrote in a.d, 457, it is probable that Cas siodorus was acquainted with the list of Victorius, and that both drew from the same sources. It will be perceived, on comparison, that the two lists generally agree, though there Is sufficient difference to show that both are independent. ' Chap. 1, sec. 3, p. 34. 272 LIST OF CONSULS, [part t Years J.Cbrs 4961 4950 4949 4948 4947 4946 4945 4944 4943 4942 494] 4940 283 282 281 ;J8o 279 278 277 276 376274 273 272 Cassiodorus. 4939 4938 4937 4936 4935 49344933 4932 271 238 237 236 235 234 233 232 231230 229 228 227 226 270 269 268 267 266 265 264 225 224 PiusProculus Perpetuus Cornelianus Maximinus Africanus SeverusQuinctianus Maximus ii Urbanus Maximus Paternus LupusMaximusPompeianus FelicianusGratus Seleucus Alexander iii DioModestusProbus AlbinusMaximus Annianus Maximus Alexander n Marcellus Fuscus Dexter 223 222 221 220 219 Virtoriua. Julianus Crispinus Maximus iElianus Alexander -AugustusCratusSeleucus Antoninus iii Cumazon Ulpio Pio ProculoPerpetuoCorneliano Maximo al. Maxim ino Africano Severe Quintiano Maximo ii Urbano Maximo Paterno LupoMaximo PompeianoFelicia no GratoSeleucoAlexandre in Dione celebri Modesto Probo Albino Maximo Auniano Maximo Alexandre ii Marcello Fusco Dextro Juliano Crispino Maxime.Sliano Alexandre Augusto Grate SeleucoAntonino lu Comazonte Idatius. PioPontiano PerpetuoCornelianoMaximo in Africano SeveroQuintianoMaximo ii Urbano MaximoPaterno Lupo Maximo Pompeiano Peligiano AgricolaClemente Alexandre in DioneModesto ProboAlbinoMaxime Alexandre ii Marcello FuscianoDextro Fabiano Crispino Maximo ii Mliano Antonino iv Alexandro GratoSeleuco Antonino in Comazonte Antonino ii Sacerdote ChranicoQ Paschale. . Ulpicio Pontiane Perpetuo '¦^ Cernelio Maximo vi Africano SeveroQuintiano Maximo v 1" UrbanoMaxime IV ^ Paterno Lupo " Maxime in _ Pompeiano Pelegeniano AgricolaClemente Alexandro m ° Dione Modesto * Probo Albino Maximo ii Alexandre ii ^ MarcelloFusciano ^ Dextro Flaviano Crispino . . Maximo ^¦^ jEliano . „ ,\ut. Augusto II Alexandro Giato Seleuce AntoninoComazonte .- Ant. Augusto VI Sacerdote CHAP. XII.] IN INVERTED ORDER. 273 Yeai-s J. Cses 4931 4930 4929 4928 492749264925 4924 4923 4922 4921 49204919 4918 4917 4916 4915 4914 4913 4912 263 262 261260 259 258 257 256 255254 253 252 251250 249 248 247 246 245244 218 217 216 215 214213212 211210209'208 207 206205 204203 202 201 200 199 Cassiodorus. Antoninus ii SacerdosAntoninusAdventus PriEsens Extricatus Sabinus ii Venustus LsBtus Caerealis Messala Sabinus Antoninus iv Balbinus The two Aspri Gentianus Bassus FaustinusRufus Pompeianus Avitus Antoninus in Geta III AperMaxfmus Albinus jElianus Antoninus ii Geta II CiloLibo GetaPlautianus Severus iii Antoninus Fabianus Mucianus SeveiTis II Victorinus Antonino ii Sacerdote Antonino Advento PraasenteExtricato Sabino ii Veuusto Lseto Cereale MessalaSabino Antonino Balbino Duobus Aspris GentianoBasso Faustino Rufino Pompeiano Avito Antonino in Geta III Apro Maximo Albino jElianoAntonino n Geta II Chilone Libone Geta PlautianoSevero in .intonino Fabiano Mutiano Severo ii Victerine Idatius, AntoninoAdventoPraesente Extricato Sabino Anullino LaetoCereale Messala SabinoAntonino iv Balbino Duobus Aspris GentianoBasso FaustinoRufino Pompeiano Avito Antonino in Geta III Apro Maximo AlbinoEmiliano Antonino ll Geta II ChiloneLibonePlautiano n Geta Severo iii AntoninoMucianoFabianoSevero ii Victorino Anullino Frontone Chronioon Paschale. Q Ant. Augusto V Advento Praesente Extricate Sabino ii Anulino LentuloCereali Messala Sabine , Ant. Augusto IV ¦* Albino ., Apro II Apro 2 Gentiano Basso , Faustino Rufino ,. Pompeiano Avito 14 Antonino in Geta in 13 ^P™. Maxime 12 11 10 AlbinojEmiliano Antonino n Geta II Chilone Libone Plautiano Geta n Severe Augusto in Antonino „ Muciano Fabiano g Severo Augi.sto ii Victorino . Anullino Frontone 35 274 LIST OF CONSULS, [part I 4911 49104909 4908 4907 4906 4906 49044903 4902 49014900 4899 4898 4897 4896 4895 4894 4893 4892 Years J.C1B8 243242241 240239 238237236 235 234 233 232 231 230 229 228 227 226 226 224 198197 196 195 194 193 192 191 190 189188 187 186 185 184183 182 181 180 179 Annulinus Fronto SatuminusGallus LateranusRuffinus Dexter PriscusTertullusClemens SeverusAlbinusFalce Clams Commedus vn Pertinax Apronianus Bradua Commodus vi Septimianus The two Silani Fuscianus Silanus Crispinus .illianusCommodus v Glabrio Maternus BraduaMarullus .^lianus Commodus iv Victorinus MamertinusRufus Commodus in Byrrhus PrsBsensGordianus Anulino FrontoneSaturninoGallo Laterano ^ Rufino Dextro Frisco Tertullo Clemente SeveroAlbinoFalconeClaro Commode vn PertinaceApronianoBradua Commedo vi Septimiano Duobus Silanis FuscianoSilano Crispino .SllianoCommode v Glabrione Materne Bradua MaruUo .SllianoCommedo iv Victorino Mamertino Rufo Commodo in Byrrho I PraesenteGordiano Idatius. SaturnineGalloLaterano RufinoDextro PrisceTertullo Clemente Severo II Albino FlacconeClaro Commedo vn Pertinace Aproniano BraduaCommodo vi Septimiano Duobus Silanis Fusciano Silano Crispino .iEliano Commedo v Glabrione MaternoBradua Marullo Mlia-uoCommodo iv Victorino Mamertino Rufo Commedo in Byrro Praesente Condiano Commode 11 Vero Chronicon Paschale. . Saturnine * Gallo „ Laterano Rufino „ Dextro '^ Prisce J Tertullo Clemente , , Severo Augusto Sabine 14 Flacco Claro ,g Com. Augusto vn Pertinace j2 Com. Augusto vi Septimiano n Fusciano Silano .Q Crispino Jiliapo g Com. Augusto T Glabrione Q Materno Bradua _ Marcello .£liane g Com. Aiiguste iv Victorino g MamertinoRufo in ^ Com. Augusto III Vero II o Pra^ente Gordiano 2 Com. Augusto n Vero , Orphite iv Rufo II IJ, Commodo Quintillo CHAP. XIlJ IN INVERTED ORDER- 275 Tears J.Cffis 4891 4890 4889 4888 48874886 4886 4884 48834882 4881 48804879 4878 4877 4876 4875 4874 4873 4872 223 222 221 220 219218 217 216216214213 212 211 210 209 208207206205 204 178 177 176 176 174173 172171 170169168167 166 165164 163 162 161 160 159 Cc^sibdorus. Commodus 1 1 Verus II OrfitusRufiisCommodus Quinctilius PollioAper Pise Julianus . Gallus FlaccusSeverus n Pompeianus, Orfitus MaximusSeverus HerennianusCethegus Clarus Priscus Apoillinaris Apronianus Paullus Verus III Quadratus Pudens n Pollio OrfitusPudens MacrinusCelsus L. .3i;iianus Paster RusticusAquilinus Thetwo.iugusti Antoninus v Aurelius in Victorius. Commodo ii Vere ii Orfito Rufo Commodo Quinctillo PoUieneApio al. Aspro Pisone Juliano Gallo Flacco Severo n Pompeiano Orfito Maxime Severe Terentiano al. Herenniano Cethego Claro Prisco Appjlinare Aproniano PauloVero rv Quadrato Pud,ente n PellioneOrfito PudenteMacrinoCelso Juliano al. L. jEliano Pa store Rustico Aquiline Duobus AugustisAntonino vi Aurelio iv al. P.C, V et in Idatius, Cbroi^ifiop Paschale, OrfitoRufo CommodoQuintillo Pollione Apro Pisone Juliano GalloFlaccoSevero n Pompeiano Orfito Maximo SevereHerenniano CethegoClaroPrisce Apojlenare Aproniano Paujo Vero III QuadratoPudente PollioneOrfitoPud,ente Macrino Cels,o LaelianoPastoreRufino .lEquilino Antonino v AurelioCaes.Duob.Aug.Bradua Vero Quintillo Prisce 14 Pollione Apro , „ Orphito ^"^ Rufo 12 H Gallo FlaccoSevero ii Pompeiano ,. OvphitoMaximo q SevereHerenniano „ Cethego ** Claro _ PriscoApoUinari „ Aproniano " Paulo ', Mar. Aur, Vero in Quadrato , Pudente n * Pollione „ OrphitoPudente n Macrino Celso I jEliano PastofeRusticio Aquiline Marco Aur. Vero Lu, Com. Aug, III Marco Aur. Vero Lu. Com, Aug, II Bradua Vero Quintillo PriscoTertullo Sacerdote 15 14 13 12 11 10 276 LIST OF CONSULS, [part I. Years J.Cajs 4871 48704869486848674866 4866 48644863 4862 4861 4860 •1859 4868 4857 4856 4855 4854 4853 203 202 201200 199 198 197196195194 193 192191 190 189 188187 186 185 48621184 158 157 156 165 164163152 161150149148 147 146145 144 143 142 141 140 139 Cassiodorus. Verus II BraduaQuinctilius Priscus Tertullus Sacerdos Barbatus Regulus Silvanus Augurinus VerusSabinusCommodusLateranusPrajsensRufus Glabrio ii Homulus [Romulus?] GordianusMaximus Glabrio Vetus OrfitusPrisonsTorquatus in Julianus • Largus Messalianus Antoninus iv Aurelius ii GratusSeleucus Antoninus in Aurelius AviolaMaximus Torquatus ii Herodes Rufinus Torquatus Victorius. Antonino v Aurelio in Vero II Bradua Quintillo PriscoTertulloSacerdoteBarbate al. Barbaro Regulo Silvano AugurineVeto Sabine Commodo Laterano Praesente Rufino al. Rufo Glabrione n Romulo al. Hemulo Gordiano MaximeGlabrione Vetere OrfitoPrisco Torquato in Juliano LargeMessalianoAntonino iv Aurelio ii Grato Seleuce Antonino in Aurelio AviolaMaximo Torquato n H erode Tulle Sacerdote Barbate Regulo Silvano Augurino Severe Sabiniane Commode Laterano PrsesenteRufinoGlabrione II Humillio Gordiano Maximo Glabrione Vetere Orfito Prisco Torquato Juliano LargoMessalino Claro SevereAntonino iv Aurelio n AvitoMaximoTorquato ^el•ode Rufino Quadrato Severo Silvano Antonino in Aurelio Antonino ii Praesente Chronicon Paschale.' g Barbaro Regulo o Silano Augurino „ Severe vi Sabiniano „ Commedo Laterano , PraesenteRufino . Glabrione J » Jumilio „ Cordiano Maximo 2 Glabrione Vetere , Oi'phito Prisco je Torquato n Juliano 14 Largo Messalino 13 12 11 Severo v VerineAnt. Augusto IU Aureliano ll Aviola Maximo .„ Torquato Herode Q Rufino Quadrato „ Severe iv Silano Ant. Augusto n 7 Marco Aur. Vera, filio ejus „ Ant. Augusto PrsBsente , CamerinoNigro CHAP . XII •J IN INVERTED ORDER. 27 7 A.J.P. yearsI. Cups 183 A.D. 138 Cassiodorus. Victorius. Idatius. Chronicon Paschale, 4851 Severus Sylvanus RufinoTorquato Camerino Nigro . jEliane ^ Balbino 4850 182 137 Antoninus n Praesens ii SeveroSylvano Caesare ii Balbino „ CommedoPontiano in 4849 181 136 Antoninus Praesens Antonino n Praesente ii Commedo Pompeiano 2 Pontiane ii Aquilino 4848 180 136 CamerinusNiger Antonino Prajsente PontianoAquiline Rufo , Severo ^ Varo 4847 179 134 L. jElius Balbinus CamerinoNigro Severo in Varo ., Tiberio Sisinne 4846 178 1.33 Pompeianus ii Commodus Laelio al. L, ^lie Albino Hibero Sisenna , . Augurino Sergiane 4845 177 132 PompeianusAtilianus Pompeiano ii Commodo Auguriano Sergiano ,„ Pontiano ^^ Rufo 4844 176 131 Sergianus ii Verus Pompeiano Attiliano Pontiane Rufo J 2 Catullino Libone u 4843 175 130 HiberusSilanus Sergiane ii Vetere al, Vero Catullino Libone ,, Marcello ' Celso 4842 174 129 Augurinus Sergianus Tiberio al, Hi- berte Silano Marcello Celso .. Torquato Libone 4841 173 128 PontianusRufinus AugurinoSergiane Torquato Libone „ Titiane Gallicano 4840 172 127 CelsusMarcellinus CelsoMaicellino Titiane Gallicano g Severo in Amfigulo 4839 171 126 Torquatus Libo VetereValente Vere in .Ambigule 7 AsiaticoAquilino 4838 170 125 GallicanusTitianus TorquatoLibone AsiaticoAquilino g Glabrione Torquato 4837 1 169 124 VerusAmbiguus GallicanoTitiane Glabrione Torquato - Aproniano ii Pampino 4836 168 123 AsiaticusQuintus Vere Ambiguo .ApronianoPanpino . Aviola Pansa 4835 167 122 Glabrio Apronianus Asiatico Quinto Aviola Pansa „ Severo il Augurino 4834 166 121 PateiTius Torquatus GlabrioneAproniano Vere ii Augure ,-, Severe •^ Fulco 4833 165 120 AviolaPansa Pateme Torquato Severe ii Fulgo J jEI. Hadr. Aug, Rusticio 11 4832 164 119 VerusAugur AviolaPansa Hadriano iv Rustico ^5 Ml. Hadr, Aug, Salinatore 278 LIST OF CONSOLS, [part I. A.J.P. 4831 4830 4829 48284827 4826 4825 4824 48234822 4821 4820 4819 48184817 4816 4815 48144813 Tears J.Cffis 163 162 161 160 159 158 157 156155154 153 1.52 151150 149148 147 146 145 118117 116115114 113 112 111110 109 108 107 106105104 103 102 101 100 CassicMioras. CatiliusFulvius Hadrianus ii Rusticus Hadrianus SalinatorClarus Alexander NigerApronianus.JimiliusVetuS MessallaPedo Asta Piso Celsus Crispinus Trajanus vii Africanus Piso Rusticus Crispinus ii Solenus Africanus CrispinusGallus Bradila Senecio iv Sura III Commedus CerealisCandidusQuadratus Urbanus Marcellus Senecio ni Sura II Vero Augure Servilio(Catilio) FulvioHadiiano li Siliano (Rustico) HadrianoRustico al. Salinatore ClareAlexandro NigroAproniano ;Emilio Vetere Messala Pedone AstaPisoneCelso CrispinoTrajane vn AfricanoPisoneRusticoCrispino Seleno AfricanoCrispinoGalldBraduaSenetione iv Sura tii ColnmedoCei'ekteCandidoQuadrato UrbanoMarcello Idatius. Hadriano Salinatore Aproniano Nigro Eliano Vetere Messala Pedone Malsa Volciso Celso II Prisciano ii Trajane vi Anfricano Pisone Juliano Orfito PriscianoPalma ii TuUd Gallo Bradua Syra in Senecione n CoinlnedoCereali Candido iI Quadrato Suburano n Marcello Trajano v Maximo Severiano SirioTrajano iv PeteTrajano in Pontine Chronicon Paschale. ,. Apronino ''* Nigro „ iEliano ^'' Vetere ,„ Messala *^ Podone .. Malso Bulcisco ,- Prisciano ^" Celso _ Trajane Augusto? Africano „ Pisoiie Juliano _ OrphitoPrisciano Palma •^ TuUo , Gallo " Bradua . Syriano in Senecione „ CommodoCeretano 2 Candido Quadrato . Syriano ii Marcello in 15 Tr^ianoMaximo , . Syriano '^ Syrio ijano Aug in yano AUj 12 .V 13 ^™J^ '"^ Peto ,„ Trajano A Pontiano . , Palma Senecione Aug, n CHAP, xn.] IN INVERTED ORDER. 279 A.J.P. Years J.ClES 144 A.D. 99 Cassiodorus, Victorias, Idatius. Chroilicon Paschale. 4812 Trajanus vi Maximus Senetione in Sura n Palma Senecio ,Q Trajano Augusto sole 1811 143 98 Senecio n Sura Trajano vi Maxiilo Nerva iv Trajano n „ Nerva Augusto " Tito Rufo III 1810 142 97 Trajanus v Orfitus Senetione- II Sura Nerva in Rufo in „ Valente ** Vetere 4809 141 96 Trajanus iv Frento Trajano v Orfito Valente Vetere „ Domitiano xiv Clemente n 4808 140 95 Senecio Palma Trajano iv Frontone Domitiano xiv Clemente g Asprenate Laterano 4807 139 94 Nerva in Trajanus in Senetione Palma Asprenate Laterano g Dom, Aug, xin Flavio Clemente 4806 138 93 Sabinus Antoninus Nerva in Trajano in Pompeiano Prisciano .~ PompeioCrisiiino 4805 137 92 Fulvius Vetus Sabino ' Antonino Domitiano xm Sturnino „ Dom, Aug, XII Saturnino 4804 136 91 Nerva ii Rufus Flavio al, Fulvio VeterO GrabrioneGralano 2 GlabrioneTrajano 4803 135 90 Domitian us ix Clemens n Nerva ii Rufo Domitiano xn Nerva ii , Dem, Augusto x Nerva 4802 134 89 AsprenasClemens Domitiano ix Clemente n Fulvio Atratino ' ,, Fulvio II Atratino 4801 133 88 Silvanus jPriscus AsprenateClemente Domitiano xi Rufo , . Dom, Augusto X '* Tito Rufo 4800 132 87 Domitianus vm Satuminus SilvanoPrisco Domitiano x Saturnine jQ Dom. Augusta ix Saturnino 4799 131 86 Trajanus ii Glabrio Domitiano vm Saturninp Domitiano ix Dolabella ,„ Dom, Augusto VIII ^^ Dolabella 4798 130 85 Domitianus vn Nerva TrajanoGlabrione Domitiano vin Fulvio , , Dem, Augusto vn ^^ Fulvio 4797 129 84 Flavins Trajanus Domitiano vn Nerva Domitiano vn Sabino ii ,„ Dom, Augusto vi '" Sabino 4796 128 83 Domitianus vi Rufus IV / FlavioTrajano Domitiano vi Rufo „ Dom, Augusto v ^ Tito Rufo 4795 127 82 Domitianus v Dolabella Domitiano vi Rufino Domitiano v Sabino a Dom, Augusto iv ** Sabine 4794 126 81 Domitianus lv Rufus lu Domitiano v Dolabella. Galva Pollione 7 Galba Pollione 280 LIST OF CONSULS. [part I, A.J.P. Years. J.Cffis A.D. 4793 125 80 4792 124 79 4791 123 78 4790 122 77 4789 121 76 4788 120 75 4787 119 74 4786 118 73 4785 117 72 4784 116 71 4783 115 70 4782 114 69 4781 113 68 4780 112 67 4779 111 66 4778 110 65 4777 109 64 4776 108 63 4775 107 62 Cassiodorus. Domitianus in Sabinus Domitianus ii Rufus II Domitianus MessalinusSilvanus VerusVespasianus ix Titus VIII Vespasianus vn i Titus VII Commodus Rufus Vespasianus vn Titus VI Vespasianus vi Titus V Vespasianus v Titus IV Vespasianus iv Titus in Vespasianus i i NervaVespasianus ii Titus II Vespasianus TitusSilvanus Otho ItalicusTurpilianus Capito RufusTelesinus AppuleiusSylvanus Paullinus Domitiano iv Rufo in Domitiano in Sabino Domitiano n Rufo n DomitianoMessaliano SilvanoVero Vespasiane ix Tito VIII Vespasiane vm Tito vn Commedo Rufo Vespasiane vn Tito VI Vespasiane vi Tito V Tito IV Vespasiane iv Tito HI Vespasiane in NervaVespasiane n Tito II Vespasiane TitoSylvanoOthoneItalico TurpilianoCapitoneRufo Celsino al. Telesino Apuleio Tito VII Domitiano iv Vespasiano ix Tito VI Vespasiano vm Domitiano m Vespasiano vn Titev Vespasiano vi Tito IV Vespasiano v Tito III Domitiano ii Messalino Vespasiano iv Tito II Vespasiano in Nerva Vespasiano ii solo. Galba n Tito Rufino Italico TrahaloCapitone RufoTelesino PaulinoHelva VestineCrasso Basse RufoRegula Mario Gallo Lacie Turpiniano Chronicon Paschale. „ Tito Augusto VII Domitiano in , Tito VI Domitiano n . Vespa, Aug, vn * Tito V „ Vespa, Augusto vi Tito IV 2 Vespa, Augusto v Tito III DomitianoMessalino J. Vespa, Augusto iv Tito II , . Vespa, Augusto 111 ^* Tito ,„ Vespa, Augusto ii Nerva 12 Vespasiane solo Galba 11 10 Tito Rufino Italico Trachano „ Capitone ^ Rufo CHAI . XII •J IN INVERTED ORDER, 281 A J.p, Xears J.Cffis A.D. Cassiodorus. Victorius. Idatius. Chronicon Paschale. 4774 106 61 Crassus Bassus Sylvano Paulino Nerone iv Lentulo 2 4773 105 60 Macrinus Gallus Crasso Basso Aproniano Capitone 1 i772 104 69 PiusTurpilianus MacrinoGallo Nerone iii Messal.Corvino 15 1771 103 58 Nero IV Cornelius PioCarpiliano al. Turpiliano NcMue II Pisone 14 1770 102 57 Nero III Messalla Nerone iv Comelio Saturnino Scipione 13 4769 101 56 Nero n Piso Nerone in Messala Nerone Vetere 12 4768 100 55 Nero Vetus Nerone n Pisone Marcello Aviola 11 1767 99 54 Marcellinus Aviola Nerone Vetere Silano Antonino 10 4766 98 53 Silanus n Antoninus n Marcellino Aviola SyllaCatone 9 4765 97 62 Silanus Otho Silano Antonino Claudio Orfito 8 4764 96 51 Tiberius in Antoninus SilanoOthone Vetere Nerviniano 7 4763 95 50 SilvanusSilvius Tiberio in Antonino Veriano Gallo 6 4762 94 49 Claudius Orfitus SylvanoSilvio Vitellio IV Publicola 5 4761 93 48 VetusServilianus Claudio Orfito Claudio IV Vitellio III 4 4760 92 47 Veranuins Gallus VetereNeviliano Asiatico Silano 3 Asiatico Silano 4759 91 46 Vitillius II Publicola Verannie Gallo Vinitio Corvine „ Vinnicio Corvine 4758 90 45 Tiberius n Vitellius Vitellio II Publicola Crispe n Tauro J Crasso Tauro 4767 89 44 AsiaticusCornelius Tiberio n Vitellio Claudio III Vitellio , , Claudio Cajsare ? '" Vitellio 4756 88 43 Vinicius Cornelius Asiatico Silano Claudio 11 Larbo . . Claudio Csesare iv '^ Largo 36 282 LIST OF CONSULS [PAHT I. A.J.P.' ^ Yearsr.Cais 87 A.D. 42 Cassiodorus. Victorius. Idatius. ChrOnicon Paschale, 4755 Cri.spinus Taurus Vinicio Cornelio Csesare iv Antonino .„ Claudio Csesare in Antonino 4754 86 41 TiberiusGallus CrispoTauro CiBsare in sole ,„ Claudio Cssare n ^¦^ solo 4753 85 40 Secundus Venustus Tiberio Gallo Caesare n CsBsiano . , Claudio Caesare Cersiano 4752 8-4 39 Csesar n Satuminus Secundo Venusto JulianoAsprenate .„ Juliano Asprenate 4751 83 38 CsesarJulianus Caesare n Saturnine Proculo Nigrino „ ProculoNigrino 4750 82 37 Publicola Nerva Csesare Juliano EmilianoPlautio Q Leliano ** Plauto 4749 81 36 Julianus Asprenas PublicolaNerva GalloNonniano _ Gallo Nonniano 4748 80 35 Proculus Nigrinus Juliano Asprenate Persico Vitellio Pulo -. Galba ** Sulla 4747 79 34 Galienus Plautianus Proculo Nigrino Galba Libolo Sylla g Aruntio Aenobarbo 4746 78 33 Gallus Nonianus Galliene Plautiano Aruntio Ahenobarbo . Persico * Vitellio 4745 77 32 PersicusVitellius Gallo Noniane Tib. Csesare iv solo g Tiberio Csesare v solo 4744 1 76 31 Sulpicius Silla Prisco Vitellio Vinicio Longino Cassio „ Vennicio Longino 4743 75 30 Vinicius Longinus Sulpitie Sylla RufoRubellione , Rufo Rubellino 4742 74 29 Tib. Csesar v * * * Vinicio Longino Silano Nerva . , GemineGemino 4741 73 28 M. Vinicius L, Cassius C, Rubellius C. Fufius duobus Geminis RufiinoRubellio Crasso Pisone Getulio Sabine , . Silano Nerva .„ Crasso '•* Pisone CHAP. XII.] FROM THE DEATH OP TIBERIUS. 2&3 If now we take a.j.p. 4741 from a.j.p, 4951, or a.d. 28 from a.d. 238, the difference is 210 years; and consequently excluding the consulship of A.D. 28, and including that of A.D. 238, there ought to be 210 pairs of consuls. Censorinus calls the con suls of A.D. 238, Ulpius and Pontianus ; by Cassiodorus they are called Pius and Proculus ; by Victorius, Ulpius Pius and Pro culus ; by Idatius, Pius and Pontianus ; by the Chronicon Pas chale, Ulpicius and Pontianus. This diversity may be easily recon ciled. Censorinus is certainly the best authority for the names of the consuls in the year in which he wrote. Ulpius might easily be changed into Pius or Ulpicius; and Proculus was probably the prsenomen of Pontianus. It has already been observed that the apparent discrepancy in the various lists of consuls often arises from this interchange of names belonging to the same individual. The consuls of a.d. 28, are rightly named by Cassiodorus, C. Rubellius, and C. Fufius. Both, as Tacitus asserts, had the cog nomen of Geminus.' But for Fufius, several authors read Rufus ; and he is thus called by Idatius, and in the Chronicon Paschale. Victorius calls him Rufinus. Their consulship is familiarly called that of the two Gemini : " Duobus Geminis Coss." This has led the Greek compiler into the egregious mistake of making two con sulships out of one, the former of which he calls Geminus and Geminus ; the latter, Rufus and Rubellinus. The extremes being now adjusted, we proceed to examine and compare the intervening series. Excluding the consulship of the two Gemini, we find, on count ing the lists, that Cassiodorus has given 211 ; Victorius, 210; and Idatius, 208. The list in the Chronicon Paschale is unfortunately defective ; but by means of the indictions we are enabled to ascer tain that exactly twenty years are missing. These, with the 171 preceding, and the 17 which follow to the consulship of Rufus and Rubellinus, make up 208. It is evident, therefore, that the num ber in the list of Victorius is right ; that in the list of Cassiodorus there is an excess of one, and in the two other lists a defect of two consulships. Hence a critical examination is necessary in order to correct these opposite errors. The names for the first eight years of the ascending series, from ' RubelHo et Fufio Consulibus, quorum utrique Geminus cognomentum erat. — Tac. Ann. V. 1. 284 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. A.D. 238 to 231 inclusive, are so nearly alike, that no doubt can be entertained of their identity. In the ninth of the series, a.d. 230, Cassiodorus and Victorius have inserted the names of Gratus and Seleucus. This is probably an error which has crept into the text ; for in the nineteenth of the series occur the names Cratus or Gratus and Seleucus, corres ponding with Gratus and Seleucus in the other lists. "We must therefore take for A.D. 230 the names of Agricola and Clemens, or rather, according to Muratori,' Clementinus. An inscription recorded by Gruter, p. 300, reads : L. VIRIO AGEICOLA ET SEXTO CATIO C INO COSS. . For the next three years, A.D. 229, 228, 227, the three lists agree. The consulship of a.d. 229 was filled by the emperor M. Aurelius Severus Alexander the third time, and the celebrated historian Dio or Dion Cassius, whose labours have been so useful in the pre sent work. He finished his history in this year. A.D. 226. Cassiodorus and Victorius insert Annianus and Maxi mus ; a consulship concerning which all others are silent. Annia nus may possibly have been a corruption of the preceding name, Albinus. Taking this out, and placing in its stead the consulship of the Emperor M. Aurelius Severus Alexander the second time, with C. Marcellus Quinctilianus, the four lists are again in accord ance ; and they so continue, with slight variations, to a.d. 222. In that year, the emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus Elagabalus Augus tus the fourth time, and M. Aurelius Severus Alexander Caesar, were consuls. The four lists are thus easily adjusted. A.D. 221. The consuls were Gratus Sabinianus and Seleucus. The name Sabinianus occurs in a fragment of Dion Cassius. The lists are thus harmonized to a.d. 217, when C. Bruttius Prfesens and T. Messius Extricatus were consuls, A.D. 216. Venustus, on the lists of Cassiodorus and Victorius, may possibly have been one of the names of AnuUinus. Muratori states that according to an ancient inscription preserved by Fa bretti, (p. 682), the names of the consuls were C. Atius Sabinus ii. and — — Cornelius Anulinus. For the next 53 years, a.d. 215-163, with some slight variations, occasioned, doubtless, by the carelessness of transcribers, Cassiodo- ' Sigon. Op. tom. i. col. 737. CHAP. Xn.1 TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 285 rus, Victorius, and Idatius are in harmony. So also are Idatius and the Chronicon Paschale, with similar exceptions, for twenty-four years, a.d. 215-192. The Chronicon Paschale then omits the con sulships of Apronianus and Bradua, and the two Silani, transposes those of Orfitus and Rufus, and Commodus and Quintilius, and omits altogether the consulship of Piso and Julianus. These cor rections being made, the four lists are in harmony to A.D. 163 inclusive. A.D. 162. Cassiodorus and Victorius are right in naming the consuls Rusticus and Aquilinus, and not Rufinus or Rusticius and Aquilinus, as in the other lists. " This appears," says Muratori, " from an ancient inscription recorded by Gruter," ' A.D. 161 — A.D. 160. The next two consulships in the ascending series, according to Cassiodorus, were, A.D. 161, the two Augusti; and A,D. 160, Antoninus v. and Aurelius iii. Victorius, beside the two Augusti, has inserted the consulships of Antoninus and Aure lius twice. Idatius has confounded the two consulships of the two Augusti, and Antoninus and Aurelius, blending them into one: "Antonino v. et Aurelio Cses. duobus Augustis." The Chronicon Paschale, on the other hand, distinguishes the two consulships, but confounds the persons; omitting the name of Antoninus, and sup posing both to have been borne by Marcus Aurelius the philosopher, and his colleague Lucius Verus: "A.D. 161 Marco Aurelio Vero et Lucio Commodo Augusto in. a.d. 160 Marco Aurelio Vero et Lucio Commodo Augusto ii." The modern critics, having mis taken the year of Julius Csesar's war in Spain, and placed that war one year later than it ought to be, have been obliged to omit one of these consulships. They have therefore neglected the testimony of Cassiodorus, and by comparing Idatius with the Chronicon Paschale, have thought to correct both by representing thus the consulship of a.d. 161: M. Aur. Verus Antoninus Cms. iii. dictus Philosophus. L. ^lius. Aur. Verus. Cass. ii. dictus etiam Commodus. They have therefore suppressed entirely the consulship of A.D. 160. Antoninus Pius Imp. Aug. v., and VM. .^lius Aurelius Caesar in., which are correctly stated by Cassiodorus. This important suppression, by which the whole consular chronology ' Gruter, p. 286, vu.; and p, 131, in. ap. Murat, Sigon. Op. 286 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [pART I. for more than two hundred years, from the time of Julius Caesar to the end of the reign of Antoninus Pius, has been thrown into dis order, will be more clearly illustrated when we come to consider the length of the several imperial reigns. In the meantime it may be well to insert here a passage from Spartian, in his life of .^lius Verus, the father of Lucius Antoninus Verus Commodus: "His son was that Antoninup Verus who was adopted by Mar cus. Verus certainly had an equal share with Marcus ia the government of the empire. For these are they who first were called THE TWO Augusti, and whose names are so enregistered in the con' sular fasti, that they are called not merely the two Antomni, but the TWO Augusti. The novelty and dignity of this thing hjtd so much authority, that some of the consular fasti took thepce the order of the consuls."' A.D. 159. Cassiodorus, Victorius, Idatius, and the Chronicon Paschale have Verus as the colleague of Bradua. Some ancient inscriptions read Varus ; and on their authority, Muratori adopts the latter. The names in full are, as given by him : " App. Annius Atilius Bradua, and T. Clodius Vibius Varus.''"' The next four in the series, from Quintilius and Priscus to Sil vanus and Augurinus, A.D. 158 to A-D. 155, occur in all the lists, with but slight variations. A.D. 154. The names of the consuls are written by Cassiodorus, Verus and Sabinus ; by Victorius, Vetus and Sa6in,y,s ; in the other two lists more correctly, Severus and Sabinianus. This appears from ancient inscriptions published by Panvinius and Gruter.^ The next eight years, from a.d. 153 to a.d. 146 inclusive, or from the consulship of Commodus and Lateranus to that of Largus and Messalinus, occur in all the lists, with slight variations as to orthography, but in the same order. A.D. 145, Clarus and Severus by Idatius, are omitted by Cassio dorus and Victorius, and written in the Chronicon Paschale, Severo v. et Verino. Reland, as quoted by Muratori, conjectures that the true names were Sextus Erucius Clarus and Cneius ClaVf- 1 Ejus filius est Antoninus Verus, qui hujus rei et novitas et dignitas valuit, ut adoptatus est a Marco. Verus certe cum fasti consulares nonnuUi ab his sumerent Marco aequale gessit imperium. Nam ipsi ordinem Consulum. — iElii Spartiani .Slius sunt qui primi duo Augusti appellati sunt: Verus, ap. Hist. Aug, Scriptores, ed. Sal- et quorum fastis consularibus sic nomina masius, Paris, 1620, fol. p. 16, prsescribuntur, ut dicantur non tantum duo " Sigon, Op, ed. Muratori, tom, i. col, 607. Antonini, sed duo Augusti: tantumque .CHAP. XH.] TO THE VEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 287 dius Severus. Spartian, in his life of Severus, says that he was born "Erucio Claro bis, et Severo Coss." A.D. 144. The consuls for thi§ year were evidently Antoninus Pius Imperator Augustus ir. and Marcus jFllius Aurelius Ccesar ii. Cassiodorus and Victorius have here inserted again the names of Gratus and Seleucus. This must be an error ; for no such consuls are spoken of elsewhere as existing at this time. They have also evidently transposed the consulship of Antoninus in, and Aurelius. These corrections being made, we may harmonize the lists as follows : A.D. 143. Avitus and Maximus. Cassiodorus, Victorius, and the Chronicon Paschale, read, Aviola and Maximus ; but this is proved to, be an error, by an inscription transcribed by Montfaucon, and published in his Diarium Italicum, p. 389-90, which reads in two places, 4VIT0 ET MAXIMO COS. The names at full length, according to other ancient inscriptions, are given by Muratori, on the authority of Panvinius and Gruter : P. Lollianus Avitus and C. Gavius Maximus. Others read, Claudius Maximus; but one ancient marble, as Muratori justly observes, is of more value than a hundred conjectures. A.D. 142. C. Bellicius Torquatus, and Tib. Claud. Attic. Herodes. In the inscription above referred to (Diar. Ital. p. 389) the consul ship immediately preceding that of Avitus and Maximus is, TOBQVATO ET ATTICO COS. A.D. 141. Coss. Rufinus and Quadratus. By an evident mistake (probably tlae reiteration of the preceding name by the copyist), he lists of Cassiodorus and Victorius read, Rufinus and Torquatus. An ancient inscription, given by Panvinius and Gruter, reads at full length, L. CUSPIVS EVPINVS ET L. STATIVS QVADEATVS. A.D. 140. Severus and Silvanus. Muratori thinks that all the three lists are here erroneous ; and on the authority of an ancient inscription given by Panvinius, and another by Gruter,' prefers to read, M. Peduceeus Syloga Priscinus and T. Hoenius Severus. A.D. 139. Antoninus Pius, Imp. Aug. in. and M, JEl. Aurelius Verus Cses. Coss. ' Gruter, p, 182, iv. ap. Murut, Sigon, Op, 288 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [pART I. A,D. 138. Antoninus Pius, Imp. Aug. ii. anJi Bruttius Praesens ii. Coss. We have now a collateral proof of the accuracy of this arrange ment afforded us by Censorinus ; for writing in the year 238 of the Christian sera, he says that the first day of the Egyptian month Thoth, which that year was on the seventh before the calends of July, or June 25, fell on the twelfth before the calends of August, or July 21st, " a hundred years ago, when the emperor Antoninus Pius, the second time, and Bruttius Praesens were consuls.' Cen sorinus made a mistake of one day in his calculations ; for in the year 138, the first of Thoth fell on the 20th of July; and it did not fall on the 21st of that month till a.d. 135, a,j,p. 4848, which was a leap-year. But this slight mistake does not affect the value of his testimony as to the fact that the consulship of Antoninus Pius II. and Bruttius Prsesens coincided with a.d. 138. A.D. 137. Cassiodorus and Victorius put as the next in order Antoninus and Praesens, the first time ; but in this they are unsup ported by any other authority. We follow, therefore, Idatius and the Chronicon Paschale, both of which put next in the ascending series to Antoninus Pius ii. and Bruttius Prassens, the names of Camerinus and Niger. A.D. 136. Cass, and Vict., L. -^lius and Balbinus ; Idat. Csesar ii. and Balbinus; Chron. Pasch,, ^lianus and Balbinus. All mean the same persons. Cejonius Commodus, called also JElius Verus, was adopted by Adrian, and received the title of Csesar. Accord ing to Spartian, he was first called Lucius Aurelius Verus, but being adopted by Adrian, he took the name of the emperor's family — ^JElius. From this, ^lianus is derived ; as from Octavius, Octa vianus. The names also occur in ancient inscriptions quoted by Panvinius, Gruter, and Fabretti, and, on their authority, are thus given by Muratori : L. ^lius Verus Csesar ii. and P. Ceelius Bal binus Vibulus. A.D. 135. Cass, and Vict., Pompeianus ii. and Commodus; Idat. Commodus and Pompeianus ; Chron. Pasch., Commodus and Pon tianus III. The prsenomina, nomina and cognomina of these consuls occur in several inscriptions, and are thus given by Muratori: L. Cejonius Commodus Verus and Sextus Vetulenus Civica Pompei- 1 Cum abhinc annos centum Imperatore iidem dies fuerint ante diem xii kai, Au- Antonino Pio n et Bruttio Praesente Coss, gust. — Cens. de Die Nat. cap. xxi. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 289 anus. L. Commodus Verus was this year adopted into the ^Elian family, by Adrian. A.D. 134. Cass, and Vict., Pompeianus and Atilianus; Idat., Pontianus and Aquilinus Rufus ; Chron. Pasch,, Pontianus ii, and Aquilinus. This diversity has given great trouble to modern chronologists. An ancient inscription produced by Fabretti' settles the question, so far as to one of the names of each : Pontianus and A tilianus A.D. 133. Cass., Sergianus ii. and Verus; Vict., Sergianus ii. and Vetus ; Idat., Severus iii. and Varus ; Chron. Pasch., Severus and Varus. They should be, C. Julius Servianus in. and C. Vibius Varus. Bianchini quotes an inscription from Gruter, p. 108-7 and p. 431-9. Another in Ciampini de Sacris -Sedibus, c. iv. p. SO ; and. another in Fabretti Inscrip. 509. A.D. 132. Cass., Hiberus and Silanus; Viet., Tiberius al. Hibertus and Silanus; Idat., Hiberus and Sisenna; Chron. Pasch., Tiberius and Sisinnus. These may be easily reconciled. Bianchini pro duces a marble inscription in the Albani museum, which reads, Antonius Hiberus Nummius Sisenna Coss. A.D. 131. Cass. Vict, and Chr. Pas., Augurinus and Sergianus;- Idat., Augurianus and Sergianus. Pliny the younger^ speaks of Sentius Augurinus. The modern critics are divided in opinion concerning the second consul ; some following our lists, and others preferring Severianus. A.D. 130. Cass., Pontianus and Rufinus ; omitted by Victorius ; Idat. and Chron. Pasch., Pontianus and Rufus. Panvinius pro duces an inscription which has, Ser. Octav. Laenas Pontianus. M. Antonius Rufinus Coss. A.D. 129. Idat., Catullinus and Libo ; Chr. Pas. CatuUinus and. Libo 11 ; Cassiodorus and Victorius wholly omit this consulship. Two inscriptions produced by Panvinius from Gruter, p. 108, num. vi., and Fabretti, p. 503, read, Q. Fabius Catullinus, M. Flavius Aper. Coss. A.D. 128. Cass, and Vict., Celsus and Marcellinus; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Marcellus and Celsus. Ulpian' speaks of Q. Julius Balbus and P. Juventius Celsus, Coss. These names occur in an inscription produced by Panvinius, which contains also the names 1 P. 509, ct de Col, Traj, p, 192, ' Epist. lib, iv. 27, ' Digest, v. tit. iii. 37 290 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [^ART I. of the consuls substituted in that year. Among these are C. Neratius Marcellus and Cn. Lollius Gallus. The critics infer, therefore, that the consuls and the substituted consuls of this year have been partially confounded. Hence they prefer to desig nate this year as the consulship of Q. Julius Balbus and P. Juven tius Celsus II. Victorius here inserts " Vetus and Valens," in which he is sup ported by no other authority. This being omitted, all the lists for the next two years are in harmony, a.d. ] 27, Torquatus and Libo. A.D. 126, Gallicanus and Titianus. M Annius Libo, Cos. is men tioned by Julius Capitolinus, in his life of the emperor Marcus Aurelius ; and an ancient inscription ' gives the names of //. Non. Aspr. Torquatus n. M. Annius Libo, Coss. Nothing is certain as to the consuls of a.d. 126, excepting the names Titianus and Galli canus. A.D. 125. Cass, and Vict., Verus et Ambiguus ; Idat., Verus iii. et Ambigulus; Chr. Pas. Severus in. et Amfigulus. On the authority of Cardinal Noris, and the inscriptions given by him, Muratori adopts, as the names of these consuls, M. Annius Verus in. L. Varius Ambibulus. Julius Capitolinus, in his life of Pertinax, says that he was bom in the consulship of Verus and Bibulus.^ A.D. 124. Cass, and Vict., Asiaticus and Quintus; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Asiaticus and Aquilinus. From three inscriptions given by Panvinius, Gruter, and Fabretti, it appears that the names of these consuls were, P. Corn. Scipio Asiaticus n. and Q. Vettius (or Vectius) Aquilinus. A.D. 123. Cass, and Vict., Glabrio and Apronianus ; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Glabrio and Torquatus. An inscription preserved by Panvinius has the prsenomen, nomen, and cognomen of both these consuls : M. Acilius Glabrio and G. Bellicius Torquatus. A.D. 122. Cass, and Vict., Paternus and Torquatus; Idat., Apronianus and Pampinus ; Chr. Pas., Apronianus ii. and Pampi- nus. Cassiodorus and Victorius have interchanged the names of Apronianus and Torquatus with a.d. 123. In the two other lists, the name of Psetinus is corrupted into Panpinus or Pampinus. An inscription on baked clay, transcribed by Panvinius and Fabretti, ' Gruter, p. 337 ; Fabretti, p. 510. ' Natus autem Cal. Augustis Vero et Bibulo Coss. — Hist, Aug, SS. p, 59. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHLN CENSORINDS WROTE. 291 p. 503 and 509, and other inscriptions recorded by Gruter, p. 1079, No. X. and p. 1082, No. xvi., have corrected these errors. The real names were, Quintus Arrius Psstinus and C. Ventidius Apronianus. A.D. 121. All the lists agree in Aviola and Pansa. From an inscription in Gruter, p. 337, it appears that the names were, M'. (or Manius) Acilius Aviola and C. Cornelius Pansa. A.D. 120, Cass, and Vict., Verus et Augur; Idat., Verus II, et Augur ; Chr. Pas. Severus Ii. et Augurinus. Julius Capitolinus, in his life of the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, says that he was born when his grandfather Annius Verus, the second time, and Augur were consuls.' It is the same Annius Verus who was consul the third time A.D. 125. The name of Augur, or Augu rinus, has the name of Aurelius prefixed to it, in an ancient inscrip tion in Cuper's preface to the Fasti Consulares of Almeloveen. The names, therefore, were, M, or L. Annius Verus n. and ...Aurelius Augur or Augurinus. A.D. 119. Cassiod,, Catilius and Fulvius; Vict., Servilius or Catilius and Fulvius ; Idat., Severus il. and Fulgus ; Chr. Pas,, Severus and Fulcus. Cassiodorus is most correct. Julius Capito linus, in his life of the emperor Antoninus Pius, gives as his original name, Titus Aurelius Fulvius Boionius Antoninus, and says that he was consul with Catilius Severus,^ To the latter, an inscription preserved by Gruter, p. 499, No. ix. gives the praenomen Lucius. Muratori calls these consuls, L. Catilius Severus and L. Aurelius Fulvus. But the testimony of Julius Capitolinus is express, that the same person who was afterwards emperor under the name of Antoninus Pius, was consul with Catilius Severus. I therefore feel constrained by that testimony to write the names as he has, L. Catilius Severus and T. Aurelius Fulvius Antoninus. A.D. 118. Cass,, Hadrianus il, et Rusticus; Vict,, Hadrianus II. and SiUanus al. Rusticus ; Idat., Hadrianus iv. et Rusticus ; Chr. Pas. .iSilius Hadrianus Augustus 11. et Rusticius. All the critics agree that it was the third consulship of Adrian with Q. Junius Rusticus. A.D. 117. Vict., Hadrianus and Rusticus al. Salinator. The other three lists agree in giving Salinator as the colleague of Adrian. His name was Tiberius Claudius Fuscus Salinator, as 1 Hist. Aug. SS, p, 22. • lb. p. 17. 292 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. Panvinius gathers from an inscription in Fabretti, p. 677, No. 33, where his prsenomen, nomen, and cognomen, are given ; and also from the correspondence of Trajan and Pliny. The latter gives a high character of Fuscus Salinator.' A.D. 117. Clarus and Alexander are here inserted by Cassiodorus and Victorius, but are not in the other lists. They were probably substituted, and not regular consuls. These being omitted, the four lists are in harmony. Cass, and Vict., Niger et Apronianus ; Idat., Apronianus et Niger; Chr. Pas., Apronianus et Niger. The praenomen aud nomen of one, and the nomen of the other, are ascertained by three inscriptions.^ Quinctius Niger. C. Vipstanius Apronianus. A.D. 115. Cass, and Vict., ^milius et Vetus; Idat., Elianus et Vetus ; Chr. Pas., -Elianus et Vetus or Veter. Cardinal Noris shows from Phlegon, cap. 9 de Mirabilibus, that the consuls were, L. or L. ^lius Lamia and Elianus Vetus or Veter. A.D. 114. Cass, and Vict., Messalla and Pedo; Idat. and Chr. Pas. Messala et Podo. It appears from Gruter,^ and from Cardi nal Noris,^ that the names were, L. Vipstanius Messalla and M. Vergilianus Pedo, A.D. 113. Cass, and Vict., Asta etPiso; Idat.,Malsa et Volcisus ; Chr. Pas., Malsus et Bulciscus. All are corrupt. Panvinius pro duces one, and Gruter (p. 214) another marble, from which it ap pears that the real names were, Q. Ninnius Hasta and P. Manilius Vopiscus, A.D, 112. Cass, and Vict., Celsus and Crispinus; Idat., Celsus ii. and Priscianus ii. ; Chr. Pas.j Priscianus and Celsus. An ancient inscription in the Famese palace at Rome, given by Gruter, p. 214, enables us to correct the names thus : L. Publicius Celsus n. and L. Clodius Crispinus. A.D. 111. Cass, and Vict., Trajanus vii. et Africanus; Idat., Trajanus vi. et Anfricanus ; Chron. Pasch., Trajanus Augustus V. et Africanus. The name of the emperor Trajan is well known ; but it is not always easy to determine the number of times the same person was consul, because of the practice of substituting one set of consuls after another in the same year. Hence, as in the present instance, proceeds the frequent diversity of numbers. The prse- ' Epist. lib, vi, 26. ' Gruter, p. 57S, No. 1 ; 1008, No, 7 ; 1009, No. 2. ' Inscript. Antiq. p. 1066 and 1070. * Epist. Consul, p, 935, ed. Veron. CHAP. XII.J TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 293 nomen and nomen of Africanus are given by Card. Noris on the authority of Gruter,' Muratori therefore states the names of both consuls as follows: M. TJlp. Trajan. Imp. Aug. vi. T. Sextius Africanus. a.d. 110, Cass, and Vict., Piso et Rusticus; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Piso and Julianus. C. Calpurnius Piso is a name well known. With regard to his colleague, there is much diversity of opinion. From Gruter, Ins. Ant, p, 128, 163 ; Fabretti, Insc. p. 696 ; Boldet, p. 78, it is inferred that his name was M. Vectius or Vettius Bolanus. Rusticus may have been his cognomen. How •lulianus has been substituted for Bolanus, it is in vain to con jecture. a.d, 109. Cass., Crispinus ii. and Solenus; Vict., Crispinus and Solenus ; Idat, and Chr, Pasch., Orfitus and Priscianus. A stone produced by Bianchini ad Anastas, tom. ii. p. 122, as then lately found near the Porta Capena at Rome, and some inscriptions on baked clay mentioned by him and by Fabretti, p. 508, give the names of these consuls thus : Ser. Salvidienus Orfitus and M. Peducseus Priscinus. A,D. 108. Cass, and Vict., Africanus et Crispinus ; Idat., Palma ii. et Tullus; Chron. Pasch., Palma et Tullus. The names recorded by Cassiodorus andVictorius were the consuls substituted on the first of March, A.D. 107, C. Julius Africanus and Clodius Crispinus. But of the consuls of this year, Palma, as we shall soon see, was consul for the first time a.d. 98. The name of the second consul is preserved in the life of M. Aurelius by Julius Capitolinus.^ where he is called Calvisius Tullus, and is said to have been twice consul. The consuls of this year are therefore called by Muratori, A. Cornelius Palma n. and C. Calvisius Tullus ii, A.D. 107. All the lists agree in the names Gallus and Bradua. An inscription produced by Panvinius calls them, Appius Annius Trebonius Gallus and M. Atilius Metilius Bradua. A,D. 106, Cass. & Vict,, Senecio iv. and Sura ni.; Idat., Syram. Senecio ii. ; Chr. Pas., Syrianus III. Senecio. Panvinius and Bian chini cite ancient inscriptions for L. Licinius Sura in. and C. Sosius Senecio iv. A.D. 105, Cass, Vict, and Idat., Commodus and Cereali*; Chr, ' Inscr, Antiq, p. 1029, No. 6. ' Hist Aug, SS. p. 22, ed, Salmas, 294 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. Pas., Commodus and Ceretanus. The name of the first is given by Spartian in the life of JElius Verus, and by Julius Capitolinus in the life of the emperor Verus,' Lucius Ceionius JElius Commodus Verus. The name of the other, L. Tutius Cerealis. A.D. 104, Cass. Vict, and Chron. Pasch., Candidus and Quadra tus ; Idat., Candidus II. et Quadratus. Spartian mentions them in the life of Adrian, who was created tribune of the people in their consulship : Tribunus plebis factus est Candido et Quadrato iterum coss.^ The first of these consuls is named in an ancient inscription, Tiberius Julius Candidus. Critics are not agreed as to the prse nomen and nomen of the second. Bianchini calls him C. Actius Quadratus ; Spon., C. Antius Julius Quadratus. " Non nostrum est tantas componere lites." A.D. 103. Cass, and Vict., Urbanus et Marcellus ; Idat., Subu- ranus II. et Marcellus; Chr. Pasch., Syrianus ii. et Marcellus.. All agree as to Marcellus. The name of the other consul is uncertain, A.D. 102. Contrary to the other lists, Cassiodorus and Victorius have here inserted Senecio iii. and Sura ii. Omitting, or rather transposing these, the several lists are in harmony, excepting as to the number of the consulship of Trajan. Cass, and Vict., Tra janus VI. et Maximus ; Idat., Trajanus v. et Maximus; Chr. Pas., Trajanus Augustus IV. et Maximus. A.D. 101. Cass, and Vict., Senecio lii. Sura II.; Idat., Severianus et Sirius ; Chr. Pas., Syrianus et Syrius. All these names seem to have been corrupted from those transposed by Cassiodorus and Victorius. The critics generally agree in the names of the consuls of A.D, 106 as being the consuls of this year, C. Sosius Senecio in. and L. Licinius Sura n. A.D, 100. Cass, and Vict,, Trajanus v. et Orfitus ; Idat., Tra janus IV. et Petus ; Chr. Pas., Trajanus Augustus III. et Petus. Orfitus was substituted for Psetus on the first of March, as Pan vinius conjectures ; for on the first of May, and again on the first of July, other consuls were substituted. Spartian, in his life of Adrian, (p. 2), speaks of the consulship of Trajan iv. and Arun- culeius. The modern critics think that this should be Articuleius, and hence they write the consulship thus : M. Ulpius Trajanus Imp. Aug. iv., and Sextus Articuleus Pmtus. 1 Hist. Aug, SS, ed. Salmas, pp. 16, 35. • lb. p. 2. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 295 A.D. 99. Cass, and Vict,, Trajanus iv. et Fronto ; Idat., Tra janus III, et Pontinus ; Chr. Pas., Trajanus Augustus II. et Pon tianus. M. Cornelius Fronto seems to have been substituted on the first of March for the ordinary consul. Card. Noris has given very convincing reasons for believing that Pontinus and Pontianus are corruptions of the name of Frontinus, the well known author of the work on the aqueducts of Rome. The consuls, then, of this year were M. Ulpius Trajanus Imp. Aug. III. and Sextus Julius Frontinus III. A.D. 98. Cass, and Vict., Senecio et Palma; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Palma et Senecio. A. Cornelius Palma,, C. Sosius Senecio, Coss. A,D. 97. Cass, and Vict., Nerva ill, Trajanus, III,; Idat., Nerva IV. Trajanus Ii. ; Chr. Pas,, Trajanus Augustus, alone. M. Cocceius Nerva, Imp. Aug. iv. Ulpius Trajanus Caesar il. A.D. 96. Cassiodorus and Victorius have here inserted the con sulships of Sabinus and Antoninus, and Flavius or Fulvius and Vetus, unsupported by any other authority. Omitting these, and reading in the order of the other lists, we have, Cass, and Vict., Nerva II. and Rufus; Idat., Nerva III. and Rufus HI,; Chr, Pas,, Nerva Augustus and Titus Rufus in, Julius Frontinus de Aquae- duct. Art. 102, represents this consulship thus : Imp. Nerva HI. et Verginio Rufo III. Coss. A.D. 95. Idatius and the Chron. Pasch. make the next consulship that of Valens and Vetus or Veter. Cassiodorus and Victorius insert the consulship of Fulvius and Vetus between the third and fourth consulships of Nerva. But in this part of their lists, Cassi odorus and Victorius are singularly incorrect. Dion Cassius calls these consuls, Caius Valens and Caius Antistius,' Their full names, as appears by an ancient inscription produced by Bianchini, were, C. Antistius Vetus and C. Manlius Valens. A.D. 94. Cass, and Vict,, Domitianus ix. et Clemens II. ; Idat., Domitianus XIV. et Clemens ; Chron. Pasch., Domitianus xiv. et Clemens II. Dion Cassius speaks of Titus Flavius Clemens, as being consul with Domitian, and put to death that year.^ He was a Christian. A.D. 93. Cass, and Vict,, Asprenas et Clemens; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Asprenas et Lateranus. The critics are divided ; part follow- 1 Lib, Ixrii, 14. ' lb. ¦ 296 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. ing Cassiodorus and Victorius, in making Titus Flavius Clemens the colleague of Asprenas ; part, on the authority of the other two, preferring Lateranus, A,D, 92. Cass, and Vict., Silvanus et Priscus ; Idat., Pompeia nus et Priscianus ; Chr. Pas., Pompeius and Crispinus. Tacitus, in his life of Agricola,' says that he died in the consulship of Collega and Priscus. Hence all the modern critics agree in calling the consuls, Pompeius Collega and Cornelius Priscus. A.D. 91. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus VIII. et Saturnlnus; Idat., Domitianus XIII. et Satuminus ; Chr. Pas., Domitianus Augustus XII. et Saturnlnus. Cardinal Noris has shown that Volusius and Quinc tius were the nomen and prsenomen of Saturnlnus. The consuls of this year, therefore, were, Flavius Domitianus, Imp. Aug. and Q. Volusius Satuminus. A.D. 90. Cass., Trajanus li. et Glabrio; Vict., Trajanus and Glabrio ; Idat., Grabio et Gralanus ; Chr. Pas., Glabrio et Traja nus. Dion Cassius speaks of the consulship of Ulpius Trajanus and Acilius Glabrio.^ The consuls of this year were, therefore, M, Ulpius Trajanus. M. Acilius Glabrio. A.D. 89. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus VII. et Nerva ; Idat., Do mitianus XII. et Nerva ii. ; Chron. Pasch., Domitianus Augustus XI. et Nerva. The consuls, therefore, were, Fl. Domit. Imp. Aug. and M. Cocceius Nerva, who was afterwards emperor. A.D. 88i Cass, and Vict., Flavius et Trajanus ; Idat., Fulvius et Atratiuus ; Chr. Pas., Fulvius li. et Atratinus. Why Cassiodorus and Victorius should havo written Flavius and Trajanus appears inexplicable. Titus Aurelius Fulvius is mentioned by Julius Capitolinus as the grandfather of the emperor Antoninus Pius ; and he says of him that he was twice consul. All the critics agree in naming this the consulship of Titus Aurelius Fulvius n. and A. Sempronius Atratinus. A.D. 87. Cass., Domitianus VI. et Rufus iv. ; Vict., Domitianus VI. et Rufinus ; Idat., Domitianus XI. et Rufus ; Chr. Pas., Domiti anus Augustus X. et Titus Rufus, The testimony of Censorinus is explicit, that the consulship was Domitianus XIV, and L, Minu- cius Rufus ; and that the secular games were celebrated for the seventh time in that year,' But here a new difficulty presents 1 Sec. 44. • Lib. Ixvii, 12, ' Septimos Domitianus, se xiv. et L, Minucio Rufo Coss. anno locccxij. — De Die Nat, c, xvii. CHAP. XII.J TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 297 Itself ; for he says that it was in the year of the city 841. But that year, on his own calculations, as will be seen on examining the tables, chap. v. sec. 2, p. 143, began the 21st of April, a.d. 88; and if, as Suetonius asserts, they were celebrated on the day of the Circensian games,' it must have been towards the close of that year of Rome, or April 10, a,d, 89. This cannot have been : and, therefore, I must think that there has been some conjectural emen dation of the text of Censorinus as to this date. For if Censorinus be correct as to the consulship, and Suetonius correct as to the time of the year when the secular games were celebrated, they must have been at the close of a.u.c 839, or April 10, a.d. 87. Censorinus enables us also to rectify the numbers of Domitian's consulships, so confusedly stated in the ancient lists. Suetonius tells us that before Domitian, no one held, and that Domitian did hold seventeen consulships,^ If, then, a,D, 87 was his fourteenth consulship, A.D. 89 was his fifteenth, and a,d. 91 and 94 the six teenth and seventeenth. a.d. 86. Idat., Domitianus x. et Saturnlnus ; Chr. Pas., Domiti anus Augustus IX. et Saturnlnus. We have placed in a.d. 91 the corresponding consulship of Domitianus Viii. and Saturnlnus, recorded by Cassiodorus and Victorius, and it must therefore be omitted here, because Idatius and the Chron. Pasch. have one more consulship of Domitian and Satuminus than they have. In this, Idatius and the Chron. Pasch. are the more correct. Cassiodorus and Victorius are very confused, as we have before had occasion to observe, in this part of their list. The consulship of Q. Volusius Satuminus a,d. 91 was his second, and the present year his first. This correction made, the consulship of this year is, Flav. Domitianus, Imp. Aug. xm. Q. Volusius Satuminus. Muratori says, A. Volusius Saturnlnus; I know not on what authority. A.D. 85. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus v. et Dolabella; Idat., Domitianus ix. et Dolabella ; Chr. Pas. Domitianus Augustus Viil. et Dolabella. Censorinus has preserved the accurate descrij)tion of this consulship, De Die Natali, c. xviii. where, speaking of the lustrum and the quinquennial games, he says that these capltoline ' Sueton. Domit, c, 4, ' Consulatus septemdecim cepit, quot ante eum nemo, — lb, Domit, c, 13, 38 298 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. contests were first Instituted by Domitian, in his twelfth con sulship with Servius Cornelius Dolabella.' Flav. Domitianus, Imp. Aug. xii. Ser. Cornelius Dolabella. A.D. 84. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus iv. et Rufus iii; Idat., Domitianus Viii, et Fulvius ; Chr. Pas., Domitianus Augustus Vil. et Fulvius, Julius Capitolinus speaks, as we have seen under A.D. 88, of Titus Aurelius Fulvius, the grandfather of Antoninus Pius, as having been twice consul. This, therefore, was his first: and the true record of It Is, Flav. Domitianus, Imp. Aug. xi. Titus Aurelius Fulvius A.D. 83. Cass, and Vict,, Domitianus Hi, et Sabinus; Idat., Do mitianus VlL.et Sabinus IL; Chr. Pas., Domitianus Augustus VL et Sabinus, Bianchini produces an ancient marble which gives the names correctly : Fl. Domitianus, Imp. Aug. x. T. Aurelius Sabinus. A.D. 82. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus ii. Rufus IL ; Idat,, Domi tianus VL et Rufus ; Chr. Pas,, Domitianus Augustus V. et Titus Rufus. Cardinal Noris, from Phlegon, cap. 24, de Mirabilibus, and a Greek inscription at Smyrna, gives the names thus : Fl. Domit. Imp. Aug. ix Q. Petilius Rufus ii. A.D. 81. Cass., Domitianus and Messalinus; Vict., Domitianus and Messalianus ; Idat., Domitianus V. et Sabinus ; Chr. Pas., Domitianus Augustus IV. et Sabinus ; Cassiodorus and Victorius were probably misled by the fact, that in a.d. 82 C, Valerius MessaUinus was substituted for Q. Petil. Rufus. The consuls for this year, from an inscription ap. Gruter, p. 68, No. 16, and p. 314, No. 3, were, Flav. Domitianus, Imp. Aug. viiL T. Flavius Sabinus. A.D, 80. Cass, and Vict., Silvanus et Verus; Idat., Galva et Pollio ; Chr. Pas. Galba et Pollio. After a long contest among the learned, occasioned by contradictory testimony, Bianchini dis covered two inscriptions on marble, by which it was terminated. One of these was from the museum of Cardinal Alexander Albani, and had previously been published by Philip a Turre, pp. 99 and 387 of his work on the monuments of Ancient Antium. The names of the consuls were, L. Flavius Silva Nonius, Asinius Pollio Verrucosus. A.D. 79. Idat, Titus vii. et Domitianus IV.; Chr. Pas. Titus Augustus VII. et Domitianus ih. This consulship is omitted by ^Quorum agonura primus a Domitiano iustitutus fuit duodecimo ejus et Ser, Cor- nelii Dolabellse consulatr, — Censorin. De Die Natali, c, xviii. CHAP. XII.J TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 299 Cassiodorus and Victorius. It is proved, however, by ancient inscriptions,' and also by coins ; and is thus correctly stated : Titus, Imp. Aug. viil Fl. Domitianus Caesar vil A.D. 78. Cass, and Vict., Vespasianus ix. et Titus vin.; Idat., Vespasianus ix. et Titus vl ; Chr. Pas,, Titus vi. et Domitianus II. We have now come into the region of more accurate history. Vespasian died, as Suetonius informs us, in his ninth consulship.^ It was evidently the seventh consulship of Titus : T. Flav. Vespasianus, Imp. Aug. IX. Titus Cwsar Vesp. F. vii. A.D. 77. Cass, and Vict., but transposed, Commodus and Rufus. These are omitted by Idatius and the Chron. Pasch. ; but an ancient inscription produced by Bianchini, from Spon, Miscell, Erud. sec. 2, art, 2, then placed in a villa called Montalto, and existing in the time of Muratori in the museum of Cardinal Albani, reads thus : C. Cejonius Commodus, D. Novius Priscus. Judging merely from the distance of time, I should infer that this Ceionius Commodus was the father or grandfather of him who bore the same name, was adopted by Adrian, and called ..Stilus Verus Csesar.* A.D. 76. Cass, and Vict., VesiDasianus VIIL Titus Vli.; Idat., Vespasianus vill. et Domitianus ill.; Chr. Pas., Vespasianus Aug. VIL Titus V. They should be, T. Flav. Vespasianus, Imp. Aug. viiL Titus Caesar vi. On the first of July they both abdicated, and for them were substituted, T. Flavius Domitianus Caesar vi. Cn. Julius Agricola. This accounts for the mistake of Idatius. A.D, 75. Cass, and Vict., Vespasianus vn. et Titus VL; Idat. Vespasianus Vil, and Titus v. ; Chr. Pas,, Vespasianus Augustus vl et Titus IV. It should be, T. Flavius Vespasianus, Imp. Aug. vil. Titus Caesar v. Both abdicated July 1, and the following consuls were substituted: T. Flavius Domitianus v, T. Plautius Silvanus il. This last, however, is not certain. The evidence for Domitian appears in an ancient catalogue of bishops In the life of St. Cletus. A.D. 74, Cass, and Vict., Vespasianus vi. et Titus v.; Idat., Vespas. VI. Titus iv.; Chr. Pas. Vespasianus Augustus V. et Titus iiL It should be, T. Flavius Vespasianus, Imp. Aug. vi. Titus Caesar iv. ' Gruter, pp, 172, 316, , = See Spartian's Life of Adrian, Hist * Sueton. Vespas. c, 24, Aug, SS, ed, Salmas, p, II, 300 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART L On the first of July were, substituted, T. Flavius Domitianus iv, and M. Licinius Mucianus hi. The latter is mentioned by Pliny.' He was consul the second time a.d. 69, and the first time a.d. 51, but in every Instance substituted. a.d. 73. Cass, and Vict., Vespasianus V. et Titus IV. ; Idat., Vespasianus V. Titus hi.; Chr. Pas., Domitianus et Messalinus. There can be no doubt as to this consulship. Censorinus speaks of the first census and lustrum established by Servius, as being little less than 650 years before that which was the 75th in number, made when Vespasian v. and Caesar IIL were consuls.^ PUny speaks of this census as occupying four years,^ On the first of July, Titus abdicated, and Domitian was substituted, it being his third consulship. A.D. 72. Idat. Domitianus li. and Messalinus. The Chron. Pasch. transposes this consulship with that of the preceding year, Vespa sianus Augustus IV. et Titus ii. Cassiodorus and Victorius have misplaced It after the last consulship of Vespasian. That this was Its true position, appears from the Fasti Cassinatenses in the Al bani Musseum, cited by Bianchini, and from Jul. Frontinus de Aquaed. Art. cn. Flavius Domitianus Caesar il M. Valerius Messalinus. A.D. 71. Cass, and Vict. Vespasianus iv. et Titus in. Idat. Vespas. IV. et Titus il Chron. Pas. Vespasianus Augustus in. et Titus. They should be T. Flav. Vespasianus Imp. Aug. iv. Titus Caesar n. Pliny speaks of an eclipse of the sun and another of the moon, within fifteen days of each other, during the reign of the Vespa- sians, when the father was the third (it should be fourth), and the son the second time consuls.'' The eclipses here referred to are marked as foUows in the accurate tables of PIngre, a.d. 71. > 4 March, at 8 p.m., 4^ digits, * 20 March, at 9^ a.m. Eur. Afr. Asia central. Muratori cites Riccioli, from the astronomical tables, for an eclipse of the sun Feb. 8, and an eclipse of the moon Feb. 22, A.D. 72. But Pingr^ shows that there was no eclipse on the 8th of February ' H. Nat. lib. vii. c. i. sidus quaereretur, et nostro sevo accidit, " De Die NaL c. xviii. imperatoribus Vespasianis, patre m. filio ' Lib. vii, c, 49, iterum Consulibus,— Nat. Hist, lib, ii. x. * Nam ut quindecim diebus utnimque 13, ed. Brotier, tom. i. p, 163. CHAP. XILJ TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE, 301 of that year. Consequently, the second consulship of Titus must have been a,d. 71, a,d, 70, Cass. Vict, and Idat. Vespasianus iH. et Nerva. Chron,. Pas. Vespas. Aug. ii. et Nerva. On the 1st of March were sub stituted Domitianus Csesar and Cn, Pedius Oastus. This appears from a decree of Vespasian apud Gruter. p. 573, No. 1. T. Flav. Vespasianus Imp. Aug. in. M. Cocceius Nerva. A.D. 69. Cass, and Vict. Vespasianus IL Titus li. Idat. Vespa sianus II. alone ; Chron. Pas. Vespasianus alone. Vespasian and Titus were elected consuls when both were absent. By a decree of the senate Titus and Domitian were proclaimed ceesars. On the first of July were substituted M. Licinius Mucianus, P. Valerlus^ Asiaticus. A,D. 68. Cassiodorus and Victorius have here inserted two con sulships, where the other lists have but one. Vespasianus et Titus,- Silvanus et Otho ; Idat. Galba il et Titus Rufinus ; Chron. Pasch ^ Galba et Titus Rufinus. This year is celebrated 'for the atrocity of its events, and for the multitude of its consuls. With this year Tacitus begins the first book of his history.' Brotier, in an ex cellent note, has given the names and dates of the several ordinary and substituted consuls, with the authorities for each. Cal. Januar. Ser, Sulpicius Galba Aug. IL T. Vinius Rufinus.^ Both being slain, the following were substituted until the calends of March. M. Salvius Otho Aug., L. Salvius Otho Titianus.* Cal. March until the calends of May, were substituted L.Ver- glnius Rufus, Pompeius Vopiscus.* Cal. May until the calends of July, were substituted Cselius Sabinus, Flavius Sabinus.® Cal. July, to the calends of September, T. Arrius Antoninus, P. Marius Celsus.^ Cal. September, to the calends of November, C. Fablus Valens, A. Alienus Csecina.^ Caecina being accused of treachery by Vitel lius, and condemned by the senate, on the last day of October, for one day, Rosius Eegulus was substituted.* Cal. November, to the calends of January, were substituted Cn, Csecilius Simplex, C. Quinctius Atticus.^ 1 Initium mihi operis, Ser. Galba ite- " lb, i, 77, ' lb. ii. 71, 'lb, iiii 37. mm, T, Vinius, consules erunt, ° lb. ii. 60, iii. 68 and 73 ; Dio, lxv. p, ' Tacit. Hist. i. 1. ' lb. i. 77. 741 ; Brotier, Notse et Emend, ed. Paris, *Ib. i. 77. »Ib, i, 77. 1771, 4to, tom, iii. pp. 397-8. 302 FROM THE DEATH OP TIBERIUS [pART L Fifteen consuls in twelve months ! The mistake of Cassiodorus and Victorius can easily be accounted for. T. Flavius Sabinus was brother to the emperor Vespasian ; and Silvanus and Otho might easily be formed from Salvius Otho, and Salvius Otho Titianus. A.D. 67. Cass, and Vict. ; Italicus and Turpilianus ; Idat, Italicus and Trahalus ; Chron. Pas. Italicus and Trachanus. The names of the consuls of this year are given by Julius Frontinus de Aquae- ductibus, art. 102. C. Silius Italicus, M.GaleriusTrachalus Turpilianus, a.u.c.dcccxix. It will be seen by our tables (chap. v. p. 143) that the year of Rome 819 extended from A.D. 66, April 21, to a,D. 67, April 20, Inclusive. Silius Italicus and Trachalus Turpilianus, therefore, en tered, and could enter, upon their office, only on the first of January, a.d. 67. A.D. 66. The four lists all agree in the names of Capito and Rufus as the consuls of this year. The names are given at full length by Bianchini from the marble Fasti Colonise Casinatis, preserved in the Museum Albani at Rome. L. Fonteius Capito, C. Julius Rufus. From this year for twenty years of the ascending series, the Greek catalogue of the Chronicon Paschale is defective. The chasm happens fortunately where there is abundant other testi mony to supply its loss. A.D. 65. Cass. Telesinus et Appuleius ; Vict. Celsinus al. Telesinus et Apuleius; Idat. Telesinus et Paulinus. Tacitus calls them, Caius Suetonius et Lucius Telesinus' ; Xiphilinus or Dion. Cass., Caius Telesinus and Suetonius Paulinus^ ; Frontinus, L. Telesinus and Suetonius Paullinus.' Hence their names were Caius Lucius Telesinus and Caius Suetonius Paullinus. A.D. 64. Cass, and Vict. ; Sylvanus et Paullinus ; Idat. Helva et Vestinus. Tacitus calls these consuls, Silius Nerva and Atticus Vestinus.* Velleius Paterculus speaks of A. Licinius Nerva Silianus the son of P. Silius." This change of name was according to the Roman law of adoption. The son of Silius being adopted by A. Licinius Nerva, took the name of him who adopted him, and changed his father's name to Silianus. Thus the son of ' Ann. xvi. 14, ' Lib. Ixiii, 1. ' Ann, xv. 48 ¦ De Aquafd. Art. 202. s H. B, lib, ii, u. 1 1 6, 4. CHAP. XILJ TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 303 Paulus ..ZEmillus when adopted by Scipio Africanus became Scipio .^milianus. Thus Octavius Thurinus, when adopted by his grand-uncle, Caius Julius Csesar, became C, Julius Csesar Octa vianus. Suetonius, as well as Tacitus, calls the second consul Atticus Vestinus.' Quintilian calls him Marcus Vestinus.^ The names therefore were A. Licinius Nerva Silianus and Marcus Atticus Vestinus or Vesti nus Atticus. A.D. 63. Cass. Vict, and Idat., Crassus et Bassus. Tacitus calls them Caius Lajcanlus and Marcus Licinius.' Frontinus, Crassus Frugi, and Lecanius Bassus."* Therefore, their names were, Marcus Licinius, Crassus Frugi. Caius Lsecanius Bassus. They were consuls, according to Frontinus, A.u.c, dcccxv. which, by our tables, extended from April 21, a.d. 62, to April 20, a,d. 63. Consequently, their consulship began Jan. 1, a.d. 63, a.d. 62. Idat., Rufus et Regula. .Cassiodorus and Victorius omit this consulship entirely. Tacitus names them Memmius Regulus and Verginius Rufus.* Frontinus, Verginius Rufus and Memmius Regulus, A.u.c. 814. Their names were, L. Verginius Rufus and C. Memmius Regulus. As their consulship began in A.u.c. dcccxiv. it was on Jan. 1, a.d. 62. A.D. 61. Cass, and Vict., Macrinus et Gallus, Idat., Marius et Gallus. Tacitus,^ Publius Marius and Lucius Asinius. Their names were, Publius Marius Celsus and Lucius Asinius Gallus. A.D. 60. Cass. Pius and Turpilianus ; Vict. Pius and Carpilianus, al. Turpilianus ; Idat. Lucius et Turplnianus ; Tacit.,^ Csesonius Psstus and Petronius Turpilianus. A.D. 59. Cass, and Vict. Nero IV. et Cornelius ; Idat. Nero IV et Lentulus. Suetonius says, that Nero held the consulship four times.' Nero entered on his fourth consulship with Cornelius Cossus, says Tacitus.^ Cornelius Cossus are the well-known names of the family of the Lentuli. Nerone Claudio Csesare liii. et Cosso Cossi F. Coss, A.u.c. DCCCXL says Frontinus de Aquseduct. By our tables, A.U.C. 811 began April 21, a.d. 58, and ended April 20, I Sueton. Nero, c. 35. ' Ann. xv, 23, ' Quinctil, Inst, Orat, vi. 3, ed. Burman, " Ann. xiv. 48. tom. i. p. 548. ' Ann. xiv. 29. ' Ann. xv. 33. ' Sueton. Nero, c. 14. * De Aqu»duct art, 102. " Ann, xiv. 20, 304 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. A.D. 59. Consequently, on the 1st of January, A,D. 59, began the consulship of Nero Claud. Cws. Imp. Aug. iv. and Cornelius Cossus Lentulus. A.D. 58. Idat. Apronianus et Capito. Omitted by Cassiodorus and Victorius. Tacitus,' Caius Vipstanius and Lucius Fonteius. Consequently, the names were, Caius Vipstanius Apronianus and Lucius Fonteius Capito. A.D. 57. Cass, and Vict., Nero iii. et Messalla; Idat., Nero ill. et Messalla Corvinus ; Tacitus,^ Nero iiL and Valerius Messalla, the great grandson of Corvinus Messalla. The names, therefore, were, Nero Claud. Imp. Aug. HI. Valerius Messalla Corvinus. A.D. 56. Cass, and Vict., Nero li. et Piso ; Idat., Nero li. et Piso ; Tacitus,' Nero ii. et Lucius Piso. The name of the latter, It is well known, was Lucius Calpurnius Piso. The consuls, then, of this year were, Nero Claud. Imp. Aug. il. Lucius Calpurnius Piso. A.D. 55. Idatius, Saturnlnus et Scipio ; omitted by Cassiodorus and Victorius; Tacitus,^ Quintus Volusius et Publius Scipio. The latter name Is well known, and both were, Quintus Volusitis Satuminus and Publius Cornelius Scipio. A.D. 54. Cass., Vict., and Idat. agree in Nero and Vetus. Tacitus,' Nero and Lucius Antistius, the well-known names of Vetus. The consuls were, therefore, Nero Claud. Imp. Aug. and Lucius Antistius Vetus, or Veter. A.D. 53. Cass, and Vict. Marcellinus and Aviola. Idat. Mar cellus and Aviola. Tacitus,^ Marcus Asinius and Manius Acilius. Suetonius,' Asinius Marcellus and Acilius Aviola. The names were, therefore, Marcus Asinius Marc.ellus and Manius Acilius Aviola. A.D. 52. Cass. Silanus H. et Antoninus li . Vict, and Idat. Sila nus et Antoninus. Tacitus,* Decimus Junius and Quintus Haterius. The full names were, Decimus Junius Silanus, Quintus Haterius Antoninus. A.D. 51. Cass, and Vict. Silanus et Otho, Idat. Sylla et Cato. Tacitus,^ Faustus SuUa, Salvius Otho. Frontinus,'" Sulla et Titianus, a.u.c. dccciil The year of Rome 803, began April 21, ' Ann, xiv, 1, * lb, xiii. 34. »Ib. xiii, II, ^ lb, xii, 64, ' lb, xiii, 31, ' lb, xiii, 25, ' Sueton. Claudius, c, 45. ' Ann, xii, 58. ' Ann. xii, 52, '° De Aqueed, art, 13. CHAP. XILJ TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 305 A.D. 50, and ended .April 20, A.D. 51. Consequently, the consul ship began January 1, A.D, 51, But the manuscripts vary as to the year of Rome. The names of the consuls, as Pighius has given them, were, p. Cornelius Sulla Faustus, L. Salvius Otho Titianus, A,D. 50. Idat. Claudius and Orfitus. Transposed, and put by Cassiodorus A.D. 49, and Victorius A.D. 48. Tacitus,' Tiberius Claudius v., Servius Cornelius Orphitus. Several inscriptions of this consulship exist. A marble found at Antium, has the following : TI . CLAVDIO . AVGVSTO . V . ^^„ SER . CORNELIO . ORPHITO . A.D. 49. Idat. Vetus, or Veter, and Nervinianus. Transposed by Cassiodorus to A.D. 48, and called Vetus et Servilianus ; by Vic torius to A.D. 47, and called Vetus, or Veter, and Nevilianus. Taci tus,^ Caius Antistius, Marcus Suillius. Therefore the names were Caius Antistius Vetus, or Veter, and Marcus Suillius Nervilianus. A marble in the Museum Albani, another in the Villa Mattel, and others preserved by Gruter and Fabretti, attest the same thing. The marble found at Antium, has C . ANTISTIO . VETERE . „„„ M . SVILLIO . NERVILINO . A.D. 48. Idat. Verianus et Gallus. Transposed to A.D. 47 by Cassiodorus, and to a.d. 46 by Victorius, and called Verannlus et Gallus. Tacitus,' Caius Pompeius, Quintus Veranius. Frontinus* Q. Veranio, Pompeio Longo, Coss. An ancient inscription in Muratori,* Q. VERANio. A. POMPEIO. GALLO. COS. The praenomen of Gallus may, therefore, have been Aulus, and not Caius. Some think that his name was Longinus Gallus, others Longus Gallus. The marble found at Antium, has Q. VERANio. A. POMPEIO. GALLo. COS. A.D, 47. Cass. A.D. 46, and Vict. A.D. 45, Vitellius H. et Pub licola. Idat. A.D. 49, Vitellius iv. et Publicola. Tacitus,'' Aulus Vitellius and Lucius Vipsanius. The names, therefore, were, Aulus Vitellius (afterwards emperor), and Lucius Vipsanius Poplicola. ' Ann. xii. 41, * De AquEed, art. 102, " lb. xii. 25, ' Thesaur. Inscript, tom, i, p. 305.. ' lb, xii. 5, « Ann, xi, 23, 39 306 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PARTL A.D. 46. Cass. A.D. 45, Vict. a.d. 44, Tiberius ii. et Vitellius, Idat. A.D. 48, Claudius iv. et Vitellius iil Tiberius Claudius Imp. Aug. iv. Lucius Vitellius in.' A.D. 45. Cass. Asiaticus et Cornelius. Vict., Idat., and Chr. Pas. Asiaticus et Silanus. Tacitus^ speaks of Valerius Asiaticus, as liavlng enjoyed the honours of two consulships ; but his annals of that period are, unhappily, lost. According to Dion Cassius,* the consuls of this year were Valerius Asiaticus n. and M. Silanus. Dion Cassius, Eusebius Aurelius Victor, Seneca, and Cassio dorus, speak of an island which arose in the -^gean sea, near Thera ; and, on the same night, Victor tells us there was a re markable eclipse of the moon.