Ee,-Pfc.8£ 2

/$J*I

AN HISTORICAL,

POLITICAL AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT

CEYLON

AND ITS DEPENDENCIES.

CHARLES PRIDHAM, Esq., B.A., P.R.G.S.
AUTHOR OF " HISTORY OF MAURITIUS," ETC. '

VOL. II.

LONDON :
T. AND W. BOONE, 29, NEW BOND STREET.
MDCCCXLIX.

CHAP. I.J PHYSICAL ASPECT AND TOPOGRAPHY. 485

PART IV.

CHAPTER I.
Geographical outline of the Island — Character of the Maritime and Interior
districts — Position of the Mountain Zone — Peculiarities in the direction of
the Mountain chains — Form and direction of the Mountain valleys — Descrip
tion of the hilly region — Physical Aspect and Topography.
Northern Province : How bounded and divided — Pomparippo river and district
— Isle Karetivoe — Point Kudramalai, Marichikattie, The Kal-aar — District
of Moessellie — Bay of Kondatchie — Navigation of the coast — The Awerie-aar
— District of Nanaatan — Cattoekare, or Giants' (Sodien) tank — Mantotte and
its ruins — District of Mantotte — Island of Manaar — Channel between it and
the main — Village of Manaar — Description of the island — Theories in reference
to the Paumban Channel and Palk's Strait — Traditions of the formation of a
Saitubandha or Causeway by Rama, and subsequently by Gajabahoo— Tra
ditions of the Brahmins at Ramisseram — Description of the Paumban passage
— Project for forming a navigable channel by Colonel Monteith — He eventually
succeeds in gaining permission to undertake the enterprise, and accomplishes
the work — Navigation of the coast — District of Wirteltivoe (Vertativoe) —
Country of the Wanny, its vast extent — In what state and under what form
of Government when occupied by the Portuguese — Description of the
Wanniyas — Character of the people — Changes ensuing on the arrival of the
Dutch — Subsequent restoration of the Wanniyas to their hereditary dignities
— Their tyranny and oppression — Are superseded by the Dutch — They rebel,
but are defeated and deposed — Government instituted by the Dutch— Zeal
and energy of the Landrost— His success in civilising the inhabitants and
developing the resources of the country — Subdivisions of the Wanny and
description of the tanks, capabilities, cultivatable lands, productions, &c. of
each — Theory with respect to the former devastation of this country, by vol
canic agency — Curious natural phenomena still existing to prove the reality
of a subterrane disturbance — District of Chitty Colom, and its two divisions
of Nadoe Chitty Colom, and Sinne Chitty Colom — District of Pannengammo,
and its six divisions of Pannengammo Poerivoe, Toenoeka Poerivoe, Meerkoe
Moelle, Kelekoe Moelle Tekoe Poerivoe, Tank of Padeviel Colom, Kelekoe
Moelle Waddekoe Poerivoe, Oedeaar-Oer — District of Meelpattoe, and its
three divisions of Kelekoe Poerivoe, Tekoe Poerivoe, Waddekoe Poerivoe —
District of Moelliawalle — District of Poedoe-koedyirpoe — District of Kar-
navelpattoe, and its divisions of Tekoe Poerivoe and Waddekoe Poerivoe —
District of Karetchie — Districtof Poonaryn — District of Pallawirajen Kattoe —
District of Ilipekadawe — Isle Irrentivoe, or two Brothers, Kakeritivoe,
Paletivoe, Nadoentivoe (Delft), Nayntivoe (Haarlem), Poengerdutivoe, (Mid-
dleburgh), Analativoe (Rotterdam), Welane (Leyden), Kayts, Mandeltivoe,
Kalmoone Point, Karadivoe (Amsterdam), Hammanhiel — Peninsula of Jaffna,
District of Walligamme, Batticotta, Jaffnapatam, Sailing directions — District
of Wadamoratchie, Point Pedro, Sailing directions — District of Timmoratchie
— Districtof Patchilapelle, Chavagacherry — Interior of the Northern Province,
District of Neura or Nuwara Kalawa, Desolate country, formerly populous
and well cultivated, Tanks and Ruins— Anuradhapoora (the Anurogrammum
of Ptolemy) the ancient Capital of Ceylon— Its ruins — Description of the

486 CEYLON. [PAET IT.
Temples,&c. &c— Tissawewa Lake, Mihintalai — Subdivisions of the Nuwara,
Kalawa district— Its state of cultivation, capabilities, &c— Ancient capital of
Wijittapoora— Seegiri — Ruins of Minigiri — Source of the Kala or Kalawa
Oya — Superficies of the Northern Province.
Eastern Province ; Its bounds and divisions — Moeletivoe — The Wanny district
of Kariekattoe Moelle, Kokelay— The Tinne-Marre-Waddie— Plains of
Cutchiavelle— Kattoe Colom Pattoo, its Tanks, state of Cultivation, &c—
Hot springs of Kanya, Legends thereon — Trincomalee, Sailing directions-
Description of its Bays, Harbours, Forts, Town, Inhabitants — District of
Tamblegam — Tamblegam ; its Tanks, the Kandelle-oya, Gantalawe or Kan-
delle Lake— District of Kotti-aar, Kotti-aar Bay, the Kotti-aar Tanks —
District of Tamankada — The Virgal-ganga, Tanks — Kaudella Tank— Lake of
Menairia, Nuwara Kandi, Topawewa Tank, Pollonaroowa and its ruins —
Koorle Pattoo, Nallore-aar, Leways, Mookwa districts of Eraoer, Karre-
witte, Manmoene, Eroewil, Karrewaddie, Nadene, Sammantorre, Akkara-
pattoo — Batecalo, Sailing directions — Harbour, Lake, Town — Veddah Ratte,
Maha Veddah Ratte, BintennS, Tank of Bintenne' — The Maha-vell6-ganga,
its course from Bintenne to the sea — Survey of Mr. Brooke — District of
Nadekadoe ; Inhabitants chiefly of Singhalese descent — Navil-aar, Tanks — ¦
District of Wellasse, Kotabowa — District of Panowa — Superficies of the
Eastern Province.
Southern Province: How bounded and divided — District of Upper Ouva, Badulla
and its valley — NaminaKooli Kandi Mountain, Passera, Alipoota — Districtof
Lower Ouva, Bootle — The Parapa-oya, the Mahagam Pattoo, Kattragamand
its Temple, Elephant's Rock, Paltoopane ; Ruins of Magaama, The Kirinde-
oya, Leways, Wellawe, Nitre Cave, Gampaha — Bay of Hambantotte, Sailing
directions, Hambantotte— District of Morva, Mulgiri-galla wihare, Girawe-
pattoo, Tangalle, District of Kangebodde, District of Wellebodde, District of
Gange-bodde, Dondera Ruins of, Dondera Head — Matura — The Belligam
Korle— District of Talpe — Lake of Cogalle — Galle, Description of the Fortress,
Town, Public1 Buildings, Gravets, Inhabitants, &c. — Gangebodde pattoo,
The Gindurah' River, Baddagamme— District of Wellebodde, Amblangodde
— District of Wallawitte, Bentotte — District of Saffragam, and its sub
divisions, Ratnapoora — The Kalu-ganga, Route to Adam's Peak, (Samanala)
from Gillemalle— Palabadoola, Diabetme, Description of the Mountain
Scenery, Ascent to the Peak, Stupendous Rock of Uno-Dhia, Seetla-ganga
—Rock of Diwiyagalla, Height of the Peak ; Description of the Sri Pada or
sacred foot ; Scenery as seen from the summit — The Bhagawa Lenna — The
Wilmantalawa, or Horton Plains, Bilhool-oya, the Maha Ellia— Hakgalla
Range, Totapela Range, Idalgashina Pass, Velangahena, Wilson Plains,
District of Yatapalata, Fort McDonald, Valley of Parnegamme, Toopittia,
Himbleatwelle, Pass of Appootella — Superficies of the Southern Province.
Western Province : Its boundaries and divisions — District of Caltura, Barberyn,
Caltura, The Kalu-ganga — Pasdum Korle — Raygam Korle, Horona,
Nambapane, Pantura, Lake of Morottoe — Salpitty Korle, Mount
Lavinia, Colpetty — Hewagam Korle, Colombo ; Fort, Pettah, Gravets,
Port, Institutions, Inhabitants — The Kalane-ganga, (Mutwal) Hangwelle,
Avishavelle, Seetawaka — Hina Korle, Cotta (Jayawardhanapoora) — Three
Korles, Ruwanwelle, Yateantotte — Upper Bulatgamme. Sources of the
Kalane and Mahavelle-gangas, Ambagamma — Lower Bulatgamme — The
Four Korles, Atelle, Aranderre, Ballapanne, Ambanpittia, Ambapusse,
Molligodde, Hettymule — The Allootcoor Korle, The Muli-waddie, Ne-
gom'bo, Fort, Pettah, Gravets, Institutions — Hapetigam Korle — The Seven
Korles, the Maha-oya (Kaymel River), Allow, Dambadiniya, Kurunaigalla,
Aetagalla Mountain — District of Oederpalata — District of Meddapalata —
District of Jatikalan, Madampe — District of Jagam — Districtof Monasse-

CHAP. I.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF THE ISLAND. 487
ram, Chilaw, the Didroo-oya, Mongra-oya, Baddegamma — District of
Toompane, Kospott6-oya — District of Anewoollandan — District of Akkara-
pattoo, Navakadoo, Calpentyn — The Demelepattoe — The Raja Wanny, Raja
Wanniya Pattoe, Putlam, Mare Karre Pattoe, Koomarewanniya — Interior
of the Seven Korles, Yapahoo, Galgiria Kandi, the Weliker-aar — Superficies
of the Western Province.
Central Province : How bounded and divided— District of Matale : Dambool,
Menik Denna Nuwara, the Meerisagona-oya, Pass of Andagalla, Eyheylapola,
Amooka Kandi, Nallande, the Ambanganga, Pass of Yattawatte, Aluewibare,
Ollegamma, Artapola Kandi, Fort M'Dowal or Matale, Ruins of Walabanu-
wara, Pass of Ballakadawe, Hunisgiri-Kandi, the Lakgalla range, Atgalle Pass,
Giriagam and Gallegedra Passes, Madawalatenne, Dunawille. — District of
Doombera : Parnegamme, Gonagodde, Koondasala, Madugalla, the Hulu-
ganga, Medamahaneura, Gampaha Korle, Galle-peddehella Pass, Range of
Memoora — The Harrisapattoo— District of Yattineura : Amanapoora, Balane
Pass, Kaduganava Pass, Dikgalle, Dodanwille — District of Oudaneura —
District of Dolasbage, Gampola, Pusilava, Pasbage — District of Kotmale' :
Kotmale-ganga, Nuwera Elliya, Mountain of Pedrotallagalla — District of
Oudapalata, Rambodde, the Maha-oya, Nillembe' — Kandy, its Citadel, Palace,
Town, Public Buildings, Institutions, Roads, People, Scenery, Kadughas-
totte Ferry, Lewelle Ford, Gannooroow6, the Mahavelle-ganga — District of
Hewahette : Hangarankette, Dhiatalawa Mountain, the Bilhool-oya,
Plains of Maturatta — District of Walapane — District of Wiyaloowa, Ouma-
oya : Badulla-oya — Superficies of the Central Province.
The geographical outline of the island may be dismissed in a very
few words, and it is only the interior that will require a more minute
description. The maritime districts, comprising about a half of the
width of the southern, eastern, and western provinces, are flat ; the
northern province, and the northern portion of the eastern province,
are wholly so. Perhaps this division of the island may vary in ele
vation from twenty to two hundred feet. It exhibits extensive plains,
either quite level, as towards the coast, or approaching the interior,
slightly undulating ; in the former case being almost entirely without
a hill, in the latter interrupted by chains of low hills and solitary
masses of rock rising from one to five hundred feet above the plain.
The character of the interior of the island greatly varies in relation to
surface. Nowhere is the distinction of high and low land more
obvious. With tolerable precision it may be divided into flat country,
hilly and mountainous. The mountainous division is skirted by the
hilly, and the latter is, as we have already observed, bounded on
three sides by a flat maritime belt, and on the fourth by a flat
country, comprising nearly one-half of the island. If the island then
were divided into two equal parts by an imaginary line from east to
west, the mountainous region would be found to occupy nearly the
middle of the southern half, or as nearly as possible what is now called
the Central Province. The centre of this region is about 7° 3'
north latitude, and 80° 46' east longitude. Its greatest length, that
is from north to south, may be computed at 62, and its greatest
width, that is from east to west, at 56 miles. The exact boundaries
and extent of the hilly division, are not so easily described. On an

488- CEYLON. [PART IV.
average, it extends beyond the mountains from fifteen to twenty
miles. The features of each of the three divisions of the island are neces
sarily peculiar ; grandeur is the characteristic of the mountainous,
beauty of the hilly, and tameness of the flat country, which a covering
of luxuriant vegetation, with few exceptions, spread over the whole,
does not tend to diminish.
The mountainous district varies in its perpendicular elevation above
the sea level, from 800 to 8000 feet. In general it averages about
2000 feet, the regions of greater elevation, by which are to be under
stood masses of continuous surface approaching more or less to table
land, are inconsiderable in extent. The principal are that portion
of the country lying between Maturatta and Fort M'Donald, which
is the very heart and centre of the mountainous division, and which
reaches 4000 feet, and the tract adjoining Nuwera Elliya, which
reaches 5000 feet.
In few countries do mountains exhibit greater variety of forms and
directions. They most frequently occur connected in chains, and
terminating in rounded or peaked summits. Their sides are always
steep, and occasionally precipitous and rocky. Solitary insulated
mountains are of rare occurrence. In some districts the mountain
chains run in a parallel direction, in others even adjoining mountains
do not correspond with any regularity in their direction. Thus in
Doombera, the mountain ridges generally run N.N.E. and S.S.W.
In Ouva, on the contrary, they run in various directions. One
remarkable circumstance in reference to Ceylon, is, that n,o correspon
dence can be traced between the proportional heights of the mountains
and the depths of the adjoining valleys. Thus there is not a single
lake nor even stagnant pool among the mountains, and it is scarcely
credible that they ever existed, as they could not well be filled up by
the detritus of rocks, little liable to decay and disintegration.
Since there are no lakes in the interior, it is hardly necessary to
add that every valley has an outlet, and that the descent of every
valley is gradual though irregular from the mountain to the plain.
The forms and directions of the valleys are not less various than those
of the mountains by which they are constituted. In general their
width bears but a very small proportion to their length j often they
are extremely narrow. The deepest are in the heart of the moun
tains. Some are between three and four thousand feet deep, and not
perhaps more than half a mile wide from one mountain to the other.
The hilly division of the interior varies in respect of its continuous
surface from one to five hundred feet ; and the hills themselves may
vary in perpendicular height from two hundred to one thousand feet.
Like the mountains, they are more or less connected with chains
generally of little length. Their outlines are rounded and gentle ;
their sides seldom steep, and their appearance comparatively tame.
In the valleys formed by the hills there is nothing peculiar to be
noticed.

CHAP. I.J NORTHERN PROVINCE — DISTRICT OF POMPARIPPO. 489
Commencing with the Northern, at its point of junction with the
Western Province at the Pomparippo-oya,1 with one of whose af
fluents it is coterminous to its source, we shall follow the circuit of
the island as the best method of developing its moral and physical
peculiarities. The boundaries of this province are the sea and the
Gulf of Manaar to the West and North-west, Palk's Strait and the
Bay of Bengal to the North and North-east, the Eastern Province
to the East, the Central Province to the South-east, and the Western
Province to the South South-west.
The Pomparippo-oya has its source in the mountains of the dis
trict of Matale, and subsequently uniting itself with the waters of the
Kalawewe tank, about fifteen miles to the north of Dambool, winds
through the province of Nuwera Kalawa in a north-westerly direction.
After entering the district of Pomparippo it divides itself into five
branches, and falls into the Gulf of Calpentyn. The Singhalese call
it Kalawa-oya, from its passing through the tank of that name ; but
there is a tradition that it is derived from tbe circumstance of the
ancient inhabitants of Nuwera Kalawa having bathed in its waters,
and previously rubbed their bodies with turmeric (kaha), which had
been sent to them as a present by the Prince of Kurunaigalla, as a
mark of his contempt. It abounds in fish, and swarms with alli
gators. The principal branch of the river runs four miles below
the village of Pomparippo, and is fordable except after the heavy
rains. The remains of a stone bridge built over this river by the King
Mahasen more than 1500 years ago, were discovered by Forbes
in 1826, while on his road from Kurunaigalla to Anuradhapoora.
It consisted of a pier of considerable length, projecting into, and con
tracting, the stream, which is there both broad and rapid. The
stones used in its construction vary from eight to fourteen feet in
length ; they are laid in regular lines, and some are jointed into one
another : each course also recedes a few inches from the edge of the
one underneath ; and this form, while offering less direct resistance
to the current, gives additional strength to the building. The end
of the pier has been swept away, but the extremity of that remaining
is eighteen feet above the water, and six feet above the causeway.
In the rocks, which form the bed of the river, square holes may be
distinguished, in which stone pillars have been placed, and the bridge
was completed by laying long stones or beams of wood on these to
connect the different parts of the structure. At a short distance fur
ther down the stream, the site of another bridge can be traced, which
appears to have been constructed on the same plan, but either at an
earlier period, or of less durable materials. The large stones have
been riven from the adjacent rocks by means of wedges, and the
1 Ganga is generally and properly used to denote a river of the first class,
such as the Mahavelle or Kalane. Oya, an unnavigable stream or rivulet. Aar,
is the Malabar or Tamul name, denoting river.

490 CEYLON. [PART IV.
shape and ornament has been completed by chisels. This manner of
working quarries and splitting stones is everywhere observable in Cey
lon, and these means for procuring large granite pillars, and shaping
their ornaments, which are of a comparatively recent date in Great
Britain, were in vogue in Ceylon two thousand years ago. In con
formity with the wild tradition of the natives, that Mahasen could
compel even the demons to work for him, and that this bridge is a speci
men of their masonry, the ruins here are known by the name of Yakka-
Bendi-palam (bridge built by devils). In the upper row a stone is
pointed out, on the under side of which the figure of the architect is
said to be cut.
The district of Pomparippo, which is bounded on the east by
Nuwera Kalawa and Demelapattoo, and on the north by the Mari-
chikattie or Moderagam-Aar, is upwards of twenty miles long and
eight broad, and contains thirty-five villages. The face of the
country exhibits an expanse of large forests, diversified with open
tracts, and a ridge of hills runs along its western borders up to
Kooderamalai point. , It is supposed that the name Pomparippo, or
Pomparappee, signifying " the golden plains," was bestowed on
this province on account of its excellent soil, but owing to its scanty
population, its agricultural resources are very circumscribed. It
abounds, however, with cattle, and carries on a trade with Colombo
in ghee, honey, bees' wax, and deer's horns.
In this district the ruins of many ancient buildings and tanks may
still be traced, indicating that this part of the country, at present
overgrown with jungle, was formerly thickly peopled, and in a
flourishing condition. We have elsewhere seen that Nawaratna
Wanniya, a Mookwa chieftain, obtained the hereditary fee of this
district from a Singhalese monarch, but it did not long continue in
his family, being parcelled out by his heirs and transferred to other
individuals. The village of Pomparippo is situated on a large plain,
about four miles to the north of the ford, and is chiefly inhabited by
Moormen and Hindoos of industrious and contented habits. In its
neighbourhood deer are to be met with in great numbers, and afford
good sport to those who are fond of coursing and disregard the danger
of hard-riding over broken ground. The wooded nature of the
country and coarse vegetation of the plains render it necessary that
the dogs be fleet ; they must also be strong and high mettled enough
to speed through the prickly plants so common in the open grounds
of Ceylon. In dry seasons the ground is intersected by numerous
cracks, and wherever the deep footsteps of elephants have sunk
during the rainy season they become hardened by the sun, and are
a serious obstacle to the progress of horses. Pomparippo has a
stone rest house, and in the neighbourhood of the post there are
plantations of fruit-bearing trees and a vineyard.
The first stage from Pomparippo northwards is through the
village of Marrunde or Mardodde, (8| miles) to the rest house of

CHAP. I.J ISLE KARETIVOE — KUDRAMALAI. 491
Marichikattie, 16J miles, which is on the north side of the river.
The Moderagam or Marichikattie-aar rises in the interior, and after a
sinuous course of upwards of forty miles, in a north-westerly direc
tion, falls into the Strait of Manaar at Moderagam. Its waters seem
to have been advantageously employed for supplying the tanks of
the district. The road along this country is very sandy and bordered
on the east by dense jungles,1 swarming with wild beasts, with the
exception of a few villages, and their dependent paddy fields. The
Padouas, many of whom are found here, and who were formerly
considered so low and degraded that they were restricted from play
ing on any musical instrument whatever, nullified the stern edict of
their oppressors by drawing sounds from earthen chatties with the
breath, to which they keep admirable time in the dance.
The island of Karadive (Karetivoe), twelve miles north-west of Cal-
pentyn, which goes to form part of the Gulf of Calpentyn, is separated
from the mainland by a narrow channel of about five miles broad at
its southern, and eight at its northern extremity. It is about nine
miles long, and from one to two broad ; in the middle is a large
pond surrounded by an open space covered with coarse grass, and
both ends of the island are overgrown with jungle, rising from a
swampy soil, though there is no timber on the island. It is com
monly believed that this island was formerly connected with the
peninsula of Calpentyn ; and that the inhabitants of the latter place
were wont to resort to a Hindoo temple, which then stood there, but
has since been separated from it by the encroachments of the sea.
This tradition would seem to derive strength from the circumstance
that such a temple is now remaining on the island, but in a dilapi
dated state. The jungle of keeri shelters large herds of deer, and
excellent sport may here be found by beating the brushwood.
Though barren and uninhabited, it forms, from its advantageous
situation for fishing, a rendezvous for fishermen from Manaar and
Negombo during the north-east monsoon. Some years since a
pearl bank was discovered off Karadive, and was fished in 1832.
Koodremale or Kudramalai (Horse mountain) is one of the prin
cipal features of the Pomparippo district, and the most interesting in

1 It is believed by the Hindoos that many of the combats and scenes described
in the Ramayana occurred in this part of the island ; that the rough beads,
bangles, and other ornaments of very coarse coloured glass, found in great quan
tities, mixed with the soil in the tank and vicinity of Pasimadoe, are the remains
of the fallen warriors of that period, and that Marambu, Pomparippo, Mari
chikattie, Mardodde, &c. &c. preserve by their names the recollections of that
great war. The Swaita-ma-parwatia, the white rocks which were the key of
Rama's position, the Ranabhumi, battle-field in which Rawana fell, and the
splendid fort of Sri-Lanka-poora are all supposed to lie whelmed beneath the
ocean on this side of Ceylon. The more rational mode of accounting for the
abundance of these singular relics of the past on this spot is, that a manufactory
of that article must have once existed there.

492 CEYLON. [PART IV.
connection with the antiquities of Ceylon. It is supposed by most
writers to be the Hippurus or Hipporus,1 mentioned by Pliny, lib.
vi. cap. 22. as the port to which a freedman of Annius Plocamus,
who farmed the customs of the Red Sea, in the reign of the Emperor
Claudius, was unexpectedly driven, after having been blown off the
Arabian coast in a violent tempest.
A considerable settlement, composed of Arab immigrants, existed
in the eighth century, in the neighbourhood of the hill, who sub
sequently supplied their brethren at Manaar and Mantotte with an
abundance of pearls, which they probably obtained on the coast.
In the woods beneath the hill, which now harbour innumerable
wild beasts and reptiles, native tradition traces the site of a royal
residence, once occupied by an Amazon princess, called Alliarasany,
whose amours with one of the heroes of the Mahabnarat, form the
subject of an interesting drama. On the north side of the hill is a
small mosque erected over the tomb of a Mahommedan saint, to
whose shrine, the navigators of that faith, in touching here on their
way to and from the coast, invariably present an offering.
The next stage from Marichikattie is to the pagoda of Kall-aar, a
Hindoo temple seven and a half miles distant, which is now dilapidated
but was once so famous, that the priests who officiated in it were
allowed many important privileges, including a moiety of the pearl
oysters fished on the banks off Kondatchie. The coolies here ex
change money for ashes, which they rub over their arms and fore
heads to ward off the dangers of the journey, and preserve them
selves and families in health.
The scenery between Pomparippo and Kall-aar, if it were more
diversified, would be magnificent. The trees to the right of the
road are of the highest dimensions, and their foliage cannot be sur-
1 The freedman of Annius Plocamus is supposed to have preceded but a short
time, Hippalus, the discoverer of the south-west monsoon, which was called after
his name. Of the precise situation of Hippurus, we are not informed, but learn
that it was a port to the northward ; and it is plain that it must have been on the
western coast, from the circumstance of Hippalus having been blown across
during his sailing round Arabia. A conjecture has often suggested itself, which
the latent etymology of the name given to the port at which Hippalus arrived,
in two different languages might, with a trifling literal alteration in one of the
names, seem to sanction. The name by which the port is called in Pliny is
Hippuros, 'iirrtovpoQ (the horse's tail), as Arcturus is the bear's tail; now sup
posing the name to have been really Hipporos, we shall have for the name of the
port 'iinropoQ, instead of the former, which in English will signify ' horse moun
tain.' Is it possible, then, to find on the north-western coast to which Hippalus
was carried, any trace of such a name ? It is clearly evident in the name given
to the highland north of Calpentyn, in the Malabar language, Koodra-malie,
literally horse-mountain, and it is remarkable, that the port of Calpentyn and
the inland coast adjoining Kudramalai, are the only parts of the coast between
Manaar and Negombo, into which he could have entered. At this day, vessels
from the coast are often detained at Calpentyn, on their way to Colombo, without
the power of advancing further against the south-west monsoon.

CHAP. I.J DISTRICTS OF MOESSELLIE AND NANAATAN. 493
passed for beauty and variety of tint. This portion of the country
is liable to inundation during the rainy season.
The natives on this part of the coast purify the thick, white,
muddy, and unwholesome water, by means of a nut called ambu-
prasudana, which is abundant in the dry parts of Ceylon, and when
rubbed down in the inside of an earthenware vessel, clears the water
by precipitating the earthy particles. The common oyster abounds
on the coast between Putlam and Kall-aar, and its gathering and
pickling for Colombo and Kandy, would give employment to a large -
number of the natives, if they were induced to embark in it.
The Kall-aar (Rock river) has its source in the interior, and falls
into the sea about fifteen miles south of Manaar. The next stage is
to Kondatchie, the great seat of the pearl fishery, which like Kall-aar,
is in the district of Moessellie. This district is bounded on the east by
the Wanny, on the south by the Moderagam, and on the north by the
Arippo river. It contains about eighty-five villages, the greater part
of which are inhabited by Moormen, who have come over from the
opposite coast and settled here. The country is level, and as the
soil is better adapted for paddy cultivation than any thing else, the
inhabitants prepare their lands chiefly for this grain. The forests
abound with elephants, and teem with every kind of game and reptile.
The whole of the shore encircling the bay of Kondatchie is an
arid, sandy desert, almost without a redeeming feature, or water to
quench the thirst of the traveller. The moment the fishery is over,
Kondatchie' s glory ceases, and it becomes the same miserable spot
that it has been for ages.
Four miles north of Kondatchie is Arippo, (a sieve, in allusion to
the sifting of pearls) . Here on an elevated bank near the sea shore,
stands ' the Doric,' a mansion erected by Governor North, and so
called from the front being of that order of architecture. During
the period of the pearl fishery, it is the residence of the Supervisor,
but it is open as a rest house to European travellers. Arippo has now
a direct communication with Kandy, by means of the new road to
Anuradhapoora. The village is situated near one of the mouths of
the Awerie-aar, is four leagues south of Manaar, and contains up
wards of 180 inhabitants, composed chiefly of fishermen. It boasts
of a small fort with two bastions and barracks, and a Roman
Catholic Church, the resort of the Malabar divers, &c, during the
fishery. The rest house at Arippo is commodious, and there are
springs of excellent water in the vicinity, which are the more pre
cious from the difficulty of obtaining it any where else. Arippo is
memorable as the first place at which Knox arrived on the coast,
after his escape from nineteen years' captivity in the Kandian
country. The Awerie-aar, or river of Arippo, rises far in the interior in the
southern districts of Nuwera Kalawa. It is there known by the
Singhalese name of Malwatte-oya (flower garden river). After pass-

494 CEYLON. [PART IV.
ing by Anuradhapoora, it makes a bend to the north-east, it then
receives the waters of the Kurundu-oya, and taking a north-westerly
course through a part of the Wanny, enters the limits of Nanaatan
near the Giant's tank, whence it turns due west till it runs into the
sea, after a course of about eighty-five miles. In the bed and banks
of this river, a species of red and blue stone, known by the name of
' Manaar stones,' is found by sifting the sand.
The district of Nanaatan is about fourteen miles long, and from
five to nine miles broad, and contains about 188 villages. It pro
duces a great quantity of paddy, and the peasantry are more indus
trious than their neighbours. The village of Nanaatan is about four
miles distant from the northern bank of the Awerie-aar. The
Portuguese erected a church here which fell to decay many years
ago, and the present one has been raised on its site. Large quan
tities of betel are grown here, and it supplies the whole neighbour
hood with this article.
The report of Capt. Schneider, Chief Colonial Engineer, to Sir
Thomas Maitland, on the Giant's Tank (Cattoekare), shews the
number of acres in the Mantotte and Nanaatan districts, which it is
capable of irrigating ; the lands it formerly irrigated, and what repairs
are necessary to that end. The river connected with this tank is what
the Dutch called the Moessellie River, and now called the Awerie-
aar. The dam of Cattoekare must, says he, be built up with earth,
six sluices must be built with arches, and stone dams will have
to be constructed where the superfluous water is to run over.
Canals will also have to be cut to the river, where small sluices will
have to be formed.
The Giant's tank is thus described : "This tank, supposed by the
natives to have been constructed by Sodien (Giants), consists of a large
spot of low land, surrounded from the north-west to the south side, by
an earthen dike or dam to keep the water within confined in the rainy
season, and to water the paddy fields when necessary. It is, how
ever, in several places broken or washed away, in some places is
scarcely visible, and consequently no water remains at present. At
certain spots outside the tank, on the north and south sides of the dam
are to be seen rivulets by which the water runs down from the tank
into the sea. On the south side of the tank is the Moessellie river,
the water of which runs from the highlands into the sea, but only
during heavy rains. This river swells in some years nine feet above
its banks, though its bed is twelve feet deep. About nine miles from
the south end of the dam of Cattoekare is a stone dam lying across,
built up with large hewn stones, some of which are from seven to
eight feet long, from three to four broad, and from two and a half to
three feet thick, made fast with cement, the length of this dam is
about 600 feet, the breadth from 40 to 60 feet, and the height from
8 to 12 feet. The whole must have been constructed at enormous
labour. Near this stone dam is a canal to lead the remaining water

CHAP. I.J CATTOEKARE OR GIANT'S TANK. 495
of the river to the tank, but this work seems to have been abandoned
about half way, and has since broken down at four different places,
where it discharges itself again into the river. Several persons have
formed fields and erected small tanks within the Giants' tank, where
at the date of this report, were 23 villages with cultivated grounds,
sufficient to sow 3,121 parrahs. Outside the tank are a great
number of villages, all of which have their small tanks, for the
retention of water for their own use. The extent occupied by these
villages is sufficient to sow 16,500 parrahs.
" The extent of the tank Cattoekare is about 20,000 parrahs of
sowing ground. The height of the various parts of the dam above
the level of the sea varies, being respectively 36 feet, 54 feet, and 67
feet. The natives opine that from the mere water of the rivulets
running into Cattoekare, independent of the river, the tank might be
fully supplied, but to make the work more certain, the abandoned
canal might be continued, and would only need to be four feet broad
and six feet deep, by which means the superfluous water of the river
would find its way, and a similar canal might be cut on the north
side of the tank, to conduct the water from the highlands on that
side. It would take three years to complete this work, meanwhile the
agriculture both within and without the tank might be carried on as
before. The Mantotte and Nanaatan districts can only be assisted
with water from Cattoekare if repaired, being a land of large extent
and without mountains, whence there is little rain. This land is
bounded on the north by Werteltivoe and Pannengammo, on the
east by Chitty colom, on the north-west and west by the sea, on the
south by the Moessellie river, and contains 255 large and small
villages, having in cultivated grounds 21,000 parrahs. Nanaatan has
in addition 32 villages to the south of the Moessellie river, and 12
villages beyond the tank Cattoekare, which cannot be irrigated by
that tank, but only by the repair of the smaller tanks now in use,
besides these are 23 villages within Cattoekare, which have 3, 1 2 1
parrahs of cultivated grounds which by repairing the said tank will
be done away, but the people can be indemnified with a similar
quantum of land outside. This part of the country cannot be sown
without artificial irrigation, from the paucity of rain, and the ground
is hard and clayey ; the crop requires water therefore from the time
the rain ceases until it is fully grown.
" A custom prevails of sowing the tanks with such paddy as can
bear an abundance of moisture, and this is done before the rain, with
a mammootie, and when the cultivator can do nothing else, the
ground being much softer there than in the ordinary fields. In
process of time, the small tanks could be turned into fields.
Some of the small tanks are still in a tolerably good condition,
and their repair might be left to the husbandmen themselves,
on condition that the money be not paid till the repairs are approved
of. The extent of the lands outside of Cattoekare is 166,000

