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HANDBOOKS PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE
HISTORICAL SECTION OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE.— No. 64

ISLANDS

OF THE

NORTHERN AND EASTERN
AEGEAN

LONDON :
PUBLISHED BY H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE.
1920

EDITORIAL NOTE
In the spring of 1917 the Foreign Office, in connexion
with the preparation which they were making for the work
of the Peace Conference, established a special section whose
duty it should be to provide the British Delegates to the
Peace Conference with information in the most convenient
form — geographical, economic, historical, social, religious, and
political — respecting the different countries, districts, islands,
&c, with which they might have to deal. In addition,
volumes were prepared on certain general subjects, mostly
of an historical nature, concernmg which it appeared that a
special study would be useful.
The historical information was compiled by trained writers
on historical subjects, who (in most cases) gave their services
without any remuneration. For the geographical sections
valuable assistance was given by the Intelligence Division
(Naval Staff) of the Admiralty ; and for the economic sections,
by the War Trade Intelhgence Department, which had been
established by the Foreign Office. Of the maps accompanying
the series, some were prepared by the above-mentioned depart
ment of the Admiralty, but the bulk of them were the work
of the Geographical Section of the General Staff (Military
Intelligence Division) of the War Office.
Now that the Conference has nearly completed its task,
the Foreign Office, in response to numerous inquiries and
requests, has decided to issue the books for public use,
believing that they will be useful to students of history,
politics, economics, and foreign affairs, to publicists generally
and to business men and travellers. It is hardly necessary
to say that some of the subjects dealt with in the series have
not in fact come under discussion at the Peace Conference ;
but, as the books treating of them contain valuable informa
tion, it has been thought advisable to include them.

It must be understood that, although the series of volumes
was prepared under the authority, and is now issued with
the sanction, of the Foreign Office, that Office is not to be
regarded as guaranteeing the accuracy of every statement
which they contain or as identifying itself with all the opinions
expressed in the several volumes ; the books were not prepared
in the Foreign Office itself, but are in the nature of information
provided for the Foreign Office and the British Delegation.
The books are now published, with a few exceptions,
substantially as they were issued for the use of the Delegates.
No attempt has been made to bring them up to date, for, in
the first place, such a process would have entailed a great
loss of time and a prohibitive expense ; and, in the second,
the political and other conditions of a great part of Europe
and of the Nearer and Middle East are still unsettled and in
such a state of flux that any attempt to describe them would
have been incorrect or misleading. The books are therefore
to be taken as describing, in general, ante-bellum conditions,
though in a few cases, where it seemed specially desirable,
the account has been brought down to a later date.
G. W. PROTHERO,
General Editor and formerly
January 1920. Director of the Historical Section.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL
General Description
Thasos .
SamothrakiImbros .
Tenedos .
Lemnos .
Agiostrati
Mytilene
Psara Khios
Samos Nikaria .
PatmosLeros
Kalymnos KosAstropalia Nisyros .
Tilos
Symi Khallci .
Rhodes Karpathos

PAGE

Kastdlorizo

II. POLITICAL HISTORY
Chronological Summary .
(1) Classical and Byzantine Periods
(2) Frankish Period
(3) Turkish Period
(4) Genoese Companies
(5) Knights of Rhodes
, •, (6) Privileges of Islands
\j:. (7) Greek Revolution .
4 # (8) Islands in Nineteenth Century
a $ (9) Principality of Samos
(10) Italo-Turkish War .
. (11) Greek Occupation .
Wt. 6325/735. 1,000. 5/20. O.U.P.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

No. 64

PAGE
III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Islands occupied by Greece
(1) Religion  22
(2) Political  23
(3) Naval and MiUtary Organization . . 23
(4) Public Education  23
Rhodes, Kos, and the Dodekanese
(1) ReUgion  24
(2) Political . . 24
(3) Public Education ... 24

IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

General Summary
(1) Means of Communication

2626

(2) Industry .
(3) Commerce .

2728
Thasos
29
Samothraki
?
31
Imhros
32
Lemnos
32
Tenedos
34
MytileneKhios
35 38
Samos
41
Nikaria and Phurni
45
Kalymnos .
Kos .
4547
Symi .
Rhodes
4849
Astropalia, die. .
52
APPENDIX
Table 1 . Tenedos : Exports .
54
,, 2. Tenedos: Imports.
54
„ 3. Khios : Exports
54
,, 4. Khios : Imports
55
,, 5. Samos : Exports .
55
„ 6. Samos : Imports .
56
Islands of i
IT. & E. Aegean J

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
Table 7.
» 8.
„ 9.
„ io.
Samos :
Rhodes
Rhodes :
Rhodes
Shipping .
Exports .
Imports .
Countries
with
which
Trade is
56 5758
conducted .
t
, ,
58
)3
11.
Rhodes
Shipping .
•
59
AUTHORITIES
•
60
Maps
60
Islands of i
N. 8c B. Aeg-ean J

I. GEOGBAPHY PHYSICAL AND
POLITICAL
General Description
The islands included in the present survey are
Thasos, Samothraki, Imbros, Tenedos, Lemnos, Agio-
strati (S.trati), Mytilene (Lesbos), Psara, Khios, Samos,
Nikaria (Ikaria), Patmos, Leros, Kalymnos, Kos, Astro
palia, Nisyros, Tilos, Symi, Khalki (Kharki), Rhodes,
Karpathos, Kasos, Kastellorizo.
These islands lie off the coast of Thrace and Asia
Minor and form, with the other Aegean Islands,1 a
link between Greece and Asia Minor. The most
northerly, Thasos, lies close to the coast of eastern
Macedonia. Samothraki, Imbros, and Tenedos lie off
the Dardanelles, with Lemnos and the small island of
Agiostrati farther to. the west. Mytilene, with the
Moskonesia between it and the mainland, lies off the
Gulf of Adramyti. Khios and Psara form a distinct
group farther south, being the extension of the pro
montory which runs west from Smyrna. South again
Samos and Nikaria form a continuation of the Mykale
promontory, and from them the Southern Sporades
run down the coast in a south-easterly direction as far
as Rhodes. The Dodekanese, or Twelve Islands, is
a term loosely used, and varies in signification. In
Turkish times it did not include Kos and Rhodes, but
at the present day these two are included in common
parlance, and Nikaria and Kastellorizo omitted. They
are, from north to south — (Nikaria,) Patmos, Leros,
Kalymnos, Kos, Astropalia, Nisyros, Symi, Tilos,
Rhodes, Khalki, (Kastellorizo,) Karpathos, and Kasos.
The islands marking the western limit are Thasos,
Lemnos, Agiostrati, Psara, Nikaria, Astropalia, and
1 See Greece, &c, No. 18 of this series.
B

2 GEOGRAPHY [*<>. **
Kasos, with the intervening islets, Lebinthos (Levitha),
Kinaros, and Syrina (Syrnos). Between Astropalia and
Kasos lie some groups of rocks or islets of which the
attribution is doubtful.
The climate of these islands resembles that of the
Cyclades (see Greece, No. 18 of this series). It is mild
and equable.
Sanitary conditions are on the whole good. The chief
defect is the prevalence of malaria in low-lying or
marshy districts. There is also a certain amount of
leprosy in some islands.
The people of these islands are of the Greek race and
speak the Greek language. In some cases, as in
Astropalia and Karpathos, they preserve dialects
containing classical forms unknown to the modern
tongue ; but all the Greeks are mutually intelligible.
They also preserve ancient marriage and other customs
at Lindos in Rhodes, in Kalymnos, and elsewhere.
The population amounted before the war to a total of
about 375,000, the great bulk of whom are Greek by
race and Orthodox Christians by rehgion ; there were
only about 24,000 Turks, most of them in Rhodes and
Mytilene, and a few Jews. Since the war of 1912 many
Greek refugees have come from Asia Minor, and some
of the Turks have emigrated.
The people of the islands live for the most part in
the towns and villages near the sea, and are engaged
in some form of maritime industry or in agriculture
or mining. The Dodekanese has suffered very much
during the war from the lack of communication with
the mainland and with Egypt; while Mytilene and
Khios have had to support the great body of refugees
from Asia Minor.
THASOS
Thasos, the most northerly island in the Aegean,
lies only about 4 miles from the Macedonian coast.
The islet of Thasopoulo is in the middle of the channel.
Thasos is about 160 square miles in area, and roughly
circular in shape. It is mountainous (highest point,

SWA'sean] THASOS; SAMOTHRAKI 3
Ypsarion, 3,428 ft.) and well wooded. The principal
village, Panagia, is on the north-east, and has a landing-
place, Limani, with two small harbours. There are
also landing-places on the east coast at Potamia Bay,
and at Kinara within the islet of Kinara. On the
south coast a tongue of land jutting into the sea forms
a small harbour. Near Cape Kokkina, at the southern
extremity of the island, is Astris, with a small landing-
place. On the north-west is Poto, from which the
zinc worked by the Germans was exported.- On the
west are the landing-places of Mories, Kakerachi, Sotiro,
Kazaveti, and Vulgaro. The island is peculiarly rich in
metals. The population are Greek Christians and
number about ISjOOO.1
SAMOTHRAKI
Samothraki (Turkish, Semendrek), 38 miles east-
south-east of Thasos, and 15 miles north-west of Imbros,
is 12 miles by 10 in size, and mountainous, containing
the highest peak in the archipelago (Mt. Phengari,
5,248 ft.). The general formation of the island, with
a central peak from which all the land slopes down
to the sea, is volcanic ; the high ground is bare and
the valleys fertile. Owing to the strong currents from
the Dardanelles, the anchorages and roadsteads are
not safe in a north wind. The safest landing-place is
in the Bay of Kamariotis, near Cape Akrotiri, on the
west coast. There is another landing-place at Malathrea
in the south, others at the mouths of the Phonias and
the Angistro, small rivers of the north-west. The usual
landing-place is at Palaeopolis on the north coast.
The climate is mild on the west. The population
numbers 4,600 Greek Christians. The chief village is
Pyrgos, or Chora, with 3,700 inhabitants. It has some
sulphur springs three hours distant, which are much
frequented by people from the mainland.
1 The figures given for population throughout are for the most
part only approximate estimates. In few cases are census statistics
available.
B2

GEOGRAPHY [»••«

IMBROS
Imbros (Turkish, Imruz) lies 15 miles south-east of
Samothraki, and is about 18 miles from east to west
by 8 miles from north to south. The principal place,
Kastro, on the north coast, is on the site of the ancient
town of Imbros. The usual landing-place is in the
bay to the south of Nikolaos at the mouth of the
Ilissus. From Lemnos the landing-place is at Pyrgos,
half-way between Cape Avlaka and Cape Niger. The
harbour of Kephalo is important as lying off the
Dardanelles, nearly 12 miles from Cape Helles.
The chief village in the interior is Panaghia. Kusu
Bay, from which was exported the brown coal (lignite)
worked by a German company, is not now used as an
anchorage, owing to its exposure to the north winds.
Here, as in Samothraki, the valleys are very fertile.
The population consists of about 9,000 Greeks.

TENEDOS
Tenedos has a circumference of 10 miles. With it
go the small islands at the mouth of the Dardanelles
known as the Rabbit Islands (Tavchan Adasi), the
longest of which is 4 miles in length. There is a town
and harbour on the east coast, separated by a channel
only 3 miles wide from the mainland. Tenedos has
a population of about 5,000, one-third of whom are
Moslems.
LEMNOS
Lemnos (Turkish, Ilmeli; Italian, Stalimeni) lies in the
middle of the northern Aegean, and is of an irregular
square shape, 15 miles each way across. The bays of
Purnea on the north and Mudros on the south divide
the island into an eastern and a western portion.
Mudros harbour, the most important in this part of
the Aegean, is nearly land-locked and affords good

H.TiB^eanJ IMBROS; LEMNOS; AGIOSTRATI 5
anchorage for a number of large ships. There is
another harbour farther west, Kondia, smaller but
capable of accommodating large ships. The Bay of
Kondia is open to the south-west, while the prevailing
winds are from the north. It is divided from Mudros
by a neck of land a quarter of a mile in breadth.
Lemnos is hilly,|but the hills do not rise to so great
a height as on some of the other islands, their highest
point being 1,400 ft. There are no trees ; the water,
which is obtained from wells, is good. The coast is
rocky, except in the bays mentioned ; and the current
of the Hellespont sets with great force between Lemnos
and Imbros. The population is mainly Greek and
numbers about 27,000 ; many of the men migrate in
winter to Egypt in search of work. The chief town,
Kastro, on the west coast of the island, has an old
citadel crowning the promontory, and warm baths not
far distant. On the east coast there is a shallow salt
lake called Megalo Limni, about 2 square miles in
extent, separated from the sea by a narrow strip of
land, but connected with it at the northern end. It is
dry in autumn. From it grassy dunes stretch south
ward to Mudros.

AGIOSTRATI
Agiostrati, Aistrati, or Strati (Agios Eustratios ;
Turkish, Bozbaba), lies south of Lemnos and north-west
of Mytilene and Psara, but so far from all the others as
to be almost forgotten. It is difficult of approach in
a north wind, but has a good small harbour on the
west, sheltered both from north and south by precipi
tous cliff's, 3 miles from the northern extremity, where
the island runs up in a long narrow spit.
There are two rich valleys, Tenediotis and Para-
deisos, where the peasants grow all kinds of fruit and
vegetables. The population amounts to 1,300 Greeks.
The island is considered by some scholars to be the
ancient Halonesos.