* Seneca says, that the phenomenon ¦occurred in the consulship of Valerius Asiaticus f Dion, in that -of Claudius iv. and L. Vitellius. No eclipse of the moon can be produced, corresponding with these accounts, but that of December 31, A,D. 46. In A.D. 45, but one eclipse is mentioned by Pingre, and that was of the sun. In A.D. 47, there were two eclipses of the moon, but both were in the morning. That of December 31, A.D. 46, took place at half-past nine, p.m. and was central. A,D, 44. Cass. A.D. 43, and Vict. A.D. 42, Vinicius et Cornelius. Idat. and Chron. Pas. a.d. 46, Vinicius et Corvinus. Dion Cassius,® M. Vinicius H. and Statilius Corvinus. A.D. 43. Cass. A.D. 42, Crispinus et Taurus. Vict. A.D. 41, Crispus and Taurus. Idat. Crispus ii. et Taurus. Chron. Pas. Crassus and Taurus. Dion Cassius,' C. Crispus ii. and T. Sta tilius. From an inscription,' Pagi, Tillemont, Bianchini, and others, call them, L. Quinctius Crispinus II. and M. Statilius Taurus. A.D, 42. Cass. A.D. 41, and Vict. A.D. 40, Tiberius et Gallus. Idat. A.D. 44, Claudius HI. et Vitellius. Chron. Pas. a.d. 44, Claud. Cffis. V. et Vitell. Dion^ speaks of this as the third consulship of Claudius, but he does not mention Vitellius. The modern critics generally suppose that it was the second consulship of Lucius Vitellius. Hence it Is noted thus : Tiberius Claudius Aug. Imp. in. Lucius Vitellius n. A.D. 41. Cass. A.D. 40, and Vict. a.d. 39, Secundus et Venustus. 1 Dion. Cass, lx, 29. •' Nat. Qusest, lib, ii, c. 26, ' Ann. xi. 1. « lx, 25. ' lx. 23, " Ap, Xiphilinum, lx. 27. " Ap. Gruter, p. 1041, No. 10. * De Csesaribus, c. 4, 14, ' lx. 17. CHAP, xn.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 307 Idat. A.D. 43, Claudius ii. et Larbus. Chron. Pas. A.D. 43, Clau dius Csesar iv , et Largus, Dion Cassius,' Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus n. C. Largus. The latter was his colleague for the whole year. He himself was consul only two months. Tib. Claud. Aug. Germanicus n. C. Caecina Largus. A.D. 40. Cass. A.D. 39, and Vict. A.D. 38, Csesar IL et Saturnlnus; Idat. A.D. 42, Csesar iv, et Antoninus ; Chr. Pas. A.D. 42, Claudius Csesar et Antoninus, Dion^ speaks of Pomponius Secundus as being consul when the emperor Caius Caligula was killed ; and that will probably account for the mistake of Cassiodorus in putting opposite to this year, in his series, the names of Secundus and Venustus. Suetonius says' that Caius held his fourth consulship only until the seventh of January (vii. Idus Januarii), and that he was killed* on the 24th of January (ix, cal. Febr,), Josephus mentions Cneius Sentius Saturnlnus as one of the consuls,^ and Quintus Pomponius as the other consul.^ We may infer, therefore, that after the abdication of Caligula (January 7), Quintus Pompo nius Secundus was substituted, with his colleague Cneius Sentius Satuminus. If this inference be correct, the ordinary consuls of this year were. C. Cassar. ' Caligula Aug. iv. Cn. Sentius Satuminus. A.D, 39. Cass, A.D. 38, and Vict. A.D. 87, Caesar et Julianus ; Idat. A.D. 41, Csesar IIL alone; Chr. Pas. A.D. -41, Claudius Caesar ii. alone. Dion' says expressly, that Caligula was consul the third time without a colleague. A.D. 38. Cass. A.D. 37, and Vict. a,d, 36, Publicola et Nerva; Idat. A.D. 40, Csesar il. et Csesianus ; Chr. Pas. A.D. 40, Claudius Cffisar et Cersianus. Cardinal Noris* has clearly shown that Lucius Apronius Csesianus, the colleague of Caligula, held office six months ; after which, were substituted M. Sanguinius Maximus ii. for Caligula, and Cneius Domitius Corbulo for Apronius Csesianus. It is, therefore, most unaccountable why or how Cassiodorus and Victorius could here insert the names of Publicola and Nerva. A.D. 37. Idat. and Chr. Pas. (a,d. 39), Julianus et Asprenas; Cass. (a,d. 36), Julianus et Asprenas; Vict, (a,d, 35), Julianus et Asprenas. Here, as to names, and as to the order of the series, 1 lx. 2; compared with 10. ' lix. 29. ' Antiq. xix. 2, I, ° lb, xix. 4, 5. » Suet. Caligula 17. ' lb. 58, ' lix. 24, » Epist, Consul, p. 877-879. 308 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART L though not as to years, the four lists are in accordance. The names and dates are correctly given by Frontinus de Aquseduct.' M. Aquillio Juliano, P. Nonio Asprenate coss, anno urbis conditse DCCLXXXViiii. The year of Rome 789, according to our tables, began April 21, a.j.p. 4749, Ref, Cal, of Jul, Cses. 81, A.D. 36, and ended April 20, a.j.p. 4750, Ref. Cal, of Jul. Ctes. 82, A.D. 37. Consequently the only calends of January in which these consuls could enter on their office was January 1, a.d. 37. M. Aquillius Julianus, P. Nonius Asprenas. A.D. 36. Cass. (a.d. 35), Vict, (a.d, 34), Idat. and Chr. Pas, (a.d. 38), Proculus et Nigrinus. This was the year In which Tiberius died. There is and can be no debate as to the consuls ; or that the death of Tiberius, and the accession of Caligula, took place A.J.P. 4749, 36 days before the end of A.u.c. 788, or March 16th, A.D. 36. Cn. Acerronius Proculus. C. Pontius Nigrinus. The remaining consulships to that of the two Gemini have been heretofore considered, and shown to be unquestionable. A,D. 35, Sextus Papinius, Quintus Plautius . . Tac, Ann, vi. 40 34. Caius Cestius Gallus, M. Servilius Nonianus . „ vi. 31 33. Lucius Vitellius, Paulus Fabius Persicus . , „ vi, 28 32, Servius Sulpicius Galba, L. Cornelius Sulla . „ vi, 15 31, Cn, Domitius Ahenobarbus, Purius Camillus Scribonianus vi. I 30, Tiberius Augustus v., L. .ffilius Sejanus 29, M. Vinicius Quartlnus, L, Cassius Longinus 28, L. Rubellius Geminus, C. Fufius Geminus The consulships of a.d. 31 and a.d. 30 are omitted by Victorius, in consequence of the insertion of two superfluous consulships, a.d, 159 and a,d. 68, Sect, II. — Thus, by the descending series of consuls from Cicero and Antonius to Proculus and Nigrinus ; and, again, by the ascend ing series, from Ulpius and Pontianus to Proculus and Nigrinus ; we have found, by considering singly the evidence for each as we proceeded, and Ignorant of the results till they unfolded themselves, an unbroken list of consuls for 302 years. We proceed now to test the accuracy of this adjustment by another process ; that is, by the history of the emperors, from the death of Tiberius to the year in which Censorinus wrote. If the exact length of each reio-n can be determined, in connexion with the consulships of each, and 1 De Aquasduct, art, xiii, ed, Patav. p, 49, chap, xii.] to the year WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 309 if the aggregate number of years corresponds with the number of the consulships, there can be no material error in the chronology. We begin with the emperor Caius CassAR, surnamed Ca!ligula. According to Suetonius, Caligula was bom on the last day of August (Prid. cal. Septembris) in the year of his father's consulship with C. Fonteius Capito.' That consulship coincided, as we have seen, with A.J.P, 4724, Ref. Cal. Jul. Cses. 56, a.d. 11. Being after the 21st of April, the birth-day of Caligula was the llth day of the fifth month a.u.c. 764. The death of Tiberius took place, according to Suetonius, on the 16th, and according to Dion Cassius, on the 26th of March, in the consulship of Proculus and Nigrinus, A.J.P. 4749, Ref. Cal. Jul. Cses. 81, a.d. 36, towards the close of A.CJ.c. 788. Caligula was killed on the 24th of January (ix. cal. Feb.), when he had reigned, according to Suetonius, three years, ten months, and eight days, or according to Dion Cassius,^ three years, nine months, and twenty-eight days. The difference of the two accounts Is ten days; the same difference which exists in their several accounts of the reign of Tiberius. Both therefore agree as to the date of Caligula's death, on the 24th of January, a.d. 40. Tiberius died, According to Suetonius, T, M. D, March 16, a,d, 36, or 35 2 16 Add for Caligula's reign 3 10 8 39 0 24 According to Dion Cassius, T. M, D. March 26, a.d. 36, or 35 2 26 Add for CaUgula's reign 3 9 28 39 0 24 That is, 39 solid years, and 24 days in the 40th year, or Jan, 24, a.d. 40. Clemens, Alexandrinus, and Eutropius, follow Suetonius ; and so does Cassiodorus, neglecting only the eight days. Josephus, who has given the best account extant of Caligula's death, makes his reign four years within four months.' Hence, probably, Theo- philus of Antioch computes his reign as being three years, eight months, and seven days. Aurelius Victor and the Chronicon Paschale say only, in round numbers, four years. But the truth lies between Suetonius and Dion Cassius ; and as we follow the Latin historian as to the day of the month in which Tiberius died, we must also follow him as to the length of Caligula's reign. The following Is the list of consuls : 1 Sueton. Caligula, c. 8. ' Lib. lix, 30. ' Ant. Jud. lib, xix, 2, 310 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. A,J.P. A.D, CONSOLS, TIME. . T, M. D, 4749 36 Proculus and Nigrinus from March 17 to Dec, 31 0 9 15 4750 37 Julianus and Asprenas one year 10 0 4751 38 Caius Caligula ii. and Csesianus „ 10 0 4752 39 Caius Caligula iii. alone „ 10 0 4753 40 Caius Caligula lv, and Satuminus, from Jan, I to 24 0 0 24 3 10 8 As hewas born on the 31st day of August, a,j.p. 4724, by deduct ing the time before his birth from the date of his death, we learn his exact age. 4752y. Om. 24d. — 4732y. 7m. 30d. = 28y. 4m. 25d. ; so that he was, as Suetonius says, in the 29th year of his age when he was killed. According to the same author, he abdicated his fourth consulship (vii. Idus Januar.) on the seventh of January,' or the eighteenth day before his death ; and Quintus Pomponius Secundus was then substituted, as may be inferred from the narra tive of Dlon.^ Pomponius Secundus and Sentius Saturnlnus were, therefore, in the consular office at the time of his death, though the year was designated as his fourth consulship. Tib. Claudius Deusus C^sar was born (cal. Aug.) on the first day of August, in the consul ship of Julus Antonius and Fablus Africanus.' This coincided with A.J.P. 4703, and was the twelfth day of the fourth month in A.u.c. 743. We may date his accession to the empire the day after the death of Caligula, Jan. 25, a.j.p. 4753, a.d. 40, two months and twenty-seven days before the close of A.u.c. 792. The length of his reign may be easily proved ; first by deter mining his age when he died, and then by deducting from it the date of Caligula's death. It may be as well to observe here, that as Caligula and Claudius both died in months which had thirty-one days, we must, if we wish to be accurate, take that into account in our computation of the number of days. Clau dius died on the 13th of October (iii. Id. October) In the consul ship of Asinius Marcellus and Acilius Aviola,* which coincided with A.J.P. 4766, a,d. 53, or as it may be expressed in solid years, months and days, 4765y. 9m. 13d. He was born August Ist, A.J.P. 4703 ; consequently 4702 solid years and seven complete months had preceded his birth. Hence 4765y. 9m. 13d. — 4702y. 7m. Od.=63y. 2m. 13d. He lived two months and thirteen days over sixty-three years, and died, as Suetonius says, in his 1 Sueton. Calig, 17, ' Dion, C, lib, lix, 29. ' Sueton. Claud. 2. < lb. 45. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 311 64th year. Again : Caligula died Jan, 24, A,j,p, 4753, a.d. 40. Therefore 4765y. 9m. 13d. — 4752y. Om. 24d, = 13y, 8m. 20d.as the length of the reign of Claudius ; and this accords exactly with Dion's computation.' It agrees also with the corrected list of con suls, as we shall now proceed to show. A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME, Y. M. D. 4753 40 Caligula iv. and Saturnlnus from Jan. 24 to Dec. 31 0 11 7 4754 41 Claudius ii. and Largus one y ear 0 0 4755 42 Claudius m. and Vitellius ii. » 0 0 4756 43 Crispinus IL and Taurus ) 0 0 4757 44 Vinicius ii. and Corvinus » 0 0 4758 45 Valerius Asiat. il and Silanus 11 0 0 4759 46 Claudius IV. and Vitellius ill. 1 0 0 4760 47 A. Vitellius and Vipsanius Poplicola 1 0 0 4761 48 Veranius and Gallus , 0 0 4762 49 Vetus and Nervilianus » 0 0 4763 50 Claudius V. and Orphitus » 0 0 4764 51 Salla Faustus and Otho Titianus ) 0 0 4765 52 Jnnius Silanus and Haterius Antoninus 0 0 4^66 53 Marcellus and Aviola from Jan. I to Oct, 13 0 9 13 13 8 20 Nero Claudius Cjesar was born at Antium, December 15th (xviii. cal. Jan.) in the con sulship of Acerronius Proculus and Pontius Nigrinus,^ nine months after the death of Tiberius. His birth took place therefore A.J.P. 4749, Ref. Cal. Jul. Cses. 81, a.d. 36; and being in December, it was on the 25th day of the eighth month of a.u.c 789. His reign is to be dated from the death of Claudius, though that death was concealed for a time. Nero therefore Y. M. D. Began to reign A.J.P. 4765. a.d. 52 9 14 or October 1 4th, a.d. 53, He was born a,j.p, 4748, a.d, 35 II 15 or Deeemb, I5th, a,d, 36, He was therefore 16 9 29 or wanting two months and one or two days to complete his seventeenth year. It is remarkable that Suetonius departs from his usual practice by not mentioning the day of Nero's death and the consulship under which It happened. He says only that " he died in the thirty- second year of his age, on the same day in which he had formerly killed Octavia.'" Authors, therefore, are by no means agreed as to his age at the time of his death, and consequently the duration of his reign. Eutropius says that he died in the thirty- first year 1 Lib. lx. 34. ' Suet, Nero, c, 6. die quo quondam Octaviam interemerat, — ' Obiit secundo tricesimo Eetatis anno, Suet, Nero, 57. 312 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART L of his age.' Dion Cassius says more accurately that " he lived thirty years and nine months, of which he reigned thirteen years and eight months."^ Happily the last-mentioned historian has, in another place, furnished us with a clue, by which we can arrive at the day of Nero's death. " From the death of Nero to the reiga of Vespasian, was one year and twenty-two days.'" Now Sue tonius mentions* that the l^ions were induced to swear alle giance to Vespasian by Tiberius Alexander, praefect of Egypt, on the first day of July, and that this was afterwards ob served as the beginning of his reign.^ From the first of July, therefore, must we reckon back the period between his acces sion and Nero's death ; and as that period was twenty-two days over a solid year, we count back twenty-two days from the first of July, and find, if we exclude both extremes, that Nero died on the eighth of June. If we exclude one of the extremes only, the death of Nero will fall on the ninth of June. Dion Cassius, as we have seen, makes his reign thirteen years and eight months ; Josephus, thirteen years and eight days f Sextus Aurelius Victor says that he reigned thirteen years ; Eutropius, fourteen ; Sueto nius, a little less than fourteen.^ St. Theophilus of Antioch, 13y. 6m. 28d. ; St. Clemens Alexandrinus, 13y. 8m. 28d. ; Cas siodorus, 13y. 7m. 28d. With these authorities before us, we pro ceed to examine the length of his reign by the consulships. A.J.P. A.D. coNsmiS. TIME. Y. M. D. 4766 53 Marcellus and Aviola from Got, 14 to Deo. 31 0 2 1& 4767 54 Nero and Antistius Veins one year 0 0 4768 55 Satuminus and Scipio If 0 o 4769 56 Nero IL and Calpurnius Piso » 0 0 4770 57 Nero m, and Messalla Corvinus n 0 0 4771 58 Apronianus and Capito y 0 0 4772 59 Nero rv, and C. Cossus Lentulus f 0 0 4773 60 Psetus and Turpilianus > 0 0 4774 61 Marius Celsus and Asinius Gallus , 0 0 4/75 62 Eufus and Regulus » 0 0 4776 63 Crassus Frugi and Lsecanius Bassus , 0 0 4777 64 Nerva and Vestinus , 0 0 4778 65 Telesinus and Suetonius , 0 0 4779 66 Fonteius Capito and Eufus , 0 0 4780 67 Silius Italicus & Trachalus Turpilianus fr.Ja n. t to Jun. 9 0 5 9 13 7 27 ' Trigesimo et altero aetatis anno, — Bre- ' " Tiberius Alexandter, prsefectus JE- viar, lib, vii, 15, Verheyk, hisDutch com- gypti, primus in verba Vespasiani legiones mentator, endeavours to force his author adegit Kalendis Julii i qui principatus. into conformity with Suetonius, by main- dies in posterum observatus est." taining that "altero" means "seeundo"! " Bel. Jud. lib, iv, u, 9, sec, 2;. ' Lib, Ixiii, 29, ' Paulloi minus quatuordecim aimos. — ' Dion. C, Ixvi, 19. * Suet. Vesp. c, 6. Sueton. Nero. 40 CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 313 If then we add his age when he began to reign to the length of his reign, that is 16y. 9m. 29d.-)-13y. 7m. 27d., we shall have his age at the time of his death, 30y. 5m. 26d,, which is three months and four days less than the computation of Dion Cassius. If the date of his birth in Suetonius be correct, I see not how we can arrive at any other conclusion. G-ALBA, Otho and Vitellius. Servius Sulpicius Galea was born December 24th. (ix. cal. •Ian.) in the consulship of M. Valerius Messalla and Cneius Len tulus.' He perished, according to the same author, in the seventy-third year of his age and the seventh month of his reign. ^ Dion Cassius gives a different account. " Galba," he says, " lived seventy-two years, and reigned nine months and thirteen days."' Eutropius follows Suetonius, both as to his age and the length of his reign. The other historians speak only of the latter. Cas siodorus and the Chronicon Paschale say seven months. Tacitus puts into the mouth of Otho, exciting the soldiers against Galba, that seven months were then passed since the death of Nero.^ St, Clemens Alexandrinus says, seven months and six days ; Josephus and Aurelius Victor, seven months and seven days; St. Theophilus of Antioch, two years, seven months, and six days, being misled probably by the erroneous accounts of Galba's age. Amid this discordance, we must have recourse to computation. The accuracy of Tacitus' makes it certain that Galba was slain on the fifteenth of January (xviii. calendas Februarii) in the year of his second consulship with Titus Vinius Rufinus ; that is, as we have seen, a.d. 68, a.j.p. 4781, three months and six days before the end of a.u.c 820. The death of Nero took place June 9th, a.j.p. 4780. The two sums, therefore, may be stated thus : — 4780 0 15 or Jan. 15, 4781, —4779 5 9 or June 9,4780, 0 7 6 The difference is the length of Galba's reign, reckoning from the death of Nero ; and it accords with the computation of Clemens ' Sueton, Galba 4, ¦¦ Septem a Neronis fine menses sunt, — • Ibid. c. 23, Tac, Hist. lib. i. u. 37. • Lib. lxiv, c, 5, = Hist, i. 27, 40 314 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [pART I. of Alexandria. The age of Galba at the time of his death may be ascertained thus : he was born Dec. 24th, in the consulship of Messalla and Lentulus, or a.j.p. 4710, the year in which Herod the Great died. Before his birth 4709 years 11 months and 23 days had elapsed. These deducted from 4780y. Om. 15d. the date of his death, give seventy years and twenty-two days as the exact term of his life, and not seventy-two or seventy-three years, as Dion and Suetonius asserted. M. Salvius Otho was born on the 28th of April, (iv. cal. Mali) when Camillus Arruntius, and Domitius Aenobarbus were con suls.' He killed himself, on the same authority,'' "in the thirty- eighth year of his age, and the ninety-fifth day of his empire." In this statement Eutropius follows him. But "Otho lived," says Dion, " thirty-seven years, wanting eleven days. He reigned ninety days.'" Tacitus says that he died in the thirty-seventh year of his age.* As to his reign,the Chronicon Paschale gives him six months ; St, Clemens of Alexandria, five months and one day ; St. Theophilus of Antioch and Cassiodorus, three months and five days, agreeing with Suetonius ; Josephus, three months and two days; and Aurelius Victor, three months or ninety days, as asserted by Dion. We must again have recourse to computation. The consulship of F. Camillus Arruntius Scribonianus and Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, coincided, as we have seen, with a.d. 31, a.j.p, 4744. As Otho was born on the 28th of April, the year of Rome 784 began eight days earlier. He killed himself during the night after the day following that on which his army was defeated by Vitellius.* His reign must be dated from the death of Galba, 4780y. Om. 15d. If we add three months and .five days to this sum, it brings us to 4780y. 3m. 20d,, or April 20, a,j,p. 4781, A.D. 68, which would be eight days before the completion of his thirty-seventh year. But as Dion says that he lived thirty-seven years wanting eleven days, his death may be placed in the night following the 17th of April; and consequently the battle took place April 16. Now, from 4780y. 3m. 17d. take 4780y. Om. 15d,, the date of Galba's death, and it leaves three months and two days, according to the accurate computation of Josephus,® as the utmost extent of Otho's reign. 1 Sueton, Otho, c, 2, tricesimo Eetatis anno, — Hist, lib, ii, c. 50, ' Sueton, Otho. u. 2. ' Lib, Lxiv. e. 85. » Tac. Hist, ii, 45-50, * Hunc vitse finem habuit scpliino et ° Bel, Oud. lib, iv. c, 9, s, 9. CHAP. XIl] to the YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 315 Aulus Vitellius, the son of Lucius, was born, says Suetonius,' September 24 (viii. cah Oct,), as some say, or, according to others, September 7 A.^ii. Idus Sept.), in the consulship of Drusus Caesar and Norbanus Flaccus. He perished, with his brother and his son, in the fifty-seventh year of his age.^ Tacitus also says, if there be no mistake In the text, that he had completed his fifty-seventh year.' Dion Cassius, on the other hand, says that he lived fifty- four years and eighty-nine days, and reigned one year wanting ten days."* Other chronicles speak only of the length of his reign. The Chronicon Paschale says he reigned ten months ; Eutropius and Cassiodorus, eight months and one day; Aurelius Victor, eight months ; Clemens of Alexandria, seven months and one day; Theo philus of Antioch, six months and twenty-two days. That Dion's account is the most accurate, will appear from the statements of the Latin historians themselves. The consulship of Drusus and Norbanus Flaccus coincided with a.j.p. 4727, Ref. Cal. Jul. Ca3s. 59. A.D. 14. All agree that Vitellius was killed in the year known as the consulship of Galba 11. and Titus Vinius Rufinus, a.j.p. 4781, A.D. 68. According to Suetonius, he was born September 24, or September 7, a.j.p. 4727. The preceding time, therefore, was : 4726 8 23 or 4726 8 6 54 2 28 54 2 28 Add 4780 II 21=Deo, 21, 4781,or4780 II 4=Dec, 4, 4781, Again : if the length of his reign was one year wanting ten days, it was exactly eleven months and twenty-one days. These being deducted from the time of his death, will give that of the com mencement of his reign : 4780 II 21 or 4780 II 4 Subtract II 21 11 21 4780 0 0=Jan. 1, 4781, or 4779 11 13=Dec, 13, 4780, That he died on the 21st of December, and not on the 4th of that month, and consequently that his reign is to be computed from the 1st of January a.j.p. 4781, a.d. 68, will appear, if I mistake not, from the narrative of Tacitus. And if we take the testimony of Dion, as to the age of Vitellius, when he died, it will necessarily follow, that he was born on the 24th, and not on the 7th of September. 1 Sueton. Vitellius, c. 3. ' lb. c. 18, _ annum explebat,— Hist, iii. 86. » Septimum et quinquagesimum aetatis * Dion, C, lxv, c. 22. 316 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. According to Tacitus,' Galba sent Vitellius to take command of the legions of lower Germany. Suetonius says the same ; and adds, that he was sent contrary to Galba's own opinion, and under the influence of his colleague, Titus Vinius, who was secretly Galba's enemy. A month had hardly elapsed before the army under Galba's command saluted him as emperor, and he was soon after proclaimed by the army of Upper Germany.^ Galba, having heard of the German revolt, though nothing certain concerning Vitellius, determined to adopt Piso ; and this adoption he announced to the army (iv. Idus Jan.) on the 10th of January. On the 15th of January (xviii. cal. Feb.), Piso, in his address to the soldiers, said that It was the sixth day of his adop tion.' In another place Tacitus expressly says, that the fourth and twenty-second legions in the upper army broke the images of Galba on the 1st of January, and that the legions In Lower Ger many, the first, fifth, fifteenth, and sixteenth, though less violent, were equally ready to revolt. In the night which followed the 1st of January, Vitellius, then at Cologne, was informed of the revolt of the upper army, and on the following day, through the prompt action of Fabius Valens, was saluted emperor by the lower army. To this the upper army acceded (iii. Non. Jan.) on the 3rd of January.* AU the discordant accounts of the other writers, arise from their assigning different dates to the beginning, and not the end of his reign. The time between the death of Nero, anr" that of Vitellius, was 4780 II 21 or Dec. 21, a,j,p. 4781. a.d, 68 — 4779 5 9 or June 9, a.j.p. 4780. a.d, 67 1 6 12 or 18 months and 12 days. The sum of the reigns of Galba and Otho (7.6 + 3.2) were ten months and eight days; and 18.12 — 10.8=8.4. Those historians, therefore, who computed from the death of Otho to that of Vitel lius, would call his reign eight months. All the incidental and intermediate dates accord with these arrangements of time. As soon as Vitellius heard of the death of Galba, he divided his forces, sending one body of them against Otho, while he advanced with the remainder.^ This movement > Hist, i. 9, ' Suet, Vitellius, c. 8, * Tac. Hist. i. 55-57, » Tac. Hist, i. 14, 18, 27-29. » Suet, Vitellius, 9, CHAP. XII.J TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 317 was probably about the 1st of February. The decisive battle with Otho, near Belriacum or Bedriacum, in the upper part of Italy, took place, as we have seen, on the 16th of April. Vitellius heard of this, while he was in Gaul.' On the 1st of July, Vespasian was proclaimed emperor at Alex andria, by the legions in Egypt, under the influence of Tiberius Alexander; and before the 15th of that month, all Syria had declared in his favour.^ On the 18th of July (xv. cal. Aug.) Vitellius was in Rome, where he assumed the office of supreme pontiff.' On the birth day of Vitellius (Sept. 24) he was still at Rome, and gladiatorial shows were exhibited with unwonted parade.^ The decisive battle of Cremona must have been fought on the 29th of October. It began about nine o'clock in the evening (tertia ferme noctis hora), and continued the whole night, " various, doubt ful, atrocious." The sun rose upon them as they were fighting.' Dion, who has given a most eloquent description of this battle, mentions a circumstance, omitted by Tacitus, which enables us to fix its date. " While this commotion existed in the army of Vitel lius, it was greatly increased by' an eclipse of the moon, which to their terrified minds seemed not only overshadowed, but to be black' and bloody, and to emit Other fearful colours. The soldiers, how ever, did not on this account desist from their purpose ; but when Primus [the general of Vespasian's army] sent messengers, they sent others, exhorting him to submit to Vitellius. This brought on a severe battle, though the soldiers of Vitellius were without a gene ral ; for Alienus [Csecina] was in chains in Cremona."^ At sunrise a panic seized the soldiers of Vitellius, and they fled to Cremona.^ By the tables of Pingre, it appears that a total eclipse of the moon took place a.d. 68, Oct. 29, at 6h. 30' a.m. The moon was then in the western horizon, and the approaching light of the sun in the east, and the exhalations In the west, pro duced the variety of colours by which the soldiers were terrified. After the battle, Cremona was taken by storm, and burned to the ground, when It had existed 286 years/ 1 Suet, Vitel, c. 10, Tac'Hist. ii, 57. » lb, iii. 22-24, ' Tac. Hist, ii. 79, 81, « Dion, Cass. lxv. c, IL • Tac. Hist. ii. 91, ' 16, c. 14, ' lb. ii. 95. » Tac, Hist, iii, 33. 318 FROM THE DEATH OP TIBERIUS [PART I. The 31st of October (Prid. cal. Nov.) Rosius Regulus was made consul for that single day.* On the 18th of December (xv. cal. Jan.) Vitellius, having heard of the defection of the legion and cohorts who had surrendered at Narni, departed from the palace in a mourning dress, accompanied by his family, as if he would deposit the regalia in the temple of Concord, and thus abdicate. But he afterwards returned, en couraged by the acclamations of the people present.^ He spent the night in quiet; but the next morning (Dec. 19) Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian, sent him a message complaining that he had acted with bad faith in not resigning.' The capitol was burned by the fury of the soldiers ; but it is un certain by which party.* Domitian, the son of Vespasian, made his escape; while Sabinus and the consul Atticus were loaded with chains and conducted into the presence of Vitellius. Atticus was spared, but Sabinus cruelly put to death.* These events must have taken place on the 20th of December. The army of Vespasian left Narni on the festival of the Satur nalia (Dec. 17), but did not arrive till the capitol was burned.^ Vitellius sent out the vestal virgins, with letters, asking a respite for one day ; but he received for answer, that the death of Sabinus and the conflagration of the capitol had precluded all parley.' The city being taken by Vespasian's army, Vitellius was dragged from the privy in which he had concealed himself, and ignomlniously put to death.* It is evident from this narrative that Dion's calculations are scru pulously correct, and that we must place the death of Vitellius on the 2 1 st of December, a.d. 68. The reign of Vespasian, however, is not tobe dated from the death of Vitellius, but from the first of July, when he was first saluted emperor. The passage in Dion, to which allusion has before been made, says expressly "that one year and twenty-two days elapsed from the death of Nero to the reign of Vespasian," " I have written this," he adds, " that some should not be deceived, who make the calculation of time with regard to those who held the government. For they did not succeed one another ; but while another was living and still reigning, each be lieved that he was emperor from the time in which he applied hlm- ' Tac. Hist. iii. 37. ' lb. iii. 67, W. » lb, 74. « lb, iii. 78, 79. •lb. 69 70, 'lb. 7172. 'Ib.iii.,81. » lb, iii, 85. CHAP. XIL ] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 319 self to that thing. All the days of each are not to be reckoned as succeeding one another, but, as I have said, must be computed altogether, for the accurate adjustment of time."' T. Flavius Vespasianus was born (xv. cal. Deeemb.) in the evening of the 17th of No vember, In the consulship of Q. Sulpicius Camerinus and C. Pop pseus Sabinus, the fifth year before the death of Augustus.^ This was A.J.P. 4721, Ref. Cal. Juh Cfesar 53, A.D. 8. He was pro claimed emperor at Alexandria on the 1st of July, In the consul ship of Serv. Sulpicius Galba ii and T. Vinius Rufinus, A.J.P. 4781, A.D, 68. While at Alexandria, he heard of the death of Vitellius.' Dion says that he was created emperor by the senate, and his sons, Titus and Domitian, csesars ; that Vespasian and Titus received the consulship, the one being in Egypt and the other in Palestine ; and that while Vespasian was in Egypt, Mucianus and Domitian administered the affairs of the empire.'' The consulship of which Dion speaks was that of A,J,P, 4782, a,d, 69, Vespasianus li, Titus II. " In his ninth consulship," says Suetonius, " he attempted to go by easy journeys into Campania, but soon returned to the city, and went to his country seat at Cutlllse, where he usually spent his summers. Here he died, on the 23rd of June (ix. cal. Jul.), having lived seven months and seven days over his sixty-ninth year,"* He also affirms,^ that Vespasian and his two sons reigned the same number of years as the united sum of the reigns of Claudius and Nero. Dion says, that he lived sixty-nine years and eight months, and reigned ten years wanting six days.' Eutropius says, that he reigned nine years and seven days ; Clemens of Alex andria, eleven years, eleven months, and twenty-two days ; Theo philus of Antioch and Cassiodorus, nine years, eleven months, and twenty-two days ; Aurelius Victor, ten years ; and the Chronicon Paschale, nine years. As Suetonius mentions that he died in his ninth consulship, our computation of the length of his reign must first be made by the ist of consuls. ' Dion Cass, lib, Ixvi. c. 17. ' Annum gerens atatis sexagesimum ac ' Suet. Vesp. c. 2, nonum, superque mensem ac diem septi- ' lb. c, 7, mum. — Suet. Vesp. c. 24. * Hist. Eom. lib, Ixvi, c, 1. 2. « C. 23. ' Dion C. Ixvi. c, 17. 320 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART L CONSULS, TIME, Ser, Sulpicius Galba ii, & T, Vinius Eufinus, from Jul. 1 to Dec. 310 T. Flavius Vespasianus ii. and Titus CiEsar il one year T. F. Vespasianus m. and M. C. Nerva „ T. F. Vespasianus iv, and Titus Csesar li. „ Domitianus ii, and Messalinus „ T. F, Vespasianus v, and Titus Csesar in, „ T, F. Vespasianus vi. and TituS Csesar iv, „ T, F, Vespasianus vn, and Titus Csesar v, „ T, F. Vespasianus vin, and Titus Ceesar vi, „ C. Cejonius Commodus and D. Novius Priscus „ T. F. Vespasianus ix, and Titus Csesar vn June 1 to June 23 He reigned therefore ten years wanting seven days, or 9 11 23 To ascertain his age, we must take the date of his birth from that of his death. Vespasian died 4790 5 23 or June 23 a.j.p, 4791, a.d. 78. Time preceding his birth 4720 10 16 or Nov, 16 „ 4721, a.d. 8. 69 7 7 a,j,p. A.D. 4781 68 4782 69 4783 70 4784 71 4785 72 4786 73 4787 74 4788 75 4789 76 4790 77 4791 78 T, 31, D, 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 23 Suetonius is, therefore, right as to his age. Titus Flavius Vespasianus " was born," says Suetonius, " on the third before the calends of January, of that year which was rendered memorable by the assassination of Caligula." ' I take the January here spoken of, to be that of the year in which Caligula was killed, and not of the year after; of a.j.p, 4753, a.d. 40, and not of a.j.p. 4754, a.d. 41. If this be correct, Titus was born December 30, a.j.p. 4752, a.d. 39. My reasons for this will be more apparent, when we come to compute his age. He succeeded his father June 24tli, a.j.p. 4791, A,D. 78; and "he died," says Suetonius, "at the same villa where his father expired, on the ides of September (Sept. 13), two years, two months, and twenty days after he had succeeded his father, and in the forty-first year of his age."^ There is but little difference among historians as to the length of his reign. The Chronicon Paschale says, merely two years ; St. Theophilus of Antioch, two years and twenty-two days ; Cas siodorus and Clemens of Alexandria, two years and two months ; Aurelius Victor and Dion Cassius agree with Suetonius, two years, ' Natus est iii, calendas Jan. insigni anno Caiana nece,— Suet, Titus, u, 1, ' lb. c. 1 1, CHAP. XIl] to the year WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 321 two months, and twenty days. Eutropius alone has two years, eight months, and twenty days ; but this, I presume, is an error in his text, as he generally follows Suetonius. The computation by consuls is as follows : A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME, T, M, D, 4791 78 T, F, Vespasianus ix, and Titus Caesar vn, June 24 to Deo. 31 0 6 7 4792 79 Titus Imp. Aug. vin, and Fl, Domitianus Cses, vii, one year 10 0 4793 80 L, F, Silva Nonius & Asinius Pollio Verrucosus Jan, I to Sep, 13 0 8 13 2 2 20 His age at the time of his death Is thus determined : Titus died 4792 8 13 or September 13, 4793, a,d, 80. Time before his birth 4751 1129 or December 29, 4752, „ 39, 40 8 15 He wanted, therefore, three months and a half to complete his forty-first year. T. Flavius Domitianus was born October 24th (Ix. kai. Nov.), when his father was de signated consul, and was to enter on the dignity the following month.' As this consulship was substituted for the last two months of the year only, it does not furnish us with a date, as it would have done if his father had been the ordinary consul of that year, " He was slain," says Suetonius, " on the 18th of September (xiv. kai. Octob.), in the forty-fifth year of his age, and the fifteenth of his reign, "^ " Domitian lived," says Dion, " forty-four years, ten months, and twenty-six days, and reigned fifteen years and five days." The historians vary about the length of his reign. The Chronicon Paschale makes it sixteen years ; St. Clemens of Alexan dria, fifteen years, eight months, and five days ; St. Theophilus of Antioch, fifteen years, five months, and six days ; Cassiodorus, fifteen years and five months; Aurelius Victor and Eutropius, fifteen years. A,J.P. A.D, CONSBLS. TIME. Y. M, D. 4793 80 Silva Nonius and Asinius Pollio Verrucosus Sep. 14 to Dec. 31 0 3 17 4794 81 Flav. Domitianus Imp. vm. and T. F. Sabinus one year 10 0 4795 82 Fl, Domitianus Imp, ix, and Petilius Eufus ll, „ 10 0 4796 83 Fl, Domitianus Imp, x. and T, Aurelius Sabinus „ 10 0 4797 84 Fl, Domitianus Imp, xi, and T, Aurelius Fulvius „ 10 0 Carried over 4 3 17 ' Sueton, Domit, c, 1. 'lb, Domit, c. 17, 41 322 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. coNSnLS. Brought over Fl. Domitianns Imp, xn, and S, Corn. Dolabella one year Fl. Domitianus Imp. xm, and Q. Volusius Satuminus „ Fl, Domitianus Imp, xiv, and L. Minucius Eufus „ T. Aur, Fulvius n, and A, Sempron, Atratinus „ Fl, Domitianus Imp. xv. and M. Cocceius Nerva „ M. Ulpius Trajanus and M. Acilius Glabrio „ Fl. Domitianus Imp. xvi. and Q. Volusius Saturnlnus „ Pompeius Collega and Cornelius Priscus „ Asprenas and Clemens or Lateranus „ Fl. Domitianus Imp. xvii. and T. Flavius Clemens n. C. Antistius Vetus and C. Manlius Valens from Jan, 1 to Sep, 18 0 15 0 5 The date of his birth, and the length of his life, may be thus computed : he was born on the 24th of October, and was put to death September 18th, in the forty-fifth year of his age. He would, therefore, have completed his forty-fifth year on the 23rd of Octo ber, A.J.P. 4808, A.D. 95. Therefore, from 4807 9 23 or Oct. 23d. 4808 Subtract 45 4762 9 23 A.J.P. A.D, 4798 85 4799 86 4800 87 4801 88 4802 89 4803 90 4804 91 4805 92 4806 93 4807 94 4808 95 4 3 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 8 18 He was, therefore, born October 24, 4763, A.D. 50. His father Vespasian was then designated consul, and was to enter on that dignity the 1st of November. That was the year in which the emperor Claudius v. and Orphitus were the ordinary consuls. Now, from the date of Domitian's death, 4807 8 18 or Sep. 18, 4808, a,d. 95, Take the time before his birth 4762 9 23 or Oct, 23, 4763, „ 50. 44 10 26 and you have his exact age, just as it is stated by Dion Cassius. M. Cocceius Nerva. The lights of Tacitus and Suetonius being now withdrawn, and Dion Cassius known to us only through the meagre abridgment of Xiphilinus, we are left comparatively In the dark with regard to that peaceful and happy period of Roman history, which continued from the accession of Nerva to the death of the Antonines. Never theless, we have light enough, from the feeble and glimmering rays of the later chroniclers, to pursue our way along the current of time. chap. XIl] to THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 323 Nerva succeeded Domitian September 19th, in the consulship of Caius Antistius Vetus and Caius Manlius Valens, A.J.P. 4808, A.D. 95. There is a difference of only two days in the most exact statements of the length of his reign. Dion Cassius, one year, four months, and nine days ; Eutropius, one year, four months, and eight days ; St. Theophilus of Antioch, St. Clemens of Alexandria, and Aurelius Victor, one year, four months, and ten days ; Cassio dorus, one year and four months ; and the Chronicon Paschale, one year. We will take Dion's account as the mean. The one year was from September 19th, A.J.P. 4808, to September 18th, 4809. The four months were as follows : I, From September 19, 4809 to October 18, 30 days 2, From October 19, •„ to November 18, 31 „ 3, From November 19, „ to December 18, 30 „ 4, From December 19, „ to Jan, 18, 4810, 31 „ 122 From January 19 to Jan. 27, 4810 inclusive, 9 days 9 131 Therefore, Nerva died on the 27th of January, a.j.p. 4810, a.d. 97 ; and Trajan succeeded him on the 28th of Jan. of that year, a,j,p. a,d, consuls. time, t. M, D, 4808 95 C. Antistius Vetus and C, Manlius Valens fr, Sep, 19 to Dec, 31 0 3 12 4809 96 Imp. Nerva m. and Verginius Eufus III. one year 10 0 4810 97 M. C. Nerva Imp, iv. and Ulpius Trajanus CffiS. ii, Jan. 1 to 27 0 0 27 I 4 9 As Nerva died on the twenty-seventh day of his consulship, it Is easy to perceive why the Chronicon Paschale says Trajanus Augustus alone. M. Ulpius Trajanus. Trajan's sole reign began, as we have seen, January 28, a.j.p. 48 10, A.D. 97. Sextus Aurelius Victor says that he reigned twenty, and the Chronicon Paschale, nineteen years. The other lists vary but little between these extremes. St. Clemens Alexandrinus says, nineteen years, seven months, and fifteen days ; but, as he agrees with the other lists, excepting in the number of the months, it is probable that some error has crept Into his text. St. Theophilus of Antioch says, nineteen years, six months, and sixteen days ; Dion Cassius, Eutropius, and Cassiodorus, agree that Trajan reigned 324 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. nineteen years, six months, and fifteen days. Assuming these numbers as the most probable, we arrive at the date of his death in the following manner : Nerva died 4809 0 27 or Jan. 27, A.J.P, 4810, a.d, 97. Add for Trajan's reign 19 6 15 4828 7 11, or Aug. 11, A.J.P, 4829, a.d. 116. The testimony given by the list of consuls, is as follows : CONSCLS. TIME. Y, M. D. Nerva Imp, Aug, iv, and Ulp, Traj, Cses, n, Jan, 28 to Dec, 310 11 4 A. Cornelius Palma, and C. Sosius Senecio one year 10 0 M. Ulp. Traj, Imp, Aug, iii, and S, Julius Frontinus tn, 10 0 M. Ulp, Traj, Imp, Aug, iv, and S, Articuleius Psetus 10 0 C, Sosius Senecio in. and L, Licinius Sura n. „ 10 0 M, Ulp, Traj, Imp, Aug, v. and Maximus „ 10 0 Suburanus n, and Marcellus „ 10 0 Tib. Julius Candidus and C, Quadratus „ 10 0 L, C. jElius Commodus Verus and L, Tutius Cerealia 10 0 L. Licinius Sura ni. and C. Sosius Senecio iv. „ 10 0 Ap. An. Trebonius Gallus and M. Atil. Metil. Bradua 10 0 A. Cornelius Palma n, and C, Calvisius Tullus li, „ 10 0 Ser. Salvidienus Orfitus and M. Peducseus Priscinus 10 0 C. Calpurnius Piso and M, Vettius Bolanus „ 10 0 M. Ulp. Traj. Imp. Aug, vi, and T, Sextius Africanus 10 0 L, Publicius Celsus n, and X, Clodius Crispinus „ 10 0 Q, Ninnius Hasta and P, Manilius Vopiscus „ 10 0 L, Vipstanius MessaUa and M, Vergilianus Pedo „ 10 0 L. ..ffilius Lamia and — .Mianus Vetus „ 10 0 — Quinctius Niger & C, Vipstanius Apronianus Jan, I to Aug, 110 7 11 19 6 15 , These calculations have been made independent of any other testimony than the several writers who give the length of Trajan's reign ; but that they are accurate, appears from Spartian's life of Adrian, That historian says, that Adrian, being legate of Syria, received letters of adoption on the ninth of August (v. Idus Aug.), and that on the eleventh of August (iii. Idus Aug.) he received the news of the death of Trajan.' The exact date of the death of Trajan was concealed. He died at Selinus, or Trajanopolls, in CillcIa, on his way to Rome, while Adrian was at Antioch. It did not take long, therefore, to convey the news of his death to Adrian, and the latter was immediately proclaimed emperor. jElius Hadrianus, or Adrianus, as his name is written with or without the aspirate by different ' Hist. Aug, SS, ed, Salmasii, Paris, 1620, A,J,P, A,D, 4810 97 4811 98 4812 99 4813 100 4814 101 4815 102 4816 103 4817 104 4818 105 4819 106 4820 107 4821 108 4822 109 4823 110 4824 Ul 4825 112 4825 113 4827 114 4828 115 4829 116 CHAP. XIl] to the YEAR WHEN CENSOEINUS WROTE. 325 historians, was born at Rome, according to Spartian, on the 24th of January (ix. cal. Febr.) when Vespasian vii. and Titus V. were consuls, or A.J.P. 4788, a.d. 75. His age on the eleventh of August A.J.P. 4829, a.d. 116, when he was proclaimed emperor, was, therefore, a.j.p. 4828y. 7m. lid.— -4787y. Om. 23d. = 41y. 6m. 19d. Sextus Aurelius Victor makes his reign 22 years ; Eutropius, 21y, 10m, 29d, ; the Chronicon Paschale, 21 years; Dion Cassius, 20y, 11m.; Clemens Alex., and Theoph. Antioch. 20y. 10m. 28d,; and Cassiodorus, 20y. 10m, 19d. Spartian says that he lived 72 years, 5 months, and 17 days, and reigned 21 years and 11 months. He states also that Adrian died at Baiffi, on the 10th of July.' Dion, on the other hand, aflSrms that " he lived 62 years, 5 months, 19 days."^ According to Spartian's own testimony, he could not have been 72 years old; for if we add 21 years and 11 months, which Spartian says was the length of his reign, to his age when he began to reign, according to the same author's account of the year when he was born, it will produce the following result: 41. 6. 19. + 21. 11. = 63. 5. 19. This shows that the text of Spartian is corrupt. Instead of " Vixit annis Ixxil." &c., and "Imperavit annis xxi." &c,, it should read, Vixit annis lxii. — Imperavit annis xx. With this emendation, it nearly agrees with Dion, and will be found to harmonize with the list of consuls. A.J.P, A,D. CONSCLS. TIME. T, M, D. 4829 116 Quinctius Niger and C.Vipst Apronianus fr. Aug. 11 to Dec. 31 0 4 21 4830 117 .SLHadrianusImp. and Tib. Claud. Fuscus Salinator 1 year 10 0 4831 118 .ffil. Hadr. Imp. Aug. n. and Q. Junius Eusticus „ 10 0 4832 119 L. Catilius Severus and T. Aurel. Fulv. Antoninus „ 10 0 4833 120 Annius Verus II. and Aurelius Augur „ 10 0 4834 121 Manius Acilius Aviola and C, Cornelius Pansa „ 10 0 4835 122 Q. Arrius Psetinus and C. Ventidius Apronianus „ 10 0 4836 123 M. Acilius Glabrio and C. Bellicius Torquatus „ 10 0 4837 124 P. Corn. Scipio Asiatic, ii. and Q. Vettius Aquilinus „ 10 0 4838 125 M. Annius Verus m. and L. Varius Ambibulus „ 10 0 4839 126 Titianus and Gallicanus „ 10 0 4840 127 L, Non, Aspr, Torquatus n, and M, Annius Libo „ 10 0 4841 128 Q, Julius Balbus and P. Juventius Celsus It. „ 10 0 4842 129 Q. Fabius Catullinus and M, Flavius Aper. „ 10 0 4843 130 Ser. Oct, Lsenas Pontianus and M. Antonius Eufinus „ 10 0 4844 131 .. Sentius Augurinus and ,, Sergianus or Severianus ,. 10 0 4845 132 . , Antonius Hiberus and . . Nummius Sisenna .„ 10 0 4846 133 C. Julius Servianus m, and C. Vibius Varus „ 10 0 4847 134 Pontianus and Atilianus „ 10 0 4848 135 L. Cejon. Com. Verus & Sex. Vet. Civica Pompeianus „ 10 0 4849 136 L, JElius Verus Cess. ii. and P, Cselius Balbin. Vibulus 1 0 0 4850 137 Camerinus and Niger from Jan. 1 to July 10 0 6 10 20 11 0 ' Apud ipsas Baias periit die sexto Iduum Juliarum, — ^H, Aug. SS, 12. ' lxix, 23. 326 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [pART I. The difference of two days between the amended text of Spar tian and Dion's account of Adrian's age, may easily be accounted for from their different modes of computation. Adrian died on the , 10th of July A.J.P. 4850, and was born on the 24th of January A.J.P. 4788. Therefore, from the day of his death, 4849 6 10 reckoning 30 days to the month subtract 4787 0 23 the time before his birtb. and it gives 62 5 17 as the length of his life, or 62 years, 5 months, and 17 days. Dion makes 19 days instead of 17, which is thus obtained. From the date of Trajan's death, 4828 7 11 reckoning 31 days to the month, subtract 4787 0 23 and it gives 41 6 19 his age when he began to reign, add 20 11 0 the length of his reign, and it gives 62 5 19 as his age. The difference Is not great; but it arises from reckoning 31 days to the month in one case, and 30 in the other ; and from counting August 11 twice, — first, as the day of Trajan's death, and then as the commencement of Adrian's reign. Titus Aurelius Antoninus Pius. It is among the most extraordinary facts in history, that such an emperor as Antoninus Pius should be one of those of whom least is known. Xiphilinus observes, " that the history of Antoninus Pius is not found in the copies of Dion. It would seem that his books have somewhat suffered; so that almost the whole history concerning Antoninus is unknown." ' Nothing can be more jejune than the life of this emperor by Julius Capitolinus. All that we can do, is to gather up the scanty gleanings ; and the very discord ancy as to the length of his reign, shows the ignorance of the writers. He was born, says Julius Capitolinus, in the consulship of Domitian xii. and Cornelius Dolabella, on the 19th of September (xiii. cal. Octob.); and the same author says that he died in his 70th year.^ That this is a gross mistake, will soon be evident, Eutropius says that he died in the 73rd year of his age, and the 23rd of his reign.^ Xiphilinus says that he reigned 24 years; ' Lib, lxx, ' Exiit anno septuagesimo. ' Obiit. .vitJe anno Lxxiii, imperii xxin. CHAP, XIl] to THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 327 St, Clemens Alex, 22y. 3m. 7d, ; St. Theoph. of Antioch, 22y,7m, 6d. ; AureUus Victor and the Chronicon Paschale, 23 years; Orosius, not full 23 years ; Cassiodorus, 21 years. It is impossible to recon cile these conflicting statements ; and the only method of arriving at the date of his death, is to count back from the succeeding reigns. In this way, we shall soon be able to see that he died on the sixth of March a.d. 160. It will be seen by the list of consuls, that he did not live beyond that year; and, therefore, assuming for the present what I hope soon to prove, I proceed to give the evidence of the length of his reisrn which that list contains : A.J.P. A.D, CONSULS, TIME. Y. M, D. 4850 137 Camerinus and Niger from July 1 1 to Dec 3 1 0 5 21 4851 138 Antoninus Pius, Imp. Aug. ii. and Bruttius Praesens ii. one year 0 0 4852 139 Antoninus Pius, Imp. Aug, in, & M, ^1, Aurel, Ver. Cses. , 0 0 4853 140 M. Peducseus Syloga Priscinus and T. Hoenius Severus , 0 0 4854 141 L, Cuspius Eufinus and L. Statins Quadratus , 0 0 4855 142 C. Bellicius Torquatus and Tib. Claud. Herodes Atticus , 0 0 4856 143 P, Lollianus Avitus and C. Gavius Maximus , 0 0 4857 144 Antoninus Pius, Imp. Aug. iv. and M. Ml. Aurel, Cses, n, , 0 0 4858 145 Sex, Erucius Clarus and Cn, Claudius Severus , 0 0 4859 146 Largus and Messalinus , 0 0 4860 147 Torquatus in, and Julianus , 0 0 4861 148 Orfitus and Priscus , 0 0 4862 149 ,,....,, Glabrio or Gallienus and Vetus , 0 0 4863 150 Condianus or Gordianus and Maximus , 0 0 4864 151 Glabrio and Homulus , 0 0 4865 152 Bruttius PrsEsens [iii. ?] and Junius Eufinus , 0 0 4866 153 Commodus and Lateranus , 0 0 4867 154 Severus and Sabinianus , 0 0 4868 155 Silvanus and Augurinus , 0 0 4869 156 Barbatus and Eegulus , 0 0 4870 157 Tertullus and Sacerdos , 0 0 4871 158 Quintilius and Priscus , 0 0 4872 159 App. Annius Atilius Bradua and T. Clodius Vibius Varus , 0 0 4873 160 Ante. Pius, Imp. Aug. v. & M ^1, Aurel, Cses, in, Jan, 1 to Mar. 6 0 2 6 22 7 27 This computation, it will be seen, accords with St, Theophilus of Antioch as to the years and months, and with St. Clemens of Alex andria as to the years. It differs from the computation given by Clemens, 4 months and 20 days, and from that of Theophilus, 21 days. Any one acquainted with Greek manuscripts knows that the omission of a letter, or the substitution of one letter for another, by the carelessness of transcribers, makes an important change in 328 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [pART I. numbers. We may thus readily admit the supposition that the original text of Clemens read, KJi. i. k^, and not k/3. y. i; and that the text of Theophilus was k/3. f . kt. In this case, there may have been a difference of one day in their computations. Theophilus lived in the reign of Commodus ; and Clemens, in that of Septlmius Severus. They were, therefore, nearer to the reign of Antoninus Pius than any other writers on whom we have now to rely. They alone give the length of his reign with ai y precision. If we follow their text as It now stands, we arrive at the middle of February, A.D. 160, as the time of his death ; and this shows clearly, that the consulship of that year, which modern critics have suppressed, is absolutely necessary to the accurate calculation of his reign. Its length could not have been twenty-four years, as Xiphilinus has asserted ; for then his death would have taken place in the consul ship of the two Augusti, that is, after the associate reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus had begun. Julius Capitolinus, in his life of Marcus Aurelius, expressly says, that "After the death of Pius, Lucius Aurelius Verus Commodus became the partner of Marcus in the empire, and that then, for the first time, the Roman empire began to have two Augusti," or, In other words, " two em perors."' On the other hand, the death of Antoninus Pius could not have occurred in the consulship of Bradua and Varus ; for then he would have reigned less than twenty-two years, contrary to the whole current of authority, with the exception of Cassiodorus, who, most inaccurately, makes his reign twenty-one, and his age seventy- seven, years. His mistake is occasioned by placing the death of Hadrian too late in the consulship of Rufinus and Quadratus, and by other inaccuracies in the series of consuls, which will be best seen by comparing his list with the corrected list. The reign of Antoninus Pius being considered as terminating on the 6th of March, A.J.P. 4873, A.D. 160, and his birth having been on the 19th of September, in the consulship of Domitian xil. and Dolabella, or a.j.p. 4798, a.d. 85, the difference of those dates gives his age, at the time of his death, as follows : ' Post excessum divi Pii a Senatu coac- dixit, atque ex eo pariter coeperunt rem- tus regimen publicum capere, fratrem sibi publicam agere, Tuncque pnmum Eoma- participem in imperio designavit; quem num Imperium duos Augustus habere coe- Lucium Aurelium Verum Commodum pit.— Hist. Aug. Scriptores, ed, Salmas, appellavit, Cajsaremque atque Augustum 1620, p. 25, CHAP, X.L] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 329 4872 2 6 or March 6, a.j.p. 4873 4797 8 18 or September 18, 4798 74 22 5 18 7 27 age ivhen he died, age when he began to reign, 51 9 22 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. There is only a difference of one day in the statements of St.Theo- phllus of Antioch, St, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Xiphilinus, as to the length of this emperor's reign. The narrative of Dion, not extant In the former reign, was found and abridged, as to this, by Xiphilinus. He states, therefore, on the authority of Dion, that Marcus died on the 17th of March (xvi. kai. April.) ; that he reigned, after the death of Antoninus, nineteen years and eleven days ; and that he lived fifty-eight years, ten months, and twenty- two days.' He was born at Rome, according to Julius Capito linus, on the 26th of April (vi. kai. Maias), when Annius Verus il. and Augur were consuls,^ i.e. A.J,P. 4833, A.D, 120. This agrees perfectly with the computation of Dion Cassius ; for a.j.p. 4832. 3m. 25d.-)-58. 10m. 22d.=4891. 2m. 17d. or March 17th, A.J.P. 4892, A.D, 179, as the day on which Marcus Aurelius died. This date being obtained, by subtracting the length of his reign from it, we learn the date of the death of Antoninus Pius. Thus 4891. 2m. 17d.— 19, Om, lld.=4872. 2m. 6d. or March 6th, a.lp. 4873, A.D. 160, the date of his death assumed in the computation of his reign. The length of the reign of Marcus Aurelius, as arranged by consulships, is as follows : A.J.P. A.D. 4873 160 4874 161 oney 48754876 48774878487948804881 162163 164165 166167168 CONSOLS, TIME, Anton. Pins, Imp. Aug. v. & M. Aurel. Cses. in. Mar. 7 to Dec. 3 1 The two Augusti, or M. Aurelius Antoninus, Imp. IV. and L. jElius Verus, Imp, n, ,.. Eusticus and ... Aquilinus L. .ffilianus and ... Pastor ,,, Macrinus aud ... Celsus .., Orfitus and ,,, Pudens Servilius Pudens and ,,. Pollio L, Aurelius Verus iiL and ,., Quadratus ,,. Apronianus and ... Paulus V, M. D. 0 9 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Carried over 8 9 25 ' Lib. Ixxi. 33, 34, ' Avo suo iterum et Augure Coss, 42 330 FROM the death of TIBERIUS [^ART I. Brought over 8 9 25 4882 169 . Priscus and ,,, ApoUinaris one year 0 0 4883 170 ,, Cethegus and ,., Clarus »» 0 0 4884 171 „ Severus and ,.. Herennianus »* 0 0 4885 172 ,, Orfitus aud ,,, Maximus 11 0 0 4886 173 ,, Severus ii, and ,., Pompeianus 11 0 0 4887 174 ., Gallus and ,., Flaccus u 0 0 4888 175 ,, Piso and „, Julianus 11 0 0 4889 176 ., Pollio and ,,, Aper }> 0 0 4890 177 ,. Commodus and ,., Quinctilius 11 0 0 4891 178 ,, Orfitus and ,., Eufus It 0 0 4892 179 , , Commodus u. and Verus n. from Jan 1 to Mar, 17 0 2 17 19 0 11 Eutropius and Julius Capitolinus say that Marcus Aurelius died in the eighteenth year of his reign and the sixty-first year of his life. It Is impossible to reconcile these conflicting dates ; for Julius Capitolinus having himself given the time of this Emperor's birth, April 26, a.d. 120, if he lived to the sixty-first year of his age, the sixtieth year would have terminated April 25th, A.d. 180, and his reign would have been, not eighteen, but more than twenty years. Antoninus Commodus. A passage in Lampridius incidentally throws light upon our chronology ; Commodus, he says, " was bom at Lanuvium, with his twin brother, thence called Antoninus Geminus, on the thirty- first day of August, in the year in which his father and his uncle were consuls.''''^ What consulship could this be, but that of the two Augusti, M. Aurelius Antoninus iv. and L. Aurelius Verus II. A.J.P. 4874, a.d. 161 ? — when Rome for the first time saw two equal partners of empire, both holding at the same time the consular dignity ? According to Dion,^ Commodus was nine teen years old when his father died. He was poisoned and then suffocated, on the last day of the year, when he was thirty-one years and four months old, and when he had reigned twelve years, nine months, and fourteen days.^ If then we take from his age the length of his reign, as stated by Dion or Xiphilinus (31y. 4m. Od — 12y. 9m. 14d.) it will give as his age when his father died, 18y. ^ Ipse autem natus est apud Lanuvium, Aug. SS, p. 45, B, cum fratre Antonino Gemino, pridie Cal, ' Lib. Ixxii. 1, Septemb, patre patrcoque Coss. — Hist. ' lb, lib, Ixxii, c. 22. CHAP, xil] to the year WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 331 6m. 17d. But there is an evident mistake here of one year. Marcus Aurelius died March 17th, a.j.p. 4892, a.d. 179; and Commodus was born August 31, A.D. 161. The time before his birth, taken from the time of his father's death, will show his exact age. 4891 2 17 — 4873 7 30 17 6 17 He was, therefore. In his eighteenth, not in his nineteenth year. Dion's account of the length of his life and the day of his death Is correct. For if, to the time before his birth, we add the length of his life, it will show that he died the last day of December : 4873y. 7m. 30d. -t-31y. 4m.=4904y. 11m. 30d, or one day short of com pleting A. J.P. 4905, A,D, 192. We proceed now to show the same results from the list of consuls. CONSULS. TIME. Commodus n, and Verus ii. from Mar, 18 to Dec. 31 Bruttius Praesens n, and Quintilius Condianus one year Commodus m. and Byrrhus „ Mamertinus and Eufus „ Commodus rv, and Victorinus „ Marullus aud .Xlianus „ Maternus and Bradua „ Commodus v. and Glabrio „ Crispinus and ..Xlianus „ Fuscianus and Silanus „ Junius Silanus and Servilius Silanus „ Commodus vi. and Septimianus „ Apronianus and Bradua „ Commodus vn. and Pertinax from Jan. 1 to Dec. 30 If, then, to his age at the time of his father's death, we add the length of his reign, as obtained by the list of consuls, it gives precisely the length of life stated by Dion, I do not see how there can be any error in this computation ; and yet all the old chronologers have fallen into Dion's error. Eutropius makes the reign of Commodus, 12y. 8m. ; St. Clemens Alexandrinus, who ends with his reign, 12y. 9m. I4d. ; Aurelius Victor and Cassiodorus, thirteen years, and the Chronicon Pas- A.J.P. A.D, 4892 179 4893 180 4894 181 4895 182 4896 183 4897 184 4898 185 4899 186 4900 187 4901 188 4902 189 4903 190 4904 191 4905 192 Y. M. D. 0 9 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 30 13 9 13 17 6 17 13 9 13 31 4 0 332 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [pART L chale, twelve years. It Is certain that if Commodus died on the last day of December, It must have been a,d. 192, because on the first of January of that year he was consul for the seventh time, having for his colleague Pertinax, who became his successor In the empire. Publius Helvius Pertinax, and Didius Julianus. As both were killed in the course of the next year, a.j.p. 4906, A.D. 193, Q. Sossius Falco and C. Erucius Clarus, consuls, we have only to determine the exact length of their reigns. Peetinax was Informed of the death of Commodus In the night ; was reluctantly proclaimed by the Prsetorian guard, through the influence of Lajtus, their prefect, who was one of the con spirators ; and was subsequently elected by the senate. Dion, who was a member of that body at the time, says that he came into the senate while the night was not yet passed, and expressed his reluctance to accept the government. Whereupon, he adds, we heartily applauded him, and gave him our votes ; for his soul was excellent and his body robust.' His reign commenced, there fore, on the first of January. Pertinax was born, says Julius Capitolinus, on the first of August, in the year when Verus and Bibulus were consuls. He was slain on the 28th. of March, when Falco and Clarus were consuls. He lived sixty years, seven months, and twenty- six days. He reigned two months and twenty-five days.^ Dion, or Xiphi linus says, on the contrary, that he lived sixty-seven years and four months, wanting three days. He reigned eighty-seven days.^ The text of Julius Capitolinus must here again be corrupt, as to the number of years which Pertinax lived ; and from the dates which Capitolinus himself has furnished it m,iy be corrected. The consulship of M. Annius Verus IIL and L. Varius Ambi bulus, called by our author Bibulus, coincided with a.j.p. 4838, A.D. 125. That of Q. Sossius Falco and C, Jullug Erucius Clarus was A.J.P. 4906, a,d. 193. The age of Pertinax, therefore, at the time of his death, March 28th of that year, may be obtained by subtracting the time previous to his birth. ' Lib, lxxiii, 1, annis lx, mensibu? vii, diebus xxvi. Im- ' Natus autem Cal. Augustis, Vero et peravit mensibus ii, diebus xxv, — Hist. Bibulo Coss. Interfeetus autem est v. Aug. SS. p. 59, ed. Paris, 1620. &aL Aprilis, FaboDfi et Claro Coss. Vixit ^ Lib. lxxiii. c. 10. CHAP, xil] to the YEAil WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 33(J 4905 2 28 4887 7 0 67 7 28 The text of IKon Is correct as to the years and days, but incorrect as to the months ; while that of Julius Capitolinus is nearly cor rect as to the months and days ; but for lx, it should read lxvii. years. The reign of Pertinax was eighty-seven days, as stated by Dion, and not eighty-four days, as stated by Capitolinus. This is evident from the latter historian's own testimony ; for he says that Pertinax was made emperor the last day of December (prid. cal. Januarias),' and he was slain ( v. cal. Aprilis) on the 28th of March. His text, therefore should read, " Mensibus II. diebus xxvIII," a.d. 193 not being bissextile, January 31 + February 28-(- March 28z:87 days, as stated by Dion, -^lius Spartianus, who wrote the life of DiDlus Julianus, the successor of Pertinax, says that he lived fifty-six years and four months, and reigned two months and five days.^ Dion says that he lived sixty years four months and four days, of which he reigned sixty-six days.^ If we include in this computation the day on which Pertinax was slain, Spartian and Dion are in perfect harmony as to the length of his reign ; for From March 28 to 31 is 4 days. The first month April 30 The second month May 31 An d the fifth day, June 1 st, 1 66 days DIdlus Julianus was slain, therefore, on the 1st of June a.d. 193. Septimius Severus. Spartian says, that when Didius Julianus was slain, Severus, a native of Africa, obtained the empire. He was born on the 8th of April, in the year when Erucius Clarus, the second time, and Se verus, were consuls.^ The same author says that he died at York in Britain, after subduing the hostile tribes, in the eighteenth year of his reign, at an advanced age, and of a painful disease.,* Dion ' Hist. Aug. SS. p, 55, * Interfecto Didio Juliano, Severus ' Didius Julianus vixit annis quinqua- Africa oriundus imperium obtinuit. Ipse ginta sex, mensibus quatuor; ¦ imperavit natus est Erucio Claro bis et Severe Coss, mensibus duobus, diebus quinque,— Hist, vi, idus Aprilis.-'— Hist. Aug. SS, p. 64, B. Aug. SS. p. 63, E. = Periit Eboraci in Britannia; subactis 'Lib, Ixxiii, 17. gentibus quse Britannise videbantur in- 334 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [pART L says that his disease was the gout ; that he died on the 4th day of February ; that he lived sixty-five years nine months and twenty- five days, having been born on the llth of April; and that he reigned seventeen years eight months and three days.' It must be remembered that Dion was his contemporary, while Spartian wrote in the reigr\ of Diocletian. About the tenth year of his reign, Dion retired from Rome to Capua, as he himself tells us, to write his history.^ The general accuracy of this historian, leads us to place greater reliance on his testimony ; and therefore, although a difference of three days is not very material, there is greater reason to believe that Severus was born on the llth, than on the 8th of April. The consulship of Erucius Clarus IL and Severus, coincided with A.J.P. 4858, a.d. 145. The time, therefore, before his birth was 4857 3 10 To this add the length of his life ace. to Dion 65 9 23 And it gives the date of his death 4923 I 4 or Feb, 4, 4924 From this subtract the length of his reign 17 8 3 And it gives the date of his accession 4905 5 1 or June 2, 4906. This, It will be seen, agrees with the date already established, of the death of Didius Julianus ; and it proves also that his reign was computed from the death of Julianus. Spartian, indeed, says, that when the German legions had heard that Commodus was slain, and that Julianus reigned, though hated by ali, Severus was saluted emperor by the exhortation of many, but against his own will, at Carniitum (a town on the Danube, not far below Vienna), on the 13th of August.* This was seven months and fourteen days after the death of Commodus ; and it may possibly account in some measure for the errors of Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Cas siodorus, and the Chronicon Paschale, who reckon the interval from Commodus to Severus as from six to nearly ten months. Be that as it may, the reign of Severus must be reckoned, on the best testimony, from the 2nd of June a.j.p. 4906, a.d. 193. The com putation by consuls is as follows : festae, anno imperii decimo octavo, morbo auditum est Commodum occisum, Julia- gravissimo extinctus jam senex, — Ibid, p, num autem cum odio ounctorum imperare, 71. multis hortanlibus repugnans, imperator ' Lib. Ixxvi. 15, 17, ' Lib, Ixxvi. 2. est appellatus apud Carni>tum, Idibus Au- ' Dehinc a, Germanicis legionibus, ubi gustis, — Hist, Aug, SS, p, 65, CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 335 A.J.P.49064907 4908 49094910 4911 491249134914 49154916 49174918 491949204921492249234924 A.D. CONSOLS, TIME, Y. M. D. 193 Sossius Falco and Erucius Clarus from June 2 to Deo. 31 0 6 29 194 Sept, Severus Imp, n, and Albinus one year 0 0 195 Tertullus and Clemens 11 0 0 196 Dexter and Priscus 11 0 0 197 Lateranus and Eufinus 11 0 0 198 Saturnlnus and Gallus M 0 0 199 Annulinus and Fronto 11 0 0 200 Severus Imp, Aug, m, and Victorinus 11 0 0 201 Mucianus and Fabianus 1) 0 0 202 Severus Imp. Aug. iv. and Antoninus )» 0 0 203 Plautianus ii. and Geta » 0 0 204 Cilo and Libo 11 0 0 205 Antoninus ii. and Geta li. 11 0 0 206 Albinus and ^milianus i) 0 0 207 Aper and Maximus )» 0 0 208 Antoninus iii, and Geta ni. 11 0 0 209 Pompeianus and Avitus „ 0 0 210 Faustinus and Eufinus 11 0 0 211 Gentianus aud Bassus from Jan, 1 to Feb. 4 0 1 4 17 8 3 Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus, surnamed Cabacalla, was killed, according to Spartian, on his birth-day, the 6th of April, during the Megalensian games, by the arts of Macrinus, the prsefect of the Prsetorian guards, who usurped the empire.' The same author adds, that Bassianus lived forty-three years, and reigned six years, leaving a son, who was afterwards called M. Antoninus Heliogabalus." According to Dion, Antoninus, surnamed Caracalla, the son of Septlmius Severus, was slain by Macrinus on the 8th of April, as he was descending from his horse. Such was the end of Anto ninus when he had lived twenty-nine years and four days (for he was born on the 4th day of April), and had reigned six years two months and two days.' Eutropius says that he reigned six years and two months ; Au relius Victor, six years ; Cassiodorus and the Chronicon Paschale, seven years ; Orosius, not full seven years. Victor says that he lived about thirty years. Eutropius and Eusebius agree with ' Die natalis sui viii. Idus Aprilis, ipsis Megalensibus quum ad requisita naturse discessisset, insidiis a Macrino prsefecto praetorii positis, qui post eum invasit impe rium, interemptus est, — Hist, Aug, SS, p, 87, B, ' Vixit autem Bassianus annis xliii. imperavit annis vi. Filium reliqiut, qui postea et ipse M. Antoninus Heliogabalus est dictus. — Ibid. p. 88, E, ' Lib, Ixxviii, 5, 6. 336 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART L Spartian in giving him forty-three years, and the Chronicon Pas chale even gives him sixty years ! It is impossible to reconcile these accounts ; but, happily, they do not affect the chronology, which must be computed only by the length of his reign. The computation by consuls is as follows : A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. Y. M. D, 4924 211 Gentianus and Bassus from Feb, 5 to Dec, 31 0 10 24 4925 212 The two Aspri jae year 0 0 4926 213 Antoninus Imp. iv, and Balbinus „ 0 0 4927 214 MessaUa and Sabinus „ 0 0 4928 215 Lsetus and Cserealis „ 0 0 4929 216 C, Atius Sabinus n, and Cornelius Anulinus „ 0 0 4930 217 C. Bruttius Praesens and T, Messius Extricatus Jan, 1 to Apr, 8 0 3 8 6 2 2 As Dion was a contemporary, I am Inclined to receive his testi mony ; to place the death of Caracalla on the 8th of April ; and consequently to make his reign six years two months and two days. QpiLius Macrinus seized the throne on the 9th of April a.j.p. 4930, a.d. 217. He gave the name of Antoninus to his son Diadumenus. Both, accord ing to Lampridius, were slain in the fourteenth month of their government.' Eutropius and Aurelius Victor give them fourteen full months ; Cassiodorus and the Chronicon Paschale, one year. From the fragments of the seventy-eighth book of Dion's his tory, it appears that Macrinus having been defeated by the forces of Heliogabalus, on the 8 th of June, sent his son to Artabanus, king of the Parthians, while he himself went to Antioch. Thence he fled by night, and In disguise, into the upper provinces of Asia Minor, along the Black Sea, with a view of embarking for Rome. Being discovered, however, he was seized at Chalcedon, and his son having also been made prisoner, both were soon afterwards slain in Cappadocia. He wanted from three to five days, says Dion, of being fifty-four years old. He adds, that computing the time to the battle in which he was defeated, that is, till the 8th of June, he reigned one year and two months wanting three days.* The computation by consuls Is as follows : > Hist Aug. SS, p. 100, A. ' Lib. Ixxviii. c 39, 40, 41. CHAP, xil] to the year WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 337 A,J.P. A.D. CONSULS, TIME. Y, M. D. 49.30 217 C, Bruttius Prsesens and T, Messius Extricatus Apr, 9 to Dec. 31 0 8 22 4931 218 Antoninus and Adventus Jan, 1 to June 7 0 5 7 1 1 29 The time from the death of Caracalla, to the battle in which Helioga balus was victorious, was exactly fourteen months. Yet Dion, a con temporary, a man of consular dignity, and a historian of great accu racy, computes the reign of Macrinus as being three days short of one year and two months. If two days intervened between the death of Caracalla and the beginning of the reign of Macrinus, that cannot affect our chronology, as those days must all be reckoned. I, therefore, compute the time as one year one month and twenty-nine days, or fourteen months wanting one day. Before we leave this reign, it must be observed, that all the ancient lists agree in naming the consuls of a.d. 218, Antoninus and Adventus. The moderns substitute Opilius Macrinus for An toninus ; but Opilius gave the name of Antoninus to his son Dia dumenus. May we not believe, then, that Diadumenus was this consul, under the name of Antoninus ? What evidence is there that Macrinus assumed that name himself? Lampridius, in his life of Antoninus Diadumenus, has preserved two discourses pro nounced by the father and son, from which it appears that Macri nus reigned only in the name of his son.' M. Antoninus Heliogabalus. We have seen that Spartian, in the life of Caracalla, speaks of Heliogabalus as being really his son, Lamprinus says that " Ma crinus and his son Diadumenus being slain, the empire was con ferred on Varius Heliogabalus, because he was said to be the son of Bassianus.^ Dion constantly speaks of him as an impostor, calling him Avitus, the pretended Antoninus, Tarantus, the Assyrian, Sardanapalus, and Tiberinus, because his body was cast into the Tiber.= Authors are very discordant as to the length of his reign. Eutropius and Aurelius Victor make it two years and eight montlis; jS^Iius Lampridius expresses surprise that for nearly three years (prope triennio) no one could be found who would remove him • Hist, Aug, SS, p. 97, » Hist, Aug, SS, p, 101. c. ' Lib, lxxix, 1. 