496 CEYLON. [PART IV.
parrahs of ground, from which, after deducting 91,000 parrahs for
pasture ground, &c, and 21,000 now cultivated, 54,000 parrahs
might at once be cultivated and turned into proper fields, making
25,000 parrahs which can be supplied with water from the Cattoekare,
and would give for the first crop 70,000 parrahs duty, and for the
second 15,000, and in case the people paid one-tenth more for
the supply of water, then the Government, after deducting all
expenses for repairing the dam, sluices, &c. &c, would receive an
income of 100,000 rix-dollars, besides the benefit to the people,
and the maintenance of an increased population. The cost of
repairing the Giant's tank he estimates at 250,000 rix-dollars. The
two provinces of Mantotte and Nanaatan," says Schneider, "have not
this year, i. e. 1808, yet contributed 2,000 rix-dollars, and it is
because many fields have been abandoned from want of water after
the crop has been half grown, which has made the cultivator dejected,
and has depopulated the country. The repairs of the small tanks
in the same districts in a season of plentiful rain, would produce a
revenue of 20,000 rix-dollars per annum, but this could only be
relied on in case of rain. The soil of these districts is naturally rich,
but the want of rain for years together has caused the cultivator to
despair." The next stage in proceeding northwards from Arippo is Bangalle,
(Vankale), eight miles distant, a village in the district of Mantotte,
situate on a sandy beach near the sea. It has a Romish Church
built of stone, but the inhabitants are far from numerous, and almost
entirely employed in the fishery. The Colombo road branches off
here in two directions, one leading to Manaar, and the other to
Jaffna. Four miles from Bangalle is the village of Mantotte
(Mantai), where there is a large storehouse used as a depot for the
tithe, and a rest house, the former having been built by the Por
tuguese for a church, and the latter as a parsonage house attached
to it.
At a small distance to the east of the village, there are some
ancient ruins, which tradition mentions as being the site of buildings
belonging to a company of goldsmiths, but there cannot be a question
that Mantotte was formerly the site of a considerable Gentoo city, if
not the temporary emporium of trade between the East and West.
It is supposed by Mr. Tumour to have been founded by Elaala, 205
B.C., but he does not state the grounds on which he rests his
opinion. The present ruins found near Mantotte, and which are of
brick and mortar, lead us back no further than six centuries, and
coincide with the date of Arabian enterprise. The credulity of a
degenerate posterity, and the mingled feelings of admiration and awe
with which they witnessed works they could not imitate, has led
them to perplex the annals of their foundation with the web of
fiction, and to assign superhuman proportions to the architects and
labourers employed in rearing the mighty granitic piles that have

CHAP. I.] DISTRICT OF MANTOTTE. 497
baffled the devastation of ages. Hence the robust labour segre
gated to execute the magnificent conceptions of a monarch, is now
impersonated in giants of forty feet stature, or demons exorcised
into executing the behests of his superior will.
In the time of De Mello, Commander of Manaar, 1575, some
Roman houses were opened in the province of Mantotte, and in the
time of the Dutch, many Roman ruins and pieces of marble-work
were to be seen. In examining the foundation, an iron chain of very
different form and design to any thing made in India, was dis
covered. They found also three pieces of copper coin, one of which
was entirely worn away, and a gold coin, on one side of which
was the image of a man from the breast upwards ; at the edge was
deciphered part of a superscription, in which the letter ' C,' sup
posed to refer to Claudius, was visible. On another coin were dis
covered the letters CR, M, N, R,' supposed by Valentyn to have
formed part of the word Romanorum. The same writer conjectures
that these coins were brought thither by the freedman of Annius
Plocamus, but I confess I do not see why we should limit ourselves
to such a source, when we know that both Roman and Greek coins
must have been in part the circulating media employed in Oriental
commerce, one of whose emporia was doubtless in this very district.
The line of argument, if argument it can be called, taken by
Major Forbes, in his notice of the vestiges of antiquity and the
traditions of former mercantile emporia on this coast, appears to me
to be unworthy of a writer, whose judgment on most points is gene
rally so sound. Since there are at least two fallacies discoverable in
his argument, it may not be improper to recapitulate briefly what
the advocates of the threefold point, to which I shall presently
advert, infer from the statements of the ancient writers, our know
ledge of the navigation of these seas by the ancients, the state of
navigation during the middle ages, and the vestiges of great an
tiquity that still remain. That point, as I before remarked, is of a
threefold nature, and has strict reference to a particular time, to
particular agency, and I might add, a particular mode of operation.
By particular time, I mean to imply that the commerce supposed to
have had its centre here, as an emporium, was limited to a con
tracted space, one of the incidents either unnoticed or misrepresented
by Major Forbes : by particular agency, I refer to the three nations
or peoples by whom this commerce was conducted, viz. the Sinae or
Seres, by whom the eastern transit was undertaken, the Malabars
and latterly the Indo-Moors, who acted as agens de change, and the
Arabians and Greeks who engaged in the western transit, that is
from Ceylon, and at different epochs, from the Malabar coast. But
here again, Major Forbes is at fault, and he confuses the three com
ponents of the population of Ceylon in a case, in which a dis
tinction is absolutely necessary to elucidate the subject. By a par
ticular mode of operation, I refer to the exchange which took place
2 K

498 CEYLON. [part it,
between the two great mercantile nations. The principal ground of
Major Forbes's hostility to the whole theory in question, would seem
in a great measure to rest on the assumed poverty and tameness of
character of the Malabars and Indo-Moors. But this is a point on
which much stress need not be laid, though I cannot allow, without
a protest, an inference of their former to be drawn from tbeir present
state. But I maintain further that it is not necessary to shew that
the Malabars took any active part in the transaction at all ; the
country inhabited by them, or in their power, happened by a
physical accident to be on the highway of the trade between the East
and the West, where the parties to the trade could effect a mutual
exchange, and save on either side a protracted navigation. 'A
hundred circumstances can be imagined, all within the range of pro
bability, to account either for the Malabars, &c. themselves partici
pating in the commerce, their contenting themselves with deriving
the incidental advantages which it is obvious must have accrued to
them, letting alone all active participation, or their being coerced by
the Arabians and Greeks, a far more warlike people, into resigning
the points of the coast which would avail for ensuring the safety of
mercantile operations.
One circumstance which almost amounts to a proof in favour of
the theory I have endeavoured to expound, is the peculiar character
of the country, which -is supposed to have been the theatre of this
commerce. The soil of the district, though far from barren under
irrigation, is naked and parched to an extreme, where removed from
its influence ; the atmosphere also is dry to an excess, from the hot
winds which at times destroy all vegetation within their range. How
came it to pass, then, that a numerous and powerful nation, in former
times, fixed its residence in this most unprofitable and uncongenial
part of the island, and what were the causes that afterwards made it
forsake it, and leave it to its original desolation ? Neither the facts
that the Hindoo invaders of Ceylon occupied this country as a pre
liminary to their inroads into the interior, and erected the buildings,
of which but few vestiges remain, or that pilgrims from the penin
sula landed here in great numbers on their way to the renowned
temples of the north-east, or the Sri Pada of the interior, will suffi
ciently account for this influx of population and wealth. Commerce,
and not the indulgence of a spirit of conquest, can perhaps alone be
legitimately assigned.
Prior to the discovery of the compass, when mariners could not
safely venture out of sight of land, they had no alternative in passing
from the Malabar to the Coromandel coast, but to proceed by the
strait between Ceylon and the Peninsula, or by rounding the island.
To effect the latter, however, by keeping close to the island is im
practicable, except by waiting for the changes in the regular mon
soons. The south-west that blows from April to September, and is
favourable to vessels proceeding from Cape Comoriu to Manaar,

CHAP. I.] MANTOTTE AS A COMMERCIAL EMPORIUM. 499
renders it impracticable to proceed thence to Dondera Head. The
northeast that prevails from October to February, while facilitating
the passage of these vessels from Manaar to Dondera Head, renders
it necessary that they should there wait again for the south-west
before they can proceed to Trincomalee or the Coromandel coast.
Such being the case, it is clear that vessels would rendezvous in the
straits of Manaar, or the Paumban channel, and that those vessels
which from their size could not pass, would be unloaded, and the
merchandize either be removed in boats, to be transhipped in other
vessels, as they arrived from the opposite coast of India, or be de
posited in stores to wait an opportumty of obtaining the necessary
conveyance. These circumstances are sufficient in themselves to ac
count for a concourse of traders on the shores of these straits, and
the adjacent districts, and the formation of numerous establishments
at or near Manaar for their convenience. These establishments
would call into existence, and give an impetus to, the cultivation of
land in the vicinity which, in the absence of that extraordinary
stimulant, might perhaps have lain for ever uncultivated. Many
merchants from the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, and the Malabar
coast, would prefer disposing of their goods at such a d«pot, and
returning home with their ships laden with the produce of Coro
mandel and the Gangetic provinces, to continuing a tedious and
hazardous voyage. The discovery of the compass and the im
provements in navigation, at once altered the system. Larger
vessels were then substituted, which kept out to sea, the trading
through the straits of Manaar soon became less profitable, and
more tedious than by a direct voyage, and was therefore abandoned ;
hence followed the decay of the establishments at Manaar and
Mantotte, and the consequent depopulation of the country.
When these mercantile establishments were thus on the wane, and
began to be reduced in strength and population, it is very possible
that the Singhalese princes, feeling their superiority, attacked the
remnant and reduced the Aareya Chakkra Warti from a state of
independence to a recognition of their supremacy.
The vicinity of the pearl fishery to these districts may also have
added to the inducements of trading nations to make them the seat
of exchange, though it would not in itself be a sufficient inducement
to tempt them to establish a permanent residence in so arid a country,
while Tutacorin was the recognised seat of the fishery.
The whole district of Mantotte1 (Mahatottam, " Great Garden")
is surrounded with a halo of interest for the antiquary, and it is far
from improbable that the measures that cannot fail to be taken,
sooner or later, to restore its former fertility to this neglected but
very capable district, may evoke some relic of the past to elucidate
what is now shrouded in mystery. Mantotte is bounded on the east
1 Matotte, or Mantotte, has been sometimes confounded with Mahawettatotte,
at the mouth of the Kotti-aar. 2 K 2

500 CEYLON. [PART IV.
by the Wanny, on the north by the channel which divides Manaar
from the main land, and on the south by Nanaatan. The face of the
country is almost level, but from the ruined state of the tanks, the
whole district does not produce more than 30,000 parrahs of paddy,
although its facilities for irrigation are very great. The inhabitants are
chiefly composed of Malabars, and live in 147 villages. The repair of
the tanks, exclusive of Kattoekare, would not exceed .£550. and the
tithe to Government would be 5000 parrahs of paddy. Salt pans are
found in some parts of this coast, and'formerly yielded a large supply.
The island of Manaar (Mannarama1), so called from the Tamil
words, man, sand, and aar, river, is separated from the coast of Ceylon
by a narrow arm of the sea, varying in breadth from two to three
miles at high water, but at ebb tide it appears to be little more than
a rivulet, and is then fordable. It lies between 8° 56' and 9° 0' 50"
north lat., and 79° 50' and 80° 8' east long., is eighteen miles long,
and from two to four broad, is the point of Ceylon nearest to the
Indian peninsula, its north-western extremity being thirty miles from
Ramisseram, and. contains twenty-two villages. Nearly the whole
of the island is low ground, exhibiting a mixture of shells and sand
worked up by the waves ; the soil is scarcely anywhere adapted for
the operations of agriculture, and the water is generally impregnated
with salt. It is chiefly planted with cocoa-nut and palmyra trees,
besides a small variety of shrubs and vegetables, among which cotton
predominates. The climate differs little from that of the neigh
bouring coast, and the inhabitants enjoy good health throughout the
year, except at the first setting in of the monsoon rains, when they
are subject to a malignant fever and ague, which often prove fatal.
Salt forms spontaneously on the island, but not in the same pro
portion as in the Leways. In the most wild and uncultivated parts
of the sandy tracts, the best Chaya root is produced, the collection
of which forms the exclusive occupation of a particular class of people
called Kadeyas. The chanks found a little to the northward of
Manaar are plentiful, but devoid of that brilliant whiteness for which
those of Calpentyn are held in estimation. Both the channel and
the gulf are well stocked with fish, which are caught in the greatest
abundance, and it is mentioned in the Histoire de la Compagnie de
Jesus, that in 1560 seven mermaids were caught in the neighbourhood
of Manaar by the fishermen, and were dissected by the physician to
the Viceroy of Goa.
Manaar is famous for its large breed of black cattle and goats ;
from the milk of the latter the people manufacture a coarse kind of
cream cheese, small and round, the art of which was probably com
municated to them by the Dutch. Sheep thrive here better than
in any other part of Ceylon, except, perhaps, in the extensive sheep
walks between Jaffnapatam and Point Pedro. Butcher's meat, poultry,
1 The etymology I would venture to propose is Raman-aar, or Rama's river,
iu which case the excision of the first syllable is supposed to have taken place.

CHAP. I.J THE ISLAND AND TOWN OF MANAAR. 501
game, fruit, rice, and vegetables, are procurable at a low rate. Paddy
is sown in the Manaar district in September and October, and reaped
in March j Kurukkan is sown in September, and reaped in December ;
Gingilie is sown in March and reaped in May.
The town of Manaar is situated at the south-eastern extremity of
the island, and is about 142 miles N.N.W. of Colombo. It has a
small square fort, surrounded by a wide ditch, which stands so close
to the channel, that it may be seen from the opposite shore of
Ceylon. This fort -contains, besides the officers' quarters, magazines
and barracks, a small Protestant church, and two reservoirs of water.
During war it is a dependency of Jaffna, and was, at one time, com
manded by a field officer, but at present is tenanted by invalids, and
is used as a depot for salt. In the time of the Dutch, a strong
garrison was kept. At the distance of a furlong from the fort through
an avenue of Suria trees, stands the town, which is small but neat, con
taining several good houses, a court house, a large, commodious, and
well supplied bazaar, several chapels belonging to the Roman Catholics,
and a church attached to the Reformed faith of Holland. Besides
the principal streets occupied by the burghers, there are a great
number of smaller ones, in which the natives reside, and which
extend into the country. Manaar has a small custom-house establish
ment ; its exports, which are chiefly confined to the Coromandel
coast, consist of chanks, chaya root, palmyra rafters, areka nuts,
gingilie, ironwood timber, and salt fish ; and its imports of cloth,
rice, paddy, spices, and drugs. The harbour, though shallow, is
completely sheltered.
The village of Pesale, or Peixale, composed of the two Tamil words
pe, devil, and sale, a hall, so called from its having once been the
resort of sorcerers, is one of the most considerable in the island. It
is about twelve miles to the north-west of Manaar, on a sandy beach
near the sea, and is considered a good situation for the fishery. The
inhabitants who are chiefly Parawas, from the continent, exceed
1000 in number, and employ more than 200 canoes in their calling.
When the Portuguese were in possession of the island they erected
a very splendid church at some distance from the beach, but as it
had crumbled into ruins, a new one has been erected in its neighbour
hood. Karsel is a village in the interior of the island, about eight
miles north-west of Manaar. A government cotton plantation was
once formed here ; but, the first produce proving insufficient to pay
the expense, it was abandoned. This village is remarkable for the
number of its gardens, and the excellence of its water.
St. Pedro, about five miles north-west of Manaar, was so named by
the Portuguese, from the church dedicated to St. Peter. It has a fine
harbour, and was formerly the depot for the chanks fished along the
coast, previous to their exportation to Bengal. About a mile west of
the village stands a round tower, by some thought to have been erected
by the early Mahommedan settlers, by others to have been built by
the Portuguese as a watch-tower, for noticing the approach of vessels.

502 CEYLON. fPART tr-
Totawelle (the garden plain) is about three miles to the west
of Manaar, and is inhabited by Kadeyas, who dig for chaya root,
which is exported to Madura and other parts of the Coromandel
coast. The Portuguese built a fine church here, but it has long
since fallen to ruins, and a new one has been built by the inhabitants,
who are all Roman Catholics.
Talamanaar is a village at the south-west angle of the island, from
which travellers are ferried over to the continent of India, and con
tains upwards of 300 inhabitants, principally fishermen. The wind
to which this part of the island is very much exposed is continually
throwing up huge mounds of sand.
According to the traditions of the natives, Manaar was in early
times the hereditary property of the Kadeyas, and exclusively occu
pied by them, but subject to the King of Jaffna. In the eighth
century the Mahommedan1 emigrants from Arabia formed a consider
able settlement on the island, and from its position between Ceylon
and the peninsula of India, chose it as the emporium of their com
merce, and guarded the two passages in the neighbourhood with an
armed force. But at the time of the arrival of the Portuguese this
establishment was already on the wane, and shortly afterwards
ceased to exist. In 1 503 the Kadeyas to a man embraced the
Roman Catholic religion, with what results we have elsewhere shewn.
In 1 590 the island was taken possession of by the Portuguese, and,
notwithstanding the attempts made by the King of Jaffna to retake
it, they retained it till 1650, when it was taken by the Dutch after
a short resistance. During the government of the Portuguese it was
their head quarters in the northern provinces, and a Captain-General
permanently resided there. It was here also they detained the
empress Donna Catharina, whom they employed as a tool for the
furtherance of their interests in Ceylon. Nowhere were their attempts
to propagate their faith more active than here, and the success which
attended their labour is to this day evident, by the fact that there
are few persons of any other sect or religion at Manaar, and none in
the adjacent district of Mantotte.
The Dutch soon rendered themselves unpopular with the inhabi
tants by their endeavours to supplant the Romish religion, and,
though they subsequently became more tolerant, yet they never
gained the affections of the people ; and when they contemplated
levying a tax on the fish caught by the Parawas, who are the princi
pal inhabitants, some opposition was made, and numbers emigrated
to the opposite coast, placing themselves under the protection of the
Raja of Ramnad, and did not return to the island till the Dutch had
given a solemn assurance of the abandonment of the tax^ Manaar
was taken by the British in 1795.
1 The Mahommedan merchants are said to have had immense depfits here,
both of the productions of Ceylon for the export trade, and the manufactures
and productions of the Mahommedan states settled along the Mediterranean and
the Persian Gulf. ,

CHAP . I.] CONNEXION BETWEEN RAMISSERAM AND THE MAIN. 503
The navigation for large vessels near the shore between Manaar
and Karetivoe is rather dangerous, as there are many banks inter
spersed, but small ones drawing seven or eight feet of water only,
and acquainted with the coast, pass inside or between some of them.
Ships making for Manaar, when three or three and a half leagues
west of Karetivoe, steer to the north-east, keeping a good look out,
and the lead going, the soundings being irregular over a rocky
bottom, until seven or eight fathoms near the island, under these
depths they decrease gradually towards it to five fathoms sandy
ground. In this track there are sometimes overfalls from twenty to
twenty-five fathoms to two or three fathoms less at a cast. If a
vessel shoal to eight fathoms hard ground in passing near the reef or
outermost banks, she must instantly haul to the westward. From
this part of Ceylon to the Tinevelly coast, soundings extend across
the gulf to the southward of Adam's bridge, but the outer limit of the
bank is not even yet known to Europeans, as the navigation of the
gulf to the northward of Colombo is principally limited to coasters.
The gut between Manaar and Mantotte has in some places ten or
twelve feet at high water, in others not more than six, it is only
therefore navigable for dhonies and small country boats, but tbe only
anchorage is on the south side of the island in four or five fathoms,
and four or five miles to the westward of the gut. This channel,
moreover, does not appear capable of any material improvement, as
there is a bar opposite to its south end.
In entering upon an investigation, or rather speculation, as to the
original state of Palk' s Strait, and of the Paumban channel, and to what
cause the latter is indebted for its existence, we must needs commence
by assuming that most probable of theories, the original junction of
Ramisseram with the main land. That done, we may account by a very
clear analogy, bearing in mind the disruptions and convulsions of the
earth's surface even in the temperate zone, for its separation at a sub
sequent period from the Peninsula. Fabulous and obscure as most of
the traditions handed down respecting the deeds of Rama and his
opponent may be, it does not seem impossible, if we consider how
recklessly labour has been lavished in every age of Eastern despotism,
but that Rama, having completed the Saitubandha1 or causeway
1 Hindoo history evidently alludes to Adam's or Rama's bridge, in recounting
the wars of Lanka, and attributes to Rama, the son of Cush, an incarnate deity
of the first rank in Hindoo mythology, the conquest of the island with an army of
Indian satyrs ; and states that Rama's General, the prince of satyrs, called
Hanuman, from his high cheek bones, and son of Pavon, the Indian god of storms
and winds, and one of the eight Genii, soon raised with workmen of such agility
a bridge of rocks over the sea, part of which, say the Hindoos, yet remains.
Sir W. Jones in alluding to this, inquires if this army of satyrs might not have
been only a race of mountaineers whom Rama had civilized, and concludes with
mentioning, that the large breed of Indian apes was even in his time held in high
veneration by the Hindoos, and fed with devotion by the Brahmins, who seem in
two or three places on the banks of the Ganges to have a regular endowment for

504 CEYLON. [PART IV.
through the then existing straits, (which we are told have been much
deeper in ancient times) may have marched his army across it from
the continent to the invasion of Ceylon, and hence have given this
name of Rama's bridge. The accomplishment of a similar undertaking
is represented by the native annalists to have been effected by
Gajabahoo, a.d. 113.
The Paumban passage, or as it is called by the inhabitants, the
Paumban river, is a narrow opening through a dam or ridge of rocks,
extending from the island of Ramisseram to the opposite promontory,
on the continent to the east of Ramnad, and is situate between the
Gulf of Manaar and Palk's Strait. The continuation of the rocks or
dam can be easily traced on the main land and island of Ramisseram
preserving exactly the same direction, but rising on both sides several
feet higher than the dam in its natural position, and in uniform
layers, having a small inclination to the south. The ridges which
form the dam, were very much broken and displaced, consisting of
large flat masses of rocks, seldom more than two or three feet in
thickness. Their shattered state, and the break or chasm which
they form in the general height of the stratum of rock, would seem to
indicate that the island of Ramisseram was at one time connected
with the main land, and that it had been separated in the first
instance by the sea during storms breaking over and bursting the
chain of rocks which joined them, and afterwards by the water
undermining and displacing the broken fragments.
This supposition corresponds with the tradition of the inhabitants ;
for the Brahmins of Ramisseram state that when Achoodapah Naig
was Raja of Madura, a.d, 1484, the island was connected with the
continent, and that the Saumy of Ramisseram was carried to the
mainland thrice every year on particular festivals. During the reign
of Achoodapah Naig, a small breach in the rock was caused by a
violent storm, but as there was no great depth of water in it, travellers
still continued to cross on foot till the time of his successor,
Vissoovana Naig, when the breach was much enlarged by a second
storm. The Divan Ramapiah was ordered to fill up the breach that
the pilgrims of the pagoda at Ramisseram might passwithout difficulty;
this was accordingly done, and the repairs lasted about ten years,
when a third hurricane reopened and greatly extended the breach.
The rock of which the dam is composed, is a sand stone, varying
their support : they live in tribes of three or four hundred, are wonderfully
gentle, and appear to have some kind of order and subordination in their little
sylvan polity."
On the other hand, the Mahommedans assert with about equal reason, that the
bridge of Islets bearing the name of the common father of mankind, was formed
by angels to permit his passage to Hindostan, after having dropped upon the
mountain Hamalell, when expelled from the celestial paradise ; and it has been
also asserted, that the persecuted followers of Boodh or Buddha, when driven
from the continent by the Brahmins, sought a secure resting place for themselves
and for the unmolested exercise of their religion, by passing over this causeway
to Ceylon.

CHAP. I.J DESCRIPTION OF ADAM'S BRIDGE. 505
considerably in quality and compactness, but every where soft, and
easily pierced and broken, The dam was 2,250 yards in length,
and bounded by two parallel ridges of rock about 140 yards apart.
From what has been said, it will be inferred that the Paumban
channels have gradually been becoming deeper by the action of the
waves and currents upon the ledges of rock which impede the
passage, and. that if there ever was any channel through which large
ships could pass, between Ceylon and the continent, it must have
been during some temporary shifting of the sand banks between
Manaar and Ramisseram.
The account given by Baldeeus of the shifting of the impediments
at one of the channels at Adam's bridge by the Portuguese, as if they
were the lock-gates of a canal, in order to allow their fleet, menaced
by the Dutch, to escape from this outlet, is hardly worthy of consi
deration, and difficult of belief ; for in that case either some of the
channels must have been deeper in former days, or the ships must
have been of a small size. Adam's bridge* itself is a very extraor
dinary formation. It is only about a quarter of a mile in breadth,
and consists entirely of sand, partly above and partly below water,
collected apparently by the surf and currents, and unsupported, as far
as has yet been ascertained, by rock. The east end was pierced to
the depth of thirty feet ; and nothing found but sand; on each side of
the bank at the distance of from two to three miles, the sea is six
fathoms deep, and quite free from obstructions of every kind.
There are three principal openings across Adam's bridge, one near the
north-west end of Manaar, called the Talmanaar passage ; the second,
eight miles further to the west, and the third about eleven miles from
the island of Ramisseram, termed the Tannycoody passage, this last
has been examined and surveyed. It is narrow in the centre, and
thirty feet deep, with broad curved bars opposite to its two ends, on
which there is not more than five or six feet of water. The bank
between it and Ramisseram is entire, and several feet above water.
The Talmanaar passage exactly resembles that of Tannycoody,
but it is not so deep, there being only about three feet of water on its
north bar. The intermediate opening has never been examined, but
from its appearence, there is little doubt of its corresponding very
nearly with the other two. In the vicinity of the Talmanaar and
Tannycoody openings, the bank is visible above water for several
miles, intersected by only a few narrow openings, but towards its
centre it is chiefly covered with water, and very little sand is to be
seen, though from the surf breaking exactly on the line of the bank,
the depth of water cannot exceed two or three feet.
1 Adam's bridge is called by the natives " Tiroowanai," or the sacred embank
ment, and " Seetapandanam," or the structure of Seeta. Valmika, in his Uttara
kanda, cap. xviii, describes the bridge as being ten yojens in breadth, and one
hundred in length, and composed of no other materials than huge rocks piled up
in a chain by the Vanaras, under the direction of Nala, one of the chief engineers
of the gods.

506 CEYLON. [PART IV.
During both monsoons, on the lee side of the bank, there are a great
number of irregular shifting sand banks scattered about, on which
there are from two to four feet of water, with passages between them
eight or nine feet deep. The weather side on the contrary, particu
larly towards the end of the monsoon, is in great measure clear of
such banks, and the surf breaks on its shore nearly in a straight con
tinued line. When the monsoon changes, the strength and prevailing
direction of the current change too, and the loose sand of which the
shifting banks are composed, on what was the lee side, being stirred
up by the surf and sea, is swept by the current through the channels,
and deposited on the opposite side, partly on the bars and partly in
loose detached heaps along the bank. These deposits appear to be
further increased by the sand thrown upon the weather shore by the
surf, which, as soon as it becomes dry, is carried by the wind across
the bank into the sea on the other side. When the wind is strong,
a continued stream of sand is swept across the bank into the sea on
the lee side. The beach of Adam's bridge, therefore, to the distance
of about a mile on both sides, is continually changing and shifting ;
on the weather side it is generally clear, except immediately opposite
to the channels where there are always projecting bars, while on the
opposite side there are many loose banks scattered about, and con
stantly changing and varying in position and extent as the monsoon
advances, and according to the state of the sea and weather. During
both monsoons rather a high surf breaks on the weather side of the
bank, but the south-west monsoon produces much the highest surf,
accompanied by a long heavy swell. During part of the north-east
monsoon the surf breaks on both sides of the banks. Dhonies and
fishing boats occasionally used to pass through the openings in fine
weather, but the passage was attended with difficulty and danger,
and was not common.
The practicability of opening a channel sufficiently deep for
all classes of ships, and keeping it open, was found to be doubtful.
A strong double bulwark of stones across the bank, extending into
deep water on both sides, with a narrow opening of 100 or 200 feet
might perhaps have accomplished the object. The velocity of the
current would probably keep a narrow fixed channel of that descrip
tion always sufficiently deep, and sweep off any sand that might be
carried into it, either by the sea or by the wind ; and, as the bulwark
would extend into deep water beyond the shifting sands and the in
fluence of the surf, its ends might possibly be kept free from sand.
The danger to be chiefly apprehended was the formation of bars
opposite to the ends of the channel, similar to what were found in
front of the natural openings, but as the current is rapid and extends
into deep water it is likely that what did pass through it would be
dissipated and disappear.
In 1836, the Government of Madras made an application -to that
of Bombay, for a surveying party to examine the gulf of Manaar.
The idea of this undertaking originated with General Monteith,

CHAP. I.J FORMATION OF A NAVIGABLE CHANNEL. 507
Chief of the Madras Engineers, who had been wrecked on the shores
of the gulf in 1809, and had felt the strongest possible desire to see
its coasts and shoals, and sunken rocks, examined and laid down,
with a view as far as possible, to diminish the obstructions to navi
gation. A party was therefore detached from Captain Moresby to
undertake this service, and a party of Madras engineers, and about
fifty convicts were engaged under the direction of General, then
Colonel Monteith, in cutting a navigable channel through two formid
able ledges of rock, extending from the island of Ramisseram to the
opposite coast of the continent.
The passage through these rocks, while they remained in their
natural state, had a depth of at most six or seven feet, while on the
Great Horse Shoe-bank, a little to the south, there was scarcely a
depth of five feet at high- water. In despite of these obstacles, however
large numbers of small craft engaged in the coasting trade, had long
made use of the channel, though they had been always compelled to
land a portion of their cargoes on entering the strait. The principal
object of the Madras Government was now therefore, to widen, and
deepen the passage, so as to obtain a sufficient depth of water for
vessels of moderate burden, and for the steamers from the Red Sea
to Calcutta when established. As it has been already observed, up
to 1837, all vessels beyond the smallest class were compelled in pass
ing from one side of the Indian peninsula to the other, to beat
round Ceylon, often in the teeth of heavy and contrary winds, and
always against currents more or less powerful. The addition thus
made to their voyage, averaged under the most favourable circum
stances, 2000 miles, but as it was often necessary to run down ten
degrees of latitude, before they could open the Bay of Bengal, they
had to sail full 3500 miles, ere they regained the directer course.
The craft exposed to this inconvenience and loss of time, were em
ployed in the conveyance of the produce of Malabar, Travancore,
and other fertile provinces, to Madras. Prices, as it will easily be
conceived, were very materially enhanced by such a' state of things
on the Coromandel coast. Fewer persons would engage in the trade
on account of the dangers to be apprehended in rounding Ceylon ;
while the mere length of the voyage by increasing the wages of
crews, and the interest of capital, necessarily raised the cost of com
modities. Its chief effect, however, was to confine the coasting
trade to small vessels, which by the slow process of unloading and
reloading, could reach their point of destination through the gulf of
Manaar and the Paumban passage. Where Nature has in a sportive
or capricious mood, barred or endangered the progress of man, it is
to be observed, she has ever summoned forth increased energy and
resolution in her children for the encounter. Hence on the little
island of Ramisseram, is to be found a hardy race of native pilots ;
and the village of Paumban owes its existence to the intricacy and
shallowness of the neighbouring channel. Circumstances might
occur which would render the impracticability of this route a public

508 CEYLON. [PART IV.
calamity. Thus during the war in Affghanistan ' the Enterprise,'
a well built and powerful steamer, bound with treasure and arms for
Kurrachee, was completely beaten back and detained for weeks by
the force of the south-west monsoon, while numbers of coasting ves
sels were passing and repassing daily through the Paumban channel,
completely under the shelter of land. The attention of Government
had been directed to this subject as far back as 1828, when some
efforts were made towards removing the principal obstacles to the
navigation, but were discontinued for reasons not known.
The geological structure of the strait is curious. An immense
congeries of rocks, many of them rising to the surface of the waves,
obstructed the channel for 2960 feet, and between these at high
water, the small and venturous craft of the country threaded their
tortuous and somewhat dangerous course. The northern extremity
consists of coral and limestone to which succeeds shingle, mixed with
granite boulders, but not loose. This passed, a breadth of blue soft
sandstone mixed with lime and madrepore succeeds. Then follows
the great northern reef composed of hard red sandstone, and extend
ing east and west almost in a right line. A broad belt of broken
sandstone interspersed with boulders of other substances next suc
ceeds, and the southern reef, consisting like the former, with which
it runs parallel, of hard red sandstone, follows. A bed of the same
rock, but less indurated, then stretches southwards to the site of the
great sand-bank.
As may be supposed " the practical men" as usual pronounced
this undertaking ridiculous, and viewed the obstacles to its comple
tion insurmountable, while the Court of Directors, ever slow in
advancing any thing to promote objects beyond their own narrow
range of vision, had little faith in the success of the enterprise, and
were indisposed to expend a competent sum for its execution. Un
daunted by the apathy that prevailed, Colonel Monteith, perfectly
confident that if the requisite means were placed at his disposal, he
could cut through the interposing reefs a channel of fourteen feet at
low, and sixteen at high -water, and at the same time of sufficient
breadth to allow of its being safely navigated at all seasons, perse
vered, and finally succeeded in obtaining his authority. He located
his gang of convicts at Ramisseram, where he likewise erected bar
racks for the troops. A large diving bell five tons in weight was
sent him from Ceylon : he purchased or constructed a number of
catamarans, and with the least possible delay, commenced operations.
Great energy and perseverance were exhibited by all parties, the
sappers and convicts working almost continually in the water, diving,
boring and blasting. The most laborious work was removing the
huge fragments of rock when they had been detached. This was
effected by raising and swinging them to the sides of the catamarans
or large boats, by which they were carried away, and dropped into
the sea with the view of forming a sort of breakwater on either side
of the channel. At one time the explosion under water took place

CHAP. I.J SUCCESS OF THE ENTERPRISE — WERTLETEEVOE. 509
before the men could get out of the way, and on one occasion a large
catamaran was overturned with six persons in it. Another time,
when the fuse had been twenty minutes without exploding, a diver
was sent to withdraw the powder, but found the fire burning fiercely,
and had scarcely effected his escape, before immense fragments of
rock were projected above water, and scattered with tremendous
force on all sides.
During the whole period in which operations were carried on, how
ever, few casualties occurred, while owing to the excellent system of
management pursued by General Monteith and his humanity to
those under his care, the deaths from sickness did not exceed those
occurring in any ordinary service. At length a powerful steam-
dredge was sent out from England, which cleared away the loose
rock at the rate of about 2000 cubic feet per day. Nevertheless the
channel has not yet been excavated to the depth required, having
only ten feet at low, and twelve feet at high water, with a breadth
varying from 90 to 150 yards. Its edges are carefully marked
throughout by buoys. It may with truth, however, be said, that
the undertaking has succeeded, since not only do all the country
craft use the channel, but the Calcutta steamers also. The " Ne
mesis" and the " Pluto" on their return from China came this way,
and in coal alone effected a saving of ^6400. But the most striking
illustration of the value of the Paumban channel is supplied by the
fact, that whereas before the works were undertaken, the amount of
tonnage that traversed the strait was from 20,000 to 23,000 tons a
year, it has now increased to 140,0*00 in the same period, or six-fold.
The passage from Mantotte to Jaffnapatam is effected with most
ease by sea, the distance by that mode of transit not exceeding sixty-
eight miles, but the botanist conscious of the treasures that await
him by the more circuitous route, will prefer it, as a number of
plants are to be found by the land route that are not to be met with
elsewhere in the island. The road is sandy, often inundated to a
great depth in the rainy season, and skirted by jungle, though the
districts contiguous to the villages are well cultivated, and abun
dantly stocked with cattle. The native cottages are remarkable for
their neatness, and their freedom from musquitoes, which arises from
the plaster of cow-dung laid on- the cottage floors, which when
levelled makes an excellent pavement, cool, comfortable, and from its
anti-contagious influences, salutary to the inmates.
Vertativoe (Wertleteevoe) the first stage on this route, and nine
miles from Mantotte, is the principal village in the district of the
same name, which is included within the territory of the Wanny,
and comprises 104 villages ; the repair of the -tanks would cost
a6500. and the tithe to Government would be 4500 parrahs of paddy.
Its inhabitants, who are Moors, carry on a considerable manufacture
of salt. Here is a post station and rest-house for travellers, and a
road leads from hence through the Wanny to Trincomalee. Near