GEOGRAPHY [»<>•<"

MYTILENE
Mytilene (Mitylene) or Lesbos (Turkish, Midiillu),
measuring 44 miles by 28, is rugged and mountainous.
The highest peak is Mt. Olympus (3,080 ft.) in the
south-east. The island is only 10 miles from the coast
of Asia Minor and has two remarkable gulfs, Port lero
(Hiero) and Port Kalloni, which form two large land
locked harbours lying on the south-east and south-west
of the island. Their great drawback is the narrowness
of the entrance in both. Port lero is 4 miles long by
2J broad, with hot baths near. Port Kalloni is 1 1 \ miles
long by 4 miles wide. The entrance is hampered by
a rocky bank which narrows the channel to 70 ft. wide
for the first half-mile. Sigri Island (Megalonesi), on
the west, forms a harbour with the coast, but the
northern entrance is shallow. The north coast of the
island is irregular and indented, the mountains rising
to a height of 1,000 ft. close to the shore. The town
of Moly vos has an open roadstead. There are great olive-
groves on all the lower slopes of the hills. The climate
is healthy except in the marshes in autumn. The
population before the war numbered 152,000, of whom
14,000 were Turks ; but during the war about 70,000
Greek refugees from Asia Minor took shelter here. The
chief town, Mytilene, is a clean, well-built, busy place,
with a population in ordinary times of about 15,000
Greeks. The town is situated on a promontory on the
east coast of the island and is the principal port, though
it has only an open roadstead. Two small harbours,
suitable only for small craft, lie on each side of the
promontory. The northern harbour is the more com
modious, but less used. The small island group known
as Moskonesia (with a population of about 5,500
Greeks), a dependency of Mytilene, lies close to the
coast, off Aivali (Kydonia), with which it is intimately
connected.

Sftfa Aegean] MYTILENE ; KHIOS ; SAMOS . 7
PSARA
Psara, a dependency of Khios, is a small rocky island,
known in history for the heroic part it played in the
Greek revolution against Turkish rule. There is a good
roadstead on the west of the island sheltered by an
islet, Antipsara, and a small harbour to the south.
The population; which, according to Finlay, numbered
about 6,000 at the time of the Greek revolution, has
never recovered from the Turkish massacres ; it now
numbers about 3,500 Greeks.
KHIOS
Khios (Italian, Scio; Turkish, Sakiz Adasi, i.e. Mastic
Island), 7 miles from the mainland, 32 miles long by
from 5 to 8 wide, is rocky throughout. Mt. Elias, the
highest point (4,157 ft.), is at the northern end. The
hills become lower towards the south. There are several
anchorages along the shores of the island, the principal
being that in the strait, one at Port Kolokithia, and
one at Volisso. This island is the most fertile and
richest in the Aegean, the principal source of its wealth
being the mastic, made into chewing gum, used by
Turkish women. The Khiotes have suffered much both
from earthquake and massacre. Kastro (Port Scio),
the chief town, is situated on the east coast, on the
site of the old Genoese citadel. There is a large open
bay on the west coast. The population is about 74,000,
of whom 3,000 are Moslems.
SAMOS
Samos (Turkish, Susam Adasi) is less than a mile from
the mainland, and is about 30 miles from east to west
and 10 from north to south. It is mountainous, but
very fertile in the plains. On the north the heights are
precipitous and barren, rising to 4,000 ft. The lower
slopes are well wooded, and there are numerous
streams. The Mytilenous runs into the sea east of Port
Tigani, on the south-east coast of the island, and the

8 GEOGRAPHY [w°-e*
Imbrasus to the west of that port. Vathi, the modern
capital, is the port lying at the head of a deep inlet on
the north coast of the island, and is protected from the
north winds by the adjacent mainland. It is famous
for its cigarette factories. The town of Vathi possesses
a system of waterworks with three reservoirs.' The
old aqueduct of Polycrates, leading to Tigani (the
ancient capital) and cut through the mountains, still
exists, but is not in use. The strait between Samos
and Nikaria is the passage generally used by ships
plying between Egypt and Constantinople. The
population is about 69,000, mostly Greeks. The
island group of Phurni (Korassiae), between Samos and
Nikaria, possesses one good harbour.
NIKARIA
Nikaria (Ikaria), about 29 miles long by 5 broad, lies
south-west of Samos. It has a population of about
12,800 Greeks and 100 Turks. The island is a chain
of mountains running from north-east to south-west.
The open bay of Manganitis* lies on the south side. The
chief town, Messaria (Agios Kyriakos), lies on the north
coast.
PAT 31 OS
Patmos (Patino), 20 miles south of the western end
of Samos, is irregular in form and about 10 miles long
by 5 miles wide. The surface is rugged and broken,
rising to 800 feet in St. EHas, and the shore is deeply
indented with numerous land-locked creeks. At the
middle the island is almost divided in two. The soil
is volcanic and barren ; and the large bay on the east,
which is said to be the safest in the Greek islands, looks
like the crater of a submerged volcano. The inhabitants
number about 2,500 and are Greeks, for the most part
occupied in sponge-fishing. The southern half of the
island is mainly occupied by monks and contains the
.famous monastery and cave of the Apocalypse. Arki
and Lipso lie to the east, the latter haAring a village on it.

KTaAesean] NIKARIA; PATMOS; KOS, ETC. 9
LEROS
Leros, 6 miles long by 4 broad, consists of rocky
hills. The population numbers 5,000 Greeks. The
port of Partheni on the north side of the island is
sheltered by some barren rocks at the entrance.
KALYMNOS
Kalymnos, south-east of Leros, is of irregular shape,
about 12 miles by 8. It has about 17,000 inhabitants,
all Greeks. All this group of islands is mainly con
cerned in sponge-fishing. The best harbour of Kalymnos
is Pothia. The island is bare and mountainous, without
trees ; there are a few fertile valleys. It was once well
wooded, as Ovid calls it ' silvis umbrosa '. The islet
of Telendos lies close to the west coast.
KOS
Kos (Italian, Stanchio ; Turkish, Istan-Keui), close
to the coast of Asia Minor, is a long and narrow island,
23 miles long from north-east to south-west and about
5 miles across, with the north-east end facing the Bay of
Budrum. The chief town, Kos, is at the north-east
end of the island. The mountains are high at the north
and gradually sink to a tableland in the centre and
rise again into a mountainous region south. The
gardens in the central region produce a wealth of
garden stuff, amongst others the famous Kos lettuces.
The modern town of Kos is on the ancient site, and its
most interesting feature is the mediaeval castle of the,
Knights of Rhodes. A huge tree, traditionally reported
as that under which Hippocrates stood to prescribe,
stands in the Castle square. The ancient port is silted
up and can only be used by small vessels. An open
bay lies on the south facing Nisyros. The population
consists of 9,000 Greeks and about 500 Turks. The
climate is healthy except near the town of Kos, where
fever is prevalent in summer owing to the proximity of
a lagoon.

10 GEOGRAPHY [»o.e*
ASTROPALIA
Astropalia (Astypalaia; Italian, Stampalia), south
west of Kos, consists of two large rocky masses,
together about 11 miles by 7, joirfed in the centre by
a narrow isthmus. On the north and south of this are
two deep bays, the southern of which is sheltered by
some rocky islets. The harbour of Maltezana is good.
The population consists of 1,500 Greeks.
NISYROS
Nisyros, a small round island south-west of Cape Krio
(Knidus), between Kos and Tilos, not quite 10 miles
in circumference, is of volcanic origin and the central
crater is filled by a sulphur lake. There are also some
hot sulphur springs. The population consists of 2,500
Greeks, There is no good harbour.
TILOS
Tilos (Telos), or Piskopi, measuring about 8 miles
by 4, between Nisyros and Rhodes, has three ports.
There are about 3,000 inhabitants, many of whom
are lepers.
SYMI
Symi (Turkish, Siimbeki), between the Knidus penin
sula and Rhodes, about 8 miles long by 6 broad, has
a broken rugged outline, and is surrounded by islets
and rocks. The harbour of Panormus on the western
side has a large monastery near it. The population
consists of about 8,000 Greeks and 200 Turks, m'ainly
engaged in the sponge fishery.
KHALKI
Khalki (Kharki, the ancient Aethraea or Ophiussa), off
the west coast of Rhodes, is a rugged and mountainous
island about 6 miles long by 3 broad. The inhabitants
number about 2,500 and are mostly sponge-fishers.

£. ^'Aegean] RHODES; KARPATHOS, ETC. 11

RHODES
Rhodes (Rhodos, Rodi), the most easterly island of
the Aegean, 12 miles distant from the coast of Asia Minor,
is 43 miles from north-east to south-west and 20 miles
in width. The northern half of the island is the
more picturesque and fertile. In the south there is
no coast plain, and in winter the torrents rush down
from the mountains to the sea. The Rhodians have
always been a maritime people. The island was noted
for timber in ancient times, and in modern times has
supplied Constantinople with timber for shipbuilding.
The city of Rhodes, at the north-east extremity of the
island, is built round an amphitheatre which rises from
the water, with the mediaeval towers of the famous
Knights of Rhodes flanking each side, and the Turkish
mosques behind. The best quarter is now occupied
by Jews. The Greek quarters, Maras and Neomaras,
are outside the city. There are two harbours, now only
used by small craft, the smaller' of which has a fine
basin but a narrow entrance. It is sheltered on all
sides, but is now choked up. The larger harbour is
exposed to the north-east wind. Lindos, on the east
coast, is on one side of a small bay almost enclosed by
rugged cliffs. As at Rhodes, the houses are picturesque,
and ornamented with mediaeval carvings. The island
is subject to earthquakes. The manufacture of the
pottery for which the island wasj famous has ceased,
though rough ware is still made for local use. The
population of the island of Rhodes totals 31,000, of
whom 6,000 are Moslems, 3,000 are Jews, and the
rest Greeks.1 Of these inhabitants 10,000 live in the
capital. The fine climate has a wide reputation.

KARPATHOS
Karpathos (Italian, Scarpanto; Turkish, Kerpe) is
a barren and rocky island running north and south,
1 Estimates differ somewhat, cf. p. 24.

!2 GEOGRAPHY [*0.64
about 30 miles long by 7 to 3 broad. It reaches the
height of about 4,000 feet. The coast has many small
harbours. The population consists of about 8,000
Greeks. Many of the men go to work in Asia Minor
during the summer, and what agriculture there is
is mostly done by women. The isolation of the island
has led to many curious survivals in language,
customs, and dress.
KASOS
Kasos; between Karpathos and Crete,is about 12 miles
by 4, and consists of a single range of mountains of
considerable height. There is no harbour. There are
about 7,500 Greeks and 100 Turks, mostly seafaring.
KASTELLORIZO
Kastellorizo (Megisti ; Italian, Castelrosso), which
strictly falls outside the Aegean, is a small island,
only about 3 miles by 2, 60 miles east of Rhodes and
about 1 mile from the mainland. There are about
7,000 Greek inhabitants, a great proportion of whom
are sponge-fishers and ship's carpenters ; they also
have a good reputation as sailors. The island has
a small land-locked harbour.

Islands of i in
N. & E. Aegean J 1 <>

II. POLITICAL HISTORY
Chronological Summary
1000 B.C. (circa). Greeks in Asiatic Islands.
2nd- cent. B.C. Islands under Rome.
a.d. 325. Foundation of Constantinople. Beginning of Greek
Empire of the East.
13th-15th cent. Franks, especially Genoese, in islands.
1309-1522. Knights of St. John in Rhodes.
1453. Constantinople taken by Turks.
1462-1566. Islands gradually conquered by Turks.
1821. Several of islands join Greek War of Independence.
1822. Massacre of Khios.
1831. Asiatic Islands restored to Turkey.
1912. Rhodes, Kos, and Dodekanese occupied by Italy.
1912. Rest of Asiatic Islands occupied by Greece
(1) Classical and Byzantine Periods
The history of the islands of the eastern Aegean is
part of the general history of the Greek race, and their
fortune has been similar to that of other lands inhabited
by Greeks. From the time of their earliest recorded
history, that is from about 1000 b. c, they have been
inhabited by Greek-speaking peoples, at different times
ruled and influenced by foreigners, but always retaining
their own marked national characteristics. The history
of the Greeks can be roughly divided into six distinct
periods. The first is the classical period of free Greek
city-states, which lasted till about the middle of the
second century B. c. This period also saw the extension
of Greek civilization over the whole of Asia Minor and
Syria, and in some degree over Egypt. The second is
the period of Roman rule, when all Greek-speaking
peoples were subjects of the Roman Empire. But
throughout this time Greek civilization remained
predominant in the eastern portion of the Empire, and
the Greek language was that used by the earliest apostles

14 HISTORY [»o. 64
of Christianity. Consequently the division of the
Empire into two parts by Constantine the Great in
a.d. 325, with Constantinople — the old Greek city of
Byzantium — as the capital of the Eastern Empire and
with Christianity as its established religion, was only the
official recognition of the already existing distinction of
the Greek and Latin halves of the Empire. With this
begins the third period of Greek history. Though its
laws and its administration were based mainly on
those of Rome, and Latin long remained its official
language, the Eastern Empire became more and more
Greek in character, and its severance from Western
Europe was finally marked by the quarrel between the
Orthodox and the Roman Churches. This third period
ends with the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the
Franks of the Fourth Crusade. During most of the
period the Greeks had maintained their rule over all
Asia Minor by constant struggles against the Persians
and Saracens of the East.
(2) Frankish Period
The fourth period, when western princes ruled in the
Near East, is the shortest and least important of the
periods of Greek history. Western traders had for
some time been conducting an active commerce with
the Greeks, and the, rival republics of Genoa and
Venice had been granted special trading privileges
in the territory of the Empire. On the capture of
Constantinople, the lands of the Empire were divided
between different Frankish princes and barons and
the republic of Venice ; and there was a short-lived
Latin dynasty at Constantinople. Though the Greeks,
who had maintained themselves on, the eastern shore
of the Sea of Marmora, soon retook the capital, and
afterwards some of the islands and half the Pelo-
ponnese, the Western Powers retained their control
over the greater part of what is now the kingdom of
Greece, and especially over the islands. Already the
greater part of Asia Minor had fallen to the Turks,

^I^AlgeanJ FRANKS AND TURKS 15
and here nearly every trace of Greek civilization
disappeared; only on the coasts of the Aegean and
the Black Sea, where a second Greek empire, with its
capital at Trebizond, maintained itself till the
middle of the fifteenth century, did the Greeks pre
serve their religion, language, and national character
istics. The actual power of the Greeks had thus
dwindled to very small proportions, but in the lands
ruled by the Franks the Greek inhabitants tenaciously
clung to their own customs, language, and religion, and
there was but little intermingling between them and
their western conquerors. When the latter, therefore,
were driven out by the Turks they left but little mark
on the country, and their permanent influence on
Greece was very small, though their rule served to
emphasize the feeling the Greeks already had of the
deep distinction between themselves and all western
nations. (3) Turkish Period
The fifth period is the period of Turkish rule. The
Turks established their power in Europe by the battle
of Kossovo in 1389, and soon after extended their
empire over the whole of the Balkan peninsula, Con
stantinople falling to them in 1453. Though some
islands held out longer than others — Crete, which
was held by the Venetians, not falling till 1669 —
and Venice made another appearance as a Power in
the Near East towards the end of the seventeenth
century by capturing the Peloponnese and holding it
for thirty years, generally speaking, from the beginning
of the fifteenth to the beginning of the nineteenth
century, the Turks were all-powerful in south-eastern
Europe and in Asia Minor, in all those lands inhabited
by Greeks and where they once had held sway. During
this time the Greeks were cut off altogether from
the rest of Europe, and the ruling Turks were the only
foreign people with whom they came in contact. By far
the greater number of them retained their own customs,
language, and religion, and the traditions of their past.