43 338 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART L from the helm of Roman majesty.' Cassiodorus and the Chronicon Paschale call his reign four years ; Dion, with his usual precision^ three years, nine months and four days." He was the last who bore the name of AntoninusL The day after the victory over Macrinus, that Is on the 9th of June, A.D. 218, he entered Antioch in triumph, and sent letters to the senate and people of Rome, in which he gave himself the titles of Emperor, Csesar the son of Antoninus, and grandson of Severus, Pius, Felix, Augustus, proconsul, and tribune of the people; " usurping these names," says Dion, " before they were decreed to him. The senate, struck with fear, decreed that Macrinus was to be accounted a public enemy, loaded him and his son with reproaches, and applauded Tarantus (Heliogabalus), whom they had often wished to denounce as an enemy, expressing the hope that his son forsooth might be like his father .'" Having thus exposed the ser vility of the senate, the indignant historian proceeds to say that the abominable Impurities of this wretch " prospered for three years, nine months, and four days, during which he reigned, reckoning from the battle in which he obtained his complete victory."' We may then compute the reign of Heliogabalus as beginning on the 8th and not on the 9th of June; in which case the time from the death of Caracalla to the 7th of June inclusive, would be one day short of fourteen months, and so would come within two days of the length assigned by Dion to the reign of Macrinus, Reckon ing, therefore, from the 8th of June, a,j,p, 4931, A.D. 218, the result of Dion's computation will be as follows : 4930y. 5m. 7d. -I- 3y. 9m. 4d. = 4934y. 2m, lid. or the llth of March, a.j.p. 4935, A.D. 222, as the day when Heliogabalus was slain. The arrange ment by consulships is as follows ; A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. Y. M, D, 4931 218 Antoninus [Diadumenus?] and Adventus June 8 to Dec, 31 0 6 23 4932 219 M, Antoninus Heliogabalus and Sacerdos one year 10 0 4933 220 M, Antoninus Heliogabalus n. and Comazon „ 10 0 4934 221 Gratus Sabinianus and Seleucus „ 10 0 4935 222 M, Aur, Anton, Elagabalus in, and M. Aur, | j^,, , ^ j^j^^. „ q 2 11 Severus Alexander Ctes, ) 3 9 4 With regard to these consuls, the Antoninus of A,D. 218 could ' Hist. Aug, SS, p. 113, » Lib, lxxix, 3. ' Lib. lxxix. 1, 2, 3. CHAP, xil] to the year WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 339 not be the Antoninus of A.D. 219. It cannot be imagined that Heliogabalus, who probably was unknown at Rome until after the victory of June 8th, could have been the Antoninus of January 1st, A.D. 218: nor, on the other hand, that Antoninus Diadumenus who was slain in A.D. 218, could be the Antoninus of A.D. 219. Yet the ancient lists of consuls evidently confound them, and sup pose Heliogabalus, or Elagabalus as sometimes written, to have been consul four times. This mistake the above list has rectified. The name of Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander was given by Heliogabalus to his cousin Bassianus, when he introduced him to the senate and adopted him as his son. Dion, who gives us this account, adds that afterwards Heliogabalus became jealous of Alexander and endeavoured treacherously to destroy him ; but the soldiers' were attached to him on account of his excellent qualities, and because he was really and truly descended from the fiiinily of .Severus ; and in the tumult Heliogabalus was slain, at the age of eighteen.' As Alexander was made consul on the 1st of January, A.D. 222, it is probable that he was adopted and received the title of Caesar a.d. 221. M. Aurelius Alexander Severus. Varius Heliogabalus being slain on the llth of March, a.d. 222, his cousin succeeded peaceably to the throne, ^lius Lampridius, who gives a delightful picture of this virtuous prince, says that he was slain in Gaul, as he was on his way to Britain, having reigned thirteen years and nine days, and lived twenty-nine years, three months, and seven days.^ Eutropius says that he reigned thirteen years and eight days; Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, and the Chronicon Paschale, simply thirteen years. An illustrious monument exists at Rome, to which we shall hereafter have frequent occasion to refer, and which proves, by astronomical computations, that the first year of Alexander Severus. coincided with the year 222 of the common Christian sera. It is the statue of St. Hippolitus, the author of the Paschal Cycle which bears his name. On the sides of the chair in which the bishop is seated, his calendar is inscribed ; and it is there asserted, that in the first year of the reign of the emperor Alexander, the fourteenth ' Dion, lib. Ixvix, 17 — 20. annis xxix, mensibus iii. diebus vii. — Hist. ' Imperavit annis xiii. diebus ix, Vixit Aug, SS, p, 135, B, 340 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [pART I. day of the paschal moon fell on Saturday, the thirteenth day of April. Now this is found by computation to have happened in that year. The lunar cycle was 14 ; the solar, 7 ; and the Sunday letter F. Any one who will take the pains to calculate by these data, will find that they could not apply to any supposable year but the one now indicated. The date of the death of Heliogabalus being ascertained by adding to it the reign of Alexander Severus, we shall have the date of his death ; and by deducting from that result his age, as men tioned by Lampridius, we ascertain the time of his birth. Thus A.J.P. 4934y, 2m, lld.-H3y. Om. 9d.=4947y. 2m. 20d., or March 20th, A,j,p, 4948, A.D. 235, as the day when he was killed in Gaul; and 4947y. 2m. 20d. — 29y. 3m. 7d. =4917y. 11m. 13d., or De cember 13, A.J.P. 4918, A.D. 205, Antoninus ii. Geta n. in the reign of Septlmius Severus, as the day of his,birth. His reign by con suls Is as follows : A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. Y. M. D. 4935 222 Antoninus Elagabalus and Alex. Severus Mar. 12 to Dec, 31 0 9 20 4936 223 Maximus il and .iElianus one year 10 0 4937 224 Julianus and Crispinus „ 10 0 4938 225 Fuscus and Dexter „ 10 0 4939 226 M, Aur. Sev, Alex, Imp, n, & Marcellus Quinctilianus „ 10 0 4940 227 Albinus and Maximus „ 10 0 4941 228 Modestus and Probus „ 10 0 4942 229 M, Aur. Sev. Alex. Imp. ni. and Dion Cassius n. „ 10 0 4943 230 Agricola and Sex. Catius Clementinus „ 10 0 4944 231 Pompeianus and Pelignianus „ 10 0 4945 232 Lupus and Maximus „ 10 0 4946 233 Maximus and Paternus „ 10 0 4947 234 Maximus il and Urbanus „ 10 0 4948 235 Severus and Quinctianus from Jan, 1 to March 20 0 2 20 13 0 9 The two Maximini, It is uncertain whether the elder Maximinus had any thing to do with the murder of Alexander Severus ; but as he was at the head of the legion of Tyrones by whom the emperor was slain, and Immediately, without any decree of the senate, was proclaimed by the army in Gaul, and saluted by the name of Augustus, he was justly suspected of the crime. His son was associated with him in the empire by the army.' His reign was only a succession of I Hist, Aug, SS. p, 140. CHAP, xil] to the year WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 341 cruelties ; and finally the senate raised to the imperial purple, the proconsul of Africa, Gordianus, and his son. The letter of the senate by which the two GordianI were proclaimed and Maximinus and his son denounced as enemies of their country, is preserved by Julius Capitolinus.' The two GordianI were killed in Africa ; the eon In battle, the father by his own hand. The senate then created Maximus Pupienus and Clodius Balbinus emperors ; to whom, at the instance of the soldiers and people, the young grandson of Gor dianus was added and proclaimed Cffisar,^ The republic was now supported in the struggle against Maxi minus by three emperors. The tyrant advanced against, and be sieged Aquileia at the head of the Adriatic ; but there his own troops finally killed both him and his son as they were reposing in their tents. Their heads were carried in triumph to Rome, and wherever they passed were received with exultation. The mes senger sent from Aquileia to announce the tidings, went with such haste, says Capitolinus, by changing horses, that he arrived in Rome in four days. Nothing could exceed the joy of the senate and people. They decreed that for the then present year the name of Maximinus ' should be erased from the list of consuls ; that Balbinus should be consul ; and that the young Gordianus should be substituted for Maximinus.' The date of the tyrant's death is not given by Julius Capito linus; but the same author, in his lives of the three GordianI, says that the two elder, slain in Africa, reigned one year and six months. On the news of the death of the Gordiani, and the coming of Maximinus towards Rome, the senate assembled on the 26th of May (vii. cal. Junii) during the Apollinarian games,^ and appointed Maximus Pupienus and Balbinus emperors. The people, not being pleased with the appointment of Maximus, de manded Gordianus, who was thereupon made Caesar, at the age of fourteen. Maximus and Balbinus were both slain by the army, and the third Gordianus saluted emperor and Augustus. Julius Capitolinus observes that there was great uncertainty and contra- * Hist. Aug. SS. p. 143. ' lb. p. 145. here ; for the Apollinarian games were ' Balbine Auguste, Dii te servent, prse- celebrated from the day before the nones gentem annum coss. vos ornetis. In locum to the day before the ides of July. Per- Haximini Gordianus sufficiatur. — Hist, haps the author wrote vii, Idus Julii, or Aug. SS. p. 147. the ninth of July, instead of vii. cal, * There must be a mistake in the text Junii, or the 26th of May. 342 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. diction in the several histories he consulted ; nor is he himself consistent ; for in one place he says that Maximus and Balbinus were slain in a military sedition when they had reigned two years,' in another, one year, since Maximinus and his son reigned ; some say three and others two years.^ Eutropius asserts that Maxi minus reigned three years and a few days.' Aurelius Victor and the Chronicon Paschale count his reign in round numbers three years. Orosius says he was killed in the third year of his reign. Cassiodorus also computes his reign as being three years, and says that he was killed at Aquileia in the consulship of Pius and Pro culus, the same consulship as we have seen, with the Ulpius and Pontianus of Censorinus, Considering then the exact date of the death of Maximinus as uncertain, we shall count his reign as three years. The death of Alexander Severus took place on the 20th of March, a.j.p. 4948, a.d. 235. Therefore 4947y. 2m. 20d. + 3j. Om. Od.=4950y. 2m. 20d, or March 20th, a.j.p. 4951, a.d. 238. As Eutropius says that Maximinus reigned a few days over three years, his death must have taken place at the latest before the end of that month. Censorinus evidently wrote after the 25th of 'June in the same year ; for he says that the first of the Egyp tian month Thoth was in this year the 25th of June.* He flourished, therefore, at the beginning of the reign of the younger Gordian. The consuls during the reign of Maximinus were as follows : ^ A.J.P. A.D. ' CONSULS, TIME. Y. M. D, 4948 235 Severus and Quinctianus from Mar, 21 to Dec, 31 0 9 11 4949 236 C, Jul. Maximinus, Imp. Aug. and Jul, Africanus one yeaf 10 0 4950 237 — Perpetuus and — Cornelianus „ 10 0 4951 238 M. Ulpius Crinitus and Proculus Pontianus Jan. 1 . to Mar, 20 0 2 20 3 0 0 The third year of the Maximini, whatever may have been the date of their death, ended the twentieth of March, a,j,p. 4951, A.D. 238, Ref. Cal. of Jul. Caesar 283, and one month before the beginning of A.u.c. 991. The death of Tiberius, following the computation of Suetonius, took place March 1 6th, a.j.p. 4749, Ref. Cal. Jul. Cses. 81, a.d. 36, and one month and five days be- ' Hist, Aug p. 160, tics nomen est Thoth: quique hoc anno . r -P J?' ¦ .'Lib.ix. 1, FUIT ante diem vii, kai. Jul.— De die natali, • A primo die mensis— cai apud jEgyp- cxxi. CHAP, xil] to the year WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 343 fore the beginning of A.u.c. 789. The time betwen these two events was, therefore, 4950y. 2m. 20d.— 4748y. 2m. . '^d.=202j. Om. 4d. The following table will show the reader at one \'ew the several accounts referred to in the course of this chapter, anu also the corrected amount of the years, months, and days of each reign, obtained by careful comparison of testimony and arithmetical com putation. On summing up the whole, the total in the column of days is found to be 280. As the period of time from Tiberius to the Maximini began and ended with the month of March, 275 days are taken as equivalent to the descending series of nine months. These being deducted, there remain five days to be set down in that column. Adding nine to the column of months, we find the whole 108, or precisely nine years. Adding these to the column of years, we find the whole 202. There is, therefore, a difference of only one day between the general and the special computation of time ; and even that difference may be avoided by stating the general computation thus: 4950y. 2m. 21d. — 4748y. 2m. 16d.=202y. Om. 5d, or, in other words, from March 16th, A.D. 36, to March 21, a,d. 238. There can, therefore, be no reasonable doubt that the problem is solved with regard to the ad justment of the ancient and modem computations of time. By means of the Holy Scriptures, connected as they are, by the Canon of Ptolemy, with the sera of Nabonassar, we may calculate, with unerring certainty, from the birth of Abraham to the year 238 of the common Christian aera,' ' For additional proof of the connexion James A. Sparks, entitled " Two discourses of the sera of Nabonassar with the dates of on Prophecy, with an appendix, in which the Holy Scriptures, and with the modern Mr. Miller's scheme, concerning our Lord's computations of time, the author begs leave Second Advent, is considered and refuted," to refer the reader to the appendi.K of his pp, 182, 12mo, smaller work, published at New York by SUCCESSION OF EOMAN BMPEEOES. S, Theoph, Antioch, S. Clemens Alexamlr. .Dio^ Cassius, aad Xiphilinus. Eutropius. Sextus. Aure lius Victor. Chronicon Paschale. Yeeire of each Beigu corrected. Caius Csesar Caligula Tib. Claudius Csesar Nero Claudius Csesar Servius Sulpicius Galba M. Salvius Otho Aulus Vitellius T. Flavius Vespasianus Titus Flavius Vespasianus . . T, Flavius Domitianus M, Cocceius Nerva M, Ulpius Trajanus .Illius Hadrianus T, Aurel, Antoninus Pius ,. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Antoninus Commodus Publius Helvius Pertinax .. Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Aur. Antoninus Caracalla .. Opilius Macrinus and his son, Antoninus Diadumenus M. Antoninus Heliogabalus M. Aurel. Alexand. Severus ... The two Maximini M. D. 8 7 8 24 6 28 736 11 0 22 5 6 4 10 6 16 20 10 28 22 19 7 6 0 10 Y. 3 13 13 0 00 11 2 15 1 19 M. D. 10 8 8 28 8 28 Y, M, D, 3 9 28 13 8 20 13 8 0 1 0 22 11 22 2 0 8 5 4 10 7 15 20 10 28 22 3 7 19 0 11 12 9 14 9 2 15 1 19 6 15 20 11 0 0 II 2 0 4 Y. M. 3 10 14 0 14 0 0 7 0 0 0 8 9 0 2 8 15 0 1 19 24 19 12 00 17 6 0 0 11 9 14 0 87 0 66 8 3 2 2 21 10 23 0 18 0 12 8 0 0 0 7 16 3 6 2 000 95 1 7 20 0 8 15 29 000 80 000 Y. 4 14 13 000 10 2 15 1 20 2223 18 13 00 18 6 M. D, 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 7 3 0 8 0 0 0 2 20 0 0 4 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 85 7 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 27 3 9 4 1 2 0 2 8 0 13 0 8 3 0 0 1 2 0 2 8 0 13 0 0 3 0 0 Y, M, D, 3 10 0 13 8 28 13 7 28 0 7 0 0 3 5 0 8 1 9 11 22 2 2 0 15 5 0 1 4 0 19 6 15 20 10 19 21 0 0 19 0 0 13 0 0 0 6 0 18 0 0 7 0 0 1 0 0 4 0 0 13 0 0 3 0 0 Y. M, D, 4 0 0 14 0 0 0 7 0 0 6 0 0 10 0 9 0 0 2 0 0 16 0 0 1 0 0 19 0 0 21 0 0 23 0 0 19 0 0 12 0 0 0 2 0 0 7 0 19 0 0 7 0 0 ] 0 0 4 0 0 J3 0 0 3 0 0 Y, M, D. 3 10 8 13 8 20 13 7 27 - 1 0 22 9 11 23 2 2 20 15 0 5 1 4 9 19 6 15 20 11 0 22 7 27 19 0 11 9 13 2 28 2 5 8 3 2 2 13 0 0 17 6 1 1 29 3 9 4 13 0 9 3 0 0 202 0 5 03 PART II. APPERTAINING TO THE PERSONAL HISTORY OF OUR LORD JESUS CHRIST. CHAPTER I. THE REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. Prefatory remarks. — ^Division of the subject. — Section L On the beginning of Herod's reign.— Rise of his father Antipater, a.j.p. 4644, and history of him aud his sons till he was poisoned, A.J.P. 4671. — Herod becomes the friendof Antony, who makes him tetrarch. — Inroad of the Pai-thians.— They deprive Hyrcanus of the high priesthood, ^nd give it to Antigonus. — Flight of Herod. — His arrival in Eome. — Made king by the Senate, probably in July a.j.p. 4673.— History traced till he becomes king de facto, by the capture of Jerusalem and the death of Antigonus early in June a.j.p. 4676. Section H. On the end of Herod's reign. — No uncertainty as to the year, — The month aud day to be arrived at by induction, — Eclipse of the moon men tioned by Josephus, — Lunations of the year by the tables, — Calculation of the eclipse. — Consequent calculation of the passover. — Herod dead and buried, and Archelaus proclaimed king before the passover. — By examination of the history, the probable date of Herod's death determined. — The whole question as to the date of our Savi our's birth now confined within three years ; from the shutting of the temple of Janus, March 30, a.j.p. 4707, to Herod's death, March 21, A. j.p, 4710, In the first part of this work, the author has been exclusively occupied in settling questions which pertain to ancient history in general ; and no notice has been taken of the personal history of our Lord, the chief object at which we aim, excepting only that in determining the year in which Augustus shut the temple of Janus the third time, in token of universal peace, the earliest limit has been determined, within which the birth of our Saviour could have taken place. For the testimony of all antiquity is perfectly uniform and consistent, that he was born in the latter part of the reign of Augustus, when the empire was In a state of entire repose. Coming now to the consideration of our principal subject, it is proposed, in the first place, to examine the reign of ITerod the Great ; because the date of his death must, of necessity, be the latest limit of that period, within which the Incarnation of our Saviour could have taken place. The question concerning Herod's reign resolves itself into two 3 348 KEIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [pART IL first, when It began, and secondly, when it ended. And the first of these is also two- fold ; for there are two dates from which Jose phus computes the beginning of Herod's reign : the first, when he was declared king of Judsea by the unanimous vote of the Roman senate ; the second, when he became king de facto, by the conquest of Jerusalem and the subversion of the AsmouEean dynasty. These two dates will be considered In the first Section. § I, Josephus states that Herod was the second son of an Idumtean, named Antipater ; a man of mean extraction, but of great abilities. Antipater was the friend of the Jewish high-priest Hyrcanus, in the war between him and his rival brother, Aristobulus. Hyrcanus began his high-priesthood, in the third year of the hundred and seventy-seventh Olympiad, when Quintus Hortensius and Quintus Metellus Creticus were consuls ; that is, in the latter half of the sixth year before the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, or between the months of July and December a.j.p. 4644.' The war between Aristobulus and Hyrcanus, led to the inter vention of the Roman arms ; and Jerusalem was taken by Pompey the Great, on the day of the fast in the third month ; that is, as we have before seen, on the twenty-third of Sivan, corresponding, according to the JN^icene or Julian methods of computing the luna tions, with the 1 9th or 20th of June, in the one hundred and seventy- ninth Olympiad, when Caius Antonius and Marcus Tullius Cicero were consuls. That event, therefore, took place in the year of the Julian period 4650, about three months before the birth of Augustus.^ After the death of Pompey, Antipater made himself very useful to Csesar in the war against Egypt ; and it was on this account that Csesar confirmed Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood, and made Antipater procurator of Judsea. He also gave permission to Hyr canus to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, which had been demolished by Pompey.' The date of this permission, it Is not difiicult to ascertain. The death of Pompey took place after Midsummer a.j.p. 4665, and Csesar remained in Alexandria till May or June in the following year. During that period he was assisted by Antipater. In the ' Joseph, Antiq. Jud, lib. xiv. c. 1, § 2, the birth of Augustus to the death of Tibe- ' Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 4, § 3. See rius, from p. 183 to p. 188, part I. of this work, at the close of the sixth • Antiq. Jud. lib, xiv, c. 8, § 1, 3, S. chapter, on the succession of consuls from chap. 1.1 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 349 month of August or September he arrived at Rome, and in October embarked for Africa. After this he never went into Asia.* It follows of necessity, therefore, that he confirmed Hyr canus In the high-priesthood, made Antipater procurator of Judsea, and gave permission to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, between Midsummer a.j.p. 4665, and August or September A.J.P. 4666. We may even narrow the period to the three months between May or June and August or September a.j.p. 4666, A.u.c. 706 ajter Csesar's return from Parthia, whither he had marched from Egypt, and his arrival in Syria before his departure for Rorne.f Antipater lost no time, but began to build the walls as soon as Csesar's permission was given : somewhere, therefore, about Mid summer A,j,p, 4666. "And seeing," says Josephus, "that Hyrca nus was slow and indolent, he appointed Phasael, his eldest son, commander of Jerusalem, and parts adjacent; and to Herod, his next son, being a youth of only fifteen years of age, he committed the charge of Galilee."' The commentators on Josephus observe, that here is evidently a mistake ; because Herod died forty-four years after this event, and was then, according to the historian, nearly seventy years of age. But this will be rendered more apparent hereafter. It is probable that Josephus wrote ke or 25, and not n or 15 ; though all the copies extant read the latter number. If Herod had com pleted twenty-five, and was in his twenty-sixth year, about Mid summer A.J.P. 4666, he had completed his tenth, and was in his eleventh year, when Augustus was born, and consequently, was himself born before Midsummer A.j.p, 4640, though In what month is uncertain. After the death of Julius Csesar, and the formation of the Tri umvirate, Brutus went into Macedonia, and Cassius into Syria, in order to attach those provinces to their Interests. This took place when L. Munatius Plancus, and M. ^milius Lepidus the second time, were consuls, A.j.p. 4671, A.U.C. 710-11.^ Cassius, without * For proofs of these dates, the reader Csesar Consul the fifth time hath decreed is aoain referred to part i. c. 6, on the sue- that the Jews shall possess and build the cession of consuls, testimony of historians, walls of the city of Jerusalem, and that p, 171-2. Hyrcanus, the son of Alexander, the high f Hyrcanus afterwards sent ambassadors priest and ethnarch of the Jews, retain it to Rome, to obtain the formal ratification as he hath desired." &c. — Antiq, Jud, of Cnesar's promises ; and this gave occa- lib. xiv. c. 1 0, § .5. sion to the decrees which Josephus has i Jos. Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 9, § 1, 2. preserved. One of them runs thus : "Caius * Dion, H. R, lib. xlvii, c,21. 350 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [PART IL difficulty, secured the greater part of the troops in Syria ;' and,. according to Josephus, whose narrative agrees perfectly with that of DIo, he received Herod with great favour. The army raised was entrusted to Herod, with the entire command of Coele-Syria ;. and Cassius promised, that, after the termination of the war now begun with Antony and the young Csesar, he would make him king of Judsea,^ These honours, bestowed upon Herod, proved fatal to his father ; for Malichus, the artful rival of Antipater in the favour of Hyrcanus, being alarmed at the growing prosperity of his family, had him secretly poisoned. After the battle of Philippi, which took place that same year, Octavianus Csesar returned to Italy, and Antony went into Asia.' It was late in the autumn ; for Plutarch mentions (in Bruto) that " the autumnal rains had fallen heavy after the battle, and the tents of Csesar and Antony were fiUed with mire and water, which from the coldness of the weather immediately froze." We are thus brought to the close of the year 4671 of the Julian period, A.U.C. 710-11. The next year (L. Antonius Pietas, P. Servilius Isauricus ii. Coss.) was spent by Antony In Syria and Egypt. He had for merly been the friend of Antipater, and he became so now of his sons. He confirmed both Phasael and Herod in their authority as tetrarchs ; but his servile passion for Cleopatra leading him to abandon himself to his pleasures, he departed into Egypt : the army in Asia being left under the command of Plancus, and th« army in Syria under that of Saxa. This conduct gave occasion to many commotions. The Parthians, under the command of Labi- enus, a partizan of Brutus and Cassius, who had taken refuge among them, and of Pacorus, a son of their king Orodes, rose against the Romans. By the persuasion of Labienus, they made an irruption into Syrlii, during which Saxa was defeated and killed, and the whole province. Tyre excepted, reduced under their domi nion. This being done, Pacorus Invaded Palestine,- deprived Hyr canus of his government, and gave it to Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus,^ These transactions took place, accordmg to Josephus, " in the ' Dion. H. R. lib. xlvii. c. 28. * Dion, H, R. lib, xlviii, c, 26, p, 373, ' Jos, Antiq, Jud. lib. xiv. c. II, § 1-4. compared with Jos. Antiq, Jud. lib. xiv. ^ Dion. H. R. lib. xlviii, c,2 and 24, p, c, 1.1, § 3; and de Bel, Jud, lib. i. v. 13, 3.58, n, 371, B. Appian de Bel. Civil, lib. § 1. v. 0. 1, CHAP. I.] REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 351 second year," that is, two years after the arrival of Antony. Dio, in 'perfect harmony with Josephus, places them under the consul ship of C. Asinius Pollio, and Cn. Domitius Calvinus ii. ; that is, in the year of the Julian period 4673, A.U.C. 712-13. And Jose phus enables us, with tolerable precision, to fix the month. He states, that Pacorus and the Parthians, with Antigonus and the Jews of his party, came unexpectedly upon Jerusalem by a sudden inroad ; that they had daily skirmishes with the party of Hyrcanus, Phasael, and Herod ; and that they lengthened out the contest, until the multitude, from whom they expected aid, should come out of the country to the feast of Pentecost, which was then near at hand} Now, if the year 4673, of the Julian period, be divided by 19, the remainder, 18, will be the golden number of that year, accord ing to the Nicene computation ; and as it was the fifth year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, the golden number of his cycle was 5. Let the reader turn then to the two calendars as they are placed together in the chapter on the Roman year, and the luna tions will be found for a.j.p, 4673, Ref. cal. Julius Csesar 5, as follows : Jewish Months. Niceue Calendar. Calendar of Julius Ca^sai. Sbebet.... 30 d. January 16 January 17 Adar 29 February 14 February 15 Nisan 30 March .. 16 March .. 17 Jyar...i.. 29 April 14 April 15 Sivan 30 May 14 + 5 = 19 May 15 + 5=20 Tammuz . . 29 June 12 June 13 Ab 30 July 12 July 13 Elul 29 August.. 10 August II Tisri 30 September 9 September 10 Marchesvan 29 October.. 8 October,, 9 Casleu 30 November 7 November 8 Tebeth 29 December 6 December 7 It will, therefore, be seen, that in this year, as well as in A,J,P,4650, whether we use one or the other of these cycles, there is only the diiference of a single day in computing the new moons. There cannot, consequently, be any great error; and we may safely assert, that the first day of Nisan fell on the 16th or 17th of Marcli, the Paschal full moon, March 29 or 30 ; and the fifteenth of Nisan, ' Jcs, Ant, Jud. lib, xiv, c. 13, § 3, 4 ; sind de Bel Jud. lib. i. c. Vi, § 1 3. 352 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT, [pART IL or the first day of unleavened bread, March 30th or 31st. As Pentecost Is usually calculated from the morrow after the first day of unleavened bread, which makes It fall on the sixth of Sivan, the earliest date, this year must have been the 19th or 20th of May. Hyrcanus and Phasael having been treacherously seized by the Parthians, Herod owed his safety to flight. The circumstances of the narrative show, that his flight must have taken place about, or soon after, the feast of Pentecost. He proceeded through Arabia into Egypt, sailed from Alexandria for Pamphylia, was driven by a storm upon the Island of Rhodes, and having remained there till he could equip a trireme or three-decked galley, sailed with two of his friends for Italy. At Rome he was received most courte ously by Antony, on account of their former friendship ; and by Octavianus Cassar, on account of the services rendered to Julius Caesar by Antipater. Csesar assembled the senate, ajid Herod was presented to the conscript fathers by Messalla and Atratinus, who gave them a full account of the merits of his father, and his own good will to the Romans. They further expatiated upon the hostility of Antigonus, as evinced by his alliance with the Parthians ; and this so irritated the Senate, that when Antony entered, and proposed to make Herod king of Judasa, a decree to that effect was passed by a unanimous vote. Thus did Herod obtain a Mngdom, contrary to all his expec tations, and was enabled to depart from Italy in the short space of seven days after his arrival in it. This great event, by which the sceptre departed from Judah, took place, according to Josephus, "in the one hundred and eighty- fourth olympiad, when Domitius Calvinus the second time, and Caius Asinius Pollio, were consuls." ' The flight of Herod cannot be placed earlier, nor much later, than the season of Pentecost a.j.p. 4673; and allowing two months for the various events which have been enumerated between that and his appointment by the Roman senate, — an allowance abundantly sufficient, when we consider his perseverance and indomitable energy, — we cannot be far from the truth if we place about the twentieth day of July, the important decree by which he became king of Judaja. Nothing can more excite the admiration of a devout mind, or lead to a more profound adoration of the Divine government of the > Jos. Antiq, Jud. lib. xiv, c. 14, § 5. CHAP, l] KEIGN of HEROD THE GREAT. 353 world, than the ease and rapidity with which the most mighty events are accomplished, or the most subtle schemes of human con trivance frustrated. In the mean time, Antigonus had carried on the siege of the fortress of Massada, in which Herod had left his family, with about eight hundred soldiers, under the command of his brother Joseph. They had all other necessaries to sustain the siege but water ; the want of which was so great, that Joseph had determined to make his escape, with about two hundred men, to the Arabians. This shows that it was in the summer season, and affords circumstantial evidence' as to the accuracy of the foregoing computation.. In the night preceding the projected escape, they were relieved by a sea sonable rain, which filled all their cisterns. Herod, on his return. from Italy, landed at Ptolemais, now St. Jean d'Acre, aud imme diately began to collect an army of Jews and strangers, with which- he marched through Galilee against Antigonus. These preparations consumed the remainder of that year. Early in the consulship of L. Marcius Censorinus and C. Cal visius Sabinus (a.j.p. 4774, a.u.c, 713-14), the short reconciliation took place between Sextus, the son of the great Pompey, on the one part, and the triumvirate on the other ;' Immediately after which, as Plutarch states, Antony sent Ventidius into Asia, to- stop the progress of the Parthians. So rapid were the movements of that able general, that he took Labienus by surprise, and utterly routed him, before he could form a junction with the main body of the Parthians. In a second engagement, Pharnapates, the legate of Pacorus, was slain, and the Parthians were finally expelled from Syria. Ventidius then occupied Palestine, and Antigonus, frightened into submission, was obliged to purchase peace with large sums of money.^ Antony wintered this year, according to Plutarch, with his wife Octavia, at Athens, and there learned the successes of Ventidius. In the consulship of Appius Claudius Pulcher and C. Norbanus Flaccus (a. j.p. 4675, a.u.c. 714-15), while Antony was still at Athens., a decisive battle was gained by Ventidius over the Parthians, who had again invaded Syria ; in which battle, Pacorus, with the greater part of his army, was slain. This put an end to their power; and. > Dion, H. E, lib, xlviii. c. 36, p, 378, ' lb, lib. xlviii, c. 39-41, p, 380, &c, 45 354 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. |_PART H. Ventidius was able to turn his arms against the insurgents. In the meantime, Herod had prosecuted the war with Antigonus and his party, had taken Joppa, liberated his family from the fortress of Massada, and reduced to his allegiance the greater part of Judsa, Samaria, and Galilee.' Josephus informs us, that Ventidius and bis lieutenant Silo were bribed by Antigonus, so that the war was lengthened out by unnecessary delays. On the arrival of Antony, "whose jealousy was excited by the successes of Ventidius, and Tvho therefore reassumed the command, the affairs of Herod were greatly Improved. Sossius was ordered to give him efficient aid ; and thus encouraged, he commenced the siege of Jerusalem. Their united forces consisted of 30,000 men, commanded by Herod ; and eleven legions and 6000 horsemen, with other auxiliaries, under Sossius. Even with this formidable force, it appears from another passage of Josephus, that the siege lasted six months. In a speech made by the historian, exhorting his countrymen to be at peace with the Romans, he enumerated the calamities they had suffered from war, and among the rest, the siege by Herod and Sossius : " Herod, the son of Antipater, brought Sosius, and Sosius brought the Roman army. They were then encompassed and besieged for six months, until, as a punishment for their sins, they were taken and plundered by the enemy." ^ The siege began in the winter : " as the winter was ceasing or becoming milder," says Josephus.' According to Dr. Russell, the climate of Aleppo resembles very much that of Judaea ; and he says, " that the natives reckon the severity of the winter to last but forty days, beginning from the 12th of December and ending the 20th of January; and that this computation comes, in fact, very near the truth." "The narcissus is in flower during the whole of this weather, and hyacinths and violets, at the latest, appear before it Is quite over."^ It was the third year since Herod was made king at Rome, as Josephus, in both passages of the Antiquities and the Wars last quoted, expressly states; and the siege continued till the following summer. The city was at length taken by storm. Antigonus surrendered himself to Sosius ; was ' Jos. Antiq. lib. xiv. c. 15, do Bel. Jud. ' Xiii,avTog U ro5 x^if-'^vog. — Antiq. lib. i, c. 15. Jud, lib. xiv. c. 15, § 14. Xa^riaavTog Sl ' Jos. de Bel, Jud, lib, v, c, 9, § 4, But rou x"/""""?-— Bel. Jud. lib, i, c, 17, § 8, in lib. i. c. 18, § 2, he says they endured 'Harmer's Observations, edited by Adam the siege /tie montlis. Clarke, American edition, vol. i. p, 132, CHAP. I,] REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 355 treated with the greatest Insult and ignominy; carried In chains to Antony — scourged — bound to a cross (which no other king had suffered from the Romans) — and finally beheaded.' " This disaster," says Josephus, " happened to the city of Jerusalem while Marcus Agrippa and Caninius Gallus were consuls at Rome, in the 185th olympiad, in the third month, on the fast day, as if it were a peri odical return of the calamity inflicted on the Jews by Pompey; for it was taken by him on the very same day, seven-and-twenty years before."^ In A.J.P. 4650, when Pompey took the city, in the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, the fast of the third month corresponded, as we have seen, with June 19 or 20. But in a.j.p. 4676, which was the consulship of M. Vipsanius Agrippa and L. Caninius Gallus, Sivan came earlier, because it was not an intercalary year. By turning to the tables,' the reader will see that it was the eighth year of Julius Csesar's reformed calendar. Consequently the golden number in his cycle was eight. Whereas, a.j.p. 4676 divided by 19, leaves two as the remainder or golden number, according to the Nicene computation. The comparative calendar in the chapter on the Roman year,* exhibits the following lunations, according to both cycles ; and these are here connected with the Jewish arrange ment of months : Jewish months. Shehet 30 Adaf 29 Nisan 30 Jyar 29 Sivan 30 Tammuz .,, 29 Ab 30 Elul 29 Tisri 30 Marchesvan 29 Casleu 30 Tebeth 29 Nicene J)i. Julius Ceesar Da. January.. 12 January ., . 14 February 10 February 12 March ... 12 March ,,, 14 April 10 April ....I. 12 May 10 May 12 June 8 June 10 July 8 July 10 August ... 6 August „, 8 September 5 September 7 October ... 4 October ,.. 6 November 3 November 5 December 2 December 4 According to the Nicene computation, the new moon of Sivan fell on the tenth of May ; and, according to Caesar's cycle, on the twelfth ' Comp, Dion, H. R, lib, xlix. c, 22, p, 405, with Jos, Antiq, lib, xiv, c. 16, de Bel, Jud, lib, i, c. 18. ' Jos. Antiq. lib, xiv. c. 16, § 4. ' Part I. chap. 5, p. 140. ' Parti, c. 3, of theEomanyear,p.87-92. 356 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [PART II ol" May. Hence the fast of the third month, or the 23rd of Sivan, fell, according to these different computations, the former on the 1st, the latter on the 3rd of June. If, then, we date the beginning of the siege as early as the 1st of January, it must have continued nearly six Jewish months, or five fuU Roman months ; and, by the capture of Jerusalem on the 1st or 3rd of June, a.j.p. 4676, Herod became king of Judsea, de facto. In the third year after his appoint ment by the Eoman senate. That appointment could not have been earlier than the 1st or 3rd of June ; for, if it had, the capture would have been in \h.e fourth, not in the third year after it. We have before seen that, in all probability, he must have been ap pointed by the senate not later than about the 20th of July ; and we now see, that it must have been after the 1st or 3rd of June. We have, therefore, by a comparison of the several dates of this accurate historian, given oftentimes incidentally in both his nar ratives, ascertained the commencement of Herod's reign within two , months ; and this. In the absence of positive and direct testimony, is a degree of success which could hardly have been anticipated. We proceed now to ascertain the date of his death. § II. Josephus, after giving an account of Herod's last will and tes tament, adds : " Having done these things, on the fifth day after he had killed his son Antipater, he died, having reigned, from the time when he destroyed Antigonus, four-and-thirty years ; and, from the time when he was proclaimed king by the Romans, seven-and- thlrty." The same account Is given, with a few verbal alterations, in his narrative of the Jewish war.' In both, also, the age of the king is mentioned. " Despairing of recovery, for he was about seventy years of age, he raged with the most unmitigated wrath and bitterness on all occasions."^ " His disorder now grew worse and worse, his maladies being aggravated by old age and sorrow ; for he was almost seventy years old, and he was so dejected in spirit, by the calamities brought on him by his children, that, even if he had been well, he could have had no enjoyment,"' As he was now " almost seventy," he must have been, at least, in the thirty-third year of his age, " when he was proclaimed king ' Jos. Antiq, Jud, lib. xvii. c. 8, § 1, * Antiq. lib, xviii, c, 6, § 1, comp. with de Bel. Jud. lib. i. t. 33, § 8, ' De Bel, Jud, lib, i. c, 33, § 1, CHAP, l] REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 357 by the Romans, seven-and- thirty" years before. Consequently, when his father gave him the government of Galilee, seven years earlier, he must have completed his twenty-fifth, and not his fifteenth year, as the Greek copies now read. I have already men tioned j;his in its proper place, and it is now mentioned again, to show that the remarks of the commentators are well-founded, who account for the mistake by the accidental substitution of the Glreek numeral .or 10, for k or 20. As to the year of Herod's death, there can be no uncertainty. He was made king by the Bomans about July 20, A.J.P, 4673 From that time 37 complete years being added - 37 We arrive at July 20 as the latest possible date iu A.j,p, 4710 But the month in which he died not being expressly mentioned, we can arrive at It only by induction. During his last illness, and evidently but a short time before his death, a sedition was excited by two of the Jewish rabbins, named Judas and Matthias, whose pupils, at their instigation, cut down the golden eagle erected by Herod over the great gate of the temple. The king ordered these two rabbins, and those who had actually committed the outrage, to be burned alive. This punish ment was inflicted on the same day In which Matthias the high priest was deprived of his office ; and that very night there was an eclipse of the moon. This eclipse, being In the thirty-seventh year of Herod's reign, occurred between the two extremes, viz. July 20, A.J.P. 4709, and July 20, a.j.p. 4710. We need not trouble our selves about the lunations in a.j.p. 4709, because it is evident, from the circumstances of the narrative, that the eclipse occurred in the spring, before the passover. We need, therefore, only to examine those of the first months in a.j.p. 4710. That year was the forty-second of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar. Its astronomical marks were, therefore, according to that cycle, solar 14, lunar 4, epact 3 ; while, according to the Nicene computation, they were, solar 6, lunar 17, epact 26. The result of both cycles, compared with the Jewish months. Is as follows : 358 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [part n. A.J.P. 4710, A.U.C, 749-50, L, Cornelius licntulns, M, Valerius Messalinus Cotta Coss. JEWISH MONTHS, Shebet 30 Adar 29 Nisan 30 Jyar 29 Sivan 30 Tammuz 29 Ab 30 NICENE CALENDAR. New Moons. Full Moons. Jan. 27 Feb. 9-10 Feb, 25 Mar.' 10-11 Mar. 27 Apr. 9-10 Apr, 25 May 8—9 May 25 June 7—8 Juue 23 July 6—7 July 23 CALBND4R OF JULIUS CiGSAR. New Moons. Full Moons. Jan. 23 Feb. 26 Mar, 28 Apr. 26 May 26 June 24 July 24 Feb, 10-11 Mar, 11-12 Apr. 10-11 May. 9-10 Juue 8 — 9 July 7—8 The following calculation of the eclipse is given by Petavius :' Golden Number xvii.. Solar Cycle vi,, Sund. Letter c. A. Jul. Per. 4710. Mean opposition took place at Paris on the twelfth of March, in the thirteenth hour, after midnight ; at Jerusalem I5h. 48', at which time the equal motions are thus gathered : — 0 Longit I © Anomaly, j ]) Anomaly. I Motion of Lat. lis. 17° 55' 51" I 9s, 9° 42' 8" | Is, 11° 44' 4" | 6s, 5» 43' 26" ?g"ronlt:i°'lo"}s-^"'*'=5" I ^¦n-10h,19' ?l^:m$?li?:2ri"|iPl:^l|:3?2^«>-^"35'26'' , Time.llh.0 True fiill moon, March 13tb, 2h, 48' after midnight. Sun's mean place in the time of the true opposition - - 1 Is. 18° 22' SSf' Sun's true place - - - - - - -Us. 20° 23' 0" Therefore subtract, on account of the equation of days, from the time of the true full moon, scruples 3' 10", that it may agree with 2h. 45'. The mean motion of latitude in the time of the true apposition - 6s. ll'>47' 15" The true motion of latitude - - - - - 6s. 8° II' 51' Latitude ----.-.. 42' 31" Semidiameter of the moon 16'17")c! «,>/ .0// .-^^f .,»,n Semidiameter of the umbra 42' 58"! S""" ^^ ^^ <^» l^"?) From the sum of the semidiameters, the latitude being subtracted, there remain 16' 45" (16' 44"?) Therefore a little more than vi. digits were eclipsed. The square of the sum of the semidiameters = 12,659,364" The square of the latitude - - -= 6,507,601" Difference 6,151,763 The root of the difference = 2478" = 41' 18" which are the scruples of iujidence and emersion; by which, from the true horary motion, the time is obtained by couver sion lb. 28'. The beginning of the eclipse at Jerusalem Ih. 17' Middle 2h. 45' End, after midnight 4h. 13' Whole duration 2h. 56' Moon's mean distance + 6s, Moon's equation — Os, Sun's true place — Us, 20° 23' 0" Remainder, 6s, 0° 0' 0", Sun's mean place, lis, 18° 22' 58" Moon's mean place, 5s, 23° 58' 24" Moon's true place, 5s, 20° 23' 0" 5° 35' 26" 2° 35' 24" 1 De Doctrina Temporum, Antv. 1705, fol. tom. i. p, 514-15. CHAP, l] reign of HEROD THE GREAT. 359 By this calculation, it appears that the eclipse recorded by Josephus, took place in the night of the 12th and 18th of March, A.J.P. 4710, in the fourth year of the 193rd olympiad, being before the parilia, or 2 1 st of April, A.U.C. 749, the forty-second year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, the twenty-eighth year after the battle of Actlum, the twentieth year of the tribunicial power of Augustus, in the consulship of Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Marcus Valerius Messalinus Cotta, and in the 744th year of the asra of Nabonassar. If, according to this calculatloHj the true full moon took place at Jerusalem 2h. 48' after midnight, on the morning of the 13th of March, the next new moon would follow the vernal equinox, and, consequently, would be the beginning of Nisan, the first month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year. The full moon following, in the night between the 14th and 15th of Nisan, would be the passover, or paschal fuU moon. If, then, to the true full moon at the time of the eclipse, we add one lunation, it will give us the date of the passover that year as follows : D. H. True full moon in March , . . „ 12 2 48 + one lunaiion, containing . . , 29 12 44 Sum from midnight of the last day of February . . 41 15 32 From which take the month of March . . 310 0 And the remainder is the true paschal full moon in April 10 15 32 aft, midnight. That is, the moon fulled at 32' after 3 o'clock p,m. on the llth of April ; and, consequently, the paschal feast would commence that evening at the going down of the sun, and the 12th of April would be celebrated as the first day of the feast. Now it appears, from the narrative of Josephus, that Herod was dead and buried, and Archelaus proclaimed king, before the pass- over. This will be rendered evident, by the induction of the fol lowing facts ; for a more detailed account of which, the reader is referred to Josephus : Antipater, the eldest son of Herod, was then in prison, convicted of an attempt to poison his father ; and ambassadors had been sent to Rome, to obtain the advice and consent of the emperor as to his punishment. In the mean time, Herod went to the baths of Cal- lirhoe, whence he returned to Jericho, despairing of recovery. With a malignant fury, hardly conceivable, he commanded all the 360 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [PART IL principal men of the Jewish nation to assemble there, on pain of death. A large number came, and were confined in the Hip podrome. He then exacted a promise from his sister Salome, as he was about to die, that she would cause them all to be massacred, so that the whole nation might observe a great and solemn mourn- ino; at his funeral. While he was giving these commands, letters arrived from his ambassadors at Rome, informing him that Csesar left the punish ment of Antipater to be decided by himself. This pleased, and, for a time, seemed to give him bodily relief. But a new paroxysm was so painful, that he attempted to stab himself; and the tumult this occasioned, led to a report of his death. Antipater, believing it, attempted to bribe his jailer, in order to obtain his liberty ; and Herod, being immediately informed of the attempt, ordei-ed his guards without delay to put Antipater to death. " The fifth day after he had thus killed his son, he himself died" at Jericho. The prisoners In the Hippodrome were immediately liberated, and Archelaus was proclaimed king. Herod was burled at Herodium, about sixty stadia from Jerusalem, and two hundred stadia from Jericho ; that is, about seven and a half miles from the one, and twenty-five miles from the other.' In the description of the funeral ceremonies, Josephus states in ( ne place, that the procession " went towards Herodium eight stadia ; for there, according to his own command, he was buried ;'"^ whereas in another he says, describing the same procession, " the body was carried two hundred stadia to Herodium, where, accord- ng to his commands, he was buried."^ Whiston attempts to re- I oncile the two statements, by supposing that they went eight itadia, or furlongs, a day, and consequently that the funeral took v.p no less than twenty-five days. But this supposition appears to me incredible ; for, according to Reland, two hundred and ten stadia were an ordinary day's journey ;^ and eight stadia, or two thousand cubits, constituted, according to the same author, a sabbath-day's journey.* I am Inclined to think, therefore, that they were obliged ' Jos, Antiq, Jud. lib. xiv. c. 13, § 9 ; from Jericho, where he died." — Bib, Res, de Bel. Jud. lib, i. c. 33, § 9. Dr. Robin- vol. ii, p. 1 73. It is laid down in his map son has shown very satisfactorily, in his at about north latitude 31° 40', and longi- 'learned work on Palestine, that the spot tude east from Greenwich 35° 12'. called the Frank Mountain " is the site of ''Kiaav Si etti "HpiuSioj* ^aSta iicrai. — the fortress and city Herodium, erected by Antiq. lib. xvii. c. 8, § 3. Herod the Great." " To the same place ' De Bell, Jud, lib, i, c, 33, § 9. apparently," he adds, " the body of Herod * Palsestina, tom. i, p. 442. was brought for burial two hundred stadia ' lb, p, 397, CHAP. I.] REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 361 to hurry the interment, and consequently began their procession on the sabbath-day. Certain It Is, that Archelaus had returned to Jerusalem before the passover, which, as we have seen, was cele brated on the twelfth of April. For during that festival, as Josephus expressly states, that is between the twelfth and nine teenth, which was its octave, occurred the sedition, occasioned by the irritated feelings of the multitude, on account of those who on the thirteenth of March had been burned alive by the orders of Herod. During the conflict on this occasion between the people and the soldiery of Archelaus, three thousand men were killed. " Then," says Josephus, " did Archelaus make proclamation that all should depart to their own homes ; and thus, abandoning the festival, they departed.'" This shows that the paschal week was not yet ended. If then we take into account that, after the funeral, Archelaus continued the public mourning seven days; that the rejoicings at the accession of Archelaus then commenced ; that the religious rites on that occasion, the receiving of petitions, the redress of grievances, the largesses bestowed upon the multitude, and other acts of munificence usual at the beginning of a new reign, would consume several days, — it will not be deemed an un reasonable allowance to place the conclusion of the funeral cere monies about the end of March. And this being admitted, the following adjustment of dates will be considered as probable : A,j,p, 4710, A.u.c. 749, Ref. Cal. Jul. Cffis. 42, Herod's reign, 37, The execution of Judas, Matthias, and their companions, topk place the day preceding the night of the eclipse The death of Antipater may be placed about , The death of Herod on the fifth day after The ceremonies of the funeral, the interment, and the return of Arche laus to Jerusalem, may well be included within the space of ten days from March 22 to 31 , The mourning for seven days from .... would end on the .... Sacrifices and religious solemnities .... Public rejoicings for the accession of Archelaus for three days The Passover, being just one month after the execution of Judas, Matthias, aud others, would naturally excite the feelings of the people ..,,,, These led to seditions and tumults, terminated by the slaughter of about 3,000 of the people , , . . People, by proclamation, ordered to disperse Paschal week ended , , . . . Immediately after the Paschal week, Archelaus sets out for Rome, to be confirmed in his kingdom by the emperor Augustus. It is evident, from the narrative of the Evangelists, that our ' Jos, Antiq. lib, xvii, c, 9, § 3. 46 ilarch 12 >» 16 » 21 »22. -31 April 1 „ 7 »j 8 „ 9 -11 11 12 11 15 11 16 11 18 362 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [PART IL Lord Jesus Christ " was born in the days of Herod tlje king ;" that he was " two years old, or under," when the massacre of the innocents took place at Bethlehem ; that, previous to the massacre, he had been carried into Egypt ; and that he returned, yet a small child, after Herod's death.' By ascertaining the date of Herod's death, therefore, we have arrived at the latest limit of that period in which his birth could have taken place. We had previously ascertained, in the first part of the present work,* the earliest limit of the same p.eriod, by determining in what year Augustus shut for the third time the gates of the temple of Janus. The yvhole question now ranges between the spring of the year 4707, and the spring of the year 4710 of the Julian period, corresponding with the Juliaa years 39, 40, 41, and 42, or from the seventh to the fourth before the common Christian sera. We might proceed to consider such circumstantial evidence as would have weight in narrowing the limits of that interval still more. But the full force of such evi dence will be much better perceived at a later stage of our Inquiry, > St, Matth. ii. 1, 14, 15, 16, 19-23, ' Part i. ohap,ix. CHAP. ilJ 363 CHAPTER II. ON THE DATE OF PILATE's ADMINISTRATION. Reasons why the exact date of our Lord's death should be examined first, — He suffered under Pontius Pilate. — The first step, therefore, is to fix the limits of Pilate's admin istration Herod died March 21, a.j.p, 4710. — Archelaus banished probably iu June A.J,P. 4719. — Coponius governor of the Jews, — Returns to Rome probably in May or June A.J,P, 4720, and Ambivius succeeds him, — He is followed by Annius Rufus, who ¦was in office when AuguStus'died, Aug, 1 9, a.j.p, 4726. — In his stead, Tiberius imme diately sends Valerius Gratus,^His administration of eleven years ends at the beginning of the twelfth year of Tiberius Cajsar, or after August 19, a.j.p. 4737. — Pontius Pilate his successor,— Pilate's administration continued ten years, and there fore ended after August 1 9, a.j,p. 4747, — Deprived by Vitellius, who selit Marcellus in his stead, — Vitellius himself goes to Jerusalem at the Fassover. Question what Passover this could have been. Reasons for believing it to be that of a.j.p. 4748, which fell on the 9th or lOth of April. — ^Vitellius not only sends away Pilate, but deposes Caiaphas from the high priesthood. — Reflections, — Tiberius dies before the Passover of XJ.p. 4749, — Pilate arrives in Rome after his death. Leads probably a life of insignificance, and perhaps remorse, and finally kiUs himself in the third year of Caligula, or a,j.p, 4751, a,d. 38. In the nature of things the death of Christ would be a subject of more notoriety than his birth. It was, therefore, an event at the precise date of which we can arrive with much greater ease ; and when it is ascertained, we can compute backward to the time of his birth with far greater certainty than if we should attempt to reverse the process. Accordingly, such has been the usual method taken In previous investigations. For this purpose then, agreeably to the plan hitherto pursued, the first object will be to determine the extreme limits within which our Lord's death could have happened, and then, by accumulation of evidence, to approximate, as nearly as the nature of that evidence will permit, towards an unerring result. That our Lord "sufiered under Pontius Pilate," is certain. The first step, therefore, must be to fix the date of his administra tion, by ascertaining when it began and when it ended. 364 DATE OF Pilate's administration. [part il After the death of Herod, which took place, as we have seen in the last chapter, on or about the 21st of March, a.j.p, 4710, Archelaus went to Rome to be confirmed In his kingdom by the emperor Augustus. Here he met with very considerable opposi tion, but was finally appointed by Augustus, ethnarch of one half of his father Herod's dominions ; the other half being divided Into two parts, and given, under the name of Tetrarchies, to his brothers, Herod Philip, and Herod Antipas. His ethnarchy In cluded Judsea, Samaria, and Idumsea; and it was given to him on the condition that if he reigned virtuously, he should receive the royal dignity.' But the Jews having frequently petitioned to be annexed to Syria, and ruled over by its presidents as a Roman province, and fresh complaints having been made by the principal men of Judsea and Samaria, of the barbarous and tyrannical con duct of Archelaus,' the emperor first sent for him to Rome, and finally banished him to Vienna in Gaul, the modern Vienne. This occurred, according to Josephus, in the tenth year of his relgn.^ Computing the reign of Archelaus from the death of Herod, March 21, a.j.p. 4710, nine years would be fully ended, and the tenth would begin March 21, A.j.p, 4719. Cyrenius, or Quirinius, the governor of Syria (the same person mentioned by St. Luke, ch. ii. V. 2) was commissioned to confiscate the property of Arche laus, and to impose a tax upon the nation. For this purpose Coponius, a Roman knight, was sent with him as governor of the Jews ; and this sale of the goods of Archelaus and completion of the census " took place," says Josephus, " in the thirty-seventh year," after the victory over Antony at Actium.' Now the battle of Actium, as we have seen,^ was fought on the second of September, A.j.p. 4682 ; and consequently the thirty- seventh year from that victory ended on the first of September, A.J.P. 4719. As, therefore, the summons of Archelaus to Rome took place in the tenth year of his reign, which began March 21, A.J.P. 4719, and the confiscation of his property in the thirty- seventh year after the battle of Actium, which ended September, A.J.P. 4719, it is evident that the banishment of Archelaus, the sale of his effects, and the levying of a tax on the nation, all took place within the space of five months. \ TU '-r^"'- " ''¦ ''"V- "• § *• ' ^°^- -A-ntiq. xviii. c. 1, § 1, comp. with • lb. Lb, xvu, c. 13, § 2, c, 2, § 1. ¦> See pajt I, chap, vii. p, 197. CHAP. II.] DATE OF PILATe's ADMINISTRATION. SQ5 Archelaus had a remarkable dream, in which he saw ten full ears of wheat devoured by oxen, the interpretation of which was that his government would end at the tenth harvest. Within five days after this vision he was summoned to Rome.' I assign this event, therefore, to the month of June, soon after the wheat harvest, which in Judea generally occurs in that month, leaving time enough before the beginning of September for the acts of administra tion assigned to Cyrenius.* The banishment of Archelaus, there fore, must. In all probability, have taken place in June, in the con sulship of Aulus Licinius Nerva Silianus, and Quintus Cajcilius Metellus Creticus, A.U.C. 759, at the end of the first year of the 196th olympiad, in the 51st year of Csesar's reformed calendar, and the 753rd year of Nabonassar. I infer from the narrative of Josephus, that Coponius was not an efficient governor, and was, therefore, unacceptable to the nation ; for after mentioning in connexion with his name a very remarkable act of sacrilege committed by the Samaritans at the passover, the historian adds, that not long after Coponius returned to Rome, and Marcus Ambivius <;ame as his successor in the government of Judsea.^ This must have been the passover fol lowing the banishment of Archelaus and the confiscation of his eifects; and as in a.j.p. 4720 there were thirteen lunations, and the paschal full moon fell on the eighteenth or nineteenth of April, we may place the succession of Ambivius in May or June of that year.t To Ambivius succeeded Annius Rufus, during whose administra tion, says Josephus, occurred the death of Augustus, and the suc cession of Tiberius ; that is, his succession to sole and unlimited authority, August 19th, a.j.p. 4726. During the life-time of Augustus, the deep dissimulation of Tiberius caused him to smother the resentments occasioned by the evident unwillingness of the former to trust him. But no sooner was all restraint and fear removed, than he hastened to show his hatred by reversing the appointments of his predecessor. Hence Valerius Gratus was ' Jos. Ant. lib. xvii. u. 13, § 3. + The reader can easily make the calcu- *' For the time of wheat harvest in Ju- lations, by means of the golden numbers dffia, I refer to Dr, Robinson's Biblical in the cycles of Caesar's calendar, or of the Researches, as one of the most accurate Nicene. According to the former, the and consequently most valuable works on Golden Number was xiv ; according to ihe Holy Land, the latter, viu, ' Jos, Ant, Jud. lib, xviii, c, 2, § 2, 366 DATE OF Pilate's administration. [part n. sent by him to replace Annius Rufus in the government of Judaea. Gratus, having spent eleven years in Judsea, returned to Rome, and "Pontius Pilate," says Josephus, "came as his successor."' If then we add eleven complete years, we shall be brought to August 19th, A,j,p. 4737, the beginning of the twelfth year of the sole reign of Tiberius, as the earliest possible date of Pilate's ad ministration. This computation accords with the view which Eusebius took of the same passnge ; for he says in one place that Pilate was appointed procurator of Judsea by Tiberius in the twelfth year of his reign ; and in another that the fifteenth year of Tiberius was the fourth of the government of Pilate. He must, therefore, have considered the first of Pilate and the twelfth of Tiberius as beginning about the same time.* This is all that we do or can know as to the beginning of Pilate's administration, Josephus being the only authority appealed to by the early Christian writers. Its termination is related by the same historian in the following manner : " This tumult being quelled, the Senate of the Samaritans sent to Vitellius, a man of consular dignity who held the government of Syria, and accused Pilate for the slaughter of those who had perished ; because they had gone to TIrathaba, not to revolt from the Romans, but to escape from the outrage of Pilate. Where upon Vitellius sent his friend Marcellus to take charge of the affairs of the Jews, and ordered Pilate to go to Rome, and give an account to the emperor concerning the things of which the Jews accused him. Wherefore Pilate, when he had remained over Judaea ten years, departed for Rome in obedience to the commands of Vitellius, which he dared not resist. But before he arrived In Rome Tiberius was dead."' We have seen that the earliest possible date of the beginning of Pilate's administration was Aug, 19, A.J.P. 4737. Consequently, ten complete years being added, the earliest date at which Vitel lius could have sent Marcellus was after the 19th of August, A. J.P. 4747, the beginning of the twenty-second year of Tiberius, But Josephus says that Pilate had not yet arrived in Rome when Tiberius died; and his death occurred'' March 16th, A.J.P. 4749. The period of time, therefore, which elapsed between the dismissal J Jos. Antiq, lib. xviii, c, 2, § 2, ' Jos, Antiq. lib. xviii. c 4, § 2. Euseb. H. E. lib. i. o. 2, comp. o. 10, * See part i, chap, xi..p. 265. CHAP, il] date OP Pilate's administration. 367 of Pilate from office and his arrival in Rome, must have beeu, at least, nearly one year and seven months. Josephus says that he dared not resist the commands of Vitellius ; and his administration had been so odious to the Jews that he would not willingly remain among them as a private man. The difficulty then is, how to account for so long a period of time between the deposition of Pilate and his arrival in Rome. It is, in the first place, to be remarked, that because Josephus connects the arrival of Pilate in Rome after the death of Tiberius, with the end of his administration in Judsea, we have no right to infer that the one event speedily succeeded the other. It, is no uncommon thing for an historian, when he Is about to dismiss a subject of inferior interest, to say at once all he has to say about it, without reference to time ; and it Is very probable that the mo tive of Josephus, in mentioning the fact of Pilate's arrival after the death of Tiberius, was merely to intimate that he thereby escaped the punishment due to his nefarious conduct. In the second place, it must be observed that extortion and cruelty were not such crimes, in the estimation of Roman governors, as would lead them to punish an offender with great severity. There is not the least evidence that Pilate was sent as a prisoner to Rome, or that Vitellius was disposed to become his accuser. The presumption Is quite to the contrary; and, although, from political motives, he might think it expedient to humour so tur bulent a people by removing an obnoxious procurator, we have no reason to suppose that he treated Pilate with any personal severity. He would give him time enough to arrange his aflTairs, to secure his witnesses, and to prepare his defence against any accusations which, the Jews might bring against him before the emperor. AU this, I think, may be fairly inferred from +he subsequent narrative. In the next section after the passage I have quoted, Josephus .iinmedlately adds, that " Vitellius, departing from Judsea, came up to Jerusalem in the time of their feast, which is called the Passover, and being received with great pomp and ceremony, he remitted to the whole inhabitants the tax upon provisions, and allowed the priests to have the care of the pontifical garments and ornaments laid up in the temple as they formerly had ;" a privilege of which they had been deprived by Herod. To gratify the nation, he also 368 DATE OF Pilate's administration. [part il removed Joseph, surnamed Caiaphas, from the high-priesthood, and substituted for him Jonathan, the son of Ananus.' It is hardly possible not to interrupt the narrative here, for the (purpose of remarking the visible signs of Divine retribution thus falling, at the same time, upon the iniquitous Roman governor and the wicked high-priest under whose administration our Lord was condemned to death. The cry, " Thou art not Csesar's friend," impelled Pilate to sin against the convictions of his own conscience; and " We have no king but Csesar," was the false exclamation of the high-priest to glut the purposes of his revenge. And now, by the authority of that same Caesar, both are degraded from their dignity. J Josephus proceeds to state that Vitellius, having returned to Antioch, received letters from Tiberius, commanding him to enter into friendly relations with Artabanus, king of the Parthians ; but while these letters were sent to Vitellius, Tiberius was secretly endeavouring, by bribes, to excite the kings of the Iberians and the Albanians to make war upon Artabanus. The hostilities occasioned by these Intrigues terminated In favour of Artabanus ; and Tibe rius, having heard the result, thought proper to make new over tures of friendship to Artabanus. This led to an interview be tween Vitellius and the king ; and not long after, the latter sent his son Darius as a hostage to Tiberius.^ It is unnecessary to pursue this history further, because what has now been said is sufficient to show at what passover Vitellius went to Jerusalem. Marcellus, as we have seen, was sent by him to supersede Pilate after the nineteenth of August, a,j,p. 4747 ; and Tiberius died March 16th, A.J.P. 4749. Now if the reader will take the pains to reckon the lunations of a.j.p. 4748 and 4749, by means of the tables given in Part i. chapters iii. and iv. he will find that the paschal full-moon for A.J.P. 4748 fell on the 9th or 10th of April, and the paschal full-moon for A.j.p. 4749 fell on the 29th or 30th of March, a fortnight after the death of Tiberius. When, there fore, we take Into account all the proceedings respecting Ar tabanus which, followed the visit of Vitellius at Jerusalem, and preceded the death of Tiberius, we cannot fail to be convinced that 1 Jos, Antiq, Jud, lib, xviii. c, 4, § 3. ' lb, ut sup, § 4, 5, compare with § 3, CHAP. II.] DATE OF PILATe's ADMINISTRATION. 369 It was the passover of A.J.P. 4748, Consequently, as the feast of the passover continued eight days, Vitellius would not leave Jeru salem on his return to Antioch till after the 17th or 18th of April, We may, therefore, place the departure of Pilate at the same time with that of Vitellius, not far from the beginning of May, A.J.P. 4748, at the beginning of A.u.c. 788, and in the 35th year of the common Christian sera. Where he spent the next eleven months it Is in vain to conjec ture. In reviewing the life of Tiberius, we have seen that his health had begun to decline before this period, and that, in the year of which we are now speaking, he roamed from place to place, like a wild beast tormented and furious. Pilate could not but be aware of the emperor's condition, and that, in all probability, his death was not far remote. As to his own personal safety, every thing was to be gained, and nothing lost, by delay. He, therefore, contrived to lengthen out the time of his journey In every possible way, and did not arrive in Rome till Caligula was seated on the throne. He seems then to have remained in obscurity,, unknown or disregarded, until at length, being weary of life, and perhaps tor mented by the reproaches of his own conscience, in the second year of Caligula, according to Orosius, or the third, according to Euse bius, he laid violent hands upon himself.' The third year of Caligula began on the 16th of March, a.j.p. 4751, in the 38th year of the vulgar sera. Such was the end of Pilate ! ' Anno tertio Caii Caligulee, Pontius Pilatus, in multas incidens calamitates, propria. se manu interficit, — ^Euseb. Chron. 47 370 L^AKT "• CHAPTER III. TESTIMONY OF THE LATIN CHURCII AS TO THE DATE OF OUR saviour's DEATH. "Reason for first examining the testimony of the Latins. — Care of the Romans about their archives. — Chain of testimony.— Public libraries — Resort of literary men. — Public records there preserved. — Not destroyed certainly till the fifth century, — Among these archives the acts of Pilate. — Testimony of Tertullian, — His character, and value of his testimony, — His statement as to the time of our Saviour's cruci fixion.— Lactantius; character and testimony,— St. Augustine.- Sulpicius Severus. — Orosius. — Victoriu.'s of Aquitaine. — Liber Pontiflcalis, The testimony of the Latin church should first be examined, be cause in Rome, and in Rome only, could such documents be found and consulted, as would establish facts and dates beyond contra diction. It is well known that no nation was ever more careful than the Eomans, as to monuments of all kinds commemorative of their own greatness. "Many," says Josephus, "disbelieve what is written concerning us by the Persians and Macedonians, because they are not deposited everywhere in places of public resort, but are kept more privately among us and some others of the barbarians. The decrees of the Romans, however, cannot be contested, since they are deposited in the most public places of their cities, and to this day are inscribed in the Capitol and also on pillars of brass.'" The pride and vanity of the nation were specially interested in the preservation of these monuments, and in rendering them easy of access. Hence they were kept with great vigilance in the places set apart for that purpose, but could be freely visited and con sulted by all classes of persons. Here then was the common centre ; and even if we had no special and positive evidence, we ' Jos. Antiq, Jud, lib, xiv. c. 10, § 1. CHAP. III.J DATE OF OUR SAVIOUr's DEATH. 371 might infer, from the usual order of things, that the best informa tion, concerning the affairs of the provinces, was to be obtained at the metropolis of the Roman world. But fortunately we have a chain of testimony remaining, with regard to the existence of these documents, and the places where they were 'preserved, for more than four hundred years, which in itself is extremely curious, and is especially important to our present purpose. According to the topography of Publius Victor, there were twenty-nine public libraries in Rome, of which the Prdatine and the Ulpian were the principal.* Both Dio and Suetonius speak particularly of the foundation of the Palatine library by Augustus. The modern word palace is derived from the Palatine, because that mount was occupied principally by the residence of the Caesars. A portion of that residence having been struck by lightning, the haruspices declared that it was a sign from Heaven of the will of ApoUo, that atemple should be erected there to his honour.' This was done by Augustus, and the new structure was called the Apollineum.^ With it he connected a library, in which, when he was old, he often held the meetings of the senate, and convened for revision the judicial courts. He completed and dedicated this temple with the area around it, and the library in his sixth consulship with Agrippa IL (a.j.p. 4685, A.U.C. 724-5), the 29th year before the common Christian sera.' So early as in the time of Julius Csesar, Varro was charged to collect and arrange as many Latin and Greek books as he could ; and Augustus In like manner gave it in charge to Pompeius Macer to arrange his libraries.