510 CEYLON. [PART IV.
the first rest-house on this road is a small temple of most excellent
construction. The building is a long square, about twenty-two feet
in length and fifteen in width, and the stones are in perfect preserva
tion. The cornice is cut with great taste, after the Hindoo style,
and the ornaments are not unlike those seen in some ruins of a
temple on Malabar point at Bombay.
The next stage, northward, is Illipekadawe, 5J miles, the prin
cipal village in the district of the same name, (where there is a rest-
house), which is also within the limits of the Wanny. Besides paddy,
a very small proportion of fine grain is cultivated in this part of the
country, as it is overgrown with jungle, and infested with elephants.
Near Illipekadawe is a large species of tamarind, Papara-pulli,
Singh, under which Baldeeus is said to have first preached the Gospel
in Ceylon This tree is more than eighty feet high, and thirty in
girth. Illipekadawe has forty-five tanks, of which twenty require
repair, and would cost j6450. ; and if all the fields in this district
were sown, the tithe would yield 1500 parrahs of paddy. Tobacco
thrives well here. From hence the next stage is to Pali-aar, six
miles, and from thence to Pallawarajenkattoe, 8f miles, the principal
village in the district of that name, which has a large tank, that
affords means of cultivating a large number of paddy fields. The
rest-house stands about a mile and a half from the sea. There are
six tanks requiring repair in this district, and the tank before
alluded to requires a canal to drain off its superfluous water, tbe
whole cost would be 36320., and the tithe, including that received
from the fields not watered from the tanks, would yield 3000 parrahs
of paddy. Off this coast is Irrentivoe (the Two Brothers' island) about five
miles N.W. from Pallawarajenkattoe. They are inhabited, and
abound with good pasturage, in which a part of the Delft stud was
formerly sent to graze. Fish is plentiful. There is a small Roman
Catholic chapel on one of the islands.
The next stage is to Vewaltcengie, six miles and a half; from
thence to Sembencoondu is five and a half miles, and from the latter
to Poonaryn, a village in the parish of the same name and attached
to the district of Pachellepalle, is five miles. Here is a small fort
built by the Dutch, and a rest-house for travellers, both very plea
santly situated. It is the seat of a dense population, with extensive
plots of paddy land diversified with plantations of cocoa-nut and
palmyra trees. Though flat and sandy near the coast, this district
contains some beautiful scenery, and is remarkable for its verdure
and good cultivation. Its forest trees are of the most magnificent
and picturesque variety, and the beautiful scenery of the tropics,
can no where be seen to greater advantage, or less adorned by art.
North-west of Poonaryn stretches the long neck of land along which
the road runs, terminating at Kalmoone point, and forming one of the
entrances into the little inland sea of Jaffna. It is often inundated

CHAP. l.J ILLIPEKADAWE, PALLAWARAIENKATTOE, POONARYN. 511
by the sea. There is a small fort at this place, which commands the
gut. Kalmoone point is 13| miles from Poonaryn, and from thence
across the channel to Jaffnapatam vid Colombotorre, is 6^ miles
The Peninsula of Jaffna1 (Yapana) is situated on a neck of land
at the northern extremity of Ceylon, and directly opposite to Nega-
patam in the southern Carnatic. Its bounds have been implied in
our description of the Northern Province, of which it forms a large
and by far the most populous component, several of its most populous
parishes or sub-divisions shewing an average of nearly 1000 the
square mile, and the whole population can fall little if at all short of
200,000 souls. Its whole length is about thirty-five miles from
north-west to south-east, and its breadth from eight to twenty-five
miles from N.E. to S. W. comprehending an area of 1 220 square miles.
It is divided into four districts, exclusive of the islands, viz. Wada-
marachie, Temnarachie, Pachellepalle and Walligamme, which con
tain thirty-two parishes or sub-divisions, and more than 160 villages.
From its maritime situation, Jaffna escapes the intensely hot
winds, which prevail on the continent, and the climate is therefore on
the whole healthy and less inimical to European constitutions. At
Jaffnapatam the mean daily variation of the temperature is 5°. and
the annual range from 70° to 90o. The soil is generally sandy and
calcareous, resting upon madrepore ; but when manured, it yields abun
dant crops, and altogether its careful cultivation entitles it to the
appellation of the " Ulster" of Ceylon. Paddy is sown in August
and September, and reaped in January and February, and though
the province is not intersected by any rivers or watercourses for
irrigation, yet such is the retentive nature of the soil, that the crops
seldom fail except in the event of a protracted drought, and want
is almost unknown. Of the fine grains, warrego, saamy, kurukkan,
tinisaamy and panisaamy are alone cultivated. Tobacco of a very
superior quality is raised in large but not sufficient quantities, par
ticularly in the district of Pachellepalle, and is transported to the
markets of Colombo, Galle, and Kandy. The cultivation has been
seriously checked from time to time by a mortality among the cattle,
whose manure is absolutely required for the success of the crop : un
der due encouragement it is capable of largely adding to the wealth of
the country. Cotton of a fine quality is also produced in the penin
sula. Jaffna contained till lately very few cocoa-nut plantations, but
1 The Palsesimundi oppidum of the ancients is thought by some to have been
situate in the Jaffna peninsula, but its precise situation remains to be determined.
It is described by the Rachia as being the principal city, and having a capacious
harbour, which would almost induce one to look for it on the north-west coast of
Ceylon. The theory of Forbes, who traces its etymology to the Singhalese words,
Palacia, lower, and Mandhala, province (in which case it might be freely rendered
' low lands') ; in allusion to the general division of the Kandian districts, into
Udacia and Palacia,' upper and lower,' is very ingenious and even suggestive, but
can it legitimately be made to extend to a Malabar province ?

512 CEYLON. [PART IV.
this deficiency was supplied by the abundance of the palmyra-palm,
the fruit and roots of which form a material portion of the diet of
the inhabitants, while the leaves serve as thatch for houses, as a sub
stitute for paper, and for making mats, baskets, winnows, and fans,
and the timber is largely used in building. Cocoa-nut trees are now
being extensively planted in this province, where they flourish ex
tremely well. Areka nuts are produced in different parts of the
province, but not to a degree in proportion to the consumption of the
inhabitants. Jack fruits, mangoes, oranges, pine-apples, pome
granates, guavas, jambos, bananas, anonas (custard apples), and a
variety of other fruits are found in the villages, and grapes are raised
in the town and the various mission stations. Pulse of several sorts,
sweet potatoes, yams, and other indigenous vegetables abound, all of
which are daily brought to the bazaars and exposed for sale. Chaya
roots and indigo grow wild in the several districts, but the first has
alone attracted notice as an article of trade.
Jaffna is well supplied with fish, and chanks are found on the sea-
coast, as well as embedded under ground in different parts. Black
cattle and sheep are found in great numbers, and there are large
herds of goats. The principal manufactures are those of cloth and
jaggery. The descendants of a colony of Senyas who emigrated
from the opposite coast and settled there during the time of the
Dutch, who from fiscal motives encouraged the manufacture, are
chiefly engaged in making cloth, which they have brought to such a
state of perfection that some of their camboys and sarons rival those
of Pulicat in texture and colour. Besides these, are potteries, and
some villages of braziers and gold and silversmiths. Oil is manu
factured at Jaffna from the kernels of the cocoa, punnay and other
nuts, the apparatus for expressing which is very rude, consisting of a
large wooden mortar and lever, which is turned by two bullocks, but
now that European capital has begun to find its way into the
peninsula, a more effective mode will doubtless be applied.
The export trade of Jaffna to ports beyond Ceylon, consists of
tobacco, palmyra timber, jaggery, chillies, onions, winnows, brass,
pots, &c, and the imports are cloths, cotton thread, iron, paddy,
rice, curry seeds, medical drugs and earthenware.
The inhabitants are with few exceptions Tamulians, and are in
general industrious, active, and enterprising ; but are by no means
remarkable for their freedom from licentiousness and crime, and the
peninsula has acquired a notoriety for its murders, highway
robberies, ear cutting, and other atrocious offences.
In former times, this part of Ceylon was particularly famed as the
seat of Tamul literature, but latterly learning has sadly declined even
among the Brahmins. The greater portion of the inhabitants were
once Roman Catholics, but afterwards conformed to the Protestant
faith, under the Dutch they had a church and school in each parish,
but since the downfall of that power, they have relapsed into

CHAP. I.J EARLY SETTLEMENT OF JAFFNA. 513
Hindooism, and adhere to all the superstitious characteristics of the
Siva creed, for the celebration of whose mysteries there are more than
300 temples.
Little positive information of the ancient history of this interesting
• portion of Ceylon exists, all that can be collected from the traditions
of the natives is that in ages past it was a complete desert, but that
it fell into the hands of .a blind adventurer from the Coromandel
coast named Vira Raghava (who was a yalpanen, or lyrist by pro
fession), as a gift from an ancient king of Ceylon on account
of his wonderful power on the lyre, and that he had it cleared
of jungle, when it was subsequently colonised from the southern
provinces of India, which were then independent of the Telinga
empire of Vijaianagger. After the province became peopled, its
founder called it after his name, Talpana Nadoo, the country of the
lyrist (which has since been corrupted into Yapana or Jaffna), and
some time afterwards formed it into a kingdom. Sensible, however,
of his own ineligibility, he went to Coromandel, and brought over
a prince of the race of Solen, whom he crowned king in the year
3000 of Kali yug. (101. B.C.) and to him he transferred his right to
the soil. This king was unfortunately crippled in one of his arms,
hence he was styled Visaya Koolaugai Chakkrawarti, but he was
nevertheless distinguished for the attention he paid to the improve
ment of the country. His descendants reigned in the peninsula
under the title of Ariya Chakkrawarties, and carried on frequent
hostilities with the Singhalese.
In 1410 a.d., however, the Chakkrawarti is said to have been
overthrown1 and deposed by Prackramabahoo, who once more reduced
the kingdom of Jaffna under the Singhalese yoke, and raised one of
1 The remarkable political feature that can hardly fail to arrest the attention of
the intelligent reader in connection with Singhalese history, is the absence of
attractive power in the policy and operations of the Supreme Government, This
observation is indeed applicable in some degree to all Eastern governments, but
its truth is nowhere more manifest than in Ceylon. Whether it is to beascribed to
the indolence of the monarch, in whose mind his own individual pleasure was the
sole governing motive of life, or whether to the conventionalities of court etiquette
from which a deviation was almost unknown, the effect was one and the same ;
and except that the Emperor might chance to have ' ' a more splendid trough and
wider sty" than the nominally subordinate, but practically independent chiefs, one
would be almost justified in inquiring in what consisted the proofs of imperial
power. It might have been expected, that when the capital of Ceylon lay in the
centre of its northern half, a monarch, if not ambitious enough to aim at the un
divided dominion of an island, barely large enough to place it in the rank of a
second rate power, would have been led to assert his supremacy over a portion
of territory almost within sight of the seat of his rule ; yet the absence of any
mention of a continuous authority, and the fact that the Malabar invader when
expelled from the Singhalese territories, found here an undisturbed resting place,
will shew that such a conclusion cannot rightly be inferred. It will perhaps
occur to some readers, that this indifference on the part of the Singhalese
monarchs, may have arisen from other than political causes, such as the isolated
position of the peninsula ; and the circumstance that all communication with the
continent was held either through Manaar or Kotti-aar. 2 L

514 CEYLON. [PART IV.
his own nephews to the throne. His dynasty would nevertheless
appear to have been but of short duration, for we find that when the
Portuguese arrived on the island, Jaffna was governed by its native
sovereign, with whom they carried on a desultory war for several
years, till he was finally vanquished in 1591, and the whole peninsula
acknowledged their supremacy. Jaffna was taken possession of by
the Dutch in 1600, and capitulated to the British in 1795.
Jaffnapatam (Yapana patnam), the chief town of the peninsula, is
situated in 9° 47' N. lat. and 80° 9' E. long, is 296 miles south-west
of Madras, and 215 north of Colombo. It possesses a large fort,
built in the form of a pentagon, with five bastions, surrounded by a
broad moat and extensive glacis ; within its walls is a church in the
form of a Greek cross, built by the Dutch, and now used by the
English (service being performed by a Church Missionary), the
house of the Commandant, soldiers' barracks, and some other good
buildings. In the time of the Dutch it was the residence of a
" Commander," who was the second officer of rank in the service of
the East India Company in Ceylon. Under him was a Dissave
appointed in 1661, who was expected to spend six months of the
year in the Wanny. The government house is now used as a police
court. At the distance of half a mile to the eastward stands the
Pettah, which contains several broad parallel streets, intersected by
smaller ones, and is in great measure free from the noxious exhala
tions for which similar localities are elsewhere notorious. Verandahs
are attached to most of the houses. The houses are mostly built of
brick, with delightful gardens abounding with the choicest native
and exotic fruits, and some of them are shaded in front by trees.
During the time of the Dutch, the majority of the inhabitants of the
Pettah consisted of that people ; but, since the British co»quest,
many have emigrated to Batavia, or settled in other parts of the
island. There still remains a very respectable body of the descen
dants of both Dutch and Portuguese, and many of the former have
within late years been induced to settle here in consequence of the
cheapness and abundance of the necessaries of life. The principal
constituents of the population are Moormen or Hindoos, and the
coasting trade, consisting of the import of cotton manufactures, is
carried on through the intervention of Chitties, who are the bill
discounters and money changers of Ceylon. The Cutcherry is in the
Pettah. The bazaar at Jaffnapatam is abundantly supplied with the
necessaries of life at a cheap rate, and always wears a busy ap
pearance. The Roman Catholics have their chapels, and the Church of St.
John belongs to the Tamul Protestants, in which the Tamul Colonial
Chaplain officiates. At Wannapanne, a village in the vicinity, the
Hindoos have a large temple, called Kanda Swamy, which far
exceeds all the rest in the province, both in grandeur and magnifi
cence. It was endowed by Wyti Linga Chetty upwards of fifty
years ago, and has a band of dancing girls attached to it. It is

CHAP. I.J JAFFNAPATAM— THE DISTRICT OF WALLIGAMME. 515
ornamented with an accumulation of small towers, and enclosed by a
wall having a large gateway. Among the institutions of Jaffna, the
Friend in Need Society, established in 1841, is one of the most useful.
Jaffnapatam is not accessible to vessels of any considerable size,
owing to the shallowness of the water, but they unload their cargo at
Kayts, and they are conveyed from thence to the town in small boats.
Jaffnapatam is the seat of the Government agent for the northern
province, the district judge, fiscal, and police magistrate, all of
which offices are, with one exception, filled by gentlemen of the civil
service. The principal parishes of the peninsula are, Wannapane, Kopaay,
Poottoor, Atchuwelle, Majlitte, Tellipalle, Pandaterripoe, Mallagam,
Oodooville, Sangane, Manipay, Batticotta, (Vattukotte), Nellore,
all in the province of Walligamme.
Wannapane has part of the town of Jaffnapatam within its limits.
Its population exceeds 7000. Kopaay abounds with paddy, fine
grain, and in almost every sort of fruit trees. The population is
about 5550, and there is an extensive pottery. Poottoor has been
much improved of late by the new roads which radiate from it.
There ^s a venerable old church at this place, built by the Dutch.
The population is little short of 4000. Atchuwelle is extremely
fertile, and on the whole well cultivated, while the woods abound
with hares, deer and wild boars. The number of inhabitants is
about 2400, and a portion of them lead a strolling life, and gain a
livelihood by fortune telling. Majlitte formerly boasted of a
splendid church and parsonage built by the Portuguese. The soil of
this parish being composed of a whitish clay, yields but inferior
crops of paddy, but this defect is compensated by the great quantity
of fine grain, yams and tobacco, it produces. The population
amounts to 3550. At Navakeery, near Majlitte, is a very extraor
dinary well, 24 fathoms deep, and 1 65 in circumference. Of the
twenty-four fathoms, fourteen are quite fresh, but at sixteen, the
water is salt with a nauseous sulphury smell. It is thought to have
some subterraneous communication with the sea at Keerimale, and
the rise and fall of the tide in the well is about six inches in twenty-
four hours. Pandaterippoe had formerly a magnificent church,
which has been repaired by the American missionaries, and formed
into a mission station. The inhabitants who^ are nearly 3800 in
number, are principally Romanists. Tillipalle is one of the best
cultivated parishes in the district, abounding in all sorts of fruits,
areka nuts and grain. The American Missionaries have established
schools and repaired the old Dutch Church. The population amounts
to 5580. At Mavitapuram, in this parish, is a large temple sacred
to Skanda, and said to have been originally founded by a princess
from the Coromandel coast, who having been born with a horse face,
here got rid of it, hence the name. Mallagam has a red soil, and
produces abundant crops of fine grains, yams, sweet potatoes and
•'• 2 L 2

516 CEYLON. [PART IV.
tobacco, but no paddy. It has a daily market and court house, is
famed for its breed of black cattle and sheep, and the population is
about 5000, Oodooville is one of the stations of the American
mission. Sangane has a population of 4500, and has a daily market.
Manipay contains many Hindoo temples, and is the station of an
American missionary. The population exceeds 8000. Batticotta
is situated near the coast ; the soil is in general arid, but remark
ably fertile, and yields abundant crops of paddy and fine grain.
The palmyra grows everywhere, and is often interspersed with mango
trees. This village is chiefly remarkable for the Collegiate Institu
tion established by the American Missionaries, who have made it
their central station. The population amounts to 7250. The
Brahmin Viswanatha Sastro, Malabar Almanack maker, resided in
this parish ; Sir A. Johnston being much pleased with his intelli
gence, procured for him from George the IVth, the honorary dis
tinction of '' Almanack Maker to his Majesty," the intelligence of
which nearly turned his brain. Nellore is supposed to have been
the seat of the Chakkrawarties. In the neighbourhood, there is a
large Hindoo temple sacred to Skanda or Kanda Swamy, said to
have been founded by the first Chakkrawarti centuries ago. It is in
great repute among the natives, and the annual festival attracts
thither a vast concourse of people from distant parts. This village
is the principal Church Missionary station in the peninsula, and
they have a church, school, and printing press in operation. The
population, which consists of agriculturists, mechanics and traders,
reaches 5600.
Warenie, Navakoolie, Eludumatwal, are the principal parishes
in the district of Tenmarachie. Warenie produces little else but
cocoa nuts, palmyra, areka nuts, plantain and cashew trees, as
the soil is too sandy for paddy. The population amounts to
5580. Navakoolie on the other hand yields large quantities of
paddy. The population is about 4000. Eludumatwal produces
large crops of paddy and fine grain, and the weekly market attracts
a large assemblage of people. The population is about 3000.
Katchay, Mogamalle, Tambagamme, Plopallie, Chavagacherry, are
the principal parishes in the Pachellepalle district. Katchay is situated
on the singular lake extending from Jaffnapatam to Moelletivoe. It
comprehends a well cultivated tract diversified with jungle, and its
population amounts to 3000 . Mogamalle is productive, though its soil
is sandy, and yields a plentiful crop of paddy, it has a market weekly,
and the population is 1230. At Tambagamme, the population is in
considerable, and the country is little cultivated, but there are a few
paddy fields and palmyra groves. Klaly on the high road between
Jaffnapatam and Trincomalee, is noted for a Roman Catholic church
dedicated to St. James the Greater, which attracts a great number
of pilgrims from different parts of the island. So debased and
grovelling is Romish superstition in Ceylon, that the image of the
saint is annually set on a car and drawn along the streets in the same

CHAP. I.] TENMARACHIE, PACHELLEPALLE, AND WADAMARACHIE. 517
manner as the Hindoos parade their idol at Ramisseram. At Plopallie,
the soil is light and sandy, but well adapted to the palmyra. The
forests in the neighbourhood produce the wood called Jagers-wood,
and it was exported in the time of the Dutch to the Coromandel
coast. The population is abuut 800. Chavagacherry lies near a
salt creek, is the station of a district judge, and an American Mis
sionary, and is a large and populous parish. It is chiefly remark
able for the Bischuter or Elephant Pass, along which the road from
Jaffna to Trincomalee passes. This pass was fortified and guarded
by the Dutch, as also that of Pass Pyl to the eastward, but the
fortifications were subsequently demolished. At Kaythady, a village
in this parish, is a large temple sacred to Pulleyar or Ganesa. The
idol is placed on a magnificent car on the sixth day of the moon, at
the festival in May.
Kattawelle, Point Pedro, &c. are the principal parishes in the
Wadamarachie district. Kattawelle under the Dutch had a large
church. This parish is extensive and populous, numbering 11,450
inhabitants. Point Pedro is not, as is commonly supposed, the
northernmost point in Ceylon, it being two miles distant. It is called
by the natives Parettitorre or Cotton harbour, from the great quan
tity of cotton formerly produced here, and by the Portuguese was
named Punto das Pedras, or rocky point. The village stands in
9° 48' N. lat. and 80° 25' E. long. It is about twenty-one miles
north-east of Jaffnapatam, and possesses a small but commodious
harbour, where vessels find a safe anchorage. There is a passage
for boats up the river, which is very intricate and terminates a few
miles to the west of Point Pedro at Tondeman-aar, where it is com
manded by a small fort, now ungarrisoned. The overland route to
Point Pedro lies through Kopaay, and along a low country devoted
to sheep pasturage as far as Atchuwelle ; some plants are to be
found in this neighbourhood that are met with nowhere else in
the island. Trincomalee may be reached by a dhoney from
Point Pedro in a few hours during the north-east monsoon. The
direct overland route from Jaffnapatam to Trincomalee is across the
ferry at Navakoolie through Katchay. For a low champagne
country the road is tolerably good as far as Mullativoe, fifty-nine
miles. So little, however, was this district resorted to by travellers,
that there were till lately no appointed rest-houses, but the post-
holders at the several stages were required to provide every necessary
at a price fixed by the Government agent of the province. There is a
small custom house established at Point Pedro, and it is the station of
a police magistrate. A considerable trade is carried on with the Coro
mandel coast in palmyra timber, in return for which are imported
grain, cloth, &c. The Dutch had a large church here, and their school
numbered 1000 children, but the religion of Siva has again regained its
former position. The Wesleyans and Roman Catholics have, how
ever, occupied this post. The population of the parish is about 9000.
Karadive or Karetivoe (Amsterdam), is an island to the west of

518 CEYLON. [PART IV.
Jaffna in 80<> 1' E. long. It is about five miles long and two broad,
and contains upwards of 5500 inhabitants, who maintain themselves
by agricultural and pastoral pursuits, and the fishery. It is divided
into three parts, in each of which is a temple built of coral and
chunam. The arm of the sea which separates it from Jaffna, is
very shallow, and fordable at all times, except during the north-east
monsoon. The soil is sandy, but produces paddy, cocoa nuts,
palmyra, jack, mangoes and illipe nuts, from which an oil is extracted.
The island is noted for its chaya root. Chanks are found in great
abundance along the coast, but the fishery has for some years been
abandoned. There are still to be seen the ruins of an old Dutch
church. Mandetivoe (Leyden1), divided into the three parishes of Kayts,
Welane, and Allepitty, has a large breed of cattle and goats, and
produces paddy, cocoa nuts, and the palmyra. It lies directly oppo
site Batticotta, and contains nearly 5000 inhabitants ; Kayts, the
principal village and sea-port in the parish of the same name, is
situated at the extreme end of a harbour, which is formed by an
opening about a half a mile broad between Karadive and Leyden,
connecting the lake of Jaffna with the sea. Its Singhalese name
was "Ooratotte," or hog ferry, which originated in a fabulous story
of Sakreya (who was metamorphosed into an enormous hog), having
swum across from the Coromandel coast and effected a landing at
this place. Kayts is the Leith of Jaffnapatam, its harbour affords
safe anchorage for shipping at all seasons of the year, and is much
frequented by country craft and small vessels. There may still be
seen the remains of a fort, Cangienture, erected by the Dutch to
command the entrance of this harbour, and by a cross fire with the
guns of Hammanheil to check the advance of an invading enemy.
The village is not extensive, but there is a small church belonging to
the Roman Catholics, and a court house. There are very few cocoa
nuts in the village, but an abundance of the palmyra, the timber of
which is exported to the continent. The greater part of the inha
bitants are fishermen. Fish is exceedingly plentiful, and there was
formerly a depot for chanks here. From Baldseus's account of Jaffna
it would appear that Kayts was in former times subject to inunda
tions, and in 1658 many of the inhabitants and cattle were carried
away and perished.
1 There have been no slight confusion and misapprehension, both as regards
the names, position, and identity of this group of islands, and several errors have
in consequence occurred. In the several maps of this part of Ceylon that have
from time to time appeared, the authors, who have been mere copyists, adopted
the involuntary error of the Dutch original. Suspecting as much, I obtained a
sight of that document, and discovered the source from whence the first and
subsequent mistakes sprung. The natives of these islands are the handsomest,
finest limbed, and most athletic of the whole Tamul population of Ceylon, nurtured
under the invigorating influence of the sea breeze, they are capable of the greatest
exertion, and the isolation of their marine abode, retains their minds in all the
purity of primeval nature.

CHAP. I.J DESCRIPTION. OF THE ISLES OFF THE N.W. COAST. 519
Hammanheil is a rock in the harbour of Kayts at the distance of a
few hundred yards from the shore. The fort is entirely built of coral
stone, has a reservoir for water, and was formerly occupied as a state
prison. Welane is the most populous and fertile of the three
parishes, and exports a considerable quantity of its produce to
Jaffna. The soil of Allaputty (Allepitty), the southern parish is loose and
sandy, and yields only a very small proportion of paddy, but the
palmyra everywhere abounds. The inhabitants are Malabars and
followers of Siva. Fish is caught plentifully on the coast, and, when
dried, is exported to Jaffna.
Poengertivoe or Punguditivoe (Middleburgh) lies to the south
west of Jaffna, is about ten miles in circumference, and contains 2550
inhabitants. Fish and oysters are caught in great plenty, and afford
employment to the greater part of the population, as the soil is too
rocky to be worked. Goats abound in the island, and their milk is
generally curdled and exported in the form of ghee. There was
formerly a Protestant church and school here, but they have long
ceased to exist.
Paletivoe and Kakeritivoe are two small islands, a few miles to the
south of Calmoone point.
Nayntivoe (Haarlem), is about four miles in circumference, and
chiefly inhabited by a class of Vellalas who now pass for Brahmins,
as their progenitors assumed the sacerdotal habit for the purpose of
exemption from the forced labour required by the Dutch. In the
time of Baldseus, the whole of these pretended Brahmins had become
Christians, and had a small church, of which no vestige now remains.
The island is partially cultivated, but does not contain more than
500 inhabitants. There is a small Hindoo temple, sacred to Naga
Tambiram or the god of serpents, in which are a number of cobra
capellas that are daily fed by the Pandarams.
Analativoe (Rotterdam), was formerly known by the name of
Donna Clara, from a lady of that name, who was mistress of the soil
iu the time of the Portuguese. It contains upwards of a thousand
inhabitants, but the increase has been checked by the ravages of the
cholera. The soil is sandy, but productive in palmyra trees, plan
tains, and cotton which is largely cultivated.
Nedoentivoe (Delft), is about eight miles long by three broad, and
is entirely surrounded by a large coral reef. In the old charts it was
called Ilha das Vaccas (Cows Island). The north and west sides
are inhabited, and the remainder is Government property. There
was formerly a great scarcity of water, and the Dutch had about 400
wells dug through a body of solid rock at the south side to obtain a
good supply. Delft possesses no natural harbour, but a small and
secure one was formed on the north by blasting through the coral
reef. A fort was erected by the Dutch on a small esplanade close to
the sea, but it no longer exists. During the time of the Dutch this
island was appropriated by them to the breeding of horses. A num-

520 CEYLON. [PART IV.
ber of fine Arabian mares were introduced and crossed with the horses
that had been brought thither by the Portuguese, and the extensive
stud thus produced, was disposed'of from time to time on the continent.
A grant of the island was made in 1803 to Colonel Barbut, who had
made arrangements for carrying on the establishment on a large scale,
but his premature death interrupted the fulfilment of his plans, and
the island reverted to Government. The stud was for some time main
tained by the British, but owing to mismanagement it ceased to be
profitable, though some very useful, spirited, and well framed horses,
for which there was a good demand, were reared from it. In their
place a number of cattle have been introduced, and have been crossed
with a fine breed imported from Surat. Hemp flourishes here, and
it is said wheat.
Returning to Ceylon— Southward of the Peninsula, to which it
was attached as a parish is, the Karetchypattoo, bordering on the
Wanny, and containing about 1 200 inhabitants. Paddy is sown here
in September and October, and reaped in February and March.
The cultivation of fine grain is much neglected, and the produce is at
present insignificant.
The country of the Wanny is separated on the north by Jaffna,
and the territory attached to it ; on the east by the sea, the Tenna
marre waddie, and Kattoecolompattoo, on the west by the Gulf of
Manaar, and on the south by Nuwera Kalawa. Geographically, it
may be divided into three parts, the districts on the coast, which
were occupied by the Dutch, the northern interior districts also in
their power, and the southern interior districts, which went to form
what was called the Kandian Wanny. The maximum length of the
country is about sixty-five miles, and the maximum breadth about
fifty miles.
The meaning of the word " Wanny" is " burning hot," and proba
bly there is no portion of the east to which the appellation may be
more strictly applied. Thus when the thermometer at Jaffnapatam
is from 80° to 85° it is at least ten degrees higher in the Wanny.
This intense heat may be ascribed to three causes, the density of the
jungle, the mineral if not volcanic nature of the soil, the level
character of the country, and the absence of the refreshing sea-breeze.
The Wanny was formerly divided into several independent prin
cipalities, over each of which a Malabar prince or princess under the
title of Wanniya or Waninchi presided. The population is then
supposed to have been dense, and its subsequent diminution can
only be accounted for by the intestine quarrels of the chiefs which
led to a neglect of the repairs of the tanks. This superadded to
droughts of sometimes three years in succession, the devastations of
wild beasts, and the indolence of the people, hastened the abandon
ment of the country, and a cultivation of the mere surface included
within the tanks by the demoralised remnant of the inhabitants.
The Dutch Landrost of the Wanny would seem rather to attribute
the depopulation to volcanic agency ; but however it may have par-

CHAP. I.J THE COUNTRY OF THE WANNY — ITS EARLY HISTORY. 521
tially contributed to this desolation, it is impossible to trace it
entirely to that source.
Under the Portuguese the Wanny was governed by a resident, but
we are unable to discover any traces of their rule. Soon after the
Dutch became masters of Jaffna, they restored the Wanniyas1 to their
authority, but exacted from them a tribute in elephants. Subse
quently, when their power had become consolidated in Ceylon, they
discovered that a road through the Wanny from Manaar to Moelletivoe
and Trincomalee was indispensable for their security and the com
munication with Negapatam. Hence when the stipulated tribute had
been withheld, they invaded the territory of the Wanniyas, which
they ultimately subjected to their authority, and making Sembatte,
chief of the Waninchis, a prisoner, banished her to Colombo.
The Dutch Landrost found the people in a most demoralized
state, and they would ere long have become on a par with the
Veddahs, their neighbours on the south-east. No coin was to be
found in the country, and every one had to be paid in paddy. The
dead they buried at so little depth, that the jackalls came and
devoured their remains ; the people were too idle to dig wells, and
drank the filthy water found in holes. No more paddy was grown
than was absolutely required for the support of their families, and the
export of butter to Jaffna and Trincomalee in return for cloth and
iron had nearly ceased : he now devoted his whole energies to the im
provement of the territory and its people. To the native Modeliars he
left the trial of petty disputes with a right of appeal to himself, and
by a happy blending of kindness and severity, worked a rapid change
in their social condition ; he procured by forced labour three times
the number of elephants which had been annually paid as tribute by
the Wanniyas ; and the tithe of the paddy crop, which had scarcely
exceeded 10,000 parrahs in 1784, he raised to 28,456 parrahs in
1790, and 35,962 in 1791, so that the total crop in the last year fell
little short of 400,000 parrahs or 1 7,600,000 lbs. of rice ; the popu
lation of the country began to increase, and it promised eventually to
become the granary of the eastern coast. The scarcity of money
1 The state of the Wanny under its native chieftains is described as follows by
the Landrost. On the restoration of the Wanniyas, bands of vagabonds, male
factors, and runaway slaves flocked to the Wanny and found shelter among the
headmen. The Wanniyas elated with their new power, oppressed the people,
plundered travellers, would no longer obey the orders of the Jaffna authorities,
and so despotic was their rule, that if a man coveted the wife of another, she
could be purchased of a Wanniya, under the plea that she desired two husbands.
None dare display jewellery or any articles of value for fear of being robbed by
the bravoes of the Wanniya, who had the titles of adigaars, canganies, and
odyars. The cultivators becoming weary of oppression, deserted the country in
numbers. Finally, the Wanniyas quarrelled with each other. Governor Schreuder
having declared one of them an outlaw, the chief hung olas to the trees, on which
was inscribed a retaliatory proclamation. Finally the Wanniyas rose in rebel
lion, blocked up all the paths, but were at length dispersed, and ultimately
settled down in 1784, and became peaceable subjects.