16 HISTORY [¦* 64
The sixth period of Greek history is that of the
independent kingdom of Greece, a period which began
for the inhabitants of continental Greece and some
of the islands in the revolution of 1821 ; for the
majority of the islands off the coast of Asia Minor it
only began in 1912 ; for large numbers of Greeks it has
not yet begun. (4) Genoese Companies
A history of these Greek islands separate from that
of the rest of Greek lands does not begin till the
fourth of the six periods above described — the period
of Frankish predominance ; and even from that time
their history only differs in so far as they came
more or less under the influence of the Franks and
the Turks. Two of the islands — the two largest, most
fertile!, and most thickly-populated of them all — Khios
and Mytilene, were for long under the rule of the
Genoese. In 1275 the Zaccaria family established
themselves at Phocaea on the mainland opposite Khios,
and in 1304 in Khios itself, first with commercial
privileges granted them by the Greek Emperor, then
as rulers in the island. In 1346, after a short interval
of Greek rule, the maona, a chartered company of
Genoese merchants, leased the island from the republic
and ruled it and Samos in much, the same way as
chartered companies have ruled in Africa. They
remained in Samos till 1475, in Khios till 1566. Another
Genoese family, the Gattilusii, secured Mytilene for
themselves, and later ruled also in Lemnos, Samo
thraki, and Imbros (1355-1462). The Genoese were
the most tolerant of all the Frankish rulers in Greece ;
they did not interfere with the religion or customs of
their Greek subjects, and left them always a large
measure of local autonomy. Moreover, as they wers
primarily traders, they were interested in the suppres
sion of piracy and in preserving the security of the
seas. They maintained a precarious tenure of power
even after the Turkish capture of Constantinople, but
were finally driven from Khios in 1566.

Islands of
N. &E.

Aegean] GENOESE ; KNIGHTS OF ST. JOHN 17

(5) Knights of Rhodes
Rhodes, the next most important of the islands, had
a somewhat different history. The famous Knights of
St. John (Hospitallers) seized Rhodes in 1309, and
there maintained a heroic struggle against the Turks till
1522, when they were granted honourable terms and
retired to Malta. But, unlike the Genoese in Khios and
Mytilene, their only interest was in fighting the Turks ;
and the Greek inhabitants of Rhodes and the neigh
bouring islands suffered greatly from the continual
irregular warfare which they carried on. While they
were known to the West as the most heroic champions
of Christianity against the infidels, the Greeks regarded
them as oppressors, pirates, and heretics.
(6) Privileges of Islands
During the long centuries of Turkish rule, the whole
of the Aegean was under the command of a single
governor ; and the islands were distinguished from
one another and from the rest of the Greek lands
only by the degree Qf immunity from the presence
of Turkish officials that each enjoyed. Special privi
leges were granted by the Turks to Khios and to
the group of twelve small islands of the Southern
Sporades known as the Dodekanese. The Greeks of
Khios were allowed to manage their own local affairs
much as they had been by the Genoese ; a Turkish
garrison was kept in the capital, but the Greeks elected
their own municipal council; their Church and their
schools were not interfered with ; they were allowed to
use the Greek language in their correspondence with
the Turkish Government; and they had an official of
their own in Constantinople, the Dragoman of the
Porte, to represent them in any complaint they might
have to make to the Government. Still greater privie
leges were enjoyed by the inhabitants of the Dodeka
nese. These twelve islands, Nikaria, Patmos, Leros,
Kalymnos, Astropalia, Nisyros, Symi, Tilos, Khalki,
Karpathos, Kasos, and Kastellorizo or Megisti, are

18 HISTORY [

No. 64

distinguished by the rocky and barren nature of their
soil and the poverty of their inhabitants, who maintain
themselves almost exclusively by sea-faring, fishing, and
sponge-diving. The two fertile islands of the Southern
Sporades, Kos and Rhodes, do not belong to the Dode
kanese properly so called, and did not enjoy its privi
leges. The inhabitants of the twelve islands had to pay
a single tax — and that not a high one — yearly to the
Turkish Governor of Rhodes ; they settled the amount
each island was to pay towards this tax themselves ; and
if they paid the tax regularly they were free from all
other interference by the Turks. No Turkish soldiers,
nor any Turkish officials, were allowed to land on their
islands ; and each island managed its own affairs,
settled its taxes, and built schools or churches, as it
willed. (7) Greek Revolution
The stories of the different islands in the nineteenth
century vary greatly. Only four of those off the Asiatic
coast played a part in the Greek revolution, viz. Khios,
Psara, Samos, and Kasos. Of these, Psara and Kasos
took a very prominent part in the activities of the Greek
fleet ; both were conquered by the Turks before the end
of the war. But a worse fate befell Khios. *A small
body of Samiotes landed on that rich and peaceful
island in 1822, defeated the Turkish garrison, and pro
claimed its union with free Greece. But the Turks soon
returned, drove out the Samiotes, and took their
revenge on the inhabitants of the island. More than
50,000 Khiotes were massacred or deported ; and the
island has never since enjoyed the prosperity it had had
previously. (8) Islands in Nineteenth Century
On the establishment of the independent kingdom
of Greece in 1831, all the islands, together with Crete,
were returned to Turkey. But all their former privi
leges were restored to Khios and the Dodekanese, and
Samos was made an autonomous principality under
a Christian prince, appointed by the Sultan. The

^"Aegean] REVOLUTION ; ITALIAN WAR 19
subsequent history of these islands is largely one of
attempts made by the Porte to infringe these privi
leges. Particularly in 1866, when the Law of the
Vilayets was introduced, and in 1909, after the Young
Turkish revolution, when another attempt was made
to unify the government of the whole empire, were the
privileges infringed, Turkish garrisons maintained, and
more taxes imposed. In 1910 the attempt to apply
the law of conscription to the Christian inhabitants
of the empire met with very strong opposition, and
memorials were presented to the Great Powers by the
islanders. (9) Principality of Samos %
Samos had a disturbed history during this period.
Though the autonomy of the island was guaranteed by
France, Great Britain, and Russia, the three protecting
Powers of Greece, attempts were constantly being
made by the Porte to interfere in its government. The
prince, chosen generally from among the Phanariot
Greeks of Constantinople, was used by the Turkish
Government as a Turkish official ; and many conflicts
broke out between him and the Assembly of the island,
in which, according to the statute granting autonomy,
lay the ruling authority. Finally, in 1908, the prince
executed a coup d'etat by dismissing the Assembly
and introducing Turkish troops to support him ; and
his unconstitutional rule lasted till 1910. His successor
was soon after deposed by the people ; and Samos
remained independent till the arrival of the Greek
fleet in the first Balkan War.
(10) Italo-Turkish War
With the outbreak of the war between Italy and
Turkey in 1911 begins a new period in the history
of the islands. Italy, meeting with more resistance
in Tripoli than she had expected, occupied, in the
spring of 1912, the Southern Sporades (Rhodes, Kos,
and the islands of the Dodekanese), except Nikaria
and Kastellorizo. At the same time Nikaria and Samos
C2

20 HISTORY [*o.m
declared themselves independent republics. On Octo
ber 10, 1912, Turkey, threatened with war by the
Balkan States, concluded the Peace of Lausanne with
Italy, according to which Italy was to return all the
islands occupied by her to Turkey as soon as the last
Turkish soldier was withdrawn from Tripoli. Since
however this condition was not carried out, Italy
has remained in provisional occupation of the islands.

(11) Greek Occupation
On the outbreak of the Balkan War, Nikaria and
Samos, like Crete, at once proclaimed their union with
Greece ; and the Greek fleet soon occupied the remain
ing islands, Lemnos, Thasos, Samothraki, Imbros,
Tenedos, Agiostrati, Mytilene, Khios, the Moskonesia,
and Psara. The occupation of the Southern Sporades
by Italy prevented their union with Greece. At the
conclusion of the Balkan Wars, Turkey agreed to
surrender Lemnos, Thasos, Psara, Agiostrati, Samos,
Nikaria, and Crete ; and Bulgaria resigned to Greece
all claim to Thasos. But Turkey would not give up
Samothraki, Imbros, a/id Tenedos, as being necessary
for the defence of the Dardanelles, nor the rich islands
of Khios and Mytilene ; and when war broke out in
1914 no treaty had been signed between Turkey and
Greece, and diplomatic relations were strained. The
Great Powers, however, had recognized Greek claims
to Khios, the Moskonesia, and Mytilene, while insist
ing that Imbros and Tenedos must be returned to
Turkey. Owing to the refusal of the Turks to agree to these
terms, all the islands, including Imbros and Tenedos,
have been since administered as part of the Greek King
dom, and return members to the Greek Parliament.
They form three new nomoi, or prefectures, of the Greek
kingdom as follows : Mytilene, Lemnos, Agiostrati,
Samothraki, Imbros, and Tenedos form the nomos of
Lesbos, with its capital at Mytilene ; Khios, the Mos-

ffSfjP&.an] GREEK OCCUPATION 21
konesia, and Psara form the namos of Khios, with its
capital at Khios ; and Samos and Nikaria form the
nomos of Samos, with its capital at Vathi. Thasos is ¦
part of the nomos of Drama, the most easterly province
of Greek Macedonia. Kastellorizo proclaimed its
union with Greece, but has been occupied by the
French since 1915.

22 [Wo-

64

III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
CONDITIONS
The ' Asiatic Islands ' must, for the purpose of the
present section, be divided into two classes : (a) all
north of, and including, Samos, which have become,
for all practical purposes, a part of the Greek kingdom,
and (b) Rhodes, Kos, and the Dodekanese, which, re
maining nominally Turkish, have been since 1912 under
Italian administration.
Those which are now included in Greece share in the
religious and political institutions and system of public
education common to the whole of the Greek King
dom,1 though there has jjot been much opportunity
since 1913 for peaceful organization and development.
ISLANDS OCCUPIED BY GREECE
(1) Religion
The great majority of the population of these islands
belong to the Orthodox Greek Church ; but they were,
before Greek annexation, under the Oecumenical
Patriarch at Constantinople, and they have not yet
been brought into definite relation with the Greek
autocephalous Church in Old Greece. A Synod of
bishops from the new provinces, including Macedonia
and Crete, as well as these Asiatic Islands, was held at
Salonika under the Provisional Government in 1917 ;
but its relation to the Synod of Old Greece at Athens
has not yet been defined.
There are about 1,300 Roman Catholics and a Roman
Catholic Bishop in Khios.
1 See Greece, &c, No. 18 of this series.

KSllnlSAegeanJ ISLANDS UNDER GREECE 23
There is a Moslem minority, which will probably
diminish, in some of the islands (14,000 in Mytilene and
about 3,000 in Khios). Under Greek administration
its spiritual heads (Muftis) receive a contribution
from the State. Toleration is extended to all recog
nized forms of worship by the Greek revised Constitu
tion of 1911. (2) Political
Until 1912 all the islands were subject to Turkey,
which has never formally consented to give up Samo
thraki, Imbros, Tenedos, Mytilene, and Khios, though
these, as well as the others, have been actually annexed
by Greece. Khios enjoyed local autonomy under
Turkish rule ; and Samos had special privileges under
a Christian prince appointed by the Sultan. All alike
now send deputies to the Greek Parliament, and are
administered by Greek officials.
(3) Naval and Military Organization
The population of the islands serve in the Greek
army and navy under the same conditions as the
inhabitants of Old Greece.
(4) Public Education
Even before the Greek annexation, education in
these islands was provided by local administration ann
by the endowments given by rich Greeks, mainly od
the model of the educational system established in Old
Greece. The teachers were in many cases graduates'
of Athens University or came from Greek schools.
There were gymnasia in Mytilene and Khios ; and
in Samos secondary schools both for boys and
girls were provided by the French religious com
munities. Anglophil Greeks sent their children to
grammar schools in Smyrna. Statistics of illiteracy
seem to show that, on the whole, Old Greece is more
literate than the new territories, and the smaller and
remoter islands have a lower standard of education ;

24 PRESENT CONDITIONS [*°-64
the number of illiterates is everywhere much greater
among the girls than among the boys. The educational
system in these islands will doubtless soon be assimilated
to that in Old Greece.
RHODES, KOS, AND THE DODEKANESE
(1) Religion
In Kos and the Dodekanese almost all the population
are Greek Orthodox Christians, under the Oecumenical
Patriarch of Constantinople. There are a few Turks in
Kos. In Rhodes the great majority are also Greek
Christians ; there are about 7,000 Turks and 2,500
Jews, mostly in the town of Rhodes.1
(2) Political
The Dodekanese had special privileges as to local
autonomy in Turkish times. The Italian occupation
has not been popular ;' and large numbers of the inhabi
tants have emigrated to Crete or elsewhere, nearly
half the population, it is said, from Kalymnos. This
is especially due to the restrictions on their main
industry of sponge-fishing, and the regulation that any
one away from the island more than a month should
not be permitted to return. The war must in any case
have reduced the islanders to great straits, by cutting
them off from Egypt and Asia Minor.
(3) Public Education
Education has been well provided for in some of the
islands by private endowment or local administration.
In Leros, for example, there is an education committee
administering a fund of 10,000 drachmas yearly, derived
from private benefactions, church contributions, and
one-third of the harbour dues. This maintains ele
mentary schools for 350 boys and 200 girls, with teachers
trained in Athens, and a ' Hellenic ' school of the Greek
type. There are also one Greek and one French private
1 Cf., however, p. 11.