* Such was the Palatine library ; and that it continued to be im proved and embellished by Tiberius, appears from a remark of Suetonius concerning the statue of Apollo Temenetes, which had been brought at the dose of his reign from Syracuse to be placed * Of this writer I can find no satisfac- desiderari a deo haruspices pronuntiarunt. tory notice ; but he appears to have des- Addidit porticus, cum bibliotheca Latina cribed Rome as it was before the ravages Grascaque ; quo loco jam senior sfepe committed by the Goths under Alaric, etiam senatum habuit, decuriasque judi- A.D. 410, I found it in the collection of cum recognovit. — Sueton. Octavianus, c. Boissard. The passage here referred to 29, ed. Wolfii, Lips. 1802, tom, i. p. 145-6. is as follows; Bibliothecse undetriginta ' Templum Apollinis, says Suetonius, publicse; ex iis praecipuse duse, Palatina, AttoXXovuov, says Dion, lib, liii. c, 1, p, et Ulpia. — P. Vict, de Region. Urb. Rom. 496, D. ap. Boissardi Antiq. Roman, tom. i. ' Dion. H.R. ut sup. 1 Templum Apollinis in ea parte Pala- < Sueton. Jul, Cffisar, c, 44 and 56, ed. tinae domus excitavit, quam fulmine ictam Wolfii, tom, i. pp. 61, 67. 372 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR's DEATH [PAHT IL "in the library of the new temple."^ There was another library In the Campus Martius, built five years earlier with the spoils of the Dalmatians, in the consulship of Octavius Caesar II. and Volcatius Tullus, or A. j.p. 4680, a.u.c. 719-20, thirty-four years before A.D. 1. It was called Octaviana, in honour of Octavia, the sister of Augustus ; and was entirely consumed, with its booh, as Dion carefully Informs us, in the consulship of Titus Vlli. and Domitian VlL, or A.D. 79, one hundred and fourteen years after its founda tion.^ The ruins, if I mistake not, still exist, in the Jews' quarter in .Rome. The Ulpian library was founded by Trajan, as is proved by his coins, in the consulship of Trajan vi. and Africanus, A.D. 111. For all these references I am indebted to the learned editor of Dion Cassius* That these libraries were places of resort for literary persons, is rendered evident by occasional remarks of Aulus Gellius. " As we happened to be sitting in the library of Trajan's- temple, and were searching for something else, the edicts of the old prsetors fell into our hands, and we were allowed to read and study them."^ And in another place he says, " While Salpicius Apollinaris and myself were sitting with some others, either his or my friends, in the library of the house of Tiberius," Sec* Aulus GeUius lived: in the second century, was a cotemporary of Justin Martyr, and a little older than Tertullian ; for he died at the beginning of the reign of Marcus Aurelius. That the public records relating to the reigns of the several em perors were connected with these libraries, appears from various incidental notices, at various epochs. We have already seen that Aulus Gellius, in searching for some other documents, found the edicts of the old prsetors. These were, in fact, the decisions of the judges ; and from what Suetoijius says, in the passage already cited, that Augustus, when he was old, held the sessions of the senate and convened for revision the judicial courts (decurias judl- cum recognovit), In the library of the Apollineum, it is probable I In bibliotheca novi Templi. — Sueton, incidissent,legere atque cognoscere libitum Tiber, u. 74, ed. Wolfii, tom. i, p,.324, est. — Aulus Gellius Noct. Att. lib. xi. 17, ' Dion. C. lib. xlix, 43, compared with ' Quum in domus Tiberiance bibliotheca se- lib, Ixvi. 24, deremus, ego, et Apollinaris Sulpicius et . ' 'Edicta veterum praetorum, sedentibus quidem aiii mihi aut illi familiares, &c, — forte nobis in bibliotheca templi Trajani, et Ibid, lib, xiii. c, 1 9, aliud quid requirentibus, quum in manus jCHAP. ul] THE LATIN CHURCH. 373 that the public records of the empire were then deposited there for his convenience, were afterwards removed, in consequence, perhaps, of the great fire in Nero's reign, and in the time of Gellius were in the Ulpian library connected with the Temple of Trajan, in the forum which bore his name. Vopiscus, who flourished early in the fourth century, under Diocletian and Constantius Clilorus, mentions the offer of Junius Tiberianus to furnish him with the journals and other documents relating to the reign of Aurelian which were in the Ulpian library.^ The same author, in his life of the emperor Probus, tells his friend Celsus, that he had chiefly used the books from the Ulpian library, and also from the house of Tiberius ; both which collections .were, in his time, deposited in the baths of Diocletian.'^ We may, I think, infer from these passages, that after Diocletian had finished the magnificent fabric which went under the name of his Thermse, — but which, in reality, brought together all that'the arts and sciences could furnish, — the different libraries and collections of records were arranged there, under their ancient names, as the Ulpian library, the library of the house of Tiberius, &c. &c. We now arrive at the question, When were these records de stroyed? And here may properly be introduced an important ob servation of Suetonius. He relates, that Domitian repaired the libraries which had suffered by conflagration, collected books from all quarters, and sent persons to Alexandria, to copy anew, or mend, those which had been consumed or injured. He adds, however, that Domitian himself paid no attention to history, or poetry, or other literature, and read nothing frequently, excepting the Comr- mentaries and Acts of Tiberius Csesar.^ The fire here referred to, was probably that of which mention has already been made, as having taken place in the reign of Titus, > Ephemeridas illius viri scriptas habe- riaraa.— Hist, Aug, Scriptores, ut supra, p, mus, etiam bella, charactere historico di- 233, gesta, quse velim accipias, et per ordinem ' Liberalia studia imperii initio neglexit, scribas, additis quae ad vitam pertinent, quamquam bibliothecas inoendio absump- Quae omnia ex libris linteis, in quibus ipse tas impensissime reparare curasset, exem- quotidiana sua soribi praeceperat, pro tua plaribus undique petitis, missisque Alex- sedulitate condisces, Curabo autem ut andriam qui describerent emendarentque, tibi ex Ulpia bibliotheca et libri lintei pro- Numquam tamen aut historiae carmini- ferantur,— Vopisci Aurelianus, ap. Hist, busve noscendis, operam illam aut stUo vel Aug. Scriptores, ed. Salmas, Paris, 1620. necessario dedit. Praeter Commmtarios et ' Usus autem sum, ne in aliquo fallam Acta Tiberii Cmsaris nihil lectitabat. — cbarjssimam mihi familiaritatem tuam, Sueton. Domitian, u, 20, ed, Wolfii, tom, prsecipue libris ex bibliotheca Ulpia, eiate ii, p. 299. mea, tJiermis Diocletianis, item ex domo Tibe 374 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR's DEATH- [PA^RT U. A.D. 79, by which the Octavian library was consumed. Dio, in his account of the calamities which befel the city of Rome, particularly notices all the fires, and what they consumed ; but he records none, before the great fire of Nero, which could have affected the public records. An ancient inscription, preserved by Gruter, mentions that conflagration as having continued nine days ; and Dion says, that the whole of the Palatine was burned.' But the public archives would have been the first to be removed to a place of safety ; and the passage from Suetonius last cited, proves to us that the Commentaries and acts of Tiberius Cassar were saved. The library, also, of the house of Tiberius, was seen, not only by Gellius, but also, at a much later period, by Vopiscus. In the reign of Commodus, the temple of Peace was burned ; but, while Dio men tions the loss of much merchandize, he says nothing of books.* These he certainly would have mentioned, if any had been lost ; much more would he have mentioned public records. His silence is the strongest evidence that no such calamity took place. Vo piscus also lived long after the time of Commodus. The incidental notices now given, the more convincing because they are incidental, appear to me to prove clearly that the public records of the Roman empire were laid up in public buildings, as public records are at the present day ; that these buildings were libraries, like the Bibliothfeque du Roi at Paris, or the British Museum in London ; that, as Rome had, and dreaded, no rival, all persons could freely go thither, to consult and take extracts from the archives ; that these consisted of diaries of events, collections of law, decisions of courts, acts of administration, letters, accounts, reports from the provinces, registers of every kind, and, in a word, all that pertained to the government of that mighty empire. There Is also, as I think, the strongest presumptive evidence that they were guarded with the utmost care ; that they were not allowed to be destroyed by any of the great conflagrations by which the city was occasion ally visited ; and, consequently, that, so long as Rome was safe from foreign foes, and independent of foreign masters, that is, until the conquest of the Goths, and other northern nations, or the fifth century of the Christian sera, they were in perfect preservation. With these preliminary observations, I pass on to consider the iQuandourbs per novem dies arsit Neronianis temporibus. — Gruter, lxi. 3. Dion. Cassius, lxii. 18. ^ Dion, C. lib. IxxiL 24. CHAP, UI.] TUE LATIX CHURCH. 375 testimony which has descended to us from the early Christian writers of the Latin Church, in defending the truths of the Gospel, against the attacks of their Heathen and Jewish adversaries. The limits of our subject, confine us to evidence concerning the time of our Saviour's birth and death. That Pontius Pilate transmitted to Rome an accurate account of that event, there can be no reasonable doubt. All the presidents and procurators of the Roman provinces, were required to report their proceedings annually. If, therefore, there were no direct testimony, the fact would be credible, that Pilate, in relating the events of that year, could not have omitted an occurrence so re markable, and in which he himself had so eminent a share, as that of the crucifixion of Jesus. But we have the direct testimony of Tertullian, that Pilate did transmit such an account ; and, from the manner In which Tertul lian gives this testimony, we may fairly infer, not only that this document still existed, but that it had been actually seen by him in the Roman Archives. For in liis defence of Christianity against heathenism, written about the year 198, and addressed to the rulers of the Roman Empire, (Romani Imperii Antistites), he says : " As to his [Christ's] doctrine, by which the rulers and chief men of the Jews were convicted, they were so exasperated, chiefly because a great multitude had become his followers, that finally, when he was brought before Pontius Pilate, who, in behalf of the Romans was then a procurator of Syria, they, by the violence of their clamours, extorted that he should be delivered up to them to be crucified. He himself had predicted that they would do thus. But this would have had little weight, if the prophets had not before predicted the same thing. And yet, when crucified, he voluntarily gave up his spirit with a word, thereby anticipating the office of the executioner. At the same moment the meridian light was withdrawn, the sun hiding his orb. They who did not know that this was predicted concerning the Christ, thought that it was an eclipse ; and, reason not comprehending this, they denied it, although you have in your Archives the relation of that phenomenon."^ 1 Ad doetrinam vero ejus qua revince- parte Komana procuranti, violentia suffra- bantur magistri, primoresque Judseorum, giorum in crucem dedi sibi extorserint, ita exasperabantur, maxim^ quod ad eum Praedixerat et ipse ita facturos, Parum ingens multitude deflecteret, ut postremo hoc, si non et prophetae retro. Et tamen. oblatum Pontic Pilato Syriam tunc ex suffixus, spiritum eum verbo sponte di- 376 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR's DEATH — [PART U. Tertullian then proceeds to narrate the caution of the Jews, in placing a guard over the sepulchre, the resurrection of our Lord, the subsequent reports among the Jews that the body had been stolen by the disciples, and other events, ending with his commission to the apostles, and his ascension into heaven. After which he adds: " All these things concerning Christ, Pilate, who was already in his own conscience a Christian, then announced to Tiberius Caesar.'"^ To estimate properly the value of this testimony, it is Important to consider the character of the witness. Tertullian is the earliest Christian writer among the Latins whose works have reached our times. He was probably born about the year 160 of the common Christian sera ; and was, therefore, not far from thirty-eight years old when he wrote the work from which the above extract is made. He speaks of himself in it as having been once a derider of the Christian faith.^ As there were in those times of persecution no worldly motives for becoming Christians, but, on the contrary, every worldly motive to deter men from it, we can have no doubt that he acted from the fullest conviction and the purest motives. Was he then a man who would be easily swayed ? On the contrary, his character was inflexible, even to obstinacy. Was he ignorant and disposed blindly to adopt either systems of opinion or matters of fact ? So far from this, Eusebius tells us that he was a man most profoundly and accurately learned In the laws of the Romans, on other subjects eminent, and among the most illustrious at Rome.^ " What Origen was among the Greeks," says Vincent of Lerlns, " such was Tertullian among the Latins, acknowledged by common consent as the chief of our writers. What could exceed the learning of this man, or what greater experience than his in things divine and human ?" ^ misit, prffivento carnificis officio. Eodem ' Haec et nos risimus aliquando, De momento, dies media orbem signante sole vestris fuimus, Fiunt, non nascuntur -subducta est, Deliquium utique putave- Christiani. — c. xviii. JTint, qui id quoque super Christo praedi- ' TtprocXXiavog roig 'Piafiaiuiv vopovg catum non scierunt; ratione non depre- ^Kpi6wKws, dviip,Tare dXXaevSo^og, Kat hensa, negaverunt, et tamen eum mundi ca- riov /idXiaTa ivi 'Piaprig Xa^TrpiSv. — Ec, sum relatum in arcanis [some read archivis'] Hist. lib. ii. c. 2, ed. Reading, tom, i. p, vestris habetis. 47, 1 Ea omnia super Cliristo Pilatus, et ipse ' Sicut ille apud Graecos, ita hie apud Jam pro sua conscientia Chrisiianus G(£sari Latinos nostrorum omnium facile princeps tum Tiberio nunciavit. — Apologeticus ad- judicandus est. Quid enim hoc viro doc- versus Gentes, c. 21, Opera, ed. Rigaltii, tins, quid in divinis atque humanis rebus -1641, p. 22; ed. Semleri, tom. v. 58-60; exeroitatius ? — Commonitorium, ed,Balu- .ed. Havercamp. 1718, p. 207-8, 210 11, zii, 1669, p, .345, CHAP, iil] the latin CHURCH, 377 The ancients generally speak of him with admiration, as a man of wonderful abilities, possessed of great acuteness and vigour of thought, astonishing powers of memory, and the most profound and varied erudition. Such a man would not become a convert to the faith he once derided without the most patient and laborious investigation. What then were his means and facilities for investi gation ? Though his father was not of very high rank, being only a proconsular centurion, yet being thus connected with the army, his son could not fail to have free access to all sources of Informa tion concentrated in the capital of the world ; of course he could have access to the Roman archives. It is somewhat doubtful whom he addressed under the title of Antistites of the Roman empire, whether they were the senate or officers appointed by the Emperor. . Severus was then absent on his expedition against the Parthians ; .and that, in all probability, was the reason why Tertullian, in writing an apology for the Christians, employed this unusual mode of address. But, whoever these persons in authority may have been, he would never have ventured to appeal to the Roman archives, or to assert that Pilate gave an account to Tiberius of the particulars he enumerates, unless he had himself examined the > archives, and read this original document. What, then, is the amount of his testimony ? It Is, that the extraordinary darkness which took place at the Crucifixion, and which some took to be an eclipse, till their reason taught them, that at the full moon there could be no solar eclipse, was con tained in a narrative laid up in the Roman archives. And further, that all the particulars respecting the crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, of our Saviour, were communicated to the emperor Tibe rius by Pontius Pilate, who was, in his conscience, convinced of their truth. It is almost a necessary inference, that the document thus spoken of, was the identical document laid up In the Roman archives, and confidently appealed to by Tertullian, because he himself had seen and examined it. And now let us proceed to examine what Tertullian himself states as to the time of our Saviour's crucifixion. Speaking of the times predicted by Daniel, and commenting parti cularly on the seventy weeks, and the expression, "after three-score and two weeks shall Messiah be cut off"" (exterminabitur Unctio), he says, " The Messiah, in that passage, was cut off after the passion 48 378 date of OUR saviour's death — [part IIL of Christ. For it had been foretold that the Messiah there should be cut off', as in the psalms of the prophets. They pierced my hands and my feet ;* which passion of this piercing (hujus extermluli), was finished within the times of the seventy weeks, under Tiberius Csesar, Rubellius Geminus and Fufius Geminus being consuls, in the month of March, in the season of the Passover, on the eighth day before the calends of April (March 25th), on the first day of unleavened bread, in which it had been commanded by Moses that at evening they should kill the lamb."' The next Latin writer in the order of time, who was led by his subject to mention the date of our Saviour's death, and whose writings have come down to us, is Lactantius. His parents were heathens ; but as he himself studied rhetoric under Arnobius, it is very probable that by him he was converted to the Christian faith. From the beauty of his style, he is called the Christian Cicero. The emperor Diocletian having made Nicomedla his capital, was desirous to attract learned men thither, and among others, appointed Lactantius to the chair of Latin eloquence. While he was there, the persecution of the Christians began, by the demolition of their church, on the 23d of February in the year 303 of the common sera ; and it continued with the most frightful violence till the year 312. Lactantius appears to have remained at Nicomedla through the whole ; for in his work " On the deaths of the Persecutors," * It is somewhat difficult to convey to runt manus meas et pedes." Modem the English reader the full force of Ter- readers are in danger of not doing justice tuUian's reasoning, on account of the va- to the reasoning of the Fathers, by not rious modes of interpretation in ancient adverting to these differences of transla- and modern versions of different passages tion. What may appear to the English of Scripture. The ancient Latin version reader a non sequitur, was truly logical which Tertullian used, was, generally reasoning, when the premises are consi- speaking, taken from the Septuagint, and dered from which the inferences were differed from the version of St. Jerome now drawn. used by the Latin Church. In the 26th ' Nam et Unctio illio exterminata est post verse of the 9th chapter of Daniel, where passionem Christi. Erat enim praediotum, our translation reads, " Messiah shall be exterminari illic Unotionem, sicut est in > cut off," and the modern vulgate "occi- ^s&lmis ^roT^hetarmn: Exterminaveruntma- detur Christus," the Septuagint reads iZo- nus meas et pedes. Quae passio hujus exter- Xo9ptu6ri. 430, aged nearly 76 years.' In many parts of his voluminous works he speaks of the date of our Saviour's birth and death, not as a subject of doubt or controversy, but as being well known. Of these I proceed to give a few examples. " It is evident under what consul and on what day the Virgin Mary brought forth Christ conceived of the Holy Ghost. "^ Here it is asserted that the year and day of Christ's conception and birth were both evident. " When, therefore, Herod was reigning in Judsea, and among the Romans, the state of the republic being changed, Augustus Csesar was emperor, and by him the world was made peaceful, Christ was born."^ Here the birth of Christ is spoken of as having occurred in a time of universal peace effected by Augustus Caesar ; evidently al luding to the time when the temple of Janus was shut the third time by that emperor. "That Christ was conceived and that he suffered in the same month, is shown by the observance of Easter, and the day of his nativity most certainly known by the churches. For he who was born on the eighth day before the op,lends of January (December 2oth) in the ninth month, was conceived surely about the eighth day before the calends of April (March 25th) in the first month, which was also the time of his passion."^ diem septimam," As Lactantus wrote his In Joh. Ev, c, vi. Tract xxiv, ed. Bened, institutes in Nicomedia, and probably Antiierp. tom. iii, pars, 2, p. 348, n. quoted from memory, it is not difiicult to ^ Regnante ergo Herode in Judaea, apud account for these variations in his phrase- Romanes autem jam mutate reipublicae ology. statu, imperante Ceesare Augusto, et per ' Tillemont Hist. Eccl. tom. xiii. Mor- eum orbe pacato, natus est Christus.. — De celll Africa Christiana, tom. ii. p. 320-324, Clvit. Dei, lib. xviii. c.46. Opera, ed. Bened, ' Apparet quo die conceptum de Spiritu tom, viii. p. 400, E. Sancto Virgo Maria peperit Christum, — ' Illo autem mense conceptum et passum CHAP. III.J * THE LATIN CHURCH. S81 ' Many passages to the same effect might be adduced ; but as they all concur in stating that the conception and passion of Christ took place on the same day, the 25th of March, and his birth on the 25th of December, I shall confine myself to one only, which occurs in his celebrated work on the city of God. He Is confuting an absurd falsehood of the pagans, that the Christian religion was to endure only 365 years. What better proof, he asks, can be sought for of Its falsity than that the 365 years are already past ? Not to place the beginning at his nativity, because a child has no disciples, and because St, Paul says to the Athenians that God has assured all men of the appointed -day of judgment by the resurrection of Christ from the dead,' let us go on to the period of his passion and resurrection ; more especially because the Holy Ghost was given, and the new law went forth from Zion and Jerusalem,^ as the old law had proceeded from Sinai. Wherefore Christ himself appointed " that repentance and remission of sins should be preached in his name among all nations, beginning at Jerusalem."'^ In Jerusalem, therefore, arose the worship of this name, and the necessity of belief in Christ Jesus, who had been crucified and had risen again. There this faith produced such a wonderful conversion of several thousands " that they sacrificed their property and their lives. Now if this was done without any magic arts, why hesitate to believe that the same power can in like manner convert the whole world ? But if it was by the magic arts of Peter that in Jerusalem the very same multitude who had taken and crucified Christ, and derided him on the cross, were excited to worship the name of Christ, even then we must from that year begin the inquiry when the 365 years may be completed. He then proceeds in the following remarkable words : " Christ died, therefore, when the two Gemini were con suls, the eighth day before the calends of April (March 25th). He rose the third day, as the Apostles proved even by their own senses. Then, forty days after, he ascended Into Heaven, and ten days after, that is, on the fiftieth day after his resurrection, he sent the Holy Ghost. Then, at the preaching of the Apostles, esse Christum, et Pa-schae observatio, et Aprilis, quod tempus etiam passionis ejus dies ecclesiis notissimus nativitatis ejus fuit. — Quaestiones in Exod. lib, ii. Opera, ostendit. Qui enim mense nono natus est tom. iii. p. 337, n, qusest, xo. octavo kalendas Januariasi profecto mouse ' Acts. xvii. 31, ' Isai, ii, 3. primo conceptus est circa octavum kalendas • S. Luke xxiv, 47. 882 DATE OP OUR SAVIOCr's DEATH— [pART III. three thousand men believed on him. Then also arose the worship of that name, by the power of the Holy Ghost, as we have be lieved, and as it was in truth, but as an impious vanity hath feigned or imagined, by the magic arts of Peter. A little while after, by the working of a . signal miracle, when at the word of the same Peter a certain beggar, so lame from his mother's womb as to be carried by others and laid at the temple gate to ask alms, leapt up whole In the name of Jesus Christ, five thousand men believed ; and thenceforward the Church grew by one accession of believers after another. And by this is collected the very day from which that year took its beginning, viz. when the Holy Ghost was sent, that is on the ides of May (May I5th). From that time, by the enumeration of the consuls, three hundred and sixty-five years are found to have been completed at the same ides (May 15th) in the consulship of Honorius and Eutychianus [a.d. 398.] Moreover, in the following year, when Manlius Theodorus was consul, A.D. 399], when, according to that oracle of devils and figment of men, there ought to be no Christian religion, (what may have been done in other parts of the earth It may not be necessary perhaps to inquire, but what we ourselves in the mean time know), in that most noted and eminent city of Carthage in Africa, Gaudentlus and Jovius, counts of the emperor Honorius, on the fourteenth before the calends of April, (March 19th), overturned the temples of the false gods, and broke down their images. From that time to the present, being almost thirty years, who does not see how much the worship of the name of Christ has Increased ? Especially after many of those had become Christians who had been deterred from the faith by that divination, as if it had been true, and who saw, when the number of years was completed, that the same was empty and ridiculous ? We, therefore, who are called, and are Christians, do not believe in Peter, but in Him in whom Peter be lieved. We are edified by the discourses of Peter concerning Christ, not poisoned by his incantations. We are not deceived by his evil practices, but we are aided by his good deeds. The same Christ who was the master and teacher of Peter, is also our master and teacher. In that doctrine which leadeth unto everlasting life.'" Sidpicius Severus, a native of Aquitaine, a man of high con- ' Mortuus e.st ergo Christus duobus lis. Resurrexit tertia die, sicut Apostoli Gemmis con.sulibus. octavo kalendas Apri. suis etiam sensibus probaverunt. Deinde CHAP, iil] the latin CHURCH. 383 nexions and noble birth, flourished about the year 401 of the com mon sera, and wrote an abridgment of sacred history, with so much purity, that he has been called the Christian Sallust. In his second book, he speaks thus : " Then Herod, a foreigner, the son of Anti pater the Ascalonite, sought and received from the Senate and people of Rome, the kingdom of Judeea. He was the first foreign monarch whom the Jews had ; for as Christ was now about to come, it was necessary, according to the predictions of the prophets, that they should be deprived of their leaders, so that they might no longer expect Christ. Under this Herod, in the three-and- thirtieth year of his reign, Christ was born, Sabinus and Rufinus being consuls, on the eighth day before the calends of January," (December 25th.) Excusing himself from pursuing the rest of our Lord's history, he adds : " Herod, after the nativity of the Lord, reigned four years ; for the whole time of his reign was seven-and-thirty years. At^er him Archelaus was tetrarch nine years, and Herod, twenty- four years. In the eighteenth year of his reign, the Lord was crucified, when Fufius Geminus and Rubellius Geminus were con suls ; from which time to the consul Stilicho [a.d. 400] are 372 years."' We are at present concerned with the testimony of Se- post quadraginta dies adscendit in ccelum : esse debuit religio Christiana, quid per post decem dies, id est, quinquagesimo alias terrarum partes forsitan factum sit, post suam resurrectionem die misit Spiri- non fuit necesse perquirere. Interim quod tum sanctum. Tunc tria millia hominum acimus, in civitate notissima et eminen- Apostolis eum praedicantibus crediderunt, tissima Carthagine Africae Gaudentlus et Tunc itaque nominis illius cultus exorsus Jovius comitesImperatorisHonorii,quarto- est, sicut nos credimus, et Veritas habet, decimo kalendas Aprilis falsorum deorum efficacia Spiritus-sancti; sicut autem finxit templa evertemnt, et simulacra fregerunt, vanitas impia vel putavit, magicis artibus Ex quo usque ad hoc tempus per triginta Petri, Paulo post etiam signo mirabili ferme annos quis non videat quantum cre- facto, quando ad verbum ipsius Petri qui- verit cultus nominis Christi, prsesertim dam mendicus ab utero matris ita claudus, postea quSm multi eorum Christiani facti ut ab aliis portaretur, et ad portam templi, sunt, qui tamquam vera ilia divinatione ubi stipem peteret, poneretur, in nomine revocabantur ei fide, eamque completo Jesu Christi salvus exsilivit, quinque eodem annorum numero inanem ridendam- millia hominum crediderunt: ac deinde que viderunt? Nos ergo qui sumus voca- aliis atque aliis acoessibus credentium ere- murque Christiani, non in Petrum credi- vit Ecclesia, Ac per hoc coUigitur etiam mus, sed in quem credidit Petrus: Petri dies, ex quo annus ipse sumsit initium, de Christo sediHcati sermonibus, non ear- scilicet quando missus est Spiritus-sanctus, miuibus venenati; nee decepti maleficiis, id est, per Idus Maias. Numeratis proinde sed beneficiis ejus adjuti. Ille Petri consulibustrecenti-sexaginta-quinqueanni magister Christus in doctrina, quae ad reperiuntur impleti per easdem Idus con- vitam ducit aeternam, ipse est et magister sulatu Honorii et Eutychiani, Porro se- noster. — Aug. de Civ. Dei, lib. xviii. c. 54. quenti anno, consule Manlio Theodore, Op. ed. Bened. tom. vii. 407, 408. quando jam secundum illud oraoulum ' Tum Herodes alienigena, Antipatri 44 34 Quirinus, being sent by a de cree of the senate into Judasa, makes a c^escription of posses sions and private dwellings (according to Mai's edition, of possessions and persons). Augustus adopted Tiberius and Agrippa as sons. ' Opp, tom. iii. p. 217, a. CH.AP, IV,] THE GREER CHURCH. 399 n.c. 760 u.c. 770 CO, 780 Herod, being informed of our Lord's nativity, slew the chil dren at Bethlehem, Augustus constituted te trarchs Herod, Antipater, Lysanias, and Philip, the brothers of Archelaus, There was so great a famine at Rome that of bread stuffs (ex cibariis) one modius {about a peek, or 525.696 cub. inches) was sold for 27| denarii: 17s. ajd. ster. or 4,%'>„ dlls. (Mai reads quinque modii.) The Athenians ceased from the arrogance of making a re volution (res novas moliendi), the authors of the sedition being punished. Germanicus Caesar triumphed over the Parthians, Pompey's theatre burned. DrususCsesarkilled'by poison. - - u Oa il ii llIs 35 2018 45 196 2019 46 47 48 36 37 2020 2021 Arche laus. Yrs.ix I 2022 49 2 2023 50 3 197 2024 51 4 2025 52 5 2026 53 6 2027 54 7 198 2028 55 8 2029 56 9 Mon arch Emp Tibe- rins YearsXXIil Herod Te trarch Vears XXIV. 2O30 1 I 2031 2 2 199 20322033 3 4 3 4 2034 5 5 2035 6 6 200 2036 7 7 2037 8 8 2038 9 9 i 201 2039 10 10 2040 11 11 2041 12 12 2042 13 13 2043 14 14 202 2044 15 15 Judas the Galitean, excited the Jews to rebellion. Herod, attacked by a severe dropsy, died, his whole body being eaten by worms. Augustus substituted Arche laus, the son of Herod, as ethnarch of Judaea, Tiberius C^sar subdued the Dalmatians and Sarmatians. Athenodorus of Tarsus, was acknowledged as anatural phi losopher [Physicus, Jerome reads Stoious], Archelaus, king of the Jews, held the ethnarchy nine years, and, being then exiled, was sent to Vienna (Vienne), a city of the Gauls, Sotio the Alexandrian, was acknowledged as a philoso pher, Sebastus (sc. Augustus) held the census with 'Tiberiii.'i, and found the population of Rome to be 4,190,117. There was an eclipse of the sun, and Augustus died. Thirteen cities were destroyed by an earthquake, Ephesus, Magnesia, Sardis, Mostene, Mgs, Hieroceesarea, Phila delphia, Tmolus, Temus, My- rhina, ApoUonia, Dia, Hyr- caniaTiberius made Drusus his associate in the empire, Pliilipthe tetrarch, built Pen- nada (Jerome, Paneas) and Caesarea, which he called Philippi, aud another city Julias,Pilate is sent by Tiberius as procurator of Judaea. Herod founded Tiberias and Libias (Livias, Mai). 400 DATE OF OUR SAVIOURS DEATH — [part IL John, the son of Zachariah, preached in the wilderness of the river Jordan, and announces to all that among them is the Anointed of God. Jesus also himself, the anointed of God l_3Ies- siah or Christ'} hence begins his saving and evangelical doctrine, proving to the beholders, by his good works and words, the strength of his divine virtue. From the second building of the temple of Jerusalem, which took place in the second year of Darius, king of the Persians, in the sixty-fifth olympiad, to this fifteenth year of Tiberius, the whole number of years are 542. But from Solomon and the first building of the temple, 1064 years. And from Moses and the departure from Egypt, 1540 years. From Abraham and the reign of Ninus and Semiramis, 2044 years. From the Deluge, 2986 years ; and from Adam, 5228 years. Jesus the anointed of God, OUR Lord, preached his sav ing doctrine to all, and per formed the several miracles which are recorded. 2045204620472048 r, Jesus the anointed of God, OUR Lord, revealed to his disciples the mysteries of the 203 2048 19 19 kingdom of heaven, and com manded them to preach to all nations, conversion to the God of the whole world, and the conditions of his kingdom. Jesus, the Anointed of God, our Lord, according to the prophe cies which had been made concerning him, came to his passion In the nineteenth year of the reign of Tiberius. About which time we have also found It related in other Greek commentaries in these words, that the sun was eclipsed, BIthynia shook by an earthquake, and a great part of Nice destroyed. And In agreement with these, are related the facts which happened at the passion of our Saviour. Phlegon also, who has made a treatise on the olympiads from their very beginning, writes in his thirteenth book in the following words : " In the fourth year," says he, " of the two hundred and third olympiad, there was a great eclipse of the sun, a greater than which no one had ever known, so that It became night at the sixth hour [12 o'clock, M.J, and stars were seen in the heavens. There was an earthquake in BIthynia, and a great part of Nice was des troyed." So far the above-named author. This truly is a great argument that our Saviour suffered in that year, according to the testimony of the gospel of John, by which it is shown that there CHAP. IV.j THE GREEK. CHURCH. 401 was a period of three years of Christ's doctrine after the fifteenth year of Tiberius. About these times, Josephus also relates that in the days of Pentecost a commotion and noise attracted the attention of the priests, and then a sudden voice was heard from the Holy of Holies, saying. Let us depart hence. Let us depart hence. Josephus also relates another fact, that Pilate, the president at that time, ordered an image of Caesar to be brought into the temple by night, where it was not lawful, and thus occasioned the beginning among the Jews of great disturbance and sedition, whence nume rous misfortunes upon misfortunes happened to the Jewish nation. Flaccus Avillus being sent by Tiberius to Alexandria, as the prse fect of Egypt secretly contrived many frauds against the Jewish nation."' This extract, from the Chronicon of Eusebius, is so Important from its nature, from the celebrity of its author, and the influence both have had upon succeeding ages, that it must be carefully scrutinized. Even a slight examination of it, by the light of tes timony already laid before the reader, will be sufficient to show, that it contains many errors ; that its dates cannot aU be made to harmonize with the truth of history ; and consequently, that the author was governed by his own computations alone, and not by any evidence, since lost, which gave him an advantage over us. But, as my object now is to give only a faithful statement of the testimony of the Greek Church, such as it actually is, on the single point of the time of our Saviour's crucifixion, I shall defer aU. further remarks, till we come to compare and estimate the value of the whole. I pass on, therefore, to a remarkable extract from Epiphanius, with which I shall close this part of our subject. This writer Is so diffuse and unskilful, that were I to attempt an exact translation, it would occupy much space, and convey but little information. I must attempt, therefore, to condense liis narrative. In the second book of his great work on heresies, when speaking of the Alogi, he defends the Evangelists from the charges of contradiction and absurdity brought by Porphyry, Celsus, and others, against their history of our Lord. Tliis he does by the general position, that the narrative of each is true, but that circumstances ' Eusebii Pamph. Chronicon Bipartitum nunc primum ex Armeniaco textu in Lati num conversum.— Opp. J. B. Aucher, Ancyrani, Ven. 1818, 4to, pars, ii, p. 261 — 267. 51 402 DATE OF DUR SAVIOUr's liEATH — [pAHT IL omitted by one, are related by another ; and he therefore attempts to harmonize the whole, by assigning the dates of the several facts recorded. Thus, St. Matthew, after mentioning the birth of Christ, omits two years, and passes on to the visit of the Magi, the flight into Egypt, and the massacre of the children at Bethlehem. St. Luke speaks of the swathing-bands, the manger, and the cavern, 'because there was no room for them in the inn.' The censuj and the Emperor's edict, had brought together a crowd which filled the place ; but, after the enrolment was completed, each person departed to his accustomed abode ; and, space being thus made, when the Magi arrived, they did not find Mary in the cave with its manger, but a star guided them until they came to ' the house" where the child was. That very night, two years after the nativity, the angel appeared, and commanded them to ' flee Into Egypt.' Here they remained another two years, and then after the death of Herod, the angel again commanded them to return Into ' the land of Israel.'" He then proceeds thus :' " The Lord was born, therefore, in the thirty-third year of Herod. In the thirty-fifth, the Magi came. In the thirty-seventh, Herod died, and was succeeded by his sou Archelaus, who reigned nine years. Wherefore Joseph, having heard of Archelaus, went and dwelt at Nazareth, and thence every year went up to Jerusalem. Thenceforward Luke, again resuming the narrative, relates how, at the age of twelve years, He [Jesus] went up to Jerusalem ; and then, to give no place to those who maintained that He appeared to the world at once as a perfect man, speaks of His increasing in understanding, until He came to Jordan, unto John, beginning to be about thirty years of age. Chap. 13. — After the forty days of the temptation, having re turned to Nazareth in Galilee, He again came to Jordan, where, John bare testimony that He was the Lamb of God. Chap. 14, 15, — After this, followed the calling of the apostles, the marriage at Cana, the miracles of Capernaum, the cure of the withered hand, the removal of the fever of Peter's wife's mother, the second return of Jesus to Nazareth, and the establish ment of his abode in Capernaum. Chap. 16. — He was baptized, according to the Egyptians, on ' Alogi. chap, s. CHAP. IV.J THE GREEK CHURCH. 403' the 12th of Athyr (November 8th), the sixth before the Ides of November, that is 60 days before the feast of the Epiphany, when he was born. For such is the testimony of St. Luke : Jesus began to be about thirty years of age. He was twenty-nine years and ten months old when he came to baptism: thirty years old, but not fully. Wherefore, he says, beginning to be about thirty. For beginning thence, and computing forty days for the temptation ; a little more than two weeks in Nazareth ; the first and second days ¦with John ; and again, the first and second days when Andrew and his companions followed him, and then Simon Peter; and the other.. day, the calling of Philip and Nathanael; and finally, on the third day, the marriage in Cana of Galilee ; and the thirty years from his birth are completed. For, on the very same day on which he was born, as it is supposed, he wroiight the first miracle. Passing over the J 7th chapter as foreign from our subject, and omitting from the 18th to the' 21st inclusive. In which Epiphanius defends the Gospel of St. John from the imputations cast upon It by the Alogi, we proceed to Chap. 22. — They again accuse the Holy Gospel, saying, that- John speaks of two passovers kept by our Saviour, whereas the other Evangelists speak only of one. These ignorant men do not know that the Gospels acknowledge, not only two but three passovers. For immediately from Jordan, as St. Luke says, Jesus was begin ning to be about thirty years old. The Saviour was born in the forty-second year of Augustus, Emperor of the Bomans, which was the twenty-ninth year of the connexion of the Eomans with the Jews ; for Augustus reigned thirteen years before Judtea was per fectly connected with the Romans. This period of 13-1-29=42, Epiphanius again divides. In utter defiance of all true history, into three other periods of 4+5+33 =42 ; four years of friendship, five years of tribute, and thirty- three years of the reign of Herod, making the forty-second year of the whole reign of Augustus, the ninth year of the procurator- ship of Antipater, the father of Herod. He then attempts to give a list of consuls for thirty years, in order to show the year in which our Saviour was thirty years old. By the side of his list, which I copy exactly, I have placed the true chronological series, that the reader may see at one glance the errors of the author. 404 DATE OF OUR SAVIOURS DEATH - [part n. 4711 471247134714471547164717471847194720 4721 4722 47234724 47254726 4727 47284729 4750 4731 4732 4733 olymp. CXCIV. „ 3 „ 4 CXCV. 1 ,, 2 11 3 „ 4 CXCVI. „ 1 cxcvn. „ 1 ,. 2 ,, 3 ,. 4 CXCVIII. ., 1 ,, 2 „ 3 CXCIX, ,1 1 ,, 2 .. 3 ,. -4 CC. 1 751 752753754 755756757758 (¦i9 760761762 763764 765766 767 768 769770771772' 773 Correct Series of Consols. 1 Imp, Caes. Divi F, Augustus xm M. Plautius M,F,M,N, Silvanus 2 Cossus Cornelius Cn, F, Lentulus L. Calpurnius Cn, F. Piso 3 C, Julius Aug. F. Divi N, Cffisar L, .^milius L,F,M,N, Paullus 4 P, Vinucius M,F.P,N, P, Alfinlus P.F, Varus 5 L, iElius L.F, Lamia M. Servilius M.F, 6 Sextus .a;iius Q,F, Catus C. Sentius C.F.C.N. Satuminus 7 Cn. Corn. L.F,L,N. Cinna Magnus L. Valerius Potiti F.M.N Messalla [Volusus 8 M. -Slmilius L.F, Lepidus L, Arruntius L,F,L.N, 9 A, Licinius A,F. Nerva Silianus Q. Cscilius Q.F,Q.N, Metellus Cre [ticus le M, Furius P,F,P.N, Camillus Sex. Non, L,F,L,N. Quinctilianus U C. Poppseus Q.F.Q.N. Sabinus Q. Sulpicius Q.F.Q.N, Camerinus 12 P, CorneUus P,F,P.N, Dolabella , C, Junius C.F.M.N. Silanus " 13 M, ., the second month of the third year of the 20lst olympiad, and ended the 18th of August, the second month in the fourth year ot the same olympiad. In like manner, the nineteenth year of Tibe- Tins, in which Eusebius placed our Lord's passion, began August 19, a.u.c. 784, early in the third year of the 202d olympiad ; and> therefore, according to his hypothesis, our Saviour suffered at the Passover in the spring following, that is, towards the close of the year of Rome 784, in the consulship of Sulpicius Galba and Sulla Felix, in the seventy-seventh year of Cassar's reformed calendar, and the 4745th year of the Julian period. Deduct from this, thirty-four years, and we are brought back to the year 4711 of th6 Julian period, or the 751st year of Rome after the Parilia, as the date of our Saviour's birth, according to the computation of Euse bius. It is plain, therefore, that Eusebius pursued precisely the same method of computation which we are now pursuing ; that is, he established what he conceived to be the year of our Saviour's passion ; and this he did, first by counting forward four Passovers from the fifteenth year of Tiberius, because he took St. Luke's account of the year of our Lord's baptism to mean the fifteenth of the sole reign of that emperor, and by comparing the evangelists, he found that his ministry must have embraced three Passovers before that of his passion. He then counted backward thirty years from the beginning of his ministry to the year of his birth. A passage in the tenth chapter of the first book of his ecclesias tical history, shows beyond a doubt that such was his method. After stating that Jesus, according to the evangelist, was bap tized and began his ministry, in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, he quotes the expression of St. Luke, " Annas and Caiaphas being the. high-priests,'" as a proof that the ministry of our Lord ex- ' Chap* iii. v. 2. chap, v.] on the preceding testimony. 415 tended from the high-priesthood of Annas to that of Caiaphas, which he makes to be somewhat short of four years. For the ordinances of the law having been abolished, the hereditary succession aud preservation of the high-priesthood for life, was done away, and the Roman governors appointed one after another to the high- priesthood, allowing to each not more than one year. He then quotes Josephus, in proof of the . fact that there were four high- priests in succession from Annas to Caiaphas. For Valerius Gratus having deprived Ananus (or Annas), Ishmael the son of Baphi was promoted. Soon after Eleazar, the son of the high-priest Ananus, was substituted for him. At the expiration of a year, Simon the son of Camithus received the high-priesthood. He also, not having held the dignity more than one year, was succeeded by Joseph, called Caiaphas. It is manifest, therefore, that the whole time of our Saviour's ministry, was of four high-priests in four years, from Annas to Caiaphas, and that Caiaphas was high-priest in the same year in which our Saviour suffered. The Scripture, therefore, he says, is in harmony with his preceding observations. Such being the origin of the whole scheme of Eusebius, let us now proceed to examine the passage of Josephus on which it is founded. It occurs in the eighteenth book of his Antiquities. Cyrenius, or Quirinius, having confiscated the treasures of Ar chelaus, proceeded to depose the high priest Joazar, and to appoint in his stead Ananus, the son of Seth. This took place, Josephus says, in the thirty-seventh year after Csesar's victory at Actium ; and, being after the banishment of Archelaus, must have occurred in the months of July or August ; because, with the second of September, began the thirty-eighth from that victory. Ananus continued to hold the office during the remainder of the reign of Augustus, having been deprived of the pontificate by Valerius Gratus, who was appointed procurator of Judsa In the first year of Tiberius. Ananus, therefore, held the office nearly eight years. In the place of Ananus, Valerius Gratus appointed Ishmael, the son of Phabi ; but a short time after deposed him, and appointed In his stead Eleazar, the son of Ananus. He held the office one year, when Valerius deposed him also, and gave the high-priesthood to Simon, the son of Camithus, At the expira tion of another year, Simon was deposed, and Joseph, surnamed Caiaphas, appointed. Thus, between the deposition of Ananus, 416 ON THE PRECEDING TESTIMONY. [PART H. and the appointment of Caiaphas, less than three years intervened ; and it is Impossible to assign a later date for the appointment of Caiaphas, than the autumn of the year 4730 of the Julian period, the close of the fourth or beginning of the fifth year of Tiberius. Caiaphas continued to hold the oflSce of high-priest during the whole of Pilate's administration ; for, it was not until Vitellius had come to Jerusalem at the passover, which immediately preceded the death of Tiberius, that we read the following account in Josephus : " He (Vitellius) removed the high-i)riest Joseph, who was called Caiaphas from the high-priesthood, and appointed Jona than, the son of Ananus the former high-priest to succeed-him."' It is evident, therefore, that Caiaphas held the. high-priesthood be tween eighteen and nineteen years, from the 4730th to the 4748th year of the Julian period, or according to the common Christian aera, from a.d. 17 to a.d. 35. The basis on which the computation of Eusebius rested being thus taken away, the superstructure falls of course. The passage extracted from the Chronicon of Eusebius, contains a still more remarkable instance of careless quotation from Jose phus. After speaking of our Saviour's ministry as extending three years after the fifteenth of Tiberius, so as to bring his crucifixion to the nineteenth year, he says : " About these times, Josephus relates that In the days of Pentecost, a commotion and noise attracted the attention of the priests, and then a sudden voice was heard from the Holy of Holies, saying. Let us depart hence." Abeut what times ? Surely not about the times of our Saviour's ministry or crucifixion. The words of Josephus occur in his ac count of the destruction of the Temple by the Romans.^ If Eu sebius observed this, the passage was irrelevant to his subject ; If he did not, and adduced It as a proof that our Saviour suffered in the nineteenth year of Tiberius, he has committed an anachronism of thirty-seven or thirty-eight years ; for the prodigies related by Josephus, occurred at the feast of Pentecost, in the second year of Vespasian. The fame of Eusebius as an ecclesiastical historian, has occa sioned great deference to be paid to his authority ; but I have had occasion several times to speak of the difference between accuracy of facts and accuracy of dates. In common with other ancient his- ' ' Jos. Antiq, lib, xviii, c, 2, § 1, 2, oomp,with c. 4, § 3, ' De Bel. Jud, lib. vi «. 5. CHAP, v.] on THE PRECEDING TESTIMONY. 41 7 torians, Eusebius has often committed errors, respecting the date of events preceding his own times, from the variety of ffiras used, and the imperfect state of astronomical and chronological science. In the present case, however, his errors both as to facts and dates, were occasioned not by conflicting authorities, but by erroneous computations. He departed from established authorities, in order to reconcile difficulties ; and by choosing a wrong way of doing this. Increased the confusion. If Eusebius committed mistakes. It can occasion no surprise to persons conversant with the writings of Epiphanius, that he should' be entangled in a still more inextricable labyrinth. His learning was greater than his judgment, and his honesty much stronger than his powers of conception or discrimination. Like Eusebius, he places the birth of Christ In the forty-second year of Augustus, that is in the fifteenth year before the death of that Emperor ; but he makes this to be the thirty-third year of Herod, whereas, Eusebius makes it the thirty-second year of that prince. He places the visit of the Magi in the thirty-fifth year of Herod, or two years later, and the return from Egypt two years~ later still. All this is evidently mere computation from the nar rative of St. Matthew. It is liable to the same objections which have been already advanced respecting the computation of Euse bius, and which need not therefore be repeated. His date of the baptism of our Lord, is, I think, peculiar to him. At least, I know of no Christian writer, before, or after him, who supposes it to have taken place on the eighth of November. He differs from Eusebius as to the duration of our Lord's mi nistry, which he makes to have been two years and seventy-four days, comprehending three passovers. The crucifixion, he says, was in the eighteenth year of Tiberius, while Eusebius places it in the nineteenth. His gross mistake as to the consuls, has been already pointed out. Our Lord's passion, he says, occurred on the twentieth of March, in the consulship of Vinicius and Longinus Cassius. But on referring to the tables, it will be seen that Lucius Cassius Longinus, and Marcus Vinicius Quartlnus were consuls in the year which Immediately followed that of Lucius Rubellius Geminus and Caius Fufius Geminus ; and consequently, was in the sixteenth, not the eighteenth year of Tiberius. He was embarrassed by the arguirent from prophecy of the 53 418 ON THE PRECEDING TESTIMONY. [PART H. older Greek writers, to prove that our Saviour's ministry was only for one year, because that was the acceptable year of the Lord. In order to escape from it, he invented the untenable hypothesis, that in the first year of his ministry no one opposed him ; that in the second he was opposed, persecuted and hated ; and that after seventy-four days of the third, he was crucified. To malntab this, he violates the testimony of St. John, referring chap. vii. 37 of his Gospel to a feast in the first year, and the 8th, 25th, and 26th verses of the same chapter to a feast in the second year. His astronomical computations, by which he makes our Saviour rise on the day of the vernal equinox, are so extremely erroneous, that I do not think It necessary to take up the reader's time or my own in refuting them. I pass on, therefore, to speak of the supernatural darkness at the time of our Saviour's passion. In the extract given from the Chronicon of Eusebius, after speaking of the nineteenth year of Tiberius, as that in which our Lord came to his passion, the historian adds : " About which time, we have also found it related in other Greek commentaries, that the sun was eclipsed." He then quotes a passage from Phlegon, a heathen writer, whose testimony he produces for the purpose of fortifying his computation that our Saviour was crucified In that year. It is important, therefore, that we should consider this tes timony ; and, as it is attended with some difficulties, it seemed proper not to give it a mere passing notice, but to reserve It to be treated of in a separate chapter. CHAP, VI. 1 419 CHAPTER VI. PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. Who Phlegon was.— His work lost. — Extracts from it by Julius Africanus and Euse bius. — Their works containing these extracts also lost. — All we know is from versions and later writers, — Collation of extracts as given by the Armenian version of the Chronicon of Eusebius, St. Jerome's Latin version, the Chronographia of Syncellus, and the Chronicon Paschale.— Extract by Syncellus from Julius Africanus. — Remarks upon it. — Testimony of Origen concerning Phlegon's account — of John Philoponus — St. Maximus — Malala. — Summary of the whole. — Amount of Phlegon's testimony-not noticed by the learned and voluminous writers of the fourth and fifth centuries, when they speak of the darkness at our Lord's passion, — Dr, Lardner's judgment adopted. According to Suidas, Phlegon was a freedman of Augustus Csesar, or, as others say, of Adrian. He wrote the Olympiads in sixteen books, containing an account of transactions everywhere, (or a universal history) down to the 229th olympiad, that is down to the middle of the year 137 of the common Christian sera. Pho tius says decidedly that he was a freedman of Adrian, and that he brought down his work (as he himself says) to the times of that emperor. Photius adds that he had read to the I77th olympiad, or the first five books.' From these expressions it would seem that, even In the time of Photius, the remainder of the work was lost ; and now the whole, a few fragments excepted. Is no longer extant. Julius Africanus and Eusebius made extracts from these other books ; and hence it appears that they must have perished between the fourth and the ninth centuries. The original text both of Julius Africanus and Eusebius have since shared the same fate. All that we know, therefore, is from versions and short ex tracts made by later writers. These differ materially in their dates ; and that the English reader may have a clear view of these discre pancies, and know the precise amount of testimony given, I shall place side by side translations from the Armenian and Latin ver sions of the Chronicon of Eusebius, and the Greek text as exhi bited by Syncellus, and the Chronicon Paschale. ^ Biblioth, Art. xcvii. p, 266-7. 420 PHLEGON THE TRALLTAN. [part II, Prom the Anaenian Text of the Chronicoti of Eusebiiu. Fhlegon also, who has made a treatise on the olympiads from their very beginniag, writes, in his thirteenth book, in the following words: "In the fourth year of the CCIII. olympiad, there was a great eclipse of the sun, a greater than which no one had ever known, so that it became night at the sixth hour, aud stars were seen in the heavens. There was an earthquake in BIthynia, and a great part of Nice was destroyed.i From the Latin YeraioQ of St, Jerom of the Chronicon of Eusebius. Phlegon also writes concerning these things, the excellent calculator of the olympiads, saying thus in his thirteenth hook; In the fourth year of the ecu. olympiad, a great eclipse of the sun took place, surpassing all which had happened before it. The day, at the sixth hour, was turn ed into a very dark night, so that stars were seen in the heavens, and an earthquake in Bithynia overturned many houses in the city of Nice,* Extract from the Chronicon of Eusebius in the Chronographia of Syncellus. Phlegon also, the au thor [calculator] of the olympiads, writes con cerning the same things in his thirteenth book, in these words: In the fourth year of the ecu. olympiad, happened an eclipse of the sun, greater than all which had been known before ; and night took place at the sixth hour of the day, so that stars appeared in the hea vens. A great earthquake also throughout Bithynia overthrew many parts of Nice, s Account of our Lord's Passion in the Chronicon Paschale. The sun was darkened tlirough the whole world from the sixth hour; con cerning which darkness, Dionysius the Areopagite speaks, &c. And the pa gan writers most un doubtedly speak of this year, &c. especially Phle gon the collector of the olympiads. For he says thus in his thirteenth book : In the fourth year of the ecu. olympiad, happened an eclipse of the sun, the greatest which had ever been known. And night took place at the sixth hour of the day, so that the stars appeared in the hea vens. A great earthquake also happened in Bi thynia, and overturned many paxts of Nice/ The Chronicon Paschale does not indeed expressly quote Euse bius as the source from which the above extract is taken, but to any one who compares it with the extract in Syncellus, there can be no doubt of their identity. There is indeed no variation in sense, excepting that the Armenian version reads the fourth year of the two hundred and third olympiad, whereas the Greek text in Syn cellus, and the Chronicon Paschale, and St. Jerome's version, all read the fourth year of the two hundred and second olympiad. The latter, therefore, is most probably the true reading. But on examining other writers, we find the testimony of Phlegon very differently represented. Syncellus has given an extract from the history of Julius Afri canus, " concerning the events which accompanied the passion and resurrection of our Saviour," which I think it important to give somewhat at large, in order to show the connexion of the testi mony of Phlegon with his subject, and the use he himself made of it ' Euseb. Chron. ex Armen. textu, Ven. " G. Syncellus Chron. ed. Paris, 1652, IS18, tom. ii. p. 265-6. p. 324, 325. •S. Hieronymi Opera, ed. Vallarsii, * Chron. Pasch. ed. Paris, p. 219, also tom. vm. par. 1, Eusebii Chronicon. p. 222. CHAP. VI.] PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. 421 "A fearful darkness overspread the whole world. The rocks were rent by an earthquake, and many places of Judsea, and the rest of that region, were thrown down. This darkness, Thbllus, in the third book of his history, calls an eclipse of the sun ; but, as It appears to me, without reason. For the Hebrews celebrate the passover on the fourteenth of the moon ; and before the first day of the passover \jrpo Se pidg rov irao-ya] the events concerning the Sa viour happened. But an eclipse of the sun takes place when the moon passes under the sun. It is impossible, therefore, that it should happen at any other time than between the first day [scil. of the moon] and the day before it, according to this conjunction. How then could it be accounted an eclipse, when the moon was diametrically opposite to the sun ? But admitting this, as beino- by the multitude assumed to be a fact, and that this world's wonder be considered, at least in appearance, as an eclipse of the sun, Phlegon relates that under Tiberius Csesar, at the full of the moon, a total eclipse of the sun took place from the sixth to the ninth hour. Manifestly this very same. But what communication is there between an earthquake and an eclipse, between the rending of rocks and the resurrection of the dead, and all this movement of the world ? In a very long period of time, such a thing is never recorded to have happened. It was rather a darkness appointed of God, because the Lord underwent his suiferlng ; and reason re quires that the seventy weeks In the book of Daniel reach down to this time." Africanus then proceeds to compute the seventy weeks of years as fellows : " From Artaxerxes to the time of Christ, the seventy weeks are completed according to the Jewish computation. For from Nehemiah, who was sent by Artaxerxes to govern Jeru salem, in the one hundred and twentieth year of the dominion of the Persians, which was the twentieth year of Artaxerxes and the. fourth year of the eighty-third olympiad, to these times, which were the second year of the two hundred and second olympiad, and the sixteenth year of the government of Tiberius Csesar, are reckoned 475 years, which make 490 Hebrew years, because they compute their years according to the lunar month. This it is easy to show of 29| days, because the revolution of the solar year, consisting of 365 J days, exceeds twelve lunar months by 11| days. On this account, both Greeks and Jews insert three embolismic months in 422 PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. fPAHT IL eight years ; for eight times eleven and a quarter make three months. Four hundred and seventy-five years, therefore, make fifty-nine octaeterides and three months [years ?] ; so that In each octaeteride [or period of eight years] there being three embolismic ~ months, the whole amounts to fifteen years ; and these being added to four hundred and seventy-five years, the seventy weeks are obtained."* After pursuing this train of calculation for some time, he finally sums up the whole as follows : " It appears, therefore, that from the twentieth year of the reign of Artaxerxes, which was, accord ing to the Greeks, the fourth year of the eighty [third] olympiad, to the sixteenth year of Tiberius Csesar, which was the second year of the two hundred and second olympiad, are summed up the afore said four hundred and seventy -five years, which amount, according to the Hebrews, to four hundred and ninety years, that is seventy weeks, as the coming of Christ was foretold by Gabriel to Daniel.'" In this passage, Africanus maintains that the darkness at the crucifixion was supernatural, and that the events which accom panied it had not the remotest connexion with an eclipse. But even admitting it to have been an eclipse, you have Phlegon for a witness that it was at the full moon, and lasted three hours. Phle gon, therefore, manifestly wrote of the darkness at our Saviour's passion in the sixteenth year of Tiberius and the second year of the 202d olympiad. In a former chapter, treating of the testimony of Africanus, the opinion was expressed that St. Jerome's version of this passage, which reads the fifteenth and not the sixteenth year of Tiberius, was * Though the subject of the seventy Theremainder after dividing 475 years by weeks of Daniel does not come within the 8, is three years, not three months. His scope of our present argument, it may be position is, that 475 solar years are equal observed in passing, that the calculation to 490 lunar years. But its incorrectness of Africanus seems to be as follows: 59 may be clearly shown in another way. octaeterides multiplied by three, the num- Taking the length of the mean tropical berofembolismicmonthsineach,makeI77 or solar year to be365d. 5h. 48' 49", and the months. To these he added the three lunar year of 12 months of 29d.I2h.44'3" months which, as he says, remained in 475 = 354d. 8h. 15' 16", the difference between years over 59 octaeterides. and the sum 475 solar years and 490 lunar years will amounts to 180 months, or 15 years. But be as follows: this calculation is evidently erroneous. 490 lunar years are equal to - - - I73,628d. 12h. 40* 40" 475 solar years are equal to - . - - I73,490d. Ih. 27' 56" Showing that 475 solar fall short of 490 lunar years I38d. lib. 12' 44" ' Syncellus, ed. Par. p. 322-324; Kouth's Reliquice, vol. ii. p. 183-190 CHAP. VL] PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. 423 to be preferred to the original text, as represented by Syncellus. To the reasons there given (see p. 395) I must now add, that as in most manuscripts numbers are expressed only in letters, the ignorance or carelessness of transcribers has often occasioned many mistakes and great uncertainty". Where a large number of copies of any work exist, the skilful critic is generally enabled to discover the true reading merely by collating them ; but those works of which there are but few copies preserved, often present inextri cable dlfiicylties, from which the timid critic shrinks, and through which the bold critic cuts his way. In the passage under consideration, if, as Is most probable, Afri canus meant to assert that the testimony of Phlegon coincided with the consulship of the two Gemini, which would bring the eclipse he describes and the passion of our Lord to the spring of the fif teenth year of Tiberius, then he erred in regard to the olympiad. For the months of March or April, in which alone the passion could have taken place, were in the third year of the 201st olym piad. And even If we read the sixteenth year of Tiberius, there is stiU an insurmountable difficulty in his statement, because the spring of that year would be in the fourth year of the 201st, and not in the second year of the 202nd olympiad. If the words " at the full of the moon," and " from the sixth to the ninth hour," which Africanus has ascribed to Phlegon, were really his, we should aU, I think, come to the conclusion of Afri canus, that by his great eclipse of the sun, Phlegon meant the supernatural darkness of the crucifixion. A writer on the universal history of each olympiad, a heathen, writing In the second cen tury of the times of Tiberius Csesar, and a native of Tralles, a city of Lydia In Asia Minor, would certainly, if he had used such lan guage, be considered as aifording most triumphant testimony to the truth of the gospel history. And if his dates were erroneous or uncertain, from the causes which affect those of all ancient writers, we should not hesitate to adjust the dates to the facts recorded. But these words are wanting In the extract made by Eusebius, and are attributed to him only by Africanus. And what is still more to our point, — ^because it is not merely negative testi mony, — Origen expressly asserts that Phlegon said nothing of his eclipse having taken place at the full moon. In his 35th tract on St. Matthew, he comments diffusely on chap, xxvii. 35; but the 424 PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. [PART IL substance of his observations may be given in a few words. The calumniators of the Gospel deny the credibility of a universal darkness for three hours ; first, because there could be no eclipse of the sun at the full of the moon ; and, secondly, because it would have been noticed, not only by Christian authors, but by Greeks and barbarians, especially the writers of history. And even Phlegon himself, who has written in his Chronicles that such an event did taie place in the reign of Tiberius Caesar, did not give us to understand that it took place at the full of the moon?- To all this, Origen replies, that the evangelists say nothing about an eclipse of the sun, but mention only an extraordinary darkness , and that this darkness, as well as the other prodigies at the time of our Saviour's passion, was over Jerusalem only, or at most, over the land of Judsea. We have not the original Greek, and the Latin translation is obscure and badly written ; but it is sufficient to show that Phlegon did not say, as Africanus, on the testimony of Syncellus, asserts, that the eclipse took place at the fuU of the moon. If such was the language of Africanus, he must have quoted his ' author from recollection, and under the strong persuasion that Phlegon meant to speak of the extraordinary darkness of the cru cifixion. I proceed to mention other authors who have quoted this passage of Phlegon. John Philoponus, a grammarian of Alexandria, who flourished early in the seventh century, says thus of Phlegon, in his work on the eternity of the world : " He [Phlegon] says that in the second year of the 202nd olympiad, there happened an eclipse of the sun greater than all which had been known before; and night took place at the sixth hour of the day, so that stars appeared In the heavens."^ There is no important difference in the quotation here made, from that in SynceUus, extracted from the Chronicon of Eusebius, except that Philoponus reads the second instead of the fourth year of the 202nd olympiad.* • Et Phlegon quidem in Chronicis suis from the same author, in which he says scripsit, in principatu Tiberii CEesaris fac- that the eclipse happened in the fourth tum, sed non significavit in luna plena hoc year of the 202nd olympiad. Testimonies factum.— Origen, Oj). ed. Ben. t. iii. p. 923. of ancient heathens, c. xiii. Not having ' Philoponus, lib. ii. de Mundi Creatione the work of Philoponus which is cited by cap. 21, apud Corderium Annot. on S. Diou Fabricius as being on the eternity of the Areop. tom. ii. p. 93. world, I am unable to verify the quotations * But Lardner produces another passage above given. CHAP. VI.j PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. 425 St. Maximus, who In the seventh century wrote scholia on the works of the pretended Dionysius the Areopagite, takes the follow ing notice of Phlegon's work : " Phlegon also, the Gentile chrono- grapher, in the thirteenth book of his chronography, at the two hundred and third olympiad, makes mention of this eclipse, saying that it happened in an unusual manner, but does not describe in what manner. Our Africanus also, in the fifth book of his chro nographical writings, and Eusebius Pamphilus, in his work, make mention of the same eclipse.*'' John of Antioch, surnamed Malala, who flourished, accordmg to Cave, early In the seventh century, says in his chronography, " Our Lord Jesus Christ was crucified on the eighth before the calends of April, the 24th [25] of March, the moon being fourteen days old, at the sixth hour of the day, it being the day of prepara tion [Friday]. The sun was darkened, and darkness was upon the world. Concerning this darkness, the most wise Phlegon,, the Athenian, wrote In his own narrative as follows : ' In the eighteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Csesar, there happened an eclipse of the sun, greater than any which had before taken place, and it was night at the sixth hour of the day, so that the stars appeared.' "^ On this testimony little need be said. Malala took the tradi tional date of our Lord's passion, the eighth before the calends of April, the twenty-fifth, and not the twenty-fourth, of March. But this belonged to the fifteenth, and not the eighteenth, year of Ti berius. Having rejected the idea of confining our Lord's ministry to one year, he placed his death in the eighteenth year of Tiberius, in the consulship, as he afterwards says, of Sulpicius and Sola. But Sulpicius and Sylla, or Sulla, as the name is differently written, were consuls in the nineteenth, and not in the eighteenth, year of Tiberius. How he could quote Phlegon as saying that his eclipse was In the eighteenth year of Tiberius, Is not easy to con ceive, unless we suppose that he quoted from recollection; for the consulship of Sulpicius Galba and Sulla Felix was in the fourth year of the two hundred and second olympiad. That he could not have read the work of Phlegon, Is, I think, evident from the mis take of calling him an Athenian. ' S. Maximi Scholia in S. Dionys. Areop. » Joan. Antioch, oognom. Malalfe Histo- epist. vii. Opera, ed. Corderii, tom. ii. p. 97, ria Chronica, Oxon, 1691, 8vo. p. 309-10. 