522 CEYLON. [part IV.
alone prevented the repair of the tanks, and thereby the restoration
of the country to its former fertility.
When the English took possession of the country in 1795, it
enjoyed tranquillity for some years, until in 1803, when Pandara
Wanniya, said to have been one of the original Wanniyas deposed by
the Dutch, raised a formidable insurrection against the British
Government, and being assisted by the Kandians, with whom we
were then at war, soon overran all the northern districts, and had
the boldness to penetrate as far as Elephant's Pass into the peninsula
of Jaffna. His object was to restore the independence of the Wanny,
and render himself head of all its principalities, but though daring
and active, the force under his command was unable to cope with
regular troops, and was only fitted for guerilla warfare. After several
unsuccessful attempts to discover his retreats, made from the different
posts, he was finally surprised, his troops killed or dispersed, the
country was cleared of the rebels, and tranquillity was restored.
The change of masters brought no advantage to the people of
the Wanny. Under the Dutch the headmen were prevented from
oppressing the people, as it was the interest of the Government to
develop the resources of the country. The British, ignorant of its
capabilities, totally neglected it. The headmen became very exactious,
and obtained more than they had a right to demand. The Modeliars
too, collected more than was required for Government dues, and kept
the remainder for themselves, which they resold to the people at an
extravagant price for seed. This and a series of other vexations,
such as delay in the issue of seed, soon drove numbers of husband
men away, and after a long drought, numbers betook themselves to
the jungle.
Captain Schneider recommended the formation of a granary in
the middle of the country as a dep6t for seed paddy, which would in
that case be well dried ; and that a person should be appointed to
supervise the whole alterations, both the repair of tanks, and the
renewed cultivation, so as to settle all disputes that might arise.
The Kandian war, however, soon broke out afresh, and the matter was
indefinitely postponed. Nearly the whole of the Wanny is low,
exhibiting a variegated expanse of forest and jungle, and now and
then a few paddy fields in a state of culture. In consequence of its
liability to droughts, hurricanes and heavy rains, the inhabitants will
be deterred from carrying on the cultivation of paddy to any extent,
until the tanks are repaired. At present they have two crops, one
in the winter, and another in summer, and the paddy sown by them
takes from three to six months to attain maturity. The second crop
consists of natchene and warrego which require no water. The
chief food of the people is rice, butter and milk, with the banana and
other fruits. The Wanny produces a vast number of rare medicinal
plants, herbs, and roots, one called the Wannia Doctoral has been
efficaciously applied in certain disorders.
The staple products of the country are elephant tusks, cattle, deer,

CHAP. I.J LATER HISTORY OF THE WANNY — ITS DIVISIONS. 523
wax, honey, milk, ghee and cocoa nuts, in exchange for which they
receive cloth, salt, and salt fish. A spirit called Wallenpattoe, very
strong, but of a disagreeable odour, is distilled here. In consequence
of the wild state of the country, the people are exposed to a compli
cation of visitations in addition to those previously mentioned.
Thus they have to be constantly on the watch against wild animals,
and the number of elephants infesting the country is prodigious. A
wholesale extermination of this useless animal is now, however, being
carried on, and as the people are well armed, and are further stimu
lated by rewards, to extirpate the intruder, it is to be hoped that
object will shortly be attained. The population of the Wanny,
including therein its three divisions, does not perhaps exceed 30,000
in number ; that of what may be termed the Wanny proper was
16,000 in 1785.
The soil of the Wanny is of three kinds, rich, sandy, and mixed
earth. The greater part is clay, which cannot be worked in dry
weather, but yields the finest paddy. The soil of mixed clay and of
reddish earth produces first rate tobacco and cotton, and is well
adapted for fruit trees ; on that mixed with clay and sand, the pal
myra and cocoa nut thrive. The water generally contains mineral
properties, and a stranger at once throws out any humours he may
before have had in his system. Great quantities of burnt1 or melted
lava and metal ore is found thrown up on the surface in heaps at various
places from Kanya on the east to Nanaatan on the west, and more or
less from Nuwera Kalawa to Jaffna.
The Wanny2 is divided as follows. The western maritime districts
of Karetchypattoo, Poonaryn, Pallawaraienkattoe, Illippekadewe and
Wirteltivoe have been already described, and the eastern districts
will be described in their turn. The district of Chitty-colom is
divided into two parts ; one of which is called Nadoe Chitty-colom,
and contains ninety villages and an equal number of tanks, of which
upwards of fifty are broken down and useless. To bring these into a
state of repair, would cost in actual outlay £1,734, according to the
estimate of Captain Schneider, then Colonial Engineer. At that
time (1808) compulsory labour was in full force, and its cost was
1 In Padre Argensola's history of the discovery and conquest of the spice
islands, it is mentioned that springs of liquid bitumen thicker than oil had been
found in Ceylon, and that the mountains occasionally blazed and cast up clouds
of brimstone among the crags of the hills. This statement is doubtless exag
gerated. Little reliance can be placed on the veracity of the Portuguese writers
of that day, still less on the natives from whom they derived their information,
and who would be sure to heighten the importance of such a phenomenon ; the
presence of sulphur in Ceylon and the traditions of the natives, nevertheless
certainly strengthen the belief of subterrane inflammability.
2 I may cursorily observe that the condottori used by the Romans in the con
struction of the tanks of Italy, the principle of which I suspect they borrowed
either from India or Ceylon, are to be seen in many parts of the Wanny. This
subject will however be entered on in the consideration of the tanks of the Eastern
province.

524 CEYLON. [PART IV.
not taken into consideration in forming the estimate. As, however,
the Wanny tanks are small and easy of repair, there cannot be a
doubt that the people would cheerfully acquiesce in a general labour
assessment, if it were only to save the amount with which they would
be otherwise charged for that head. I shall therefore in great
measure exclude the cost of labour, and it will be only skilled labour
and materials which will be included in the various estimates. _ In
return for the outlay above mentioned, the Government might
calculate on a return of 4500 parrahs of paddy at the ^ duty. In
this province, at the village of Erilpericolom, there is a tank formed
and joined together by pieces of rock which stand there ; there is
also a drain and cistern, built of hewn stones. In 1 780, a number
of Singhalese families came from the south, and with the permission
of the Wanniya, rebuilt this tank at their own expense, and for
eighteen years about thirty families remained there and cultivated
the land, but in 1800 the tank broke down in two places, where the
rocks were joined by earthen dams ; and, as they could not them
selves repair the damage, they forsook the place. The fields
belonging to this village could be sown twice a year, as the tank holds
a large supply of water.
The other part of this district called Sinne Chitty-colom contains
7 1 villages, and as many tanks, of which forty-seven are broken
down, to repair the whole of these would cost 362,458., and the duty
in return would bring in 4000 parrahs of paddy. In this district,
a considerable quantity of tobacco was formerly cultivated, and was
watered from the tanks, but the scarcity of water and the poverty of
the people has led to its abandonment. A few descendants of the
Portuguese, distinguishable from the natives by their stature, features,
and colour, but not by their dress, nor even, according to one
authority, by their religion, reside in this district which was formerly
therefore called Parengei Chitty-colom. Parengei signifying European.
The district Pannengammo is divided into six parts, viz. Pannen
gammo Poerivoe, which contains 84 villages and as many tanks, of
which 79 are broken down, the repair of the whole would costal, 735.,
after which they would yield a revenue of 6300 parrahs of paddy,
per annum. The village of Pannengammo which is twenty miles east
of Vertativoe, was formerly the residence of a Wannichy. It produces
a considerable quantity of paddy, and has large tamarind and cocoa
nut groves. Some remarkable ruins of a temple, the stones of which
are of a square cut, and connected together without the assistance of
mortar, thereby indicating the style of a very remote era, are
found at a short distance from the village. Toenoeka Poerivoe, con
tains 33 villages and tanks, of which 17 are broken down, to
repair the whole would cost £1,457-, and they would then return a
tithe of 5800 parrahs of paddy, per annum. Meerkoe Moelle has 47
villages and tanks, of which 36 are broken down, the repair of them
would cost a£605. for which would be returned a tithe of 2150
parrahs of paddy per annum, Kelekoe Moelle Tekoe Poerivoe has 70

CHAP.I.J REPAIR OF THE WANNY TANKS — ESTIMATE OF THE COST. 525
villages and tanks, of which 34 are broken down, to repair the whole
would cost 36688. and the tithe would yield 3300 parrahs of
paddy ; Kelekoe Moelle Waddekoe Poerivoe has 59 villages and the
same number of tanks, of which 20 are broken down, to bring all
into repair, would cost 36857. and the tithe would yield 2650 parrahs
of paddy ; Oedeaar Oer has 79 villages and tanks, of which 51
are broken down to repair the whole would cost about sS1285. and
the tenth would yield 6150 parrahs of paddy. Tobacco was formerly
cultivated in this province.
The district of Meelpattoe or Mullipatto is divided into three parts,
Kelekoe Poerivoe, which has 36 villages and tanks, of which 13 are
broken down, the repair of which would cost 36321. yielding an
annual revenue of 1275 parrahs of paddy; Tekoe Poerivoe has 31
villages and tanks, of which 19 are broken down, the whole with the
exception of two would cost 36223. and yield a tenth of 1350 parrahs
of paddy ; Waddekoe Poerivoe has 28 villages and 27 tanks, three of
which are broken, the whole may be repaired for 36215. and would
then yield 1780 parrahs. Tobacco was formerly grown in this dis
trict. Annatewamadoo is the principal village in this district, and
possesses a rest-house, being on the high road between Vertativo and
Trincomalee. It is situated on an extensive plain, bordered by a
variety of beautiful trees and shrubs. The paddy fields are here well
cultivated. The district of Moelliawalle or Mulliwaile has but three tanks, all
of which are broken, the repairs would cost 3634. and would produce
950 parrahs of paddy as tenth. In this district are good gardens
planted with palmyra,. cocoa nut and jack trees, also with the pepper
vine which thrives well. There is here a large quantity of excellent
waste land. Tobacco is grown, and watered from the wells which
are dug from time to time.
The district of Poedoekoedyirpoe has six tanks, of which two are
broken down, and their repair would cost 3638. This district con
tains also about 750 marcals of ground in cultivated fields, which
could be watered from the above tanks, and 1253 marcals of fields,
which are sown in the rainy season, from the whole there would be
a tithe of 1700 parrahs of paddy. Palmyra and cocoa nut trees
flourish here, and tobacco is also grown.
The district of Karnavelpattoe is divided into Tekoe Poerivoe,
with 49 villages, and the same number of tanks, of which 32
are broken down; to repair the whole would cost 36576., in return
for which Government would receive 3,900 parrahs of paddy.
Tobacco formerly flourished here ; Waddekoe Poerivoe, with sixteen
villages, eight of which only have tanks, seven of these are broken ;
to repair the whole would cost about 36200. The other villages sow
their fields in the rainy season, and if all the fields were to be sown,
the tithe would produce 4,700 parrahs of paddy. Tobacco was for
merly grown here in great abundance, and watered from wells, but

526 CEYLON. [part- IV.
from the want of cattle to manure the ground, the cultivation has
decreased. The population consists of Vellalas, Karreyas, and
Chandas. The cost then of the repair of all the Wanny tanks, with the aid
of the free labour of the natives interested therein, would certainly
not exceed 3620,000, and if we were to accept Captain Schneiders'
estimate, would not exceed 3614,000. If all the cultivated fields,
which contain about 70,475 marcals, or 37,500 parrahs of paddy,
were sown, the tenth to Government would be 60,000 parrahs of
paddy. The inhabitants did at one time combine together in one
district to repair a certain number of tanks, but the work was too
much for them. The prosperity of a country, whose capabilities
are so great, would soon return, in case of the repair of the tanks,
and the people would return also. The tanks were originally strongly
made, but they have not been kept up well. They were dammed off
on two sides to contain the water descending from the highlands in
the rainy monsoon : the dams were formed of earth, and laid on the
lowest side of the ground, or where there was a slope : the thickness
of the dam was in proportion to the height, and the height to the
size of the tank. The fields next to or on the lower side of the dam
are cultivated, whereby the water can with ease be led into the fields
by laving it out of the tank. The state of these tanks ought to be
looked to every year, as was formerly the case, when tank makers
came annually from Jaffna for the purpose, the cost was then trifling.
The causes of the decay of the tanks are thus given. (1st.) The
dams should be clean, free from jungle, or the repair is impeded ;
moreover in stormy weather the roots of the shrubs loosen the earth,
through the pores of which thus loosened, the water finds its way,
and at last completes a breach. (2nd.) The headmen should take
care that every tank have its proper channel, and that they be formed
where they are wanting, and that the dams may not be cut to carry
water to the fields, as the loose earth placed to fill up the gap is car
ried away in the rainy season. The channels formerly were formed
of hollow trees. (3rd.) Every tank should have a place for the
superfluous water to run out, but it must be of such a height as to
leave a sufficiency of water in the tank. (4th .) An open way must
be left for cattle at a place where the dam is low, in order that the
cattle may drink there. (5th.) The repairs are not sufficiently
durable, the earth should be stamped down.
The roads opened through the Wanny are as yet mere tracks,
which were chiefly undertaken by the Dutch. Rest houses were for
merly attached to the principal routes, but except on that between
Vertativoe and Trincomalee, they are now generally in ruins.
The southern Wanny consists of that portion of the country which
was known as the Kandian or King's Wanny, previous to the dis-
1 The Singhalese authority practically extended no further north than Nuwera
Kalawa, but the Wanniyas all acknowledged the Emperor as their liege lord.

CHAP. I.J DISTRICT OF NUWERA KALAWA AND ITS CHARACTER. 527
memberment of the Kandian kingdom, and was divided amongst the
Soerje Wanniyas on the west, and the Noegerje Wanniyas on the east,
but which is now incorporated with the other portions of the dis
trict. The character of the country is much the same as that of the
northern division, but it is entirely uncultivated, and almost unin
habited ; and except in the central portion, which is watered by the
Malwatte-oya and its tributaries, and contains numerous tanks, would
seem to be devoid of the appliances of irrigation. Parts of the
Noegerje Wanny are said to produce good cotton. The road con
necting Anuradhapoora and the country to the south with the Jaffna
peninsula intersects this province. As will be supposed, it is a mere
track, and without rest houses, being seldom or never frequented.
The forests in this part of the country degenerate into low prickly
scrub. A portion of the country traversed by the new road between
Anuradhapoora and Arippo belongs to this district, and is the most
dreary and desolate that can be conceived, consisting on either side
of an interminable jungle. The principal villages on the west are
Oyamadoe, Payamadoe, and Tamenawille, where there is a small
lake. To the villages once existing on this line of road, the word
Palu (desolate), for a distance of forty miles, is an invariable addition
to the name of the place. Extensive rice grounds, now almost
covered with the encroaching jungle, prove that the country was
formerly densely inhabited ; villages and temples have shared the
same fate, and are now among the things that were. Granite pillars,
ancient landmarks, and the ruined embankments of tanks are now
the only traces of the former abode of man.
Neura or Nuwera Kalava or Kalawa, reaches from the Southern
Wanny, its northern boundary to the Kala or Kalawa- oya, which
divides it from the Seven Korles on the south and south-west ; it is
hounded on the north-west by the district of Pomparippo, on the
east by Tamblegam and Tamankada, and on the south-east by Matale.
It is divided into fourteen pattoos or hundreds, Herellewe, Matam-
ban, Indrowa, Halagamuwe, Hooroole, Mahapotane, Maminiya,
Parahawa, Hahalle, Nuagamdaha, Killegamme, Epawela, Ollagalla,
and Nuweragamme.
Nearly the whole of the Nuwera Kalawa may be characterised as a
dead flat, covered with thick jungles ; and though it has some hills
on the east and north-east, yet none of them rise to any great
height. It is, however, remarkable for its detached and precipitous
rocks ; soigfe-of these are of the hugest dimensions, and shoot up
from amMst the forests, which cover its far spreading plains.
Nuwera Kalawa has, perhaps, equally with the Wanny, witnessed
great commotions above, and below its surface, and retains ample
vestiges of elemental strife. I am almost inclined to infer that it
is rich in mineral resources, as far as I can collect from the disjointed
statements I have had at my disposal. It has but few rivers, and those

528 CEYLON. [part IV.
only take their source within its confines. The Kala, from whence
it takes its name, does not permeate its internal districts, but its
branches have been turned to the best purpose in feeding the
numerous tanks, which are now, however, broken down or unservice
able. The climate of Nuwera Kalawa is generally considered healthy,
but in consequence of the highlands being overgrown with thick
jungle, and exposed to the putrid effluvia arismg from stagnant
waters, the inhabitants are subject to fever and ague at certain periods
of the year, especially during the rainy season. The soil is, in most
parts, remarkably fertile, and yields two harvests in the year, one of
which is reaped in February, the other in July. Paddy is the staple
production, but other sorts of grain, such as kurukkan, gingelie,
mungo, and minery, together with mustard, chillies, and cotton are
extensively cultivated. Its manufactures are chiefly confined to a
coarse kind of cotton stuffs.
It carries on a considerable trade with the maritime districts, and
also with some of the inland provinces, exporting paddy, fine grain,
chillies, and cotton, and importing salt, salt fish, cloth, areka nuts,
tobacco, iron, copper, steel, lead, pepper, garlic, onions, and turmeric.
The inhabitants are composed of Malabars on the north, north
east, and north-west ; and Singhalese in the southern divisions.
They are both remarkable for their industry, and the simplicity of
their manners and customs.
By the repair of the tanks in this vast district, the produce and
resources of the island would be wonderfully augmented and thou
sands of Tamul emigrants would gradually find their way and settle
in its rich but now parched plains. If we are to form an estimate
from the number and dimensions of the tanks that may still be
traced, and the ruins of its once magnificent metropolis, it must
have formerly contained a very numerous population, for within its
limits was concentrated nearly all the power, wealth and splendour
of the state. It owes its present prostration to the frequent inva
sions of the Malabars, and to the removal of the seat of government,
which by abstracting the capital employed in its cultivation, and
transferring it to the neighbouring district of Tamankada, insensibly
led to the neglect of irrigation, and the consequent depopulation of
the country.
In seasons of drought the few streams that pass through it are
either absorbed by the thirsty soil, or become a chain of pools, even
the wells dry up, at which period the wild beasts, who at other times
find' security and plenty within its jungles, leave it for more hospi
table retreats. At this season the fish may be caught in any num
bers in the pools, as they have no means of escape.
The haunts of the Veddahs extended up to Nuwera Kalawa in the
time of Knox, and probably included the Southern Wanny. They
are still frequently to be found to the north-west of the district of
Matale\

CHAP. I.] ANURADHAPOORA — SITE, LEGENDS, AND HISTORY. 529
'The chieftain of this district bears the title of Satpattoo Maha
Wanni Unnahey, and as he is considered to be descended from the
person who brought over the Sri Maha Bodi tree from Dambadiva,
is held in great respect by the Singhalese, and is the warden of the
temple at Anuradhapoora. Having been implicated in the Kandian
rebellion, he was for a time removed from office, but was subse
quently reinstated.
After crossing the Kalawa-oya, and entering the Nuwara Kalawa
district, the stranger from the south will perceive a marked difference
in the customs, manners, and appearance of the inhabitants, who are
taller and have more regular features, but are neither so healthy
looking nor so robust as those of the mountainous districts. Instead
of the usual dress of Kandians, a coloured handkerchief bound round
the head, they wear a peculiar sort of turban, so fastened, that in
the middle and on the top of the head,- a peak projects upwards like
the crest of a helmet. The country on this side presents little
worthy of notice, until the artificial lake Tissa-wewa is reached,
where on the opposite side, and rising far above the ancient forest by
which they are surrounded, Buddhist monuments like hills covered
with wood, and surmounted by the remains of spires are observed ;
the scattered materials of ancient buildings, and. numberless stone
pillars, then attest the arrival within the limits of Anuradhapoora,
the ancient capital of Ceylon.
From the earliest ages, the site on which Anuradhapoora was
built has been considered sacred by the votaries of Buddha, and
when the first Buddha of the present era visited it, he is said to have
found it already hallowed as a scene of the ancient religious rites of
preceding generations, and consecrated by Buddhas of a former era.
The locality does not possess any intrinsic recommendations for the
capital of the island, and bears out the impression of its having been
selected from some superstitious motive. Its subsequent abandon
ment, decay and present desolation, even if history had not pre
served a record of the feuds, famines, wars and pestilence which at
various times oppressed the country, and reduced the number of
inhabitants so as to render the remainder incapable of maintaining
the great embankments of their artificial lakes, might amply be
accounted for by the operation of natural causes. The bunds or
embankments of the great tanks having burst, their waters spread
over the country as their channels were neglected, and engendered a
perpetual miasm by forming noxious swamps, and giving birth to the
dense jungle or giant forests.
Anuradhapoora is first mentioned by that name about 500 B.C. ;
it was then a village and the residence of a prince Sekya Kumaraya,
who took the name of Anuradha on his settling at this place, which the
king Panduwasahad assigned to him, when he came to visit his sister,
the queen Bhadda-kachana. They were grandchildren of Amitodama,
the paternal uncle of Gautama Buddha. It was chosen for the capital
by the king Pandukabhaya, B.C. 437, who greatly embellished it and
2 M

530 CEYLON. [PART IV.
constructed the Jayawewa and Abayawewa, two very extensive tanks,
and in the reign of Dewenipeatissa, which commenced B.C. 307, it
received the collar bone of Gautama, his begging dish filled with relics,
and a branch of the bo-tree, under which he had reclined. Anuradha
poora had been sanctified by the presence of former Buddhas, and
these memorials of Gautama increased its sacred character ; additional
relics were subsequently brought, for which temples were reared by
successive sovereigns, and Wahapp, who commenced his reign a.d.
62, finished the walls of the city, which were sixty-four miles in
extent, each side being sixteen miles, and thus its perimeter was
256 square miles. Anuradhapoora1 is properly laid down in
Ptolemy's map, and is there called Anurogrammum, Grama or
Gramya, being used for a town, and Poora for a city. For upwards
of 1 200 vears, Anuradhapoora remained the capital of the island,
except during the reign of Kaasiyapp'a, when that parricide and usurper
transferred the seat of his government to the inaccessible rock fort
of Seegiri. In the eighth century, Pollonnaroowa was chosen as the
capital in preference to Anuradhapoora, the latter being too much
exposed to the inroads of the Malabars. The religious edifices were
occasionally repaired by pious sovereigns, until the time of Maagha,
a successful invader.
All the ruins of Anuradhapoora, even the lofty monuments con
taining the relics of Buddha, are either entirely covered with jungle,
or partly obscured by forests, which the imagination of natives has
peopled with unholy phantoms, spirits of the wicked doomed to
wander near the ruins, which were witnesses of their guilt and
partakers of their desolation. " Although simplicity," says Forbes,
" is the most distinguishing characteristic of the ancient architectural
remains of the Singhalese, yet some of the carving in granite might
compete with the best modern workmanship of Europe in the same
material, both as regards depth and sharpness of cutting ; and the
sculptures at Anuradhapoora and places built at remote ages, are
distinguished from any attempts of modern natives, not less by the
more animated action of the figures than by greater correctness of
proportion." In the centre of a square in front of the Maha-wihare (great
temple), is a shady tree, and a stone pillar fourteen feet high stands
beside the figure of a bull cut in granite and revolving on a pivot.
In the entrance from this square into the Maha-wihare, are a few
steps exquisitely and elaborately carved, and still in perfect preserva
tion. Ascending these, and passing through a mean building of
modern erection, an enclosure 345 feet long by 216 broad is entered,
which surrounds the court of the bo-tree, styled by Buddhists,
' ¦' The lower classes of natives," says Forbes, " believe that the name of the
city is derived from Anu-Raja (ninety kings), and Knox seems to favour this
error when he calls it Anurodgburro, but it was from the name of the constella
tion Anuradha, under which it was founded."

CHAP. I.J THE SRI MAHA BODIN TREE — TOOPHARAMAYA. '531
Jaya-Sri-maha-Bodinwahawai (the great, famous, and triumphant
fig tree). Within the walls may be observed the remains of several
small temples, and the centre is occupied by the sacred tree and the
buildings in which it is contained or supported. This tree is the prin
cipal object of veneration to the numerous pilgrims who annually visit
Anuradhapoora ; to perform pooja and distribute alms to the priests
in honour of Buddha. They believe what their records relate, that
it is a branch of the tree under which Gautama sat, the day he
became a Buddha, and that it was sent from Patalipoora by the
King Dharmasoka, who gave it in charge to his daughter Sangha-
mitta. It is mentioned by Casie Chitty, that the real Sri Maha
Bodi tree became extinct long ago, but he does not intimate, what
indeed would appear far from improbable, that the present may
be an offshoot from the original.
The spot on which the" tree stands, is supposed to have been at
former periods the position where the emblematic trees of former
Buddhas grew, vis, Kakusanda Buddha's, the mahari tree, Kona-
gamma Buddha's, the atika tree (ficus glomerata), and Kaasyappa's,
the nigrodi (banyan). " No one of the several stems or branches of
the tree," says Forbes, " is more than two feet in diameter, and
several of the largest project through the sides of the terraced build
ing in which it is growing. This structure consists of four plat
forms, decreasing in size as you ascend, and giving room for a broad
walk round each of them. From the self-renovating properties of
the bo-tree, it is not at all impossible, that this one may possess the
great antiquity claimed for it by the sacred guardian ; if so, the for
bearance of the Malabar conquerors must be accounted for by their
considering this tree sacred to other gods ; the profits derived from
pilgrims may also have induced them to give full weight to the alleged
partiality of Brahma for this beautiful tree. The Lowa Maha Paya
and Ruwanwelle-saye, &c. have been already described under the
reign of Dootoo Gaimoonoo, by whom they were constructed. — (See
page 41.)
Toopharamaya, although surpassed in size by many, exceeds in
beauty and unity of design, and in the finish of the minute figures on
its tall, slender and graceful columns, any dagobah in Ceylon ; this
dagobah is low, broad at the top, and surrounded by four lines of
pillars, twenty-seven in each line, fixed in the elevated granite plat
form, so as to form radii of a circle, of which the monument is the
centre. These pillars are twenty-four feet high, with square bases,
octagonal shafts and circular capitals ; the base and shafts fourteen
inches thick and twenty-two feet long, are each of one stone ; the
capitals are much broader than the base, and are highly finished.
Toopharamaya was built over the collar bone of Gautama, when it
was brought from Maghada in the reign of Dewenipeatissa, B.C.
307, and the ruins of an adjoining building received the Dalada
relic, when it arrived in Ceylon. Lankaramaya was erected in the
2 M 2

532 CEYLON. [PART IV.
reign of Mahasen, it is in better order, but much inferior in effect
to the Toopharamaya, from which it is copied. The Abhayagiri
dagobah, described in p. 45, is even now 230 feet high, and the plat
form on which it stands, as well as. the fosse and surrounding wall
were proportionably extensive : the whole of the building, except a
few patches near the summit, is covered with thick jungle and high
trees, even where the interstices of the pavement, composed of large
granite slabs, are all that yield nourishment to the trees, or secure
their roots.
The Jaitawanaramaya was commenced by Mahasen, and completed
by Kitsiri Majan, a.d. 310 : its height was originally 315 feet, and
its ruins are still 269 feet above the surrounding plain. The cubic
contents of this temple have been estimated at 456,000 cubic yards,
and it has been calculated that with its present remains, a brick wall
twelve feet high, two feet broad, and ninety-seven miles long might
be constructed. To its very summit the Jaitawanaramaya is encom
passed and overspread by trees and brushwood, the most active
agents of ruin to the ancient buildings of Ceylon, as their increasing
roots and towering stems, shaken by the wind, overturn and displace
what has long resisted the strife of elements.
Amidst the ruins of the palace, stand six square pillars, support
ing some remains of a cornice ; each of these pillars is formed of a
single stone eighteen feet long and three broad. There also is the
stone canoe, made by order of Gaimoonoo, in the second century before
Christ, to hold the liquid prepared for the refection of the priests ;
it measures sixty-three feet in length, three and a half in breadth,
and two feet ten inches in depth. Within the precincts of the royal
buildings, may be seen the stone trough from which the state
elephants drank. The Isuramini wihare, a temple partly cut in the
rock, the Saila Chytia, a small monument built on a spot where
Buddha had rested himself, and the tomb of Elaala, are among the
ruins visited by the pious pilgrims.
Besides eight large tanks at Anuradhapoora, there are several of a
smaller size, built round with hewn stone : in whose side are cells
formerly occupied by priests as places for contemplation, when reli
gion flourished and the tanks were full, one of these cells when
examined proved to be formed of five slabs, and it was twelve feet
long, eight broad, and five feet high ; the lowest stone or floor of the
cell being nearly on a level with the water in the tank. There are also
many wells built round with stone ; one very large one near the
Ruwanwell6-saye is circular, and the size diminishes with each course
of masonry, so as to form steps for descending to the bottom in any
direction. Near the footpath leading to the Jaitawanaramaya, lies
a vessel ornamented with pilasters cut in relievo ; it is formed out of
a single granite stone, and is ten feet long, six feet wide, and two feet
deep. It was used to contain food for the priests.
Anuradhapoora is thus described in an ancient native chronicle.

CHAP. I.J THEIR METROPOLIS DESCRIBED BY THE SINGHALESE. 533
" The magnificent city of Anuradhapoora is refulgent from the
numerous temples and palaces, whose golden pinnacles glitter in the
sky. The sides of its streets are strewn with black sand, and the
middle is sprinkled with white sand ; they are spanned by arches,1
bearing flags of gold and silver ; on either side are vessels of the
same precious metals containing flowers ; and in niches are statues
holding lamps of great value. In the streets are multitudes of
people armed with bows and arrows ; also men powerful as gods,
who with their huge swords could cut asunder a tusk-elephant at
one blow. Elephants, horses, carts, and myriads of people are con
stantly passing and repassing; there are jugglers, dancers, and
musicians of various nations, whose chank shells and other musical
instruments are ornamented with gold. The distance from the prin
cipal gate to the south gate is four gows (sixteen miles), and from
the north gate to the south gate, four gows : the principal streets are
Chandrawakka-widiya or Moon Street, Raja maha-widiya or Great
King Street, Hinguruwak-widiya, and Mahavelle-widiya, Great Sandy
Street, or from the river Mahavelle-ganga. In Chandrawakka-
widiya are 11,000 houses, many of them being two-storied; the
smaller streets are innumerable. The palace has immense ranges of
building, some of two, others of three stories in height, and its subter
raneous apartments are of great extent." Excluding the four principal
streets, the others were built of perishable materials, and were de
signated from the different classes who inhabited them. The vast
area of Anuradhapoora, covering within its walls a space of 256
square miles, will not afford an accurate estimate of the extent of its
population, as tanks, fields, and even forests are mentioned as being
within its limits. In Anuradhapoora the only sacred buildings of
modern date are a few small temples erected on the foundations and
from the materials of former structures ; they are supported by
wooden pillars, "which even in the same building," says Forbes,
" present a great variety of capitals and perfect defiance of propor
tion." These mean temples of clay form a striking contrast to the
granite columns, massive foundations, and stone pillars, which still
stand or lie scattered in endless profusion amidst the ruined heaps
and proud remains of former ages, and prove that Buddhism is now
on the wane, where it once held despotic sway over mind and matter.
In several places, miles distant from the deserted city, are great heaps
of stone on the road side, intended to commemorate events which
are long since forgotten ; yet every pilgrim adds still a stone to these
anonymous cairns. Near Kagamma lie the ruins of the Nakha (finger
nail) dagobah and Tiraapan. Near the forest of Kolon-oya, and situate
in a plain, is the Nuwarawewa (city lake), which contains but little
water, and that in detached pools, in the dry season. Over its
1 ' ' Arches formed of areka trees, split, and bent, or of some other pliable
wood, were always used," says Forbes, " in decorating entrances and public
buildings on days of ceremony and rejoicing, but an arch of masonry ii never
seen in any Singhalese building of great antiquity." — Vol. i. p. 235.

534 CEYLON. [PART IT,
wooded embankment the crumbling spires of the ancient capital may
be distinctly seen.
Among the ruins of Anuradhapoora, the dagobahs1 or monumental
tombs of the relics of Buddha, the mode of their construction, the
object for which they were intended, and not the least their magni
tude, are worthy of especial remark. The distinctive form of all
monumental Buddhistical buildings, in every country where the refi
gion of Buddha predominates, is that of a bell-shaped tomb, sur
mounted by a spire. Whether in the outline of the cumbrous mount
or in miniature within the laboured excavation, this peculiar shape
(although variously modified) is general, and enables one to recognise
the neglected and forsaken shrines of Buddha in countries where his
religion no longer exists, and his very name is unknown. Tbe gaudy
Shoemadoo of Pegu, the elegant Toopharamaya of Anuradhapoora, the
more modern masonry of Boro Budor in Java, are all of the same
general form, and in the desolate caves of Carli, as in the gaudy
rock temples of Dambool, there is still extant the mark of Buddha —
the tomb of his relics.
Dagobahs are considered the primeval attempts of the architect,
and there are those who maintain that the character and form of
Buddhist buildings, bear convincing proofs of having been copied
from the figure of a tent, while others trace their continual progress
from the humble heap of earth, which covers the ashes or urn of
the dead, up to the stupendous mount of masonry erected above the
tomb of the great. These monuments in Ceylon are built around a
small cell or hollow stone, containing the relic, along with which a
few ornaments and emblems of Buddhist worship were usually depo
sited, such as pearls, precious stones, and figures of Buddha, whose
number and value depended on the importance attached to the relic,
or the wealth of the rearer of the monument.
The account in Singhalese records of the rich offerings and rare
gems deposited with some of the relics, is doubtless much exagge
rated ; though that of the external decorations and ornaments of
these dagobahs is in general correct In a sohona or Singhalese ce
metery may be seen a variety of miniature dagobahs, if the little
earthen mound raised over the ashes of the dead, be encircled with
a row of stones, the origin of the projecting basement may be traced;
if the tomb be that of a headman or high-priest, it will probably be
cased with stone and surrounded by a row of pillars : on all these
an aewaria branch was planted, which after taking root and shooting
out its cluster of leaves, gives the semblance of the spire and its
spreading termination. In a word, the dagobah only differs in size
and in the durability of its materials, from the humble heap which
covers the ashes of an obscure priest or village headman.
" The tomb of Alyattes," remarks Forbes, " which Herodotus
describes as only inferior to the remains in Egypt and Babylon, was of
1 Dagobah, from Dhatu-garba (womb or receptacle of a relic.)