^'Aegean] THE DODEKANESE 25
school, a library, and a high school, in Greek and
theology, where several of the local ecclesiastical digni
taries have been trained. This may be taken as a
typical, though possibly favourable, example of the
smaller islands. In Kalymnos there are, apart from
elementary schools, a good endowed school for boys
of gymnasium type, and a gymnasium for girls,
supported and administered by the municipality.

26

[Xo. 64

IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
GENERAL SUMMARY 1
It is very difficult to obtain an accurate estimate of
the economic value of the islands newly acquired by
Greece. The information available is scanty, and there
are large gaps in it. The efforts made to estimate the
possibilities of these lands appear to have been quite
insufficient, but, such as they are, they reveal the
inadequacy of the attempts to develop their agri
cultural resources and the still greater neglect of their
mineral resources. Some islands, it is true, such as
Lemnos and Tenedos, owe most of their importance
to their geographical position ; but others, as for
example Khios and Samos, could be brought to a
much higher state of economic development than that
existing at present. (1) Means of Communication
Roads are few ; on many of the islands they do not
exist, and mule-tracks are the only means of com
munication. In Mytilene there has been a consider
able expenditure recently on road-making, and Khios
and Samos have some good roads. During the Italian
occupation there has been some road-making on
Rhodes. There are no railways on any of the islands ;
one was projected in 1910 on Samos, but work upon
it has not yet been begun.
Good ports are few, but anchorages are numerous.
The ports which receive the most shipping are Mudros
in Lemnos, Kastro in Mytilene, Kastro (Port Scio) in
Khios, Port Vathi in Samos, and the port of Rhodes.
All the larger islands, except Samothraki, are
1 The Islands are dealt with individually below, pp. 29 seq.

&TE.SAegean] INDUSTRY 27
connected by cable, and some of them have wire
less stations. The internal postal arrangements have
improved vastly since the end of the Turkish rule.

(2) Industry
Labour is on the whole backward, and the methods
employed are primitive. In Samos the inhabitants have
the reputation of being improvident, lazy, and pleasure-
loving ; and even on islands such as Lemnos, where
their reputation for industry stands higher, their
methods of cultivation are so antiquated that the re
sults are poor ; for instance, they thresh corn by driving
their mules over the threshing-floor. Agriculture is
usually in the hands of women ; such of the male popu
lation of Mytilene as do not find regular employment
in the factories of the island obtain work on the main
land as masons and carpenters. The result has been
that the war has made less difference to the pro
ductivity of these islands than it has to that of other
countries. A considerable amount of emigration has taken
place in recent years, especially to America. Tenedos,
Mytilene, Khios, Samos, and Rhodes have all sent
many emigrants. In 1908 as many as 5,000 per
sons emigrated to America from Samos and the
neighbouring islands and coasts. From Rhodes a
great number of peasants emigrate each spring to
Anatolia and Greece to work as masons ; as a rule
they return in winter with their earnings, but some
settle in those lands permanently. A .large number
have also emigrated to Egypt both from the country
and the towns, and the Rhodians have made successful
immigrants in America, the Transvaal, the Far East,
and Australia. The occupation by Greece has stemmed
the flow of emigration from the islands. Mytilene
received in 1913 an influx of 10,000 refugees.1
1 These are exclusive of the 70,000 who have taken refuge in
the island since August 1914.

28 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [»»•«
Few of the islands are fertile, though Samos is well
watered and has some irrigation works. The chief
agricultural products exported are as follows :
Thasos : timber.
Lemnos : grain, wine.
Tenedos : wine, raisins.
Mytilene : olive oil, valonea.
Khios : gum mastic, fruits, olive oil, valonea, fir
bark, tobacco.
Samos : wine, olive oil, tobacco, locust-beans,
raisins.
Rhodes : fruit, wine, onions.
The mineral resources of these islands have been very
little exploited. It is said that there are in one or
more of them copper, antimony, silver-lead, zinc,
copper pyrites, chrome ore, alum, calcium, emery,
iron, manganese, calamine, coal, lignite, and marble ;
but of these the only minerals worked are in Thasos
silver-lead and zinc, in Nikaria iron, and in Imbros
lignite (unremuneratively), while in Khios some varie
gated marble is quarried. Potter's clay is obtained in
Thasos, white clay in Samos, and kaolin in Rhodes.
The northern islands have no manufactures except
that of cotton stuffs in Lemnos. Industries are more
numerous in the Asiatic Islands. In Mytilene cotton,
soap, and olive oil are produced, in Khios soap and silk,
in Samos oil and cigarettes, in Rhodes soap. There
are also tanneries in Samos and Rhodes, and distilleries
in Rhodes. (3) Commerce
It is not easy to give a satisfactory conspectus of
the trade of these islands, the information supplied by
the consular reports being often deficient. The fact
that in some cases the only figures available are not
for the most recent years is, however, not a great dis
advantage, for since the outbreak of the war between
Turkey and Italy in 1911 there has been no normal year
in the Aegean. A considerable trade is carried on by
small sailing craft, especially between the southern

S'.'I'Mgean] COMMERCE ; THASOS 29
islands and Egypt ; but this has been much inter
rupted during recent years.
The Germans, before the European War, had been
much more successful than the British in pressing their
trade. In 1908 Mytilene was visited by thirty German
commercial travellers, eight French, seven Italian, and
only one British. In the same year at Khios, German
imports led, in spite of the fact that there is a greater
demand for British goods. In Samos the bulk of the
textiles were formerly obtained from the United
Kingdom, but recently a large part of the orders
have been secured for German and Italian houses.
Among the reasons for the better success of the Ger
mans are the following : (1) the goods, if inferior, are
cheaper ; (2) greater facilities for payment are offered ;
(3) commercial travellers representing^ German houses
pay regular visits ; (4) the Germans send out advertise
ments, in which they use the decimal system of
weights and measures ; (5) there is, generally speaking,
a greater consideration shown by the Germans for the
tastes of their customers, and a much more general
knowledge of the Greek language.
British interests do not figure prominently in these
islands. In Samos, however, a British company deal
ing in Samian wines under the title of the Samos
Wine Company, Ltd., was established in 1912 with
a registered capital of £120,000.
THASOS
(A) Communications
(a) Roads. — There are no roads on the island ;
transport is by mules.
(b) Telegraphs and Telephones. — There is telegraphic
and telephonic communication between Panagia and
Kastro. (c) Ports. — There are no ports suitable for use in
bad weather. Vessels visiting the island anchor in
Panagia Roads off Limani. The following landing-
plaoes are used :

30 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS , [wo.64
Limani, on the north coast, the most frequented by
steamers visiting the island. There is a small pier in
the small artificial harbour, with a depth of 2 ft.
alongside, and farther west is another small pier, which
is connected with an oil factory by two lines of light
tramway. Mail steamers from Kavalla call twice a week at
Limani. Sotiro, on the west coast, used for loading ore.
There is a small pier and also some sheds for storing
ore. The depth of water alongside the pier is about
6 ft. Hamadieh, the slcala (landing-place) of Kastro on the
south-east coast, the chief loading centre for minerals
exported from the mines on the island. It possesses
an iron pier 12Q ft. long and 20 ft. wide, with a depth
of 20 ft. at the end. There are two cranes with a lifting
capacity of 1 ton each, two steam tugs, a motor-boat,
and a number of small lighters capable of carrying
about 10 tons.
(d) Cables. — There is a cable from Limani to Koan
Point on the mainland opposite and thence to Kavalla.
There is also a wireless station.
(B) Industry
(1) Agriculture. — Agriculture is fairly widespread,
but the produce is all consumed locally. Maize, olives,
tobacco, and vegetables are grown," and the island
possesses some sheep and good cattle. A considerable
part of the island is covered with trees, chiefly fir, of
which there is some export. Wine is produced, but
not in very large quantities.
(2) Minerals.— The island has from ancient times
been reputed to be rich in minerals. The Phoenicians
worked the gold-mines on a large scale, but it is stated
that all traces of these mines have now been lost ; on
the other hand, extensive evidence of ancient mining
operations is to be seen on the east side, though there
is no information as to the mineral obtained from them.
Ihe island is said to contain iron, copper, and antimony

8?S?aU»] THASOS; SAMOTHRAKI 31
in addition to the deposits of silver-lead and zinc in
the south and west, which are being worked at the
present time. In 1903 the right to work these was
obtained by a German company, Friedrich Speidel & Co.,
who are stated to have exported ore in the years 1905,
1906, and 1907 to the amount of 19,000, 21,000, and
20,000 tons respectively. It is said that the mines are
now in the hands of a Greek syndicate, but that the
quantity of good ore is greatly reduced. The mines are
equipped with furnaces for smelting, with ore-dressing
plant, storage sheds, and a light railway on which the
ore is brought down by a double line and hawser, the
full truck pulling up the empty one. The industry
employs about 1,000 men.
There are large quantities of marble on the island,
and some is quarried and exported. Good potter's
clay is found in the north of the island, but the local
potteries have decayed.
(3) Manufacture. — A small boat-building industry
is carried on at Limani.

SAMOTHRAKI
(A) Communications
(a) Roads. — The island is very mountainous, and
there are no roads. Mule-tracks are the only means
of internal communication.
(b) Telegraphs. — There is no telegraphic communica
tion. (c) Ports. — There are no ports or roadsteads in the
island, but there are a certain number of landing-
places. The only sea communication is by caique to
Dedeagach, Thasos, and Imbros.
(B) Industry
(1) Agriculture. — The island produces corn, fruit, oil,
honey and wax, and supports a large flock of goats, but
it has no trade, and is economically unimportant. ' The
cultivated land is chiefly in the west and south-west.

32 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [»»•«*
(2) Minerals. — Evidence of the existence of deposits
of silver-lead has been found on the west side of the
island, but no mining has been done. On the north
coast are hot sulphur springs.
IMBROS
(A) Communications
(a) Roads. — A road runs from Plaka on the north
east coast to Paraskevi, a distance of about 8 miles.
(b) Telegraphs. — There is no internal telegraphic
communication. (c) Ports. — There are several fairly safe anchorages,
chiefly on the south side of the island, but no ports.
Coasting steamers now call weekly.
(d) Cables. — There is a telephone cable to Lemnos.
(B) Industry
(1) Agriculture. — The island is fertile and well
wooded, and, like all the neighbouring islands, abounds
in game. Wine, olive oil, and cotton are produced in
small quantities, but there is no trade. The inhabi
tants are occupied chiefly in growing wheat, oats, and
barley, breeding goats, and keeping bees.
(2) Minerals. — Lead and copper pyrites were mined
about the year 1890, but no results of value appear to
have been obtained. The island is said also to contain
deposits of lignite near Arassia. A lignite mine has been
worked, but unremuneratively, by a German company.
LEMNOS
(A) Communications
(a) Roads, &c. — There are numerous rough tracks,
especially in the plains in the centre of the island.
There are three roads from Kastro (on the west coast),
the first going east to Mudros, the second north to
Kaspaka, and the third south to Tothanos. There is
also a rough carriage-road from Mudros town to the

N^Aegean] IMBROS; LEMNOS 33
air-station on the north coast. Ponies and donkeys
are used for transport.
A naval tram-line, three miles in length, has been
constructed from Mudros town.
(&) Telegraphs. — There is telegraphic communication
between Kastro and Mudros.
(c) Ports.— The island has at least three good natural
harbours, Mudros and Kondia on the south coast, and
Purnea on the north coast. The first-mentioned affords
a safe anchorage for many large ships. Before the war,
however, Kastro on the west coast was most used.
Mudros Bay at that time had two ports, Mudros town
on the east side and Port Mudros on the west side of
the bay, both of which had small piers, but otherwise
were ill equipped for dealing with cargo ; several piers
were constructed during the Allied occupation. Mudros
town possesses a custom-house ; the quay has recently
been somewhat improved, but this part of the har
bour is shallow. Port Kondia, westward of Mudros
Bay, where there is also a custom-house, has an
anchorage in 7-10 fathoms on mud, but no landing
facilities. Port Kastro has a harbour for small boats
with a pier and quays ; larger vessels can anchor
a little farther out in about 10 fathoms. Purnea, on
the north coast, is little used.
(d) Shipping. — Steamers, trading with Constanti
nople, Smyrna, the Piraeus, and Salonika, call regularly
at the island.
(e) Cable and Wireless Communication. — There are
telegraph cables to Salonika and Tenedos, and a tele
phone cable to Imbros. There is also a wireless
station. (B) Industry
(1) Agriculture.— Though water abounds, the soil is
thin and sandy ; in the north, except in the immediate
neighbourhood of villages, there is little cultivation,
but sheep and cattle graze on the coarse grass. Grapes,
corn, and some cotton are grown in the valleys and
plains near Mudros, Kastro, Tothanos, Kondia, Livadhi,