54 426 PHLEGON THE TRALLL4N. [PART II. Having thus laid before the reader all that Is known of Phlegon, I proceed to state in a few words the amount of our information. From the words of Photius I infer that in his time (cir. a.d. 858) no more of Phlegon's work was extant than to the 177th olympiad. He had read no further ; and such a man as he would not have omitted the remainder if he had possessed it. In giving an account of his author, he states that Phlegon brought down his work to the time of Adrian, but cautiously adds " as he himself says," which he would not have done could he have stated the fact on his own knowledge. All the quotations from Phlegon's thirteenth book, which have come down to us, relative to the eclipse, are by writers of the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, and they have evidently quoted at second hand. Some also have quoted inaccurately. Even the quotations themselves, from Africanus of the third, and Eusebius of the fourth century, differ as to dates. The former, if I mistake not, meant to apply Phlegon's testimony to the fifteenth year of Tiberius, the latter to the nineteenth. In either case, to make the application correct, the dates of the olympiads must be adjusted. Phlegon must, in the former, have named the third year of the two hundred and first, not the second year of the two hundred and second olympiad, as the time of the supposed eclipse ; in the latter, the third year of the two hundred and second olym piad. Yet some of the quotations carry it as low down as the fourth year of the two hundred and third olympiad, the year after that in which Tiberius died. But what, after all, is the amount of Phlegon's testimony ? He says that a very great and extraordinary eclipse of the sun hap pened at the sixth hour, that Is, when the sun was on the meridian of the place in which it was observed. He does not name that place ; but from his mentioning the earthquake as having happened in Bithynia, and that Nice, its principal city, suffered greatly, we are led to infer that the observation was made in that province. He mentions no circumstance which might not have taken place In a natural eclipse. In a total, or even annular eclipse, the stars would be visible at mid-day in a cfear atmosphere. The earth quake is only mentioned as a coincidence ; and. Indeed, he does not say expressly that it was a coincidence. The earthquake may have happened before or after it. He does not mention the month or CHAP. VI.] PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. 427 the season in which it happened. He says not a word of Judsea, and it is not reasonable to believe that he spake of its being at the full moon, or that he mentioned the darkness as continuing for three hours. No notice is taken of Phlegon or his eclipse by any ancient Chris tian writer, excepting Africanus, Origen, and Eusebius. Neither St. Jerome, excepting in his translation of the Chronicon of Eusebius, nor St. Augustine, even when treating on the subject of the dark ness at the crucifixion, nor St. Chrysostom, nor Theodoret, nor any other of the learned and voluminous writers of the fourth and fifth centuries, ever mention him. I am inclined, therefore, to adopt the judgment of the learned and candid Dr. Lardner. " This silence," he observes, " about Phlegon, in many of the most judicious and learned ancient Chris tian writers, has induced me to think they did not reckon the pas sage of Phlegon very material. If it had been reckoned by them clear and important, we should have seen numerous quotations of it, and cogent arguments upon it. Indeed, If it had been clear, it must have been important. But not being, as I suppose, reckoned by them clearly to refer to the darkness In Judsea at the time of our Lord's sufferings, they did not esteem it of much moment, and therefore did not allege it.'" ' Lardner's works, ed. Kippis, Lond.1788, vol. vii. p. 385. 428 ! PART n. CHAPTER VII. THE PASSION OF OUR LORD JESUS CHRIST. True date of the passion, March 25, in the fifteenth year of Tiberius. — Objection that this was Thursday considered. — Table for the first six months of that year, con structed from the canon of Victorius. — True full moon shown to be on Friday, from the Parisian tables. — ^Roman and Hebrew computations of the day different. — Acts of the Roman government arranged according to the Roman, the narrative of the Gospels according to the Hebrew computation. — St. John enables us to fix the dates between the feast of dedication and our Lord's last passover. — Careful analysis of the whole week. — Our Lord arrived at Bethany on Friday evening, and rested on the sabbath at Bethany.— Sunday, March 21, which was the tenth of Nisan, he entered Jerusalem in triumph. — Transactions of that day. — Of Monday, March 22.— Of Tuesday, March 23, when our Lord took leave of the temple. — Wednesday, March 24, spent in retirement. — Thursday, March 25, preparations for the passover, and celebration in the evening. — Institution of the Lord's supper. — Dedication of himself as the great victim. — Commencement of the passion. — Friday, March 26th, the cru cifixion. — Considered by the high priests and sanhedrim as the fourteenth day of the paschal moon. — This subject considered.— Diversity of practice allowed, ou account of the variations between the apparent and real time of the new and full moon. — ^Evidence of Divine arrangement, and proves the truth of these calculations. — This apparent design affords a reason why the Christian Church has always cele brated the Lord's supper in the morning.— Fulfilment of promise in a former chapter respecting the testimony of Lactantius.— Sum of the testimony. We have hitherto been occupied in considering the evidence afforded by the ancient Church, as to the true date of our Saviour's death. We have seen that the eighth day before the calends of April, or the twenty-fifth of March, in the fifteenth year of the sole reign of Tiberius, is stated with great unanimity to have been the day of his sufferings. But, to this an objection has been raised, that by computation the eighth before the calends of April is found to have fallen that year upon Thursday ; whereas, the Evangelists with one accord represent the crucifixion as taking place on the Preparation, or day before the Sabbath. This has seemed to pre- CHAP, vil] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 429 sent so formidable a difficulty, that some have even postponed the death of our Saviour to the twentieth year of Tiberius, in order to adjust the paschal full-moon to Friday, the sixth day of the week. But, as every departure from the truth renders its subject more intricate, so in this case, the rejection of plain testimony and the reliance upon computation only, have merely shifted the dif ficulties, and made them still greater. For, as the death of Herod took place in March, in the 4710th year of the Julian period, and the twentieth year of Tiberius began August 19th A.J.P. 4745 ; our Saviour, according to this computation, must have been at least thirty-six, or thirty-seven years old when he was crucified ; which every one must allow to be an inadmissible con clusion. But the difficulty with regard to the fifteenth year of Tiberius, is more apparent than real; and the fact, instead of weakening, corroborates the Church's testimony. For, in the first place, the ancient writers who have mentioned our Lord's passion as com mencing on the eighth before the calends of April, were perfectly aware that In the year of which they spake, it fell upon Thursday ; and secondly, this fact, and this only, can explain the difficulty respecting our Lord's eating the passover on Thursday evening. In reviewing the testimony of the Latin Church, the reader's at tention M'as called to the paschal cycle of Victorius, formed about the year 455 of the common Eera, and solemnly adopted by the fourth council of Orange [a.d. .!;41] as the rule for the computa tion of Easter. Victorius began his cycle of 532 years with the seventy-third year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, and commenced his computation of Easter from the passion of our Lord. An. Jul. Per. 4741, An. Ref. Cal. of Julius Csesar, 73. CKCCIFIXION Year Bissex Days of Age of Paschae. Age of Indic OF CHRIST. of the tile years the cal. the Moon — the MooB tions Consuls, the Two Period marked of on the Easter on I. Gemini, Ruffius of by the January, Cal. of day Easter (1. Fufius) and Victorius letter Feria v. January v. kal. day Rubellius. L B. (Thurs.) XIX. April (Mar. 28.) XVI. In the preface to his computation, Victorius, speaking of the crucifixion of Christ as having taken place in the consulship of the two Gemini, says expressly, that "our Lord Jesus Christ suffered on the eighth before the calends of April, in the first month, 430 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART IL the fourteenth day of the moon, in the course of the evening on the fifth day of the week [Thursday].' And again : " On the first day of unleavened bread, our Lord Jesus Christ being at sup per with His disciples, after he had displayed the sacraments [or mysteries] of his body and blood, went, as the Holy Gospels tes tify, to the Mount of Olives, and there, being betrayed by His disciple, was seized by the Jews. Then, on the following sixth day of the week [Friday], that is on the seventh before the calends of April [March 26th], He was crucified and buried; and on the third day, that is on the Lord's day, the fifth before the. calends of April [March 28th], He arose from the dead."^ It being plain, therefore, that when Victorius, and consequently, all the other ancient writers whose testimony agrees with his, spoke- of the passion of our Lord as commencing on Thursday the twenty-fifth of March, they meant only that it began on that day, and was consummated by His crucifixion on Friday. That the whole subject may be made perfectly clear, I proceed to lay before the reader a table, constructed on the data afforded by his calcula tions, and including the first six months of the year 474 1 of the Julian period. The months of April, May, and June are included, because with the month of June ended the fourth year of the two hundred and first olympiad, and because with the month of May the Evangelical history Is brought down to the day of Pen tecost, which may properly be considered as the birth-day of the Christian Church. The other notes of time are as follows : Being a bissextile year, the Sunday letter, according to the Nicene computation, until the 25th of February was r, a:nd after that day C. It was the 780th year of Rome, until April 21st, and afterwards the 781st; the year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar 73 ; and of the Dionysian, or vulgar sera 28 ; of the associate government of Ti berius, until February, 18; and after February, 19; of the sole government of Tiberius, 15; of Pontius Pilate, 4; Coss. Fufius Geminus, and Rubellius Geminus. ' Passum autem Dominum nostrum Je- evangelia sancta testantur, progressus, ibi- sum Christum, &c viii. kal. Aprilis, que deteutus est a Judaeis, tradente disci- primo mense, luna xiv. vespere procedente pulo. Dehinc sexta feria subsequente, id ....V. feria. est vii, kal. Aprilis, crucifixus est, et se- " Primo vero Azymorum die, Dominus pultus, tertia die, hoc est v. kalendas Apri- Jesus Christus, coenanscum discipulis suis, lis, Dominica surrexit a mortuis. — Victor. postquam sui corporis et sanguinis sacra- Canon. Pasch. pp. 8-9, ed, Buoherii, Ant. menta patefecit, ad montem Oliveti, sicut 1634, fol. CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 431 THE MODERN COMPABED -WITH THE ROMAN AND JEWISH COMPnTATION OP TIME. Modem Roman D Jewish Modem Roman » Jewish Modem Roman D Jewish Computation. Comp. Age 19 Computat. Computation. Comp. Ase20 ' Computat. Computation. Comp. Age22 Computat. tiN. 1 Thuy. Eal F. V Mar.I Mon. Kal F.ii May 1 Sat. Kal. F.vii Sab. V. 2 Frid. iv vi 20 2 Tues. vi iii 21 c 2 Sun vi i 23 3 Sat. iii vii 21 Sab. 3 Wed. V iv 22 3 Mou. V ii 24 D 4 Sua. Prid i 22 4 Thur, iv V 23 4 Tues. iv iii 26 fi Moll. Non ii 23 6 Frid, iii vi 24 6 Wed. iii iv 26 6 Tues. viii iii 24 6 Sat. Prid vii 26 Sab. 6 Thur. Prid V 27 Ascension. 7 Wed. vii iv 25 c 7 Sun. Non i 26 7 Fiid. Non vi 28 8 Thur. V 1 V 26 8 Mon. viii ii 27 8 Sat. viii vii 29 S,ab. VI. 9 Frid. V vi 27 « 9 Tues. vii iii 28 c 9 Sun, vii i i Sivan . 10 Sat. iv vii 28 Se,b. 10 Wed. vi iv 29, 10 Mon. vi ii 1 D 11 Sun. iii i 29 11 Thur. V V i NlSAN. 11 Tues V iii 2 12 Mon. Prid ii i Shebet. 12 Frid. iv vi 1 12 Wed. iv iv 3 13 Tues. Id. iii 1 13 Sat. iii vii 2 Sab. 13 Thur. iii V 4 14 Wed. xix iv 2 0 14 Sun. Prid i 3 14 Frid. Prid vi 5 15 Thur. xviii v 3 15 Mon. Id. ii 4 15 Sat. Id. vii 6 Sab. Tir. 16 Frid. xvii vi 4 16 Tues. xvii iii 6 c 16 Sun. xvi] i 7 Pentecost. 17 Sat. xvi vii 5 Sab. 17 Wed xvi IV 6 17 Mon. xvi ii 8 D 18 Sun. XV i 6 18 Thur. XV V 7 18 Tues. XV iii 9 19 Mon. xiv ii 7 19 Frid. xiv vi 8 19 Wed. xiv iv 10 20 "Tues. xiii iii 8 20 Sat. xiii vii 9 Sab. 20 Thur. xiii V 11 21 Wed. xii iv 9 c 21 Sun. xii i 10 21 Frid. xii vi 12 22 Thur. xi V to •g 22 Mon. 1 23 Tues. ipb) am %a(av. — I offer to thee a sacrifice. " AU sacrifices," he adds, " are called holy (ayiai) ; and they which are devoted to God are eminently holy. For, as of old the sanctification was in the type. In the sheep [or lamb], so now it is not in the type, but in the truth itself. Wherefore he says ' that they may be sanctified through thy truth' ; for them also do I present and make here unto thee an oflfering,"^ From the institution of the sacrament I date the commence ment of our Lord's passion. As a priest, he was an agent ; as a victim, he was only a passive sufferer. After they had sung the remainder of the great HlUel, that is, from the 115th to the 118th Psalms inclusive, they went out to the Mount of Olives.^ It could not well have been later than eight o'clock in the evening. While our Lord and the other disciples were thus on their way to the garden of Gethsemane, the traitor went on his, to give notice to the High-priests, and obtain from the Eoman authorities a war rant for the apprehension of his Master, Here, then, must be placed the commencement of the Acts of ' Chrys. in Joan. hom. Ixxxii, ed, Mont- ' Matt. xxvi. 30; Mark xiv. 26; Luke faucon, tom viii. p. 484. xxii. 39 ; John xviii. 1. CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 449 Pilate, sent by him to the emperor, and deposited, as Tertullian testifies, in the Eoman archives. Nothing, it is true, is mentioned in express terms by the writers of the Gospel, of any interposition on the part of the Eoman government, until our Lord was actually brought into the presence of the governor. But it must be evident, on a little consideration, that the Jewish authorities would never have dared to take so ex traordinary a step, as that of sending an armed soldiery at night, out of the walls of Jerusalem, to seize our Lord, without a warrant first asked and obtained. The Eomans were exceedingly vigilant for the preservation of their authority, especially among a people- who submitted so reluctantly to their yoke. Judaea was one of those provinces which were considered as the most turbulent, and^ therefore placed by the adroit policy of Augustus, not under the senate, but solely under the emperor. It was, in fact, under military law ; and even the smallest disturbance, about the most common oflfender, a Theudas or a Judas of Galilee, could not have taken place without Eoman cognizance and action. But our Lord was a. person of too much eminence to be unknown by the Eoman autho rities. Herod had a long time desired to see him ; and the wife of Pilate had been impressed with veneration for his character. The Jewish rulers, therefore, must have known that any secret act of theirs would have excited the jealousy of the government, and effectually have defeated their design. It has been admitted, that nothing is explicitly said by the evan gelists of so early an intervention of the Eoman government ; but in saying this, it is not meant to admit that such an inference may not fairly be drawn from their language. On the contrary, St. John's account implies It : " Judas," he says, " having received a band.'" The language is Xapiijv THN awnpav. The force of the Greek article shows that it was not a band in general terms, but THE band— the band, namely, appointed by the Eoman govern ment, for that special purpose.* The word airfipa, here translated band, was a term peculiar to Eoman discipline. Polybius, in his 1 John xviii, 3. served tranquillity." It matters not whether- * Bishop Middleton (Doct. Gr. Art. in it was a general or a special order. The- loo.) follows Rosenmiiller, in supposing oflScer in command was obliged to report;- that this was "the particular cohort which and on his report the acts of Pilate woul(i by order of the procurator attended on the rely for the date of every' transaction. Sanhedrim at the great festivals, and pre- 57 450 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART H. account of that discipline, mentions, that a legion was divided into four classes, according to the age and condition of its members. If the legion consisted of four thousand two hundred men, one ot' these classes contained always six hundred, and consequently the other three of twelve hundred each. But sometimes the legion con sisted of five thousand men, in which case, three of the classes •contained four thousand four hundred men. Each class was divided into ten spiras or bands.' If, therefore, the same arrange ment prevailed in the time of our Saviour, the spira could not have been less than sixty, or more than from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and fifty men.* In the next member of the verse, kuI Ik tUv dpxtEpf'wv Kal Jtihu xviii. 12, 13. ' Maundrell's journey, Monday, April '' Jos. Antiq. lib. xx. c. 9, § 1, comp. with 5, 1697. IiL. xviii. c. 2, § 2. * A pretty exact measurement of this 452 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [part IL slsted, in fact, of a vast number of edifices, square within square. The residence of the high-priest very probably adjoined the council chamber. In which the sittings of the Sanhedrim were held, and was so extensive as to have numerous, but distinct, apartments, one of which might belong to Annas, and the other to Caiaphas, and both might be approached by one common entrance. We learn from Dr, Shaw the general arrangement of eastern houses, " Large doors, spacious chambers, marble pavements, cloistered courts, open to the sky and air, with fountains playing in the midst," are among their general characteristics. The following sketch taken from the plan of an eastern house in the travels of that learned author, and adapted to the present sub ject, wiU convey my idea better than any verbal description. A A c o s -=% • Open Court, • • • • • • Open Court, A • G c c . O « with Cloisters. • • wHb Cloisters. • * e « B • p HH _ PP A. Apartment of Annas.— C. Apartment of Caiaphas. — H. Hall of the High Priests. — HH. Hall of the Sanhedrim. — P. Porch of the High Priests' palace, communicating with the apartments of Annas and Caiaphas through the open court.^ — PP. Porch lead ing into the hall of the Sanhedrim, and so through the open court to S. the council chamber of the Sanhedrim, contiguous to the High Priests' apartment, and communi cating with it by a private door. I suppose then, that our blessed Lord was conducted to the great door leading into a large room, called by St. Matthew 6 tvXwv, and by St. Mark ro irpoavXwv, the vestibule, or spacious antechamber area is given by Dr. Robinson as follows : On the ea.st side, 1,528 English feet; the breadth at the south end is 955 feet. Neither the western side nor the northern end is accessible externally ; yet the latter may be measured approximately along the parallel street. Its length (i.e. the north ern end) is thus found to be not far from 1060 feet. It is, therefore, more than 100 feet wider at the north than at the south end. — Bib. Res. vol. i. p. 419. Since I wrote this note, Mr. Catherwood has given me the following measurement from actual survey: East wall, 1520 feet; south wall, 940 feet; west wall, 1617 feet;, north wall, 1020 feet. CH.4P. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 453 which in sumptuous houses led Into a still more spacious hall. As St. Mark has spoken of this hall,' or at least of that part of it In which Peter was, as being " beneath" lv ttj duXij mrw, I suppose that the upper part was raised a few steps above the lower. In the lower part of the hall, the servants of the high priests had a bra- sler, as is practised to this day in Italy, and the warm countries of the East, filled with charcoal, so burned as to have lost Its noxious qualities. This supposition is, I think, justified by the word AvOpaKia, which St. John uses,^ and which our translation renders " a fire of coals." This is represented in the plan, by a dot in the centre of the lower hall, and around it some were sitting, and others standing. St. John being known to the high priest's house hold, entered with our Lord ; but Peter stood without In the street, until John had spoken to the maid who kept the door, and Induced her to admit him. As he passed In, she recognized him as being one of our Lord's discii^les. While our Lord was conducted to the upper hall, and so, through the open court, to the apartment of Annas, Peter entered into the lower hall where the brasier was, and sat there to see what would be the Issue. As the seizure in the garden could not have been later than ten o'clock on Thursday evening, so our Lord's appearance before Annas cannot well be placed later than eleven. By Annas, and not by Caiaphas, was he first questioned concerning his disciples and his doctrine. But as Annas was no longer high priest, and was called so only by courtesy, Jesus refused to answer his questions, and referred him to those who had heard him, whether in the Synagogue or in the Temple. This provoked one of the officers to smite him on the face with the palm of his hand ; upon which our Lord meekly reminded him that if he had spoken evil, there was a proper tribunal before which the officer could bear witness against him. He thereby meant, as I conceive, to convey the Idea that Annas had no right to question him ; and Annas knowing that what he said was just, desisted from all further Inquiry, and sent him bound to Caiaphas.® 1 Mark xiv. 66. manuscripts ; but this makes no difference ' John xviii. 18. in the sense. If ovv be genuine, it is clearly ^ John xix. 19-24. — This appears to me an inference from our Lord's answer; and to be the natural construction of St. John's if it be not, it must have crept into the language (xviii. 24), whether the particle text from some early marginal annotation, ovv be or be not considered as a part of occasioned by the clearness of such an the original text. It is omitted by Gries- inference. I see not why the aorist avea- bach, on the authority of many good tuXiv should be rendered in a pluperfect 454 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [p.iRT II. During this arraignment before Annas, occurred the first denial of Peter. The door-keeper, who had recognized him as he entered, appears to have followed him into the lower hall, for the purpose of verifying her suspicions by a more exact scrutiny ; and having satisfied herself, she suddenly accused him, in the presence of the various attendants, of being a disciple of Jesus. In the confusion and fright which this sudden attack occasioned, Peter lost all pre sence of mind, forgot the warnings he had twice recelved'from our Lord, first on Wednesday, and last, as tlTey were on their way that evening to Gethsemane, and told the base lie that he was not a disciple. Afraid now to continue among the company at the fire, he withdrew into the irpoaiiKiav or vestibule. It was now midnight and the cock crew. This circumstance is mentioned only by St. Mark ; and if his Gospel was written under the cognizance of St. Peter, the narrative acquires additional importance. Our Lord being sent by Annas to Caiaphas, was brought back through the open court to the upper part of the hall of the high priest, where he was kept standing, while the chief priests and the various members of the council were seeking for witnesses, by whose testimony he might be convicted of blasphemy. The attention of the attendants in the lower part of the hall being now attracted by these proceedings, Peter, impelled by curiosity, and hoping to es cape notice, returned and stood warming himself by the fire. But the same maid-servant' seeing him again, began to say to the by standers that he was one of our Lord's disciples. Another maid servant^ said the same thing ; and so did a man In the company.* On this, Peter denied his master a second time with an oath. This was probably between one and two o'clock on Friday morning. About an hour afterwards,'' several of the bystanders again affirmed with more vehemence that he was a disciple of Jesus, appealing to hls-Galilean accent in proof of their assertion ; and one of them, a kinsman of Malchus, had actually seen him with his master. Peter now uttered oaths and curses ; and immediately, while he was yet speaking, the shrill voice of the morning cock was heard. At this moment our Lord turned and looked upon sense — "Annas had sent him.'' This is l ij n-aiSiaKi], Mark xiv. 69. only an accommodation to the preconceived ' Matt. xxvi. 71. notion that our Lord was thus examined ' Luke xxii. 58. by Caiaphas, and not by Annas. * Ibid. 59. CHAP. Ya. I THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 455 Peter ; and that look touched the soul of the guilty, perjured dis ciple, and brought him to repentance. The fourth watch being now come, called irpwi; the morning watch,, extending from three to six In the morning, the high priests and the whole council assembled In the council chamber of the Sanhedrim, and our Lord was. brought before them. The high priest adjured him to answer if he claimed to be the Messiah, and this led to his condemnation as guilty of blasphemy, followed by the vile insults of their brutal menials. According to the law of Moses, when any person was guilty of blasphemy, it was the duty of the whole nation to put him to death by stoning.' But as the Jewish rulers, by the advice of Caiaphas,^ had determined to give him over to the Eoman power, that he might be crucified, they conducted him while it was still the fourth watch {irpbit) to the prastorium, or Eoman court of justice. This was doubtless In the tower called Antonia, adjoining the Temple. And here is presented, by the language of St. John, the chief, and perhaps the only real difficulty attending the subject. The Jewish council, the high priests and scribes and elders of the people, — in a word, " the whole Sanhedrim,"' who brought him and delivered him over to Pilate, would not enter the prsetorlum or judgment-hall, "lest they should be defiled; but that they might eat the passover."^ It follows then, either that in their thirst for vengeance they had violated the law, or that they considered Friday as the fourteenth day of the paschal moon, and consequently were to kill the passover lamb from three to five that afternoon, and keep the feast after sunset, which would be the commencement of their sabbath. Now, according to the cycle of Victor, they were in fact right ; and that cycle is supported by astronomical calculation. The question then Is, Did our Lord, of his own au thority, depart from the practice of the Jewish Church, and eat a passover of his own appointment anticipating the legal passover ? — or, Was there a diversity of practice among the Jews at that time, so that the Jewish nation In general ate the passover on the night between Thursday and Fri,day, and a portion of them, including the high priests and elders, on the night between Friday and Saturday, the commencement of their sabbath ? The latter appears to me to be the only tenable hypothesis. ' Lev. xxiv. 16-53. ' Mark xv. 1. ¦•John xi. 49-51, and xviii. 14. • John xviii. 28. 456 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART H. In considering this subject, we must keep In view a disturbing force which has bfassed the judgment of the Eastern and Western Churches. The Eastern, almost without exception, use leavened bread in celebrating the Eucharist ; the Western, before the Ee- formation, used unleavened bread. Since that event, the Latin Church, the Protestants of the Augsburg Confession, and some others, it is said,* continue to use unleavened bread, while the Ee formed or Calvlnlsts use leavened. In the first prayer-book of Edward \T unleavened bread was prescribed; in the second, it was left indifferent ; but the practice has subsequently prevailed in the. Church of England of using leavened bread. This practice seems to have derived Its origin from the supposition, that our Lord in stituted the sacrament before the first day of unleavened bread, and consequently that he anticipated the passover. Hence the Greek writers generally held to that hypothesis. The best ritual ists of the Latin Church admit that the question is indifferent ; and hence among them, as well as among the Protestants, there is a greater diversity of opinion respecting the question of antiei- patlon. But keeping this extraneous subject entirely out of sight, let us attend only to the narrative of the evangelists. Our Lord came not to destroy, but to fulfil the law ; and if he anticipated the pro per time of keeping the passover, he was as much a violator of the law, as the high priests and elders would have been In postponing it until the day after the proper time. This difficulty at the outset appears to me insuperable. Enough has been said to show that Thursday was considered by our Lord and his apostles as the first day of unleavened bread. It began at sunset on Wednesday, and ended at sunset on Thurs day. St. Matthew, St. Mark, and St. Luke, all speak of TO jra(7xa, THE passover ; and the language of St. Mark, " When they slay THE passover ;" and of St. Luke, " When the passover must be slain ; " shows clearly that It was considered by the nation gene rally as the legal time.' Our Lord's expression Is equally explicit; TToiw TO iraaxa, I celebrate the, not a, passover.^ * In Hospinian's account of the liturgy mentato plenum.— Hist. Sacram. pars 11. ¦of the Church of Zurich, as it was insti- fol. p. 40. tuted by Zuinglius, it is stated that un- 'Matt. xxvi. 17; Mark xiv. 12; Luke leavened bread was ordered to be used, xxii. 7. " Mensa intemplo munda mappa insterni- ^ j^j,tj_ ^^^;_ jg_ j^^^ ^^ ^^^ same pur- rtur. Huic imponitur canistrum pane infer- pose, Mark xiv. 14, and Luke xxii. 11-15. CHAP. VII.J THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 457 The argument advanced by Lightfoot, that Peter and John could not have procured a lamb before the legal time, seems con clusive ; but as the truth of the fact asserted by him has been con tested, it is necessary to enlarge upon it. The law requiring the passover lamb to be slain at the Temple is express.' It was to be "in the place which the Lord should choose to place his name there." The history of the passovers celebrated by Hezekiah and Josiah,^ shows that the lambs were killed at the Temple, and that "the priests sprinkled the blood which they received of the hand of the Levites." The reason assigned' for the Levites having the charge of killing the passovers, has led to the inference that the congre gation. If sanctified, might perform that office ; and this is corrobo rated by two remarkable passages In Philo. The first occurs in the third book of his life of Moses : " But In this month, on the fourteenth day, the fulness of the moon brings the passover, in our tongue called lopTri, In the Chaldee -n-auxaj in which not only private persons bring sacrifices to the altar, and the priests offer them, but by the arrangement of the law the whole nation becomes a priesthood : In that every one brings his own sacrifices and him self slays them."* The second is in his Treatise on the Ten Commandments, and is as follows : " The feast which the Hebrews call the passover, vama, in which each one in the whole nation sacrifices for himself, not bringing his offerings to the priest ; the law having granted to the people, on this one day of the whole year, the priesthood, that they may sacrifice for themselves." ^ The two passages explain each other. The whole nation of Israel were allowed that day, and only that day, to sacrifice their own victims ; doubtless because there were so many to be slain, that the labour would be too great for the priests and Levites. But still they were obliged to bring their sacrifices to the Temple ; and though they might slay the victims, the priests only could sprinkle the blood, Philo says nothing of sprinkling, which was always an essential act In offering sacrifice. We must therefore, I think, conclude that Peter and John were 1 Deut. xvi. 2. ¦• Philo irtpt jSiov Mwtr, ed. Princ. p. 467, ' 2 Chron. xxx. 16, and XXXV. 10, 11. -'Philo irepi tuIv SeKoXoy. ed. Princ. ' Chap. xxx. 17. p. 523. 6,8 458 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD, [pART H. obliged to take their lamb to the Temple, and present It before the altar. They might then, according to Philo, kill it in the presence of the priests, or one might kill, while the other caught the blood, and gave it to the priest to sprinkle. This the priests would not have suffered to be done before that day, which the nation In gene ral believed to be the fourteenth of Nisan. There could be, therefore, no error on the part of our Lord. " Neither his character, conduct, hor sentiments," as Mr. Townsend well observes, " will for a moment permit us to believe that he dis obeyed, in the slightest degree, the ordinances of the Mosaic law." What then was the occasion of the diversity of his practice, and that of the high priests, and others among the Jews ? Various conjectures, more or less plausible, have been adojited. Macknight produces from Gerhard's supplement to the harmony of Chemnitius, the following fact in elucidation. The Jews In latter times carefully avoided the celebration of two Sabbaths in succession, for a reason mentioned in the Talmudical Books, viz., that in those warm climates, dead bodies and boiled herbs could not be kept without spoiling.' As a farther proof of the Jews' practice In this matter, Gerhard cites the Seder 01am, from which he has translated as follows:^ "Eabbi Ellezer, who was greater than all the other men of the great synagogue, ordered that the feast of Purim should not be kept on the second, fourth, and seventh days of the week, nor the passover on the second, fourth, and sixth days,* &c. According to this precept of the elders, as two Sabbaths happened to follow one another, they omitted the first, performing all the services proper to it on the second, along witli the services proper to the second. But this practice, though en joined by the elders, was directly contrary to the institutions of the law. For which reason, Gerhard thinks our Lord never com plied with it, but always observed the festivals on the precise day fixed for them by the divine appointment.'" But however satisfactory this solution may appear to those who, like Macknight, defend the anticipation. It does not solve the ' Non facimns duo continua Sabbata, sexto, &c. propter olera et propter mortuos. * That is, the passover should not be " Rabbi Eliezer, qui reliquis omnibus kept on Monday, AVednesday, and Friday, major erat, ordina-vit diem sortium non but postponed till the next day observari secundo, quarto, septimo heb- ' Macknight's Harmony Chron. Dcss..vi. domadis die; neque pascha secundo; quarto, 2nd ed. 8vo, vol. i. p. 107, CHAP. VII.J THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 459 difficulty, if our Lord kept the passover on the day observed gene rally by the nation. For in that case, the high priests and their associates were the only persons who observed the traditions of the elders. How can It be accounted for, that the whole nation should act in opposition to the high priests, the scribes, and pharlsees, and the wJiole sanhedrim ? Without supposing any such opposition, may not the whole difference be easily explained, if a divers'ity of practice was allowed on account of the variation between the apparent and real time of the new and full moon ? This is the solution afforded by the canon of Victorius. The 1st of January that year was the nine teenth day of the moon's age ; and, according to the common method of computing lunar months, as consisting alternately of twenty-nine and thirty days, the 14th of Nisan would fall upon Thursday. But the real age of the moon on Easter Sunday, the 28th of March, was sixteen, and, consequently, the real 14th of Nisan was on Friday. It is a question which cannot now be determined, whether the Jews at that time were governed by any cycle. The probabi lity is that they were not. Their own writers maintain that they fixed the time of the new-moon only by Its appearance ; and that the use of an astronomical cycle was introduced after the dis persion. We have no necessity, therefore, of going into any conjectures on this subject. We have only to take the fact of this diversity of practice, as it Is stated by the Evangelists, and It corroborates our conclusion as to the date of our Lord's sufferings. It was, in reality, a part of that admirable arrangement of Divine Providence, by which the minutest events are adjusted and harmonized with the greatest. It was so arranged, that in the order of times and seasons, our Lord should keep the passover and institute the Sa crament of the New Covenant while the whole nation were cele brating their deliverance from Egyptian bondage, and yet that as the Sacred Victim for the sins of the whole world, he should ex pire on the cross at that astronomical point of time in which, according to the law, the lamb ought to have been slain. And this apparent design suggests a reason why, from the beginning, the Christian Church,"instead of celebrating the Lord's supper at night, has transferred it to the following morning. The Jewish passover was celebrated at night, because of their deliver- 460 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD, [PART n. ance at night from Egyptian bondage. It was the only time when our Lord could devote himself as a victim, and this could be done only by the substitution of a symbolic sacrifice. But the real sacrifice took place on the following day. It was, therefore, more suitable that the subsequent commemoration should be during those hours In which the Lamb of God actually suffered. On the great feast-day of the Christian passover our Lord burst the bonds of death and rose victorious over sin and hell, not In the night, but when the darkness was past, and the light was beginning to shine. The Jewish passover was In the night. The legal figures and shadows were of the evening and have passed away. The Christian passover, on the contrary, is of the morning, and Its light and truth will shine more and more unto the perfect day. And when it Is considered that our Lord spent the forty days between his resurrection and ascension. In " speaking " with the apostles " of the things pertaining to the kingdom of God,"' that is, of the Institutions to be observed In his Church, will it be considered as an extravagant supposition, that he, himself, gave directions for the transfer of the Sabbath, and of the memorial of his passion, to the day In which he rose from the dead ? Certain it is, that in no part of the Christian Church, has there ever been a contrary practice , and this uniformity cannot be rationally accounted for unless the practice be derived from the apostles. While on this part of our subject, it Is proper to fulfil a promise respecting the testimony of Lactantius, concerning the date of our Saviour's death, in the fourth book of his Institutes. It will be seen, on referring to that part of his testimony, that he speaks of "the seventh before the calends of April," as the day In which " the Jews affixed Christ to the cross ;" whereas the other Latin writers speak of our Lord's passion as having taken place on the eighth before the calends of April. In this stage of our inquiry, we are enabled to see that what at first glance seemed to be con tradictory, is in fact a surprising Instance of harmonious testimony and accurate language^ Tertullian speaks of our Lord's passion as taking place on the eighth, but does not say that he was crucified on the eighth. Lactantius, on the other hand, affirms that our Lord was crucified on the seventh, but does not say that his passion commenced on the seventh. Both were right in point of fact, be- ' Acts i. 3. CHAP. V1I.J THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 461 cause our Lord's passion commenced on Thursday, and he was crucified on Friday. I would fain hope that we have now, to the satisfaction of the reader, established on a solid basis the true time of the death of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. We have seen, by a variety of details which it is unnecessary here to recapitulate, that he made his solemn entry Into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday the 21st of March, which was the tenth day of the Jewish month Nisan ; that he was betrayed by Judas Iscariot on Wednesday evening the 24th of March ; that he celebrated the passover and Instituted the sacrament of the Eucharist on Thursday evening March the 2oth ; that he was crucified on Friday March the 26th, and that he rose from the grave on Easter Sunday March the 28th. This great event took place in the 4741st year of the Julian period. In the ninth month of the fourth year of the 201st olympiad. In the last month of the 780th year of Eome, the 73d year of the Julian calendar, the 28th year of the modern Christian sera; in the 19th year of the associate reign of Tiberius, and the 15th year of his sole reign, when Lucius Eubellius Geminus and Caius Fufius Geminus were consuls. 462 [part n. CHAPTER VIII. THE DURATION GE OUR SAVIOUR's MINISTRY. Section I. St John's ministn/.— Question proposed as to the time of our Lord's baptism. — St. Luke's testimony considered. — Table 1, of the commencement of St. John's ministry, constructed from the data afforded in the canon of Victorius. — Conjecture probable that St. John began his ministry on the great day of atonement, Sep. 29, A.J.P. 4737, in the first year of Pilate's administration, — No certainty as to the time of our Lord's baptism, but great probability that it took place on the sixth of January. — The opinion of Epiphanius the result of computation. — St. Chrysostom's opinion in favour of the Epiphany. — Question discussed as to the number of passovers during our Lord's ministry .-^Opinion adopted that there were four. — Three tables, constructed for three years, on this hypothesis.— Explanation of the author's method. — His computation of Pentecost, and the" reasons for it. St. Peter speaks. In the first chapter of the Acts, of " all the time that the Lord Jesus went in and out among" his disciples, as "beginning from the baptism of John"' Assuming then, as an established point, that the crucifixion took place on Friday the 26th of March, In the year 4741 of the Julian period, the ques tion is now to be answered, How long a time must be counted back, according to the narrative of the evangelists, to our Lord's baptism ? St. Luke's testimony is, that " in the fifteenth year of the reign," or, more accurately (Gr. rijc ^yefiovlag), of the government or ad ministration "of Tiberius Csesar, Pontius Pilate being governor (Gr. tjyi/xoi'evovrog) of Judsea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip being tetrarch of Iturtea, and of the region of Trachonltis, and Lysanias the tetrarch of Abilene, Annas and Caiaphas being the high priests, the word of God came unto John, the son of Zacharias, In the wilderness."^ Augustus, as we have already seen,^ divided the dominions of Herod the Great soon after his death ; giving to Archelaus one half, with the title of ethnarch ; and to Herod Antipas and Herod Philip, each one fourth, with the title of tetrarch. To Herod ' Acts i. 21, 22. ' Luke iii. 1,2. ' Part ii. chap. 2. p. 364. CHAP. VIIlJ DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 463 Antipas were assigned Persea and Galilee ; to Herod Philip, Ba- tansea, with Trachonltis and Auranitia, and some part of what was called the house of Zenodorus.' "Philip died in the twentieth year of the reign («px^e) of Tiberius, having governed Trachonltis, Gaulonltis, and Batansea, thirty-seven years.'^ As he died without children, Tiberius annexed his government to the province of Syria. According to our calculation, Herod the Great died in March, A.J.P. 4710. That year being counted, the thirty-seventh year of Philip's government would commence in March, a.j.p. 4746, and the twentieth year of Tiberius would end on the 19th of August, of the same year. Philip therefore must have died be tween March 21st and August 19th, in the seventy-eighth year of the Julian calendar, or the year 4746 of the Julian period, and about five years after our Saviour's crucifixion. As for Herod Antipas, he was deprived of his tetrarchy and banished to Spain, by Caligula, several years later.^ Lysanias Is once cursorily mentioned by Josephus, as having been tetrarch of Abila ;¦* and the industry of Wetstein has col lected all that is recorded of him elsewhere, without being able to throw any other light upon his history. It is plain, therefore, that the sovereignties of these three tetrarchs afford no chronological data, by which the commence ment of St. John the Baptist's ministry can be determined. But with respect to the fifteenth year of Tiberius, and the government of Pontius Pilate, the statement of St. Luke wUl be found to be very important. If the associate government of Tiberius com menced in the month of February, when M. .^milius Lepidus and T. Statilius Taurus were consuls, then it will be seen, by examining the list of consuls, that the fifteenth year of that go vernment would begin In February, when M. Asinius Agrippa and Cossus Cornelius Lentulus were consuls ; and end at the same period In the following consulship of C. Calvisius Sabinus and Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Getulicus. In other words. It would extend from February a.j.p 4737 to February a.j.p. 4738. Again: we have seen in a former chapter that Valerius Gratus was sent to Judsea by Tiberius, on his accession to undivided sovereignty, and that he continued In office eleven years. He was ¦ Jos. Antiq. lib. xvii. c. 11, § 4. ' Jos. de Bel. Jud. lib. ii. c. 9. " Ibid. lib. xviii. c. 4, § 6. " Jos. Antiq, lib, xx. c. 7, § 1. 464 DURATION OF CHRIST S MINISTRY, [PART IL then recalled, and Pontius Pilate was sent In his room. The sole reign of Tiberius dates from the 19th of August a,j.p. 4726 ; and eleven solid years being added, we are brought to the 19th of August A.J.P. 4737, the seventh month of the fifteenth year of his associate reign. We cannot possibly therefore assign an earlier date than the latter part of August of that year, for the com mencement of St. John's ministry ; and this date, or even a month or two later, harmonizes perfectly with St. Luke's account, and with the circumstances of our Lord's baptism. The canon of Victorius, by ascertaining the day of the week, and the age of the moon, on the 1st of January of the year when our Lord suffered, enables us to adjust the Eoman and the Jewish computation of time in the preceding years. We proceed there fore to construct a table, from the 19th of August a.j.p. 4737 to the 1st of January a.j.p. 4738. Table I. — The Commencement of St. John's Ministry. From August 19th to December 31st, A.J.P. 4737; Olymp. CCI. I; a. u.c. 777; year of the reformed Julian calendar, 69; bissextile; year of the common Christian £era, 24; and therefore Sunday lettei-s until February 23 B,and after February 25 a. The l.'jth year of the associate government of Tiberius; the 12th year of his sole reign. The 1st year of Pilate's administration, M. Asinius Aguippa, Cossus Coe- NELius Lentulus, Coss. Modem Koman D Jewish Computation Modem Itoman » Jewish Computation Computatiou. Comp. Ase. of Time. Computation, Comp. Age, of Time. Aug 19 Sat. xiv F.vii 28 Sab. Sep 25 Mon. vii F.ii 6 A 20 Sun. xiii i 29 26 Tues. vi iii 7 21 Mon. xii ii i Elul. 27 Wed. V iv 8 22 Tues. xi iii 1 28 Thur, iv V 9 23 Wed. X iv 2 29 Frid, iii vi 10 Day of Atonement. 24 Thui-. ix T 3 39 Sat, Prid vii 11 Sab. [Lev. xxiii. 27 25 Frid. viii vi 4 26 Sat. vii vii 5 Sab. Oct. 1 Sun. Eal. i 12 A 27 Sun. vi i fi 2 Mou. vi ii 13 28 Mod. V ii 7 3 Tues V iii 14 29 Tues. iv iii 8 4 Wed, iv iv 15 Feast of Tabernacles. 30 Wed. iil iv 9 5 Thur. iii v 16 Lev. xxiii. 36. 31 Thur. Prid V 10 6 Frid, Prid vi 17 7 Sat. Non vii 18 Sab. Sep. 1 Frid. Kal vi 11 a 8 Sun. viii i 19 2 Sat. iv vii 12 Sab. 9 Mon, vii ii 20 A 3 Sun. iii 1 13 10 Tues, vi iii 21 4 Mon. Prid ii 14 11 Wed, V IV 22 Octave of the Feast 5 Tues. Non iii 15 12 Thur, iv V 23 of Tabernacles. -6 Wed, viii iv 16 13 Frid. iii vi 24 Lev. xxiii. 36 7 Thur. vli V 17 14 Sat. Prid Vii 25 Sab. 8 Frid. vi vi 18 a 15 Sun. Id. i 26 9 Sat. V vii 19 Sab. 16 Mou. xvii ii 27 A 10 Sun. iv i 20 17 Tues, xvi iii 28 11 Mon, iii ii 21 18 Wed. XV iv 29 12 Tups, Piid iii 22 19 Thur, xiv V 1^ Marchesvan. 13 Wed. Id, iv 23 20 Frid. xiii vi 14 Thur. xviii V 24 21 Sat. xii vii 2 Sab. 15 Frid. 16 Sat. xvii vi 25 A 22 Sun. xi i 3 xvi vii 26 Sab. 23 Mon, X ii 4 A 17 Sun, XV i 27 24 Tues, ix iii 5 18 Mou. xiv ii 28 25 Wed, viii iv 6 19 Tues, xiii iii 29 26 Thur, vii V 7 20 Wed. xii iv 1 TisRT or Ethanim, 27 Frid. vi vi 8 21 Thur, xi V 2 F'iast of Trumpets. 28 Sat. v vii 9 Sab. 22Fnd. X vi 3 Lev. xxiii, 24. A 29,Sun. iv i 10 23 Sat, ix vii 4 Sab. ao Mon. iii ii 11 A 24 Sun. viii i 5 • 31 Tues, Prid iii 12 CHAP, vm.] DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY, 465 Modem Roinsn » Jewish Computation Modem Boraan D Computation. Comp. Age. of Time. Computation. Comp. Age. of Time. j Not. 1 Wed. Kalf.iv 13 Dec. 1 Frid. Kal F.vi 14 2 Thur. iv V 14 2 Sat. iv vii IS Sab. 3 Frid. iii vi 15 a 3 Sun. iii i 16 4 Sat. Prid vu 16 Sab. 4 Mou. Prid ii 17 A 5 Sun, Nou i 17 5 Tues, Non iii 18 6 Mon. viU ii 18 6 Wed. viii iv 19 7 Tues. vii iii 19 7 Thur. vii V 20 8 Wed, vi iv 20 8 Frid. vi vi 21 9 Thur, V V 21 9 Sat. V vii 22 Sab. 10 Frid. iv vi 22 A 10 Sun. iv i 23 11 Sat, iii vii 23 Sab. 11 Mon. iii ii 24 A 12 Sun. Prid 1 24 12 Tues, Prid iii 25 Feast of the Dedica 13 Mon. Id. ii 25' 13 Wed. Id. iv 26 tion of the Temple. 14 Tues. xviii iii 26 14 Thur. xix V 27 John X. 22. 16 Wed. xvii iv 27 15 Frid. xviii vi 28 16 Thur. xvi V 28 16 Sat. xvii vii 29 Sab. 17 Frid. XV vi 29 A 17 Sun, xvi i i Tebeth. 18 Sat. xiv vii 1 Casleu. Sab. 18 Mon. XV ii 1 A 19 Sun. xiii i 2 19 Tues. xiv iii 2 Octave of the Feast 20 Mon, xii ii 3 20 Wed. xiii iv 3 of Dedication. 21 Tues. xi iii 4 21 Thur. xii V 4 22 Wed, X iv 5 22 frid. xi ¦vi 5 23 Thur. ix V 6 23 Sat. X vii 6 Sab. 24 Frid. viii vi 7 A 24 Sun. ix i 7 25 Sat vii Vii 8 Sab. 25 Mon. viii ii 8 A 26 Sun. vi i 9 26 Tues. vii iii 9 27 Mon, V ii 10 27 Wed. vi iv 10 28 Tues. iv iii 11 28 Thur. T V 11 29 Wed. iii iv 12 29 Frid. iv vi 12 30 Thur. Prid V 13 30 Sat. A 31 Sun. iu Prid vii i 13 14 Sab. The foregoing table has been constructed from the nineteenth of August, as being the earliest date at which the eleven years' admi nistration of Valerius Gratus could end. As, however, there is only a possibility that Tiberius appointed him on the first day of his own accession to undivided sovereignty, so is it only possible that Pilate entered upon his office the very day that the eleven years expired. If we could fix the day when Pilate's administra tion began. It would enable us to ascertain with some precision the commencement of St. John's ministry. But this Is impossible. As St. Luke says that it was under the government of Pontius Pilate, and In the fifteenth year of Tiberius, — that is, of his asso ciate government, — it could not be earlier than the last of August A.J.P. 4737, or later than January a.j.p. 4738. In the absence then of all positive testimony, I offer what ap pears to me a probable conjecture. It has .been seen by the pre ceding table, that the great day of atonement, when the children of Israel were commanded to afflict their souls,* took place that year on the twenty-ninth day of September. How consonant would It be with the great object of St. John's mission that he should begin to prepare the way of the Lord in that week ! perhaps, on thai ' Lev. XTi. 29. 69 466 DURATION OF CHRIST'S MINISTRY. [PART II. same great day when the High Priest entered the Holy of Holies'. — An annual figure, as St. Paul assures us, of the atonement offered by the great High Priest of our prof ession ! If this conjecture be probable, then the feast of Tabernacles which followed, from "Wednesday the fourth to Wednesday the eleventh of October, in which the whole nation were required to go up to Jerusalem,' would furnish a convenient opportunity for all " Judsea," and all the region round about Jordan, as well as all the inhabitants of the city,'' to go out of Jerusalem, and be " bap tized of him in Jordan, confessing their sins."' The same oppor tunity would be offered at the feast of the Dedication, from the twelfth to the nineteenth of December. The Evangelists furnish no evidence as to the time of our Ijord's baptism. St. Matthew merely states, that " he came from Galilee to Jordan, unto John to be baptized of him ;"* and St. Luke, that " when all the people were baptized, it came to pass that Jesus also being baptized and praying, the heaven was opened," etc.^ This last expression, " when all the people were baptized," does not mean, as some have supposed, that Jesus did not come to be bap tized uMtil the whole of the people had been baptized ; for the words in the original, iv ry ^aima^rivai diravTa rov \aov, Imply only that he came with the rest. But as the number baptized by St. John ap pears to have been very great, I see no reason why the time of our Lord's baptism may not have been as late as the sixth of January, according to the opinions of the followers of Basiiides, mentioned by St. Clemens of Alexandria.^ The objection on account of the inclemency of that month is of little value ; for it is asserted by the best travellers, that in Judaea the days are often hot at that season.* ' Deut xvi. 13, 14, 15. 'Marki. 5. I suppose " the ford five or six miles above ' Matt, iii 5, 6. ' Matt. iii. 13. Jericho" (Eobinson ut sup. p. 265) to be 'Luke iii. 21. ° Strom lib. i. 340. the Bethabara of the New Testament. In *' See Harmer's observ, ed, Clarke, vol. i. the time of Antoninus Martyr and Willi- p. 132, concerning the weather in the baldus, " the annual throng of pilgrims to Holy Land. "In the depth Qf win ter it is bathe in the Jordan took place at the frequently warm, nay, almost hot, in the Epiphany." (Robinson ut sup. p. 270.) On open air." If this may be said in general, the 12th of May 1838, "the thermometer, It applies with peculiar force to the great at sunset, stood at 78° F;" and on " Sunday plain of Jordan. On the 29th of January May 13tb, the excessive heat" gave Messrs. 1818, Mr. Bankes crossed the Jordan at Robinson and Smith "an uncomfortable or near a ford lower than that near Beisan specimen of the climate of the Ghor," or (the ancient Bethshean or Scythopolis), valley of the Jordan (Ibid. p. 273). "In and found the stream flowing rapidly over traversing merely the short distance of a bed of pebbles, and easily fordable for five or six hours, between Jerusalem and the horses." — Buckingham, p. 315, quoted Jericho, the traveller passes from a pure by Dr. Robinson, Bib. Res. vol. ii. p. 261. and temperate atmosphere into the sultry CHAP. vni.] DtJRATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 467 The opinion of Epiphanius that Jesus was baptized on the eighth of November, was clearly the result of computation. He supposed that our Lord was born on the sixth of January; and having ad vanced the opinion that Hewas twenty-nine years and ten months old when baptized, he of course placed the baptism two months earlier. St. Chrysostom, on the other hand. In his homily on the baptism of Christ, asks " why the day in which he was baptized, and not the day In which he was born, is called, the Epiphany? For this is the day in which he was baptized, and In which he sanctified the nature of water." And he thus answers the question : " Because Christ was made manifest to all, not when he was born, but when le was baptized."' It is not Intended to attach an undue importance to this opinion ; but If the followers of Basiiides held it, according to St. Clement of Alexandria, and the Church held it according to Chrysostom, there is some probability of its truth. Neither would be likely to re ceive it on the testimony of the other, and therefore both must have derived It from some common source. There can be no im propriety, therefore, in considering the sixth of January as the date of our Lord's baptism, when every departure from that date has proceeded from computation merely, and not from testimony. There is another question of far greater importance, and that is, how many passovers Intervened between the baptism of our Lord and his crucifixion ? Whatever diversity of opinion there may be with regard to the other Evangelists, St. John, It is generally admitted, preserves the order of time. " John," says Chemnitz, as quoted by Abp. New- come, " had in view two objects in writing his history : First, to add what the other Evangelists had omitted ; second, to point out a method by which the order and sequence of the whole evangelical history might be searched out and apprehended." The Archbishop himself admits that he has neglected the true order of time, only in speaking of Mary's anointing the feet of Jesus f and even this exception I have not ventured to make, though I am fully sensible that the reasons on which it has been founded are forcible. There are four passages in St. John's history from which it is heat of an Egyptian climate. Nor is this sand feet lower than Jerusalem." (Ibid. surprising, when we consider that the cal- p. 282). drcn of the Dead Sea and the valley of the ' S. Chrys. Op. ed. Montf. tom. ii. p. 369. Jordan lie several hundred feet below the ' Chap. xii. 2-8. level of the ocean, and nearly three thou- 468 DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. [PART II. inferred that our Lord was present at the same number of pass- overs during the interval between his baptism and his crucifixion : First, ch. Ii. 13: "And the Jews' Passover was at hand, and Jesus went up to Jerusalem." Secondly, ch. v. i : "After this there was a feast of the Jews ; and Jesus went up to Jerusalem." Thirdly, ch. vi. 4 : " And the passover a feast of the Jews was nigh." Fourthly, ch. xii. 1 : " Then Jesus six days before the passover came to Bethany." See also chaps, xlii. 1, and xviii. 28. The only doubt is with regard to the second, or that which is mentioned in the fifth chapter. If the article had been Inserted, so that instead of A feast. It should be read THE feast of the Jews, there would have been no hesitation in admitting it to be the Passover ; for nothing was more common than to designate that as THE feast. On this subject Bishop Middleton, in his invaluable work on the Greek article, makes the following remarks : " If we could accurately ascertain what was the festival here meant, it would go far towards determining the much controverted question respecting the duration of Christ's ministry. It seems to be ad mitted, that if the reading had been 'H lopn) (which, Indeed, Is found in several mss.) the festival here spoken of could be no other than the Passover ; and that then there were four Passovers, according to St. John, during our Saviour's ministry : otherwise, it is contended that some other feast, probably of Pentecost, Is here meant, and that the Passovers of our Saviour s ministry were only three." After several critical remarks explanatory of the omission of the article, the Bishop sums up the whole subject as follows : " On the whole, I think it certain that the Passover may here be intended, and that the arguments against this supposition are not strengthened, as is commonly supposed, by the absence of the article. On the other hand, the opinion that the Passover is here meant, is somewhat favoured by the various reading.' With these observations, I leave the subject for the present, and proceed to lay before the reader a series of tables for three years, constructed by means of the Canon of Victorius, and containing an adjustment of the modern, Eoman, and Jewish computations of time. These will complete the period from the commencement of St. John's ministry, until the day when our Lord was taken up, and the Holy Ghost descended. 1 Doct. of the Greek article, part n. in loc. CHAP. VIII.J DURATION OP CHRIST S MINISTRY. 469 TABLE ,1. — First Year op our Lord's Ministry. Sunday Letter o; a,j,p. 4738; Olymp. cci. 1-2; a.u.c. 777-78; Ee£ Cal. of Julius Casat 70, a.d. 2« ; As.sociate Gov', of Tiberius, A. 15-16 ; Sole reign of Tiberius, A. 12-13 ; Year of Pilate, 1-2 , C. Calvisiut Sabinus, Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Geetulicus, Co8s. Modem Comp. Eoman Comp. Aseot the Jl Jewish Computation Modern Comp. Roman Comp. -. TV Jewish Computation of Time. of Time. of Time. ot Time. of Time. tne )) of Time. Jan. 1 Man. Kal. Fer. ii 15 Lasthalf of Tebeth. Mae. I Thur Kal. Fer. V IS 2 Tues, iv iil 16 2 Fri. vi vi 16 3 Wed. iii iv 17 3 Sat. v vii 17 Sab. 4 Thur Prid v 18 a 4 Sun. iv i 18 SFri. Non vi 10 6 Mon. iii ii 19 6 Sat. viii vii 20 Sab. 6 Tues, Prid iii 20 o 7 Sun. vii i 21 7 Wed, Non iv 21 8 Mon. vi ii 22 8 Thur viii V 22 9 Tues. T iii 23 9 Fri. vii vi 23 10 Wed. iv iv 24 10 Sat. vi vii 24 Sab. n Thur. iii V 25 e 11 Sun. v i 26 12Fri. Prid vi 26 12 Mon. iv ii 26 13 Sat Idus vii 27 Sab. 13 Tues. iii iii 27 e 14 Sun. xiK i 28 14 Wed. Prid, iv 28 IS Mon. xviii ii 29 IS Thur. ldus. V 39 16 Tues. xvii iii 1 Shebet. 16 Fri. xvii vi 1 Abib or Nisan. 17 Wed. xvi iv 2 17 Sat xvi vii 2 Sab, IS Thur, KV r S « 18 Sun. XV i 3 19Fri. xiv vi 4 19 Mon. xiv ii 4 20 Sat. xiii vii S Sab. 20 Tues. xiii iii 5 a 21 Sun. xii t ' 6 21 Wed, xli iv 6 22 Mon, xi ii 7 22 Thur. xi V 7 23 Tues, X ni 8 23FrL X vi 8 24 Wed.' ix 1 iv 9 24 Sat ix vii 9 Sab. 2S Thnr.i viii, V i 10 <3 25 Sun. yiii i 10 I 26Fri. , vii vi 11 26 Mon. vii ii 11 27 Sat. vi vii 12 Sab. 27 Tues, vi ; iii 12 a 28 Sun. i v i ; IS 28 Wed. V iv IS fassover. iiev.Kiiii.6. 29 Mon.' iv , li 14 29 Thur, iv ' V 14 SO Tues.. iii ' iii 15 < 30 Fri. iii ' vi 1 15 Feast of unleaveoed bread. 31 Wed . Prid. iv 16 31 Sat Prid, vii ; 16 '. Sab. Paschal Sab. Feb. 1 Thur.; Kal. V ! 17 Ape.g1 Sun. Kal.; i ' 17 IVloiTow aflai- the sab 2Fri. iv vi 1 18 3 Mon. iv \ ii 18 bath. Lev. xxiii. 11. 3 Sat. iii vii 19 Sab. 3 Tues. iii ! iii 19 ; a 4 Sun. Pri^. i 20 ; 4 Wed. Prid. iv - 20 ¦ 5 Mon.< Non, ii 21 S Thur. Non. V i 21 lAst day of the feast of 6 Tues, viii iii 22 ' 6 Fri. viii ¦ vi i 32 unleavened bread. 7 Wed, vii iv 23 ! 7 Sat vii , vii 23 iSab. I, fromithe mor- 8 Thin. vi 1 V 24 ; G 8 Sun. vi i i 24 row a&er the sabbath 9Fri, , . V ¦ vi : 25 9 Mon. V ii 25 TO of Tiiie. of Time. of Time. of Thne. of Time. of Time. Mat 1 Tues Kal Fer.ii 17 JoLY I Sun. Kal Fer. i 19 2 Wed vi iv 18 2 Mon Ti ii 20 3 Thur V T 19 3 Tues V iii 21 4 Fri. iv vi 20 4 Wed. iv iv 32 5 Sat iii vii 21 Sab. V. from the mor 5 Thur iii V 23 G 6 Sun. Prid i 22 row alter thepaschal 6 Fri. Prid vi 24 7 Mon. Non ii 23 sabbath. 7 Sat Nod vii 2S SaK 8 Tues viii lii 34 s 8 Sun. viii i 26 9 Wed. vii iv 25 9 Mon vii ii 27 10 Thur vi V 26 10 Tues. vi iii 28 11 Fri. T vi 27 11 Wed. 1 V iv 29 12 Sat iv vii 28 Sab.vi. from the mor- 13 Thur iv V 1 Ab. G IS Sun. iii i 29 row aft. the pas. sab. 13 Fri. iii vi 2 14 Mon. Prid ii 1 Sivan. 14 Sat. Prid vii 8 Sab 13 Tues. Idus iii 2 G IS Sun. Idus i 4 16 Wed. xvii iv 3 16 Mon. xvii ii S 17 Thur xvi V 4 17 Tues, xvi iii 6 18 Fri. XV vi 5 18 Wed, XV iv 7 19 Sat xiv vii 6 Sah. TII. from the morrow [after the paschal aab. 19 Thur. xiv V 8 G 30 Sun. xiii i 7 Pentecost. Morrow 20 Fri. xiii vi 9 21 Mon. xii ii 8 aft. the seventh sab. Iiev. xxiii. 16. 21 Sat xii vii 10 Sab. 23 Tues, xi iii 9 « 22 Sun. xi i 11 23 Wed. X iv 10 23 Mon. X n 12 24 Thur. ix T II 24 Tues. ix iii la 23 Fri. viii vi 12 2S Wed. viii iv 14 28 Sat vii vii IS Sab. 26 Thur. vii V IS G 27 Sun. vi i 14 27 Fri. vi vi 16 28 Mon. v ii IS 28 Sat V vii 17 Sab. 29 Tues. iv iu 16 G 29 Sun. iv i 18 30 Wed. iii iv 17 SO Mon, iii li 19 31 Thur. Prid. V IS 31 Tues, Prid, iii 20 June 1 Fri. Kal. vi 19 Aug. 1 Wed. Kal. iv 21 2 Sat iv vii 20 Sab. 2 Thur. iv V 22 G 3 Sun. iii i 21 SFri. iii vi 23 4 Mon. Prid. ii 22 4 Sat. Prid. vii 24 SaK 5 Tues. Non. iii 2S u 5 Sun. Non. i 25 6 Wed viii iv 24 6 Mon. viii ii 26 7 Thur. vii V 25 7 Tues. vii iii 27 SFri. VI vi 26 8 Wed. vi iv 28 9 Sat V vii 27 Sab. 9 Thur. V V 29 G 10 Sun. iv i 28 10 Fri. iv vi i Elhi. 11 Mon, iii ii 29 ^ 11 Sat iii vii 1 Sab. 12 Tues Prid. iii i Thammcz. G 12 Sun. Prid. i 2 13 Wed. Idus. iv 1 13 Mon. Idus, ii 3 14 Thur, xviii V 2 14 Tues. xix iii 4 15 Fri. xvii vi S 16 Wed. xvi'ii iv 5 16 Sat xvi vii 4 Sab. 16 Thur. xvii V 6 G 17 Sun. XV i 5 17 FrL xvi vi 7 18 Mon. xiv. ii 6 18 Sat. XV vii 8 SaK 19 Tues, xiii iii 7 G 19 Sun. xiv i 9 20 Wed. xii iv 8 20 Mon. xiii ii 10 21 Thur, xi V 9 21 Tues. xii iii 11 22 Fri. X vi 10 32 Wed. xi iv 12 23 Sat ix vii 11 Sab. 23 Thur. X y 13 G 24 Sun. viii i 12 24 Fri. ix vi 14 23 Mon. vii ii 13 25 Sat. viii vii 13 Sab. 26 Tues. vi ' iii 14 0 26 Sun. vii i 16 27 Wed. V iv IS 27 Mon. vi' ii 17 28 Thur, iv V 16 28 Tues. V iii 18 29 Fri. iii vi 17 29 Wed. iv iv 19 SO Sat Prid, vii 18 Sab. SO Thur. Sl Fri, iii Prid. V vi 30 1 CHAP. VIII.J DuAATioN OF Christ's ministry. 471 TABLE I. — First Year of our Lord's Ministry (continded.) Modem Comp. of Time. Boman Comp. of Time. Ase of the J Jewish Computation otTime. Modem Comp.- of Time. Roman Comp. of Time. Ageol the]) Jewish Computation of Time. Sep, 1 Sat Kal, Fer. vii 22 Sab. Nov. 1 Thur. Kal. Fer. V 34 o 2 Sun. iv i 23 2 Fri. iv vi 23 3 Mon. iii ii 24 3 Sat. iii vii 26 Sab. 4 Tues. Prid iii 25 G 4 Sun. Prid i 27 S Wed, Non. iv 36 S Mon. •Non. ii 28 6 Thur. viii V 37 6 Tues. viii iii 29 7 Fri. vii vi 38 7 Wed, vii iv 1 Casleu. 8 Sat vi vii 29 Sab. 8 Thur. vi V 2 G 9 Sun. 10 Mon. 11 Tues, V iv iii i ii iii 1 23 Tisri or Ethanim. rFeast of trumpets. Llev. xxiii. 24. 9 Fri, 10 Sat, G 11 Sun. V iv iii vi vii i S 45 Sab. 13 Wed. Prid iv 4 13 Mon. Prid. ii 6 IS Thur. ldus V 5 13 Tues. Idus. iii 7 14 Fri. xviii vi 6 14 Wed. xviii iv 8 Is Sat xvii vii 7 Sab. 15 Thur. xvii V 9 u 16 Sun. xvi i 8 16 Fri. xvi vi 10 17 Mon. XV ii. 9 17 Sat XV vii 11 Sab. 18 Tues, xiv iii 10 Day of atonement G 18 Sun. xiv i 12 19 Wed. xiii iv 11 [Lev. xxiii. 27. 19 Mon. xiii ii 13 20 Thur, xii V 13 20 Tues, xii iii 14 21 Fri. xi vi 13 21 Wed. xi iv 15 22 Sat. X vii 14 Sab. 22 Thur. X V 16 o 23 Sun. ix i 15 Feast of tabernacles. 23 Fri. ix vi 17 24 Mon. viii ii 16 [Lev. xxiii. 34. 24 Sat viii vii 18 Sab. 25 Tues. vii iii 17 G 23 Sun. vii i 19 26 Wed. vi iv 18 26 Mon. vi ii 30 27 Thur. V V 19 27 Tues. V iii 21 28 Fri. iv vi 20 28 Wed. iv iv 22 29 Sat iii vii 21 Sab. 29 Thur. iii V 23 G 30 Sun. Prid, i 23 Octave of the feast of SO Fri. Prid, vi 24 Oct. 1 Mon. 2 Tues. SWed, Kal, vi V ii iii iv 233435 tabernacles. Lev. xxiii. 36. Dec. I Sat G 2 Sun. 3 Mon. Kal. iv iii vii i ii 252627 Sab. Feast of the de dication of the tem. pie. John X. 22. 4 Thur. iv V 36 4 Tues. Prid. iii 28 SFri. iii vi 27 SWed. Non. iv 29 6 Sat, Prid. vii 28 Sab. 6 Thur. viii V i Tebeth. G 7 Sun. Non, i 29 7 Fri. vii vi 1 8 Mon. 9 Tues. viii vii ii iii i 1 Mabchesvan. 8 Sat o 9 Sun. vi V vii i 23 Sab. Octave of the feast of dedication. ;.- 10 Wed. vi iv 3 10 Mon. iv ii 4 11 Thur. V V 3 11 Tues. iii iii 5 12 Fri. iv vi 4 12 Wed. Prid. iv 6 IS Sat iii vii 3 Sab. 13 Thur. [dus. V 7 0 14 Sun, Prid i 6 14 Fri. xix vi 8 15 Mon. Idus. ii 7 15 Sat xviii vii 9 Sab. 16 Tues xvii iii S G 16 Sun. xvii i 10 17 Wed xvi iv 9 17 Mon. xvi ii 11 18 Thur. XV V 10 18 Tues. XV iii 13 19 Fri. xiv vi 11 19 Wed. xiv iv 13 20 Sat xiii vii 12 Sab. 20 Thur. xiii V 14 G 31 Sun. xii i 13 21 Fri. xii vi 15 32 Mon, xi ii 14 22 Sat xi vii 16 Sab. 23 Tues, X iii 15 G 23 Sun. X i 17 24 Wed, ix iv 16 24 Mon. ix ii IS 23 Thur. viii V 17 23 Tues. viii iii 19 26 Fri. vii vi 18 26 Wed. vii iv 20 27 Sat vi vii 19 Sab. 37 Thur. vi V 21 G 28 Sun. V i 20 38 Fri. V vi 32 29 Mon. iv ii 21 29 Sat. iv vii 23 Sab. 30 Tues. iii iii 22 G 30 Sun. iii i 24 SI Wed. Prid. iv 23 Sl Mon. Prid. ii 25 4t2 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART II. TABLE II. — Second Year of our Lord's Ministry. Sunday Letter f; a.j.p. 4739; Olymp. cei. year 2S; a.d.c. 778-79; Kef. Cal. of Juliils Csesar, 71; Dionysiai or Vulg jEra,26; Associate Gov', of Tiberius, a. 16-17; Sole reign of Tiberius, 1314 ; Year of Pilale,2-3; M. LiciNios Ceassus, L. Calpuhhids Piso, Coss. Modem Comp. Roman Comp. Ase of the ) Jewish Computation Modem Comp. Roman Comp. t^i. \ Jewish Comimtation 1 of Time. of Time. of Time. of Time; of Time. tne f of Time. Jan. 1 Tues. Kal. Fer. iii 26 Mab. 1 Fri. Kal. Fer.vi 36 2 Wed. iv iv 27 2 Sat vi vii 37 Sab. ; 3 Thur. iii V 28 F 3 Sun. V i 28 4 Fri. Prid vi 39 4 Mon iv ii 29 ' 5 Sat Non. vii 1 Shebet. Sab. 6 Tues. iii iii I Vbadae. P 6 Sun. viii i 2 6 Wed. Prid iv 2 7 Mon. vii ii 3 7 Thur. Non v 3 r 8 Tues. vi iii 4 SFri. viii vi 4 9 Wed. V iv 5 9 Sat vii vii 6 Sab. 10 Thur. iv V 6 F 10 Sun. vi i 6 11 Fri. iii vi 7 11 Mon. V ii 7 12 Sat Prid. vii 8 Sab. 12 Tues. iv iii 8 F 13 Sun. Idus. i 9 13 Wed. iii iv 9 14 Mon. xix ii 10 14 Thur. Prid, V 10 IS Tues. xviii iii 11 IS Fri. ldus vi 11 16 Wed. xvii . iv 13 16 Sat xvii vii 12 Sab. 17 Thur. xvi V 13 F 17 Sun. xvi i 13 18 Fri. XV vi 14 18 Mon. XV ii 14 19 Sat xiv vii 16 Sab. 19 Tues. xiv iii 16 V 30 Sun. xiii i 16 20 Wed. xiii iv 16 21 Mon. xii ii 17 21 Thur. xii V 17 22 Tues. xi iii IS 22 Fri. xi vi 18 ; 23 Wed. X iv 19 23 Sat. s vii 19 Sab. 24 Thur. ix V 20 F 24 Sun. ix i 20 25 Fri. viii vi 21 25 Mon. viii ii 21 26 Sat vii vii 22 Sab. 26 Tues, vii iii 22 F 27 Sun. vi i 23 27 Wed, vi iv 23 28 Mon. V ii 24 28 Thur. V T 24 29 Tues. iv iii 25 29 Fri. iv vi 25 30 Wed. iii iv 26 SO Sat. iii vii 26 Sab. 31 Thur, I'rid. V 37 F 31 Sun Prid, i 37 Feb. 1 Fri. Kal. vi 38 Ape. 1 Mon. Kal. ii 38 2 Sat iv vii 29 Sab. 2 Tues. iv iii 29 p 3 Sun. iii i i Adas. SWed, iii iv i .4lBib or NiBAN. 4 Mon. Prid. ii 1 4 Thur. Prid. V 1 6 Tues. Non, iu 2 SFri. Non. VI 3 6 Wed. viii iv S 6 Sat, viii vii S Sab. 7 Thur. vii V 4 F 7 Sun. vii i 4 SFri. vi vi 5 8 Mon. vi ii 5 9 Sat. V vii 6 Sab 9 Tues. V ' iii 6 F 10 Siin. iv i 7 10 Wed. iv iv 7 11 Mon. iii ii 8 11 Thur. ui V 8 12 Tues Prid, iii 9 12 Fri. Prid. vi 9 13 Wed. Idus. iv 10 13 Sat Idus. vii 10 Sab. 14 Thur, xvi V 11 F 14 Sun. xviii i 11 15 Fri. XV VI 12 IS Mon. xvii ii 12 16 Sat xiv vii IS Sab. Esther ix. 1-28. 16 Tues, xvi lii 13 F 17 Sun. Xiii 14 Purim. 17 Wed. XV iv 14 Passover. [iev.i:dil.«. Feabt of unleavened biead. 18 Mon. xii 15 18 Thur. xiv V 15 19 Tues. xi 16 19 Fri. xiii vi 16 20 Wed. X 17 20 Sat. xii vii 17 Sab. Great Fasehal, 21 Thur. ix 18 F 31 Sun. xi i 18 lUorrow after the sab 22 Fri. viii 19 22 Mon. X ii 19 bath. Sheaf of the 33 Sat F 24 Sun. vii vi 20 21 Sab. 28 Tues. 34 Wed. ix viii iii iv 2021 iii-st fruits waved. Lev. xxiii. II. 25 Mon. V 22 25 Thur. vii V 22 26 Tues. iv 23 26 Fri. vi vi 23 27 Wed. iii 24 27 Sat. V vii 24 Sab, I. from the mor 28 Thur Prid. V 25 F 38 Sun. iv i 25 row after the sabbath . Levit. xxiii. 15. ^-^ 39 Mon. iii ii 26 aatfiarov hvTi- poTrpuTov. Second ni-st sab. Luke vi. 1. 30 Tues. Prid. iii 27 CHAP, vm.] DERATION OF CHRIST S MINISTRY. 473 TABLE II. — Second Year of our Lord's Ministry (continued.) Modem Comp. Roman Comp. A8.ofthe ) Jewish Computation Modem Comp. Roman Comp. Age of tne ) Jewish Computation of Time. of Time. of Time. of Time. of Time. of Time. May 1 Wed. Kal. Fer. iv 28 July 1 Mon. Kal, Fer. ii 1 Tammuz. 2 Thur. vi V 29 2 Tues. vi iii 3 SFri. V vi 1 Ivae. 3 Wed. V iv 3 4 Sat iv vii 3 Sab. II, from the mor 4 Thur. iv V 4 F 5 Sun. iii i 3 row after the pasch. sabbath. SFri. iii vi 3 6 Mon. Prid ii 4 6 Sat. Prid, vii 6 Sab. 7 Tues. Non. iii 5 F 7 Sun. Non. i 7 SWed. viii iv 6 8 Mon. viii ii 8 9 Thur. vii v 7 9 Tues. vii iii 9 10 Fri. vi vi 8 10 Wed. vi iv 10 11 Sat V vii 9 Sab. III. from the mor 11 Thur. V v 11 F 12 Sun. iv i 10 row after the pasch, sabbath. 12 Fri. iv vi 12 13 Mon. iii ii 11 13 Sat iii vii 13 Sab, 14 Tues. Prid iii 12 F 14 Sun. Prid. i 14 15 Wed. Idus iv 13 15 Mon. Idus. ii 16 16 Thur xvii V 14 16 Tues. xvii iii 16 17 Fri. xvi vi 13 17 Wed, xvi iv 17 IS Sat. XV vii 16 Sab. IV. from the mor 18 Thur. XV V 18 F 19 Sun. xiv i 17 row after the pasch. 19 Fri. xiv vi 19 20 Mon. xiii ii 18 sabbath. 20 Sat xiii vii 20 Sab. 21 Tues. xii iii 19 F 21 Sun. xii i 21 23 Wed. xi iv 30 33 Mon. xi ii 22 23 Thur. X V 21 33 Tues. X iii 23 24 Fri. ix VI 22 24 Wed. ix iv 24 25 Sat viii vii 33 Sab. V. from the mor 25 Thur. viii V 25 I 26 Sun. vii i 24 row after the pasch. 26 Fri. vii vi 26 27 Mon. vi ii 25 ' sabbatb. 27 Sat vi vii 27 Sab. 28 Tues. V iii 26 F 28 Sun. V i 28 29 Wed, iv iv 27 29 Mon. iv ii 29 30 Thur. iii V 38 . 30 Tues. iii iii i Ab. 31 Fri. Prid, vi 39 31 Wed. Prid iv 1 JcN. 1 Sat. Kal vii i Sivait. Sab VI. from Aug. 1 Thur. Kal. V 3 F 2 Sun. iv i 1 the moiTow after the 2 Fri. iv vi 3 3 Mon. iii ii 2 pasch. sabbath. 3 Sat iii vii 4 Sab. 4 Tues, Prid, iii 3 F 4 Sun. Prid, i 5 5 Wed, Non. iv 4 5 Mon. Non. ii 6 6 Thur, viii V 3 6 Tues. viii iii 7 7 Fri, 8 Sat vii vi vi vii 6 7 [row aft the pas, sab. Sab, VII. from the mor- 7 Wed. 8 Thur. vii vi iv V 8 9 p 9 Sun. V i 8 Pentecost Moitow 9 Fri. V vi 10 10 Mon. iv ii 9 after 7th sab. Lev. 10 Sat. iv vii 11 Sab. 11 Tues. iii iii 10 xxiii. 