CHAP. I.J MODERN VILLAGE OF ANURADHAPOORA — MIHINTALAI. 535
the same configuration as the sepulchral mounds of the Buddhists. In
materials and construction the dagobahs of Anuradhapoora far exceed
the tomb of Alyattes, and fully equal it in size. All the dagobahs at
Anuradhapoora were built of brick and incrusted with a preparation
of lime, cocoa-nut water, and the glutinous juice of a fruit, which
grows on the native Paragaha. This preparation is of a pure white,
receives a polish nearly equal to marble, and is extremely durable."
In the rebellion of 1818 Pilame Talawe made a stand along with
the Pretender at Anuradhapoora, perhaps to recall to the minds of
the Singhalese the associations of their faded nationality. If such
were his intentions, they were soon defeated, and on the approach of
the British troops he retired to Putlam, leaving his Malabar protege
in the hands of the victor.
The quantity of game, of every description, in the vicinity of
Anuradhapoora is astonishing ; every animal seems as if by instinct
to know it is within the limits of a sanctuary, where it is secure from
slaughter ; and even now a native will rarely venture to transgress
Buddha's first commandment, "From the meanest insect up to
man thou shalt not kill," within the precincts of this hallowed city.
Within late years the roads which have been constructed, opened,
or improved to connect it with the chief towns on the coast and
interior, have stimulated the enterprise of the people ; and it only
requires a trifling advance of money, soon to be repaid with interest ;
and, what is much more important, an amicable organisation of all
the effective labour of the district, to restore the whole of the tanks,
and therewith its fertility and former population. Anuradhapoora is
now considered unhealthy, but can it be wondered at, when the
dank vegetation of the surrounding jungle is taken into considera
tion. Had the district in which it is situated been formerly
unhealthy, it could not for twelve centuries have remained the capital
of the island. The village is now the seat of the district court.
The road from Anuradhapoora to Mihintalai,1 although now in
some places only a forest track, was a carriage road, B.C. 307 ; as the
King Devenipeatissa sent his carriage to convey the priest Mihindoo
to the capital from the mountain of Mihintalai. The path at first
leads for upwards of a mile along the embankment of the Nuwara-
wewa (city lake), and then proceeds through the jungle at the
northern end of this tank : six miles from the centre of the city the
path becomes much wider, and has on each side continued mounds
of decayed bricks, the relics of one of the principal streets of Anu
radhapoora. Passing two other tanks, the last of which called
Buhan-colom, is eight miles from the sacred tree, and reaches to the
foot of the rock ; the traveller arrives at the granite steps, which are
twenty feet long, and although many are broken and others displaced,
still by them the ascent of Mihintalai is easily accomplished, even
on horseback. The number of these steps, including those leading
l This rocky mountain, or parts of it is mentioned by various names in the
native history as Piyal KuUi, Missako, Chetiyo, Saegiri.

536 CEYLON. [fart. IV.
to the summit of the mountain, on which are the ruins of the_Et
Wihare, is 1840. They were completed by the King Maha Dailiya,
who reigned from a.d. 8 to a.d. 20. Ascending from a landing
place of considerable extent, on which are the foundations of large
buildings, a long flight -of steps leads to a more extensive flat, on
which is situated the Ambastella dagobah, the dwellings of the priests
and various ruins. On every side this spot is surrounded by masses
of granite, some of these are of considerable height and difficult
access, and all are sanctified by legends attested by crumbling monu
ments, in which are deposited those relics which procured for Mihin
talai the name of Solosmastane (the place of the sixteen relics)._ _ On
the consecrated pinnacles of this mountain lingers the faint twilight
of an early history, which connects the records of another race, and
their forgotten prophets with the dawn of Singhalese literature, and
the permanent establishment of Gautama Buddha's religion by the
priest Mihindoo. The appearance of former Buddhas at this place
is mentioned in several religious legends ; and although the events
regarding them are few - and uninteresting, yet the extent of labour
and different stages of decay, which appear in the weather worn steps
(even those cut in the solid rock) evince the remains on this mountain
to be the work of successive generations, and of different and widely
separated ages. The principal dagobah of Mihintalai derives its
sanctity from the relic it contains, viz. the Aurnaroma, a hair which
grew on a mole between the eyebrows of Gautama Buddha. The
Ambastella dagobah is situated on the spot which Mihindoo selected
for his conference, with the King Dewenipeatissa, whom he here
encountered on returning from the chase i the broken statue of this
king in a devotional attitude now lies at a short distance from the
monument, half covered with rubbish, and almost concealed by rank
weeds. The bed of Mihindoo is pointed out on one of the rocky
pinnacles which overhang the plain ; this bed is merely a level space
on the rock, five feet long by two feet broad ; it is elevated about an
inch, as the surface around has been cut away to that extent : over it
rests a mass of rock with a natural arch open at both sides. This
eyry of the anchorite commands an extensive view, but having a
precipice on either side, to reach it, is difficult, to recline on it would
be perilous. Mihintalai derives its present name from Mihindoo,
son of Dharmasoka, King of India.
The view from Mihintalai is said to extend from sea to sea ; on
the west are the tanks and temples of Anuradhapoora, visible from
amidst the thick forest that obscures the city ; the hill of Saing-
liamalai is on the far north-east, with a religious ruin on its summit,
and the high mountain of Ritigalla rises abrupt and rocky on the
south-east. The caves and residences of the Yakkas are said by the
natives to be still visible in Ritigalla, where they resisted one of the
chiefs of Dootoo-gaimoonoo, and a numerous force, B.C. 160. The
natives have a horror of trespassing on what they believe to be a
stronghold of the devils, and deny any knowledge of the way in

CHAP. I.J KALAWA TANK — RUINS OF WIGITTAPOORA. 537
which the mountain can be ascended. On the rocks of Mihintalai
are long inscriptions in the Nagara character, which have not yet
been translated. There are also very long inscriptions in the ancient
Singhalese character, of date a.d. 222; some of these specify the
duties expected from the priests of the establishment, the manner in
which the revenues are to be disposed of, and the treatment to which
the tenants and servants of the temple are to be subjected. The
whole vicinity is extremely unhealthy from the decay and decom
position of the vegetable matter deposited by the floods, whose
subsidence is the signal for the visit of remittent and intermittent
fevers. The Kalawa tank, which may possibly have originally been one
of first class magnitude, exhibits present proofs of having watered a vast
extent of circumjacent territory; the country stretching towards the
rising grounds of Dambool and Kandepalle on the one side, and to
Nikini, seventeen miles from Dambool on the other ; indicating the
marks of inundation, and having, according to Forbes, been all in
cluded within the limits of the immense reservoir. The double
sluice of the Kalawa tank is in good order, and built of very large
blocks of hewn stone joined in a workmanlike manner, and, as is the
case with most tanks in Ceylon designed -for the purposes of irriga
tion, the outlets for the water are on a level with the lowest part of
the interior excavation. The spill-water is a great mass of solid
masonry, and the length of the principal embankment is about five
miles, and the sides of the chasm are 70 feet in height. Other
lateral embankments of still greater length but of less height, com
plete this stupendous work, which in a much more contracted
form had existed for many centuries before it was improved and en
larged by the King Dasenkelliya, a short time before he was mur
dered, a.d. 477. The remains of this tank alone, constructed under
a very disturbed reign, and immediately after long continued wars
with the Malabars who had only been expelled from the capital a
few years before, shews that a great population then existed under
the control of a despot who could direct their labours. A canal
called Jayaganga was cut from this tank to Anuradhapoora, and is
calculated to have been upwards of 60 miles in length.
The remains of Wigittapoora, are a mile from the sluice of the
Kalawa tank through thick, low, thorny jungle. This place is men
tioned in Singhalese history as early as B.C. 504, at which time it
was the residence of Panduwasa, the second king of the Mahawanse
(great dynasty), and here he established one of his queen's brothers,
a son of Amitodana and cousin of Gautama Buddha, who was after
wards known by the name of Wigitta. The fort here was built by
Elaala, the Malabar invader, and previously to his defeat and death
it stood a siege of four months, when it was attacked, by the Singha
lese under the command of Gaimoonoo. Wigittapoora is situated in a
marshy plain, near two rocky hills, and being considered one of the

538 CEYLON. [PART IV.
most pestilential spots in an unhealthy district, is overgrown with
jungle, its temple is in ruins, and the dagobah which is 40 feet high,
and terminated by an octagonal pillar, is completely obscured by
trees and vegetation : two lines of an inscription in "the Nagara cha
racter are cut in one of the stones near this dagobah. The walls of the
fort not more than three feet thick, are easily traced, as also a ditch
which surrounds them, and the tank mentioned in the account of the
siege, as the place which the elephant took refuge from the missiles
of the defenders. The fort appears to have been a square redoubt,
each side of which is about 100 yards in length. The walls have
been of brick raised on stone foundation, and much of the materials
of this stronghold were probably employed in the construction of the
dagobah which was erected several centuries later within its enclosure.
At no great distance from Wigittapoora, is the rock and ancient
fortress of Sigiri,1 which appears to start as it were from the plain,
on whose scanty fields and far extending forests it seems to frown
defiance, while the lake or tank around reflects from its unruffled
surface its bare overhanging sides, and brushwood covered summit.
Through the trees near the base of the rock may be distinguished
massive stone walls, which indicate the site of the former capital.
Though the appearance and situation of the rock must have attracted
the notice of those who formed the earliest strongholds of Ceylon,
yet its hard substance and impracticable ascent were not completely
made available until a.d. 478, at which time it was made the seat
of government by Sigiri-kasoomboo I., otherwise known as Kaa-
syappa the Parricide, in consequence of his having obtained the
throne by the murder of his father Dasenkelliya.
To form the lower part of the fortress of Sigiri, many detached
rocks have been joined by massive walls of stone, supporting plat
forms of various sizes and unequal heights now overgrown with forest
trees. On surmounting these ramparts, the foot of the bare and
beetling crag is reached, when at a considerable distance overhead,
may be seen a gallery clinging to the rock and connecting two eleva
ted terraces at opposite ends, and about half the height of the main
column of rock. These remains are not only remarkable from their
position and construction, but as being the only extensive fragments
of the ancient capitals of Ceylon, which are neither buried by jungle
nor overshadowed by forest. The ascent to the gallery is bv a
double line of small steps cut three or four inches into the rock, each
step being about six inches in length: four square holes visible
above, have probably contained supports for a platform to projeet
1 " Sikhari signifies a mountain-stronghold or hill fort, but so simple a deri
vation, and so appropriate a designation is rejected by the natives for the far
fetched one of Siha or Singha (a lion) and giri (a rock), from the number of lions
sculptured on different parts of the fortress. Their derivations, always fanciful,
and often absurd, are not supported in this instance by any remains of that cha
racter, and it is one of the very few important places in which lions are not sculp
tured in various attitudes." — Forbes, vol. 2. p. 2.

CHAP. I.J SIGIRI — ITS ROCK AND RUINS. 539
over this hazardous pathway, and from which missiles would descend
with such force and certainty as effectually to prevent hostile intru
sion by this approach. The gallery has been formed by cutting
grooves in the rock where it was not quite perpendicular, and these
served for foundations of the parapet wall and floor. About 100
yards of length of this gallery remain entire, and its preservation is to
be attributed to the excessive heat of the sun, increased by reflection
from the rock to such a degree as totally to prevent vegetation on
this exposed portion of the ruins. At one place at which a cascade
appears after heavy rains, water trickles from the over-hanging rock,
in some degree justifying the assertions of the natives, which are
founded on tradition, that a tank was formed and still exists on the
inaccessible summit of this fortress. The gallery has been entered,
but no person can proceed along it for more than 100 yards, as it
has slipped from its scanty foundations at an angle of the rock. In
several of the huge masses of rock included in the ramparts, tanks
have been excavated, they are neatly ornamented, and in size vary
from 12 to 20 feet in length; their general depth is about three feet.
On the plain towards the north-east and connected with the elevated
terrace at the east end of the rock, stood the royal buildings : that
part which was situated on level ground being surrounded with a wet
ditch faced with stone ; while the more elevated portions are not only
of difficult access, but are without any more convenient communi
cation than steps, such as those which led to the entrance of the
gallery. The town lay around the palace to the north of the rock,
and a stone wall and wet ditch with which it had been surrounded,
may be traced for some distance. From the highest terrace many
small steps leading to the summit pf the rock may still be perceived,
but in much too dilapidated a state, and in too hazardous a position
for any one to attempt the ascent and visit a spot which for ages
has been beyond the reach of native curiosity. Several Nagara
inscriptions are found on the rock of Sigiri and the neighbouring hill.
The rock temple of Peduru-galla has long been in a state of ruin and
choked up with rubbish; its length is 120 cubits by 12 cubits
breadth, and two of the statues it contains are cut from the solid
rock: near this temple are the ruins of a dagobah; and thirty-six stone
pillars point out the site of the assembly hall of the priests.
The gallery which winds along the rock of Sigiri, is formed of
brick, originally coated with a cement so durable, that large portions
of it still remain. From the rock above, and overhanging this
passage, much stone has been removed by fire and by wedges, in the
same manner as is still practised by the Kandian Galwadouas (masons,
literally stone carpenters), when they have occasion to rend large
blocks from the quarry. The projecting rock above the gallery, has
for the most part, been painted in bright colours, fragments of which
maystill beperceived inthoseplaces most sheltered from the heavy rains.
The embankment of the tank of Sigiri is of considerable size, and is

540 CEYLON. [PART IV.
capable of repair, but the population is at present too sparse for the
cultivation of the fields, which the tank would irrigate, or so many of
them as at present, to render the repair of the embankment an ad
visable speculation for individuals, though an advance from Govern
ment would be well and judiciously made.
The fortress of Sigiri often changed masters, yet never stood a
siege, proving how timidity and treachery smoothed the path for the
Malabar invader, or the ambitious traitor.
In the vicinity of Sigiri, the low jungles used to be occasionally
cleared and cultivated with cotton, and bartered for cocoa and areka-
nuts, with the inhabitants of the mountainous districts.
At no great distance from Sigiri, are the ruins of Minigiri, the
site of a large Buddhist establishment, thought by Forbes to have
included a nunnery or asylum for priestesses. A tradition prevails
among the natives, that only priests or women can visit Minigiri,
without incurring the risk of divine vengeance.
The principal tanks in Nuwara Kalawa, are, the Bawale, the
Tissawewa, Kooroondoowewa, Biliwewa, Kalawawewa, Nuwarawewa.
The superficies of the Northern province, is 6,053 square miles,
and its population, which was 299,252, in 1843, estimated at the
rate of increase, which has been maintained for several years, would
give for 1848, 325,752.
The Eastern Province is bounded on the north and east by the Bay
of Bengal ; on the north-west by the country of the Wanny, in the
Northern province ; on the west by Nuwara Kalawa, in the same
province, and by the Central province ; and on the south-west, by
the Southern province.
After passing the long neck of land connecting the Jaffna penin
sula with the main, the traveller enters the Wanny district of
Kariekattoe Moelle, North and South, now attached to the Northern
province. The principal place is Moelitivoe, or Mullativoe (fifty-
eight miles south-east from Jaffnapatam), which lies on the coast about
two miles from the Wattoewe kal-aar, which is fordable. There is
here a small fort, and good rest house, and it is the seat of a district
court and police magistrate. The inhabitants are chiefly employed
in fishing. Most of the houses are built of stone and white-washed,
and the town may be said to have been founded by the Dutch
Landrost, Nagel, an active and enterprising officer. In 1803 this
place was attacked by the Kandians in great force, and the small
British garrison, finding it untenable, was compelled to withdraw to
Jaffna, but it was soon recovered by a detachment sent from Trinco
malee. The neighbourhood of Moehtivoe abounds with cattle, is
pretty well cultivated, and the woods in the vicinity are the haunt of
deer and wild boars.
The north-east extremity of the coast of Ceylon, is encompassed
by a shoal, deriving its name from Point Pedro, and stretching in a

CHAP. I.J KARIEKATTOE MOELLE — EASTERN PROVINCE. 541
line nearly parallel with the shore, about six leagues to the south south
east. Between this long narrow shoal and the coast, there is a safe
channel about three miles wide, with regular soundings, soft mud of
seven fathoms close to the shore, which increases to nine in mid
channel, and again decreases to five close to the inner edge of the
shoal. The whole of this coast is low, and abounds in palmyra
trees. From Moelitivoe a dangerous coral shoal, called Molawal
shoal, with but two fathoms of water on it, extends to the eastward
and north-eastward, about four miles from the shore, which should
not be approached nearer than thirteen fathoms.
The coast between Moelitivoe and Pigeon island is low, and
safe to approach as far as eighteen fathoms in the night, and
twelve in the day. Three and a half leagues from Pigeon island,
is the Nay-aar, and four leagues further to the south-east, is the
river Kokelay.
The next village to the southward, is Alambiel, eight miles distant,
which has a Romish church, and a rest house, facing a beautiful
plain, enlivened with constant verdure, and watered by two tanks.
Near the village is a salt lake or estuary, whose western shores are
environed by hills of a very picturesque appearance. Several
branches of the estuary intersect the road in different places, and
though not deep, are from the yielding nature of their blue clay
bottom, dangerous for cattle and horses to pass. At the Nay-Aar
is the line of separation between the Northern and Eastern province.
From hence to Kokelay is upwards of ten miles. During the heat of
the day in the south-west monsoon, the glare of the sun and the sand
flies, render travelling very disagreeable from nine a.m. to four p.m.,
but during the north-east monsoon, the road is comparatively
pleasant, owing to the refreshing sea breezes. The Kokelay river, and
the whole coast abound with fish and oysters, and there is such an accu
mulation of dead shells, that sufficient lime for the whole province
might be procured on this spot. The village of Kokelay is situated
on the banks of the estuary of the same name, near which stands the
rest house on a grassy plain.
At the earliest dawn, flamingoes, widgeons, curlews, herons, and
snipes, congregate in the watery patches near the plains, which are
covered with verdure, and bordered by magnificent forest trees, on
whose topmost branches, countless peafowl linger for the approach
of the sun to exhale the night dew from their splendid plumage. Yet
little is here seen of man's industry, though the resources of the
country are exhaustless, and the population is sparse to a degree.
The whole district of Kariekattoe Moelle, contains fifty-one
villages, thirty-three of which have tanks, and nineteen of them are
broken down, the repair of which would not, according to the system
recommended for the other Wanny districts, exceed 36150, in return
for which they would yield a tithe of 1,700 parrahs of paddy, and the
whole fields sown in the rainy season, would in addition yield a tenth

542 CEYLON. . [part IV.
of 7000 parrahs. Tobacco is here extensively planted, and watered
from wells. The roads connecting the north-west coast with
Moelitivoe and Trincomalee, pass through this district. The Hindoo
villagers are an industrious class, and appear contented and happy.
Their usual plain diet includes the kellingo, or meal made from the
spring leaf of the palmyra, and their chief employment is in salting
fish for the Kandian market, and the pursuit of their simple hus
bandry. Every cottage has its garden, containing capsicums,
tobacco, cotton, Indian spinach, water-melons, ginger, pumpkins,
betel, cucumbers, turmeric, pepper, yams, beans, sweet potatoes, and
plantains. The people are in general well grown and handsome, and
modest in their appearance and demeanour, but all their children are
subject to the obesity common in this island, and which is
attributable to the inordinate use of rice ; the remedy used is the
flesh of the Kiri Ba, or river tortoise. The Caffrarian lime (Citrus
tuberoides), is commonly used here for cleansing the loDg black
hair, which is one of the characteristics of the people.
At the southern extremity of Kariekattoe Moelle is the great lake
Padeviel-colom, one of the largest in Ceylon. After the strictest
search, we have been unable to find any authentic record of its con
struction, or of the period in which it took place. It is not impossi
ble, but that it may have been the work of the Malabar prince at
Trincomalee, but it is more likely to have owed its formation to
Praackramababoo, by whom the northern districts were brought into
subjection. It is fed. at the north-eastern side by two small streams,
and connected with one or more on the north-western.
Resuming the coast-road the next stage to the southward is Tenia,
or, according to native pronunciation, Pehria. This district called
the Tenna Marre Waddie Pattoo contains rocks of vast dimensions,
and grotesque shapes, which with other picturesque accessories,
render the scenery worthy of the delineation of the painter. The
native cottages, which are formed of jungle sticks (Warretchie) and
clay white-washed with chunam, give a pleasing effect to the scene.
The banyan tree (Ficus Indica) is common here ; and during the
time its red figs are ripe, the sportsman has nothing to do but station
himself in a good position under cover, and within gunshot of the
trees soon after dusk, when he may kill wild hogs in any number ;
for those animals are then so intent upon the process of deglutition,
this being their favourite esculent, that they return after a short time
to the spot, although conscious of the death of their companions,
and continue to run to and fro to the same place several times during
the night, until the sportsman is satiated with slaughter.
The next stage (eight miles) is to Kutchiavelle in the Kattukolam-
pattoo. This district is bounded on the north by the Tenna Marre
Waddie, and on the south by the Tamballagam-pattoo, and is about
twenty-five miles long, and from eight to eighteen broad. It abounds
in vast tracts of low lands, calculated for the culture of paddy, but

CHAP. I.J TENNA .MARRE WADDIE— KATTUCOLAMPATTOO. 543
from the scantiness of the population, a great portion of them is
neglected. The ancient inhabitants of this province were part of the
emigrants from the Coromandel coast, when the temple of Trinco
malee was building, .and were in consequence liable to be called out
for its service. The village of Kutchiavelle is small and thinly
peopled ; but there is a rest-house ; the country is sandy, but diver
sified by wide and beautiful plains, seldom, however, visible from the
sea, and bordered by jungles abounding in wild hogs, deer, and
buffaloes. It is therefore much resorted to by sportsmen from Trin
comalee. The next stage is to Nillavelle, thirteen miles ; the road
occasionally undulating and hilly, presents a splendid prospect of the
bay of Trincomalee, and its numerous fortifications. The village
besides palmyra and cocoa-nuts, produces a large quantity of tobacco,
and salt is manufactured in the marshes in the vicinity. To the
north-west of Nillavelle stands a column of granite (rising out of the
summit of a circular mount), which bears a striking resemblance to
the human figure. Tradition affirms it to be the petrified remains
of a lady of quality, who had offended the tutelar deity of the place,
by making his sacred grove in the neighbourhood the scene of her
lasciviousness with a slave.
To the west of the road between Nillavelle and Trincomalee, and
about six miles from the latter place, lie the celebrated hot springs
of Kannya (virgin), seven in number, which are frequently visited by
parties from Trincomalee. They are surrounded by low jungle and
swamp, and in an unhealthy country; and the enclosure in which
they are found is about thirty-six feet long, and sixteen broad,
formed by a wall of brick six feet high. Each well is protected by
a little embankment about a foot and a half high. They are all in
high repute among the natives, who regard them with superstitious
reverence, and are under the protection of Ganesa, the Hindoo god
of wisdom, to whom an adjoining temple, containing his image rudely
sculptured in stone, is dedicated. Near the wells is a rivulet, into
which their superfluous water empties itself, by means of a channel,
the rivulet contains therefore a mixture of hot and cold water, and
its temperature is tepid. Their origin is accounted for by the natives
in the following manner : to delay the King Rawana, and thus
prevent the success of one of his undertakings ; Vishnu, according
to the legend, appeared in the form of an old man, and falsely
informed the king that Kannya (the virgin mother of Rawana) had
died. On hearing this, Rawana determined to remain and perform
the usual solemnities for deceased relatives, whenever he could find
water for the requisite ablution. Vishnu having ascertained his
wishes disappeared at the spot, and caused the hot springs to burst
forth. From the solemnities thus performed in honour of Kannya,
the springs have ever since retained her name. In the Singhalese
accounts of Rawana, he and his brothers Kumbakarna and Weebees-
hana were miraculously brought forth to Vishrawana, by Maya ; but
who then was and always continued to be Kannya (the virgin).

544 CEYLON. [PART.IV.
Vishrawana was a Brahmin ascetic ; Kannya the daughter of a fugi
tive king of the Asurs.
At present these wells are merely resorted to as warm baths, and
are used chiefly in cutaneous diseases, but a time may come when
some spirited capitalist may here rear up edifices that shall vie with
the spas of Europe, and remove the necessity of the Anglo-Indian
resorting to England for the renovation of health. The water,. which
is light and pleasant to the taste, is generally applied here by affusion ;
the patient standing on a round stone has pots of water poured on
him by an attendant. Facing the west side of Kannya there are
several hills, from whence a fine view of the salt frith to the north
may be obtained, and on the summit of one is shewn the remains of
the tombs of a giant and his son.
The principal features of the coast adjacent to Trincomalee are a
bold shore, immense tracts of inland forests, and the prevalence of the
palmyra palm, but the country is better cultivated and peopled than
might at first sight be supposed. Trincomalee, the capital of the
eastern province, is situated in 8° 33' 5' north latitude, and 8 1 o 13' 2"
east longitude, and lies 130 miles south-east of Jaffnapatam. The
immediate neighbourhood of the town presents scenery, which for
picturesqueness is without a rival, if the situation be considered, con
sisting of hills covered to the very summit with magnificent timber.
The Malabars call it Tirukonathamalei, or "the mountain of the sacred
Konatha," from the Hindoo god of that name, who had formerly a
temple on the summit of one of the hills there, which was celebrated
over the whole of India. Trincomalee would appear to have been a
place of some note even in the earliest periods of history. According
to traditions recognised by Kaviraja Varsthayen, an ancient bard of
great celebrity, it was founded by the king Kulakkottoo Maha Raja,
1589 B.C. or 512 of the Kaling. This prince was the son of Manoo
Nitikanea Solen, sovereign of the coast of Coromandel, who being
apprized of the sacred nature of the mountain of Trincomalee, came
over, and having built a temple to Konatha or Koneser1 on its sum-
1 The rocky promontory occupied by the fort of Trincomalee, is by the natives
consistently dedicated to Siva, the destroyer, in his ancient name of Eiswara, and
is regarded with great veneration by his votaries. They believe that in the earliest
wars of the gods, three of the peaks of Mahameru were thrown down and driven
to different parts of the world ; one of these is Koneiswara-parwatia or Trinco
malee, which thenceforth became equally with Kailasa the abode of Siva. There
is probably no more ancient form of worship existing than that of Eiswara upon
his sacred promontory, and it has been connected with the rites of Siva by the
votaries of the latter at a later period. In the Eajawali, Kuwani, the Yakka mis
tress of Wijeya, is said to have had her wretched fate predicted in a dream by
Eiswara. In Wilson's Sanscrit Dictionary the translation of Eiswara is given as
God, " an universal spirit;" and " the whole scene," says Forbes, " as well
as the religious ceremonies on the precipice of Trincomalee possesses a character
of romantic wildness and mysterious antiquity. The priest (a Brahmin), with his
head encircled by a string of large beads and a yellow cloth bound round his
loins, places himself at stated periods, and generally a. little before sun-set,

CHAP. I.J TRINCOMALEE— ITS EARLY HISTORY. 545
mit, founded a town below, which he settled with immigrants from
his father's dominions, and gave over to Taniunna Popalen, a
Malabar Tiobleman, who became the governor of the place and its
adjacent territory. The Wanniyas who subsequently governed the
country, traced their descent to this noble, and maintained an inde
pendent authority for a long series of years.
When the Portuguese made themselves masters of Trincomalee,
they demolished the spacious temple dedicated to Siva, for which it
was celebrated, and erected a fort on the north-west point of the
bay out of the materials. The Malabars possess several works in
the Tamul language, that profess to describe the extent and wealth
of th?se establishments in the days of their prosperity, as well as
the miracles performed in them from the time of their dedication,
when the King Kolakotu having completed their endowment, retired
into a sacred secret chamber, and from thence passed body and
spirit direct into the bliss of Siva.
on the giddy height of the farthest rock that rises over the dark and fathomless
ocean ; some of the votaries perch themselves among the dangerous crags, while
the more timid or less devout, kneel, prostrate themselves, or securely recline on
the short grass which clothes the promontory. The priest after performing his ab
lutions, places himself in various picturesque attitudes, and occasionally as he
drops some betel-leaves or rice into the sea, bows himself with great reverence
towards a chasm in the rock, which is believed to be the residence of the spirit,
the object of his worship. After the sun is down, the Brahmin waves a censer,
then holds it at the full stretch of his arm above his head, while the incense flames
up, flickers and disappears ; then as the perfume spreads around, he concludes his
incantations by casting a cocoa-nut into the ocean, and receiving the offerings on
behalf of Eiswara. The offerings consist of the smallest copper coins, rice, and
betel leaves, but the priest derives a poor remuneration for his ministration on
such a dangerous altar."
The summit of the promontory is much more elevated, and close above the
perilous situation on which the priest officiates ; it consists of a huge loose mass
of rock. On this primeval altar of pagan superstition, is the monument of a sui
cidal lover, consisting of a pillar alternately square and octagonal. The inscription
is nearly effaced from lapse of time, but the following is said to be a copy.
" Tot Gedaghtenis Van Francina Van Rhede Tuen Mydregt Desen A0 1687 :
24 April op Geregt."
' ' Tradition still hands down the particulars of the mournful fate of Francina van
Rhede. She was the daughter of a gentleman high in the Dutch service, had
been betrothed, and at the time of her death was about to be deserted by her
affianced husband, a Captain in the army. He was on board a vessel that had
spread its sails for Europe ; but before getting clear of the coast, the ship had to
tack and pass out parallel to the precipices that form the southern promontory of
the fort of Trincomalee. The motions of the vessel had been watched with intense
excitement by the abandoned fair one : as it neared the roek she rushed from her
apartment, and flying along the edge of the cliffs close under which the vessel
was gliding, there for a moment paused. The point was nearly gained, the swift
ship and the false lover were turning from her towards a far distant land ; a
moment she balanced herself on a projecting crag, then plunged from the giddy
height. Her mangled remains were rescued from the rocky fragments that pro
ject through the waves at the base of the precipice, and its summit still bears
in her monument the warning of devoted love inspiring deep revenge."
2 N

546 CEYLON. [PART IV.
The present town of Trincomalee stands in a north-easterly direc
tion along the outer bay, in a woody and hilly country, interspersed
with cocoa-nut and palmyra trees, but its appearance is extremely
wild from the absence of cultivation around, and like most sea-port
towns, which are dependent on war for prosperity, it suffers from
peace. From the numerous advantages offered by its magnificent
harbours, it is the chief dep6t of the Imperial navy, in the Indian
seas, and possesses a dockyard and arsenal for the refitment of the
largest vessels. Trincomalee is by nature strong, and art has ren
dered it impregnable. The fort commanding the bays, and particu
larly the entrance to the inner bay, occupies an area of nearly three
miles, and includes a hill immediately over the sea. Within its
walls, there are several ranges of buildings, chiefly erected on the
lower ground close to the landing place. The citadel for the defence
of the harbour, called Fort Ostenburgh, is erected on a cliff which
projects into the sea, about three miles to the west of Trincomalee,
and cannot be attacked until the capture of the lower fort has been
effected. The excellence of its harbour renders Trincomalee an acquisition
of inestimable value to a first class naval power, and so capacious
are its accommodations, that the whole of the British navy may ride in
it in perfect security. The inner bay being land-locked and almost
unfathomable, ships of every rate and class can there be secure in
the most violent gales, but this circumstance, from its offering great
natural obstacles to a free circulation of the sea breeze, is thought by
many to be a leading cause of the proverbial unhealthiness of the
place, coupled as it is with the presence of a swamp on the land side.
The harbour of Trincomalee with its bays, form a capacious inlet,
the entrance to which between Foul Point on the south-east, and
Fort Frederick on the north-west, is between five and six miles wide,
contracting however to about half that width between Norway Point to
the south-west, and Chapel Island on the north-west, when it again sud
denly opens, forming Great Bay to the southward, and the harbour
of Trincomalee to the northward. To the westward of these, sepa
rated from the harbour by a peninsula, and connected by a narrow
passage, with the north-west part of Great Bay, is the Bay of
Tamblegam, navigable for boats only. The harbour itself, in its full
extent is about two miles each way, indented by numerous bays and
coves, and containing within its bosom several islands, and many
shoals and rocks.
Flagstaff Point, the northern extremity of the narrow and crooked
peninsula, that bounds the east and south-east sides of the harbour
of Trincomalee, and separates it from Back Bay, is high, steep, bluff
land, easily recognized from the sea, being covered with trees and
having on it several batteries. The south-east point of the penin
sula, called Chapel Point, has an islet off it, called Chapel Island,
and to the eastward a reef of rocks, more than half a mile distant,

tfHAP. I.] DESCRIPTION OF THE TOWN, FORTS, AND BAYS. 547
nearly on the edge of soundings. Flagstaff Point is bold and safe to
Approach, hut between it and Chapel Point, rocks stretch out from
two small projections, which should not be approached under four
teen fathoms. The south-west point of the peninsula, called Ele
phant Point, has an island called Elephant Island near it on the
south-east side, from which a reef with five or six feet on it projects
to the westward. Osnaburgh Point, the westernmost point of the
peninsula, is a little further to the north-west, between it and Elephant
Point there is a cove with soundings of from eight to fourteen fathoms.
The entrance to the inner harbour is not a quarter of a mile wide,
formed by Osnaburgh Point to the eastward, and the Great and Lit
tle Islands to the westward. About half a mile south from Great
Island, and one mile west of Elephant Island, is Clapenburg Is
land, close to a point of the same name ; and about a mile further
to the southward is a point where the land is elevated a little, called
Marble Point, with rocks projecting around. This point forms the
western extreme of the Great Bay, separating it from the entrance of
the harbour, and affording a mark for entering in. To the westward
of Marble Point, and between it and the entrance to Tamblegam Bay,
there is an island called Bird Island : to the south-east of it lies
Pigeon or Elizabeth Island, distant nearly a mile, with ten or twelve
fathoms close to, and Round Island nearly the same distance from
the Point to the east-north-east, with thirty fathoms near it, on the
outside, and then all on a sudden no ground. On the south side of
this island there is a rock above water, and between it and Isle Cla
penburg, is the Grummet Rock. The entrance leading to the har
bour is formed by these islands and rocks to the south-west, and
Elephant Island and Point to the north-east.
Foul Point, the outer south-east point of Trincomalee inlet bears
S.E. | E. five and a half miles from Flagstaff Point, and has a reef
projecting from it to the northward nearly a mile ; the coast to the
westward is slightly Concave to Norway Point, which bears from
Foul Point about W.S.W., between two and three miles. Between
these points, nearly a mile off shore, is Northesk Rock.
Great or Itotti-aar Bay, forming the southern part of Trincomalee
inlet, is upward s of five miles across in its widest part, but not more than
fpur between Norway Point on the east, and Marble Point on the west.
The centre of Great Bay is very deep, having no bottom at eighty
fathoms, on approaching the shore, however, soundings are obtained
at from forty to eight fathoms. Four rivers fall into the south part
of the bay, nearly at equal distances from each other. The bank of
soundings lining the shores of the bay, extends very little outside the
islets or rocks, except at the south-east part, where ships may anchor
in ten or twelve fathoms regular soundings, soft mud, sheltered from
easterly and southerly winds.
The east side of the bay is bounded by Norway Point to the
northward, which is about two miles to the W.S.W. of Foul Points,
2 N 2