34 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [*<>¦«*
and Skandali. Tobacco was grown experimentally by
refugees from the mainland in 1917. There are no
olive-trees ; and the sheep reared on the island (normally
about 40,000 head) form the chief source of profit.
Grain and wine are exported. •
(2) Fisheries.— -It is stated that a little fishing is
done, but the boats belonging to the island are not
numerous. (3) Manufacture. — There is some manufacture of
cotton stuffs.
TENEDOS
(A) Communications
(a) Roads. — There are no roads on the island.
(b) Ports. — The port of Tenedos on the east side of
the island is formed by a curve of the shore and a mole
projecting one cable eastward. The maximum depth
is 6 fathoms at the entrance. Large vessels must
anchor outside, but should remain under steam. There
are no facilities for handling cargo. There is a Lloyd's
agent at the port.
(c) Shipping. — Austrian Lloyd steamers used to call
at the island every fortnight. It is also frequently
visited by coasting steamers and sailing-vessels.
(d) Cables. — The island is connected by cable with
Khios, Lemnos, and Constantinople, and with the
mainland at Beshika Bay.
(B) Industry
The island is fertile and well cultivated, producing
raisins, corn, cotton, oil, and an excellent light wine.
(C) Commerce
The chief exports of the island are wine and raisins,
and the chief imports wheat, flour, and textiles. The
trade is conducted almost entirely with Turkey, Egypt,
and Rumania. The following approximate statistics

n

^ffiegean] TENEDOS ; MYTILENE 35
are taken from the reports of the British Vice-Consul
at Tenedos :
1907. 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911.
^ £ £ £ £
Imports . . . 20,000 19,400 19,200 18,800 19,200
Exports . . . 10,500 7,400 8,250 8,400 9,400
MYTILENE
(A) Communications
(a) Roads. — In recent years money has been spent on
the construction of roads, and there are now about
70 miles of first-class roads in the island. In 1914 the
repairing of roads cost £12,000, and two British steam
rollers were imported for the purpose. In addition
there are many mule-tracks ; and mules, of which there
are large numbers, are used generally for transport.
(b) Posts and Telegraphs. — Posts are now delivered at
all the towns and villages ; under Turkish rule letters
waited till they were called for. The following places
are connected by telegraph and also, for official pur
poses, by telephone : Kastro, lero (Hiero), Potamos,
Mandamados, Kalloni, Polichnitis, Sigri, Erisos, Moly-
vos, Petras, and Skamnia.
(c) Ports. — Mytilene (Kastro). This is the chief town
of the island. There are two ports, known as the
north and south ports. Of these the former, which
has a depth of 2-5 fathoms, is the more commodious,
but is little used ; it is badly obstructed by the
remains of ancient moles. The south port, where the
maximum depth of water is 3 fathoms, is better
suited for landing cargo, as it possesses a good quay
all round with about 4 ft. of water alongside, and it
is therefore always used by coasting vessels. There
are a small steamboat, a few motor-boats, and some
lighters belonging to the port. A stock of about 1,500
tons of Heraclea coal is usually kept, and can be
loaded from lighters. There is a Lloyd's sub-agent at
the port.
Molyvos Road, on the north coast, off the small town
r> 2

36 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [*o.e4
of Molyvos, is also used as a place of call by steamers
running between Smyrna and Constantinople, but has
only a boat harbour. Supplies can be readily obtained.
There are also two natural harbours, Port lero on
the south-east coast and Port Kalloni on the south
coast. Neither of these has any trade of importance,
and the entrances are difficult. Port Sigri on the west
coast is a place of refuge for vessels to and from Con
stantinople. (d) Shipping. — Mytilene is an important trading
centre, and, lying as it does on the route from Con
stantinople to Smyrna, is a port of call for all steam
ship lines engaged in the trade of the Eastern Mediter
ranean. There is also a regular service to and from the
Piraeus. The following is a return of shipping which
entered and cleared at the port of Mytilene for the
years 1904-7 and for 1914 :
1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1914.
Steamers . . No. 1,426 1,365 1,489 1,531 1,654
Tons 718,138 735,547 779,205 738,298 776,973
Sailing-vessels . Xo. 2,756 2,482 2,822 2,613 4,384
Tons 27,811 26.031 26,781 30,361 25,346
Of the shipping of 1914, 153 steamers with a total
tonnage of 128,168 and 10 sailing-vessels of 120 tons
were British.
(e) Cable and Wireless Communication. — There are
cables to Khios and to Aivali on the mainland. There is
also a wireless station on the island by means of which
messages can be sent to Khios, Lemnos, and Syra.
(B) Industry
(1) Agriculture.— The long-continued subdivision of
hereditary properties has had unfavourable results.
The holdings of the peasants are small and scattered,
with the result that much energy and time are wasted.
A large part of the island is covered with olive-trees,
many of which have now been pruned under Euro
pean guidance with good results. The olive crop is of
the first importance to the industry and trade of the
island ; olive oil is exported in considerable quantities,

M'AegeanJ MYTILENE 37
and the refuse oil is manufactured locally into soap,
which is also exported. The following figures give
approximately the yield of olive oil from the crops
gathered in the years 1909-14 :
1909-10. 1910-11. 1911-12. 1912-13. 1913-14.
Tons . . . 12,600 5,470 33,600 2,400 18,800
Next in importance is the valonea crop, obtained
from the cups of the acorns of the Aegilops oak. The
crop averages about 2,500 tons annually. Other
products are vegetables and fruit of all kinds, wheat,
barley, and cotton ; but of these the export is un
important. At one time silk cocoons were exported in large
numbers, but disease broke out and ruined the
industry, and no steps have since been taken to
revive it. «
The island is mountainous, and pines and oak grow
on the high ground. At one time the island abounded
in pine-trees, but for many years under the Turkish
rule these had been habitually destroyed for the sake
of the bark, which was used for tanning, and no
• replanting was done. When the island came under
Greek rule in 1912, the destruction was stopped.
(2) Fisheries. — There are plenty of fish in the waters
round the island, mullet, sardines, lobsters, and dory
being the most common, but the industry is insignifi
cant. (3) Minerals. — The island contains deposits of anti
mony, but the mines have not recently been worked,
and there is no information as to the quaUty of the
mineral. Other minerals said to be in the island are
chrome ore, copper, alum, and coal ; there is also
some marble.
(4) Manufacture.— The following factories are estab
hshed in the island : at Mytilene town, 2 cotton-mills,
12 olive-oil presses, 30 soap factories, 3 steam flour-
mills, 30 tanneries', and 2 steam saw-mills ; at Potamos,
20 soap factories, a flour-mill, and a fishing-boat yard ;
at Port lero, an oil factory, soap-works, and a flour-

38 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [*°-64
mill. There are also many small oil-mills which are
worked by hand in other parts of the island, as weU as
over a hundred steam oil-presses.
(C) Commerce
The imports consist chiefly of textiles and iron
goods, the greater part of the latter being suppUed by
Belgium. No figures giving the value of imports in
recent years are available.
The chief exports are olive oil, soap, and valonea :
the greater part goes normally to Turkey or the
Black Sea. The following approximate figures of
the export of soap and valone'a have been taken
from the British Consular Reports :
1905. 1906. 1907. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. 1914.
Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt.
Soap 180,000 220,000 180,000 45,000 225.000 30,000 12,500 15,000
Valonea 34,000 «9,000 20,000 _____
(D) Finance
Banking. — The banks in Mytilene are, or were,
a branch of the Banque Imperiale Ottomane, an
agency of the Banque d'Orient, and one of Christofa
Hadji Freres; as well as branches of the National
Bank of Greece and the Bank of Athens.
KHIOS
(A) Communications
(a) Roads. — There is a first-class road about 18 miles
in length which traverses the island in a north-westerly
direction from Port Scio to Volissos on the west coast,
and another which goes north from Port Scio for about
10 miles to Pityos. In addition, there are numerous
mule-tracks between the different villages on the island
(6) Ports.— The only port of the island is Kastro
(Port Scio) on the east coast. It is rectangular in shape
and is protected by two breakwaters. The area of the
harbour is about 750 by 360 yds., and a depth of 30 ft in
the centre is kept by dredging ; alongside the quays the
depth is about 6-8 ft. The total length of the quays is
1,350 yds. There is only one crane (lifting capacity

Islands of 1
IT. & E. Aegean ]

KHIOS

39

3-4 tons) for dealing with cargo. Minor repairs to
vessels can be effected at the port. Outside there
is anchorage in 12-18 fathoms on mud. There is
a Lloyd's sub-agent at the port.
(c) Shipping. — Kastro is a regular port of call for
all the steamship lines engaged in the trade of the
Eastern Mediterranean. In addition to numerous small
steamers and sailing-vessels the Austrian Lloyd, the
Russian Steam Navigation Co., the Panhellenic Co.,
the Pantaleon Co., and the Hamadieh Line visited the
port regularly before the war.
The island possesses about 90 sailing and 25 steam
vessels, which are used in the trade of the surrounding
islands and of the coast of Asia Minor. In 1914 the total
number of vessels which entered and cleared at Kastro
was 2,250, of which 1,068 were steamers with a total
tonnage of 717,598. Of these 40 were British, with
a tonnage of 32,060. Ships entered and cleared at
Kastro in the years 1904-10 were :

Steamers.

Sailing-vessels.

No.

Tonnage.

No. Tonnage

1904 .... 1,242

675,044

2,579 37,976

1905 .

1,250
728,226
2,820 45,040
1906 .
1,278
724,932
2,903 40,395
1907 .
1,233
736,968
2,753 39,217
1908 .
1,327
814,216
2,693 38,915
1909 .
1,426
888,608
2,648 41,982
1910 .
1,138
732,675
2,520 38,463
(d) Cables.— Kastro has a telegraph station, and
is connected by two cables with Chesme on the main
land, by two with Syra, with Spalmatori Island, with
Tenedos, and also by Greek Government cables with
Samos and Mytilene. (B) Industry
(1) Agriculture. — Khios has been described as the most
fertile of the Aegean Islands, but the proceeds of agri
culture provide only a small part of the wealth of the
inhabitants. The island produces olives, almonds, figs,
grapes, oranges, &c, and a Uttle corn ; but agriculture is
carried on mainly for the purpose of supplying local
40 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [»«.64
needs, and only olive oil and almonds are exported in
any considerable quantity, though there is some export
of fruit, both fresh and dried.
Gum mastic, which is obtained from the mastic tree
(Pistacia lentiscus) by incision of the bark in August
and September, forms a considerable source of profit.
The gum is treated on the island and is then exported
mostly to Constantinople, where it is sold as a chewing
gum or for dental purposes. A popular liqueur (mas-
tiha) is made from it in large quantities.
Tobacco cultivation was started in the island in 1910,
and it is stated that in time it is Ukely to become a
considerable industry. Its quaUty has been pronounced
to be very much like that of the tobacco produced in
Xanthi and Kavalla.
Olive oil is produced in considerable quantities and
is exported, j There are twelve oil-pressing estabUsh-
ments. Wine is produced ; also a spirituous Uquor made
from raisins, called raki. The quaUty of the latter
is better than that produced in any other island of the
Archipelago. (2) Minerals. — The island is reported to possess rich
antimony and calcium mines, but these are not worked
at the present time. Good variegated marble is also
found and is quarried for local use.
(3) Manufacture. — There are twelve tanneries in the
island, of which five are driven by steam. The hides
are imported, as is the valonea required in the treat
ment. Valonea is also re-exported after having been
ground at the mills established in the island. There are
four large flour-mills, two iron- works, one soap factory,
one factory for evaporating soap-lyes. Silk is produced
and manufactured into stockings, gloves, &c.
(C) Commerce
The principal articles of export are leather, gum
mastic, fruit (especially oranges and mandarmes), oUve
oil, almonds, ground valonea. and pine-bark. The

Islands of 1
IT. & E. Aegean

KHIOS; SAMOS

41

trade is chiefly with Turkey, Bulgaria, and Rumania,
but also to some extent with the United Kingdom,
France, Italy, Russia, Egypt, and even the Far East.
The chief imports are hides, wheat, barley, and flour,
manufactured goods, sugar, cotton yarns, rice, planks
and timber, valonea, coffee, and paraffin.
The following statistics of the value of imports and
exports are taken from the British Consular Reports :

Imports.

Exports

£

.' £

1909

. 233,950

271,000

1910

. 246.250

293,500

1911

. 268,000

297,500

1912

. 203,250

19l",400

1914

. 487,125

234,700

(D) Finance
Banking. — -There are in Khios branches or agencies
of the Bank of Athens and the Commercial Bank of
Greece.