16. F 11 Sun. iii i 13 12 Wed. Prid iv 11 12 Mon. Prid, ii 13 iS Thur. ldus. V 12 13 Tues. Idus, iii 14 14 Fri. xviii vi IS 14 Wed. xix iv 13 IS Sat xvii vii 14 Sab. 15 Thur. xviii V 16 F 16 Sun. xvi i 15 16 Fri. xvii vi 17 17 Mon. XV ii 16 17 Sat xvi vii 18 Sab. 18 Tues. xiv iii 17 F 18 Sun. XV i 19 19 Wed. xiii iv 18 19 Mon. xiv ii 30 20 Thur. xii T 19 20 Tues, xiii iii 21 21 Fri. xi vi 20 21 Wed. xii iv 22 22 Sat X vii 31 Sab. 23 Thur. xi V 23 F 23 Sun. ix i 23 33 Fri. X vi 24 24 Mon. viii ii 23 24 Sat ix vii 25 Sab. 25 Tues. vii iii 24 F 25 Sun. viii i 26 26 Wed. vi iv 25 26 Mon. vii ii 37 27 Thur. V V 26 27 Tues, vi iii 28 28 Fri. iv vi 27 38 Wed. V iv 29 29 Sat iii vii 28 Sab. 39 Thur. iv V 1 Eldl. p SO Sun. Prid. 1 29 30 Fri. iii vi 2 ¦'' ' ) 31 Sat Prid. vii 3 Sab. 474 DURATION OF CHRIST S MINISTRY, [PABT IJ. TABLE II. — Second Year of our Lord's Ministry (continued). Modem Comp. of Time. Roman Comp. of Time. Ageolthe ) Jewish Computation of Time. Modem Comp. of Time. Roman Comp. of Time. Ageothe ) Jewish Computatiou of Time. Sep. 1 Sun. Kal. Fer.i 4 Nov. 1 Fri. Kal. Fer.vi 6 2 Mon, iv ii 5 2 Sat iv vii 7 Sab. 3 Tues. iii iii 6 p 3 Sun.- iii i 8 4 Wed. Prid iv 7 4 Mon Prid. ii 9 5 Thur Non. V 8 S Tues. Non. iii 10 6 Fri. viii vi 9 6 Wed. viii iv 11 7 Sat vii vii 10 Sab. 7 Thur. vil V 12 F 8 Sun. vi i 11 SFri. vi vi 13 9 Mon. V ii 12 9 Sat T vii 14 Sab. 10 Tues. iv iii 13 p 10 Sun. iv i 15 11 Wed. iii iv 14 11 Mon. iii ii 16 12 Thur. Prid. V IS 12 Tues. Prid. iil 17 13 Fri. ldus. vi 16 IS Wed, Idus, iv 18 14 Sat xviii vii 17 Sab. 14 Thur, xviii V 19 F 15 Sun. xvii i 18 16 Fri. xvii vi 20 16 Mon, xvi ii 19 16 Sat xvi vii 21 Sab. 17 Tues, XV lii 20 p 17 Sun. XV i 22 18 Wed. xiv iv 21 18 Mon, xiv ii 23 19 Thur. xiii V 22 19 Tues, xiii iii 24 20 Fri. xii vi 23 20 Wed. xii iv 25 21 Sat xi vii 34 Sab. 21 Thur. xi V 26 F 22 Sun. x i 25 22 Fri. X vi 27 23 Mon. ix ii 26 23 Sat ix vii 28 Sab. 24 Tues. viii iii 37 F 24 Sun. viii i 29 25 Wed. vii IV 38 23 Mon, vii ii i Casled. 26 Thur, 27 Fri. vi V V vi 39 [pet-s. Lev. xxiii. 24. Tisiu, Feast of trum- 26 Tues. 27 Wed. vi V iiiiv 1 2 28 Sat iv vii 1 Sab. 28 Thur. iv V 3 F 29 Sun. iii i 3 29 Fri. iii vi 4 30 Mon. Prid. ii 3 30 Sat P?id- vii S Sab. Oct. 1 Tues. Kal. iii 4 Dec. 1 Sun. Kal, i 6 2 Wed vi iv 5 2 Mon. iv ii 7 S Thur. V V 6 3 Tues. iii iii 8 4 Fri. iv vi 7 4 Wed. Prid. iv 9 5 Sat iii vii 8 Sab. 3 Thur. Non. V 10 F 6 Sun. Prid. i 9 6 Fri. viii vi 11 7 Mon. Non. ii 10 Day of atonement. 7 Sat vii vii 12 Sab. 8 Tues viii iii 11 [Lev. xxiii. 27. F 8 Sun, vi i IS 9 Wed. vii iv 13 9 Mon, V ii 14 10 Thur. vi V 13 10 Tues. iv iii 15 11 Fri. V vi 14 11 Wed, iii iv 16 12 Sat iv vii 15 Sab. Feast of taberna 12 Thur. Prid. V 17 F 13 Sun. iii i 16 cles. Lev. xxiii. 34. 13 Fri. Idus. vi 18 14 Mon. Prid. ii 17 14 Sat. xix vii 19 Sab. 13 Tues. ldus. iii 18 F 16 Sun. xviii 1 20 16 Wed. xvii . iv 19 16 Mon. xvii ii 21 17 Thur xvi V 20 17 Tues, xvi iii 22 18 Fri. XV vi 21 18 Wed. XV iv 23 19 Sat F 20 Sun. xivxiii vii i 22 23 Sab. Octave of the feasl of taberuacles. 19 Tlmr. 20 Fri. xiv xiii V vi 2423 [tion. John X. as. Feast of the dedioa- 31 Mon. xii ii 24 21 Sat xii vii. 26 Sab. 33 Tues. xi iii 25 p 22 Sun. xi i 27 33 Wed. X iv 26 2S Mon. X ii 28 34 Thur. ix V 27 24 Tues. ix iii 29 23 Fri. viii vi 28 95 Wed. viii iv I Tebeth 26 Sat. vii vii 29 Sab. 26 Thur. vii V 2 [the dedication. p 27 Sun. vi i 1 Mauchesvan. 27 Fri. vi vi 3 Octave of the feast of 28 Mon. V ii 2 28 Sat V vii 4 Sab. 29 Tues. iv iii 3 F 29 Sun. iv i 3 30 Wed. iii iv 4 30 Mon. iii ii 6 31 Thur. Prid V 6 81 Tues. Prid. iii 7 .CHAP, vm,] DURATION OF CHRIST S MINISTRY 475 TABLE III. — Third Year of our Lord's Ministry. Sunday Letter e ; a.j.p. 4740; Olymp. cci. years 3-4; A.u.c. 779-80; Ref. Cal. of Julius Ctesar, 73; Dionysian or Vulg. JEia, 27 ; Associate Gov', of Tiberius, A. 17-18 ; Sole reign of Tiberius, 14-15 ; Year of Pilate, 3-4 ; Appius Junius Silanus, Silius Nerva, Coss. Modem Comp. Roman Comp. Aseotthe ) Jewish Computation Modem Comp. Roman Comp. Age of the > Jewish Computation of Time. of Time. of Tune. ' of Time. of Time. of Time. Jan. 1 Wed. Kal. Fer. iv 8 Mak. 1 Sat. Kal. Fer. vii 8 Sab. 2 Thur. iv V 9 E 2 Sun. vi i 9 SFri. iii vi 10 3 Mon. V ii 10 4 Sat Prid. vii 11 Sab. 4 Tues. iv iii 11 E 3 Sun. Non. i 12 SWed. iii iv 12 6 Mon. viii ii 13 6 Thur. I'rid. V 13 Esther ix. 1-28. 7 Tues. vii iii 14 7 Fri. Non vi 14 PUBIM. SWed. vi iv IS 8 Sat viii vii IS Sab. 9 Thur V V 16 E 9 Sun. vii i 16 10 Fri. iv vi 17 10 Mon. vi ii 17 11 Sat iii vii 18 Sab. 11 Tues, V iii 18 e 12 Sun. Prid. i 19 12 Wed, iv iv 19 13 Mon. ldus ii 20 13 Thur. iii V 20 14 Tues, xix iii 21 14 Fri. Prid. vi 21 15 Wed, xviii iv 22 15 Sat ldus. vii 22 Sab. 16 Thur xvii V 23 E 16 Sun. xvii i 23 17 Fri. xvi vi 24 17 Mon. xvi ii 24 18 Sat XV vii 25 Sab. 18 Tues. XV iii 25 E 19 Sun. xiv i 26 19 Wed. xiv iv 20 20 Mon. xiii ii 27 20 Thur. xiii V 27 21 Tues. xii iii 28 21 Fri. xii vi 28 22 Wed. xi iv 29 22 Sat xi vii 29 Sab 23 Thur. X V .i Shebet. E 23 Sun. X i i Abib or Nisan 24 Fri. ix vi 1 24 Mon. ix ii 1 23 Sat. viii vii 2 Sab. 23 Tues. viii iii 2 e 26 Sun. vii i 3 26 Wed. vii iv 3 27 Mon. vi ii 4 27 Thur. vi V 4 28 Tues. V iii S 28 Fri. V vi S 29 Wed. iv iv 6 29 Sat. iv vii 6 Sab. SO Thur, iii V 7 E 30 Sun. iii i 7 31 Fri. Prid, vi 8 31 Mon. Prid ii 8 Feb. 1 Sat Kal vii 9 Sab Apr. 1 Tues. Kal. ' iii 9 E 2 Sun. iv i 10 2 Wed. iv iv 10 3 Mon. iii ii 11 3 Thur. iii V 11 4 Tues. Prid, iii 12 4 Fri. Prid. vi 12 SWed, Non. iv 13 5 Sat. Non. vii 13 Sab. 6 Thur. viii V 14 E 6 Sun. viii i 14 Passover. 7 Fri. vii vi 15 7 Mon. vii ii IS Feast of unleavened 8 Sat vi vii 16 Sab. 8 Tues. vi iii 16 bi-ead. Lev. xxiii. 6. E 9 Sun. y i 17 9 Wed. V iv 17 10 Mon. iv ii 18 10 Thur. iv V 18 11 Tues, iii iii 19 11 Fri. iii vi 19 13 Wed, Prid iv 20 12 Sat Prid. vii 20 Sab. Paschal sab. 13 Thur. Idus. V 21 E 13 Sun. Idus. i 21 Morrow after the pasc. 14 Fri. xvi vi 23 14 Mon. xviii ii 22 sab. Sheaf of the first fruits waved. 15 Sat XV vii 23 Sab. 15 Tues. xvii iii 23 E 16 Sun. xiv i 24 16 Wed. xvi iv 24 17 Mon. xiii ii 25 17 Thur. XV V 25 18 Tues. xii iii 26 18 Fri. xiv vi 26 , 19 AVed, xi iv 27 19 Sat. xiii vii 27 Sab. I. from the mor 20 Thur. X V 28 E 20 Sun. xii i 28 row after the paschal sab. The second first 21 Fri. ix vi 29 21 Mon. xi ii 39 sabbath. 33 Sat viii vii 1 Adah. Sab. 22 Tues. X iii 1 Iyae. E 23 Sun. vii i 3 33 Wed. ix iv 2 24 Mon. vi ii 3 24 Thur. viii V 3 25 Tues. V iii 4 25 Fri. vii vi 4 26 Wed. iv iv 5 26 Sat. vi vii 5 Sab. II. from tba mor 27 Thur, iii V 6 E 27 Sun. V i 6 row after the pasch. sabbath. 28 Fri. Prid. vi 7 28 Mon. 29 Tues, iv iii ii iii 7 8 sowed, Prid. iv 9 476 DURATION OF CHRIST S MINISTRY, [part tt. T-4,BLE III.— Third Year of our Lord's Ministry (conti^jued). . _ ..*- Modem Comp. Roman Comp. Age of the ) Modem Oomp. Roman Comp. Ageothe) Jewish Computatiau of Time. of Thne. of Time. of Time; 01 Time. of Time. May 1 Thur Kal. Fer.v 10 Jul. I Tues. Kal. Fer. iii 12 2 Fri. vi vi 11 2 Wed. vi iv IS 3 Sat V vii 13 Sab, HI. from the mor 3 Thur. V V 14 E 4 Sun. iv i 13 row after the pasch. 4 Fri. iv vi 15 5 Mon. iii ii 14 sabbath. SSat iii vii 16 Sab. 6 Tues. Prid iii 15 E 6 Sun. Prid. i 17 7 Wed. Non. iv 16 7 Mon. Non. ii 18 8 Thur viii V 17 8 Tues. viii iii 10 9 Fri. vii vi 18 9 Wed. vii iv ' 20 10 Sat vi vii 19 Sab. IV. from the mor 10 Thur. vi V 21 E 11 Sun. v i 20 row after the pasch. 11 Fri. V vi 22 12 Mon. iv ii 21 sabbath. 12 Sat iv vii 23 Sab. 13 Tues. iii iii 22 B 13 Sun. ui i 24 14 Wed. Prid. iv 23 14 Mon. Prid. ii 25 15 Thur. Idas. V 24 15 Tues. Idus. iii 26 16 Fri. xvii vi 23 16 Wed. xvii iv 27 17 Sat xvi vii 26 Sab. V. from the mor 17 Thur. xvi V 28 E 18 Sun. XV i 27 row after the pasch sabbath. IS Fri. XV vi 29 19 Mon. xiv ii 28 19 Sat xiv vu i Ab. Sab. 20 Tues. xiii iu 29 E 20 Sun. xiii i I 21 Wed. xii iv h SiVAN. 21 Mon. xii ii 2 23 Thur. xi V 1 22 Tues. xi iii 3 ,23 Fri. '24 Sat X vi 2 23 Wed. X iv 4 ix vii 3 Sab. VI. fi-om the mor 24 Thur. ix V 5 E 25 Sun. viii i 4 row after the pasch. sabbatb. 25 Fri. viii vi 6 26 Mon. vii ii 3 26 Sat. vii vii 7 Sab. 27 Tues. vi iii 6 E 27 Sun. vi i 8 28 Wed V iv 7 28 Mon. V u 9 29 Thur. iv V 8 29 Tues. iv iu 10 SO Fri. iii vi 9 [row aft. the pas sab 30 Wed, iii iv 11 31 Sat Prid. vii 10 Sab. VII, from the mor- 31 Thur. Prid. V 12 Idne 1 Sun. Kal. i 11 Pentecost. Aug. 1 Fri. Kal. vi 13 2 Mon. iv ii 12 2 Sat 4v vii 14 Sab. S Tues, iii iii 13 E 3 Sun, iii i 15 4 Wed. Prid. iv 14 4 Mon, Prid. ii 16 5 Thur Non. V 13 6 Tues, Non. iii 17 6 Fri. viii vi 16 6 Wed. viii iv 18 7 Sat vii vii 17 Sab. 7 Thur. vii V 19 E 8 Sun. vi i 18 SFri. vi vi 20 9 Mon. V ii 19 9 Sat V vii 21 Sab. 10 Tues, iv iii 20 E 10 Sun. iv i 22 11 Wed, iii iv 21 11 Mon. iii ii 23 12 Thur Prid, V 22 12 Tues, Prid. iii 34 13 Fri. Idui vi 23 13 Wed. ldus. iv 25 14 Sat xviii vii 24 Sab. 14 Thur. xix V 26 E 13 Sun. xvii i 25 16 Fri. xviii vi 27 16 Mon. xvi ii 26 16 Sat xvii vii , 28 Sab. 17 Tues. XV iii 27 E 17 Sun. xvi i 29 18 Wed. xiv iv 28 18 Mon. XV ii 1 EldX. 19 Thur. xiii V 29 19 Tues. xiv iii 2 20 Fri. xii vi 1 Tammuz. 20 Wed. xiii iv 3 21 Sat xi vu 2 Sab 21 Thur. xii V 4 E 22 Sun. X i 8 22 Fri. xi vi 6 i 23 Mon. ix ii 4 23 Sat X vii 6 Sab. 11 24 Tues. viii iii S E 24 Sun. ix i 7 25 Wed. vii iv 6 25 Mon. viii ii 8 26 Thur. vi V 7 26 Tues. vii iii 9 27 Fri. V vi 8 27 Wed. vi iv 10 28 Sat iv vii 9 Sab. 28 Thur. V V 11 E 29 Sun. iii i 10 29 Fri. iv vi 12 SO Mon. Prid, ii 11 30 Sat iii vii IS Sab. E 31 Sun. ^ . i 14 1 CHAP. Vin.] DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. 477 TABLE III. — Third Year of our Lord's Ministry (continued). Modem Comp. of Tune. Roman Comp. of Time. Abo of the ) Jewish Computation of Time. Modem Comp. of Time. Roman Coilip. of Time. Age of the > Jewish Computation of Time. Sep. 1 Mon. Kal. Fer.ii 13 Nov. 1 Sat. Kal, Fer. vii 17 Sab. 2 Tnes. iv iii 16 E 2 Sun. iv i 18 SWed. iii iv 17 3 Mon. iil ii 19 4 Thur. Prid V 18 4 Tues. Prid. iii 20 SFri. Non. vi 19 SWed. Non, iv 21 6 Sat viii vii 20 Sab. 6 Thur. viii V 22 F 7 Sun. vii i 31 7 Fri. vii vi 23 8 Mon. vi ii 33 SSat vi vii 24 Sab. 9 Tues. V iii 23 K 9 Sun. V i 25 ' 10 Wed. iv iv 24 10 Mon. iv ii 26 11 Thur. iii V 25 11 Tues.. iii iii 27 12 Fri. Prid VI 26 13 Wed. Prid. iv 28 13 Sat. Idus vii 27 Sab. 13 Thur. Idus. V 29 E 14 Sun. Xliii i 28 14 Fri. xviii vi i Casleu, 15 Mon. xvii ii 29 15 Sat xvii vii 1 Sab. 16 Tues. xvi iii i TisEl. Feast of trum E 16 Sun. xvi i 2 17 Wed. XV iv I pets. Lev. xxiii. 24. 17 Mon. XV ii 3 18 Thur. xiv V 3 18 Tues, xiv iii 4 19 Fri. xiii vi 3 19 Wed. xiii iv 5 20 Sat xii vii 4 Sab. 30 Thur. xii V 6 E 21 Sun. xi i S 21 Fri. xi vi 7 22 Mon. X ii 6 23 Sat X vii 8 Sab. 23 Tues. ix iu 7 E 23 Sun. ix i 9 24 ^yed. viii iv 8 24 Mon. viii ii 10 25 Thur. vii V 9 [Lev. xxiii. 27. 35 Tues. vii iii 11 36 Fri. vi vi 10 The day of atonement. 26 Wed. vi iv 12 27 Sat. V vii 11 Sab. 27 Thur. V V 13 E 28 Sun. iv i 12 28 Fri. iv vi 14 29 Mon. iii ii IS 29 Sat iii vii IS Sab. 30 Tues. Prid. iii 14 E 30 Sun. Prid i 16 Oct. 1 Wed. Kal. iv 16 Feast of tabernacles. Dec. I Mon. Kal. ii 17 2 Thur. vi V 16 [Lev. xxiii. 34. 2 Tues. iv iii 18 3 Fri. V vi 17 SWed. iii iv 19 4 Sat iv vii 18 Sab. 4 Thur. Prid, V 20 E 5 Sun. iii i J9 5 Fri. Non. vi 21 6 Mon. Prid, ii 20 6 Sat. viii vii 23 Sab. 7 Tues, Non, iii 21 E 7 Sun. vii i 33 SWed, viii iv 23 Octave of the feast of 8 Mon. vi ii 34 9 Thur. vii V 33 tabernacles. 9 Tues. V iii 35 Feast of the dedica 10 Fri. vi vi 34 10 Wed. iv iv 36 tion. John X. 22. 11 Sat V vii 23 Sab. 11 Thur. iii V 37 E 13 Sun. iv i 36 12 Fri. Prid, vi 38 13 Mon. iii ii 27 13 Sat ldus. vii 39 Sab. 14 Tues. Prid iii 28 E 14 Sun. xix i 1 Tebeth. 15 Wed, ldus. iv 29 15 Mon. xviii ii 3 16 Thur. xvii V 1 Marchesvan. 16 Tues, xvii iii 3 Octave of the feast of 17 Fri. xvi vi 2 17 Wed. - xvi iv 4 the dedication. 18 Sat XV vii 3 Sab. 18 Thur. XV V 5 E 19 Sun. xiv i 4 19 Fri. xiv vi 6 20 Mon. xiii li 5 30 Sat. xiii vil 7 Sab. 21 Tues. xii iii 6 E 21 Sun. xii i 8 22 Wed. xi iv 7 22 Mon. xi ii 9 23 Thur. X v 8 23 Tues. X iii 10 24 Fri. ix vi 9 24 Wed. ix iv 11 23 Sat viii vii 10 Sab. 23 Thur. viii V 12 E 26 Sun. vii i 11 26 Fri. vii vi 13 37 Mon. vi ii 13 27 Sat. vi vii 14 Sab, 28 Tues. V iii 13 E 28 Sun. V i 15 29 Wed. iv iv 14 39 Mon, iv ii 16 SO Thur. iii V IS -" 30 Tues. iii iii 17 31 Fn Prid. vi 16 31 Wed. Prid. iv 18 478 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART IL The foregoing tables, being constructed according to the com mon practice of computing twenty-nine and a half days to a luna tion, do not pretend to astronomical accuracy. To effect that, it would be necessary to ascertain, in every case, the exact hour of the moon's change. They are sufficiently accurate, however, for the purpose we have in view, the utmost difference amounting in the three years to only one day, forty-five minutes, and forty- eight seconds. This the reader will perceive by the following cal culation. The three years being common, amount to 1095 days. According to our computation, the first of the month Shebet, the first new moon in the year of the Julian period 4738, occurred on Tues day the 16th of January; and from that time, thirty-six lunations, or three lunar years, were fully complete, and ended on Saturday December 13th, in the year of the Julian period 4740, There were, therefore, fifteen days in January 4738, and eighteen days in December 4740, to be added, in order to make them equal to three solar years. But these thirty-three days are an excess of three and a half days over one lunation. Consequently it was necessary in 4739 to insert the intercalary month Veadar, which began on Tuesday the fifth of March in that year. The rule of the Jews was to insert this intercalary month whenever Adar ended so early as to bring the fourteenth day of the next moon before the vernal equinox. Thirty-six lunations, at 29^ days each, amount to 1062 days ; to which the fifteen days in January 4738 and the eighteen days in December 4740 being added, complete the number of 1095 days. But as a lunation amounts really to 29d. 12h. 44' 3", thirty- six lunations amount also in reality to 1063d. Oh. 45' 48", making a difference in three years of Id. Oh. 45' 48" as before stated. This will account then for slight variations in the computation of the three passovers which preceded the year of our Lord's crucifixion ; but the variation is too small to admit of any material error in the arrangement of our Lord's ministry. There is another variation, however, in these tables, for which, as it departs from common usage, the author of this treatise is alone responsible, and which may possibly bring upon him the charge of presumption. He owes it to himself, therefore, as well as to the reader, to explain his motives. The variation referred to is in the calculation of Pentecost. Modern writers on the Jewish calendar, such as Calmet, Lamy, and Lightfoot, agree in counting CHAP. YIIU] DURATION OF CHRIST'S MINISTRY. 479 from the sixteenth of the month Nisan, as being the day on which the first fruits of barley were presented in the Temple ; and con sequently they make the day of Pentecost, or the feast of weeks, to fall invariably on the sixth of the month Sivan. Instead of this, Pentecost has been counted, in the foregoing tables, from the mar row after the Paschal Sabbath, on whatever day of Nisan that might occur. In the paschal week there was always a sabbath, the first which occurred after the fourteenth of Nisan ; and it was a day of great solemnity, being called by St. John' " a high day," The rule for calculating Pentecost, as given Levit. xxiii. 9-11, 15-16, takes effect, if I mistake not, from the morrow after that day. " And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying. Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, — when ye be come into the land which I give unto you, and shall reap the harvest, then ye shall bring a sheaf of the first fruits of your harvest unto the priest ; and he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord to be ac cepted for you : on the morrow after the sabbath the priest shall wave it." "And ye shall count unto you from the marrow after the sabbath from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering ; seven sabbaths shall be complete : even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days ; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord." The whole question turns on the interpretation to be given to the word sabbath in this passage. The writers whom I have mentioned affirm that it was the fifteenth of Nisan, the feast of unleavened bread mentioned in the sixth verse of this chapter. They maintain that in fact it was made a sabbath, because a holy convocation was commanded, and all ser vile labour strictly forbidden. They appeal to the Septuagint, which, instead of " the morrow after the sabbath," reads ry eiravpiov Tije irpurrrig, the morrow after the first [sc. day] ; and to the Targum of Onkelos, which explains the text by i*^^ KOV in'l^ « after the good day." But this mode of reasoning appears to me very incon clusive. All the feasts of the Lord were holy convocations, on which servile work was forbidden ; and among these, the seventh day is in the third verse specially distinguished as being ]''J^^'^ ^^^ preeminently a sabbath of rest, or great sabbath. As to the Sep tuagint, the various readings show that the inference attempted to te drawn is untenable. The Aldine text after r^c Trpwri/c adds rHv * John xix. 31. 480 DURATION OP Christ's ministry. [part ii. Preface to Archbishop Newcome's bar ' ' Pearee's Comm. tom. i. p. 207, mony. • Notes to chap. ii. § 2 of Michaelis' * Preface to his harmony, ut sup. CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRIST'S MINISTRY. 493 Gospel. If Jesus left Capernaum on Sunday the 14th of April, he Avould have time enough to arrive in Jerusalem before the Pass over. But supposing that He set out a week earlier, it would give at least fourteen sabbaths for his preaching "the Gospel of the kingdom" In the synagogues of Cajiernaum, and other cities and villages in Galilee ; and as many weeks for the calling of Simon, Andrew, James, and John, from their nets, and Matthew from the receipt of custom ; for the cure of the demoniac, and of the mother of Peter's wife ; for that of the leper, in one of the cities, of which the name is not given ; for that of the paralytic, in Caper naum ; and, in general, the cure of " divers diseases and torments" among the people who flocked to him from Syria, Judsea, and the country beyond Jordan. There would be time enough even for the sermon on the mount ; whether St. Matthew meant by this a single discourse, or whether he gave it as a specimen of our Saviour's mode of preaching, and as a summary of various discourses.' We, there fore, proceed to the events which followed The Second Passover, Wednesday, April 1 Ith, a.j.p. 4739. The feast in John v. 1, being considered as the Passover, it will follow from verse 9, that the cure of the impotent man at the pool of Bethesda took place, probably, on the Paschal Sabbath, the 20th of April. The remarkable conversation which followed is assigned by the Evangelist in verse 18, as the motive of that in creased hostility of the Jews toward our Lord which endangered his life. This made it prudent for him, as his hour was not yet come, to leave Jerusalem immediately after the seven days of unleavened bread; that is, after the evening of Wednesday the 24th of April. The following Sabbath (April 27th) was the aafi^caov SevrepoTrpiorov, the second-first Sabbath mentioned by St. Luke,^ In which our Lord " went through the corn fields, and his disciples plucked the ears of corn, and did eat, rubbing them in their hands." " The crops in the southern parts of Palestine, and in the plains," says Jahn, " come to maturity about the middle of April ; but in the northern and the mountainous sections they do not become ripe, till three weeks after, or even later."' The second-first Sabbath being this year in the second week ' Matt. iv. 17 to viii. 17 : Mark i. 15 to ii. ' Bib. Archieol. chap. iv. § 62. Upham'B 14; Luke iv. 31 to V. 28. * Luke vi. i. trans, p, 70. 49"4 DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. j^PART II. after the middle of April, and the reaping of the harvest not having yet taken place, I infer that our Lord and his disciples were then on their way to Galilee, returning from the passover, and, consequently, had arrived in those colder regions, in which the barley was not yet so forward as in the plains and about Jeru salem.* The analogy between the case of David persecuted by Saul, and that of the son of David, whose life was now sought by the Jewish rulers, renders our Lord's appeal to his example in eating the show-bread peculiarly striking and forcible.' The cure of the man with the withered hand took place, St. Luke says, "upon another Sabbath."^ It may have been, therefore, on the following Sabbath, the 4th of May. No notice occurs from which we can form any inference in what city the synagogue was, in which this miracle was wrought. The Scribes and Pharisees who were present, and were watching every action with a view to accuse him, were so transported with fury that they even took council with the Herodians for our Lord's destruction.' This caused him to depart with his disciples to the Sea, that is to the Lake of Tiberias," his own country, where he would be safe from their malice ; and thither he was followed by a great crowd, not only from Galilee, but also from Idumsea, Jerusalem, the country of Judsea, the region beyond Jordan, and even from Tyre and Sidon. The pressure of the crowd was so great that it was neces- * The inference in the text was founded be accounted fiw. After all, may not the on the supposition that the northern part wheat in Galilee have been so far advanced of Palestine, corresponding with ancient on the 27th of April, that it could be Galilee, is a higher region than that about plucked and eaten by our Lord's disciples? Jerusalem ; but from the subsequent pe- On the 9th of May, between Hebron and rusal of Dr. Robinson's Work, lam led to Carmel (N. lat. 31^° and more than 2750 think that the hiU country of Judea, even English feet above the Mediterranean), the as far south as Hebron and Carmel, is wheat was ripening, and Messrs. Eobinson higher above the level of the Mediterra- and Smith had there " a beautiful illustra- nean, and more mountainous, than any tion" of the fact we are now considering. part of that which constituted the ancient "Our Arabs'wereanhungered,'andgoing Galilee. I do not find any great difference into the fields, they ' plucked the ears of in the season of harvest between the raoun- corn and did eat, rubbing them in their tainous part of Judea and the plains of hands.' On being questioned, they said Galilee : in fact, nowhere, but in the valley this was an old custom, and no one would of the Jordan and on the sea coast. If the speak against it; they were supposed to be Dead Sea is depressed more than 600 Eng- hungry, and it was allowed as a charity. lish feet below the level of the Mediter- We saw this afterwards in repeated in- ranean (Bib. Ees. vol. ii. pp. 222 and 595), stances." (Bib. Ees. vol. ii. p. 192). and the sea of Tiberias also depressed ' Matt, xii, 1-8 ; Mark ii. 23-28 ; Luke below that level, to an amount not yet vi. 1-5. ascertained (Bib, Ees. vol. iii. p. 264), the ' Luke vi. 6. high temperature of the whole Ghor, and ,' Matt. xii. 14; Mark iii. 6 ; Luke vi. 11. its consequent early harvests, may easily * Mark iii, 7, CHAP, vm.] DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY, 495 sary for him to have a boat in readiness to receive him when necessary.' " And it came to pass in those days," says St. Luke, " that he went out into a mountain to pray, and continued all night in prayer to God."^ The indefinite expression " in those days" ad mits of some latitude ; but after having thus spent the night in prayer. He chose from among his disciples the twelve apostles. Their names are recorded by all three Evangelists.' Here many of the harmonlzers introduce the sermon on the mount." Sir Isaac Newton supposes that " the sermon on the mount was made" in " the summer season," because our Lord " pointed out the lilies of the field, then in the flower before the eyes of his auditors."^ This may well have been the case ; for in Palestine the summer season commences in the month of May. At the be ginning of the month, the mercury reaches 70°, and rises gradually from 76° to 80°. The grass and herbs were grown to that height, that when Thevenot was riding from Nazareth to .A.cre on the 8th of May, they reached the girth of his saddle.^ " When he had ended all his sayings," continues St. Luke, " In the audience of the people, he entered into Capernaum."'' How soon after is not said, though it may be inferred from St. Luke's words that it was not long. Here he healed the servant of a Eo man centurion.' " And it came to pass the day after," says St. Luke, that is, the day after he had healed the centurion's servant, "that he went into a city called Naln."' This city, according to Eusebius, was near Endor, about two miles from Mount Thabor towards the south, and not far from Scythopolis, which was ninety stadia, or a little more than eleven Eoman miles from the lake on the river Jordan. I infer, therefore, that our Lord was now on his way to Jerusalem to be present at the feast of Pentecost, which took place that year, if I am correct, on the ninth of June^ or, ac cording to the common computation, on the seventh of that month. He may have come to Nain, therefore, on Friday the 31st of May ; and the fear and wonder excited by his raising the widow's son, ' Mark iii. 7-12. ' Luke vi. 12. tine in Fragments Illustrative of Scripture, 'Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke annexed to Calmet's Dictionary, Frag. No. vi, 13-16. 460.— English or American edition. ¦• Matt. V. vi. vii. ; Luke vi. 20-49. ' Luke vii. 1. = Matt. vi. 28-30.— Obs. on Dan. 151-2. » Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 2-10. ^ See Buhle's Econom. Calend. of Pales- » Luke vii. II. 496 DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. [PART D. creating the rumour that a great prophet had risen, spread far and near through the surrounding country, reached the imprisoned Forerunner, and caused in his mind a feeling of impatience that a power so great was not exerted for his relief. It is uncertain where John the Baptist was confined ; though it must have been within the dominions of Herod Antipas, and conse quently could not have been south of Scythopolis, which, according to Josephus, was the southern frontier town of the two Galileos.' It was, therefore, in all probability not far from Nain ; and hence St. Luke mentions here the message of John by his disciples, which St. Matthew had introduced after our Lord's charge to his apostles.^ The inquiry if He were the promised Messiah, sent in this manner, indicated the impatience and distrust of St. John, occasioned by his imprisonment. Our Lord gently rebuked the infirmity, but took the occasion not only of showing the fulfil ment of prophecy exhibited before the eyes of St. John's disciples, but, after they were gone, of bearing testimony to the character of St. John as his fore-runner. And the mention of those mighty deeds, which had been so clearly predicted by the prophets, led to those pathetic and solemn expressions of grief for the obduracy ot the cities in which they had principally been wrought, which so strikingly exhibit the tenderness and sublimity of our Lord's character. They that had been exalted to Heaven would be thrust down to Hades. The very position of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum, has for many ages been a subject of doubt and con troversy.' ' De Bel. Jud. lib. iii. u. 3. ment of John the Baptist, may have in- ' Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 19-35. — This duced him to remove so dangerous a may seem to be at variance with the state- prisoner to an out-of-the-way place, where ment of Josephus (Ant. lib. xviii. c. 5, § 2) his popularity could not occasion any that John was sent bound to MachEcrus, attempt at rescue or escape. My difficulty and there put to death; but it is more so is this: that Machserus was on the confines in appearance than in reality. The mes- of Arabia Petrsea, east of the Dead Sea, sage of John, according to St. Luke's and very remote from the scenes of our arrangement, was delivered after our Lord Saviour's miracles. Whereas, if John was had raised the widow's son at Nain, and at that time confined at Scythopolis, or consequently, according to the present any of the nearer strongholds, he would computation, early in June in the year be more likely to hear of the wonderful 4739 of the Julian period, on his way to works which proved that our Lord was Jerusalem, or after his arrival there at the " He that should come." If Herod medi- feast of Pentecost. But if I am correct, tated the death of John, of which, however, the death of John took place early in there is no evidence, no place could be so March in the following year, and therefore proper as Machaa-us, He may even have about nine months after this message. In removed him thither in consequence of his the interval, the jealous temper of Herod, promise to the daughter of Herodias, to which Josephus attributes the imprison- ' Matt, xi, 20-30.— The position of Oho- CHAP, VIII.] DURATION OF CURIST's MINISTRY. 497 The invitation of Simon the Pharisee, recorded by St, Luke,' took place, I think, at Jerusalem, during the feast of Pentecost. It may or may not have been with an evil design. His neglect of what were then the common acts of courtesy and hospitality, would lead us to think that it could have been from no very friendly motive. The affecting incident of the once abandoned, but then penitent woman, who came and anointed his feet, and washed them with her tears, and wiped them with the hair of her head, gave our Lord an opportunity not only to forgive and com fort her, but to rebuke the proud and corrupt Pharisee. The feast of Pentecost being considered only as the termination of the Passover season, and therefore not having an octave like the other feasts, Jesus was at liberty to depart immediately from Jeru salem ; a measure which the constantly increasing animosity of the. Jewish rulers rendered expedient. He therefore took the circuit; mentioned by St. Luke,^ accompanied by the twelve, and by- several distinguished women, who had been the subjects of his mii:aculous mercy, and who now with grateful hearts administered of their worldly substance to his necessities. This occupied the whole time which intervened between the- feast of Pentecost and the great day of Atonement, five days be fore the feast of Tabernacles. In common with every other Israe lite, it was our Lord's duty to be In Jerusalem at that season. The day of Atonement took place that year on Monday the seventh of October ; the feast of Tabernacles on the third sabbath, and its octave on the fourth sabbath in Tisri, or Saturday the twelfth and' Saturday the nineteenth of October. I therefore place the de parture of Jesus from Jerusalem after Pentecost, on Monday the tenth of June, and his return thither before the feast of Taber nacles, on Friday the fourth of October. Whether any of the events of this period are recorded is uncertain, as there are, I con ceive, no notes of time in any one of the Evangelists by which we can say positively that any of those recorded were so early. But our Lord's departure from Jerusalem after the feast of' rabernacles on his return to Capernaum, which may be placed at razin is utterly unknown, Dr, Eobinson nitis, in the dominions of Herod Philip, , thinks " that the Bethsaida of Galilee lay was of course a different place, near to Capernaum, and probably in the ' Luke vii. 36-50. same tract of Gennesareth." (Bib. Ees. ' Luke viii. 1-3, vol, iii. p, 290,) The Bethsaida of Gaulo- 63. 498 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART H, the latest on the 20th of October, will enable us to adjust the nar ratives of the several Evangelists without those dislocations which occur in many of the harmonies. A fact Incidentally mentioned by St. Mark, throws light, I think, upon this arrangement. He speaks of " the scribes which came down from Jerusalem,"' Their coming was evidently with a view of maligning our Lord and destroying his influence among the people. If the reader will peruse the life of Josephus, he will there see an examjile of the same sort of Intrigue and management by the Sanhedrim, occasioned by the popularity of the Jewish historian as governor of Galilee,^ It is true that this may have occurred after Pentecost, during our Lord's circuit " throughout every city and village" of Galilee ; but the circumstances of the narrative incline me to think that it was after the feast of- Taber nacles, when, as I suppose, our Lord returned directly to Caper naum. The constantly increasing fame of Jesus, as " the great prophet," at least, if not " the Messiah," which the circuit he had just made had greatly augmented, and his recent appearance with his followers at the feast of Tabernacles, so alarmed the Sanhedrim, that they sent a deputation to Capernaum to counteract his influ ence. Multitudes were gathering thither from every quarter, bringing their sick with them, to experience the benefit of his heal ing power. The house In which he and his disciples were, was so besieged " that they could not so much as eat bread."' Our Lord's " friends," therefore, oi wap' aurov, they who were with him in the house, became alarmed at the tumult and the pressure, and went out to restrain the multitude ; for I think with Macknight that the ''£?£(Tn)," rendered in our translation "he Is beside himself," means i ox^og, the midtitude, not our Lord.'^ During this time, on the occasion of his healing a blind and dumb Demoniac,' the scribes who came from Jerusalem attributed his miracles to the power of Satan. This blasphemy against the Holy Ghost our Lord most severely rebuked, "calling them to hlra"^ and in the presence of the people denouncing their eternal woe. Similar denunciations were uttered, when the same deputation of the Sanhedrim asked him to work a miracle expressly for them. ' Mark iii. 22. " Mark iii, 20. ' Matt. xii. 22-37 ; Mark iii. 22-30 ; Luke Life, § 38-50. ¦> Mai-k iii. 21. xi. 14-28. ° Mark iii. 23, CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY, 499 " Master, we would see a sign from thee.'" He intimated to them that the diabolic spirit which he had cast out had returned with sevenfold power into their own bosoms ; and this he said when the peojile were gathered thick together ^ At this juncture, his mother and his brethren seeking to see him, he turned the circum stance to a moral use, by declaring that all who did the will of God bore a similar relation to him.' It Is observable that from this time forth our Lord's denuncia tions against the Scribes and Pharisees are most fearless and cut ting. As they found they could do nothing against him before the multitude, they changed their plan of attack, and " a certain Pha risee" who was present " besought him to dine with him." This was, doubtless, to meet the deputation from Jerusalem ; and our Lord boldly accepted the invitation. No one can read the conver sation at tbat entertainment as recorded by St. Luke, without per ceiving how He read their thoughts, with what rage His reproaches filled them, and how they provoked Him to speak on various sub jects. In the hope of catching " something out of his mouth, that they might accuse him."" The hour of dinner, and the manner of it, corresponded rather with the breakfast of modern times. It was taken about ten or eleven o'clock in the morning.' And " the same day," says St. Matthew, " went Jesus out of the house, and sat by the sea-side." But the crowd which assembled, and which, as St. Luke says, " were come to him out of every city," was so great, that he en tered into one of the small vessels on the lake, and taught them as they stood on the shore. ^ It was his custom to derive the topics of discourse from objects within his view. The lake is surrounded with fruitful hills, and it was now just seed-time ; for " sowing," says Jahn, " com menced in the latter part of October ; at which time, as well as in the months of November and December following, the wheat was committed to the earth. Barley was sown in January and Feb ruary."' Lifting up his eyes, therefore, and beholding a sower ' Matt. xii. 38-45; Luke xi. 29-36, ' Jahn's Bibl. Aroha;ol. parb i. ch. 1, 2 Luke xi. 29. § 18, and ch. 4, § 61. — So Dr. Eobinson ' Matt. xii. 45-50; Mark iii. 31-.'i5; Lnke states: "The autumnal rains, the early viii. 16-21. rains of Scripture, usually commence in * Luke xi. 37-54. the latter half of October or beginning of » Jahn's Archffiol. part i. ch. 9, § 145. November; not suddenly but by degrees; • Matt. xiii. 2 ; Mark.iv. 1; Luke viii. 4. which gives opportunity for the husband- 500 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY, [PART II. sowing his seed. He took his parable from that circumstance, re presenting the effect which the broad-casting of the word of God would produce upon men of various tempers, dispositions, and pursuits.' The parables of the tares, of the grain of mustard-seed, of the treasure hid in the field, of leaven put into meal, of the sower's re pose after he had sown his seed until the harvest, and many other parables of a like nature,^ seem to have been uttered at the same place, and on the same occasion. His being on the lake suggested the idea of fishing for pearls, and hence the parable of the pearl of great price. So also the drawing of a seine, led our Lord to compare his kingdom to a net. It is probable, too, that he continued his instruction till the evening had set in ; and the appearance of a light on the sur rounding hills, throwing its beams, afar ofi^ led him to speak of the impossibility of concealing the truth.' "And the same day," says St. Mark, "when the even was come, he saith unto them. Let us pass over unto the other side." Jose phus describes the lake as being forty stadia, or five Eoman miles broad." From its position, surrounded by hills, it was exposed to sudden gusts of wind ;* and while our Lord, spent with the fatigue of this busy day, had fallen asleep, a sudden storm endangered their lives ; but when Jesus arose and spake the word, the wind was lulled, and the waves were instantly calmed.' The country of the Gergesenes or Gadarenes, for Gergesa and Gadara were in the same region, was on the eastern side of the lake. The cure of the two demoniacs, and the destruction of the herd of swine, filled the people with such fear, that they desired our Lord to leave their country. He therefore returned to Capernaum.^ man to sow his fields of wheat and barley, pated the very language of Dr, Eobinson, The rains come mostly from the west or concerning this lake of Tiberias, " The S.W., continuing for two or three days at position of this lake, embosomed deep in atime, and falling especially during the the midst of higher tracts of country, nights."— Bib. Ees. vol. ii. p. 97. exposes it, as a matter of course, to gusts \ Matt. xiii. 3-23 ; Mark iv. 3-20;. Luke of wind, and, in winter, to tempests. One Vlll. 5-15. such storm is recorded during the course ' Mark iv. 33. of our Lord's ministry."— Bib. Ees. vol. iii. ' Matt. xiii. 1-52 ; Mark iv. 1-34 ; Luke p. 312, see also note 2. ™]'Tf'^^-, ^ , ,. . 'M^"- ™'- 18-27; Mark, iv. 35-41; Ue Bel. Jud. lib. in. c. 18. Luke viii. 22-25. ¦* I reasoned here from my own experi- « Matt. viii. 28. to ix. l.j Mark v. 1-21 ; ence on the lake of the four cantons in Luke viii. 26-40. Switzerland; but I unconsciously antici- CH.AP. VIII,] DCRATION OF CHKIST's MINISTRY. 501 Here he found the people waiting for him, and among them', Jairus, the ruler of the synagogue, whose daughter was at the point of death. As he was going towards the house of this ruler, a woman who had for twelve years been afflicted with an issue of blood, was healed by the touching of his garment.' Soon after the resurrection of the daughter of Jairus, followed the cure of the two blind men, who when he had left the ruler's house and returned to that in which he dwelt at Capernaum, came to hun thither. As they went out from his presence, a dumb de moniac was brought to him, and when the devil was cast out was made immediately to speak. This great miracle, which exceeded all that had ever been " seen in Israel," produced upon the Phari sees no other effect than a repetition of the blasphemy against the Holy Ghost.^ After this, but how soon is not said, our Lord went from Capernaum to Nazareth, his own country, followed by his dis ciples, and "when the sabbath-day was come, began to teach in the synagogue." ' This was the second, and the last recorded visit to the place where he had been brought up; and though his fame, as a mighty prophet, had now filled all Galilee, and therefore pre vented the repetition of that violence which less than a year before had driven him from among its inhabitants, yet their familiarity with his childhood, and their knowledge of the humble condition of his family, hindered their believing. His stay therefore was probably short, for " he could there," on account of their unbelief, "do no mighty work, save that he laid his hands on a few sick folk, and healed them."" In the absence of all positive and direct testimony, I place here our Lord's visit to Jerusalem at the feast of Dedication, which took place that year, on Friday the 20th of December, and continued until Friday the 27th of that month. According to this arrange ment, nearly two months are allowed for the preceding transactions. My reasons for this supposition are the following : First. That the silence of the three Evangelists Is no proof to the contrary, because they are equally silent with regard to all the festivals, excepting the Passover at which He was crucified. Secondly. That our Lord, who never in a single point trans- 1 Mat, ix, 18-26 ; Mark v. 22-43 ; Luke » Mat, ix. 27-34. viii. 41-56. ' Mark vi. 1-6. * Mark vi, 5. 502 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [pART II. gressed the law of Moses, would necessarily be very scrupulous as to the observance of all the festivals ; and although the feast of Dedication was not commanded in the law, being established at a much later period, yet it was observed by the whole nation as one of the most solemn festivals, and his absence from it would have subjected him to general censure. Tli^rdly. That he never suffered any personal danger to interfere with the performance of duty. And Lastly. That the next recorded action is his going about all the cities and villages teaching ; ' these general circuits occurring as I think only at the stated periods in which he went up to Jerusalem. According to this supposition, our Lord returned to Galilee about the end of December, in the year 4739 of the Julian Period. He was accompanied by " multitudes " from Judasa ; for these, I con ceive, and not the inhabitants of Galilee, w^ere the " sheep having no shepherd," whom, by a beautiful figure, our Lord called the eKXeXvpiivoi Kai ippifiivoi, "the wearied out and cast forth."^ The hatred of the Jewish rulers prevented our Lord from exercising his ministry in Judsea. It was unsafe for him to be at Jerusalem ex cepting at the great feasts, when the presence of his personal friends, and the confluence of the people from Galilee and beyond Jordan, overawed the malice of his enemies. Filled with compassion he now did what no other prophet, not even Moses, excepting in the case of Joshua,' had done. He gave to his twelve Apostles, whom he had chosen eight months before, the same mlracnlous powers which he alone had hitherto exercised, and sent them two and two into Judsea," while he himself " departed thence," i. e. from Capernaum, " to teach and to preach in the cities of Galilee." That he excluded from their commission the country in which he ministered, called' " the way of the sea beyond Jordan, Galilee of the Gentiles," appears I think from the charge,* " Go not into the way of the Gentiles, and into any city of the Samaritans enter ye not."* ' Matt. ix. 35 ; Mark vi. 6. — In St. Mat- all may have been in the course of His thew the text is rag ttoXeic T^daag Kai rdg ministry. Kw/iag. Ouir Lord went to all the cities, ' Mat. ix. 36. and a part of the villages ; for Traaag ap- ' Deut. xxxi. 7, 8, comp. with xxxiv. 9. plies only to the cities. Josephus says there ' Matt. x. 1 to xi. 1 : Mark vi. 7- 13 ; Luke were in Galilee 204 cities and villages: ix. 1-6. SiaKoaiaiKai reaoapeg Kardrriv FaXiXaiav ^ Matt. iv. 15. titri 7po\ei£ Koi Kuiuat. — Vita, §45. It can ° Matt. x. 5. hardly be supposed that all the villages * A great cause of the embarrassment weie visited by Him at each circuit, though in adj ustiiig the chronology of St. Matttevr CHAP, viil] DURATION OF GHRIST's MINISTRY. 503 Between the departure of the Apostles and their return, must be placed the death of John the Baptist. The wonderful fact that our Lord, not only In person, but by the ministry of others whom he had commissioned, had healed the sick, cleansed the lepers, cast out devils, and raised the dead, excited the curiosity and aroused the guilty conscience of Herod Antipas. He had put John to death, and he now thought that John had risen again to execute vengeance on his murderer. He may, therefore, have desired to see Jesus ' from motives of fear and policy, or with a view of getting the supposed John again into his power. These panic terrors would be strongest soon after the crime was committed, and our Lord would then be most disposed to retire from the observation of the jealous tyrant. We read, therefore, that " when Jesus heard" of the murder, " he departed thence by ship Into a desert place apart ;"^ that is, as St. Luke explains It, he crossed the lake from Capernaum to a solitary place near Bethsaida.' And then follows the account in all the evangelists of the miraculous feeding of the five thousand.'' But it is evident that the apostles had previously returned and given an account of their ministry.' The period of the year when Jesus crossed the lake and the five thousand were fed, is clearly stated by St. John.* The Passover, by verse 4, was then nigh. But the Passover int he third year of our Lord's ministry, a.j.p. 4740, fell on Sunday, the 6th of April. plence I infer that the death of John the Baptist took place early in March ; and that the apostles returned to our Lord about the same time, having been absent in the performance of their wonder ful commission not far from two months. If the ministry of St. John began, as we have conjectured, on the to that of St. Mark and St. Luke, arises, I above described, are probably no other apprehend, from St. Matthew's uniting in than the site of the ancient Bethsaida^ of one narrative, the first choice of the Apos- Gaulonitis, afterwards called Julias ; which ties, and their subsequent commission. Pliny places on the east of the lake and Aecording to our computation, there was the Jordan, and Josephus describes as a space of about eight months between situated in lower Gaulonitis, just above these two events; the Apostles being the entrance of the Jordan into the lake. chosen early in May a.j.p. 4739, and being This is doubtless the Bethsaida near commissioned to work miracles, and preach to which Jesus fed the five thousand, on the Gospel in JudaBa, early in January the east of the lake; and probably also A.J.P. 4740. the same where the blind man was healed." 'Luke ix. 9, —Bib. Ees. vol. iii. p. 308-9. 2 Matt. xiv. 13. '' Matt. xiv. 15-21 ; Mark vi. 34-44; Luke ' Luke ix. 10.— This was the Bethsaida ix. 12-17 ; John vi. 5-14. of Gaulonitis. I am glad to find that Dr. = Mark vi. 30; Luke ix. 10. Eobinson has taken the same view of this " Chap. vi. 1-14. passage: " This Tell, and the ruins upon it 504 DURATION OF CHRIST's MDJISTRY. [pART U. great day of atonement, which fell on the 29th of September, a.j.p. 4737, and it could not have begun much earlier, then the whole period from the commencement of his ministry until his death was a little less than two years and a half, more than fifteen months of which were spent in prison. Section IV. Our Lord's ministry beyond Jordan. — ^From the death of John the Baptist the chronological arrangement less difficult, — Our Lord retires from Galilee, in March a.j.p. 4740, and resides bej'ond Jordan. — Miracle of feeding the five thou sand, March 27. — The region of Gennesareth, — Conversation at Capernaum, March 29. — Third Passover, April 6, — Question whether our Lord attended it considered. — Scheme of His several journeys at the great festivals, — Two mentioned by St, Lulie only; a third, by St, Matthew and St. Mark only. — The fourth to the last Passover, by all the Evangelists. — These correspond with the feasts of Pentecost, June 1st; of Tabernacles, October Ist; of the Dedication, Dec. 9th; and of the last Passover, March 25th, a.j.p. 4741. — After the third Passover, our Lord, avoiding the dominions of Herod Antipas, goes into the region of Tyre and Sidon, crosses near the source of the Jordan, and comes down by Caesarea Philippi and the Deca^ polls to the lake.— Memorable confession at Csesarea Philippi. — Transfiguration on the same day of the Jewish ecclesiastical year as the subsequent Ascension, and consequently a figure of it. — Appointment of the seventy to visit Samaria and Galilee.— Our Lord's last circuit within the dominions of Herod Antipas. — Passes through Samaria on His way to Jerusalem for the day of Atonement, September 26. — Eeturn about the middle of October. — The ten lepers.— Passes through Samaria and Galilee, crosses the lake, and remains beyond Jordan till it was time to set out for the feast of Dedication. — ^Events during that period. — Passes through Jericho. — Blind Bartimseus. — Zacchseus the publican. — After the Dedication, retires beyond Jordan, where he remains till the death of Lazarus. — Connexion with the chapter on the passion, — ^Brief notice of the subsequent period to the Ascension and the day of Pentecost. From the death of John the Baptist, the chronological arrange ment of the several evangelists becomes more uniform, and con sequently the difiiculties which now remain are fewer, and will require much less elucidation. After the miracle of feeding the five thousand, the enthusiasm of the multitude, who had no longer any doubt that our Lord was the Messiah, determined them to raise an Insurrection, and pro claim him king. To avoid this, he ordered the disciples to embark •in the evening, while he retired alone to the mountain. They were to proceed to Bet .isaida, where he was to join them, and then go across the lake to Capernaum. But the wind was contrary, and they had made but little progress (only about twenty-five or thirty CFAP. VIII.J DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. 505 furlongs, says St. John, or between three and four miles) when, in the fourth watch of the night,— that is, between three and six the next morning, — he was seen by them walking on the sea. As soon as they had received him on board, the wind lulled, and im mediately they arrived at the opposite shore. The place where they landed was in the region of Gennesareth,' a region thus des cribed by Josephus : " Along the Gennesar [the lake of Tiberias] stretches the region of the same name, wonderful alike for Its ferti lity and beauty ; for on account of the richness of its soil, there is no plant which it will not produce. The salubrity of its atmos phere fits it for the productions of colder as well as hotter cli mates. Nature seems jealous of her prerogatives, and forces together, with friendly violence, plants of opposing qualities. To this salubrity of the air is added also an abundance of fountains, which the inhabitants call Caphar Naum. The length of this region along the shore of the lake of that name is thirty stadia, and its breadth twenty.^ Capernaum (Din3 ^^^, the village of mercy) was therefore the town, and Gennesareth the suburb or region annexed to it, between three and four miles long, and two and a half broad.* Our Lord having, by the touch only of his garment, healed the sick of this region who were brought to him, entered into Caper naum ; and the day following, the people who had been seeking him on the other side of the lake, came across, and found him in the city. Then occurred the very remarkable conversation re corded by St. John, in the sixth chapter of his gospel, concerning the necessity of eating his flesh and drinking his blood. As It was in the synagogue, while he was teaching, it probably occurred on the sabbath. I therefore place the miracle of feeding the five thousand, on Thursday the 27th of March; the embarcation of the disciples, the same evening ; the arrival in Gennesareth, early on Friday the 28th ; and the conversation in the synagogue of Caper naum, on Saturday the 29th of that month. Immediately after ' Matt. xiv. 34 ; Mark vi. 53. as the regioa of Gennesareth." And " this ^ Jos. de Bell. Jud. lib. iii. o. 10, § 8, land of Gennesareth," he says in the next * I am happy to find that Dr. Eobinson, page, " was no other than the fertile plain after actual survey, has thus confirmed my which we had just traversed, extending inferences: "From all these notices, it along the shore from el-Mejdel on the follows conclusively that Capernaum lay south to Khan Minyeh on the north." — on that part of the western shore known Bib. Ees, vol, iii. p. 289, 290. 64 606 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART IL this our Lord commenced his journey for Jerusalem, where he arrived probably on Friday the 4th of April.' The third Passover, Sunday April 6th, a.j.p. 4740. Harmonists of great note have been divided in opinion, whether our Lord went to Jerusalem at this Passover. Because St. John says :^ "After these things," namely, the things recorded in the sixth chapter, " Jesus walked in Galilee, for he would not walk in Jewry, because the Jews sought to kill him," Sir Isaac Newton thought that he did not celebrate this Passover at Jerusalem.' Archbishop Newcome also " considers John vii. 1 as a declara tion that Jesus did not go up to the Passover, mentioned John vi. 4 ;" and, in connexion with this passage, he rests satisfied that the very silence of St. John affords proof " that Jesus dispensed with the observance of the law on this occasion."* Macknight, on the contrary, argues strongly from Deut. xvi, 16, compared with Numb. ix. 13, for our Lord's observance of the law ; and from the passage in question, John vii. 1, draws the contrary inference, that he had previously been in Jewry, and that an actual attempt had been made on his life at Jerusalem. He supposes that the disaffected disciples, who abandoned Christ on account of the discourse at Capernaum, went to the Passover, joined our Lord's enemies, and by their narrative and comments on his conduct, excited them to new fury.' As I have already given my reasons for believing that our Lord was most scrupulously exact in fulfilling the law, it need only be observed here, that the arguments adduced by Macknight are, I think, strengthened by John vii. 10 ; for the evangelist there speaks of our Saviour as going up to Jerusalem at the subsequent feast of tabernacles, " not openly, but as it were in secret." It was per-- fectly consistent with our Lord's general conduct, to use all prudent means of avoiding the malice of his enemies ; but It would not have been consistent, if, on that account, he had broken the law ; nor could he, in that case, have said, so boldly as he did say in the Temple, at that same feast of tabernacles, " Which of you con- vinceth me of sin ?"^ 1 Matt. xiv. 22-36 ; Mark vi. 45-56 ; John ¦• Harm, notes, § 65. vi. 15-71. * Chap. vii. 1. » Harm, note to § 63. ' Obs. on Dan, and the Apoc. p. 155. ° John viii. 46. CHAP. VIII.J DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. 507 With these remarks, I transcribe the following passage of Mac knight's Harmony, as containing my own views on the subject : "Mark vi. 56 : 'And whithersoever he entered into villages, or cities, or country, they laid the sick in the streets, and besought him that they might touch, if it were but the border of his garment : and as many as touched him were made whole.' It seems Jesus now made a long journey, in which he visited many different villages, cities, and countries. This could be no other than his journey to the Passover, which the evangelist John says was nigh when the miracle of the loaves was performed, John vi. 4,' As the fourteenth of Nisan fell that year on Sunday, the feast of unleavened bread began from Sunday night, and the paschal sabbath came as late as Saturday the 12th of April. According to our calculation, the morrow after the sabbath, on which the first fruits were offered, was the next day, and that was also the octave of the Passover. The departure of our Lord, therefore, on his return to Galilee, may be placed on Monday the 14th of April. In chap. vii. 2, St, John says, " Now the Jews' feast of Taber nacles was at hand." It came that year on Wednesday the 1st of October ; consequently, he has passed over in silence all the events which occurred for six months, from the beginning of April until the end of September. In chap. X. 22, 23, he says, that Jesus was present in the temple at the feast of Dedication. It began that year on Tuesday the 9th, and ended on Tuesday the 16th of December. After this feast, St. John says,^ " that Jesus went again beyond Jordan, Into the place where John at first baptized," that is,' Bethabara, " and there abode. The word " again" implies that He had been beyond Jordan before. Hence It may, I think, be fairly Inferred, that in coming from Galilee to .Jerusalem, to be present at the feast of the Dedica tion, He had passed through the country beyond Jordan, From Bethabara He was sent for by the sisters of Lazarus to come to Bethany;^ -and from Bethany He retired to "a city called Ephraim,'" where He continued with his disciples till He made his last journey to Jerusalem. No festival of this year is omitted by St. John, except that of Pentecost ; and he does not mention that, because it occurred during the six months concerning which he is wholly silent. 1 Mackn, Harm, § 63, ' John i. 28. ' Chap, A, 40. * Ibid, xi. 3. ' Ibid, xi. 54. 508 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PAHT II, Let us now turn to the other Evangelists, and see If there be any notes of time in them, which will enable us to give a chrono logical arrangement of their narratives. St. Luke mentions' a Journey from Galilee to Jerusalem through Samaria, concerning which St. Matthew and St. Mark are silent. He mentions another* in the same direction, concerning which St. Matthew and St. Mark are equally silent. This, as we have before remarked, was the shortest and most direct course from Galilee to Jerusalem. A third journey is mentioned, both by St. Matthew and St. Mark, but concerning which St. Luke is silent, in which our Lord " de parted from Galilee, and came into the coasts of Judsea, by the farther side of Jordan."' In this journey " great multitudes fol lowed him.'"* The fourth journey is mentioned by all the Evangelists ; for it was that which was taken in order to be present at the last Pass over, when our Lord was crucified.* Now here are four journeys, corresponding with the four feasts, of Pentecost, of Tabernacles, of the Dedication, and of our Lord's last Passover. Of these journeys the third could not have been to attend the feast of Tabernacles, because St. Matthew says that great multitudes followed Him ; whereas St. John, speaking ex pressly of that feast, says* that He went "not openly, but as it were in secret." The third journey was "by the farther side of Jordan ; " and as St. John says that after the feast of the Dedication our Lord " went away again beyond Jordan,"' it must be inferred that he came to it from beyond Jordan. The second journey, mentioned by St. Luke,' accords better with the circumstances under which he went to the feast of Tabernacles, being the nearest and most direct course " through the midst of Samaria and Galilee." It follows therefore, almost of necessity, that the first journey through Samaria, mentioned by St. Luke,^ was for the purpose of attending the feast of Pentecost, and indeed, could" be on no other occasion. There are some objections to this scheme, 1 Chap, ix. 51-57. * Matt, xix. 2. ' Luke xiii. 22, and xvii. 11. — The jour- » Matt. xx. 17 to xxi. 1; Mark x. 32 to ney mentioned in these two passages must xi. 1 ; Luke xviii. 31 to xix. 28; John xiL be one and the same; the first, while he 1-12. was still in Galilee, the last, when he ° Chap. vii. 10. arrived in Samaria. ' Chap, x, 40, ^ Matt, xix, 1 ; Mark x. 1, « chap, xvii, 11. » Chap, ix, 51, CllAP. VIII.J DURATION OF CHRIST'S MINISTRY, 509 ' but they will be considered in their order ; and I therefore resume the narrative from the 14th of April, when, it is here supposed, our Lord, after the third Passover, left Jerusalem on his return to Galilee. The attempt upon his life during this passover not having succeeded, the Pharisees again sent their emissaries to follow him into Galilee, to watch his movements, weaken his influence, and if possible impeach his conduct. It is not said where they overtook him, but seeing his disciples eat with unwashen hands " they found fault," because they trans gressed the tradition of the elders. The severity of our Lord's re ply, and his calling the people around him and warning them not to mistake outward for inward purity, gave violent offence to the Pharisees, and alarmed the timid disciples.' Instead therefore of going as usual to the lake of Tiberias, he left the dominions of Herod, turning towards the shores of the Mediterannean, and came into the region of Tyre and Sidon, belonging to Syria, and inhabi ted principally if not wholly by Gentiles. Here " he entered," says St. Mark, " into an house, and would have no man know it, but he could not be hid." His fame had been spread abroad In that region; his person was recognized; and the poor Syro-Phenician mother, on account of her humility, per severance, and faith, experienced for herself and daughter the ten derness of his mercy and the wonders of his power.^ By leaving the dominions of Herod, he had probably relieved himself from the importunities of his enemies ; and, having accom plished this, he departed thence, and "came unto the sea of Galilee through the midst of the coasts of Decapolis."' This region is mentioned three times in the New Testament and twice by Jose phus. It was so called, from its containing ten cities, the principal of which was Scythopolis. All, excepting Scythopolis, were be yond Jordan, and along the south-eastern shore of the lake of Tiberias. To any one therefore who examines the map of that country, it will be evident that after leaving the region of Tyre and Sidon, our Lord must have crossed the country to the south of Antilibanus near the sources of the Jordan, thus avoiding the do minions of Herod Antipas, and came down on the eastern side of ' Matt. XV. 1-20 ; Mark vii, 1-23. = Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii, 24-30. ' Mark vii, 31, 510 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART IL the river to the lower extremity of the lake, near, if it was not in the very same place, where he had previously fed the five thousand. v While passing through Decapolis, he cured the deaf and dumb man, mentioned by St, Mark ;' and on his arrival near the sea of Galilee, he went up Into a mountain, elg t6 opog, into the mountain, namely, the mountain to which he retired to pray after he had fed the five thousand,^ and there received the multitudes who again flocked to him, making "the dumb to speak, the maimed to be whole, the lame to walk, and the blind to see.'" Here he wrought the miracle of feeding with seven loaves and a few small fishes the "four thousand men, besides women and children.'"' On the occasion of feeding the five thousand, the enthusiasm of the multitude had shown itself in the design of shaking off the Boman yoke, and proclaiming Jesus as the king Messiah. To avoid a repetition of any such design, our Lord immediately entered into one of the small vessels on the lake, and sailed, St, Matthew says, to the coasts of Magdala,' St, Mark, into the parts of Dalma- nutha.^ There is here no contrariety ; for Lightfoot has satis factorily shown that Magdala and Dalmanutha were near each other, at the bottom of the lake, and not far from the point where the Jordan issues from it.' Here He again encountered the Pharisees and Sadducees, who urged Him to work a miracle expressly for their gratification. " Deeply sighing " on account of their wickedness, "He left them," and " again departed to the other side," not of the lake, but of the place where he had fed the multitude ; for, as appears from St. Mark's narrative. He did not go to Capernaum, but to Bethsaida, which according to Josephus, was in Philip's dominions, at the head ' Chap, vii. 32-37. of Gadara, beyond or on the east of Jor- ' Matt. xiv. 23. dan. Dr. Eobinson, on the contrary, sup- ' Ibid. XV. 29-31. poses the Musslim village El-Mejdel, on ' Matt. XV. 32-38 ; Mark viii. 1-9. the western shore, about three miles north ° Chap. XV. 39. of Tiberias, to be the Magdala here spoken * Chap. viii. 10. of. He allows that it exhibits no marks ' Chorographical Decad. chap. 5, comp. of antiquity, but from the name, thinks with Chorographical Century, chap. 76, " there is little reason to doubt that this "Works, vol. ii. pp. 70 and 308. place is the Magdala of the New Testa- Lightfoot infers this from the Eabbinical ment, the native town of llary Magdalene." books, in which Magdala is spoken of as — Bib. Ees. vol. iii. p. 278. May there not being near to Charamath, or the warm have been two Magdalas, one on the west- springs where the Jordan issues from the tern, the other on the eastern, shore ? and southern part of the lake, near Tiberias on the latter called, for the sake of distinction, the western shore; and yet in the region Magdala of Gadara? CHAP, VIII.] DURATION OP Christ's MINISTRY. 511 of the lake, and on its eastern shore. The disciples having forgotten to supply themselves with bread, our Lord turned this circumstance to a spiritual account, by warning them to beware of the leaven of the Pharisees, and of the leaven of Herod,' Landing at Bethsaida, He wrought the miracle recorded by St, Mark,^ of restoring sight to a blind man, but doing it privately, by leading "him out of the town," and charging him "neither" to "go into the town nor tell it to any in the town ; " and then proceeded along the eastern bank of the Jordan " into the towns of Csesarea Philippi," This expression means, as I conceive, the towns of. Philip's Tetrarchy ; for the city had been called Ojesarea Philippi by Herod Philip, in honour of the emperor and himself, when he made it the capital of Trachonltis. Its original name was Paneas, and according to Josephus' it was distant about a day's journey from Sidon. It was situated near the cave from which the stream of Jordan issues, and about 120 stadia, or 15 Roman miles, from the little lake Phiala, the true source of that river.* During this journey, as our Lord "was alone praying," and "His disciples were with him,' He asked them. Whom say the people that I am?" And then, in answer to the further inquiry, " Whom say ye that I am ? " St. Peter made the memorable confession, " Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God." It was doubt less our Lord's design, from the conviction wrought by his miracles, to lead his disciples to this declaration ; and this end accomplished. He began to disclose to them the great purpose for which He had come into the world. It forms an epoch in the history of our Saviour's ministry ; because from henceforth that truth which had been before but obscurely Intimated, became the leading, may I not say, the all-absorbing subject of his doctrine. " From that time forth began Jesus to show unto his disciples how that He must go unto Jerusalem, and suffer many things of the elders and chief-priests and scribes, and be killed and be raised again the third day."^ If our calculations be correct, this memorable event * It is principally, I believe, on this ex- Lord had fed the multitude, the difficulty pression, " departed to the other side," is removed, compared with St. Mark, that D'Anville ' Matt. xvi. 1-12; Mark viii. 11-21. and other geographers have relied in pla- ^ Chap. viii. 22-26. cing Bethsaidaon the same side of the lalie ' Antiq. lib. v. c. 3, § I. with Capernaum; but this is contrary to * Jos. Bel. Jud. lib, i. c. 21, § 3, and lib. the express testimony of Josephus. By iii. c, 10, §7. understanding the expression of the Evan- ' Luke ix. 18. gelist as relating to the place where our ° Matt. xvi. 21. 612 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART it, could not have taken place far from the middle of May, in the third year of our Lord's ministry, the year 4740 of the Julian period. None of the disciples, but more especially the ardent Peter, who had received so magnificent a promise that he should open the kingdom of Heaven, could relish a doctrine which put to flight their anticipations of temporal grandeur. In the surprise which our Lord's declaration occasioned, Peter forgot the reverence due to his Master, " and began to rebuke him, saying. Be it far from thee. Lord ; this shall not be unto thee." Such presumption required the most severe reproof. Our Lord, therefore, addressed to him the same language that he did to the Tempter in the wilderness ; and then calling his disciples around him, warned them of the danger arising from a love of the world : " What shall it profit a man, if he shall gain the whole world and lose his own soul?"' Six or eight days after these events, occurred the Transfigura tion, designed doubtless to convince Peter, John and James, not only of the real glories of the Messiah's kingdom, but also of the necessity of his sufferings and death. For Moses, by whom the law was given, and Elijah, the great and mysterious prophet of the legal covenant, appeared with Him indeed in glory, but spake in the hearing of his disciples " of his decease, which he should accomplish at Jerusalem."^ It was the living testimony of the law and the prophets ; and to this was added the testimony of God himself; for " a bright cloud overshadowed them," which St. Peter, one of these eye-witnesses, calls " the excellent glory ;' and " a voice" proceeded from this glory, " which said. This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased ; hear ye him."* As at his baptism, so now the Heaven was opened. The bright effulgence of the Shechinah, the visible manifestation of the Almighty, 'and the Oracular voice which was formerly heard in the tabernacle and first Temple, demanded faith in his words, and obedience to his will, " And as they came down from the Mountain, Jesus charged them, saying. Tell the vision to no man, until the Son of man be risen again from the dead."' St. Mark adds,^ that while they obeyed his injunctions, they " questioned one with another what the rising from the dead should m6an ;" so far were even these 'Matt. xvi. 13-28; Mark viii. 27-38, ' 2 Pet. i. 17. ix. 1 ; Luke ix. 18-27. • Matt. xvii. 5. ' Luke ix. 31. » Matt. xvii. 9, = Chap, ix. 10. CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 513 favoured disciples from then knowing the nature of his kingdom ! If it be asked why these three disciples Only were.permitted to have this foretaste of his glory, or why they only were permitted to witness the last agony of the Sacred Victim, it may be answered that Peter and the two sons of Zebedee were men of such com manding character, that their testimony, after our Lord's death and resurrection, would be sufficient to convince the great body of his disciples. The next day,' on their descent from the mountain, at the com mand of Jesus, the demoniac boy was healed whom the disciples,. during his absence, had attempted in vain to cure. Elated as they had been, because the devils had been made subject to them, they were now taught a lesson of humility ; and the answer of our Lord'. to their inquiry why they could not cast out " the foul spirit," conveyed an oblique- censure upon their worldly-mindedness : " This kind goeth not out, but by prayer and fasting."^ St. Luke adds, that while they all wondered at the mighty power of God, as displayed in all that Jesus did. He immediately turned their atten tion to his sufferings.' This great subject, which was henceforth tg occupy every thought, being now brought fully before our Lord's disciples, He- set out on his journey to Jerusalem. According to the common computation, which places the feast of Pentecost invariably on the 6th of Sivan, it fell this year on Tuesday the 27th of May. Ac cording to our computation, it fell on Sunday the 1st of June. St. Mark says, "they departed thence," (that is, from the Mount of the Transfiguration) ; and irapeiropevovTo Sia rije TaKiKalae, ' passed along, or (as some render the word'TrapaTropEUEir^at celeriter, latenter, et quasi in cursu transire^) passed rapidly and privately through Galilee ; and he would not that any man should know it, " For he taught his disciples, and said unto them, The son of man is deli vered into the hands of men, and they shall, kill him; and after that he is killed, he shall rise the third day. But they understood; not that saying, and were afraid to ask him.'" St. Matthew merely says, " While they abode in Galilee."^ On their arrival at Capernaum, the demand was made of the- ¦ Luke ix. 37, * Macknight, § 72, note, ' Matt, xvii. 1-21 ; Mark ix, 2-29 ; Luke " Mark ix, 30-32. X, 28-42, ' Luke ix, 43-45. ° Matthew xvii. 22-23. 65 514 DURATION OF OHRIST's MINISTRY, [PART H. half-shekel tax for the repairs of the Temple, of which St. Mat thew speaks.' And then also occurred our Lord's impressive act, :men tioned by three of the Evangelists, of placing, a little child be fore the disciples, to reprove their worldly ambition,^ In connexion with this, St. Mark and St. Luke relate the re proof to John, in particular, for having forbidden one who cast out devils in the name of Jesus. It was an unwarrantable presump tion in John, and those who had acted with him, because the power itself proved the commission.' St. Luke now mentions our Lord's entrance into Samaria on his way to Jerusalem : " And it came to pass, when the time was ¦come that he should be received up, {iv rp avfi-KXripova^ai rag finipag Tijg ava\ri\pcwg avToi), he steadfastly Set his face to go to Jerusalem."