548 CEYLON. [part IV.
Norway Island lies west side of the point, having a rocky reef en
compassing it and the islets near it and the point. From this point
and the island a sand bank stretches about a mile to the southward,
with soundings on it three and three and a half fathoms and twenty or
twenty-five fathoms close to : to the westward of it a quarter of a
mile distant there is no ground, but to the southward there is good
anchorage, near the shore. Both Norway and Foul Points must be
avoided on account of the reefs which project three-quarters of a mile
from them, nor is the shore between them safe, the soundings being
irregular, and about half way there is a very dangerous rock, called
Northesk Rock, close to which are twelve and fourteen fathoms.
There is some difficulty in making the port of Trincomalee during
October' and November, from the strong current which sets to the
southward, and from the light variable winds, with occasional squalls
and thick weather, which prevail until the north-east monsoon sets in
about the end of the latter month.
The town, which is separated from the fort by a spacious es
planade, occupies perhaps more ground than Colombo, though it
does not contain one half of its population, and the houses are neither
neat nor regularly arranged. Its society is almost exclusively com
posed of the civil and military officers stationed here, and there are
as yet few European settlers. To the Protestant church is attached
a Colonial chaplain, the Wesleyans have also an establishment here,
and the Roman Catholics have two chapels. The Moors and Mala
bars, who form the bulk of the population, have also several mosques
and temples.
The bazaar is very extensive, and every class of mechanical skill
finds here a representative. Ebony forms an article of export to
England, and various descriptions of timber are exported to Madras
and other eastern markets. But for the limited rise of the tide, which
seldom exceeds thirty-eight inches, government ship building would
be carried on, on a large scale. The climate of Trincomalee is ex
cessively hot, and the range of the thermometer is from 74^° to 91 \°
throughout the year.
Formerly there were several extensive plantations of cocoa-nut
trees facing the esplanade, but they have since been cut down, from
the unfounded idea that they contributed to render the place unhealthy.
Trincomalee has now direct communication with both Kandy and
Colombo, the route to the former lies through the following places :
to Pallampoota rest-house, 10J miles, from thence to Wenerian
Colom, where there is a small tank, \2\ miles; to Gantalawe rest-
house, 2| miles ; to Talgaha Ella, 6 J miles ; to Alut-wewa-oya (ex
cellent water and a post station), 6 miles ; to the Gal-oya (rest-house
and post station), right bank via Nayapane Pass, 6£ miles ; to Tal-
baddegalla, or three wells, 6| miles ; to Haburenne (large tank and
post station), 3 miles ; to Oulandangawa (village and tank), 2£ miles ;
to Innamallowe (post station), 6| miles ; to the Junction Kandy

CHAP. I.J TAMBLEGAM — LAKE OF KANDELLE (GANTALAWE). 549
road, 4 1 miles ; to Dambool rest-house, 2f miles ; to Lenadorra post
station, 7 miles ; to Nallande post station, 7 miles ; to Palapatwella
Ella rest-house, 4 miles ; to Fort McDowall (the station of the as
sistant government agent and district judge), 1 1 miles ; to the sum
mit of Ballakadawe Pass, 6J miles ; to the ferry, of the Mahavelle-
ganga, 7j miles ; to Kandy, 2| miles. Total, 1 16 miles.
The next stage from Trincomalee to the southward, is Tambala-
gam, fifteen miles distant. The crocodile abounds in this district,
and the jungles teem with game and wild beasts. The road is sandy
and bordered with jungle, but on approaching the village, the coun
try appears fertile and well cultivated, and the prospect of the bay is
magnificent. Tambalagam or Tamblegam, so called from Tambuli-
gama, (the village of betel-leaf,) is situated on the margin of one of the
smaller bays, forming the harbour of Trincomalee. It contains a Hin
doo temple of considerable antiquity and note, and has a rest-house for
travellers. The vicinity abounds with paddy fields, and being well wa
tered by the Kandelle-oya, which is connected with the Kotti-aar and
flows into Tamblegam bay, always wears a verdant and flourishing ap
pearance. The districtof the same name extends twenty miles in length
from north to south, and from ten to fifteen in breadth. It is bounded
on the west by the Wanny ; north by Kattukolampattoo, and south
by Tamankadewe, and its means of irrigation, if scientifically applied,
are of the most comprehensive description. The country between
Tamblegam and Kandelle, is very uninteresting ; being low, wooded
and uncultivated. Kandelle itself is a scattered village, containing
about sixteen families who support themselves by the cultivation of
paddy. The tank of Gantalawe is one of the monuments left by Mahasen,
and was undertaken at the close of his reign under the influence of
feelings of remorse. All the lands irrigated by this tank were there
fore bestowed on religious establishments ; hence its name of Dan-
talawa or Gantalawe (plain granted to temples), which has been cor
rupted by Europeans into Kandelle.
Tanks in Ceylon are of two kinds. One description is formed by
vast mounds as in India, and the water is supplied by a channel or
channels cut from some adjacent stream, which may possess a super
fluity, or' where its waters may not be absolutely required for the
cultivation of the soil in the vicinity ; the other and far more natural
and effective plan is the making use of the two sides of a valley for
the purpose, and embanking both its outlets. In certain cases, where
a valley has but one outlet, the process is still more facile. When
industry was checked in Ceylon by intestine commotion, the tanks
were neglected, morasses formed, the jungle rapidly encroached on
the cultivated land, the climate became permanently deteriorated, the
population diminished, and beasts of prey simultaneously multiplied.
The Lake of Kandelle, or as it is commonly termed, the Kandelle
water, is in the opinion of connoisseurs, the most beautiful lake in

350 CEYLON. ' [PART- IT.
Geylon, and from its being enveloped on all sides by lofty hills, it
will bear inspection from several points. This is more than ean be
said of many of the lakes, which are generally tame at the lower
extremities. But it is the peculiar beauty of the waters of Kandelle
that in their case the ground ascends everywhere from their edge
with a nearly equal degree of boldness. Greatness of expanse is not.
absolutely necessary for the formation of perfect lake scenery, and
the proper characteristics of a lake may be lost by too great an
expansion of its waters. But for the attainment of perfect beauty, it
is indispensably necessary that a lake should cover with its waters
the whole or nearly the whole of the basin which it occupies, but this
the lakes in Ceylon rarely if ever do, an interval of plain between
them and the surrounding mountains effectually marring the fair
perspective, and reducing their apparent magnitude. The Kandelle
lake is situate within thirty miles of Trincomalee, in an extensive
and broad valley, around which the ground gradually ascends towards
the distant hills that envelope it. Independently of the cheerful
and refreshing appearance, which open plains and a large sheet of
water present in a wooded country and warm climate, this place has
also strong claims to admiration for its numerous groups of forest
trees, scattered through the plains which intervene between the lake
and thick jungle covering the rising grounds and hills on the west
and north of Gantalawe. In the centre of the valley, a long cause
way, principally made of masses of rock, extending upwards of a
mile, has been formed for the retention of the waters that from every
side pour into the space inclosed within the circumjacent hills and
the artificial dam thus formed. The lake has two sluices, or outlets j
the principal one is about 100 yards from the rocky ledge, through
which a river is constantly flowing ; the other is near the opposite
extremity of the embankment, whieh is commonly dry, and carries
off water only when the lake is unusually high. The great outlet is
constructed with much art, and of vast strength ; the channel is
beneath a platform of masonry that projects into the lake about six
feet beyond the line of the embankmeat, and is 24 feet long. It is
built of oblong stones from five to seven feet long, well wrought and
fitted to each other without cement. The top of the platform is
flat ; it contains a small cylindrical well, communicating directly
with the channel below, and in which the water in passing rises of
course to the level of the lake. The water passing through the
embankment, appears on the other side gushing out in a noble
stream through two apertures formed by a transverse mass of rock,
supported by three perpendicular masses. The transverse mass,
which is now cracked in two, is about twelve to fourteen feet long,
and four or five thick ; and the other masses are of proportionate
sSze, The water rushing out in considerable volume with great force,
and dashing among rocks beneath, in the midst of the deep gloomy
Shade produced by overhanging trees, presents altogether a very

CHAP. l.J KOTTI-AAR DISTRICT — TAMANKADEWE. 551
striking scene. "The work itself," says Davy, "has a simple
grandeur about it, which is seldom associated with art ; it looks
more like a natural phenomenon than the design of man." The
other outlet being dry, affords an opportunity for examining the
entrance of the channel ; at the foot of the embankment there is a
circular pit almost filled with leaves and branches, and a little
anterior to it another small pit, the mouth of which is almost entirely
covered and defended by a large long mass of hewn stone.
During the rainy season, when the lake attains its greatest elevation,
the area of ground over which the inundation extends, may be
computed at fifteen square miles. This work of art and others of
nearly equally gigantic proportions in the island, sufficiently indicate
that at some remote period, Ceylon was a densely peopled country,
and under a government sufficiently enlightened to appreciate the
execution of an undertaking, which,, to men ignorant of mechanical
powers, must have been an Herculean operation ; for such is the
capricious nature of the mountain streams in this island, where heavy
rains frequently fall for many successive days without intermission,
that no common barrier would suffice to resist the great and sudden
pressure that must be sustained on such occasions. Aware of this
peculiarity in the character of their rivers, the Singhalese built the
retaining wall that supports the waters of the lake of Kandelle with
such solidity and massiveness, as to defy the utmost fury of the
mountain torrents. Nearly the whole of its extent is formed with
vast hewn masses of rock, faced with stones eight or ten feet in
length, piled up twenty feet high, and from 150 to 200 feet thick at
the base, placed like steps and laid in regular layers, to move which
by sheer physical force must have required the united labour of
thousands. Resuming the coast route, from Tamblegam to Kotti-aar, the
distance is about 1 2£ miles, partly along the bed of a stream, which
has its source from Lake Kandelle, and occasionally through fertile
valleys, varied by dense jungle. The small town of Kotti-aar is
situate on the south side of the inner harbour of Trincomalee, and
was anciently a place of some importance ; even in Knox's time it
was frequented by a considerable number of vessels from the con
tinent, and the custom dues collected there formed a large item of the
royal revenues. The passage from hence to Trincomalee by boat is
far preferable to the overland route, as the magnificent scenery of
the bay is thereby seen to the greatest advantage. This place is still
populous ; Malabars are the chief components of the population.
The country around is well cultivated, cattle abound, and the pasture
is extremely good.
The district of Kotti-aar extends along the east coast of the island
from the north bank of the Virgal-ganga to the frontiers of Tamble
gam ; and, as it lies within the delta formed by the two rivers Virgal
and Kotti-aar, is completely insulated. It is about 27 miles long,

55Z CEYLON. [PART IV.
from north-east to south-west, and 15 broad from east to west,
containing about 30 villages, and a population of more than 2000
souls, two-thirds of which are Malabars, and the remainder Moors.
The country from Anedivoe to Topore is almost level, diversified
with extensive plains, interspersed with thick jungles, and intersected
by several nullahs, most of which are fordable, but from Topore to
the northward, it has" an elevated aspect, and abounds with high
rocks and hills. The soil is generally sandy. The low lands yield
fine crops of paddy, and the higher grounds all the varieties of dry
grain. The forests supply almost every species of timber, and har
bour a vast number of wild animals, greatly to the annoyance of the
inhabitants. The route southward from Kotti-aar is through Topoo-
torre, 9£ miles, where is an extensive tank, which is of little service,
from the want of capital in the country. From hence Anedivoe
(Elephant's Island) is 13| miles, the road between the two places is
through well cultivated paddy fields, interspersed with palmyra,
cocoa-nut, tamarind and wild tea-trees. The plains abound with
cattle, and particularly buffaloes.
This district was originally the hereditary domain of a female
chieftain, styled Wannichee, and one of her descendants is still
known by the designation, though he has lost the powers of, Wanniya.
The Kotti-aar, or river, is one of the outlets into which the Mahavelle
disembogues itself twenty-five miles south of the bay of the same
name into which it falls : the V\rgal-ganga branching off at the same
place, Kurinjamoone, falls into the Bay of Bengal by two channels,
at about the same distance to the south of Trincomalee. Near the
mouth of the river is the village, which has extensive paddy fields
attached to it, and the Malabars have a large temple.
The district of Tamankadewe lies to the west of the Mahavelle-
ganga and Kotti-aar, and is bounded to the south by the Amban-
ganga, west and north by the districts of Nuwera Kalawa, and
Tamblegam, and has an area of 624 square miles, and a population
of 3150 souls. In earlier periods this district contained a vast
population, for six centuries and a half the capital of the island was
within its limits, and from its extensive resources for irrigation, pro
duced inexhaustible supplies of grain, and well merited the title of
the granary of the island. At present a great proportion of the lands
lie waste, covered with morasses, and the produce of paddy is con
sequently greatly diminished. The forests abound in game, and
supply the best ebony, satin, cattamanao, and iron-wood timber,
but the greatest apathy prevails with respect to the development of
this source of wealth, and indeed in every thing else.
If the Kotti-aar were cleared of the obstructions at its mouth and
other parts, and the Mahavelle were deepened so as to admit the
passage of vessels drawing even but six feet of water, a very extensive
and prosperous trade would soon arise, and doubtless justify a farther
and more effectual operation. Till this takes place, one of the

Chap. i.J tank of katjdelle — lake of mennairia. 553
noblest rivers in the world is lost to the country which it was
especially intended to benefit, and its solitary function is to drain the
superfluous water of the mountain zone.
The minor streams intersecting this district, such as the Gal-oya
and Alut-wewa-oya, must have supplied a vast number of tanks' ;
some of these are of the largest size : that of Kaudelle, which was
fed by the latter river, is now a swampy plain of great extent between
Mennairia and Kandelle ; the embankment of this tank was of the
largest dimensions. The mouth of the outlet is a massive work, and
still nearly in perfect preservation. It is a square well, with walls
formed of large stones, some of which are twelve feet by four, neatly
cut, and most nicely adapted and rabbeted together. Adjoining it
are the remains of a canal which is said to have connected the tanks
of Mennairia, Kaudelle and Gantalawe, and to have extended beyond
the former of these to the Amban-ganga at Ellaherra, from whence
it was supplied with water. " Until this canal is traced through the
Konderawe hills, the extent and difficulty of such an undertaking
must excite doubts," remarks Forbes, "whether it were successfully
accomplished : it is declared to have been of sufficient size and to
have been used as a means of conveyance for produce as well as for
the supply of water necessary to fill the tanks and irrigate the
country through which it passed. Its length, including these arti
ficial lakes, could not have been under one hundred miles ; and if it
is found to have been completed, there can be little doubt that the
succession of tanks thus connected and supplied, were the waters to
which the vanity of a king gave his own name, dignifying them with
the appellation of the ' Sea of Praackrama.' " This monarch reigned
in the middle of the twelfth century, and on an excavation at Ellaherra
there is an inscription stating that this canal was completed by the
king Praackrama Bahoo.
On one of the low ranges of hills in this neighbourhood, Nuwara
Kandi (the hill of the city), Mahasen Raja, resided in the third
century, while superintending the formation of the neighbouring tank
of Mennairia, whose glassy lake and radiant plains, soon burst on
the view. From the great extent and irregular form of the lake
of Mennairia, one would scarcely suppose it a work of art,
and although its waters are now confined to little purpose, and the
neighbouring plains contain a scanty and sickly population, owing to
their low and marshy situation, yet cultivation might be gradually
restored, and health with increasing population, smile on the 20,000
fields, which the royal architect formed along with the lake which
was to irrigate them. Formerly there were several artificial lakes,
covering a much larger surface than that of Mennairia, but they
no longer exist, and stand a small chance of being restored ; as they
would not perhaps repay the necessary expenditure required for
repairs, and to preserve them against accidents.
The rest-house of Mennairia can only be reached by passing along

554 CEY10N. [PAET IT.
several canals and muddy rice fields, and occupies the worst position
that can be conceived, commanding no view either of the forest-
covered hills, or the lake which they enclosed, and combining all the
different causes supposed to produce unhealthiness. Between the
rest-house and the lake is the Kowilla, dedicated to Mahasen. It
is a wretched hut mudded up in the corner of the ruined temple,
which was destroyed in the rebellion of 1817; like most others
dedicated to gods, it contains a bow and arrow of the deified king.
Among the various temples which are supposed to possess peculiar
sanctity, and whose guardian god takes vengeance on any perjurer
that should dare to profane his shrine, Mennairia is pre-eminent, and
its unwholesome plains have often proved the grave of the perjurer,
and his adversary, who was always present to watch his antagonist,
and see that the usual ceremonies were strictly observed. " The
placid surface of the lake of Mennairia, when lighted," says Forbes,
" by the evening sun, reflects the varied foliage and forms of the
clumps and trees on its promontories, capes, and islands ; narrow
creeks- pierce far into the overhanging forest ; and beyond the waters,
rich grassy plains stretch among the wooded hills, over which arise
in distance the grand outlines of the mountains of Matale. On the
plains are scattered herds of elephants, buffaloes, and spotted deer,
and all the winged race in every variety of form and hue glance
along the margin of the water, or flit along its narrow inlets, while
the whole scene, brilliant in colour, refulgent with light, and replete
with animal life, leaves behind a never-fading reminiscence on the
mind." Notwithstanding the great expanse of water in the tank of
Mennairia, the principal embankment was not required of such great
extent as those of much smaller reservoirs, scarcely exceeding a
quarter of a mile in length, and sixty feet in width at the top, and
overgrown with forest trees and thick jungle ; its outlets which are
composed of large masses of rock coarsely cut, are on a level with the
deepest parts, so that while any water remained, the supply for the
villages, canals, and rice fields, was maintained, and it is said that the
absence of rain for two years, would not have caused the absorption
of the water. It is one of those works by which man has successfully
combated the caprice of seasons, and the revolutions of nature.
The stream running from the tank, is of considerable size, and flows
into the Mahavelle-ganga. Formerly, when its waters were directed
by man, it was a source of fertility to the whole tract through which
it passed, but now running waste, forming swamps, and only sup
porting rank vegetation, it is the fruitful cause of unwholesomeness to
the adjacent country. The country between Mennairia and Kandelle,
is almost entirely covered with wood, and the scenery only improves
between Permamadua and Kandelle. A sportsman may find an
abundant variety and quantity of game in the vicinity of Mennairia,
where it is undisturbed by the approach of man.
The ruins of Pollonnaroowa, the capital of the island for 500

CHAP. I.] POLLONNAROOWA^FOTJNDATION AND ABANDONMENT. 555
years, lie near Mennairia ; at about five miles distance between the two
places, is the small artificial lake, called Giri-tala, formed of a strong
stone embankment, which crosses a hollow at the top of a steep
descent, terminating in level ground and damp forests, where hewn
stones, carved spouts, and steps of masonry, denote the populous
suburb of the ancient city.
Pollonnaroowa was called Pulastya-poora in ancient works, a name
connected with the most ancient legends of the country, and the
Hindoo poem of the Ramayana, Pulastya being one of the progenitors
of Rawana, king of Ceylon, in the earliest period to which tradition
ventures to go back. Here, as at Anuradhapoora, superstition
selected the site of a town that has otherwise no obvious recommen
dation, and judging by present appearances almost every disadvan
tage for the position of the capital of the island. The ruins of
Pollonnaroowa are now generally called by Europeans, Topare, a cor
ruption of Topawewa, the name of the tank which extends along one
side of the city, at whose farthest extremity appears the ruined spire
of the Rankot dagobah.
The power of Ceylon was already on the wane, when the tank of
Topawewa was formed by the Upatissa II. , who commenced his
reign a.d. 368. This king erected many public works in various
parts of the island, and endowed numerous religious edifices ; to
these exertions he was stimulated both by piety and terror, the former
excited by a priest of Hattanagalla, the latter by an earthquake. In
a.d. 650, Sirisangabo II. built a palace at Pollonnaroowa, but it was
not then considered the capital, and probably had been the place of
his retirement when driven from the throne, which he afterwards
recovered from the usurper Kaloona. From this time it was the
occasional residence of several monarchs, and towards the close of
the eighth century, became the capital of the island, and the insignia
of royalty were removed thither from the ancient capital. Pollon
naroowa, though taken and pillaged by foreign invaders, and a
sufferer from domestic feuds, still increased in size, till it arrived at
the acme of prosperity in the twelfth century, under the reigns of
Praackrama Bahoo, and Kirti Nissanga, by whom all the principal
buildings were commenced or completed. The vast undertakings
and wars of these energetic but vain monarchs, seem to have exhausted
the strength of a nation, weakened also by internal dissension ; for
Ceylon, after the feverish excitement and boasted prosperity of these
reigns, sank more rapidly, and Pollonnaroowa, which had continued
the seat of government for 550 years, was neglected from a.d. 1240,
when its principal buildings had been demolished by the Malabars,
and was finally deserted a.d. 1319.
The temples and buildings of Pollonnaroowa, are in much better
preservation than those of Anuradhapoora, although very inferior to
them in point of size ; the extent of the city too corresponds with
the diminished resources and decreased population of the island in

556 CEYLON. [part it.
the twelfth century, when the rampart or fence of Pollonnaroowa was
formed, as compared with the power and splendour of Ceylon, under
the great dynasty, when Wahapp built the walls of Anuradhapoora,
in the first century of the Christian era.
" In several of the buildings at Pollonnaroowa," says Forbes, " par
ticularly in two small doors, the proper arch is to be found in form,
but the principle of it does not appear to have been understood by
the Singhalese architects ; as in the largest buildings which have
brick roofs, the side walls approximate as they ascend, from each
course of bricks projecting forward a little beyond the one immedi
ately below it, until only a small space is left, which has been com
pleted on the principle of the wedge ; the section of one of these
chambers would nearly resemble a parabolic curve."
The Jaitawana-rama, which is considered to be a precise imitation
of the temple built for Gautama Buddha, and in which he resided at
Saewatnuwara, in Kosolratta, more resembles the early ecclesiastical
edifices of Europe, than any other which the island possesses. In
front, it has a small mound, covered with stone pillars, the remains of
the Gamsabae Mandapa, and the proper entrance is from thence
between two polygonal pillars of about fifty feet high ; these form
the termination of the exterior walls of two chambers, into which
this temple is divided. The interior of these apartments is much
the broadest, and opposite to its entrance a figure of Gautama pro
jecting from the wall, occupies the whole height of the building,
about fifty feet. On the outside, this ruin presents two rows of gothic
windows, but the upper range is closed, and does not admit light or
air. This temple was repaired, if it was not built, by Kirti Nissanga,
soon after his succession to the throne in a.d. 1192. The whole
length is about 150 feet, and its walls, which are very thick, are
entirely composed of brick and mortar. With the exception of a
stone moulding, the whole building, including the colossal statue, has
been covered with polished cement, which still adheres to the
entrance pillars and various other portions of this impending ruin.
The figures of two snakes cast in stone near the Jaitawanarama give
birth to a legend and erroneous derivation of the name of the city,
and it is from polon and na, the polonga and hooded snake that the
vulgar ascribe the origin of the name Pollounarroowa. Projecting in
the strongest relief from the perpendicular face of a large rock, are
three colossal figures of Buddha ; they are in the usual position,
sitting, standing, and reclining, the last mentioned being upwards of
forty feet in length. According to minute directions, which the
Singhalese possess, these positions of Gautama are, and his features
ought to be, retained without variation; so also it is with the figure
of every supernatural creature which they worship, whether it be
deified, mortal, or demon, the shape originally adopted must remain
unaltered. "The restrictions of human beings by caste," remarks
Forbes, "are not more imperious or better observed than the instruc-

CHAP. I.J THE J AIT AW AN ARAM A — RANKOT DAGOBAH. 557
tions that fix the forms of figures to be worshipped : the results
exhibited by the minds of mortals and the efforts of statuaries, afford
equal proof's of an impolitic interference and its baneful results.
Mankind debarred from improvement, first ceased to advance, then
gradually declined, and sculptors condemned to imitate only, at
length fell short of their originals, yet had their failures again
repeated, and their faults multiplied. Between the sitting and
standing figures, the Isuramini or Kalugalla-wihare, has been cut
in the hard rock, and in this cavern temple, part of the stone has
been left, and afterwards shaped into the figure of Buddha, seated
on a throne, the two pillars in the front of this wihare, are also part
of the solid rock. These works were completed in the twelfth
century, and in the reign of Praackrama Bahoo, yet are they not
decayed, but the most minute ornaments are sharp, and undiminished
by time or weather, and will perhaps retain their freshness, when
the refigion of Gautama has faded for ever in its holy land and
island stronghold. The Dalada Malagawa (palace of the tooth) is
partly obscured on the outside, and the inside is nearly filled with
rubbish. It is a small building of excellent masonry and neat archi
tecture. The roof is flat, and formed of long stones, and the
granite of which it is entirely built, retains in perfection the admira
ble sharpness of the original cutting. It is said to have been joined
together under the personal superintendence of Kirti Nissanga in one
day, a.d. 1193. Bears in numbers find shelter among these ruins.
• The Rankot dagobah was built by the second queen of Mahaloo
Praackrama Bahoo, between the years a.d. 1154 and 1186, but
Kirti Nissanga, who increased its height, gave it the name of
Thuparama. It is the loftiest building at Pollonnaroowa, and though
like the other ruins, it is much overgrown with jungle, large trees, and
creeping plants, yet the form of its spire may be still discerned at a
distance of several miles, as the forests at this place display in the
size of their trees, the occasional deficiency of moisture, from which
this portion of the land frequently suffers. Around the base but
forming part of the dagobah, are eight small chapels, and between
each of them there is an ornamented projection. The height from
the level of the platform on which these stand, to the highest portion
of the existing remains of the steeple, is 159 feet. As the platform
is considerably elevated above the surrounding country, the native
histories which state its entire height at 120 carpenter's cubits, i.e.
two hundred and seventy feet, are confirmed. The golden umbrella
raised on the summit of the spire obtained for this building the name
of Rankot, by which it is now generally known. The derivatives are,
ran, gold, kot, the umbrella-like termination, which was generally
raised on the top of the spire of a dagobah.
The remains of the Bannage (place for publicly expounding the
Buddhist Scriptures) is encircled by a fence of peculiar construction, in
which the two lines of longitudinal bars are of stone, fitting in to

§58 Ceylon. [part iv.
Upright stone pillars. In the Watte-daga, Poeyage, Lanka-rama,
Meres-wattya, Keeree-wihare, &c. &c, there is little to remark, but
the exact correspondence of their site and remains with the native
accounts of this city and the date of the erection of the buildings as
recorded in the Singhalese history. The Sat-mahal-prasada is a neat
pyramidal building of no great height, although its name implies that
it was seven stories high.
The palace is now a shapeless mass, overgrown with vegetation,
and situated on the bank of the Topawewa, the waters of which were
conducted through the building. The royal bath is still distinct ; it
is a circular excavation, about six feet deep, lined with hewn stones,
one of which is round and raised above the rest of the pavement :
this marks the spot where the kings stood and received the services
of the numerous officers connected with the bathing and dressing de
partments of a Singhalese monarch. Several stones covered with
long inscriptions are found at Pollonnaroowa. One stone brought
from Mihintalai is shaped like the leaf of a Singhalese ola, and is
neatly ornamented, the characters, which are small, and beautifully
cut, and for the most part Singhalese, being surrounded by a mould
ing of birds, it is twenty-five feet long, four broad, and two thick,
and the subject principally treated of, refers to the reign of Kirti
Nissanga. " In a situation abounding with rocks and quarries," ob
serves Forbes, " from which they could have riven masses of any size
by means of wedges, of which abundant use has been made at Pollon^
naroowa, it is remarkable that this cumbrous mass should have been
removed upwards of eighty miles, and yet more surprising how the
feat was accomplished." He was at first little inclined to regard the
tradition, which spoke of its removal by men from a place so distant
as Mihintalai, until the translation of the inscription proved its
authenticity. " This engraved stone is the one which the Adigaar
Unawoomandanawan caused the strong men of Nissankha to bring
from the mountain Saegiri (Mihintalai) at Anuradhapoora, in the
time of Raja Sree Kalinga Chakkrawarti."
Several of the inscriptions cut in stone at Pollonnaroowa are of great
length, in a character which is Singhalese, yet containing many letters
now obsolete, but generally beautifully executed. These inscriptions
are valuable for the dates which they afford, and deserving of notice for
the customs and recognized duties of a Singhalese king upwards of 600
years ago : they further exhibit in perfection the self-praise in which
these monarchs indulged, and the high sounding titles they assumed.
The warlike actions and personal valour ascribed to the reigning
kings, by these imperishable records, are however totally false, or so
exaggerated, as to be inapplicable. Another of the inscriptions
records the grants made and the titles bestowed by a grateful king
on a chief, his friend, and his mother, who had been instrumental in
bringing this prince from the continent of India, and placing him on the
throne of Ceylon, a. d. 1200. The chieftain was named Kooloondoc

CHAPi I.] DISTRICTOF BATECALO — HISTORY OF ITS SETTLEMENT. 559
tetti Abo-nawan ; his friend, another man of rank, was Kumbudal-
nawan. To resume the coast route — The traveller having crossed the
Virgal-ganga at Moleade, two miles from Anedivoe, where boats are
always at hand for the passage of the ferry, will find the Koorle-
pattoo, a well cultivated and low, but charming, country before
him. This hundred forms one of the subdivisions of the extensive
district of Batecalo, stretching from the Virgal-ganga to the
Kumukan-aar, a distance of nearly 150 miles from north to south.
Its native name is Mattakalappoo, from the Singhalese words mada,
muddy, and Kalappoo, a lake, perhaps in allusion to the lake for
which it is famous. It is divided into eleven pattoos or hundreds,
vie. Manmoon6, Karrewitte, Porativoe, Eruwil, Karrewahoo, Sam-
mantorre, Nadukadoe, Akkarapattoo, Panaha or Panowa, Eraoor,
and Koorle pattoe, with an area of 1 360 square miles, and a popula
tion of about 35,000 souls. The climate is on the whole salubrious ;
and except during the hot months, when the thermometer sometimes
Stands at 94° in the shade, and the Katchan or hot wind visits the
coast, is cooler than any other part of the sea coast, being consider
ably influenced by the ranges of lofty mountains on the west. From
the Virgal-ganga to Nalloor, the face of the country exhibits sandy-
plains, and loose soil, sometimes uncultivated and barren, surrounded
on every side by jungle, and intersected by salt water lakes. To the
southward from Eraoor to the Kumukan-oya, it is diversified with
huge masses of rock, high jungles, salt and fresh water lakes, and
large plains under tillage. The soil moreover is of marl and a dark
sand. The forests yield a vast quantity of excellent timber, and
satin wood and ebony are exported in considerable quantities to the
Coromandel coast.
With regard to its agricultural resources, it now produces nearly a
sufficient quantity of paddy for the consumption of the inhabitants,
but though it formerly exported largely, it was for more than thirty
years after the arrival of the British, dependent for its supply of this
necessary of life on the Coromandel coast. Recently cocoa-nut
plantations have been laid down by both European and native capital
ists, and it promises to derive no slight advantage from the cultiva
tion. It abounds also with palmyra, mango and other fruit trees,
and produces an infinite variety of fine grains. It is famous for a
large breed of horned cattle, sheep, and goats ; its jungles afford
every sort of game, while its numerous lakes and rivers yield a plenti
ful supply of fish. Its population consists chiefly of Malabars,
Mookwas, and Moors, who are said to be remarkable for their
tranquil and contented dispositions, and the little desire they feel
to leave the spot where they were born.
The settlement of the eastern coast of Ceylon is perhaps accounted
for in a more intelligible manner than any other division of the
island. From the south bank of the Mahavelle-ganga round to the

560 CEYLON. [PART IV.
Kalu-ganga on the west coast, comprising therefore Malayaa, or a
considerable part of the mountain region, and all the low lands south
of those rivers, was the principality of Roohoona, governed for
centuries by its local princes, and yielding, if any, a very imperfect
fealty to the metropolitan state. Under the sovereignty of these
princes, all the great works, many of whose vestiges still remain,
were executed. Subsequently Roohoona became reannexed to the
metropolitan state, and soon shared in its vicissitudes. From the
time of Maagha's invasion, the unity of the kingdom ceased to be
preserved ; the capital was removed from Pollonnaroowa to Dam-
badiniya, and from Dambadiniya in its turn to six or eight other
localities, just as was dictated by a monarch's caprice, and it was not
long before the complete dismemberment of the country ensued.
The monarch of the mountain zone, whose seat of government was
at Kandy, was at length tempted to extend his dominion over the
east coast, and whether his rule was personally offensive or his policy
truculent, the result was that the Singhalese inhabitants, with the
exception of those in the pattoos of Nadukadoe and Panowa,
abandoned the country, leaving the Veddahs to roam over it undis
turbed. Things were in this state, when the Malabar chieftains from
the north began to emigrate southwards, and settled in the district
of Kotti-aar. One of these with the title of Wanniya became
governor of the Batecalo district, and paid tribute to Kandy. Being
deposed by the Veddahs, he retired to Point Pedro, from whence,
after some delay, he returned with seven vessels manned with
Mookwa fishermen, and with their assistance drove the Veddahs
into the interior and re-established his authority. At length, however,
the Mookwas rebelled, submitted to the Kandian monarch, and a
dissave was appointed over the whole district. Nadukadoe was still
peopled by a remnant of the old inhabitants, Panowa was annexed to
Ouva ; and the Mookwa headmen, called Peddles, divided the
remainder of the coast territory among their seven families, appor
tioning a pattoo to each. They next obtained a concession of the land
from the king, and a patent authorising the eldest of the male members
of the families to continue to rank as Head Peddie in their respective
pattoos. No long time had elapsed before a large body of Malabar
immigrants arrived from Jaffna, and settled amongst them, and they
were succeeded by several families of Moors. To increase further the
population, the Mookwas purchased and educated Veddah children,
and the state of the province had begun to assume a promising aspect,
when the rapacity of the dissave, and the extortions and oppressions
of his deputy, the land vidahn, revived all the original elements of
disorganisation. Even among the Mookwas, no person was secure
in the possession of his land, as the dissave, whenever he visited the
country, could be bribed to make any award. The whole community
sighed to be delivered from the galling yoke, and implored the Dutch
to assume the government of the territory, to which the latter acceded