SAMOS
(A) Communications
(a) Roads. — The map marks good roads radiating
from Port Vathi to all the important points in the
island, but most of these are not yet built. Those
which can be used by carriages are :
To Tigani and Khora, usuaUy in good repair.
To Karlovassi, passable in good weather, but in
very bad condition.
To Kotzilea, suburban, in fair condition.
To Flammari and Murtia Bay : this was unfinished
in 1915.
To Mytilene : this is unfinished and out of repair.
In other parts communication is by mule-tracks.
(&) Railways. — A concession to build a railway from
Vathi to Karlovassi was granted in 1910 to a Greek
and a British subject. No work has yet been done.
(c) Posts} Telegraphs, and Telephones. — A Samian post
office has been established to take the place of the

42 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [*°-6*
Turkish office previously in existence. There is a good
system of telephones between all the towns and villages
of the island.
(d) Ports. — There are several good natural harbours
on the island, and Port Vathi, Karlovassi, Tigani,
and Marathocampo are all capable of accommodating
large vessels and possess fair loading facilities. The
bulk of the trade is concentrated at Port Vathi. This
port, which lies at the head of a smaU gulf on the
north side of the island, is protected by a breakwater
370 ft. long, and has a harbour depth of 6-20 fathoms.
The quay has 6 ft. of water alongside and there are
three wooden piers. Steamers of the largest tonnage
can enter and leave at any time in any weather. There
is a Lloyd's sub-agent at the port. Karlovassi, 12 miles
west of Port Vathi, has a harbour protected by two
breakwaters. The general depth is 16 ft. ; along the
quay, between the breakwaters, it is 10 ft.
(e) Shipping. — Samos is the junction of three main
local trade routes of the Aegean : (1) to Syra and
the Piraeus ; (2) to Khios and Mytilene ; (3) to the
Dodekanese and Rhodes. In consequence it enjoys
a double service to the Piraeus, and has become a dis
tributing and collecting centre. It is also visited by
steamers from aU parts of the Mediterranean. Three
Greek steamers touch regularly at Port Vathi from the
Piraeus, and two from Smyrna each week. There are
also in normal times weekly steamers of the Austrian
Lloyd and fortnightly steamers of the Messageries
Maritimes, as well as steamers of the ItaUan Servizi
Marittimi. There is a daily steamer from Vathi to
Karlovassi, calling at three or four smaU anchorages
on the way. The following figures of the shipping
entered and cleared at the island are taken from the
British Consular Reports :
1904. 1905. 1907. 1908. 1910. 1914.
Steamers . No. 1,476 1,200 1,230 1,294 1,260 876
Tons 363,444 349,667 377,990 435.616 467,659 465,432
Sailing- No. 3,830 3,782 3.388 2,964 3,737 450
vessels . Tons 36,809 36,503 31,727 28,520 33,996 7,076

^Aegean] SAMOS 43
(/) Cable and Wireless Communication. — Samos is con
nected by cable with Khios, and with Scalanuova on
the mainland. There is also a wireless station.
(B) Industry
(1) Agriculture. — The island is fertile and well
watered ; it is capable of much higher production than
is obtained from it by its not very industrious inhabi
tants. The agricultural products are grapes, raisins,
olives, tobacco, locust-beans, and valonea. Only a
smaU amount of corn is produced, and for cereals
the island is almost entirely dependent upon imports.
The numerous streams of the interior are used to some
extent for irrigation. Oxen, sheep, and poultry exist
in considerable numbers.
There are large forests of oak, plane, and fir, but
they are not exploited, except for the supply of fuel
and timber required for the building of caiques and
lighters at Tigani. Pitch and tar were formerly made
in large quantities in the mountains.
Wine. — A considerable amount of sweet wine
(moscato or robola) is produced, and there are twenty
factories engaged in the industry. The export is
chiefly to France, Germany, and Malta, where the wine
is used in the manufacture of vermouth and liqueurs.
There is also a good red wine used for local consump
tion, and a rezinato (white wine flavoured with resin)
superior to that of other districts in Greece. The
production of wine in 1914 amounted to about 90,000
hectolitres. Cognac is made at nine distilleries, and
a fairly good liqueur called Samienne. Phylloxera
has been very rife in the island, but has now been
successfully combated, and American vines have been
planted on a large scale.
Tobacco is being cultivated to an increasing extent,
and is to a certain degree taking the place of grapes.
No statistics are available for the annual value of the
crop. Of 700,000 okes 1 produced in 1914, about 300,000
1 1 oke=2Jlb.

44 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [aro.e*
were exported to Germany and the United States, and
another 300,000 were used locally for the manufacture
of cigarettes. There were in 1912 as many as 33
cigarette factories in the island, employing a large
portion of the population. Tobacco for this mdustry
is imported in large quantities from Macedonia.
(2) Minerals. — It is stated that Samos contains
antimony, lead, emery, manganese, copper, calamine,
and large quantities of marble, but only emery is
produced. Near Platano a kind of white clay is found,
which is used as a substitute for soap.
(3) Manufacture. — Considerable quantities of valonea
and pine-bark (pevka) are produced for use in the tanning
trade. There are about thirty tanneries at Karlovassi ;
the hides are nearly aU imported in the raw state
(chiefly from Egypt), and subsequently re-exported as
leather. There are in the island three oil-presses, some
flour-mills, a weaving factory at Karlovassi, and a small
factory where simple machinery is made.
(C) Commerce
The exports comprise wine, leather, oUve oU, tobacco,
locust-beans, raisins, and emery. Sailing- vessels and
fighters are built for export. In 1914 the value of
the principal exports amounted to £265,000. -
The chief imports are grain and flour, hardware,
textiles, hides, tobacco, and alcohol. The latter is
used for the manufacture of wine ; the annual value
of the import is about £25,000, the greater part coming
from Hungary, Russia, and Greece. The total imports
in 1914 amounted to about £280,000. In 1908 it was
estimated that about one-third consisted of British and
British colonial products and manufactures.
(D) Finance
Banking.— There are agencies of the Bank of Athens
at Vathi and Karlovassi.

MSA°Igean] NIKARIA ; KALYMNOS 45
NIKARIA AND PHURNI
Within the prefecture of Samos are included Nikaria
and Phurni.
Nikaria was formerly inhabited only by wood
cutters and shepherds, but has now considerable olive
cultivation, with vineyards and small agriculture. Fuel
and timber are still cut, though much of the island is now
deforested. There is no port, but steamships can anchor
off Messaria (Agios Kyriakos) on the south coast or at
Avdilos Bay on the north, according to the weather.
There is a smaU iron mine at Messaria with a Decauville
track and staith for direct loading into vessels moored
inshore. Phurni is a group of almost barren islands, with
numerous small coves. Sailing-vessels lie up here for
the winter and for repairs, and the islands have a bad
reputation for smuggling.
KALYMNOS
(A) Communications
Ports. — Pothia is the chief harbour, and almost the
whole population clusters here. The port occupies
a deep Day opening southward, and has been improved
by local enterprise into a safe winter anchorage for
small craft ; it has a breakwater not quite completed
(about 150 yds. long in 1917) and one stone-loading jetty
within. Coasting steamers anchor in four fathoms
abreast of the breakwater, and are safe in all but the
worst weather, but cannot communicate with the
shore in a south-west gale on account of the swell.
The only other refuges are a deep cove on the
east coast, and the channel inside Telendos islet on the
north-west. The latter, however, is liable to dangerous
squalls. (B) Industry
(1) Agriculture.— Kalymnos consists of a rugged mass
of limestone mountains, without trees and almost
without shrubs, except in the narrow valley bottoms,

46 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [ho.6«
which are fertile. The enclosed plain of Emborio
produces fine oranges and mandarines ; the Prosta
basin is mostly under figs and olives ; behind Pothia
there are vineyards and vegetable gardens. Corn is
hardly grown at all, and nearly all the agricultural
produce required, except olives, figs, and summer
vegetables, has to be brought from elsewhere. Excel
lent honey is produced on apparently desert hill-sides.
Bees are even brought over during the flower season
from the mainland, where the Kalymniotes have many
farms. (2) Sponge Fishery. — In the nineteenth century sponge-
fishing was the most important industry, but even
before the Italo-Turkish War the island's prosperity
had suffered greatly from the competition of the North
African sponge grounds and the development of the
Florida sponge fisheries, which was accompUshed
chiefly by Kalymniote colonists. In normal times the
sponge fishery used to employ a fleet of about 400
sailing-vessels, and almost the whole population of
the island. In recent years the prosperity and num
ber of the Kalymniotes have declined rapidly ; and the
prohibition of sponge-fishing since 1916 has deprived
the islanders of their means of subsistence. The men
have gone as sponge-fishers to other countries ; a large
number are engaged in the Florida sponge fishery at
Tarpon Springs, and others in the West Indies and
Bermuda. Many hundreds of the women and children
have emigrated to Crete, Naxos, and other islands
within the Greek kingdom. There has been emigra
tion also to South Russia, where the Kalymniotes engage
in shoemaking and coffee-house keeping. The emigrants
sometimes return to the island bringing with them the
wealth they have acquired, and sometimes they send
it home to their famiUes when these remam on the
island. (3) Tobacco Manufacture.— In the slack season for
sponge-fishing as many as 1,000 hands were employed
in small tobacco-cutting factories. The raw material
came from Macedonia, and the output, tobacco cut and

M'l'egean] KALYMNOS; KOS 47
blended or cigarettes, was largely smuggled into Greece
and Turkey in small skilfully handled sailing-vessels.
(C) Commerce
There is a large export of oranges and mandarines
to Greek and Turkish ports. Good honey and wax are
also exported. KOS
(A) Communications
(a) Roads. — There are neither roads nor vehicles ;
but the mule tracks in the lowland parts are broad
and usually dry.
(b) Ports. — The harbour-town of Kos lies in the
north-east at the end of fertile lowland, which fringes,
on the north, the mountains that cross the island. Off
the town is an open roadstead with good anchorage
in 5-6 fathoms, and a stone jetty, the depth at the end
of which is 3 fathoms. Cargo is handled with Ughters,
but in east and south-east winds the surf drenches the
jetty and prevents communication with the shore.
The ancient harbour is badly silted, but it suffices to
shelter the fleet of fast schooners and caiques, which
carry the summer cargoes of fresh grapes, melons, &c,
and the winter cargoes of oranges and mandarines to
Alexandria, Smyrna, Salonika, and Constantinople.
There is constant intercourse with Koan farms on the
mainland and with the flourishing Turkish town of
Budrum, where the prosperous Greek element is mostly
Koan and Kalymniote. (B) Industry
(1) Agriculture. — There is a corn-growing plateau
round Antimachia in the central lowland. There are
several large olive- and vine-growing villages (Pylli and
its neighbours), maintained by perennial springs high
on the foot-hiUs of the larger range of mountains. Very
little timber exists now even in the glens. The principal

48 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo.6*
agricultural products, other than those already men
tioned, are fresh fruit, tobacco, raisins, and vegetables
of all kinds. There is ample pasture above cultivation
level, and large cattle are raised on the mountain
farms. The island also possesses pigs, sheep, goats,
and poultry. A little silk is produced near the town.
(2) Fisheries.— -There is extensive fishing in the
shoals, in the channel, and off the opposite coast.
(C) Commerce
Tobacco and fruit are exported mainly to Egypt,
and also to ports of the Aegean and to Constantinople.

SYMI
(A) Communications
Ports. — The one town on the island is piled up on the
sides of a narrow open cove facing north-east, which is
safe in all weathers for sailing-vessels and smaU steamers;
there is anchorage in 10-15 fathoms. The harbour is
much used by vessels of 200 to 300 tons, and is hardly
large enough to hold the number of boats which visit
it in winter. (B) Industry
(1) Agriculture. — A few. vegetables are grown and
sheep are raised on the island. But Symi men have
settled in Datcha and other villages on the adjacent
promontories of the mamland, where they grow corn,
olives, vines, and vegetables, and are engaged in
poultry-keeping and dairy farming.
(2) Sponge Fisheries. — Symi early foUowed the lead
of Kalymnos in sponge-fishing ; but since the prohibi
tion of the occupation in 1916, the population has been
much reduced by emigration. Symi men settle mainly
in the Argentine and other parts of South America,
whence they send their earnings home to their families.

^I'Mgean] SYMI; RHODES 49
RHODES
(A) Communications
(a) Roads. — Until recently there were no good roads
in the island, transport being effected by mules. The
ItaUans have constructed roads leading to the principal
villages. (b) Telegraphs and Telephones. — There is no internal
telegraphic or telephonic communication.
(c) Ports. — Rhodes town has two harbours, both of
them artificial, and neither suitable for large ships.
The northern harbour, which is known as Tershaneh,
is protected from the east by a mole 500 yds. in length
with two piers, both of which were recently reported
to be in a bad state of repair. The entrance to the
harbour is difficult : it is exposed to the north-east
and is much silted up, the depth of water being only
8 ft. The Italians claim to have deepened it to 10 or
12 ft., but it silts rapidly. Inside the harbour the
maximum depth is 18 ft. There is a quay on the
south side of the harbour, but owing to silting this
cannot be used except by boats ; a tug can moor to
the north-east mole. The southern harbour is very
treacherous in bad weather ; ships must either moor
bow and stern, or keep steam and be prepared to take
refuge under the high ground west of the north point
of the island. Having a depth inside of 10-22 ft., it
is more suitable than the northern harbour for large
ships ; but there is only room for two at a time. There
are no facilities for handUng cargo, which is loaded
into Ughters and taken out into the roadstead when
the weather is good. Small wooden vessels are built
at the port, and repairs to wooden vessels can be
effected. (d) Shipping. — Rhodes is a port of call for all the
important steamship lines engaged in the trade" of the
Eastern Mediterranean. The establishment of a
lazaretto at Rhodes town in 1906 was a great boon
to all vessels trading with the Anatolian coast. Since

50 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [*«.e*
then there has been a considerable increase in the
number of hnes using the port. Before the war the
following steamship lines called regularly: Messagenes
Mari times, Archipelago- American Steamship Co., Pan-
taleon & Co., La Phoceenne (financed by Belgian money),
Khedivial Mail Steamship Co., Russian Steam Navi
gation Co., Societa Nazionale di Servizi Marittimi, and
Austrian Lloyd.
The following figures, taken from the British Con
sular Reports, show the shipping that entered and
cleared at the port during the years 1908-12 :

Steamers.