^ I have already given my reasons for believing this to have been at the season of Pentecost. The dislocation of this passage by the harmonlzers is any thing but satisfactory. The motive for it seems to have been the force of the word dvaXi^i/nc, "the receiving up," which " Schleusner, Doddridge, the ancient versions, and by far the greater majority of critics, assert, signifies the ascension into Heaven." Mr. Townsend has mentioned this ;' and it seems to have been the principal reason which led that judicious £knd ex cellent critic to adopt Abp. Newcome's hypothesis. But with due deference, I humbly conceive that from the TRANSFIGURATION the time of his being received up had come. It was the very same season of the year. Twelve months from that time. He would indeed pass into the Heavens, realizing that glo rious vision. I therefore adopt the words of Lightfoot, as convey ing precisely the idea I would wish to give. " Moses and Ellas had spoken of his departure out of this world ; that is, of his final departure when He took leave of it, at his ascension into Heaven : and from thence forward till the time should come wherein He should be received up, He steadfastly set his face towards Jeru salem, resolving with himself to be present at all the feasts that should precede his, avaXri^tv, his receiving up."* If the Transfiguration and the Ascension took place, as there is reason to believe, on the same day of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, that is ten days before Pentecost, then, according to the common ' Matthew xvii. 24-27. 'Lukeix. 51, "Matt, xviii. 1-6; Mark ix. 33-37; Luke » N. T. ed. Coit, note 26, p. v, 128*. ix, 46-48, » Heb, and Talm, Exerc, upon St. Luke^ • Mark ix. 38-40 ; Luke ix. 49-50, viii. 51, Works, vol. ii, p, 418. CHAP. Vm.J DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 515 computation, it was on Saturday the 17 th of May ; if according to that which I prefer, it was on Thursday the 22d of May. The cure of the demoniac boy and the journey to Capernaum would occupy the 23d. Our Lord would naturally pass the sabbath, or Saturday the 24th, at Capernaum ; and the following week, until Friday the 30th of May, might well be taken up in his journey to Jerusalem, During that period I place the events recorded in the remainder of the ninth chapter of St. Luke, and probably the con versations and parables recorded, Matthew xviii. 7-35, and Mark ix. 41-50, It has been seen that from the time when Herod Antipas filled the measure of his crimes by the murder of John the Baptist, our Lord retired into the dominions of his brother Philip, and thence forward Capernaum ceased to be his ordinary residence. No in stance of his return thither is mentioned, save when He crossed the lake to the land of Gennesareth on his way to the third passover, and during his journey from Csesarea Philippi to attend the feast of Pentecost, of which we are now speaking. It is to be presumed, therefore, that, if he did go thither again, it was only on his pas sage to the other side of the Jordan. The appointment of the seventy or seventy-two disciples seems now to have been made as that of the twelve was, after the feast of Dedication at the end of the preceding December ; and that for the same reason. As He sent the Twelve two and two into Judsea when it was no longer safe for him to walk in Jewry, so now He sent the Seventy into Samaria and Galilee, " two and two before his face, into every city and place whither He himself would come, because it was no longer safe for him to walk openly-in Galilee."' In this way his benevolence provided for the wants of the people, and at the same time, attention would be in some measure turned from himself, and He could travel more privately. St. Matthew and St. Mark are both entirely silent concerning any events which preceded the feast of Tabernacles. Neither of them says a word respecting the ap pointment of the Seventy ; and St. Luke is almost equally silent with regard to that of the Apostles. The charge in both cases is nearly the same ; and the blasphemy of the Pharisees against the Holy Ghost, follows both very much in the same order. ^ Yet the two commissions are clearly distinguishable, by the diversity of time ' Luke X. 1. 516 DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. [pART 11. aa well as of persons, and concurrent circumstances. Still this similarity may account for the dislocation of Luke xi. 14-54, which I have placed in connexion with Matthew xii. 22-45. With these observations, I proceed to consider St. Luke's narra tive. Our Saviour having retired to the dominions of Philip, the Seventy, when they had performed their commission, returned be fore the feast of Tabernacles, to give him an account of their pro ceedings.' The subsequent narratives, therefore, from chap. x. 25 to chap xiii. 22, must all be referred to the period intervening between the return of the Seventy, and the commencement of our Lord's, journey to Jerusalem. He appears now to have crossed the lake, and made his last circuit within the dominions of Herod Antipas ; for St. Luke says^ that " He went through the cities and villages,' teaching and journeying towards Jerusalem" ; and that this was in Galilee, on the western side of the Jordan, is evident from chap. xiii. 31 : " The same day there came certain of the Pharisees, sav ing unto him. Get thee out, and depart hence ; for Herod will kU thee." Macknight justly remarks, that this apparent interest of the Pharisees was probably feigned, in order to induce him to hasten into Judaea, where they knew there was a design to put him to death ; and that the plot was with Herod's connivance.'' Hence our Lord sent a message by them to the tyrant, which shewed that He understood the motive of both, and was not ignorant of the designs against him. " Go ye, and tell that fox. Behold I cast out devils, and I do cures to-day and to-morrow, and the third day I shall be perfected.'" His time for doing mighty deeds was now short ; but a prophet could not perish out of Jeru salem. During this circuit, the various events recorded by St. Luke, from chap xiii. 22 to chap. xvii. 10, must have taken place. If we allow the months of June and July for the mission of the Seventy, and August and a part of September for our Lord's circuit in Galilee, it wiU bring him into Samaria not far from the great day of Atonement, the tenth of Tisri, or Friday the 26th of Sep tember. His object was now to travel as rapidly and privately as ' Luke X. 17-24. lagcs.— Josephus Vita, § 45. ' Luke xiii. 52. -¦ Harm. §91. ' Two hundred and four cities and vil- 'Luke xiii. 32-35. CHAP. VIII.J DURATION OF CHRIST'S MINISTRY. 617 possible ; but it happened that " as He entered into a certain vil lage, there met him ten men that were lepers.'" Although the language of St. Luke,^ "as he went to Jerusalem,^' seems to imply that he was then on his way thither, yet, as he says immediately after that Jesus "was passing through the midst of Samaria and Galilee," the order of place seems to require that he was then on his return from Jerusalem. 'Ev rp iropiieff-'idi. avrbv elg 'lipovaaXriiJi, "as He went" or during His journey "to Jerusalem," may possibly have the more comprehensive meaning " during his journey to and from Jerusalem." So the same Evangelist says,' iv rp Eyyi^etv axiTov kig 'hptx^, " as He was come nigh unto Jericho ; " whereas St. Matthew says, speaking of the same fact,^ Kal iKiroptvofiiviav avrHr airb 'Irpt^^, " as they departed from Jericho ; " and St. Mark, very accurately,' rat 'ipxovrai iig 'lepiX'^ f"« 'eKvopivofxivov avToii airb 'hpixi>, "and they Came to Jericho, and as He went out of Jericho." As St. Luke only relates the cure of the ten lepers, we have not the same benefit of exposi tion by the other Evangelists in the passage under consideration ; but I see not why we may not argue from analogy, that as St. Luke says in the one case, "as He was come nigh unto Jericho," meaning that "He came to Jericho, and went out of it," so in the other, " as he went to Jerusalem," may mean " during the journey to and from Jerusalem." If there be any force in this suggestion, it will remove all the difficulty which has so much embarrassed commentators, of account ing for the collocation of Samaria before Galilee. In either case, as lepers were obliged by the law to keep at a distance from all towns or places of great resort, as may be inferred, I think, from Levit. xiii. 46, the circumstance of being met by them, shows that our Lord had left the highway for the purpose of being concealed the better from observation. If the cure of the lepers took place on his way to Jerusalem, it occurred in the last week of September; if on his return from Jerusalem, it cannot be placed earlier than Wednesday the 15th, or Thursday the 16th of Octo ber. For our Lord, though He had probably arrived in or near Jerusalem, did not appear in the Temple till " about the midst of the feast,"® and was also present " in the last day, that great day 1 Ibid. xvii. 1 1-19. ' Matt. xx. 2\ ' Luke xvii. 1 1 ' Mark x. 46. ' Luke xviii. 35. ° John vii. 14. 518 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [pABT II, of the feast.'" The feast of Tabernacles began, as we have seen, on Wednesday the 1st of October: consequently its octave, " the great day of the feast," was on Wednesday the 8th of October. That night ^ "Jesus went unto the mount of Olives, and early in the morning," that is the morning of Thursday the 9th, " he came again into the Temple and taught the people." Then followed the case of the adultress,* the conference with the Pharisees in the treasury,* and the subsequent conversation which ended in the attempt to stone him.' All this may well be supposed to have oc curred in the same day. The cure of the man born blind, related by St. John in the ninth chapter, took place, he expressly informs us,® on " the Sabbath-day." It may well have been therefore on the following Sabbath, or Saturday the llth of October. The meeting of the Sanhedrim for the purpose of deliberating on the subject of this miracle^ took place probably the following day, and the examination of the witnesses, the consequent debates, and the final excommunication of the man,* cannot have occupied less than the whole day. We may allow the next day, Monday the 13th of October, for our Saviour's interview with him, his confes sion of Christ, the question of the Pharisees, and our Lord's answer;* but the miracle and its results so exasperated the Jewish rulers that He cannot be supposed to have remained longer in Je rusalem. I place his departure therefore on his return to Galilee through Samaria, on Tuesday the 14th of October. To reach Bethel, the frontier town of Judsea, He would have to travel only about twelve miles, and therefore might easily arrive in Samaria on Wednesday the 15th.* If then the expression of St. Luke'* admit of the construction here suggested, the cure of the ten lepers may have taken place about the middle of October, on our Lord's return from the feast of Tabernacles. With this construction, the circumstances of the narrative would, it seems to me, harmonize much better than with any other ; for our Lord would be more 1 John -vii. 37. elaborate work of Eeland. He has rifled ' Ibid. viii. 1, 2. the stores of antiquity with siJch accurate ' Ibid. viii. 3-11. and extensive research, and has reasoned ' Ibid. viii. 12-20. upon them with such good judgment, as ' John viii. 21-59; to leave little or nothing to be done by ' Ibid. ix. 14. those who have come after him. His Pa- ' Ibid. ix. 13. liEStina is a, noble monument of learning, ' John ix. 15-34. and can never be superseded. See tom. i. ' Ibid. ix. 35-41. p. 155-6, compared with p. 413 and tom. ii. * Eor these computations, I refer to the p. 636, " Luke xvii. II. CHAP. Vin. J DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 519 likely to charge the Jewish lepers to go and show themselves unto the priests, as the law of the leprosy demanded, after he had left Jerusalem, than before He entered into it His journey through Samaria, on account of the refusal of the Samaritans to receive him when on the preceding journey at Pen tecost,' was now, probably, rapid. On his arrival in Galilee, also, He appears to have merely passed through the midst of it, and having crossed the lake, went down on the farther side to that re gion which St. Matthew and St. Mark both call ra opia r^c 'lovSaiuf wipav Tov 'lopSavov, " the coasts of Judaea beyond or by the farther side of Jordan."^ I infer this, because if He had crossed the Jordan at Scythopolis, He would not have come into Galilee at aU, that being the frontier town. This region is mentioned by Jo sephus,* and, probably, as Keland has shown, in Joshua xix. 34. It was bounded by Galilee, near where the Jordan issues from the lake, and included the region of Hippo and Gadara.* Here our Lord passed about a month and a half, from his return in October till it was time to set out on his journey to Jerusalem, to attend the feast of the Dedication, which began that year on Tuesday the ninth of December. As the whole journey might be performed with ease in a very few days, we may place his arrival in Jericho during the week preceding the fourth sabbath in Casleu, or Saturday the sixth of December. In this interval of a month and a half, we must, therefore, place the following events ; in the order of which, as far as each mentions them, all the Evangelists agree: 1. Our Lord's discourse with the Pharisees and his disciples, soncerning the time and manner in which his kingdom should come.' 2. His parable, that men ought always to pray, and not to faint.^ 3. His parable of the Pharisee and Publican praying in the Temple.'' 4. His answer to the question of the Pharisees concerning di vorce, and the subsequent conversation with his disciples about marria e.* 5. His receiving and blessing the little children.^ 6. The conduct of the young ruler ; our Lord's caution on the ' Luke ix. 52-56. ° Ibid, xviii. 1-8. ' Matt, xix. 1 ; Mark x, 1. ' Ibid, xviii. 9-14. ' A.ntiq. lib. xii. c. 5. « Matt, xix. 3-12 ; Mark x. 2-12; * Reland Palsestina, tom, L p. 33. » Matt. xix. 13-16; Mark x, 13-16 ; I^ike • Lnke xvii, 20-37, xviii, 15-17, 520 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART II. danger of wealth ; and his promise to all who forsake worldly things to become, his followers.' 7. The parable of the labourers in the vineyard, hired at various hours from the first to the eleventh.* The feast of Dedication being nigh at hand, our Lord commenced his journey with his disciples ; and then, as during the two pre ceding journeys. He clearly predicted to them the ignominy He would have to endure, his sufferings, death, and resurrection : '^Behold we go up to Jerusalem, and all things that are written by the prophets concerning the Son of Man shall be accomplished.-' It deserves to be remarked, that from the confession of the dis ciples' faith at Csesarea Philippi, which St. Matthew emphatically mentions^ as " that time," from which our Lord began to speak openly of his passion, his predictions continually increased in plain ness and particularity. Yet in every instance, and never more so than on the present occasion, the . disciples are represented as not understanding his words. It is a record, for our admonition, of the influence in the human mind of will over understanding. They were unwilling to believe, and therefore could not comprehend.* Johi^ and James, as if to dispel'the mournful thoughts occasioned by his words, asked,' through their mother, that He would give them the principal offices of government in his kingdom. This request was heard by the other ten with the greatest indignation ; and therefore our Lord rebuked them, by referring to his own ex ample of humility and disinterestedness in becoming a servant to others, and giving his life a ransom for many.* Having come to Jericho, a great multitude of people followed Him as He left that city on his way to Jerusalem.' Two blind men, one of whom Was surnamed Bartimaeus, sat by the way side ; and hearing, the noise of so many persons passing, they asked what it meant. Being told that it was Jesus and his followers, they cried out for mercy, confessing their faith in him as the Son of David. Both were healed, and both joined themselves to the train ¦who accompanied him.' St. Matthew speaks of two blind men ; St. Mark and St. Luke ' Matt, xix, 16-30; Mark x, 17-31 ; Luke ' Luke xviii. 34. •xviii. 18-30. ^ Matt. xx. 20-28 ; Mark x. 35-45, • Matt, XX, 1-16. ' Matt. xx. 29 ; Mark x. 46. ' Matt. XX, 17-19 : Mark x. 32-34; Ijuke « Matt. xx. 30-34 ; Mark x. 46-52 ; Luke txvm. 31-33. * Matt. xvi. 21. xviii. SS^ix, 1, CHAP. VIII.J DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. 521 of one only. Here is no contrariety, " Le Clerc's maxim," says Archbishop Newcome, " is undoubtedly true : ' He who relates the greater number includes the smaller; he who records the smaller, does not deny the greater.' Bartimaeus may have been the more remarkable of the two, or more eminent for his faith."' The discrepancy between St. Luke and the other two Evange lists, as to the time and the side of Jericho where the blind men were healed, is more real and more difficult of solution. St. Luke says the action took place as our Jjord drew near to Jericho, from beyond Jordan. And a few verses farther on,* that He entered and passed thi^ough Jericho, plainly on the road to Jerusalem. St. Mat thew and St Mark are both very explicit in saying that it was after He had passed throiigh Jericho, and was going from it. The atten tion of the reader has been already called to this difference, as illus trating the time when the ten lepers were cured. It is barely a conjecture ; but in the absence of certainty^ probable conjecture is all that can be given or demanded. The narrative of Zacchseus, the rich but righteous chief-publican, occasions no difficulty, either as to place or time. It was on the road from Jericho to Jerusalem, and on the same day in which our Lord left the former city. If He spent the fourth sabbath in "Casleu, or Saturday December the 6th, in Jericho, his visit to Zac chseus may have taken place on the Sunday or Monday following. The parable of the nobleman who was going " into a far country to receive for himself a kingdom and to return," was spoken while He was a guest in the house of the chief-publican ; after which He resumed his journey, and arrived probably at Bethany or Jeru- saleinj on the- eve of the feast.' Nothing is recorded of the transactions during the feast of Dedi cation, excepting what is contained in the tenth chapter of St. John's Gospel. The violence offered to our Lord's person, caused him to escape beyond Jordan, to the place where John at first baptized.'' There, He remained till He was sent for to Bethany ; and after the resurrection of Lazarus He retired, to avoid the per secution of the Sanhedrim, " unto a country near to the wilderness, ' Harm, notes, § 51, § 108. ' Ibid, xix, 2-28. ' Luke xix. 1. * John x. 39-42, 66 522 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART U. into a city called Ephraim." There He abode "with his dis ciples," tiU the Passover was nigh at hand,' at which He was cru cified. Having thus, in the present and preceding chapter, carefully in vestigated the time, both of our Lord's ministry and the ministry of his Precursor, nothing remains, in order to complete this part of our subject, but to lay before the reader a very summary view of the remaining period. At the third hour, or nine o'clock in the morning of Friday the 26th of March, the seventh before the calends of April, the hour when the lamb of the daily morning sacrifice was offered in the Temple, our Lord was nailed to the accursed tree ; and at the ninth hour, or three o'clock in the afternoon, the moment in which the lamb of the daily evening sacrifice was offered in the Temple, He expired. About the eleventh hour, or five o'clock in the afternoon, his body was taken down from the cross, and deposited in the tomb of Joseph of Arimathsea. The difficulties in adjusting the narrative of the burial and re surrection of our Lord, have been so fully explained by Doddridge, West, and Pilkington ; so accurately revised by Dr. Townson, Mr. Cranfield, and Mr. Townsend ; and the whole subject so ably summed up by Dr. Home, in his Introduction to the critical study of the Holy Scriptures, that to add anything here would be super fluous. But the result of their labours will be followed in the out lines of the chronological harmony which will form one of the subsequent chapters. It will be sufficient here to add, that on Sunday morning, the fifth before the calends of April, or the 28th of March, about the beginning of the morning watch, or not far from three o'clock, our Lord rose from the dead. It was the morrow after the sabbath, when, according to the law, the first sheat of the earliest ripe grain was waved in the Temple, by which the whole harvest was sanctified ; and Christ, the first fruits, rose from the dead, as a type and pledge of the future resurrection of his faithful followers. Counting forty days from the resurrection, we come to Thursday the 6 th of May, the day before the nones, as the day of our Lord's ascension ; and fifty days from the resurrection, to the Pentecost, John xi. 53-55. CHAF. viil] DURATION OF CHRJST's MINISTRY. 523 Sunday the 16 th day of May, or the seventeenth before the calends of June, as that great day on which the Holy Ghost descended, fitting the apostles for the great work of founding the Church, and thus calling the world, by their ministry, to the faith and knowledge of Jesus Christ. 524 [part n. CHAPTER IX. OUE lord's age AT THE TBIE OF HIS BAPTISM. Question stated. — Greek text of Luke iii. 23, — Versions ancient and modem.-^Four varieties. — S9lution of the difficulty, not from pure Greek, but Hellenistic idioms. — Modern criticisms. — Bishop Pearce, Schleusner, Bosenmiiller, Kuinoel, Dr. Camp bell, and Heylyn, Grotius and others. — Ancient commentators, except Epiphanius, consider our Lord as having completed his thirtieth year. — Irenaeus, Origen, St. Jerome, Theophylact, St, Chrysostom, — The judgment of the ancient Church, there fore, accords with tbat of the best modern critics, that our Lord had passed the birthday which completed His thirtieth year when He came to His baptism. The year of our Lord's baptism being ascertained, a question now arises of considerable difficulty, and, as regards chronology, of great importance. St. Luke states' that Jesus, at the time of his baptism, the receiving of which was the commencement of his mi nistry, was ixru tTCiiv TpiaKovTo aprxoiiivog, which following the Greek order, may be literally translated thus : about thirty years beginning. The question at once arises. What is meant by the word Begin ning? Is it to be applied to his age, or to his ministry? Was Jesus then beginning to be thirty years of age ? Or was He full thirty years of age, when He began to proclaim the Gospel ? In the one case twenty-nine solid years had elapsed from his birth to his baptism; in the other, thirty. The question, therefore, in volves a difference of one whole year. On examining the Greek text, it appears that six manuscripts, two of which are in uncial letters, and one of these is the cele brated Codex Vaticanus, 1209, invert the order thus : mi avrbg ^v b Irtaovg apxofievog iiirtl irHv rptaicovTa. Three MSS. read Kat avrbg b Ii/o-oDc ?iv apxbfievog Lvai itatl irdv Tpiixovra. With the exception of these nine, it is fair to infer that all read according to the ordinary ' Luke iii. 23. CHAP. IX.] OUR lord's AGE, AT THE TIME OF HIS BAPTISM. 523 arrangement; and therefore, although various readings are to be weighed, and not numbered, yet the balance, even of the best au thorities, is greatly in favour of the received text. If we examine the versions, ancient and modern, we find four varieties. 1 . Some translate in the same order, and thus decide nothing. Of the ante-Hieronymian versions given by Sabatier and Bianchini, the Codd. Cantabrigiensis, Vercellensis, and Cor- bejensis, translate apxopevog by incipiens, but put it last in the sentence, rendering the whole passage thus : " Cod. Cantab. Erat autem Jfesus quasi annorum xxx incipiens, Codd. Vercel. and Corbej. Et ipse Jesus erat fere annorum xxx incipiens." 2. On the other hand, some have considered the word &p\6fievog as transposed and connected with ^v. Thus the Codex Veronensis reads, "Et ipse Jesus erat incipiens fere annorum " The MS. S. Germanensis I. and the Evangeliarium Forojullense read : "Et ipse Jesus erat incipiens quasi annorum triginta." This arrangement St. Jerome adopted, and consequently the modern Latin Vulgate retains it. All the versions influenced by the Latins such as the Arabic, Luther's German version. Archbishop Cran- mer's, the Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Puritan, the received Eng lish, all read, " And Jesus himself began to be about thirty years of age." The Khelms version reads : " And Jesus himself was beginning to be about thirtie yeres old." So the Bible de Martin : " Et Jesus commen9oit d'avoir environ trente ans." And so Dio- dati's Italian : " E Jesii cominciava ad esser come di trenta anni ;" but he explains it in a note as meaning that our Lord had com pleted his thirtieth, and had recently entered into his thirty-first year : " Come di. pare che il sense sia, ch' egli entrava recente- mente nel suo trentunesimo anno. Trenta ch'era I'eta nella quale i sacerdoti entravano in servigio(Num. iv. 3, 35, 39, 43, 47) il che pare essere state imitate dal SIgnore, gran sacerdote spirltuale.'" 3. Some versions leave out apxifi^vog altogether. Thus the Pe- shito or ancient Syriac, ^Zt.-^Z ^-Jla f9 ^] ]o3i >.A(noZL.l "^i^XLA^ ^) 001 iV-r 7 173: -" " Now Jesus himself was about thirty years old," literally, " was, as it were, the son of thirty years." The Ethiopic, as repre sented by the Latin in Walton's Polyglott, seems to convey ' Bibblia stampata iu Geneva, per Pietro Chouet, mdcxm. 526 OUR lord's age, L^-*^''^ n. the same meaning: "Et sufficiebat trlgesimus annus Domino Jesu ;" the thirtieth year of the Lord Jesus was complete. So the Persian, as there translated : " Et erat Jesus circiter triginta annos natus." Of the ante-Hieronymian versions the Codd. Brixianus and S. Martini Turonensis read, " erat fere annorum triginta.' Of the modern translations, the Bible des Pasteurs de Genfeve, Paris, 1805, omits hpxoiievog, rendering the passage thus: "Et J^sus ^toit alors ^ge d'environ trente ans." 4. A fourth variety of translations refers the word apx^p^ivog to some other subject than our Lord's age. Thus Le Maistre de Sacy, though professing to follow the Vulgate, translates as follows : "Jesus avoit environ trente ans lorsqu'il commenfa d'exercer son ministfere" ; referring it to our Lord's ministry. The author of " A Critical Examination of the Holy Gospel, &c." published in 1738, thinks that rfv ap^biievog signifies the same as in chap. ii. 51» ^v inroTaasofiivos ; " for as apxuv signifies a governor, so apxoiuvog here means one governed." Heylyn, and after him Campbell, adopt this suggestion ; the one rendering the passage in question, " Jesus himself had then lived in subjection about thirty years" ; the other, "Now Jesus was himself about thirty years in sub jection." These are all the varieties of which I am aware ^ and they serve to show the embarrassment which the construction of this sentence has occasioned to all who have sought a solution from pure Greek idioms. In vain have critics searched in classic authors for similar phraseology. In vain have the best Greek scholars tortured the con struction into ¦^v apxcfievog eivai and ^v apj^vfievog &v, as a substitute for ^PX^ro uv. In vain have they had recourse to conjecture, and substi tuted ipyoiicvoQ for apxapievog. Grotlus, no mean judge on such a sub ject, is obliged to confess that the true construction would be apxcpiai fTovg TpiaKoarov, if it meant the commencement of the thirtieth year ;' and Langlus, as quoted by Bowyer, says, " Though we say vpx^o &v, yet ^v hpx6jievog S,v is not Greek just as in English, He began speaking. He began being, &c. ; but not. He uxis beginning speaking, He was beginning being; but He began to be. Whatever construc tion the Greek will bear, it is not agreeable to sense in any language to say, Jesus began to be about . thirty years old ; it Is being precise and indeterminate at the same time.''* ' Annot. ad Luc. cap, 3, v. 23, Opera, ' Bowyer's conjectures on the N. T. in Theol. tom. ii.p, 362, loo. Lend. 1812, 4to, p. 197. CHAP. IX.J AT THE TIME OF HIS BAPTISM. ' 527 If, instead of hunting for similar phraseology in classic authors, the critics had confined themselves to the Hellenistic idioms of the Septuagint, they would have succeeded better. The Hebrew expression n3K7 D'ly^iy"]! out of eight places where it occurs, is only three times rendered fully vibg stS>v rptdmura, the son of thirty years, viz : 2 Sam. v. 4, 1 Kings xxii. 42, 2 Kings viii. 17. In the other five, viz: Gen. xli. 46, 2 Chron. xx. 31, xxi. 5, 20, xxiv. 15, it is rendered either ^v irHv T-pmcoirn, or &v irSiv rpioKovra. It is evi dently an elliptical expression, vibg being understood ; and sp it ought to be viewed in the passage we are considering. The Syriac, therefore, renders it most accurately, " Jesus was the son of thirty years, or thereabouts ; ixrh ^\ (Heb. ^''Vi How ? Chald. and Bab. ^^^) quomodo, sicut, quasi, tanquam circiter, being rendered, as it were, or .about. The Evangelist means by this qualifying expression, as Grotius justly observes, that our Lord was not baptized on his birth-day. As far ,38 the force of this word goes, it might have been a little earlier or a little later. But this very force excludes the possibility of understanding the word apxofievoi with regard to our Lord's age. "When," says Dr, Campbell, " we say, a man is about such an age, we are always un derstood to denote, that we cannot say whether it be exactly so, or a little more or a little less ; but this will never suit the expres sion, began to be, which admits no such latitude. To combine, in this manner, a definite with an indefinite term, confounds the meaning, and leaves the reader entirely at a loss."' There is, therefore, but one alternative left; either with the Syriac interpreter and the other versions mentioned under the third variety, to consider apx^i^^vog as a pleonasm ; or with those mentioned under the fourth variety, to regard it as referring to a different subject. To prove that it is a pleonasm. Bishop Pearce has the following note : " The words apxofievog 3iv (or, as I rather think that we should read, thai) signify here Ae was, as in verse 8, ju^ dp4i? John xii. 1. prima indolis est juvenis, et extenditur ' Et ipsum autem mensem in quo Pascha usque ad quadragesimum annum omnis celebratur, in quo et passus est Dominus, quilibet confitebitur ; k quadragesimo au- non duodecimum sed primum esse, qui tem, et quinquagesimo anno declinat jam omnia se scire jaotant, si nesciunt, a Moyse in sttatem seniorem. possunt discere. ' John viii. 57. ' Triginta quidem annorum existens cum ° Ei autem qui sit xxx annorum, dicere- veniret ad Baptismum, deinde magistri tur utique quadraginta annorum nondum aetatem perfectam habeiis, venit Hierusa- es. lem, ita ut ab omnibus juste audiret [ed, ' Irrationabile est enim omnino, viginti -Oxon. audiretur] magister, annos mentiri eos, volentes eum juniorem * Quia autem triginta annorum tetas ostendere temporibus Abrahie, CH.AP. IX,"] AT THE TIME OF HIS BAPTISM. 531 was not much short of fifty, and consequently that He neither preached one year only, nor suffered in the twelfth month of that year. " For the time from thirty to fifty years (he sarcastically adds) would never be reckoned as one year, unless among the -^ons their great years are so counted."' From this last expression one might infer, that Irenseus supposed our Lord's ministry to have continued for nearly twenty years ; a, supposition so extravagant, so solitary, so entirely unsupported by any thing contained In the Evangelical narrative, that it would be a waste of time and pains seriously to refute it. All that is essen tial to the purpose for which this ancient and venerable author is here cited, is to show that he evidently considered our Lord as full thirty years old when he was baptized, and not at the beginning of his thirtieth year. Any moderns, who quote the authority of Irenseus In support of the latter opinion, mistake his argument. Its object was to confute this very opinion, because it was held by the Valentinlans ; and the martyr, in his zeal to oppose it, runs into the opposite extreme, that our Lord exercised His ministry be tween the ages of forty and fifty. Origen, in his Commentaj-y on the Genealogy of our Saviour, speaks of his baptism as showing his generation from God, Mat thew gives his carnal descent, whence he always uses the word " begat" ; whereas Luke says " being, as was supposed, the son of Joseph." In Matthew it is not written, " He began" ; but in Luke, because, instead of descent. He was about to ascend from His bap tism, it is read in the Scripture, "Jesus was beginning," He then proceeds as follows : — " For when He was baptized and assumed the mystery of the second birth, that thou also mayest abolish (fcarap-y^trj/e destruas) the former birth, and ascend to the second by the regeneration (icai avafi^g Sevripav Sia rfjg TraXiyyevea iag) ; it Is then said that He began. And as the people of the Jews when in Egypt had no beginning of months, but on their leaving Egypt received the command. ' This month shall be unto you the begin ning of months, the first month of the year to you ;'^ so he who Is not yet baptized is not yet said to have begun. Wherefore we ' Nou ergo anno uno prsedicavit, nee ex ordine resident, &c. — S. Irenaei contra duodecimo mense anni passus est. Tempus Hsereses, lib. ii. c. 22, ed. Benedict. Paris, enim a trigesimo anno usque ad quinqua- 1710, p. 146-148; ed. Oxon. 1702, lib.ii. gesimum numquam erit unus annus, nisi u. 38, 39, 40,p.l59-162. si apud jEones eorum tam magni anni sunt ' Exod. xii. 2. deputati his, qui apud Bythum in pleromate 532 our lord s age, [part ii. must not imagine that " beginning j''' the word which follows, is added without meaning (frustra) to what is before said, ' Jesus himself was' ; but we must take into consideration also the ex pression ' about thirty years of age.' Joseph was thirty years old when, being released from chains and having interpreted the dream of Pharaoh, he was made Prince of Egypt, and in the time of plenty gathered together wheat, that he might have where withal to distribute in the time of famine. I think that the thirty years of Joseph prefigured the thirty years of the Saviour.' For this Joseph did not gather together such wheat as that Joseph did in Egypt, but the true and heavenly wheat ; so that the wheat being gathered in the time of plenty, he might have Avherewith to distribute when the famine should be sent upon Egypt ; not a famine of bread or thirst of water, but the famine of hearing the word of God.^ Our business is not with Origen's mode of interpreting the Scriptures, but solely with the fact that he understood apxap-^vog, the beginning of which St. Luke speaks, as a beginning of our Lord's ministry, and his age as- being at that time fuUy thirty. This, the whole force of his comment shows, Jesus was beginning, because when " He assumed the mystery of the second birth," it was typi cal of the ascension of Christians, who, in the second birth of bap tism, begin the Christian life. Jesus was beginning at the age of thirty, because being prefigured by Joseph, who at that age began to collect wheat into the storehouses. He also began to lay up wheat in the Apostolic granary. The comparison with Joseph is a proof that he thought our Lord was full thirty years old at that time, St. Jerome held the sentiment of Irenseus, as to the com mencement of the perfect age of man at thirty; and that of Origen, that the age of Joseph, when he began his ministry, was intended to prefigure the age of the Messiah at the commencement of his. For in his commentary on Ezechiel i. 1, " Now it came to pass in the thirtieth year," &c. he says : " But in the higher sense, the Lord and Saviour is prefigured, who came to his baptism 'Ego puto quod triginta anni Joseph, of the original Greek, and the Latin trans- in triginta annorum prtecesserint Salva- lation which has come down to us is but a toris. _ poor representative. The whole passage ' Origen in Lucam, Hom, xxviii. Opera, is too long for insertion, but the English ed, Bened, tom. iii. p. 965-6. translation here given conveys what ap- There are but few fragments remaining pears to me to be the sense of the author CHAP. IX.] AT THE TIME OF HIS BAPTISM, 533 when He was thirty years old, which is the perfect age in man. Wherefore in the Book of Numbers, according to the Hebrews, it is contained, not as in the lxx, from the twenty-fifth year of their age, but from the thirtieth, do the priests begin to minister in the Tabernacle. This was presignified by Joseph, when he bountifully bestowed corn on the famished people in Egypt ; and John the Baptist came to the streams of Jordan, and preached the baptism of repentance.'" The age of the priests under the law, when they began to minister, was thirty years old and upward ; " and this," says St. Jerome, " was a prefiguration of the age of the Messiah, when at his baptism He entered on the ministry of the Gospel." So Theophylact in loc. : " The Lord was baptized when He was thirty years old, because that is the most perfect age ; and in that a man is" ^ BoKi/iog rj aSoKifiog, " either of tried merit, or after being tried, rejected as not abiding the proof."^ St. Chrysostom evidently considered the thirtieth year of our Lord's life, not as begun, but as completed, at the time of his bap tism ; for^ he asks the question, rivog cvckev k. t. X. " Why, after thirty years, did Jesus come to baptism ?" And then he answers : " Because after his baptism He was about to annul or abrogate the law. On this account He continued fulfilling all things, even to that age which comprehends and is susceptible of all kinds of sin ; so that no one might say that He abrogated the law because He was unable to fulfil it. For all the passions are not laid upon us all at once ; but in the first age there is much folly and imbecility ; in the next, excessive pleasure ; in the following, the cupidity of wealth. On this account, having continued during that whole age, and having fulfilled the law during the whole, thus He cometh to his baptism." These citations from the writers of the ancient Church are suffi cient to show, that their judgment as to the meaning of the passage in question, accords perfectly with that of the best modern critics. ' Secundum anagogen vero prsefiguratur esurienti populo frumenta largitus est ; et Dominus atque Salvator, qui triginta annos Johannes Baptista venit ad fluenta Jor- natus venit ad baptismum, quoe in homine danis, prsedicavitque baptismum poeni- perfecta setas est. Unde et in Numerorum tentiae."— Com. S. Hieron. lib. i. in Ezech, volumine juxta Hebrseos, non ut in lxx. Opera, ed. Bened. tom. iii. col. 699. continetur, a vicesimo quinto aetatis anno, ' Theoph, Op. tom, i, p. 296, Ven, 1754, sed a tricesimo incipiunt Sacerdotes in fol. tabernaculo ministrare. In quod signum ' In Matth. Hom, a. Opera, ed, Bened, prsecessit et Joseph, quando in JEgypto tom. viL p. 139-140. 534 OUR lord's age, etc. [part ix. We may safely therefore consider the point as decided by reason and authority, that our Lord came to his baptism when He had passed the birth-day on which He had completed his thu'tleth year, and consequently that He was then in the thirty-first year of his age. We proceed now to consider the question, in what month, and on what day of the month He was bom. But as this is a question on which, in modern times at least, there has been a great diversity of opinion, it will be proper to make it the subject of a distinct chapter. chap. X.] 535 CHAPTER X. THE DAY OF OUR LORD's NATIVITY. The Question to be considered in two ways, ist, As history. 2nd, As computation, — As history, the inquiry limited by two dates. — 1, Epiphany, or Jan, 6. — Meaning of , the word. — How applied in the Greek Church. — No evidence of a settled belief among the early Greeks that our Lord was born on that day.— Clemens Alexandri nus — Justin Martyr. — Among the later Greeks, the custom of commemorating His birth OB the Epiphany, made them take it for granted. — Testimony and practice of the western Church founded on the archives. — Tertullian's evidence about the enrolment. — St. Ambrose — St. Augustine. — His age when Rome was sacked by the Goths. — Practice of the western Church adopted by the eastern in the fourth century. Sermon of St. Chrysostom, Dec. 25, A.D. 386. — Observations on his testimony.— Practice general in the east before the council of Ephesus.— The whole question as a matter of fact turns on the testimony of the enrolment. The question considered as to computation. — Remainder of St. Chrysostom's sermon. — His computations inaccurate. — Taken from the supposed high-priesthood of Zacharias. — Same error fallen into by St. Ambrose. — No evidence that others of the early Christian writers held this opinion. — Moderns have neglected testimony and followed computation. Their hypotheses, and the grounds of them, examined. — So contradictory, that no reliance can be placed on them. — Preference given to history. — And the date being taken of December 25, by reckoning back 30 years from his baptism, we come to his birth, a.j.p. 4707, six years before the common sera. The question as to the day of our Lord's nativity is to be consi dered. First, as a matter of history, and, as such, depending upon testi mony; Secondly, as a matter of computation, and, as such, the subject of probable conjecture and argument. In considering it as a question of history, our inquiry is limited to two dates only, the 25th of December and the 6th of January ; for whatever may have been the opinion of individuals, ¦ the Church, as a body, has not at any time, or in any part of the world, sanctioned any other. 536 DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. [PART IL Nor is there any evidence that the Oriental Church, at what ever time the festival of the Epiphany was instituted, meant by that act to pronounce a decided belief that our Lord's nativity hap pened on the 6th of January. The word Epiphany (cTn^are/a) is used in the New Testament to denote the twofold manifestation of the Lord Jesus Christ ; the first, as the Saviour; the second, as the Judge of the world. In the first of these senses it is used in 2 Tim. i. 10, and illustrated by Titus Hi. 4-7 ; in the last, 2 Thess. ii, 8, 1 Tim. vi. 14, 2 Tim. iv. 1, 8 ; in both, Titus ii. 11-14. In all these texts it is rendered in the English version by the word " appearing," except in 2 Thess. ii. 8, where it is rendered " brightness." It means properly, the radiation of a luminous body ; and every instance of peculiar glory in the life of our blessed Lord would be such an appearing or manifestation. But the special incidents to which it was applied in the early Church, were, the incarnation, the nativity, the mani festation by the leading of a star to the eastern Magi, the baptism and its attendant glories, and the first miracle wrought at Cana. All these distant events were alluded to, and in fact commemorated in the Eastern Church on the 6th of January. But it is plain from the testimony of St. Clemens Alexandrinus, already laid before the reader,' that in the year 194 of the common asra no practice of the Church existed, which, in the opinion of that eminent and learned writer, defined the time of our Saviour's birth. For he calls those " over-curious persons who wish to fix, not only the year, but the day of our Saviour's birth, which they say was in the 28th year of Augustus, on the 25th of the Egyptian month Pachon [May 20] Nay, some of them say that He was born on the 24th or 25th of Pharmuthi."^ [April 19th or 20th. J In fact the condition of the early Eastern Church was such, that it had no way of ascertaining these dates with precision. It is true that Justin Martyr, in the year 140 of the common Eera, referred the Emperor Antoninus Pius and his successors, and the whole Roman senate, to the census made at Bethlehem, as a sure proof of the date of Christ's birth. " There is a certain village," he ' Part II. chap. iv. p. 389. iiKaSi val pfjv nvig avriav ipaai ' 'Elai 5i bi TrepitpyoTipiiVTyysvtau rov fappovSri -ysrevrijffS-at k3' ri ke. — Clem. Sur^poc ripiSv ov povov to tTog, aXXd Kai Alexand. Stromatum, lib. i. 340, ed. Potter, TT]v ripipav irpoaTidivTig' fjv (paaiv iTovg tom. i. p, 407-8. Kij' AvyoidTOv iv irspi^T-g Tlaxoiv xai CHAP. X.] DAY OF OUR LORd's NATIVITY. 537 said, "in the land of Judsea, distant thirty-five stadia from Jeru salem, in which Christ Jesus was born, as ye can learn from the enrolments completed under Cyrenius, your first procurator inJudxa.''''^ But Justin was at Rome,^ and there probably wrote both his Apo logies for the Christians. He had an opportunity therefore to con sult the Archives, and doubtless did consult them himself, or he would not have dared to refer the Emperor and the Senate to them so boldly. Yet it must always be remembered, that few eastern Christians could enjoy a like privilege ; for at that early period few persons professed themselves Christians who were not of hum ble rank and parentage. Consequently little intercourse could exist between the Eastern and Western Churches ; and that intercourse was much impeded by the persecutions inflicted on them from the time of Nero to that of Constantino. To say, therefore, that the Greek or other Eastern writers, from the first to the fourth cen tury, were generally 'ignorant on these points of chronology, would in no wise be derogatory to their character. Among the later writers, the very observance of the Epiphany on the sixth of January, would lead to the presumptive inference that our Lord was born on the same day of the month in which, thirty years after, He was baptized ; -and any assertion to that effect in such writers, as for example by Epiphanius, in the passage heretofore given, ' ought not to have much weight attached to it. The state of the Western Church was far different. From, the first establishment of Christianity at Eome, it was easy for any Christian to consult the Archives. These, as we have seen In a former chapter, were preserved, at least for the first four centuries of the Christian sera, in the Palatine and Ulpian libraries, and that of the house of Tiberius ; all of which, in the fourth century, were collected together In the baths of Dioclesian. Our evidence on this point comes down certainly as late as the commencemeut of the fifth century, when the city was sacked by the Goths under Alaric. Let us proceed then to consider the testimony of the Latin Christians during that same period. Our first witness, of course, must be Tertullian. His character I KoJjUi/ ^i Tig I'^iv iv ry x*^P^ lovSaiiov iv lovdai^ irpuirov iiriTpoTTov — Apol. cnrixovija '^adiag TpiaKovTa vkvTe Itpoao- prima, ed. Thirlbii, 1722, fol. p. 55. Xvpmv, iv y eyivvri^r] li/crovg Xpirog, iig ^ Euseb. lib. iv. c. 16. Kal pa^tiv SvvaaSrs Ik tiHv dvaypaipiav ^ Part II. chap. iv. p. 403. Tiov ytvopiviiiv ini Kvprjviov rou vpiripov 68 538 DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. [PART H. as a witness has been already considered, in treating of the true date of our Lord's death. In his book against Marclon, contending against the absurd con struction of Luke iii. 1 and iv. 31, by that heretic, he uses these words : Finally, concerning the census [or enrolment"] of Augustus, which the Roman Archives preserve, as a faithful witness of the Lord's nativity.' Tertullian here appeals to the Roman Archives in which the registry was kept of the census, because that of itself exhibited a most indubitable proof of the date of our Lord's nativity, just as he appealed to th esame Archives with regard to the narrative of our Lord's crucifixion sent by Pilate to Tiberius. And it deserves to be remarked that this testimony is incidental, and therefore stronger than if it were direct. It was not brought to prove that our Lord was born on the twenty-fifth of December, as if that date had been called in question ; but it was to prove that our Lord was born in infancy in the ordinary way of man's birth, which Marclon denied. So again, in his treatise against the Jews, commenting on Isaiah xi, 1, 2, he speaks of the Virgin Mary as that root of Jesse out of which Christ should grow, and then adds, that being reckoned of the root of Jesse, he was therefore enregistered, namely, by, Mary. For He was of the country of Bethlehem, and of the house of David, as among the Romans she is described in the census, Mary, FROM WHOM Christ is born.^ I take the expression, "Mary from whom Christ Is born," Maria ex qua nascitur Christus, to be the very words of the census or en rolment, as Tertullian found and transcribed them in the Roman Archives.* The connexion of the census with the birth of our Saviour, is often dwelt upon by subsequent Latin writers ; one of these sub jects, by the great law of association, constantly suggesting the 1 De censu denique August, quem tes- * The objection has been raised, that tem fidelissimum dominicae nativitatis Christus was not our Lord's name, but his Romana archiva custodiunt. — Tert. adv. designation as God's anointed. It is true; Mai'c. lib. iv. c. 7, cd. Semler, tom. i. p. 200, and the objection strengthens the argu ed. 2 lligalt. p. 507, D. ment. The name Jesus was not given to ' .Ex slirpe autem Jesse deputatum, per him until his circumcision ; and therefore Mariam scilicet inde censendum. Euit on tlie day of his birth, when the Roman enim de patria Bethlehem et de domo notary enrolled Him, with his mother, David, sicut apud Romanes in censu descripta Joseph could only have answered his in- est Maria ex qtta nascitub Christus.— qniry, by simply calling the child, the Tert. ndv. Judffios, ed. Sem, tom,ii.p,311; Messiah, the Christ, ed, 2 Rigalt, p. 219, c. CHAP. X.] DAY OF OUR LORD's NATIVITY. 539 thought of the other. Thus St, Ambrose, in his commentary on the Gospel according to St. Luke, speaking of the time in which our Lord was born, says that " while the secular enrolment was going on, the spiritual was also accomplished ; the profession or en rolment of faith being the Census of souls." ' And again a little far ther forward : " To show that the Census was not of Augustus but of Christ, the whole world is ordered to be enregistered. Who could demand the enrolment of the whole world, but He who had the em pire of the whole world ? " ^ The aim of the commentary is to show that Augustus acted only as an agent of the Almighty ; that the birth of Christ at Bethlehem was the important object to be accom plished; and that the census itself was designed by infinite wisdom, as a solemn and indubitable record of that great event. The testimony of St. Augustine has been occasionally antici pated, in the extracts formerly given from his writings, relative to the time of our Lord's death. Referring the reader to what was then said, we proceed to a more complete examination of his evidence as to the date of our Lord's birth. Among his sermons there are thirteen on the festival of the Na tivity; and it is very observable that in every one of them he merely asserts the fact of its' being our Lord's birth-day, as well known and established, but never attempts to prove It. In one of them he asserts that "our Lord Jesus Christ, who was with the Father before He was born of his mother, chose not only the virgin from whom He should be born, but also the day on which He should be born." Erring men, he observes, choose days ¦for the various purposes of building, travelling, marrying, &c., but " no one can choose the day of his birth. He only could choose both, who was able to create both."' ' Dum professio saecularis obtenditur, being synonymes. spiritalis impletur, non terrarum regi di- ' Denique ut scias censum non Augusti esse cenda, sed coeli. Professio ista fidei, census sed Christi, totus orbis profiteri jubetur. Quan- est aiiimorum, — Opera, ed, Bened, tom. i. do nascitur Christus, omnes profitentur: col. 1293, c. quando mundus concluditur, omnes pcri- To make St. Ambrose's comment per- clitantur. Quis ergo poterat professionem fectly intelligible, it is necessary to re- totius orbis exigere, nisi qui totius habebat orbis mark, that in the old Latin version which imperium ? — Expos. Evang. Sec. Luc. lib. ii. he used, the Greek word dn-oypaipiaaai is c. 37, tom, i, ut sup. 1293, e. 1294, A. rendered ut censum profiteretur.- "Factum 'Nemo tamen potest eligere diem quo est autem in diebus illis exiit edictum a ipse nascatur. Sed ille potuit utrumque Caesare Augusto, ut censum profiteretur eligere, qui utrumque potuit et creare.— Iiniversus orbis terrse." Hence the play Serm. cxc. In Nat. Dom. vii. ed. Bened. upon the words professio and census, as Antverpiae, tom. v. col, 620« 540 DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. [PART H. Whenever, therefore, he gives any decided testimony on the subject, it is introduced incidentally, and where you would least expect to find it. Thus in his questions upon Exodus, commenting on the law in Exodus xxiii. 19, " Thou shalt not seethe a kid in his mother's milk," he gives an interpretation of it as referring to the passion of Christ, which took place at the same time of the year as his conception. " For women are said to collect milk from the time they have conceived ; but that Christ was conceived and suffered in the same month is shown both by the observance of Easter and by the day of his nativity, which is perfectly well known to the Churches. For he who was born in the ninth month, on the eighth before the calepds of January, (December 25th), was conceived certainly in the first month, about the eighth before the calends of April, (March 25th), which was also the time of his pas sion in his mother's milk, that is, in the days of his mother."' Our concern is not with the interpretation, but the testimony. It is but just however to observe, that St. Augustine does not give this as his own, but as the interpretation of others; and he intro duces it with the remark, that " perhaps it is not absurd." Again, commenting on the 133d Psalm, though with no obvious connexion, he says : " The dispensation of man became less and less ; which was signified in John ; the dispensation of God in our Lord Jesus Christ increased. And this is shown even by their birth-days. For, as the Church hath delivered down, John was born on the eighth before the calends of July, (June 24), when the days begin to be diminished ; but the Lord was born on the eighth before the calends of January, (December 25), when now the days begin to increase. Hear John himself confessing. He must increase, but I must decrease."^ The same idea Is expressed in his first sermon on the nativity of St. John the Baptist. After observing that the Church celebrates ' Dicuntur enim feminae ex quo conce- ' Hominis dispensatio minus minusque perintlaccolligere: illo autem mense con- fiebat: quse significabatur in Johanne; ceptum et passum esse Christum, et Paschae Dei dispensatio in Domino nostro Jesu observatio, et dies ecclesiis notissimus na- Christo orescebat: quod et natalibus eorum tivitatis ejus ostendit. Qui enim mense ostenditur. Nam lUe natus est, sicut tra- nono natus est octavo kalendas Januarias, dit Ecclesia, octavo kalendas Julias, cum profecto mense primo conceptus est circa jam incipiunt minui dies. Dominus autem octavum kalendas Aprilis, quod tempus natus octavo kalendas Januarias, quando etiam passionis ejus fuit in lacte niatris jam dies incipiunt crescere. Audi ipsum suEe hoc est in diebus matris suae. — Opera, Johannem confitentem: Ilium oportetcres- ed. Ben. ut sup, tom, iii, P. I, col, 337, D, cere, me autem minui. — Enarratio in Psal. Qflte, xc. CXXXII. (Eng. ver. 133)tom.iv.col.lll3,p, CHAP. X.] DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. 541 only two birth-days, of St. John and of Christ, he says, " John was born to-day, and from this day the days are diminished. But Christ was born on the eighth before the calends of January, and from that day the days increase."' Other passages, in which the fact of our Lord's birth on the 25th of December is incldentallymentioned, are, Lib. de divers. Qusest. 83, tom. vi. col. 19. qusest. 56 ; De Trinitate, lib. iv. cap. 5, tom. viii. col. 578 ; Contra Cresconium Donatlstam, lib. iv. cap. 37, tom. ix. col. 344. These are merely referred to, because it is useless to swell this work by citing them at large. St. Augustine was fifty-six years old when Rome was sacked by the Goths, at which time the Roman Archives were certainly in existence. And having thus brought down the testimony of the Latin Christians to the same period with that of the safe keeping of the Roman Archives, that is, down to the end of the fourth century, I proceed to show when the Eastern Church adopted the practice of the western in celebrating the nativity of our Lord on the twenty-fifth of December. For this purpose, I shall lay before the reader part of a sermon of St. Chrysostom, which treats ex pressly on this subject. It was preached in Antioch, when he was a presbyter in that city, on the 25th of December, in the year of the common sera 386. Notwithstanding its length, I prefer giving a translation rather than an abstract, as being the language of the witness himself. " Homily for the birth-day of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which day was unknown until a few years since, when some persons coming from the west made it known, and publicly announced it. " Those things for which Patriarchs formerly travailed in birth, which prophets predicted, and just men desired to behold, — these came to pass and had their completion on this day; and God was beheld in the fiesh upon earth, conversing with men. Beloved, let us now rejoice and exult for gladness. For if John in his mother'^ womb leaped for joy when. Mary came in unto Elizabeth, how much more should we leap and exult, beholding not Mary, but our Saviour himself born this day ! How should we wonder and be struck with amazement at the greatness of this dispensation (rrjg okovojxiag) which passcth all understanding ! For consider what It would be, should you behold the sun descending from Heaven, ' Serm. cclxxxvii. tom, v, col, 804, 542 D-AY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. [PART II, rolling on upon the earth, and thence casting forth his rays upon all things. Should such an event happen to that material lumi nary, all who should see it would be struck with astonishment. Consider then, and ponder with me, how much greater would be the wonder to behold the Sun of righteousness shedding his rays from our flesh, and illuminating our souls with his splendour. Long have I desired to see this day, and not merely to see it, but to see it with such an assembly. And I could wish that our theatre* might be perpetually thronged, as I do now see it thronged. This my desire, therefore, is accomplished and fulfilled. " A-lthough It is not yet the tenth year since the very day be came surely known to us, nevertheless through your zeal it hath been so celebrated as if It had been from the beginning (^aiwBcv') handed down by the tradition of many years. Wherefore he would not err who should call this day both new and old : new, because the knowledge of it hath newly come to us ; old and primitive [iraXaiai' Se Kal apxaiav'j because It hath quIckly become the fellow of those more ancient, and hath, as it were, attained the same age with them. For as vigorous and healthy plants, so soon as they are set in the earth, shoot upward to a great height and are laden with fruit, so this day, known from the beginning {iivwSsv^ to the dwellers in the west, and but lately brought to us, hath so suddenly sprung forward, and borne such fruit as ye behold: our courts being every where filled, and every church crowded with the mul titude. Wherefore, ye may expect a worthy reward of this your zeal from Christ who to-day was born in the flesh. He will abundantly reward this your eagerness; for your loving care of this day is the greatest proof of love to him who this day was born. And if it becomes us, your fellow-servants, to bring to you things relating to it, we will do so according to our ability ; or rather, whatsoever Divine Grace may give us to speak for your improve ment. " Of what then do you wish to hear this day? Of what else but ol the day Itself? For I well know that many are even yet disputlno- with one another about it, some calling it in question, others defend- * The word theatre is here used, as in S. Chrysostom delivered this sermon in the Acts xix. 29-31, to denote the public place public theatre or city hall, because it could of concourse, and not in the restricted contain a larger assembly than any one sense of modern times. It is probable that of the churches. CHAP. X.] DAY OF OUR LORD's NATIVITY. 543 ing it. And Indeed there is everywhere much discourse concerning this day ; by those on the one hand who argue against it, as being something new and recent, and lately introduced ; and those on the other, who defend it as ancient and primitive {-n-aXaia kcu apxau), because the prophets had predicted concerning his birth, and from the beginning {iivwdcv) it has been clearly known, and greatly cele brated, by those who dwell from Thrace to Gades (Cadiz). Suffer me, then, to discourse upon these things ; for if while In dispute it enjoys so much of your goodwill, should it become better known it will manifestly enjoy the fruits of still greater zeal, wrought in you by the more complete teaching of the evidence of that institution. " I have now therefore to declare three proofs, by which we shall absolutely know that this is the time in which our Lord Jesus Christ, God the Word (o Bcbg \6yog) was born. " 1. And the first of these three proofs is, that this festival hath been everywhere proclaimed so rapidly, and hath risen and flou rished to so great a height. That which Gamaliel said concerning the preaching, that ' if it be of men, it will come to nought, but if it be of God, ye cannot overthrow it, lest haply ye be found even to fight against God," the same might I also confidently assert concerning this day ; that because God the Word is of Grod, there fore it shall not only not be overthrown, but every year be more widely observed and more clearly known (XafnrpoTipa), Even as that preaching in a few years convinced the whole world, although it was borne about everywhere by rude and illiterate fishermen and tent-makers ; the meanness of Its ministers doing no injury, because the power of Him who was preached, seized beforehand upon all things, removing all obstacles, and showing forth its own indwell ing might. " II. But if any one of those who are fond of contention, should not be deterred from it by what has been said, there is a second to be proposed. And what is that ? It Is taken from the enrolment (airb rqc avoypue(iS:ai enrolled.') And this taxing (enrolment) was first 1 Acts V. 38, 39. 544 DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. [pART IL made (first took effect*) when Cyrenius was governor of Syria. And all went to be taxed (enrolled) every one into his own city. And Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judsea unto the City of David, which is called Beth lehem (because He was of the house and lineage of David), to be taxed {airoypdij/aar^ai, ChryS. airoypaftiT^ai, enrolled), wIth Mary his espoused wife, being great with child. And so it was, that while they were there, the days were accomplished that she should be delivered. And she brought forth her first-born Son, and wrapped him in swaddling clothes, and laid him in a manger; because there was no room for them in the inn.'^ Whence it is manifest that He was born at the time of this first enrolment : and it is lawful for any one who wishes to know accurately, to search the ancient records publicly deposited in Rome, and there learn the time of that enrolment.^ " But what is that to us, it is said, who are not, and never have been, there ? Listen, and be not unbelieving ; for we have re ceived this day from those who have accurately examined these things, and are inhabitants of that city. For they who have tar ried there, having celebrated it from the beginning (avio^ev) and from ancient tradition, have now themselves transmitted the know ledge of it to us. Neither hath the evangelist simply indicated the season, but he hath so done it as to make even the very day mani fest and known to us, and so as to point out the divine dispensation (tov ¦9'Eoii TTJv oiKovo/iavy For not of his own motion, nor of himself, did Augustus then send forth his decree, but God, moving his soul that even involuntarily he might minister to the coming of the only Begotten. But of what profit is this to this dispensation (irpos rqj- oiKovofiiav TavTr/v), it Is asked ? Belovcd, it is neither small nor for tuitous, but exceeding great, and one of things necessary and deeply interesting. And what is that? Galilee is a certain region in Palestine, and Nazareth a city of Galilee. Again, Judsea is a cer- * But Chrysostom evidently takes irptorrf voig kioSi^iv iiri Trjg Piaprjg i^Eariv ivrv- in this place to be an adjective, and not an \6vra, Kai tov Katpov T^g dwoypaijirjg adverb. His reading, therefore, is avrri paiovTa aKpitiSg tlSivai tov /3oirX6/i£vai'. r) diroypaipfi npiirri — this first enrolment, — Chrys. Op. tom. ii. p. 356, ed. Montf. and not Ttpwrri iytViTO — was first made or In the later Greek writers, KwftJ is used first took effect, according to our version; to signify a collection of laws. It is here but this makes no difference in the argu- used in the plural in the sense of public fent. records. See Du Cange Glossarium Medije ' Luke ii. 1-7. _ et infimse Graecitatis, voce KioSi^. ' Kai ToXg dpxaioig To'ig Srjpoaia xupi- CHAP. X.] DAY OF OUR LORD's NATIVITY. 545 tain region so called by its inhabitants, and Bethlehem a city of Judfea. But all the prophets had predicted that the Christ should come forth not from Nazareth but from Bethlehem, and should be born there : for thus it is written : ' And thou Bethlehem, in the land of Juda, art not the least among the princes of Juda ; for out of thee shall come a Governor that shall rule my people Israeh' ' And the Jews, who were then inquired of by Herod where Christ should be born, declared to him this testimony. For this reason also when Nathanael, in answer to Philip's expression. We have found Jesus of Nazareth, said to him. Can there any good thing come out of Nazareth ? Christ saith concerning him, ' Behold an Israelite indeed in whom is no guile.' If it be asked why He praised him ? it was because he was not hurried away by that an nouncement of Philip ; for he knew clearly and accurately that not in Nazareth, nor in Galilee, ought Christ to be born, but in Judsea and in Bethlehem. This, therefore, came to pass. Seeing then that Philip was ignorant of this, and that Nathanael, being in structed in the law, returned for answer what had been said accord ing to the ancient prophecy, well knowing that Christ should not come from Nazareth ; therefore Christ also said. Behold an Israel ite indeed in whom is no guile.'' For this reason also some of the Jews said to Nicodemus, ' Search and look ; for out of Galilee ariseth no prophet.' ^ And again in another place : ' Doth not Christ come out of the town of Bethlehem, where David was ?'* It was the common suffrage of all that He must by all means come from thence, and not from Galilee. But seeing that Joseph and Mary, being citizens of Bethlehem, had left it, and established themselves in Nazareth and dwelt there ; as often happens to many men, who leave the cities in which they were born and dwell in other cities in which they were not born and brought up ; and see ing that it was necessary that Christ should be born in Bethlehem; the decree went forth, and they were compelled even against their will, to return to that city (jov ScoC ovTwg oikovofivvvTog) such being God's dispensation. For the law which commanded each person to be enrolled in his own country, forced them, I say, to rise up thence from Nazareth and come into Bethlehem, for the purpose of being enrolled. This the Evangelist intimates when he says, 'And ' Matt. ii. 6, quoting Mioah v. 2. ' John vii. 52. « John i. 45, 46, 47. ' Ibid. vii. 42. 69 546 DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. [PART H. Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth into Judsea, unto the city of David which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David, to be taxed (enrolled) with Mary his espoused wife,- being great with child. And so it was, that while they were there the days were accomplished that she should be delivered, and she brought forth her first-born son." "You see therefore, beloved, (oiKovofjlav Beo>j) the divine dispensa tion, God arranging his own purposes (to. KaS' iavrbv oiKovofiovvTog) by means of believers and unbelievers, that they who are estranged from godliness may learn his might and power. The star brought the Magi from the East ; the law drew Mary to the country pre dicted by the prophets. Hence it is clear to us that the Virgin was of the lineage of David, because she was of Bethlehem ; it being thereby manifest that she was also of the house and family of David. This the Evangelist has shown above in what he said : ' And Joseph also went up from Galilee with Mary, because he was of the house and lineage of David.' ^ But since the genealogy of Joseph only is here given, and no one hath counted her ances tors to us as being also his ; that there may be no doubt or inquiry how it is manifest that she also was of David, hear [what is said Luke I. 26] : ' In the sixth month, the angel Gabriel was sent from God unto a city of Galilee named Nazareth, to a virgin espoused to a man whose name was Joseph, of the house of David.' This expression ' of the house of David,' must be taken as being spoken of the Virgin, as Is here plainly manifested. On this account that decree and law was promulgated which led them both to Bethle hem. For they went both together up to the city, and Jesus was immediately brought forth. Wherefore He was laid also in a man ger, there being so great a concourse from all quarters, who had preoccupied all places and produced a great scarcity of room. And hence the Magi also worshipped Him there." ^ The third division of the sermon and the peroration consist chiefly of computations, which it will be proper to reserve till we come to the second head of our inquiry, and of arguments concern ing the necessity of the incarnation, which would be foreign from its purpose. I pass by the whole, therefore, for the present, and ' Luke iL 4-7. ' Ibid. ii. 4, ' & Jo. Cbiys. in diem Natalem D. N. J. Christi, Opera, ed. Montf. tom. ii. d, 354-358. CHAP. X.] DAY OF OUR LORD's NATIVITY. 54" proceed to make some remarks upon the nature and value of the testimony of St. Chrysostom. It appears — First, that the observalice of the festival of the Nativity on the 25th of December had been introduced into the Church of Anti och about ten years before this sermon was preached, — that is, about the year 376 of the common sera. Secondly, that though lately introduced into the Eastern Church, the observance of it was old and primitive in the West, because to ¦ them it was known from the beglnnlnff. Thirdly, that when introduced into the East, it had been every where received with great rapidity, so that the practice had become general. Fourthly, that notwithstanding this general reception, it had met with some opposition from those who considered it as an inno vation upon established practice. On this last account he proceeds to assign three reasons for the observance of it, of which two only have yet been laid before the reader. First, Its triumphant progress, which was a proof of its truth, because it would not have been so generally and immediately re ceived, if the evidence in its favour had not been most conclusive ; and Secondly, the evidence itself, drawn from the Roman Archives, where the enrolment ordered by Augustus was still in being. Christ being born and enrolled there, the very day of his birth could thereby be ascertained. The enrolment was lying in a place of public deposit, and could be easily examined, being accessible to any persons desirous of accurate investigation. And this was ordered by Divine Providence, who arranges all events according to the counsel of His own will. No one can read the sermon without being struck with the per fect conviction of its author that our Saviour was born on the 55th of December, — a conviction arising not merely from the celebration of the festival even from apostolic times, for such is the force of the expression uvwdsv, " from the beginning," but also from a written document in the Roman archives, concerning which there could be no error, because the very day of Christ's birth was proved by the register. If the modern records of births are con si- 548 DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. [pART XL dered in our courts of judicature as indubitable testimony, why were not the Roman records equally indubitable ? St. Chrysostom appeals to the fact of the general admission of this testimony. But would the bishops of the Eastern Churches have altered their practice, and adopted that of the West, unless they had been clearly convinced of its truth ? Most assuredly not. The very contentions about the right day of observing Easter show the contrary. It is very observable also that St. Chrysostom never speaks of the Epiphany as having been supposed in the Eastern Church to have been the actual day of Christ's birth. His birth was commemorated on that day, not because they believed it to be the real birthday, but because they were ignorant of the real birthday. The ex pression of the evangelist that when Jesus was baptized he was about thirty years old, showed that the 6th of January was near the time of his birth, but was not the exact time. It is evident also that when St. Chrysostom speaks of the debates in Antioch concerning the observance of the 25th of December, they are debates among the people, growing out of the change of observance and the dread of novelty. He speaks of these debates as being confined to the ignorant ; and in the confidence which conviction of the truth alone can impart, he predicts the wider and wider extension of this festival, and the clearer brightness of its truth. That it was generally observed throughout the Christian world before the Council of Ephesus (a.d. 431) is evident from two facts ; first, that there is annexed to the Acts of that council a sermon by Paul, bishop of Emesa, preached that year on the 29th of the Egyptian month Choiac (December 25) in the great church of Alexandria, in the presence of Cyril, the archbishop of that see (iig T)]v yivvqaiv tov KvpCov Kal irioTrjpng t'lpuiv Iriaod XpiToii\ for the birth of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ ;' and secondly, that notwith standing the unhappy schisms which have since that period divided the Catholic Church, the same festival on the same day has been ever observed by all. the contending parties. None of them would have changed their practice after the time of that Council, and before it there must have been suflScIent time to establish the prac- 1 Concilia, ed, Labbe et Cossart, tom. iii col. 1095. CHAP. X.] DAY OF OUR LOHD's NATIVITY. 