CHAP. I.] THE K00RLE-PATT00 — NALLOER— -ERAOER-PATTOO. 561
on the breaking out of a war with Kandy, in 1764. Under the
Dutch, prosperity began to revive, the headmen employed to collect
the tithe on grain, honestly gave in the quantum so collected ; but,
finding that the Government had little or no check on their proceed
ings, gradually delivered less and less, till the whole revenue had
become a burlesque. The fraud was thus discovered, and they were
compelled to disgorge their ill-gotten gains, but they still continued to
extract large profits from those employed in forced labour, and
exacted heavy fines from those they exempted. On the arrival of
Governor Falcke, orders were issued for the mild and lenient treatment
of natives, and the concession of popular institutions. The Mookwa
headmen thus became reconciled to the limitation imposed upon
their extortions, and thenceforth decided differences between the
people in conjunction with the Dutch resident.
To return to the Koorle-pattoo : — this hundred extends from the Vir
gal-ganga to Vendeloos bay. The villages are eight or nine in number,
but are far from well peopled.' The country in the rear is a complete
forest, infested with elephants, buffaloes, &c. and the Veddahs frequent
it in the dry season. From the Virgal-ganga to Kaddiravelld the dis
tance is four miles, and from thence to Pannitchankanne, where the
river of that name is crossed by a ferry, nearly ten miles. Wild
orange, lime and cinnamon. trees abound here, and attract myriads of
monkies. . Salt is procured to a large extent in the vicinity. The leways
in this district all belong to Government, but are by no means so pro
ductive as those of the Southern province. Vendeloos bay or inlet is
about 1 6^ miles from the mouth of the lake of Batecalo, the coast be
tween is low and woody, and may be approached occasionally to ten
or twelve fathoms ; but in the night, large ships should keep two or
three miles off shore. Vendeloos inlet is rocky at the entrance;
when abreast of this place, the Sugar Loaf bears to the south-westward.
About six leagues to the west of it is Dimbuhagalla, or the Gunner's
Quoin. Ships bound to Trincomalee from the south in the south
west monsoon, keep near the eastern coast of Ceylon ; as the land
winds blow very strong in the night, and frequently in the day,
often rendering it difficult for a ship to regain the coast, if she get
far to seaward, where the current generally sets to the eastward in
that season. Near the shore along the north-east coast of Ceylon,
the current is fluctuating in the south-west monsoon, generally weak,
and sets mostly to the southward. The next stage is to Kommol-
landam Moone, 15f miles, a small and sparsely populated village,
little cultivated, and surrounded on all but the coast side, by dense
jungle : the road however is good throughout. The next village is
Nalloer (Bapoor), 4 J miles, situate near the Nalloer-aar, and abound
ing in wild cinnamon. The country about here is better inhabited,1
1 Some curious ancient inscriptions have recently been discovered at Rose-
lanmalle in this pattoo, and forwarded to the Ceylon branch of the Asiatic So
ciety, and it is far from improbable but that they may throw some light on the
earlier history of Roohoona. 2 O

562 CEYLON. [PART IV.
and between Nalloer and Eraoer, ten miles, is extensively cultivated
with paddy, yams, and plantains, but the road is a very deep and
loose sand for some part of the distance. Cotton is grown, but in
a limited quantity, compared with the capabilities of the country.
Labour is cheap throughout the Batecalo district, and contracts have
been made for felling timber so low as fourteen shillings per acre.
Ferry boats are always to be had for crossing the Nalloer and Eraoer
rivers, both of which are salt. At Eraoer is a good rest house, and
a temple sacred to Vira Badra, one of the malignant deities in
Hindoo mythology. This place was formerly the seat for the manu
facture of cotton stuffs, a branch of industry sedulously cultivated
under the Dutch. The country around is far from fertile, and the
water indifferent. Near this place, a branch from the coast road
diverges, passing the northern confines of the Karrewitte pattoo, through
Veddah-ratte to Bintenne, a distance of ninety-three miles, and another
winds along the western shore of the Batecalo lake, and again unites
itself with the Batecalo road. Another stage of nine miles brings
the traveller to Batecalo, famous for its mosquitoes.
The island of Pooliantivoe, on which the town of Batecalo is
situate, is in 7° 42' N. lat. and 81° 51' E. long, is about three miles
and a half in circumference, and is formed by the lake of Batecalo,
which communicates with the sea. Batecalo is the seat of the assis
tant agent for the Eastern province, the judge of the district court,
and a police magistrate. The fort, built of coral rock, is a small
square building, and contains a barrack, magazine, and commandant's
house. The town stands a few hundred yards from it, and is almost
embosomed in topes of cocoa-nut trees. Though the streets cannot
boast of regularity, nor the houses of grandeur or neatness, still it
presents a rather picturesque ensemble from the vegetation in which
it is shrouded, and is chiefly inhabited by Dutch burghers and
natives. The bazaar is a dispersed assemblage of huts occupied by
venders of fruit, vegetables, fish, poultry, eggs, oysters, rice, &c. all
of which are abundant, excellent, and cheap. Excellent table cloths,
towels, and napkins, are manufactured here, as also cotton-cloth.
The trade of Batecalo, though on the increase, is as yet of little
importance, owing to its isolation from the other provinces of
Ceylon. The development of its agricultural wealth will, however,
eventually place it in the position to which its advantages entitle it.
The lake of Batecalo is navigable for schooners, and even dhonies
for the greater part of the year. The village of Katancoditeripoo
contains a dense population of Moormen, whose schooners sail up the
lake, as high as Navacodah, and ten miles up the Eraoer branch.
Up .the shallower parts of the lake large " ballams," sailing without
outriggers, and carrying several tons weight of paddy, salt, and cocoa-
nuts penetrate. Batecalo has one Protestant'and two or three Romish
churches, and the Mahommedans and heathen have also their respec
tive places of worship. Batecalo is memorable in the history of
Ceylon, from being the first port visited by the Dutch under Spil-

CHAP.I.J MANMOONE PATTOO — ISLE POOLIANTIVOE — BATECALO. 563
bergen, in 1602. The coast off Batecalo is bold, and the immense
sandstone rocks, known as the "Friar's hood," "Elephant's rock,"
and " Pagoda rock," are excellent landmarks for the navigator. The
inlet is narrow at the entrance, and not discernible except from the
northward, but it may be known by a house and flag-staff. There are
six feet on the bar at low water, and the tide rises about two or three
feet perpendicularly. Wood and water may both be obtained here
in any quantity. The anchorage in the road is not always safe in the
north-east monsoon when a gale from that quarter may occur between
September and February, but in the south-west monsoon it is safe.
Ships generally anchor to the north-west or westward of the reef,
with the entrance of the river about south ; the Friar's Hood, south-
south-west, distant about two miles, abreast of a cluster of rocks
projecting from the shore to the northward of the river. The
mountain which resembles a Friar's hood when bearing to the south-
westward, has the form of a pyramid when it bears to the north
westward. From October to February, when the north-west mon
soon blows, the native merchants lay up their vessels.
The pattoo of Manmoone, in which Batecalo is situate, extends
along the greater part of the shore, laved by the lake of Batecalo.
The soil is sandy, but is extensively cultivated with cotton, and
cocoa-nut, and palmyra trees. Under the encouragement of M.
Buruand, Batecalo promised to become a seat of the cotton manufac
ture, and its cloth was exchanged for the produce of the Kandian
country. The villages, forty in number, are populous, and the
inhabitants contented and industrious. Moodelakooda, or Navacodah
(the Alligator's bay), is a considerable village projecting into the
lake south-west of Batecalo. Karrewittepattoe, on the west shore of
the lake, is but thinly peopled and little cultivated.
The next stage from Batecalo southwards is to Naypattre Moone, a
large and populous village, 1 7\ miles distant, on the banks of the lake,
where there is a tolerable rest-house, but the neighbourhood, though
delightfully situated and extremely fertile, is only indifferently culti
vated. From thence to Wambimodoo rest-house is 7% miles. This,
though well cultivated on the right of the road, is about the
wildest part of Ceylon, and the traveller can only proceed during
the day in safety ; for so numerous are elephants, bears, and
leopards, that there is no chance of escape, and in the rainy season,
when driven by the mosquitoes from the jungles into the plains, they
infest the roads as much by day as by night. Porativoe or Nadene-
pattoo is situated on the south-west shore of the Batecalo lake, and
contains but four villages, surrounded with paddy fields and prodi
gious forests of excellent timber ; the village of Porativoe is almost
composed of Mookwas, but in the neighbourhood there are a consider
able number of gold and silver smiths. The temple, sacred to
Skanda, is a stone building. Nadene, another village, was formerly
the residence of a Wanniya, and is a rendezvous for the buffalo
hunts which take place in the adjacent forest. It has a small temple
sacred to Nayamar (a deity peculiar to this part of the country), and
2 o 2

564 CEYLON. [PART IV,
the buffalo hunters1 make an annual offering at his shrine. Palga-
mam is remarkable for its temple sacred to the five Pandawa heroes.
An annual festival of ten days attracts a large concourse of people,
and those who have bound themselves by vow, walk barefoot over
burning coals. The Eroowil pattoo lies at the south-west end of the
lake, which is connected with its southern inlet by a narrow gut.
Karrewahoo-pattoe on the coast is fertile and populous, and produces
paddy, tobacco, cocoa-nut, palmyra, sugar cane and plantains. Its
pasture lands are extensive, and cattle are plentiful. There are still
a few potters, dyers, and weavers of cloth here. Sijampattoo, or
Sammantorre, situate at the south-end of the lake, is sparsely peopled,
and little cultivated, containing nine villages, of which the only con
siderable one is that from which it derives its name ; Annamalle (the
Swan's Hill) has a water communication with Batecalo by the lake
which extends thus far.
Akkarapattoo stretches along the south-east coast and is bounded
on the west by Nadukadoo, on the south by Panowa, and on the north
by Sammantorre. It is about 1 6 miles long by from 4 to 7 broad,
and contains fourteen villages, in many of which a large quantity of
paddy is produced. The Navil-aar a considerable stream runs
into the sea in this pattoo ; its waters were formerly applied to the
supply of a large number of tanks. The people are principally
Malabars, and on the whole industrious and peaceable. From
Wambimodoo to the village of Trikoil (Tiru, holy, and kovil or
kowila, temple), situate in this hundred, and lying on the coast is six
teen miles. On the land side, it is enclosed by thick forests, and
has a large Hindoo temple, sacred to Skanda, the god of war, in
which are delineated all the lewd and exciting sculptures characteristic
of the swamies of India. If the traveller be a sportsman or a bota
nist, he has only to diverge to his right throughout this route, to
have as much and as great a variety of shooting or scientific amuse
ment, as he can desire ; for the extensive forests for which this part
of the island is famous, are so seldom traversed by Europeans, that
the wild beast reigns supreme.
Nadukadoo pattoe on the west, though containing twenty-four vil
lages, has scarcely more than half that number inhabited. It has,
however, many extensive plains, and is traversed by several nullahs,
which it is difficult to cross in the rainy season. The magnificent
wihare and dagobah, at Digganakhya, were situate in the Nadukadoo
pattoe, and were erected by Saidatissa, brother of Dootoogaimoo,
1 The mode of hunting the wild hog and buffalo in Ceylon is remarkable for
its simplicity and success. The huntsman enters the plain mounted on a tame
buffalo trained to the business, whose movements he directs by a halter fastened
round the head ; and bending his body so that the pursued animals cannot see
him, keeps always under cover on the off side. In this position he turns and
manoeuvres the buffalo with ease and rapidity in all directions, while the game,
which would fly if it perceived a man, is not alarmed at the approach of a buffalo.
Approaching thus within a small distance, the hunter takes deliberate aim over
its back, and seldom or never fails of success.

CHAP. I.J KARREWITTE — NADEME — EROOWIL — KARREWAHOO. 565
about B, c. 150, while governing the Roohoona division. They
were discovered by the collector of the ' district of Batecalo, many
years ago, in the centre of a thick forest. The size of the wihare is
gigantic, and the credulous natives maintain that it was erected many
thousand years ago, by giants ten cubits tall. The cone of the temple
is entirely covered with brick and mortar ; its basis is almost a
quarter of a mile in circumference, and the top and sides are now
planted with large trees, that have fixed their roots in the ruins, and
elevating their head fifty or sixty feet high, shade this little hill.
A square enclosure, a mile in circumference, consisting of a broad
wall, made of bricks and mortar, and having within it a number of
cells surrounds the temple. The entrance to this enclosure is through
a colonnade of stone pillars, about ten feet high. Near the temple
are seen the ruins of another large building of the same materials,
probably the dagobah already spoken of. The natives, however,
report that it was the palace of a king, erected many years after the
other buildings. The Diggaawewa tank, constructed by the same
prince, whose exact locality is as yet undetermined, was probably also
in this neighbourhood.
Between Trikoil and Komarie, a stage of eleven miles, the country
begins to wear a more cultivated aspect ; black paddy, yams, maize,
payro, Natchenie or kurukkan being largely grown, and plenty of
fish, poultry, eggs, rice, milk, fruits and vegetables, may be obtained
at moderate prices along the whole of the coast. From Komarie to
Pativilla, is nine miles, from thence vid Arookgam to Panowa, near
which the Arookgam-aar is crossed twice, is twelve miles. Arook
gam, situate on the bay of the same name, is a large and populous
village, and was a military post under the Dutch.
Panowa (Panahe), ranks below most of the other pattoos in popu
lation, containing only fourteen small villages, and the whole number
of the inhabitants does not exceed 800. In general features, it has
also a different character from the rest of the pattoos ; for instead of
the uniform flatness by which they are distinguished, there is a suc
cession of rocks and hills, now and then interrupted by extensive
plains and thick forests.
From Panowa to Oohundemalle,1 where there is a tolerable rest-
house, is 8-| miles ; to the village of Kombookan is 12£ miles. The
Kombookan-aar, so called from the innumerable kombook trees
lining its banks, has its source in the Namina Kooli Kandi range, and
falls into the sea, after a south-easterly course of upwards of thirty-
five miles, during which it divides the Eastern from the Southern
province. The interior of the Southern portion of the Eastern province, con-
1 At Oohund-emallS is one of the largest of the huge granite rocks that border on
this road, and is sanctified in the eyes of the people by a legend of Hindoo super
stition. On the summit is the impression of a god, and there are several small
reservoirs. On the various platforms are several rude altars for the reception of
offerings.

566 CEYLON. [part IV-
tains the country known as Veddah Ratte and Maha Veddah Ratte,
which is very inaccessible in consequence of its impervious jungles.
Dembahagalle or Dimbulugalla, called by sailors the Gunner's
Quoin, is a lofty mountain, rising about 3000 feet from the plains ;
opposite to the spot where the Amban-ganga unites with the Maha
velle ; in all probabiHty it is of volcanic formation. Its summit is
constantly veiled in clouds, but in clear weather, a most splendid
view of the country may be obtained, comprising the Chapel Point
at Trincomalee, the lake of Batecalo, the hills beyond Mennairia,
and the Kandian mountains. About fifteen miles to the east, is a
spring, which rises three or four feet above ground, and is surrounded
by a cauldron twenty-five yards in diameter, consisting of soft mud,
from which issue a warm and a cold stream.
The district of Bintenne (called also Vintana by Valentyn), is situate
on the right bank of the Mahavelle-gaDga ; and probably contains
a population of from eight to nine thousand souls. Its village of the
same name which lies about thirty-five miles from Kandy, and is the
centre from which several roads radiate, was once a royal residence j
and when Spilbergen passed through it on his way to Kandy, he is
said to have found several handsome temples and a monastery. Near
the village, was Mahawelligam, the Yakka capital, which is said by
Forbes, to have occupied a space twelve miles in length, by eight in
breadth, on the banks of the Mahavelle-ganga. In this town was
built theMyungana dagobah, which enclosed a golden casket, containing
a portion of Gautama's hair, cut off when he became a Buddha. To
the dagobah, originally built by the chief of the converted Yakkas,
was afterwards added the griwa (neck bone) relic, and it was
enlarged to the height of twelve cubits. The King Khula Bhya
raised it to thirty cubits, and Dootoogaimoonoo to ninety cubits.
Near Bintenne^ are the remains of a large tank six or eight miles in
circumference, supplied by one of the numerous rivulets branching
from the Mahavelle-ganga. Bintenne suffers much from long
droughts, and the temperature is excessively high. Much sickness
prevails at certain seasons, whence it was used by the Kandian king
as a place of banishment for criminals. At Himberewe where it
approximates nearer to the mountain ranges, the temperature is much
cooler than at Bintenne ; the soil is there also excellent, and the
people have extensive gardens on both sides of the river, in which
tobacco, maize, kurukkan, and almost every sort of vegetable flourish.
The indigenous grasses are here of the most luxuriant description,
and though large herds of cattle are possessed by the natives, they are
insufficient to restrain its exuberance. Higher up the river towards
Bintenne, is Kindegodde a large Moorish village; the land is watered
by small streams from the hills and produces dry grain and paddy.
The village of Pangragam lies withhi the angle formed by the
junction of the Gallagedda-oya, and the Mahavelle-ganga. At Alli-
gam, higher up the river, are the remains of a canal cut by a Kan-

CHAP. I.J BINTENNE — REPORT ON THE MAHAVELLE-GANGA. 567
dian monarch, its bed is from eighty to ninety feet above the river.1
It commences at a small cataract eight miles above Pangragam, runs
1 The following abstract, condensed from the report of Mr. Brooke, who
ascended the river from its outlet near Kotti-aar to Kandy, a distance of about 150
miles, is the more valuable and deserving of consideration at this moment, in
consequence of the inability of the Ceylon Railway Company to proceed further
than Kandy with their line ; if indeed they reach that place for the next three years.
" The Virgal ganga, though the smaller branch, is the chief outlet of the
Mahavelle to the sea, except in January and during the freshes. The Kotti-aar
above Goorookel-ganga is in several parts not more than a few inches in depth, and
in many places is quite dry, and up to Kooranjemoone, where it unites with the
Virgal, it has very little water. At that place the breadth of its bed varies from 120
to 140 yards. The banks are in excellent condition, and the bed consists of deep
sand, which rises higher and higher as you approach Kooranjemoone^ until it be
comes, in some places, level with the banks, and evidently continues to increase.
There is not a village, nor, except at Goorookel-ganga, even a house on the banks
from the mouth of the river to that place. When this branch of the river is navigable,
the natives avail themselves of the opportunity of conveying their grain to the
neighbouring ports. At Kooranjemoone, the Mahavelle turns off at a very acute
angle, at the apex of which it pours its waters into the Virgal. The Malabars
who possess a large Gentoo temple on the banks of the Virgal, were assembled
many years ago by their priests to widen and deepen this branch for the purpose
of obtaining a greater supply of water to irrigate the paddy lands belonging to
the temple. This was easily accomplished, the current being naturally directed
into this channel. Since then it has been considerably enlarged. Still the breadth
of the Virgal is much less than that of the Mahavelle, and from this circumstance,
the current runs with great impetuosity. The natives raft considerable quantities
of timber up the Kotti-aar branch in January and during the rains, and when
they arrive at the junction of the two branches, so great is the impetuosity with
which the stream rushes into the Virgal, that it becomes exceedingly difficult
and dangerous to gain the Kotti-aar, for should the rafts come within the influence
of the current, they are hurried down the Virgal to the sea, and the people are
obliged to abandon them, and swim ashore. In this way, many rafts have been
annually lost. The river at the junction turning off at an angle, and the Virgal
branching off from the apex, the current is naturally directed to it.
"To turn the stream round this angle by damming up the Virgal, would be next
to impossible, for the water at the entrance of the Virgal is even when low, ten
feet deep, and the bed of the Kotti-aar immediately below the junction, is five
feet above the water. The river during the rains, rises ten or twelve feet, at which
time the stream at the entrance of the Virgal is so strong and deep, as to render
it impossible to throw a dam across it, in order to force the water round the
angle. But about 700 yards above the junction, there is a channel twenty or
thirty yards broad, which unites with the original bed again below. Were this
enlarged, and the river immediately below its entrance dammed up, the stream
would be forced through the channel, towards Trincomalee. But the dam should
be very firmly constructed, on account of the current during the freshes.
" Another mode of effecting this object would be by turning the stream into the
Damban-aar, which branches off from the left side of the river, about a thousand
yards above Kooranjemoone, and unites with it again about five hundred yards
above Goorookel-ganga, from which place to the mouth there is no fresh water.
This stream from its commencement, varies in breadth from forty to seventy
yards, it then turns off at a right angle, and flows through a narrow rocky
channel, twelve yards broad, and sixty long. The rocks consist only of sandstone,
and therefore may be easily removed. Still further up, the stream runs without
interruption, until it branches off from the river, above Kooranjemoone, and
thus cuts off both the angle at the junction and the dry bed of the river between
Kooranjemoone and Goorookel-ganga. Several insulated sand banks occur in the
middle of the river in various parts, and alligators abound every where.

568 CEYLON. [part IV.
by the side of a long hill and after skirting extensive paddy plains
falls into the river opposite to Pangragam. From being so long
" FromKooranjemoondto threemiles below Pereatory, a distance of twenty-seven
miles, the river varies in breadth from ninety to one hundred and forty yards, and
from four to seven feet in depth. It is very winding, and was low when Mr.
Brooke surveyed it. At Kooranjemoone, it rises during the freshes from ten to
twelve feet, here from twelve to fifteen. In some places it overflows its banks
three or four feet, but this inundation is short in duration, and in January and
August. At the sudden turns of the river, sand is collected in banks three or
four feet above low water, but covered at the rise, and must be removed to
admit boats. Were the impediments removed at Kooranjemoone, the force of
the steam would perhaps gradually destroy these banks. Besides this impedi
ment, there is another, rendering the navigation difficult and dangerous, viz.,
dead trees, which have hung for many years in the river, attached by their roots
to the bank. Perhaps this is one cause which prevents the sand from drifting
down. In the wider parts of the river, the stream runs two miles an hour.
" At Pereatory, the river suddenly becomes broad and shallow, and separates
into two branches ; the right is called the Peerear-ganga ; the left, the Chena-
ganga. The latter is from ninety to 110 yards broad. It unites with the
Adamban-aar, and its bed is dry, consisting of deep sand. It would be possible
to turn the river into this channel, as, at its separation, it is very shallow. A little
below Pereatory, the natives have thrown a dam obliquely across the river, in
order to turn the stream into a large canal.
" The Ambanganga joins the Mahavelle five nriles above Pereatory. At Kalinga,
twenty-four miles above Pereatory, the river varies in breadth from 250 to 500
yards, and in some places is not more than one foot deep. The banks are in
good order, but are overflowed during the freshes, which is attributable to the
insufficiency of the Virgal as an outlet. The plains on each side of the Amban
ganga are very extensive, and are irrigated by means of water courses, supplied
by the superabundant water of the river, which overflows its banks.
" At Kalinga the river for about a mile is exceedingly rocky ; reefs of rocks in
some places running from bank to bank, forming waterfalls over which the stream
runs impetuously. Some of these falls are twelve feet in the mile. Above Kalinga,
it continues more or less rocky, the reefs running across and causing falls of
about two feet. The rocks extend fourteen miles, and are generally from one to
two and three feet above the water when low, but are covered at the rise, and have
a deep channel running between them. The breadth of the river here varies from
150 to 200 yards. The banks are high, but there are numerous gaps cut through
them in order to allow the water a passage into the numerous rivulets and canals,
which extend a considerable distance into the interior. Higher up is the bed of a
large river, which enters the Mahavelle on the right side. Its bed is from fifty
to sixty yards wide. It rises probably south-west of Batecalo.
" At Kindegodde, eighteen miles from the termination of the rocks above Kalinga,
the river varies from 180,to250 yards in breadth, sometimes extending into reaches
or bays. The water here is shallow, and trees overhang the river so low, as to
prevent the passage of a boat. The banks are good and high, and not overflowed.
The rise of the water during the freshes is from twenty to twenty- five feet. At
Bintenne five and a half miles further, the river is from 110 to 200 yards broad,
and for the first three miles is very rocky. At Pangragam on the right side of the
river above Bintenne, it is rocky, and in some places there are waterfalls of three
to four feet high.
"At Rattambe the Ooma-oya unites with the Mahavelle, and both fall into a
natural basin formed in some perpendicular rocks which rise forty feet above the
surface of the water. Besides the principal fall, which is sixteen feet high, there
are several smaller falls ten or twelve feet high. The rocks forming the basin are
four or five feet under water, so that the rise here is about fifty-four feet. Half a mile
above Rattambe is the Bombee-oya, which enters the Mahavelle on the left side.

CHAP. I.] DISTRICT OF WELASSE — SOUTHERN PROVINCE. 569
neglected, it is now of little use, and scarcely exceeds nine feet in
width and one in depth, with a slow current.
The district of Welasse is bounded on the north by Bintenne, east
by Maha Veddah Ratte, west by the district of Wiyaloowa, in the
Central province, and south by Upper and Lower Ouva. It is com
paratively low ground, almost plain, bounded by hills, with a mix
ture of open tracts and jungles, infested by elephants, wild hogs,
and deer. In consequence of the droughts to which it is subject,
the climate is very unwholesome, and at a certain season of the year,
commencing in June, and ending in October, during which the wind
is generally N.W., endemic fever prevails, which sometimes carries
off large numbers of people. The inhabitants, who are chiefly Moor
men, and very industrious, raise two crops of paddy, and two of fine
grain in a year, but the cultivation though on the increase, is com
paratively small. The pasturage of the district is however very abun
dant, and the people who have considerable herds of cattle and flocks
of goats, are in easy circumstances. Kotabowa, the principal village
is inhabited by Moormen, and was formerly the chief military station
of the district. The post was surrounded by a low breast work
with a ditch inside : about a mile from the village is a steep rocky
hill, which affords a fine view of the surrounding country. From it
Namina Kooli Kandi and the Hoonisgiri range in Doombera, are very
conspicuous. Very many hills in the direction of Batecalo are also seen.
From Kottabowa to Battagammana in the Maha Veddah Ratt6
is about twenty miles, the intervening country has a rather agreeable
appearance, consisting of open grass plains, and extensive paddy
fields, interspersed with jungle.
The superficies of the Eastern province, is [4,895 miles, and the
total population which was 73,303 in 1843, may be estimated at the
current rate of increase at 80,850.
The Southern province is bounded on the south by the sea ; on the
west and north-west by the Western province ; on the north-east by
the Eastern province ; on the north by the Central province, from
which it is divided by a triangular line, extending a little to the
north-east of Badulla, and from thence, in a southerly direction
towards Pedrotallagalla and Nuwera Elliya, whence it proceeds in a
' ' Were then the obstructions at Kooranjemoone and Goorookel removed, the
impediments in other parts of the river, consisting principally of sand, would be
cleared by the mere increase of the current, and thus render the river capable of
being navigated by the largest boats, at least as far as Kalinga, or eighty miles
from the mouth, where it becomes rocky, and even then these rocky parts
might be avoided by opening a stream which branches off from the left side of
the river immediately above Kalinga, and enters it again about a mile and a
half below. But even the rocky parts of the river may be rendered navigable,
as they are of so soft a nature, as to be easily broken by a sledge hammer, or
blasted. Should this ever be deemed advisable, it would be necessary to clear
only one side of the river to the breadth of forty yards ; a tracking path should
also be cleared on the bank. The expense and difficulty would not be great.
But in order to form a correct idea as to the practicability of rendering the river
navigable throughout the year, an intelligent person should reside at some
convenient spot, where he would be enabled to examine it at various periods."

570 CEYLON. [PART IV.
northerly direction at some distance to the north of Adam's Peak,
and terminates on the confines of Lower Bulatgamme.
Ouva or Uwa, which is divided into the two districts of Upper and
Lower Ouva,1 which are known to the natives as Oudakinda, the
upper; Meddakinda, the middle; and Yattikinda, the lower divisions,
and subdivided into many korles or pattoos, is one of the most im
portant and valuable portions of the Southern province. Upper Ouva
forms a part of the mountain zone ; Lower Ouva, the hilly region,
extending towards the Mahagampattoo ; and they are separated from
Saffragam by the Goorakondera-oya. United, they include an area
of 4114 square miles, and a population of more than 30,000.
The natural features of Upper Ouva, are varied and magnificent,
— now covered with vast forests, — now displaying the sublimest moun
tain scenery, — now wide extending plains. Those of Lower Ouva are
widely different, and though equally remarkable for its forests, it is
diversified with flat and undulating country. The climate of Upper
Ouva is very salubrious, well adapted to the European constitution,
and the soil is so well fitted for agricultural purposes, that wheat
could be raised in any quantity with little difficulty, and it produces
some of the finest coffee in the island. It is remarkable also for its
large breed of cattle, which, according to Knox, " when carried to
other parts of the island, would commonly die, and the reason thereof
no man could tell." This mortality, doubtless, arose from the
difference of pasture, that of Ouva being peculiarly rich for the greater
part of the year. The district is capable of supporting an almost inde
finite number of cattle, and the only precaution that would be required,
is the provision of fodder for the short seasons, when its surface is
exposed to the parching influence of a tropical sun and bleak winds.
Badulla is the principal station in Upper Ouva, and the seat of
the assistant Government agent, district judge, and the head-quarters
of the officer in command of the district. It is situate on a gently
rising ground, 2107 feet above the level of the sea, in an extensive
and beautiful valley, terminated by an amphitheatre of lofty moun
tains, and watered by the Badulla-oya, which almost encircles it.
The fort, which has but slight pretensions to size or strength, and
formerly contained within it the royal palace, is built in the form of
a star, and has an extensive cantonment attached to it. There is
here a temple dedicated to Kattragamma Deio, and a Buddhist wihare,
with a dagobah attached to it, which were built by Makalan-Detoo-
tissa in the third century. This dagobah is from forty to fifty feet
high, and rises within a double enclosure, skilfully constructed of
brick. Nothing reposes on the foundation below, except this great
circular dome, which is as smooth as the globe of some huge lamp.
Everything is grey with age, yet in the coating of plaster that covers
1 Upper Ouva has one striking geographical peculiarity in its undulating sur
face of hills and valleys, rounded and smoothed as equably as if, instead of primitive
rock, they consisted of chalk or clay. This is accounted for by Dr. Davy, from the
similarity in quality of the rock, and its undergoing rapid decomposition and
disintegration from the action of air and water.

CHAP. I.J UPPER AND LOWER OUVA— BADULLA. 571
the whole, traces of figures of volutes and arabesque devices are here
and there discernible. The summit appears to have been of old com
pletely gilded, and the base elegantly and finely fluted, but there is
not a window or door, except underground, to this mysterious edifice.
Badulla is a tolerably large and very neat village, consisting of two
broad streets which cross each other, and seem to stand in the midst
of a pleasant garden. The houses are chiefly of one story, built of
bamboo, and covered with the leaves of the cocoa-nut tree. Each
house has in general but three walls, the fourth side being open, and
serving at once for door, window, and shop. At the extremity of
one of the streets, a most enchanting landscape opens upon the view ;
of which the lofty mountain of Namina Kooli Kandi in the back
ground, a glorious forest of tall cocoa-nut and jack-fruit trees, areka
and palmyra palms, the underwood beneath the thick shade of their
thick bowering foliage, consisting of various blossoming shrubs with
lovely flowers breathing a celestial perfume, are the leading features.
On the road outside the village, appears here and there a small
cottage between the trees, in which the beautiful and fragrant yellow
fruit of the banana may be seen offered for sale ; and goats, not
unlike fawns in their appearance, running about on every side amid
groups of young children.
Badulla was once the seat of a principality, and under the trium
virate, which ensued after the death of Senerat, Koomara Singha
Hastana made it his residence. In the time of Knox, it was con
sidered one of the chief cities of the island, but its palace was then
already in ruins ; the Portuguese in their incursions having surprised
and burnt it.
The fertile valley of Badulla, intersected by numerous artificial
canals from the mountain streams, is formed into rice fields, with the
exception of a few elevated spots, which tufted with cocoa-nut 'trees,
look like islands of palms in a sea of verdure ; the largest of these is
occupied by the fort and village.
Namina-cooli Kandi is one of the highest mountains in Ceylon,
being 4000 feet above the plain, and 6700 feet above the sea, and is
remarkable for its massive grandeur. The track, which at first is
through a gentle ascent, about three miles from Badulla, is covered
with guavo-jungle, and infested with leeches, but it soon runs over
very irregular and steep ground, which would have been inaccessible,
had it been bare. Still higher, the side of the mountain is without
wood, and covered with lemon-grass, and higher still, the ascent lies
over immense masses of bare rock ; above this rocky region to its
very summit, the mountain is covered with thick wood, through
which the way is bewildering, from the many tracks of wild animals.
The top is almost table land, gently sloping on every side, and many
acres in extent : it is without rock, its surface and soil consisting
almost entirely of friable, and as it were, disintegrating quartz, and
quartz gravel in some places, discoloured by black mould, in] others
as white as snow, with pieces of ironstone here and there intermixed.