Sailing- vessels.

No.

Tonnage.

No.

Tonnage

1908

973

-518,796

2,961

74,304

1909 .

. 1,012

585,430

2,671

59,381

1910 .

740

495,651

2,304

69,706

1911 .

660

531,183

2,693

42,995

1912 .

572

528,490

706

7,900

(e) Cable and Wireless Communication. — Rhodes town
is connected by cables with Marmarice, on the main
land, and with Karpathos and Crete. A wireless
station was estabhshed immediately after the com
mencement of the Italian occupation.
(B) Industry
(1) Agriculture. — The island is fertile, especiaUy in
the north-west, and is watered by numerous streams.
In the mountains there are pine forests ; in the plains
the vegetation consists of plane-trees, cypresses, and
oleanders. The island is iU-cultivated ; much of the
forest has been destroyed by fires for the purpose of
cultivation ; and, after a few crops have been raised,
the land has often been left waste. Peasant proprietor
ship is universal in the island, but no effort is made
to get more out of the soil than is required for the
owners' wants. The chief products are fruit and
vegetables, honey, wine, olives, sesame seed, and silk.
Some corn is grown, but the crop has to be supple
mented by imports. There has recently been extensive
production of potatoes at Kremasti in the north-west.

^Aegean] RHODES 51
There are but few horses, and the only beasts of burden
are mules and donkeys.
(2) Fisheries. — The waters surrounding the islands
of the Dodekanese contain excellent fish, and a cer
tain amount of fishing is done. A large portion of the
inhabitants of Rhodes were formerly engaged in the
sponge-fishing industry.
(3) Minerals. — There are said to be deposits of
emery, lead, antimony, manganese, copper, and cala
mine, but these are not worked, .and there is no informa
tion as to the commercial value of the deposits. The
island also produces kaolin, from which rough pottery is
made for local use. There are some marble quarries.
(4) Manufacture. — There are tanneries and dis-
tiUeries on the island. Olive oil is manufactured, also
soap, the oil for which is extracted from olive stones.
(C) Commerce
Approximate figures (derived from British Consular
Reports) of the import and export trade of Rhodes in
the years 1908-12 are :
1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912.
£ £ £ £ £
Imports . . 219,250 241,850 226,430 228,000 194,000
Exports . 86,375 94,500 97,500 83,000 48,100
It wiU be seen that the volume of trade remains
fairly constant ; 1912 was exceptional, as trade was
adversely affected by the war between Turkey and
Italy. The imports consist of textiles, cereals and
flour, cattle, hardware, sugar, hides, coffee, tobacco,
and rice. The exports are fruit, sesame seed, leather,
honey and wax, wine and spirits, olive oil, onions,
cocoons, and sponges.
A large amount of both imports and exports, repre
sented by about £75,000 annually, consists of transit
trade to and from Anatolia and the neighbouring islands,
which export sesame seed, storax oil, wax and honey,
almonds, figs, maize, and sponges, and import cotton and
woollen goods, hardware, corn and flour, sugar, and rice.
This trade might be increased, if it were not hampered by
E 2

52 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [¦•.«?
the insufficiency of the warehouse accommodation at
the port.
The bulk of the import trade is in the hands of
Austria and Germany. This is due to the cultivation
of the Turkish and Jewish market by merchants of
Central Europe, who consign goods direct via Trieste
in subsidized Austrian steamers. The goods offered
are distinguished by cheapness rather than by any
other quality; and British goods, although they are
in sufficient demand to cause the wholesale counterfeit
of trade-marks and labels by German manufacturers,
are more expensive. (D) Finance
Banking. — Agencies of the Credit Lyonnais, Banque
de Salonique, Anglo- Egyptian Bank, and Deutsche
Orient Bank are established in Rhodes. There was a
branch of the Banque Imperiale Ottomane, but pro
bably this has been closed.

ASTROPALIA, &c.
Of the other islands of the Dodekanese little need
be said. Astropalia has a serviceable land-locked
harbour, which has been utilized during the war as a
base for patrol vessels ; it is about a mile in diameter,
with anchorage in 8-12 fathoms. Although the greater
part of the island is under pasture, cultivation is not
entirely neglected.
Karpathos and Kasos are remote weather-beaten
ridges with pasture, terrace cultivation, and fisheries ;
they were never closely inhabited, and in recent years
have been almost entirely depopulated. There are two
natural harbours in Kasos, but little use is made of
either. Khalki, off Rhodes, has fisheries.
Leros has two land-locked harbours, Partheni and
Lakki ; the former is about a mile deep with an inner
basin and a copious water-supply ; the latter, about

"YE-'Aegean] ASTROPALIA, ETC. 53
3 miles by 1, is safe in aU weathers, but is troubled
by a westerly swell and has no good springs. The
island has extensive corn-terraces and fertile irrigated
garden grounds. There is an ample supply of vege
tables, fruit, flowers, and poultry, and good partridge,
woodcock, and quail shooting. Leros owes much of its
prosperity to its long-standing associations with Egypt,
whence rich Leriotes bring their families to summer
residences scattered on the island.
Patmos has a smaU harbour, which is land-locked
and safe ; it is less than half a mile in diameter and
has anchorage in 5-8 fathoms, and a stone quay.
The soU is volcanic and rich, and there is intensive
garden cultivation ; but the island is little more than
a pleasaunce for its famous monastery, IJ miles from
the port, which gathers rents from all over the Levant
and spends them locaUy in support of the church and
the schools. The only survival of its former nautical
fame is the curious local industry of ship-breaking.
Kappari, or Pserimo, a small island near Kalymnos,
has some pasture-land and fisheries. There is also
a brickfield, which supplies the district with tiles for
floors and gutters.
Tilos (Episkopi) grows almonds.

54

Ho. 64

APPENDIX

TABLE 1.— TENEDOS
Value of the principal articles of export and of the total
export for the years 1908-11. (British Consular Report,
Smyrna, 1908-11.)
Wine .....
Raisins .....
Other goods
Total . . 7,400 8,250 8,400 9,400

1908.

1909.

1910.

1911.

£

£

£

£

5,200 800
1,400

5,700 1,200
1,350

6,000 1,4001,000

5,800 1,600
2,000

TABLE 2.—TENED0S
Value of the principal articles of import and of the total
import for the years 1908-11. (British Consular Report,
Smyrna, 1908-11.

1908.

1909.

1910.

1911.

£

£

£

£

WheatFlour Other goods

. 3,000 1,900
. 14,500

2,500 2,700
14,000

2,000 3,300
13,500

2,5003,700
13,000

Total .

. 19,400

19,200

18,800

19,200

TABLE 3.— KHTOS

Value of the principal articles
export for the years 1909-12.
Smyrna, 1909-12.)

of export and of the total
(British Consular Report,

1909.

1910.

1911.

1912.

£
£
£
£
Almonds
23,000
27,500
16,000
20,000
Aniseed
3,000
3,000
3,000
—
Carobs ....
7,000
5,500
5,000
4,500
Fir-bark and valonea (ground)
3,500
3,500
3,000
2,500
Fleshing
2,500
2,000
4,500
—
Gum mastic .
45,000
45,000
44,000
15,000
Hides ....
—
—
—
1,800
Leather . . . .
125,000
126,000
87,500
64,000
Olives and olive-oil
37,000
42,500
77,500
25,000
Oranges and lemons
25,000
37,500
55,000
52,100
Tobacco
—
1,000
2,000
6,500
Total
2717000
293,500
297,500
191.400
MTegean] TENEDOS; KHIOS; SAMOS

55

TABLE 4.— KHIOS
Value of the principal articles of import and of the total
ss^So&r" 1909~12- (Bntish consuiar Report'

Pood-stuffs :
Cereals and flour
Rice ....
Sugar
Coffee
Minerals :
Coal .
Iron ....
Manufactured goods :
Glassware and earthenware
Hardware .
Cotton yarn
Others
Hides ....
Planks and timber
Dyes and colours .
Fir-bark and valonea
Extract of tannin .
Paper and cardboard
Total

1VUV.

W10.

1911.

1912.

£

£

£

£

59,000

55,000

52,500

63,250

12,000

11,500

11,000

11,500

16,000

15,000

14,500

16,000

3,700

3,500

3,250

3,600

2,000

2,000

2,250

2,500

3,000

2,500

2,500

1,600

5,750

5,500

5,500



—

—

2,750

5,500

16,500

16,000

14,500

11,000

29,000

28,000

27,000

27,500

60,000

80,000

110,000

40,000

9,500

9,000

9,000

9,800

6,000

5,500

5.000

4,500

5,000

6,000

5,500

4,500

3,750

4,000

2,750

2,000

2,750

2,750

—

—

233,950 246,250 268,000 203,250

TABLE 5.— SAMOS

Value of the principal articles of
export during the years 1908 and
Report, Smyrna, 1908, 1910-11.)

Alcoholic drinks (other than wine)
Cigarettes .
Grapes (dried)
Hides and skins
Leather
Locust-beans Olive oil
Tobacco
Wine . • .
Other goods
Total .

export and of the total
1910. (British Consular

1908.

1910.

£

£

2,900

5,300

25,400

21,200

2,000

2,000

14,800

2,400

20,680

38,300

2,000

4,000

34,850

16,000

7,800

14,600

84,500

82,600

11,520

13,540

206,450 199,940

56

APPENDIX

No. 64

TABLE 6.— SAMOS

Value of the principal articles of
import for the years 1908 and 1910.
Smyrna, 1908, 1910-11.)

import and of the total
(British Consular Report,

Pood-stuffs :
Cereals and flour
Vegetables, &c.
Salt fish .
Provisions Sugar and coffee
Minerals :
PetroleumSulphur .
Manufactured goods :
Hardware and machinery
Tin sheets
Cotton and woollen goods
Tobacco Hides and leather
AlcoholCattleWoodCigarette paper .
Miscellaneous .
Total imports

1908.

1910.

£

£

70,083

75,400

—

4,850

4,100

3,950

7,500

8,250

7,700

7,560

3,075

2,500

2,000

2,000

7,100

8,760

3,500

2,000

28,413

29,650

17,516

23,950

14,506

16,120

14,168

15,700

6,414

6,570

7,000

2,500

3,000

3,000

23,108

21,240

219,183 234,000

TABLE 7.— SAMOS
Return of the shipping of all nationalities
cleared in the foreign trade of the port
during the year 1912. (British Consular
1912-13.)

which entered and
of Vathi (Samos)
Report, Smyrna,

(a) Steam Vessels

Entered and Cleared.
Nationality. Vessels.
Tonnage.
British  12
13,374
American (U.S.) .
319
78,246
Austro-Hungarian
99
183,055
Bulgarian .
2
1,506
Dutch
21
22,580
French
24
52,689
Greek
760
106,857
Italian
1
219
Ottoman
1
4
Rumanian
2
1,728
Bussian
1
1,524
Samian
101
21,217
Total
1,343 482,999
Islands of i
If. & E. Aegean]

SAMOS; RHODES

57

(&) Sailing-vessels

Entered and Cleared.
Nationality.
Vessels.
Tonnage
British
4
117
American (U.S.) .
1
298
Austro-Hungarian
3
19
Greek
129
3,165
Ottoman .
930
7,927
Samian
2,153
19,444
Total
3,220
30,970
TABLE 8. —RHODES
Value of the principal articles of export and of the total
exports for the years 1909, 1910 and 1912. (British Consular
Report, Smyrna, 1909, 1910-11, and 1912-13.)
1909.
1910.
1912.
AlmondsCocoons
Figs (dried)
Fruit (fresh) and vegetables
Honey and wax .
Leather and hides
Oil extracted from the residue of olives
Olive oil
Sesame seed
Soap ....
Storax oil .
Wines and liquors
Miscellaneous
Total
350 ?
1,000
2,090
2,600
1,300
2,640
4,000
6,900
5,200
20,000
26,000
8,250
9,300
3,150
3,910
10,000
8,400
4,000
8,000
6,800
440
250
2,500
1,600
7,300
10,500
4,200
3,400
2,400
1,150
6,400
6,250
5,120
7,000
2,900
2,320
15,900
19,400
7,180
94,500 97,500
48,100
Included in the above-given figures are those for the re-export
of goods coming from Anatolia. The total value of such
re-exports for the years given above is £23,400, £24,000, and
£18,690 respectively.
58

APPENDIX

[Wo.

TABLE 9.— RHODES

Value of the principal

imports

and of the total imports for

the years 1909, 1910 and 1912.

(British

Consular

Report,

Smyrna,- 1909, 1910-11 and 1912-

13.)

1909.

1910.

1912.

Food- stuffs :

£

£

£

Cereals and flour ....