549 tice among all. This serves as collateral testimony to the fact asserted by St. Chrysostom, that the introduction of the practice among all the Eastern Churches was very rapid, after they had received from the West the grounds on which it was founded. There is, I believe, but one exception on record to the truth of this remark, and that occurs in the work of Cosmas Indlcopleustes, a Nestorian writer of the sixth century.* He finished his work about A.D. 536 ; and he states it as a matter of much surprise that when he visited Jerusalem he found that they celebrated the Nati vity on the festival of the Epiphany, — a practice which he regarded as singular, all others observing it on the 28th (29th) of Choiac, (December 25).' With this single exception, the practice continued general, con stant, and uniform, until the sixteenth century. It is still the same, although the difference of the Julian and Gregorian calen dars has introduced a variation, amounting at present to twelve days. But this is a variation only in the computation of time ; all agreeing to observe the 25th of December. The observance of this festival extends to all who call themselves Protestant or Re formed, except a comparatively small number in England, Scotland, and America ; and this exception has arisen rather from the heats of controversy, than from any other motive. Before concluding this part of the inquiry. It may be proper to remark, that no notice has been taken of the Apostolical Constitu tions, or of the letter said to have been written by Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem, to Julius, the Bishop of Rome. The learned reader is referred for the former to the Patres Apostolici of Cotelerius, edited by Le Clerc, tom. i. p. 315, and for the latter to the Bene dictine edition of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, p. 370. The reason for omitting them is, that the former being probably a work of the fifth century, could add no weight to the testimony already given ; and the latter is a miserable forgery, deserving no place in a work the object of which is to elicit truth. As a matter of history the whole inquiry turns upon the fact of the enrolment ordered by Augustus. ' * The discovery of the Nestorianism of says La Croze, si les dogmes de cette secte Cosmas was reserved for the sagacity of La ressembloient un peu moins £i ceux de la Croze. See his Histoire du Christianisme religion orthodoxe. des Indes, tom. i. p. 41. The proofs he i Cosmae Indie. Chris. Topog. Hb. v. ap. produces are so strong, that the fact is now Montf. collection, nov, Patrum, tom. ii. generally admitted. Yet Montfuucon was p, 194, not aware of it as he would have been. 550 DAY OF OUK lord's NATIVITY. [PART 1. And I think the impartial reader must have seen that there Is an unbroken chain of testimony as to the existence of that document, and the reference constantly made to it from the age of Justin Martyr down to that of St. John Chrysostom, At this period the Universal Church, relying upon its authority, adopted one uniform practice, observing the 25th of December as the day of our Lord's Nativity. To all succeeding ages this very uniformity and univer sality becomes a permanent and competent witness to the truth, and as such ought not to be lightly regarded. With this remark we proceed to consider. In the second place, the subject of the day of our Lord's Na tivity as one of computation and argument, founded on the conjec tures of the learned. And here it will be proper to introduce the third division of St. Chrysostom's sermon to the people of Antioch, because it rests wholly on computation. I shall not attempt to translate it entire, because it is verbose and rhetorical, and enters into details with re gard to the Mosaic Law which might be necessary for the congre gation he was addressing, but certainly are not so to us who have the Bible in our hands. An abstract of it only is all that will here be attempted. After describing the division of the Jewish Sanctuary by a veil into the Holy place, and the Holy of holies, the last being a type of Heaven, St. Chrysostom proceeds to show, from the ninth chapter of Hebrews, that the entrance of the high-priest into the Holy of holies, once a year, with the blood of atonement, was intended to represent the Ascension of Christ into Heaven. He then assumes that Zechariah was the high-priest, and that he saw the vision and received the promise of the birth of St. John, as he was entering the Holy of holies, on the great day of Atonement. This, he says, quoting Leviticus xvi. was on the tenth day of the seventh month, (ver. 29), five days before the feast of Tabernacles, which feast, ac cording to his calculation, occurred about the end of September. "If then," he proceeds, "after the month Gorpiseus (September) Elizabeth's conception began, we must reckon the six intermediate months, Hyperberetseus (October), Dius (November), Apellseus (December), Audonseus (January), Peritius (February), Dystrus (March). After this sixth month Mary's conception began; whence, counting nine months, we arrive at this present monttv CHAP. X.J DAY OF OUR LORD's NATIVITY. 551 The first month therefore of our Lord's conception was April, or Xanticus. After this were A?;temisius (May), Desius, (June), Panemus (July), Loius (August), Gorpiseus (September), Hyper beretseus (October), Dius (November), and Apellseus (December), which is the present month, and in which we celebrate this day." He then sums up his argument as follows : " Once a year the high- priest entered alone into the Holy of holies, in the month Gorpiseus. Zacharias therefore entered then into the Holy of holies, and then received the glad tidings concerning John. Thence he departed, and the conception of his wife began. After Gorplxus, when Elizabeth was in her sixth month, which was Dystrus, the concep tion of Mary began. From Xanticus, therefore, counting nine months, we shall come to this present month, in which our Lord Jesus Christ was born.'" The whole of this computation is loose and inaccurate ; for the Jewish months did not coincide with the Greek or Roman months, and consequently the great day of Atonement, and the following feast of Tabernacles, might occur sometimes earlier sometimes later. By the tables of John the Baptist's and our Lord's ministry, it has been seen, that in four successive years, the day of Atone ment occurred September 29, September 18, October 7, and Sep tember 26, exhibiting a variation, in two contiguous years^ of nineteen days. But if it had been ever so accurate, it rests upon the false as sumption, that Zechariah icas the high-priest ; whereas it is evident from St. Luke's narrative, as well as from Josephus, that Zacha riah was NOT the high-priest. St. Luke says that he was " a priest of the course of Abia," or Abijah ; that " he executed the priest's office before God in the order of his course ;" that " according to the custom of the priest's office, his lot was to burn incense when he went Into the Temple of the Lord ;" and that the angel appeared unto him, not in the Holy of holies, but in the Holy place, in which all the priests went always,^ " standing on the right side of the altar of incense."^ ' The whole description shows that it was an or dinary ministration of the priesthood. From 1 Chronicles xxiv. it appears that the priests were divided by David into twenty-foul" ' S. Joan. Chrys. Op. ed. Montf. tom. ii. ' Heb. ix, 6, p. 358 c, to p. 362 B. ' Luke i, 5, 8, 9, II. 552 DAY OF OUK lord's NATIVITY. [PART II. lots or courses, of which that of Abijah was the eighth ;' and these were appointed to assist the high-priest.^ After the extinction of the Asmonsean dynasty (a.j.p. 4676) by the death of Antigonus, four high-priests only are mentioned by Josephus during the reign of Herod, — Ananelus, Aristobulus, Mat thias, and Joazar. Matthias must have been the high-priest at the time in which the vision appeared to Zechariah ; for Josephus says he was deprived of the high-priesthood, and Joazar appointed in his stead, just before Herod's death, on the day of the lunar eclipse.' We know, therefore, that Matthias was deposed March 12th, a.j.p. 4710. And though Josephus speaks of another person who, in the time of Matthias, was made high-priest for a single day, and that day also the great day of Atonement, yet the name of the person thus appointed was not Zechariah, but Joseph. There is not the least ground, therefore, for the assumption that Zechariah ever executed the office of high priest. St. Chrysostom, however, is not the only one among the ancients who fell into this error. St. Ambrose, in his commentary on Luke i. 8-10, observes that holy Zacharias seems here to be designated as high-priest,^ But I am not aware that any other of the early Latin and Greek fathers entertained this hypothesis. After the time of Chrysostom, it ought not to occasion surprise if later writers, resting on his authority, should advance as direct proof what he considered and advanced only as collateral evidence. Thus we find Cosmas Indlcopleustes, in the passage above cited, speaking with certainty of the high-priesthood of Zacharias ; and the forged correspondence between Cyril of Jerusalem and Julius of Rome, to which I have merely referred the learned reader, does the same thing. But in general, the Ancients reasoned In a very different manner. They first established the fact of our Lord's nativity on the twenty-fifth of December by the unerring testimony of the Roman Archives. They then entered into a computation from the data afforded by St. Luke, as to the time of his incarnation ; and following out the subject, they computed also the time of the birth and conception of John the Baptist. This appears to be logical and consistent with sound philosophy. The idea that * 1 Chron. xxiv, 10. * Videtur hie sanctus Zacharias summus ' Ibi Bib. Ant. cap. x.Eesta Christianorum, Hamb. 1760, 4to, tom. i. p. 480-481, 70 &J4 DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. [pART n. over had the paschal lamb, and Pentecost, the pouring out of the spirit and giving the law, while the feast of Tabernacles in Sep tember had only the completion of the vintage and the ingathering of the fruits, all of which aptly represented the occasion of our Saviour's coming : 2. That the world was created about the same time, and consequently the generation and regeneration of the world, the first when it was created, and the second when Christ should be born, would be effected at the same time : 3. That for this last reason, the ancient Churches began their year at this time, that the Indictions began in September, that the Egyptians began their first month, Thoth, at the end of August, and the year of Jubilee began with the day of expiation in September. The demonstrative arguments are drawn, — 1st, from the seventy weeks of Daniel, and 2nd, from calculations concerning the ministra tion of the course of Abia, to which Zechariah belonged. This last point forms the principal argument of Scaliger ; and Calvisius, following in his footsteps, has endeavoured to support the same by other calculations.' Spanheim speaks of two opinions only as generally prevailing ; the one of the ancient Church in favour of the twenty-fifth of De cember, the other, that which we are now considering.^ Omitting, therefore, the rest, because the consideration of all would be tedious and unprofitable,, let us confine ourselves to the reasons just alleged, most of which Spanheim himself has well answered. Supposing the month of December ever so inconvenient for the enrolment, it depended on the will of the emperor, and that of his subordinates. The convenience of the Jews would not be taken into consideration. But there is no evidence that it was so very incon venient, as far as it applies to Joseph and Mary. The journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem was from north to south, in a tem perate region, and would take but three days even on foot. De cember was also a time of leisure from all rural employments, and as such more convenient for the whole nation than any other. As to the shepherds' watching their flocks by night, and the supposed inconsistency of this fact with the birth of Christ in De cember, the whole argument rests upon a false assumption. Beth lehem, though an elevated, is not a cold region. St. Jerome, who 1 JreiJ- Spanhemii Dubia Evangelica, P. n, p. 203-206, tom, i, 4to, Genev. 1700. • Ibid. p. 197. CHAP. X,] DAY OF OUR LORD's NATIVITY. 555 lived there for many years, described its temperature in winter as being milder than that of Eome. " If it be the time of wintry cold and snow, I will buy no wood, and yet be warmer than you at Rome, whether sleeping or waking. At least I am sure I shall guard myself from cold with less fuel.'" Dr. Russell observes that in Aleppo, the climate of which resem bles that of Jerusalem, " the most delicate never make fires till about the end of November, and some few pass the whole winter without them." In the thirteen years he resided there, the ice was not above three times of sufficient strength to bear a man. Excepting three years, snow never laid above a day."^ In Buhle's Economical Calendar of Palestine, which forms the 454th number of Frag ments illustrating Scripture, annexed to Calmet's Dictionary, the reader will find a very satisfactory account of the climate during every month in the year. In December, although the cold is some times extremely piercing, yet in general rains are more usual than snows. When the easterly winds blow, the weather is dry, although they sometimes bring a mist and hoar frost. The mercury usu ally stands all the month at 46°. It frequently gets up in the afternoon, if there is no rain, three degrees. Corn is sown during this month ; and the grass and herbs again springing up out of the ground after the rains, the Arabs drive their flocks down from the mountains into the plains^^ " Even in England," as Casaubon ob serves, " where there is no fear of wolves or other noxious animals, flocks pass the night through the whole year In the fields, and are never housed on account of cold, rain, or winds. Wherefore the ancient tradition of the Church is not to be by us rashly rejected."* The mere statement of the conjectural arguments in favour of the month of September, Is sufficient to show their weakness. I pass them over therefore without comment, and proceed to those which are called demonstrative. Both are founded upon compu tations. The first, from the seventy weeks of Daniel, Spanheim ^ Si frig-US fuerit et -brumales nives, ligna and in January he saw roses in bloom in non coemam; et calidius vigilabo vel dor- gardens, and often sat with his windows miam. Certe quod sciam, villus non algebo. open. In the month of February, however, — Ep. ad Marcellam, Op. ed. Ben. tom. iv. when the Tramontana blew, the cold was c. 553.. intense; and the fountains in the front of ^ Deser. of Aleppo, Harmer's Obs. vol. i, St. Peter's froze as they feU, Bethlehem, p. 130-132, ¦ according to St. Jerome's account, was ' Calmet, ToL iii. p, 501, 4to. — The an- milder than Eome. thor spent a part of three successive winters ^ Exerc. ad Ann. Bar. vii. Lond. 1614, »t Eome. It was never cold in December, p. 174. 556 DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. [pART IL himself dismisses with the remark, that so long as the beginning and end of the seventy weeks Is a subject of controversy, it cannot possibly throw any light on that of our Saviour's nativity.' But the second cannot be passed over in silence, because it is founded on calculations concerning the ministration of the course of Abia. Josephus, speaking of the twenty-four families of the priests as arranged by David, says, that " he ordered one family to minister to God for eight days, that is, from one sabbath to another ; and thus all the families were distributed by lot. The family whose lot came out first was recorded as the first." " And this division," he adds, " hath continued even unto this day."^ It appears also from 1 Mace. ii. 1, that Mattathlas, the father of Judas Maccabaeus, was " a priest of the sons of Joiarib," which was the first lot in the twenty-four coui;ses appointed by David.^ It appears also from 1 Mace. I. 54-59, compared with chap. iv. 52-59, that the Temple was profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes, with idolatrous worship, just three years from the twenty-fifth of Cas leu, in the year of the Greeks or Seleucidse 145, to the twenty-fifth of the same month in the year 148. With this account Josephus perfectly agrees ; and he adds, moreover, that " this desolation of the Temple by Antiochus, happened in the 153d olym.piad, and the restoration of divine worship in the 154th olympiad,"* The first year of the first olympiad began at the first full moon after the summer solstice, A.J.P. 3938. To this add 612 years, and it brings us to the summer solstice of a.j.p. 4550, as the end of the 153d and the beginning of the 154th olympiad. Again : Petavius has fully shown,® that the computation of time in the first book of Maccabees begins from the month Nisan, A.J.P. 4402. To this add 148 years, and we are brought to the month Nisan, a.j.p, 4550, as the beginning of the 148th year of the Greeks. The twenty-fifth of Casleu that year fell on Sunday the 23d of November; consequently, it was in the fifth month of ' Dub. Evang. P. ii. p, 204, fourth year of the 154th olymp." In the ' Antiq. Jud. lib. vii. c. 14, § 7, Greek text, there is nothing to warrant ' 1 Chron. xxiv. 7. the words in italics ; and they falsify the * Antiq. Jud. lib. xii, cap. 7, § 6. — Let meaning of the author. My edition was not the English reader be here led into published at Boston, 1821, in 2 vols, 4to, error by Whiston's translation of this pas- The error is in vol, i. p. 445. sage. That runs thus : "on the first year * De Doc. Temp. Ub, x, cap. 45. ef the 153rd olymp.;" and again, "ore the CHAP. X.] DAY OF OUR LORD's NATIVITY. 557 the first year of the 154th olympiad when the public worship of the Temple was renewed by the Asmonsean family. On this Scaliger founded his computation ; and as Petavius has clearly and concisely stated his argument, it shall be given nearly in his words. According to Scaliger's computation, Christ was born .a.j.p. 4711 in the forty-third year of Julius Ceesar's reformed calendar. The message to Zechariah, as appears from the Gospel narrative, pre ceded the birth of Christ fourteen months ; for immediately after the time of his ministration was fulfilled, Elizabeth conceived ' and hid herself five months. The sixth month after, Gabriel was sent to Mary,^ and in the ninth month after that annunciation, Christ was born. The order of the priests' courses must, therefore, be computed from the restoration of the Temple worship by Judae Maccabseus to the announcement of the birth of John made to Zechariah. A.J.P. 4549, the new moon of Casleu happened on Thursday October 30th, and consequently the 25th of Casleu fell on Sunday the 23d of November. The day before was the Sabbath, and then^ without doubt began the ministration of the first lot, or the family of Joiarib, to which the Asmonseans belonged. As there were twenty-four courses, and each course ministered seven days, 24x7=168 days, maybe called the sacerdotal revolution or pe riod. The family of Abia being the eighth, was preceded by seven families ; and therefore 7 x 7=49 days must elapse before the course of Abia began its ministrations ; viz. from the Sabbath Nov. 22 nd, A.J.P. 4549, to the Sabbath January 10th, a.j.p. 4550. From the Sabbath January 10th, A.J.P. 4550, to the Sabbath which fell on the 21st of July, a.j.p. 4710, comprehending 160 years and 192 days, there were precisely 345 sacerdotal periods of the family of Abia. Consequently the ministration of Zechariah continued from July 21st to July 2Sth, a. j.p, 4710. Within that week the birth of John was announced to Zechariah, and after the 28 th of July, Elizabeth conceived and hid herself five months. At the com mencement of the sixth month, Gabriel appeared to Mary, viz. about the end of December ; and, therefore, the birth of Christ took place about the end of September.^ I Luke i. 24. ' Petav. Doct. Temp. lib. xii. c. 7; Sp»n^ e Ibid, i,'26. temii Dubia Evang, P, n, p. 209. 558 DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. [PART IL I,n this argument Scaliger made two assumptions, the one false, -the other uncertain. He fiilsely assumed that Christ was born A.J.P. 4711. This could not be, for Christ was born during the lifetime of Herod the Great, and Herod died a.j.p. 4710. He assumed further that when the Temple was cleansed and dedicated by Judas Maccabseus, the family of Joiarib without doubt beo-an the sacerdotal ministrations. But this must be uncertain. What evidence had he, or could he have, of the fact ? After the Babylonish captivity, the services of the second Temple were re newed on the first day of the seventh month, or Tisri.' On the twenty- fourth of that month, two days after the feast of Taber nacles was ended, the covenant was renewed and the priests sepa rated according to their courses.^ At this time there were enume rated only twenty-two courses of priests, and shortly after only twenty- one. In the first, Abia or Abijah is the twelfth, and Joiarib the seventeenth ; in the second, Abijah is the eleventh, and Joiarib the fifteenth.^ When therefore Josephus says that, David's division of the priests had continued even to his day, that is even to the destruction of the second Temple, his words must be under stood of the general arrangement only, without excluding those modifications which the changes of times and circumstances would necessarily produce. As the interruption of divine worship by the tyranny of Antiochus lasted but three years, it was easy to com pute and preserve the series of ministrations as they had previously existed. Or the interruption might be considered as a mere sus pension of the previous order ; and so the family next to that which served last might be considered as having the right of precedence. Or the whole question may have been determined, as it was at the beginning, by lot ; and that family whose lot came up first, would be called upon to serve first. On any of these suppositions the whole series would be altered. It is impossible, therefore, to argue with any certainty, from such uncertain premises. Indeed the utter uncertainty of such calculations Is best shown by exhibiting the contradictory conclusions to which they have le 1. Thus the learned AUIx, admitting the general accuracy of So.i- 1 Nehem, viii. 2. ' Ezra iii. 1-11, comp. with Neb, ix, 38 ; x. 1-8. • Neh, xii, 1-7, comp. with 12-21. CHAP. X.] DAY OF OUR LORD's NATIVITY. 559 llger's computations, has argued from them, that in the year of the Julian Period 4708, the course of Abia would enter on its ministry the 13th of March, and end on the 5th of April, The conception of Johii might therefore have taken place on the 7th or 8th of April, A,J.P. 4708, and his birth about the 1st of January, A.J.P. 4709. Consequently the conception of Christ might have taken place about the tenth of October, a.j.p. 4708, and his birth about the llth or 12th of April, A.j.p. 4709.' So Mr. Mann, arguing from Ezra iii. 6, that the public worship of the second Temple began on the 1st of Tisri, which he says was the 24th of September, A.j.p. 4178, calculates as follows: The whole distance of time from September 24, a.xp. 4178, to the des truction of the second Temple on the 9th of the month Ab, or August 4, A.J.P. 4783, was 220,927 days, or 1315 sacerdotal revo lutions, ending with the course of Joarib. From these two epochs, calculating either backward or forward, we shall find the course of Abia, the eighth in order, having its ministrations from the sabbath December 21st, to the Sabbath December 28th, A.U.C. 745, a.j.p. 4705. Zechariah then returned to Hebron, twenty-four miles from Jerusalem, and the conception of John took place. Calcu lating thence, the sixth month would end June 29, A.U.C. 746, two or three weeks perhaps after the annunciation to Mary ; and so her blessed delivery would fall about the 21st of March, A.U.C. 747.' Petavius, on the other hand, taking the same calculations, argues as follows : Assuming the opinion which he preferred, that Christ was born in the year 41 of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, A.J.P. 4709, he says that from the Sabbath, Nov. 22, a.j.p. 4549, to Friday, September 17, A.J.P. 4708, are 58,009 days, which, being divided by seven, give 8287 weeks, equal to 345 sacerdotal revolutions, and 49 days over, or seven entire courses. Therefore the eighth course, or that of Abia, began on the sabbath September 18th, In the year of the Julian period 4708, lunar cycle 15, solar cycle 4, Sunday letter c. Towards the end of that week Gabriel announced the birth of John to Zechariah, as he was offering incense. His ministrations being ended, he returned home ,after the 24th of September. Elizabeth conceived not long after, and brought forth John towards the end of the ninth month from that ' Allix de J. C. natali, Lond. 1707, 8vo, ¦ Mann de An. Nat. Christi, cap. 12, p. 46. Lond. 1752, 8vo, p. 87-90 560 DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. [PART IL date, A.J.P. 4709, in which year six months after our Lord was born on the 25th of December. Therefore the conjecture of Sca liger aids the common and ancient tradition concerning the birth day of Christ, and proves the assertion to be unnecessary that he was born in the autumn.' Here t'nen there are four utterly discordant conclusions, drawn from the same premises, by men of Intelligence, learning, and ac curacy. Well therefore does Bishop Marsh conclude, in the lan guage of Dr. Korner, that "all attempts (t, would rather say all such attempts,) to discover the real day on which Christ was born, must be fruitless."' I am not aware of any other arguments, or rather assertions, on this subject which require a passing notice, excepting two ; first, that the festival of the Nativity of Christ, on the 25th of December, was substituted for the heathen festival on that day, called the Nativity of the Invincible, — Nativltas (or rather Natalis) Invlcti. And secondly, that this, as well as other Christian festivals, was founded on a sort of astronomical allegory, descriptive of the pro gress of the sun in the zodiac. The first is affirmed by Michaelis. Having asserted in his har mony that the conception of John took place in August, and his birth in May, and that our Lord was born in October, he adds in a note, that "our festivals were not arranged according to the time in which the several events intended to be celebrated really happened ; for they were substituted In the place of heathen festi vals, in order to annihilate even the traces of heathenism. Thus the festival called Nativltas Invlcti was converted into Nativltas Christi."^ To this Bishop Marsh well answers : 1. That the festival called Natalis (not Nativltas) Invlcti, was introduced into the Roman calendar, A.D. 351, in honour of the emperor Constantius. And 2. That it was celebrated, not on the eighth before the calends of January, or December 25th, but on the eighth before the ides, or the 6th of January. He adds, that this is " a modern opinion, for none of the ancient fathers have given the least hint of it. It was first hazarded as a conjecture, by John, Metropolitan of NIcsea, ' Petav, Doc, Tem. lib. xii. c. 7. ' Marsh's Michaelis, Harm, of the Gos- • Marsh's Michaelis, vol, v, p. 52, pels, § 7, vol, iv, p, 37. OHAP. X.J DAY OF OUR LORD S NATIVITY. 561 about the tenth century : was revived and defended in this last cen tury by Hardouin and Petau : and was finally brought into more general notoriety by professor Hainberger of Gottlngen, in 1751. No man has dressed this notion In more fanciful array than Dupuis, in his Origlne de tons les Cultes, v. 114-139, the object of which work is to derive all religions from the twelve signs of the zodiac."' Sir Isaac Newton seems to have been the first who hazarded the fanciful opinion, that the arrangement of all the Christian festivals was made by mathematicians, and derived from astronomy. " The times of the birth and passion of Christ,"' he observes, " were little regarded by the Christians of the first age. They who began first to celebrate them, placed them at the cardinal points of the year ; as the annunciation of the virgin Mary on the 25th of March, which, when Julius Caesar corrected the calendar, was the vernal equinox ; the feast of John the Baptist, on the 24th of June, which was the summer solstice ; the feast of St. Michael on September 29, which was the autumnal equinox ; and the birth of Christ on the winter solstice, December 25, with the feasts of St. Stephen, St. John, and the Innocents, as near It as they could place them. And be cause the solstice in time removed from the 25th of December to the 24th, the 23rd, the 22nd, and so on backwards, hence some In the following centuries placed the birth of Christ on December 23, and at length on December 20 ; and for the same reason they seem to have set the feast of St. Thomas on December 21, and that of St. Matthew on September 21. So also, at the entrance of the sun Into all the signs in the Julian calendar, they placed the days of other saints: as the conversion of St. Paul on January 25, when the sun entered ^ Aquarius ; St: Matthias on February 25, when he en tered X Pisces ; St, Mark on April 25, when he entered b Tau rus ; Corpus Christi on May 26, when he entered n Gemini ; St. James on July 25, when he entered ss Cancer ; St. Bartholomew on August 24, when he entered "R Virgo ; St. Simon and St. Jude on October 28, when he entered ni Scorpio : and if there were any other remarkable days in the Julian calendar, they placed the saints upon them, as St. Barnabas on June 11, where Ovid seems to place the feast of Vesta and Fortuna, and the goddess Matuta ; and St. Philip and St. James on the 1st of May, a day dedicated both to the Bona Dea, or Magna Mater, and to the goddess Flora, and still celebrated with her rites. All which shows that these days 1 Marsh's Mich. vol. v. p. 33-56, 71 562 DAY OF OUR lord's NATIVITY. PART U. were fixed In the first Christian calendars by mathematicians at pleasure, without any ground in tradition ; and that the Christians afterwards took up with what they found in the calendars."' By all the civilized world, Newton is allowed to have been the parent of the modern system of natural philosophy. His power of "invention, his Intensity of thought, his patience of investigation, were unrivalled. What is more, he was a Christian, deeply con vinced of the truth of revelation, acting with justice and benevolence towards man, and walking humbly before God. But aside from the qualities of mind enumerated, his powers were those of ordi nary men ; and he lived at a period in which there was at work in England a latent spirit of unbelief, tending in its progress towards the refined deism of the last and present age. How else can we account for the fact, that a mind like his, so accustomed to the severity of mathematical calculation, so exercised in the inves tigation of natural phenomena, so methodical and wise in his most adventurous speculations, so experienced in all the requisites for the discovery of truth, should have made assertions so unfounded, and hazarded conjectures so false and extravagant, as are crowded ' into the paragraph here quoted ? In the region of history, he seemed to be shorn of his strength. Without any profound investigation, which attention to other studies and pursuits forbade, he might have learned from Hospinlan, a Protestant and a Calvinlst, that most of the festivals he has named were appointed on the day in which the persons commemorated actually suffered, or were supposed to have suffered martyrdom, and that such was the established rule and theory of their institution. He might have learned, that the festival of St. Paul's conversion is of such recent date, that even in the time of Innocent III. or the beginning of the thirteenth century, it was not everywhere cele brated ; that the festival of Corpus Christi, as is confessed by all, was instituted by Urban IV. about a.d. 1264 ; and that concerning the festival of St Michael the archangel, authors are not agreed whethei' It was instituted under Felix, A.D. 480, or under Anasta sius, about A.D. 500, or under Pelagiu's, after a.d. 560.^ But a distrust of antiquity was the prevailing temper of the times ; and the great Newton carelessly threw out an unfounded opinion, which Dupuis and Volney, and other French infidels, fol- ' Sir Isaac Newton's Observations upon Daniel and the Apocalypse, Lond. 1733, 4to, p. 144-5. ' Hospin, de Origine Eestorum Christianorum. Opp, tom, ii, pp, 49, 113, 147. CHAf. x.j] DAY OF OUR LORD's NATIVITY. 563 lowed into its legitimate consequences, that the whole arrange ments of the ancient Church were only an astronomical allegory. We cannot but lament, that the influence of great names has established it almost as an axiom of modern times, that the date of our Saviour's birth is a subject of mere conjecture. We cannot but lament the cold, heartless indifference with which even such a critic as Abp. Newcome could say, "Jesus was born, says Lardner, between the middle of August and themlddle of November, a.u.c 748 or 749. (Cred. I. 796, 9, 3rd ed.) We will take the mean time, Oct. 1." !!! We cannot but lament that the blessed event, which the Holy Spirit from the beginning predicted,— the blessed event which patriarchs and prophets beheld afar off, and were glad, — the blessed event on which the whole history of a ruined world is dependent, — should be, even in thought, so shrouded in dark oblivion ! Instead of these ingenious conjectures, by which the ground of all truth is made to crumble from beneath our feet, it is better for us at once to go back to the devout simplicity and historic faith, which, long before the existence of ignorant legends and impudent inter polations, characterised the purest ages of Christianity. Jesus completed his thirtieth year on the twenty-fifth of Decem ber preceding his baptism, in the, year of the Julian Period 4737 ; the sixth month of the fourth year of the 200th Olympiad ; on the fifth day of the ninth month a.u.c. 777 ; the sixty-ninth year of the Julian calendar, which was Bissextile ; and when M. Asinius Agrippa and Cossus Cornelius Lentulus were consuls. Consequently (4737 — 30) he was born on the twenty-fifth of December A. J.P. 4707; the sixth month of the second year of the 193rd Olympiad ; on the fifth day of the ninth month A.u.c. 747 ; the thirty-ninth year of the Julian Calendar ; when D. Lselius Balbus and C. Antistius Vetus were consuls ; on the twenty -third Aft'r II. Mot. Easter Sepulchre 4.J.P. 4741, Kef. Cal. Jul. Csesar 73, continued. Having recovered their senses, the guards, iu their consternation rushed from the garden, and fled into the city. From some unknown cause, the women were detained, and did not arrive at the sepulchre till the sun was rising, or about 6 o'clock, the end of the morning watch. They perceived that the stone was rolled away ; and Mary Magdalene, iinagining that tlie Lord's body had been treated with some indignity, went in an agony of grief to tell Peter and John. After she was gone, the other two women entered the outer chamber of the sepulchre, and there saw an angel sitting at the right of the entrance into the inner chamber, where the body had been deposited. He bade them not be afraid, invited them to look at the place where the Lord had lain, and then sent a message by them to the disciples and Peter. Filled with fear and joy, they hastened from the sepulchre. After they had departed, Peter and John came running thither, followed by Mary Mag dalene. They examined the grave clothes, but saw no vision, and soon left the Sepulchre in the utmost astonishment. Mary remained Weeping ; and as she Stooped and looked into the sepulchre, saw two angels who comforted her. As she turned, our Lord himself appeared, revealed himself to her, checked her transports, and sent her with a message to his brethren. She seems then to have met the other Mary and Salome, and as they were going to tell the Apostles, our Lord met all three, and dis covered himself to thera. ¦' The women from Galilee, who had set out early, but coming in greater numbers had collected more slowly, arrived after these events, bringing the epices they had brought on Friday evening. Seeing the stone rolled away, they entered, supposing that others had arrived before themi and found not the body of the Lord Jesus. While in perplexity, they also saw a vision of two angels, who reminded them of what Jesus had said to them in Ga lilee concerning his death and resurrection. This brought his words to remembrance, and they returned to tell the Apostles. "The women having assembled, related all these things to the Apostles, hut their words seemed to them like idle dreams. While these events were occurring, some of the guards had related to the Hif^i Priests what had befallen them at the Sepulchre. On this a council was called, and a large sum of money was given to the soldiers to spread the Matt. Mark, xxviii. 9 10 xxviii.ll to 15 xvi. 2 xvi. 3 4 xvi. 5 Luke. John, x\-i. 10 11 XX. 1. •2 XX. 3 to 10 XX. 11 xxiv. lO-i XX. 16 U CHAP, St.] NEW HARMONY OP THE GOSPEL^, 501 Time. Place. \lar. Easter day April Sepulchre Emmaus Jerusalem I. like of Tiberias A.J.P. -1741, Ref. Cal. Jul. Cffisar 73, continued. report that our Lord's body -ivas stolen while they slept. In the afternoon, as two of the disciples were walking to Emmaus, a village 60 stadia, or 7i Roman miles, from Jerusalem, Jesus appeared to them in another form, and in con versation with them explained the Scrijituies concei'Uing his death and resurrection. As it was "toward evening," He supped with them, and made himself known by blessing and breaking and giving bread to them, as at the institution ofthe Sacrament. Returning that same hour to Jerusalem, they came in the evening where the disciples were assembled with fastened doors, for fear of the Jews ; and learned, as they entered, from the Apostles and other disciples, that the Lord had appeared, during their absence, to Peter. As they were relating the occurrences at Emmaus, our Lord suddenly appeared in the assembly, and by shewing them his hands and his side, and eating in their presence, con vinced them all that He was really and truly risen from the dead. With these events ended the memorable Sunday of the Resurrection, celebrated ever after as the Christian Passover. During that week, the disciples seem to have been left to calm their minds, and medi tate on the evidence given to them. But Thomas, who had been absent on the evening of the 28th of March, declared his unbelief, and seems to have staggered the faith of some others. Therefore — On the octave of the resurrection, or Sun day the 4th of April, while the disciples were again assembled with fastened doors, our Lord appeared among them as before, upbraided those who did not fully believe, and then turn ing to Thomas, told him to do the very thing which, in speaking to the other disciples, he had said could alone convince him. This double proof, addressed to his reason and his senses, led the astonished Apostle im mediately to acknowledge Him as his Lord and his God. This was the second time He had shewed himself to the collected body of his disciples. Our Lord shewed himself a third time to his disciples, ut the lake of Tiberias, by another miiaculous draught of fishes. The disciples may have left Jerusalem 'oy our Lord's command, on Monday, April 5th, and have arrived at Capernaum on Thursday the 8th. On the shore of the Lake of Tiberias, after the miraculous draught of fish&s, our Lord ate with his disciples ; and as Peter had denied Matt. Mark. Luke. Johu. xvi. 12- 13 xvi. 14 to 35 xxiv. 36 to XX. 19- 20 XX. 24- 2j XX. m. 27 XX. 2829 .30 31 xxi. 1 to 14 xxi. 1 6 t,) 25 592 NEW HARMONY OP THE GOSPELS. fpART II. April May A.J.P- 4741, Ref. Cal. Jul. Cffisar, 73, continued. Lake or sea of Tiberias Galilee Jerusalem Mount of Olives, confines of Bethphage and Bethany Jerusalem him three times, our Lord asked him three times if he loved him, directed him, as a proof of his love, to feed his lainbs and his sheep, predicted the manner of his death, and rebuked his curiosity concerning John. On a mountain in Galilee, perhaps the Mount of the Transfiguration, our Lord ap peared to tbe-Eleven, and to above five hun dred brethren at once. (I Cor. xv. 6.) After that He was seen of James, then of all the Apostles. (1 Cor. xv. 7.) How soon the disciples returned to Jerusa lem does not appear ; but our Lord continued with them until the fortieth day after his re surrection, " speaking of the things pertaining to the" Church, or " kingdom of God." (Acts i. 3.) During this period, He gave "his command ments, through the Holy Ghost, unto the Apostles whom He had chosen." (Acts i, 2). His commissions appear to have been gene rally given on Sunday. On the fortieth day, being Thursday, the 6th of May, our Lord led his disciples out on the Mount of Olives, as far as to Bethany, and there, while He blessed them, ascended into Heaven, whence He shall come in like manner at his Second Advent. (Actsi. 2). The election of Matthias to the Apostleship, in the place of the traitor Judas, probably occurred on Sunday the 9th of May. The Apostles had been commancled to tarry in the city of Jerusalem until they should be endued with power from on high, by the descent ofthe Holy Ghost. This power would bring all things, which their Lord had said unto them, to their remembrance, and the gift of tongues would fit them to proclaim what He had said throughout all nations. This power descended on the Jewish feast of weeks, the day of Pentecost, Sunday the 16th of May. Aided by this power, "they went forth and preached every where, the Lord working with them, and confirming the word with signs following. Amen." xxviii.16 17 xxviii.18 Mark. xvi. 15 xxiv. 50 63 A SYNOPTICAL TABLE OP THE PERIOD OF TIME EMBRACED IN THIS WORK, FROM THE BIRTH OF AtTSUSTOS TO THE DEATH OP TIBERIDS ; IN WHICH A CONDENSED VIEW IS aiVEN OF ITS REStlLTS, 594 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Ju Pel noS ian iod. 0 1 0 i0 PS .s5 Consuls. s < c 1 1 KCMARKASLE EVENTS. 4650 02 Jan. CLXXIX. 1 690 cg3 I 2 34 685 686 688 Sep. Conspiracy of Cataline detected au(l punished. Jnne 19 or 20.— Capture of Jeru salem by Pompey.— The Tem ple taken durmg the Olympic Games.— At this time Herod -was prohably 10 yeai-s old. Sep. 23. — Octavius, afterwards called Ai^ustos, bom. Jan. 15 M. Tullius Cicero C. Antonius Feb. 314 Mar. lip.23 E Apr. .May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4651 0 3 J 15 Ep. 4 D Jan.Feb. Jan. 28 D. Junius M.F. Silanus L. Licinius L.F. Mursena Apr.mI7 June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4652 04 J 16 Ep.l5 C Jan. Jan. 18 M. Pupius Piso M. Valerius Messalla Niger Feb Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4653 OS J 17 Ep.26 BA Jan. Feb. Jan. 30 Lucius Afranius Qu. Metellus Celer Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. ' SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 595 Julian Period. 4654 06 518 Ep.7 G 4655 07 319 Ep. IS F 4656 08 J 1 Ep. 0 E 4657 09 2 Ep. 11 DC Feb. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Dec. Jan. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Nov. Dec. Apr. May July Aug. Oct.Nov, Dec. CLXXX. 1 694 697 Jan. 19 Jan. 31 Fob. 2 Consuls. C. Julius C.F. CN. CiEsar M. Calpurnius Bibulus L. Calpurnius L.F. L.N. [Piso Csesoninus A. Gabinius A.F. P. Cornelius P.F. Lentulus [Spinther Q. Cfficilius Q.F. Q.N. Me- [tellus Nepos Cn. Cornelius P.F. Lentu- [lus Marcellinus L. Marcius L.F. Q.N. Phil- [lippus 690 cgl XlEMAHKAfiLE EvENTS. 596 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Ju Pej ian iod. 1 1 4! S "S ii 1 COKSDIS. 1 •s1 1 RE2UBKAJ3LE EYZNTS. 4658 OIO 53 Ep.22 B Jan. CLXXXI. 1 699 700 ToT 9 1011 12 693 694696 Sep. Jan. 23 Cn, Pompeius Cn.F. Sex.N. [Magnus 1 1. M. Licinius P.F. M.N. Cras- [sus 11. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4659 on J4 Ep.3 A Jan. Jan. 12 L. Domitius Cn.F. Cn.N. [Ahenobarbus Ap. Claudius Ap.F. C. N. [Pulcher Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4660 012 56 Ep.l4 G Jan. Jan. 2 Cn. Domitius M. P. M. N. rCalvinus M. Yalerius Messalla Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July j Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Dec. 23 Cn, Pompeius C.F. Sex. N. rMagnus lii sine Lconlega Primus a Cfficilius Q.F. Q.N. Me- rtellus Pius Scipio Lex, A.D.K. SextU. 4661 013 56 Ep.25 FE Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. MayJune July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Dec. 13 Ser. Sulpicius Q.F. Rnfus M, Claudius M.F. M.N. [Marcellus SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 597 Jul Per 2as ian od. 1 ¦ u a o o so i COKSULS. 1¦s -<1 1 1 4662 ou 3 7 Ep.6 D Jan. CLXXXII. 1 702 703 704 705 13 14U 16 697 698 TOOSep. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Dec. 3 L. .aimilius M.F. Paullus C. Claudius C.F. M.N. Mar- [cellus 4663 OU 5 8 Ep.i7 C Jan. 1 Nov- 28.— Year ol Numa. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct, Nov. Dec. Nov. 23 C. Claudius M.F. M.N. [Marcellus L. Cornelius P.F. Lentulus Towards the end of the year C. Julius Cffisar, Dictator, (his Brst Dictatorship.held 11 days.) 4664 :oi6 5 9 Ep.28 B Jan. Jan. «.— CsEsar declared hy the Senate the enemy of his coun try. Nov. 16.— Tear of KuDoa, Jan. 4, Csesar set sail for Dyrrafhiom. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Nov. 13 C. Julius C.F.C.N. Caesar ll. P. Servilius P.P. Cn. N. Va- [tia Isauricus About the beginning of Sep tember, C. Julius Caesar ii Dictator II, appointed by the Senate for one year. Dee. 4665 017 510 Ep.9 AG Jan. Battle of Pharsalia about Mid- Bimuuer, follofred by the death of Pompey. Oeaai at Alexandria, -where he remained nine months. Feb. Mar. Apr. Majr June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov, Not, 2 C.Julius Cssar, Dictatorii Dec, 598 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Julian Period. n O Consuls. Rkmahkhblk Stents. 4666 018 m Ep,20 F Apr. May 706 June July CLXXXIII 1 Aug. Sep. Nov. Dec. 4667 019 3)12 Ep.l £ Feb. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Dec. Jan. O20 218 Ep.l2 D Feb. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Dec. 021 3)14 Ep.23 CB Feb. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Dec. ToTvards the close of Csesar's Se cond Dictatorship, or about the beginning of September, he caused to be elected as Consuls Q. Fufius Q.F, Q.N. Calenus P. Vatinius P.F. 707 C. Julius C.F. CN. [Caesar in M. JEmilius M.F. [Q.N. Lepidus About Jnne or July, i. e. accord- to trae time, in the month of of April, the Senate conferred on Caesar Oie Dictatorship for ten years. Therefore C. Julius C.F. CN. Caesar, [Dictator in 708 C. Julius C.F. CN. Caesar, [Dictator in I M. ^milius Lepidus, Mas- [ter of the Horse. 3Ji the same year C. Julius C.F. CN. Cffisar riiii, Consul without a L Colleague. In the same year, he substituted for himself as Consul Q. Fabius Q.F. Q.N. Maxi- [mus, with C, Trebonius. Fabius died the last day of the year, aud for him Ctesar sub stituted for a few hours only, honoris gratia, C Caninius C.F.C.N. Eebi- ^___ [lus 709 B I O 1 3) 1 Ep. 0 GF \ C.N.-\ ffisar V I M.F. M [M.N. ) C. Julius C.F. CN. Cffisar, [Diet. Perp. or iiii M. iEmilius M.F. Q.N. Le- [pidus, Mast, ofthe Horse. C Julius C.F. C.N.^ [Cffisar^ M. Antonius M. [M.] Csesar being slain on the Ides of March, P. Cornelius P.F. Dolabella , having been .designated by ' Csesar as his substitute during the Parthian "War, entered on the office, as of right, irithout waitii^ for the consent of the ' Senate and People. 701 At the close of March, or begin ning of April, Caesar's expedi tion against Pharnaces. — He returns to Rome about the month of Sextilis ; probably, therefore, about Miosummer. While in Syria, he confirms Hyrcanus in the High Priest hood, appoints Antipater Pro curator of Jodsea, and giTcs permission to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. Herod GloTcmor of Galilee. Oct. 17 or 18. — C^sar embarked for A&ica. On the Calends of Jan. or Oct. 23, he was encamped before Boa- pina. 702 The Afi:ican war lasted, about pix months, and was terminated by the deaths of Cato and Ji^a. CBEsar left TTtica on the Ides of June^ or true time April 1 ; and Sardinia, June 28, or April 16. He arriTcd in Rome July 27, or May H. At the commencement of Cssar's third Dictatorship, he enacted the law for the reformation of the Calendar. Early in Not. Caesar arriTed in Poetica, 27 days after he left Rome. Attcarua taken Dec. 22, or the llth before the Cal. of March, the 19th of the intercalary month. The Battle of Munda fought the 97th day of this year, or A.J.F. 4668, Jan. 17. Feb. 12, the 123rd day of this year, the head of the elder Pompey brought to Caesar at Hi'spniis. Mar. 15. — Caesar murdered. De noted in the Roman Calendar as " The Parricide." SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 599 Julian Period. Consuls, Octavi- anua Kesulrkable Etents. 4670 022 215 Ep.4 A Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. ¦4671 023 J 19 Ep. 16 G 4672 024 317 Ep.26 P 4673 025 318 Ep.7 ED Sep. Oct. Not. Jan. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. ocr Nov. Dec. CLXXXIV. 1 Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Oct. Jan. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Not. 710 02 D 2 Ep.ll E 705 C, Vibius C,P. CN. Pansa A. Hirtius A.F. Octavianus Cassarl ^.„_ Ouintus Pedius J °°^'' On the formatioii of the Trium virate, Ciesar ahdicated his ConsulsMp, and for the re mainder of the year, C. Carrinas C.F. \ . P. Ventidius P.F. J °°^^' 711 3 O 3 3 3 Ep.22 D 712 713 706 707 4 04 3 4 Ep.3 C L. Munatius L.F. L.N. [Plancus M. .ffimilius M.F. Q.N. [Lepidus ll L. Antonius M.F, M.N. . rPietas P. Servilius P.F. CW.Vatin. [Isauricus ii B 5 O 5 2) 5 Ep.l3 BA C. Asinius Cn.F. Pollio Cn. Domitius M.F. M.N. [CaWinus ii April lis.— Both Consuls killed in tho battle of Mutina against Antony, leaving Octavianus Cassar sole Commamder. Aug. 19.— OctaTlanns Csesar Con sul before he had completed bis 20th year. Not. 27— M. -Emilius 7 Triumviri forftYe M. Antonius > years from Jan. Imp. Csesar j 1, a.j.p. 4671. Cassius goes Into Syria, where he secures the greater part of the Army, receives Herod with great favour, gives him the command of Coele-Syria, and J remises to make him King of udasa. Antipater poisoned by Malichus. Battle of Philippi ; after which Antony goes into Asia. This year spent by .Antony in Syna and Egypt. Having been the Mend ofAntipater,he con firmed his sons, Phasael and Herod, as Tetrarchs. The Parthians invade Palestine about May 20. PacOrus; their Commander, deprives Hyrca nus, and appoints Antigonus to the. High-PriesthooQ and Government of JudKa. Flight of Herod to Rome. About July 20, the important de cree of the Roman henate pas sed, by which Herod, at the age of '" " Judaea. I made. King of 600 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Julian Period. o II¦aS 11 COHSULS. Octavi anus Her od the Great Reuase&bu Emm, 4674 026 »I9 Ep. 18 C Apr. May 714 June July OlXXXT.l Aug. Sep. Oct. Dec. 4675 027 J 1 Ep.o B Feb. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Nov. 4676 028 32 Ep.U A Fell. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Not. 4677 Ol 3 3 Ep.22 GF Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Oct. 709 715 711 717 6 06 J 6 Ep.28 G L, Marcius L.F. CN, Cen- rsorinus C. Calvisius C.F. Sabinus 7 07 3 7 Ep,6 F Appius Claudius C,F, Ful- [cher C. Norbanus C,F, Flaccus OS 3 8 Ep.17 E M, Vipsanius L.F. Agrippa L, Caninius L.F, Gallus 27 B 9 09 3 9 Ep.28 DC L. Gellius L.F. L.N. Popli- [licola M. Coccejus M,F, Nerva Short reconciliation between Sextos Pompeius and the Tri- Tunvirate. Cxsar and Antony in conjunctioii with him ap point Consols for the eight fill- lowing years. Inunediately after which, Antony sent Ven tidius into Asia to atop the progress of the Parthians. The Farthians expelled from Sy ria, and Antigonus porchaaes peace. Antony and Ylctavia winter at Athens. The Parthians again invade Sy ria, hut are ronted, and Paco rus is slain. Herod had reduced the greater part of Snisea, Samar&i, and Gahlec to his allegiance. Dec. Sl.~The five years of the Triumvirate end. Siege of Ternsaiem by the com- bmed forces of Herod and Sos sius. dty taken at the begin ning of June, and Herod be comes King de facto. Early in the Spring, Caesar, An tony and Octavia met at Ta rentum (Taranto), and renew ed the Triumvuute for five years, without asking the con sent of the Senate and People. July 1.— Expedition sgail^ Sex tus Pompeius, destruction of his fleet, and subiugation of Sicily. Lepidus is forced to abdicate the Triumvirate. Nov. 13.— Cesar's ovation ibr the victory in Sicily. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 601 Jul Per anod, 1 1 3 1 s ¦s 1 1 Consuls. Oc a C: "S taT nu.esa "S 0 ft r. odGrs d a r- ye at 0 P 4678 02 34 Ep,3 E Jan, CLXXXVI. 1 718 719 720721 713714 715 ¦7I6 Aug 31 10 010 3 10 Ep.S B L. Cornificius L.F, Sex. Pompeius Sex. F. 29 To 31 32 3 45 ¦B 0) & t Antony, openly attacks Cae sar in the Senate, and thus the contest between Antony and Caesar begins. The two Consuls fled, foUowed by not a few ofthe Senate. Antony acyndged an enemy of his counfty, and Talerius Mes saUa designated Consul In his stead. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 602 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Julian Period. 4682 06 3 8 Ep.17 G Jan.FebTMar. Apr.May JuneJ^ Aug, Sep. Oct. Nov. CLXXXVII 1 Dec. 4083 ; Jan. O 7 FebT 3 9 [Mar. Ep.28 Apr. F May June 4684 OS 310 Ep.9 E 4635 09 311 Ep.20 DC July Aug.Sep.Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan.FrtT Mar. Apr.MayJune July Aug. Sep.o"ctr Nov.Dec. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Nov. Dec. 722 723 717 14 014 314 Ep.23 D 724 718 719 15 015 315 Ep.4 C I Imp. ¦ Octavi- Consuls, Imp. Caesar Divi F. CN. ill M. Valerius M.F, M.N. [Messalla Corvinus 16 016 316 Ep.ls B B17 017 317 Ep.26 AG Imp. Caesar Divi F.CN. lv M. Licinius M.F. M.N. [Crassus July 1 — C, Antistius substi. tuted. Sep. 13.— M. Tullius, son of the great Cicero, substi tuted, Nov, 1. — L. Ssenius substi tuted. Imp. Caesar DivlF. CN, v Sex, Appuleius Sex. F. Sex. [N. Imp. Csesar DiviF. CN. vi M. Vipsanius L.F. Agrippa [II Her od y' Great Kemareiblb Etents. Sep. 2.— Battle of Actimn, from which the years of Ctesar'i Monarchy are counted. Mar. 27. — Alexandria conquered. The deatli of Antony and Cleo patra soon followed. Decrees in honour of Csesar pas sed by the Senate, and those which had been passed in ho nour of Antony rescinded. Caesar established his wiater- guarters at Samos. Jan. 1 .—Decree of the Senate, hy whicli the gates of tlie Temple of Janus were ordered to be sliut, in token of Dnivci'sal Peace. — The ceremony proba- •bly took effect Marcli 30, a day sacred to Janus, Peace, and Concord. Ca;sar I'eceives the title of Em peror, as denoting supreme power. Dec. 31.- The tenth year ends from tho expiration ofthe five years of the Triumyiratc. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 603 Ju Per ianiod. § i1 O 6 i ¦s •s 1 II gi-a Consuls. In ( ¦s< ¦s B1 1 Anar ¦s B- H od Br 9lu ¦a0 2r-^t 1 Remahkidle Events. 4686 OIO 312 Ep.l B Jan. CLXxjcriii 1 726727 728 729 721 722 724 18 018 318 Ep.7 F Imp. Csesar Divi F. CN. vii M. Vipsanius L.F. Agrippa [III 37 38 39 40 5 6 7 8 1 234 1 H ¦3 bo < 16 17 18 19 14 15 11 12 Jan. 1— The first Decennial period decreed to Augiistus by the Senate begins. Jan. 17.— Caisar ofifered to re sign the Imperial dignity, but was unanimously re quested to retain it. On this occasion, the title of Augustus was given to him by a decree of the Senate and People. The Provinces divided into Senatorial and Imperial. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4687 on 313 Ep.lS A Jan. 19 019 319 Ep.l8 £ Imp. Caesar Divi F. CN. [Augustus VIII T. Statilius T.F. Taurus ii Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4688 012 314 Ep.23 G Jan. 20 O20 3 1 Ep.o D Imp. Caesar Divi F. CN. [Augustus IX M. Junius D.F. M.N. Sila- [nus The revolt of the Salassi in the Alps, and of the Astures and Cantabri in Spain, cau sed the temple 01 Janus to be reopenedin this year. Feb. Mar. Apr. 1 May 16 17 13 — 14 June July Aiig. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4689 013 315 Ep.l FE Jan. B21 021 3 2 Ep.ll CB Imp, Cffisar DiviF. CN. [Augustus X C. Norbanus C.F. CN. [Flaccus Towards the end of this year, or the beginning ot the next, Augustus shut the Temple of Janus the second time. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 604 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Ju Pel 5 ian iod. 11 0 "S S & 1 11 Imp. A1 Csesar •s Consuls. g, •s'is ail ..^ CO ^S Ig. Her od y"* « Great it K 1 i g- ri . Remaukjuile Evxhts. 1 'is a- Lucius Sestius having been _S the steady Mend of Brutus , it; the Senate, gratified by ^ this act of Augustus, de- "g creed that the Emperor Qj should be Perpetual Pro be consul of the Republic and BA Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Feb. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Oct. Dec. Jan. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Feb. Apr.May June July Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov. Dec. 746 747 748 749 741 742 743 ll 1 = 38 010 3)19 Ep. 18 B 39 on s I Ep.o A 40 012 J 2 Ep.ll G B41 013 3 3 Ep.22 FE Consuls. TL Claudius TL F. Ap. [N. Nero ll Cn. Calpurnius Cn. F. [Cn, N. Piso II D. Laelius D.F. D.N. [Balbus C.Antistius C.F. Vetus, Iinp, Caesar Dm. F. [C.N. Augustus XII L.Cornelius P.F. P.N. [Sulla C, Calvisius C.F. CN. [Sabinus L. Passienus Rufinus 26 22 Her ' O. L.| odyC J. Qreat Xt. 1 32 Kemarkaxzx Etxhts. Jan. 1. — Augustus ... nevrs bis authority for the Third Decennial period. Ija March of this year Augustus shuts the Temple of Janus the thiratinie in token of Universal Peace, and the Angel announces to Mary the INCAH- NATION of the Prince of Peace. Tiberius Tribune of the people for five years: ne retires to Abodes about June. Dec. 25.— BniTS OP OUB LOSD. Second year of TTnlversal Jan. 1.— Orcnmcislon, Feb. 2.— Presentation of onr Lord in the Tem ple, Third year of TTnlversal Peace. Jon. 6.— Adoration of the Magi. Flight into Egypt. Massacre of the Inno cents at Bethlehem. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 609 Julian Period, 4710 06 117 Ep.26 G 4711 07 3 18 Ep.7 F 4712 OS 319 Ep.lS E Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Nov. Feb. Mar. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Jan. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Oct. 4713 O 9 3 1 Ep.o DC Apr. May June July Aug ; Sep. 760 745 752 753 746 «9 42 014 3 4 Ep.S D 43 015 3 5 Ep.U C 747 Consuls, L. Cornelius L.F. Len- ftulus M.Valerius M.F. M.N. [MessaUinus Cotta Imp. Aug. Imp. Caesar Divi F. X.N. Augustus XIII ' Plautius M.F, ljM,N. Silvanus .!'¦ 62 44 016 3 8 Cossus Cornelius Cn. [F. Lentulus (afterwards surnamed Gistulicus] Ep.25 M. Calpurnius Cn. P. B B45 017 3) 7 Ep.6 AG C. Julius Augusti F. [Divi N. Csesar (Son orM. Agrippa and Julia, adopted by Au gustus.) L. iEmiliusL.F.M.N. [Paullus 748 Aiig. r-32 64 Her od y' Qreat O.L.| J. Xt. Fourth year of Universal Peace. March 12-13.— Eclipse of the Moon preceding the death of Herod. Mar. 21 — Death of Herod- Accession of Archelaus, Herod Antipas and H- Philip. Bbmahkable Events. Fifth year of UniTcrsal Peace. Dec. 25r— In the Consul ship of Silvanus ,accord ing lo Athanasius, our Lord returned from Egypt when four years Sixth year of Universal Peace. The fifth year of his Tri bunitial power ended, Tiberius aslis leave to return to Kome, but is refused. Seventh year of Univer sal Peace. Early in his Consulship Caius went to tlie East aud was treacherously wounded in Armenia. 610 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Julian Period. 4714 010 3 2 Ep.ll B Apr. May July Aug. Sep. 4715 on J 3 Ep.22 A 4716 012 3 4 Ep.3 G 4717 013 3 5 Ep.U FE Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Dec. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Nov. Mar. Apr. May July Aug. Sep.Oct.Nov. Dec. 755 756 757 749 750 46 018 3 8 Ep.17 F 47 OI9 3 9 Ep.28 E 4S 020 310 Ep.9 D B49 021 311 Ep.20 CB Consuls, P. Vinicius M.F. [P.N. P. Alfinlus P.F. Va- [rus L. .^lius L.F, Lamia M. Servilius M.F. Sex. .ffilius Q.F. Ca- [tus C.Sentius C.F. CN. [Satuminus Cn. Cornelius L.F. [L.N. Cinna Magnus L. Valerius Messalla[Valesus Imp. Aug. OurLd. Jesiis Christ. Eighth year of Universal Tiberius returns to Home about the monih of July. Lucius, the gr,indson of Augustus, dies sudden ly at Marseilles, Au gust 21, on his way to Spain. Ninth year of trnivereal Peace. KemIbeajbls Evbkts. Dec. 31.— The third De cennial period expires. Tenth year of Universal Peace. Jan. 1.— The fourth De cennial period b«nns. Feb. 21. — Caius Caesar, the eldest grandson of Augustus, dies at li myra in Lycia. Jime 27.— Tiberius Tri bune of the people the second time, and a- dopted by Augustus; Marcus Agrippa adopt ed at the some time. Eleventh year of Univer sal Peace. Agrippa Posthumus re ceives the Toga Viri lis. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 611 Julian Period. 4718 014 3 6 Ep.25 D 4719 015 3 7 Ep.6 c 4720 016 3 S Ep.17 B 4721 017 3 9 Ep.2s AG Jan. Feb. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Nov. Jan. Apr. May July Aug, Sep. Nov, Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Oct. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. CXCVI. 1 759 760 76I 755 756 Aug. 21 50 022 312 Ep.l A Sl 023 313 Ep,12 G 52 024 314 Ep.23 F B 53 025 J 15 Ep.4 ED Consuls. M..S!niiliusL.F. Le- [pidus Arruntius L.F. [L.N. L. Q. Licinius ^A.-F.- [Nerva Silianus Caecilius G.F. ra.N. Metellus LCre ticus M. Furius P.F. P.N. [Camillus Sex Nonius L.F. - [L.N. Quinctilianus C, Poppaeus Q.F. [Q.N. Sabinus Q. Sulgicius Q.F. [Q.N . Camerinus On the Cal. of July were substitutea M. Papius M.F. Q. [M.N. Mutilus Poppaeus Q.F. [Q.N. Secundus Imp. Aug. Ccesar. 36 11 OuTLd. Jesus (Christ. Twelfth year of Univer- sal Peace. The sudden revolt ofthe Pannonians and Dal matians in the spring of this year caused the most serious foreign war since the Punic. The Temple of Janus was therefore re opened. REMABKADtE EvENTt. Agrippa nishec „ ppa Posthumus 1 nished. June.— At the time of wheat harvest chelaUB deposed, and banished. Cyrenius (Luke ii. 2) carries mto effect the Census. Coponius Governor of the Jews. Dee. 25.— Our Lord 12 years old. Apr. 18. — Passover, at theendofwmch 25— Our Lord tar ried behind, & 29 or 30, was found among the Doctors. May or June. — ¦ Marcus junbivius sent as Go vernor of Judasa. In this year the Panno nians and Dalmatians sued for peace. About the month of March Tiberius turned to Rome, but. was sent back not long after to Dalma tia. The slaughter of Varus and his Legions toob place about the Au tumnal Equinox, and the news arrived in Home in October of this yeai". 612 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Julian Period. I Imp. Aug. Tibetiu^ Consuls, Qui- Ld. Jesus Chi-ist. EvSNrs. 4722 018 310 Ep.9 Feb. Apr. May 54 026 J 16 Ep.lS C P. Cornelius P.F. [P.N. Dolabella C. Junius C.F. M.N. [Silanus Tiberius advanced from his winter quarters into Ger many, where ho spent the whole of this year. July CXCTII. 1 Aug. Sep. Nov. 4723 019 311 Ep.20 E Apr. May July Aug. Nov. Dee. 4724 020 !)12 Ep.l D Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Oct. Dec. 4725 021 313 Ep.l2 CB Feb. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Dec. 757 73 763 55 027 317 Ep.26 B M. JEmilius Q.F. [M.N. Lepidus T. Statilius T.F, [T.N. Taurus 758 74 764 56 028 318 Ep.7 A Germanicus Cssar [Ti.F. Aug. N. C. Fonteius C.F. [C.N. Capito 759 765 B57 O 1 319 Ep.lS GF C. SiUus P.F, P,N. L, Munatius L.F. [L.N, Plancus 76 Jan. 16. — Tiberius triumphed, and dedicated the Tem ple of Concord. Jan. 27. — Tiberius dedicated the Tem pie of Castor and Polluic. Feb.— Decree ofthe Senate giving Ti herius Proconsular power and making liim Colleague of the Empire. After the next Con suls were designa ted, Augustus an ticipating one year, took tlie fifth De cennial govern ment, and renew ed the Tribunitial power of Tiberius. Dec. 31.— The fourth Decennial pei-iod expires. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 613 Julian Period, 4726 022 314 Ep.23 A 4727 023 315 Ep.4 G Jan. Apr. May July Aug, Sep.lOct. Nov. 4728 024 316 Ep.lS F 4729 025 317 Ep.2f ED Apr. May June July Aug.Sep. Oct.Nov.Dec. Jan.Feb. Mar.Apr.May June July Aug. Sep.Oct. Nov. Jan. Feb. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Dec, 766 767 768 769 if 761 762 763 58 02 3) 1 Ep.o £ C0HSUI.S. jnp. Aug. Csesar. Sex. Pompeius Sex. [F. Sex. Appuleius Sex. [F. OS Ep.ll D 60 04 3) B Ep.22 C B61 05 3) 4 Ep.S BA Drusus Caesar Tib. [F. Aug. N. C. I^orbanus Flaccus TiliERiua" sole reign. 1 Statili'us Sisenna [Taurus L. Scribonius Libo C. Cselius Rufus or Csecilius L. Pomponius Flac- [cuB Graecinus OurLd. Jesus Christ. UZHARKABLE EVEKTS. Jan. 1.— The fi. Decennial period begins. Apr. 28.— Eclipse of the Bun. Augustas dies Aug. iS— Valerius Gra tus Governor of Judeea. Oct. 7.— Eclipse of the Moon; revolt of the Army Pannonia. Agrippa Posthumus put to death. Germanicus recalled from Germany. May 2fi. — Triumph of Germanicus ; af ter which he is ap pointed to the su preme command of tlie Mediterra nean provinces. Piso sent as GoTcr- nor of Syria. 614 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Julian Period, 4730 026 318 Ep.7 C 4731 027 3 19 Ep.18 B Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Nov. Dec. Jan.FebTMar. Apr.May June 4732 028 1 Ep.o A 4733 O 1 3 2 Ep.ll GF July Aug. Sep. Oct. Dec. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Nov. Jan. Mar. Apr. May JulyAug.Sep.Oct.Nov. Dec. 770 11 11 06 3 5 Ep.14 G 771 772 773 766 63 07 3 6 Ep.25 F COHSITLS. Cl. Tiberius Nero Aug. [III. Germanicus CssarTib. .. [f,ii. 64 OS 3 7 Ep.6 E B65 09 3 8 Ep.17 DC M. Junius Silanus L. Norbanus Flaccus [Balbus Tiberiufl. I2O Valerius Messalla Aurelius Cotti Cl. Tiberius Nero Au- [gustus IV, Drusus Csesar Tib. F. 11. OUT Id. Jesus Christ. REMAnmsLE Events. Germanicus visits Egypt, and spends the summer in Upper "Egypt. On his return to Syria, dif ficulties arose with Piso, by whom it was supposed he was poi soned. Germanicus died at Epi. daphne. His remains carried to Antioch and there burned, probably in November. Early in January Airrip pina arrives in Itiiuie with the ashes of Ger manicus. — IJniversal moiinung. In tne beginning of this year Tiberius went into Campania. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 615 Julian Period. 4734 02 3 3 Ep.22 £ 4735 OS 34 Ep.3 D 4736 04 5 Ep.H C 4737 05 Jfi Ep.25 BA Feb. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Oct. Dec. Feb. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Mar. Apr. May July Aug. Nov.Dec. Jan. Apr. May June July Aug. Oct. Dec. 775 776 777 769 770 771 010 3 9 Ep,23 B 67 Oil 310 Ep.9 A 012 311 Ep.20 G B 69 013 J 12 Ep.l FE Coirsuz,8, D. Haterius Agrippa C. Sulpicius Galba C. Asinius Pollio C. Antistius Vetus [or Veter Ser. Cornelius Cethegus L. Visellius Varro M. Asinius Agrippa Cossus Cornelius Len- [tulus Oui'Ld. Jesus Chnst. Death of Junia. the sister of Bi-utus and widow of Cassius, 64 years after the batUe of Plimppi, Di-usus the son of Tibe rius dies this joar, Ijr- ins secretly poisoned by order of tiqjiiims. ItmuAKA^LE £tekts. August 19. — Beccnnial games celebrated at the end of the teuth year of Tiberius. This year marked by con stant proscriptions and accusa tions. Sep. 1 Pontius Pilate sent as Governor of Ju.- dffia. Sep. 29 — ^The great day of atonement. St. John tlie Baptist commences his niinistxy. 616 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Julian Period. 4738 06 3)7 Ep.6 G 4739 07 3) 8 Ep.17 F Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Dec. Apr. May July Aug. 4740 08 3) 9 Ep.28 E 4741 09 3)10 Ep.9 DC Sep. Nov. Feb. Apr May July Aug. Nov.Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar.Apr.May JuneJulyAug.Sep. Dec. 778 779 773 SB -Si 70 014 3)13 Ep.l2 D 774 775 71 314 Ep.23 C 72 016 3)15 Ep.4 B B73017 3)16 Ep.16 AG Consuls. C. Calvisius Sabinus Cn. Cornelius Len- [tulus Getulicus M. Licinius Crassus L. Calpurnius Piso App. Junius Silanus P. Silius Nerva L. Rubellius Gemi- [kus C. Fufius Geminus Uur xrfi. Jesus Christ Jan. 6. — Our Lord baptized in Jordan, thus commences his ministry. „ — Temptation in the "Wil derness forty days. ¦ Mar. 1. — Marriage at Cana. „ 29. — First Passover of onr Lord's ministry. Tiberius leaves Rome this year for Campania M-ith tlie secret Intention of never re- tiuming. Dec. 9. — Our Lord leatcs Je rusalem for Galilee, passing throuE^h Samaria. His con versation with the woman of Samaria abontthe middle of that month. Jan. 1. — Cai)cmaum becomes bur Ix}rd's stated residence. April 17.^econd Passover of' our Lord's ministiy. May. — ^Early in the month He chooses his Apostles. Tiberius retires to the Island of Capri where he spends the remainder of his lire. Rbmat^tc'^wTi*' Events. Early in March St. John the Baptist is put to death by Herod Antipas. April 6th.— Third Passover of our Lord's ministry. Thurs., May 22.— Tho Trans figuration. Sund., June 1. — Pentecost Tues., Dec. 9.— Feast of De dication. Its Octave, Dec. 16, the last day of Uie feast ; oh that day the couvci-sa- tion in John x, 22. Livia died this year at the age of 86. From this time the career of Tiberius lui- bi'idled. Mar. 26.— Crtjcifixion, . — ^KESURHECTtON. May6,Thm^ay. — ^Ascension. IC, Shnday.— Pbntecusi. descent of the Holy Qhost. 'fa; SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 617* Juli Peri anod. m § 1 0 a S, "s E g >t li 1^ t Consuls, ' f 1 ribc ¦s s i00. 1 32 7 is 8 34 9 35 0 "iua.•s 6 i % < < 0 1 0 s <•W 33 J Cl ¦s1 E 36 37 3S rl 3U iris¦s a 36 3738 39 A.H C. 3 29 EEMJLaKi3LE EVENTS. 4742 Oio 311 Ep.20 B Jan. CCII. 1 782" 783"784 785 777 778 779 780 74 QI8 5 17 Ep.26 F M. Vinicius Quartlnus L. Cassius Longinus 1 20 7 21 7 22 7 23 Feb, Mar. Apr. May June 3 July e 6 2 7 3 a 4 9 5 34 3v 3 Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4743 on 312 Ep.l A Jan. 75 OW 3 18 Ep.7 E Tiberius Csesar Augus- [tUST. L. .^lius Sejanus 1 30 Oct. 18.~Sq'anuB publicly executed. Feb. Mar. Apr. May JuneJuly Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 474'! 012 313 Ep.l2 G Jan. 76 020 3 19 Ep.18 D Cn, Domitius Aheno- [barbus M, Furius Camillus [ScxiboniauuB 31 Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July 1 Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4745 013 314 Ep.23 FE Jan. B77 021 31 Ep.o CB Ser. Sulpicius Galba L. Cornelius Sulla Felix 32 Drusus the Son of Ger- maiiincus stan'ed to death. Oct 18.— Death of Agrip pina. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 618 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. .Inl Per ianiod. no o 1 1^ ed ¦s 1, li Consuls. T "S B 1 ibe ¦s 1 5 riu ¦s g, 8. ¦s t 1 Oo 1o J! B $ J C ¦s1 g esl irii ¦s < rr s Bt. > 33 34 Remauiuble Evxnts. 4746 014 315 Ep.4 D Jan. CCIII. 1 786 787 788 789 TsT782 783 784 78 022 32 Ep.ll A Paulus Fabius Persicus L, Vitellius 21 22 23 36 3738 2425 26 767778 1.1 B 10 37 383940 40 41 4243 40 41 42 13 At the end of the twenti eth year of Tiberius, the Consuls celebrated the Decennial games, and for this were put to death. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4747 015 316 Ep.lS C Jan. Feb. 79 023 3 3 Ep.22 G C, Cestius Gallus M. Servilius Nonianus The Marriage of Cains Califfula placed by Dion Cassius in this year. About Sept 1, Marcellus sent by vitelliua to su persede Pilate. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep.Oct, Nov, Dec. 4748 Ol6 317 Ep.26 B Jan. 80 024 3 4 Ep.3 F Sex. Papinius Q. Plautius 35 36 April 9 or 10.— Passover. vitellius goes to Jeru salem. Caiaphas re moved fi-om the High- pricathood. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4749 017 318 Ep.7 AG Jan. B81 026 56 Ep.H ED Cn. Acerronius Proculus C. Pontius Nigrinus March 16.— Tiberius dies at Miseniuu. Feb. Mar. Caliqtjla. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.