. 30,000

38,650

37,000

Butter

6,500
5,600
6,200
Cheese
2,500
3,200
5,000
Provisions .
700
—
6,000
Sugar
. 12,000
10,600
10,000
Coffee
6,500
7,300
5,400
Manufactured goods :
Cotton and woollen goods
67,000
50,000
26,000
Glassware .
2,100
3.000
8,000
Hardware .
20,000
20,000
10,200
Steel, iron and ironware
5,500
6,250
4.200
Cattle ....
15,000
14,000
26,500
Hides and leather .
13,000
14.000
7,900
Planks and timber .
8,000
8,500
6,000
Tobacco and tumbeki
5,100
4,000
5,600
Miscellaneous
47,950
41,330
30,000
Total imports .
241,850
226,430
194,000
Included in the above figures are the goods imported for re
export to Anatoha. The total value of such goods for the years
given above is £61,750, £51,600, £16,400 respectively.
TABLE 10.— RHODES
Value of the exports and imports of Rhodes, showing the
countries with which trade was conducted, 1909 and 1910.
(British Consular Report, Smyrna, 1909, 1910-11.)
Austria-Hungary Belgium
BrazilBulgaria
China
Cyprus Egypt
FranceGermany Greece
IndiaItaly RumaniaRussia
Turkey United Kingdom
United States .
Other countries
Total
1909.
1910.
Exports.
Imports.
Exports.
Imports.
£
£
£
£
7,600
25,000
4.100
21,000
—
5,500
—
5,400
—
4,700
—
5,000
8,000
3,200
7,700
4,000
—
1,800
—
4,000
3,800
300
2,550
—
17,000
8,500
10,200
6,000
8,000
9,000
5,000
11,000
1,000 "
28,000
—
24,000
2,000
1,300
—
—
1,500
8,250
—
—
—
17,700
—
16,000
1,100
4,600
—
6,500
7,000
3,500
3,600
3,306
37,500
80,000
59,130
90,000
—
38,300
—
28,760
—
1,000
—
—
—
1,200
241,850
5,220
97,500
1,470
94,500
2267430
Islands of
IT. & E. Aegean

RHODES

59

TABLE 11.— RHODES
Return of the shipping of all nationaUties which entered and
cleared in the foreign trade of the port of Rhodes during the
year 1912. (British Consular Report, Smyrna, 1912-13.)

(a) Steam Vessels
Entered and Cleared.

Nationality.
BritishAmerican (U.S.)

French GreekItalianRumanian Russian Samian Total

Vessels.

Tonnage

32

55,592

106

43,278

66

45,210

18

40,500

172

39,578

95

197,798

2

2,585

63

102,501

18

1,448

572 ¦

528,490

(6) Sailing-vessels Entered.
Nationality. Vessels. Tonnage.
British  2 104
Greek  1 198
Ottoman  699 7,550
Samian ....... 4 48
Total  706 7,900

Cleared.

Nationality.
BritishGreek Ottoman
Samian Total

Vessels. 2 1
719 4
726

Tonnage. 104198
7,650 48
8,000

No. 64

AUTHORITIES Historical
The historical authorities are mostly included in the hst
given in Greece, including the Gyclades and Northern Sporades,
No. 18 of this series.
Economic
Diplomatic and Consular Reports :
Trade of Consular District of Smyrna; Mineral Resources
of Greece (1902) ; Trade and Finances of Greece.
Greek Government Reports :
Annual of the Ministry of the Interior, 1914 et seqq.
Annual of the Ministry of National Economy, 1914 et seqq.
Mediterranean Pilot. Vol. iv. Fourth edition. London, 1908.
Baedeker's Guide-to Greece. 4th edition. Leipzig, 1909.
Igglese, N. G. 'Oorjyos rijs 'EAXaSof. To'/^os B'. Athens, 1916.
Lefeuvre-Meatjlle, H. La Grece economique et financiere
en 1915. Paris, 1916.
Meyers Reisebucher. Griechenland und Kleinasien. Leipzig
and Vienna, 1901.
Murray's Handbook for Greece. 7th edition. London, 1905.
Murray's Handbook for Travellers in Asia Minor. London,
1895.
Stephanopoli, Jeanne. Les lies deVEgee, leurs privileges, &C.
Athens, 1912. Maps
The Islands of the Northern and Eastern Aegean are covered
by three sheets (Istambul, K. 35 ; Izmir, J. 35 ; Candia, I. 35)
of the International Map (G.S.G.S., No. 2758) published by the
War Office on the scale of 1:1,000,000.
A special map of ' The Aegean Sea' (G.S.G.S., No. 3694) on
the same scale has been issued by the War Office in connexion
with this series.

PEACE HANDBOOKS.
The following is a complete list of the Handbooks prepared
under the General Editorship of Sir George W. Prothero, late
Director of the Historical Section of the Foreign Office.
Net Prices are given of all Volumes which have been pubhshed
to date. Volumes X-XXV will be issued shortly.
Books marked thus * contain sections on Geography and
Economics as well as on History. Those marked thus §
contain Geography and History only.

(A) EUROPE.
Vol. I. Austria-Hungary (1).
New Nos. Old Nos.
f(l) History of Austria
1 J (2) History of Hungary
|j3) Foreign Policy of Austria-Hungary
2 (4) Bohemia* and Moravia*
3 (6) Slovakia*
4 (4a) Austrian Silesia* ...
5 (5) Bukovina*
6 (7) Transylvania* and the Banat*
7 (8) Hungarian Ruthenia*
Vol. II. Austria-Hungary (2).
8 (9) Croatia-Slavonia,* with Fiume*
9 (9a) Carniola*, Carinthia,* Styria*
10 (12) Austrian Littoral*
11 (13) Dalmatia*
12 (10) Bosnia* and Herzegovina*
13 (14a) The Slovenes
14 (14) The Jugo-Slav Movement

... Us.

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Vol. III. The Balkan States (1).
New Nos. Old Nos.
15 (15) The Eastern Question ... ••• 3s. 6d.
16 (46) Turkey in Europe ... ••• 3s. Od.
17 (16) Albania* ... ... ... 2s. Od.
18 (18) Greece*, with the Cyclades* and
Northern Sporades* ... ••• 3s. 6d.

Vol. IV. The Balkan States (2).
' 19 (20) Montenegro*
20 (22) Serbia*
21 (19) Macedonia
(17) Bulgaria*

•>:>

23 (21) Rumania,* with the Dobruja*

Vol. V. The Netherlands.

2.s.

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25 (37) HoUand ... ... ... 2s. Od.
26 (23) Belgium* ,... ... ... 5s. Od.
27 (24) Luxemburg and Limburg ... ... Is. 6d.
28 (25) The Scheldt ... ... ... Os. 6d.
29 (26) The Neutrality of Belgium ... Os. 6d.

Vol. VI. France, Italy, Spain, &c.
30 (28) Alsace-Lorraine* ... ... 2s. 6d.
31 (29) Lorraine and Saar Minefields* ... Is. Od.
33 (42) Trentino* and Alto Adige* ... Is. Od.
34 (61) Spain since 1815 ... ... Is. Od.
35 (27) Slesvig-Holstein* ... ... 2s. 6d.
30 (64) Spitsbergen* ... ... ... Is. Od.

Vol. VII. Germany.
37 (32) Bavarian Palatinate* ... ... Is. Od.
38 (33) Rhenish Prussia* ... ... 2s. Od.
39 (34) East and West Prussia* ... ... Is. 6d.
40 (34a) Upper Silesia* ... ... ... Is Od
41 (36) Kiel Canal* and Heligoland ... Is. Od.
42 (35) German Colonisation ... ... 3s. Od.

3

Vol. VIII. Poland and Finland.

New Nos. Old Nos.

43 44 4546 4748

/(49) Poland : History, 1571-1774 ...1 . „,
\(50) Poland: 1774-1815  / ls' 0cL
(51) Russian Poland*, Lithuania*', White
Russia ... ... ... 2s. 6d.
(52) Prussian Poland* ... ... Is. 6d.
(53) Austrian Poland* ... ... 2s. Od
(58) Finland*  2s. 6d.

(58a) Aaland Islands

Is. Od.

Vol. IX. The Russian Empire.

50

(57) Couriand*, Livonia*, Esthonia* .

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51

(59) Bessarabia*

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52

(60) Ukraine*

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53

(60a) Don and Volga Basins* ...

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54

(606) Caucasia*

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55

(85) Eastern Siberia*

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56

(86) Sakhalin*

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(B) ASIA.

Vol. X. Mohammedanism : Turkey in Asia (1).

57

(96) Mohammedan History ... ..."
(a) Rise of Islam ; Pan-Islamic

Movement.
(6) Rise of the Turk ; Pan-Tura

>3s.

Od

nian Movement.
(e) Islam in India ; Islam in Africa. _,
58
(88) Turkey in Asia (General) ...
-0s.
6d
59
(89) Anatoha*
3s.
Od
60
(93) Syria* and Palestine*
3.s.
6d
162
(164) Zionism...
Is.
6d
Vol. XI. Turkey in Asia (2).
61 (90) Arabia*...
62 (91) Armenia* and Kurdistan .
63 (92) Mesopotamia*
64 (94) The Turkish Islands*
65 (65) Cyprus*...
66 (95) The French in the Levant.
3s.
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Vol. XII. China, Japan, Siam.

New Nos.

Old Nos.

67

(67) China : Recent History

68

(68) Mongolia§ ...

69

(68a) Manchuria*

70

(686) Tibet*

71

(69) Kiaochow*

72

(70) Weihaiwei*

73

(79) Japan: Recent History

74

(87) Siam: Recent History

In the Press.

Vol. XIII. Persia : French and Portuguese Possessions. In the Press.

75

(80) Persia*

76

(81) Persian Gulf§

77

(77) French India*

78

(78) French Indo-China*

79

(82) Portuguese India*

80

(83) Portuguese Timor*

81

(84) Macao*

Vol. XIV. Dutch and British Possessions.

82

(71) Java* and Madura* ..

83

(72) Sumatra* ...

84

(73) Dutch Borneo*

85

(74) Celebes*

86

(75) Dutch Timor* and tb

Sunda Islands*

87

(76) Dutch New Guinea*

Molucca Islands* ..

88

(66) British New Guinea* ..

(C) AFRICA.

In the Press.

smaller

and the

Vol. XV. British Possessions (1).

89 90
9192 939495

(132a) The Partition of Africa ... In the Press.
(100) British West African Colonies
(General)
(100a) Gambia* ...
(101) Sierra Leone*
(102) Gold Coast*
(103) Nigeria* ...
(104) Nyasaland*

Vol. XVI. British Possessions (2) : Belgian Congo.
New Nos. Old Nos.
96 (105) British East Africa*, Uganda*,
Zanzibar ... ... ... In the Press
97 (106) British Somaliland* and Sokotra*
98 (107) The Sudan* 
99 (99) Belgian Congo*
Vol. XVII. French Possessions.
100 (108a) French African Colonies (General) In the Press.
101 (108) French Morocco* ...
102 (109) Senegal* 
103 (110) French Guinea*  ,
104 (111) Ivory Coast*
105 (112) Dahomey* 
106 (113) Mauretania*
107 (114) Upper Senegal* and Niger Terri
tories* ... ... ... ,,
108 (115) French Equatorial Africa* ...
109 (116) French Somaliland*
Vol. XVIII. German Possessions.
110 (117) Togoland* ... ... ... InthePress.
Ill (118) Cameroon*...
112 (119) German South- West Africa* ...
113 (120) German East Africa* -
114 (1326) German Treatment of Natives
Vol. XIX. Portuguese Possessions.
'115 (55) Portuguese Colonial Empire ... InthePress.
116 (124) Azores* and Madeira* ... ,,
117 (124a) Cape Verde Islands*
118 (125) Portuguese Guinea* ... „
119 (126) San Thome*, Principe*, and
Ajuda* ... ... ... ,,
120 (127) Angola*, with Cabinda
121 (128) Mozambique*
Vol. XX. Spanish and Italian Possessions : Independent
States.
122 (129) Spanish Morocco* ... ... InthePress.
123 (130) Canaries* ...
124 (131) Spanish Sahara*
125 (132) Spanish Guinea*, Annobon*, Fer
nando Po*  .'. ,,
126 (121) Eritrea*
127 (122) Itahan Libya*
128 (123) Italian Somaliland* ...
129 (97) Abyssinia* ...
130 (98) Liberia*

6
(D) AMERICA : ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC.
Vol. XXI. North, Central and South America ; Atlantic
Islands.
New Nos. Old Nos.
131 (133) St. Pierre and Miquelon* ... InthePress.
132 (133a) Greenland*...
133 (134) British Honduras* ...
134 (134a) The Guianas (General)
135 (135) British Guiana*
136 (136) Dutch Guiana*
137 (1S7) French Guiana* ... ... • „
,„„ /"(Itla Falkland Islands* ... ... ,,
ldS \(146) Kerguelen Island* ...
Vol. XXII. Pacific Islands.
139 (142) Discoveries and Acquisitions .. . InthePress.
140 (138) Galapagos Islands* ... ... ,,
... f(139) Malpelo Island*
* \(140) Cocos Island*
142 (141) Easter Island*
143 (1416) Juan Fernandez*, San Felix*
and San Ambrosio* ... ,,
144 (143) British Possessions* ... ,,
145 (144) French Possessions* ... „
146 (145) German Possessions* ... ,,
147 (146a) New Hebrides* (E) GENERAL.
Vol. XXIII. International Affairs.
148 (147a)iThe Freedom of the Seas (His
torical) ... ... ... InthePress.
149 (151) International Rivers... ... „
150 (152) International Canals ... „
151 (154) International Congresses and
Conferences ... ... „
152 (158) European Coalitions, &c, since
1792 
Vol. XXIV. Congresses : German Opinion.
153 (165) (165a) The Congress of Vienna ... 4s. Od.
154 (167) The Congress of Berlin ... ... Is. 6d.
155 (155) German Opinion on National
Pohcy prior to July 1914.
Parti ... ... ... is. 6d.
156 (156) German Opinion on National
Policy prior to July 1914.
Part II ... ... ... 2s. 6d.
157 (157) German Opinion since July 1914 ... Is. Od.

Vol. XXV. Indemnities, Plebiscites, &c.
New Nob. Old Nos.
i«« J"(159) Indemnities in previous wars ... InthePress.
158 \(160) Subsidies and Loans (British) ...
159 (163) Plebiscite and Referendum ... „
160 (162) Schemes for maintaining General
Peace ... ... ... „
161 (166) President Wilson's Policy
(F) VOLUMES OF MAPS.
1 Austria-Hungary (10 maps) ... ... InthePress.
2 The Balkan Peninsula (8 maps) ... „
3 Poland (8 maps) ... ... ... ,,
4 Ethnography of Central and South-Eastern ,,
Europe and Western Asia (6 maps) ... „

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