572 CEYLON. [PART IV.
The vegetation is peculiar, and very different from that in the forest
below : it being composed of low trees and bushes, which grow in
clumps, separated from each other by little open spaces, either of
white gravel or of dark soil, covered with mosses and lichens. The
plants, though apparently dwarfish and stunted, as if they had
struggled for life with the elements, look fresh and healthy. By
climbing a rhododendron, here in abundance, a fine prospect of the
surrounding country may generally be obtained. The valley of
Badulla, in miniature, appears at a great depth below like a circular
basin, formed by the expansion of several valleys at their place of
junction, and flanked by a double row of hills of very unequal heights.
On the occurrence of a long drought, the Kappurales of the Kattra-
gamma temple, ascend the mountain, and with a leaf of a particular
kind, throw water, to the sound of tom-toms, from the deepest pit
into the air, and scatter it over the people as an offering to their God.
They then descend, confident of having a fall of rain before they are
half-way down, and every native has a thorough conviction of the
infalhbihty of the ceremony in producing the effect. This is but
another instance of the credulity of the natives, into whose mind it
never seems to enter that the priests never ascend the mountain till
they have clear signs of an approaching change of weather. The
thermometer in the middle of the day ranges from 65° to 73° on the
summit of Namina Kooli Kandi.
The country surrounding Badulla, gives proofs of having been
once densely peopled, and the state of desolation which it wore for
some years after the arrival of the British, was the result of the never-
ending warfare in which it had involuntarily participated. It now
bids fair to regain its former standard of fertility.
It is connected by roads with Batecalo, Hambantotte (98 miles),
and Colombo (138 miles), Galle, &c. &c. and by three different routes
with Kandy, from which it is 5 1 miles distant by the Walapanne route,
and 5 9 miles by the banks of the Mahavelle-ganga. The country be
tween Badulla and Kandy is intersected by eight rivers, besides minor
streams, and the direct route lies through Taldenia 9f miles ; Vella-
oya, 9 miles ; Ooma-oya, 6 J miles ; Kooroondu-oya, 5f miles ; Bella-
hool-oya, 4| miles ; Gonegamma, 3$ miles ; Maha-oya, 3| miles ;
Harrackgamme-oya, 2 miles ; Koondasala ferry, 5£ miles ; Kandy,
3f miles, the whole road is good, and gradually descending from the
mountainous to the hilly.
The path between Badulla and Gampaha, a small district, forming
part of the romantic valley of the Ooma-oya, lies up an abrupt
ascent, and then passes along the sides of the Narangalla mountain,
from thence there is a magnificent view over the whole valley of
Badulla, which appears, except at one narrow outlet, entirely sur
rounded by hills ; it then descends for several miles, crosses by a
ford the rapid stream of the Ooma-oya, near Toopittia, and traverses
an open grazing country.
The road from Badulla through Upper Ouva, is carried over steep

CHAP. I.J NAMINA KOOLE KANDI — HAKGALLA — HORTON PLAINS. 573
hills, and leads past the military post of Himbleatawelle, situated on
the summit of a bleak hill, 4000 feet above the level of the sea. This
post is particularly useful for the purposes of communication, most
of the other posts of Ouva, during the rebellion, were visible from it.
The view from this station is very extensive ; the nearest features
of the scenery being the innumerable green hills of Ouva, with here
and there a copse in the sheltered recesses, extensive plains dotted
with stunted trees, the bottom of steep and very narrow valleys
terraced into rice grounds, and, except in the direction of Veddah-
ratte, and Bintenne, over which the eye may wander until the outline
of objects fades into distance, the scene has a continued boundary
of mountains, including those of Doombera on the north. The
extent of pasture land in Ouva is very great, and the number of
cattle grazing on it, still unproportioned to the extent, though bleak
winds and a scorching sun will wither the herbage in the dry season,
and render the pasture scarce. Towards the autumn, Upper Ouva,
and indeed, the whole of the mountain zone in its vicinity, frequently
present a miserable aspect ; the season preceding has been, perhaps,
dry, the winds have done their work, and the natives have set fire
to the dry grass to improve the pasture, or to the upland jungle for
the purpose of cultivating grains that do not require irrigation.
Between Himbleatawelle and Fort M 'Donald the course of the
Ooma-oya is continued through the valley of Parnegamme : the
stream has the same impetuous character, and its banks retain the
same wild and rugged scenery as in the downward course through
Gampaha. The rocks of Hakgalla, and the pleasure grounds of Rawana have
been described in another place ; it is a region varying from five to
seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. After passing through
a swampy jungle, and turning round the northern end of Hakgalla
mountain, an open valley, fringed with barberry bushes, and diversified
by groups and single trees of the superb rhododendron arboreum
succeeds : the dell is surrounded by hoary forests, whose rich but
sombre colouring is unable to remove that sullen gloom which shade
and indescribable stillness throws over the scene between Hakgalla
and the massive Pedro. This is the Seeta Talawa elsewhere
described. The most elevated table land in Ceylon are the open plains
extending between the Totapela range and the mountains which
overhang Saffragam. This region was called Horton Plains, in
compliment to Sir Wilmot Horton, then Governor of Ceylon, by
the two European officers who first penetrated into this tract of
country. For the first seven miles, the path lies through a close
forest of low sized trees, with thick set gnarled branches, the whole
space between their stems being occupied by the ugly and unvarying
nelu plant : the next six miles of the route is over an open undu
lating country, with a soil like peat moss, and covered with coarse
grass, through which numerous small streams, which are the sources

574 CEYLON. [part IV.
of the Mahavelle-ganga, traverse. A damp hoary forest, so densely
shaded by the overhanging foliage that the few rays of light which
penetrate through the moss clad branches, appear unnaturally bright,
and seem to descend with an intensity, that falling upon the yellow
leaf of the broad fern, produce a gleam so brilliant as to contrast
yet more strongly with the gloomy jungle around. After a steep
ascent of two miles, the wood is passed, and the Horton Plains are
reached. These extend for eight or ten miles, have a perimeter of
about twenty-five miles, and are covered with coarse yellow grass,
except in those places where the bright green of dwarf bamboos
shew the course of the rills winding through the open space, which
appears radiant with light, as contrasted with the sombre woods that
encompass the plain or the dark thickets which are scattered on
its surface, and extend through its valleys.
The mountains of Lunugalla and Suduhugalla, 7800 feet above the
level of the sea, rise from this table land, and serve to relieve the
monotony of a forest bound horizon. This tract is seldom visited
by the natives on hunting excursions, and is known to them as the
Maha-ellia, (the great common or clear space) a portion of it is called
the Wilman-talawa, and the inhabitants of the adjoining country are
a race of mountaineers, whose hardy habits and capabilities of
enduring intense cold, distinguish, and in some degree, separate
them from their fellow countrymen of the other parts of the island.
" In these vast jungle solitudes," says Forbes, " on every twig,
round every tree, the stilly damp of ages has twined a mossy
verdure : from its slender filament on the young shoots, slight
texture on the smaller branches, and heavy folds enveloping the
parent stem of forest patriarchs, we learn how time, undisturbed by
tempest, has woven the solemn drapery of this silent region, where
the very shadows of the clouds seem to steal after each other
slowly, silently, one could almost fancy at measured distances. The
mouldering rocks, moss-clad forests, and solitary plains, offer so few
signs of animated nature, that the notes of a small bird seem a
relief from universal stillness, and the occasional rise of snipe become
absolutely startling." On the green banks of a rill on the slope of
the Totapela mountain, that officer discovered an echo " which
hurried forth from every copse and winding glade in these, the
farthest bounds of Rawana's forest labyrinth." As evening ap
proaches, the mists creep up the glen, then expand over the forests,
till darkness closes the day of universal stillness in this domain of
primeval nature. Solitude is insufficient to convey an idea of the
feeling of loneliness inspired by this place. In one part of the
Horton Plains run the several streams that form the Bilhool-oya,
which, in a later part of its course through Saffragam, and along
the flats of the Tangalle district, receives the name of the Walawe
river, and after a course of sixty miles, reaches, although it does not
run into the sea, at the south of the island, its mouth being com
pletely stopped up by a sand-bank, through which its waters per
colate to the sea. The farthest source of the Mahavelle ganga is

CHAP. I J THE MAHA-ELLIA— RAWANA's GARDEN — SCENERY. 575
supposed to rise here, and flows due north ; hence it has a course
of about 200 miles, the last eighty of which might be rendered
navigable for boats at no very great expense.
In proceeding to Gallegamma at the edge of the elevated country,
the first part of the route lies through the plain along which the
Bilhool-oya holds its course, occasionally enlivened by little sparkling
rills, which leap from rocky banks and gloomy copse into its smiling
current. The outlet of the stream from this valley, 7000 feet above
the level of the sea, is by a chasm from which it plunges for 5000
feet through tangled brakes and murky jungles, which cover the
mountain walls of Rawana's garden. In descending towards Galle
gamma, the stream is again perceived, after its furious descent,
emerging from a caverned glen, whence it hurries through various
rocky channels, till its diverted waters are made to glide peacefully
in many a miniature canal through the levelled terraces and bright
green paddy fields of Gallegamma.
The views on descending from the plains are magnificent, par
ticularly at one spot, from which the eye is directed between two
ranges of projecting mountains to rest on the lower hills of
Saffragam, the dreary forest flats of the Mahagampattoo, the
distant hills of Kattragamme, and the white salt-encrusted lakes,
which are conspicuous at a distance of forty miles, and serve to
separate the misty outline of the coast from the clearer blue of the
ocean. The horizon here appears on a line with mountains 6000
feet in height, clouds roll in the valley below, others float high in
air, some rest on the mountains, and a long chain of vapour appears
to hang supended across the lowlands, which are darkened by its
shadow, the whole forming a beautiful commingled scene of earth,
air, and ocean, displaced from the relative position in which those
elements are accustomed to be viewed. The opposite bleak range
of Hagalla exhibits the white skeleton tracery of gigantic trees
gleaming on its huge dark mass : this appearance is produced by
rills and streamlets rushing down and uniting in channels graved by
the slow unceasing hand of time, and suddenly filled by lines of
sparkling foam. The clefts and watercourses of Hagalla are
assigned by tradition to the time of Rawana, and are said to be the
furrows of Rama's arrows ; the mountain itself, in the same spirit of
fiction, is believed to be the transformed body of one of his great
adversaries, the ancient inhabitants of Lanka, the enemies of
the gods.
The descent into Saffragam is by the decaying, but not ancient
temples of Alut Nuwara, whence Balangodde, 1800 feet above the
level of the sea, on the other side of the Wallawe, is arrived at.
To reach the table land of. Upper Ouva from Balangodde, the
Wallawe-ganga, about one mile and a quarter distant, is crossed
on bamboo rafts, or a platform raised upon a couple of small
canoes, or in the dry season it may be forded : the route lies through
the abandoned mihtary post of Alut Nuwara (the new city) to the

576 CEYLON. [part IV.
ancient dewale of that name (distant about eight miles from Balan
godde), where there is also a small wihare and dagobah, the
former of which affords a comfortable halting-place ; the country
around, though beautiful and romantic in appearance, is well
watered, and somewhat neglected in point of cultivation. Crossing
the Idalgashina mountain at the pass, Upper Ouva is entered. This
pass is about 4400 feet above the level of the sea, and the summit of
the mountain about 400 feet higher. There is sufficient grass for an
almost indefinite number of cattle, where the wild buffalo ranges un
disturbed, and the country is but thinly populated. In this beautiful
and magnificent country, diversified with hills, undulating and
champaign lands, watered by numerous perennial mountain streams,
which gradually increase in size and depth from tributary waters in
their meanderings towards the sea, the European settler may choose
his own soil and climate.
The country between Alut Nuwara, and Kalupahane, at the base
of the Idalgashina mountain a distance of fourteen miles and a
half, affords proof of the ample means of irrigation possessed by
this part of the island ; and though the population is sparse, paddy
is extensively cultivated near the former place. The water necessary
to supply the growing crops is conveyed with great skill and economy
over the terraced sides of hills, and through valleys beneath, chiefly
from the Bellahool and Halgaran oyas, the latter descending in
cataracts amidst the grandeur of Alpine scenery.
Kalupahane was formerly a military post, which was abandoned
soon after the termination of the rebellion in 1818; but many of
the inhabitants, who then deserted it, have since returned, and culti
vate crops of paddy between the well-wooded and grass-covered
hills, with which the neighbourhood of the village, about 2350 feet
below the top of the Idalgashina pass, is studded ; and the mountain
itself is covered, from its base to about midway, where the woody
region commences, with verdure throughout the year.
About two miles and a half beyond the summit of the pass, by a
gradual descent of several hundred feet, stands the village of
Welangahena, formerly a military station, overlooking a very deep
valley or ravine, with steep grass-covered sides, . and presenting a
splendid and extensive panorama. Park-like grounds, interspersed
with hills and valleys, covered with verdure, and surrounded by the
immense mountain of Pedrotallagalla, 8280 feet above the level of
the sea on the north-west, the Idalgashina pass on the south-west,
Apotella pass on the south, the Bamberagam pass on the east, and
the high lands above Himbliatawelle and Passera on the north-east,
the whole range possessing a delightfully cool and healthy climate,
and presenting a natural amphitheatre in the distance of from fifteen
to thirty miles, in all the varied colours of the most beautiful land
scape, and in the immediate foreground clumps of flowering jungle,
present altogether a scene not to be surpassed in any other country of
the world.

CHAP.. I.J COUNTRY BETWEEN NUWERA ELLIYA AND OUVA. 577
Retracing our course to Nuwera Elliya, let us glance at the
districts intervening between it and Badulla, through which a
road, the only one by which this fine province is traversed, has been
opened. One of the range of plains that extend among the hills between
Nuwera Elliya and Adam's Peak on the west, is called Gaura-ellia, in
consequence of the capture of a large and fierce animal, called the
gaura, about fifty years ago. The centre of Ouva is about forty miles
distant towards the south-east, and though perhaps less fortunate in
its geographical position than the Saffragam district, is not inferior
in natural advantages or scenery to any other in the island. At the
point where the road begins to descend from the plains of Maturatta
to the comparatively low district of Ouva, an extensive and beautiful
view of that district is commanded.
After entering within the limits of Ouva, the road soon degenerates
into a narrow and occasionally dangerous pathway, now skirting the
faces of precipitous cliffs, now wandering along the bottom of deep
and gloomy ravines. Midway between Badulla and Nuwera Elliya, a
wide and open tract of rich grass land, named Wilson Plains, in com
pliment to Lieut.-General Sir John Wilson, formerly commander of
the forces in Ceylon, extends its smooth velvet carpet over a softly
undulating country. In the centre of the plain stands a bungalow,
built by a hunting club, which died a natural death, from the de
ficiency of objects whereon to exercise its skill and sportsmanship.
After traversing the extensive Wilson Plains, on whose verge Ra
wana' s canal dashes from the rocks of Balella Kanda, the Badulla
road again plunges into a succession of cliffs and chasms ; but their
character now becomes less stern, and gradually changes to the gently
rounded features and level plains of a champaign country.
The route to Alipoot from Welangahena lies through Hilloya and
Passera, the first being a stage of twelve miles, and the last fifteen
miles further. From Passera, once a small mihtary post, and situate
in a deep valley between the mountains of Namina-kooli-kandi and
Luna-galla-kandi, the road to Alipoot, in Lower Ouva, is due east,
and very rugged and hilly throughout the descent, which is nearly
eight hundred feet in nine miles ; the country every where beautiful,
and although scarcely a cocoa-nut tree is to be seen, numerous jack,
shaddock, jaggery, and wild talipat trees serve to make up for the
deficiency, and paddy is produced in a large quantity. The moun
tain of Lunagalla (Salt-rock), which is about 4800 feet above the
level of the sea, is of a conical shape, and its summit is surrounded
by a facade of quartz rock, which from below has a columnar appear
ance, and reminds one of basalt. Alipoot (Allupotta) is the residence
of an Assistant Government Agent for the southern province, who
has charge of the revenue of the district, and is also a District Judge
of the eastern circuit of the Supreme Court. It is no longer the
station of a military command. This place possesses by no means
2 P

578 CEYLON. [PART IV.
so cool a temperature as its position would lead one to expect, par
taking more of the climate of the plains than of the mountains, but
it is remarkably healthy notwithstanding, and offers a strong contrast
to the lower country of Welasse. About two miles from Alipoot
there is a very steep descent, which was formerly fortified by a very
strong kadavette, where a few resolute men could make a successful
stand against an invading army.
The route from Alipoot to Kattragamme is through Bootelle and
Talawa, in Lower Ouva, a distance of forty miles. The first three
or four miles is hilly and rugged, and covered with jungle. After
this there is a little descent, and the remainder of the way is through
a flat country, which is almost wholly covered with forest and unin
habited. At Bootelle there was formerly a military post occupied by
Malays, and the surrounding country was formerly well cultivated,
and is now pretty populous. Between Bootelle and Talawa is the
Parapa-oya, a fine sweeping stream, with banks nobly wooded.
Talawa is a beautiful part of this desert country. It is a plain of
many miles in extent, covered with fine grass, and ornamented with
clumps of trees, resembling the wildest part of an English park.
The prospect from hence is delightful. The eye wanders over the
rich plain to the long line of the blue mountains of Upper Ouva.
Ten miles north of Kattragamme there is an immense mass of
rock by the roadside, called Gallege by some, and Kimegalle by
others. It derives the former name, signifying rock-house, from
several capacious caverns in its side, which afford good shelter to the
traveller, and the latter name, signifying water-rock, it has obtained
from two deep cavities in its summit — natural reservoirs that are
never without water, an element that is often extremely scarce in this
desert, and hardly anywhere else to be found.
Returning to Upper Ouva by the route of Weleway, the road leads
through a very thick jungle by a narrow and difficult path to Yadal-
gamme. This place is a wretched little temple village, on the bank
of a branch of the Parapa-oya, and in the midst of an immense wil
derness of wood. The few inhabitants of the village have some
cattle, and a little paddy ground adjoining. Their huts are fortified
by an enclosure of strong pallisades against the attacks of wild ani
mals, which are here exceedingly numerous. Weleway is about twenty
miles distant, through a country, consisting partly of thick jungle
and partly of open grass plains like those of Talawa, with which they
most likely communicate. They commence close to Yadalgamml,
and extend about five miles to the north-west. Their resemblance
to a park is strengthened by the abundance of deer. Between
Yadalgamme and Weleway two streams are crossed, one very small,
about half way, and the other of considerable size, the Kirinde-oya]
about two miles from the latter place. At a spot called Undagalla-
waha, the former stream forms a deep pool, on the banks of which
are some remains of masonry, which are supposed by the natives to

CHAP. I.J ALIPOOT — DESCRIPTION OF LOWER OUVA. 579
have formerly belonged to a tank, by means of which a considerable
part of the Mahagamapattoo was formerly watered and fertilised.
Some circumstances, such as the level of the ground above the sea,
would seem to warrant the supposition ; but when fully considered,
the unfavourable nature of the ground for the formation of a tank —
on one side, indeed, a huge rock or hill rises out of the plain to the
height of 200 or 300 feet above its surface, but on the other there is
no corresponding elevation for many miles — will satisfy the inquirer,
that the tradition of the former existence of a tank is either false or
¦exaggerated. The few cut stones now left are so neatly wrought,
that it is more likely they belonged to a temple or palace than an
embankment, particularly as there is the figure of the moon on
a fragment of one stone, and that of the sun on another. From the
top of the rocky hill adverted to, the prospect is extensive. With
the exception of two or three similar rocks in the vicinity, and a few
distant and gentle elevations of ground, the whole country to the
southward and to the eastward and westward of that point, is a dead
flat, covered with a wilderness of jungle. In the opposite direction
hills and mountains make their appearance, but they are frequently
indistinct. Weleway is a little plain, about a mile in circumference, on the
confines of the level country, and excepting to the southward, every
way bounded by hills. It possesses great natural beauty, but has
only lately resumed its former state of cultivation. This part of
the southern province presents a striking analogy to the country
between Nalande and Trincomalee ; both are low and nearly flat ;
both overgrown with wood, and nearly uninhabited ; both extremely
unwholesome ; while both exhibit strong and indubitable marks of
change, and of ancient cultivation and population.
From Weleway to Boolatwellegodde, in the district of Gampaha,
distant about six miles, the road traverses a hilly, but not difficult
country, presenting a striking contrast with the monotonous jungle
behind. This country was sadly laid waste during the rebellion : the
villages were deserted, and the fields suffered to become a desert.
Half way between Weleway and Boolatwellegodde, is a nitre cave,
situate in a thick jungle, in the side of a hill of difficult discovery and
access. Its mouth is comparatively small, hardly twelve feet wide,
and where highest, hardly high enough for a man to stand erect.
The entrance is irregularly arched, and has the appearance of having
been cut through the solid rock by which it is surrounded and over
hung. Looking down into the cave, nothing can be more gloomy
and dismal ; the eye can penetrate but a very little way into its dark
recesses, from which a loathsome smell issues, and a dull confused
noise like that of a subterraneous torrent. After a descent through
a steep, narrow and slippery passage about thirty feet, a cave of vast
size is reached, of such an irregular form, that it is impossible to
retain any accurate notion of it. The rugged bottom, which descends
2 p 2

580 CEYLON. [PART IV.
about fifty feet, is covered with fragments of decomposing rock and a
thick stratum of black earth. The roof in general is too high to be
visible. The walls consist either of dolomite rock or of granitic
varieties, most of them in a state of decomposition, particularly those
containing a portion of calc-spar. The natives maintain that this
cave is two miles long, but this is doubtless greatly exaggerated.
Like the nitre cave in Doombera, its excavation is perhaps more
artificial than natural. It has been worked for many years by the
natives, a party of whom come annually from the neighbourhood of
Passera for the purpose.
The distance to Kirriwannagamme is six miles, through an extremely
hilly and rugged country. At this village is a small wihare, finely
situated on a little rocky platform on the side of a steep hill, over
looking a considerable extent of paddy ground below, and several
villages. Crossing the mountain ridge of Upper Ouva by the Apotella pass,
Welangahena is reached. The distance over the mountain is only
about eight miles, and the ascent though steep is not difficult ; the
height is certainly less than the Idalgashina. The prospect of Upper
Ouva from the top of the hill here, which is one of the highest
within the mountain wall, is still more impressive than from the
summit of the Idalgashina. On looking round the country, it has
the appearance of a magnificent amphitheatre sixty or eighty miles
in circumference, formed of a succession of steep, smooth green
conical hills and of deep narrow glens, remarkably free from wood,
enclosed on every side by mountains varying in perpendicular height
from four to six thousand feet.
The distance of Fort M'Donald, in the village of Parnagamme,
from Welangahena is about seventeen miles. All the way the country
is hilly, but not of the same character. The hills the first part of
the way, though rounded, are exceedingly steep and abrupt ; those
which succeed them are less bold and lofty, of greater sweep, and
rather undulating than of the abrupt conical form ; while the hills
the latter part of the way are more irregular than either, and bolder
than the intermediate, though less so than the first. About half way
is Dambawinne, where the fields are neatly cultivated, and covered
with green paddy,
Fort M'Donald, so called from an officer of that name, who dis
tinguished himself by his decision and humanity during the rebellion
in 1817-18, and on a hill near the fort made a remarkable stand
against the whole force of the country under Kappitapola, is about
3000 feet above the level of the sea. It is situated on a low hill in
the fertile and extensive valley of Parnagamme, at the foot of the
barrier mountains of Upper Ouva, and immediately under the pass
of the lofty Dodanatukapella mountain. Thus situated, its scenery
is of the most exquisite kind, displaying most happily blended the
grand and beautiful, while the appearance of cultivation and popula-

CHAP. I.] FORT M'DONALD AND THE COUNTRY AROUND. 581
tion in the surrounding country gives effect to the picture. The
Dodanatukapella being ascended, the route proceeds over the moun
tains to Maturatta, sixteen miles distant. The ascent of the pass
commences immediately on quitting Fort M'Donald, and continues
with very little interruption very steep up to its summit, about two
miles distant, where there are the remains of a kadavette at the en
trance of a forest. This is at the height of between five and six
thousand feet above the level of the sea. The views presenting
themselves from different points of the ascent of this lofty green
mountain, thus far almost entirely free from jungle, are various and
magnificent, particularly of Upper Ouva, almost the whole of which
is visible ; and in the direction of Wiyaloowa, the summit of whose
mountains, rising above a stratum of silver vapour, have a very sin
gular and beautiful effect. Beyond the kadavette, for at least ten
miles, there is a constant succession of ascents and descents, the
general level of the road rather increasing than diminishing in alti
tude. The greatest elevation it attains is about seven miles from
Fort M'Donald.
Resuming our route along the coast. After crossing the ferry at
the Kumukan or Koombookan-aar, the traveller enters the southern
province at the Mahagama-pattoo, now included in the district of
Tangalle. This tract of country is about fifty-five miles long, and
from eleven to nineteen broad. It contains about a hundred villages,
but so thin is the population, that it scarcely exceeds 5,000 souls.
The face of the country, which now for the most part exhibits nothing
but an inhospitable desert of jungle, and low, sandy, waterless plains,
was once well irrigated, and very productive. At present its chief
produce is the salt obtained from the leways, the monopoly of which
produces a considerable annual revenue.
The Great Basses (Baxas)," called Ramanpaaya by the Hindoos,
are a ledge of rocks off the south-east coast, nearly a mile in extent,
and about three leagues from the shore, elevated a few feet above
water, and the sea breaks very high on them in bad weather. Accord
ing to the natives, a pagoda formerly stood on them, and they are
thought by some to have originally formed part of the main, where
various legends of sunken cities in this locality prevail. There is a
safe channel between the Basses and the shore, but it can only be
navigated with caution, and by daylight, as the currents are frequently
very strong and capricious in their direction. The Little Basses,
distant from the former seven leagues E.N.E. is scarcely above water,
and is therefore dangerous to approach.
The first stage from Koombookan is to Potane 7§ miles, where
there is a large rock with a reservoir of water on it ; from thence
through low jungle filled with every description of game known to
the island, the traveller comes to Yalle rest-house, ten miles, which
lies upon the left bank of the Manik-ganga or Parapa-oya, a river

582 CEYLON. [PART IV.
which, formed by the union of two small mountain streams near Ali
poot, runs towards Bootelle in a south-easterly direction, and from
thence taking a south-westerly course, passes by Kattragamme, and
once more changing its course to the east, enters the sea near Elephant
Rock. The water of this stream, which, for the greater part of the
year is as translucid as crystal, and as sweet and wholesome as if it
had been filtered, becomes turbid during the rains from the mass of
deciduous foliage borne down by the stream from the mountains^ of
Ouva, and the accumulations from its well-wooded banks. If the
traveller be anxious to visit Kattragamme dewale, instead of crossing
the Manik-ganga, native guides and a tom-tom beater to drive away
the chetahs and bears should be procured at Yalle, to accompany him
through the jungle.
Kattragam (Kaddirkamam) is famous for a number of temples
erected to every deity in the Hindoo calendar, and has also a Buddhist
wihare and dagobah, but the principal temple for which it is celebrated
is dedicated to Skanda, the god of war, who, according to a tradition,
halted on the summit of a hill in the neighbourhood, on his return
from Mahendrapuri, after destroying the Asuras, who oppressed
the gods. This temple, which, from its reputation and the unhealthy
desert through which its votaries have to pass to it, one would have
expected to find in the highest degree magnificent, is on the contrary
a plain building, divided into two apartments, of which the inner,
into which an entrance is forbidden to all but the privileged or
sacred few, contains the image of the god, and the walls are orna
mented with figures of different gods and heroes, richly executed ;
while the inside of the roof is covered with painted cloths, and the
entrance to the inner apartment concealed in like manner. On the
left of the door there is a small foot-bath and bason, in which the
officiating priest washes his feet and hands before he enters the
sanctum.1 So great is the veneration in which the shrine of this deity
is held, that pilgrims from every part of India resort to worship it,
frequently bringing with them pots of water from the Ganges at
Benares, slung on cross-bamboos, and even the Mahommedans
reverence the place under the belief that it was the favourite resort
1 The Karandua of Eiswara stands on a platform in one of the rooms ; it is
somewhat in the shape of a common oven, and contains a little image of the god,
and a diminutive pair of slippers. The Kalina-madima, another relic, is greatly
respected, and is the chief curiosity in Kattragamme j it is a large seat made
of clay, raised on a platform, with high sides and a back like an easy chair without
legs ; it is covered with leopards' skins, and contains several instruments used in
the performance of the temple rites, and a large fire burns by the side of it. The
room, in the centre of which it is erected, is the abode of the resident Brahmin.
The Kalina-madima is said to have belonged to Kalana-nata, the first priest of
the temple, who, from his great piety, passed to heaven without experiencing
death, and left the seat as a sacred inheritance to his successors in the priestly
office, who have used it instead of a dying bed.

CHAP. I.J KATTRAGAMME AND ITS TEMPLE — MAHAGAMAPATTOO. 583
of Kheder Nabi, whom they supposed to have rendered himself im
mortal by drinking of "the water of life," which he discovered in
the neighbourhood.
During the rebellion of 1 8 1 7-8, access to this temple was completely
closed by the Government, in consequence of the treasonable practices of
the priests, and the pilgrims resorting hither under the denomination
of Fakeers, Pandarams, and Jogis, were placed under great restrictions
for the time, but they were subsequently relaxed, and a passport only
was required.
The temple is placed under the superintendence of a Basnayaka
Nilame, and the revenue arising from the offerings is shared among
the priests who officiate in the sanctuary. In the adjoining country
there are a few small villages, whose inhabitants are bound to pay a part
of the produce of their fields for the lands they hold under this temple.
A grand festival is held in July, and continues for several days,
and, according to a long established custom, Moormen are obliged to
bear torches "before the image, when carried in procession. The
number of pilgrims is now fast diminishing, and the buildings are
fast on the decay. Ere long they will be perhaps level with the
ground, and the traveller be unable to trace their site.
Skanda has several names in Sanscrit, but he is here commonly
styled Kadirama, or the "lord of the rays," from an assemblage
of which, emitted from the eyes of Siva for the destruction of
Asurs, he is supposed to have sprung. He is represented with six
heads, and twelve hands, in each of which he holds a different
weapon, and his vehicle (vahane) is a peacock, which is hence con
sidered sacred by his votaries. Of his two consorts, Dewane and
Valli, the latter is represented as having been nurtured by a female
Veddah, the Veddahs are therefore particularly attached to his
worship. The god of Kattragamme is not loved, but feared, and his worship
is conducted on this principle. The situation of his temple, and the
time fixed for attending it in the hot, dry, and unwholesome months
of June, July, and August, were craftily chosen. A merit was made
of the hazard and difficulty of the journey through a wilderness
deserted by man, and infested by wild animals, and the fever which
prevails at that season, was referred to the god, and supposed to be
inflicted by him on those who had the misfortune to incur his dis
pleasure. Leaving Kattragamme, the traveller, if he intend to proceed
direct to Hambantotte, after crossing the Parapa-oya at the ford in
that village, will proceed through the village of Magaama, and
crossing the Kirinde-oya, pass through Boondelle to Hambantotte, a
distance of thirty miles ; but as he would thereby miss the opportu
nity of visiting Ahamadoewe, or turtle cove, the line by the sea-coast
will be preferable. Ahamadoewe is ten miles from Yalle. As soon
as the turtle season approaches, the renter of the fishery assembles

584 CEYLON. [PART IV.
his people at this place, where they construct huts and a sort of tem
porary bazaar, for the sale of the usual articles of their simple diet,
which are daily conveyed by the villagers within eight or ten miles
of the cove. From Ahamadoewe to Paltoopane, the distance is five
miles, and the face of the country is composed of jungle and sandy
plains, with an occasional glimpse of the sea.
This part of the district is particularly subject to long droughts,
often for ten or eleven months together, and the burnt state of the her
bage offers a melancholy contrast to every other part of the island. The
next stage is from Paltoopane to Magaama, where the Kirinde-oya
is forded, the distance is 9J miles ; the rest-house lies in the midst
of low jungle, where mosquitoes, ants and sand-flies are extremely
troublesome, and snakes occasionally obtrusive. The Kirinde-oya
has its souree in the hills of Lower Ouva, and after a tortuous course
in a south-east and southerly direction, falls into the sea at this
place. Mahagam or Magaama, now a straggling village, is situate
near a large plain, and has within even the last century presented a
very different appearance to its present state, a fact attested by the
remains of several extensive gardens, where many varieties of exotic
fruit trees still remain. The soil bears some resemblance to that of
the pepper and nutmeg plantations at Prince of Wales' island in the
Straits of Malacca, and is well adapted for the culture of sugar,
cotton, pepper, cloves, nutmegs, and sufficient paddy might be
grown for the consumption of the whole district within the range of
irrigation presented by the Kirinde-oya, exclusive of the immense
area that might be sown with the same grain, and supplied with
water from artificial tanks.
The ancient city of Magaama, or as it is sometimes called, Roohoonoo
Magaama, from its having been the capital of the Roohoona division,
is first mentioned in Singhalese annals, B.C. 285, in connection with
Mahanaaga, brother of Devenipeatissa, by whom it was founded.
On the left bank of the Kirinde-oya, there a clear stream, about
forty yards broad and eighteen inches deep, with steep banks, shaded
by large kabuk trees, and about three miles along a ridge slightly
elevated above the surrounding marsh, lie the principal ruins of
Magaama; to this ridge is joined the embankment of the Tissa tank ;
a reservoir, that like others in the vicinity has burst, and in the
rainy season forms noxious swamps, infested with crocodiles, &c.
The ruins of the Menik dagobah and wihare, of the Poega (assembly
hall for priests), which consists of forty-eight plain square stone
pillars, one foot on each side, and thirteen and a half above ground ;
of the palace supported by eighty-five pillars, two feet square, and
fifteen feet high, are successively seen. Near these stands an octa
gonal pillar, nine feet high, and eight feet in circumference, to which
the state elephant was chained ; and the marks of the chain deeply
worn, have nearly effaced an inscription, on which the word Sri
(royal) may still be distinguished. It is called the pillar of Kadol,

CHAP. I.J ANCIENT CITY OF MAGAAMA AND ITS RUINS. 585
the favourite elephant of Dootodgaimonoo, that bore him in all his
battles, and on which he was mounted when he encountered and
slew his antagonist, Elaala. Yatalatissa dagobah is a mass of brick
about seventy feet high ; it is split near the centre, and overgrown
with trees and brushwood ; its destruction is attributed to the Por
tuguese, who are said to have attempted to blow it up with gun
powder. It was built by Mahanama, B.C. 280 ; about a hundred
stone pillars, seven feet high, are scattered in groups around this
temple, and are the remains of separate wihares, Tissa-maha wihare
and dagobah. The latter is even now more than one hundred feet
high ; although no part of the spire or its base exists, it has a small
opening at a considerable height, and fragments of steps leading
towards the aperture are perceptible on the east side of the ruin,
near which are two broken statues, supposed to be Kawanitissa, who
built this temple, B.C. 180, and his queen Wihara Daivi. The
small dagobah of Sandagiri is of the same date as the Tissa wihare,
and built in the usual Buddhist monumental form ; like the others,
it is covered with shrubs and plants : even forest trees find a hold
for their roots in the ruins of its masonry, and derive a support
sufficient to resist the parching blasts of the north-east monsoon.
Magaama is situated eight miles from the mouth of the Kirinde-
oya, and the fields watered by its tanks are said to have extended
the whole of this distance. Kirinde is a rocky point on the coast,
remarkable for the artificial appearance of its masses of stone, among
which there is a spring of fresh water, also some remains of masonry;
and the outline figures of the sun and moon render probable the
tradition, that the kings of Magaama occasionally resorted to this
spot to enjoy the cooling breeze and sea-bathing. The Muda wihare at
this place was built by Kawanitissa, to commemorate the miraculous
escape of Wihara Daivi, his queen, from her marine prison.
Magaama is supposed to have been rightly laid down by Ptolemy
under the name of Magrammum, and my only reason for hesitation
is confined to the etymology of the word ; as I cannot understand how
Ptolemy's informants can have had the seat of a subordinate princi
pality represented to them as " the great city."
From the rest-house of Mahagam, the route to Hambantotte, the
next stage, is 14| miles, through a desolate country, in some places
cultivated with paddy, small grain, and maize, and in others waste,
especially near the leways, where there is nevertheless excellent
pasturage for sheep, though none are there to be found.
After crossing the Kirinde-oya, which is fordable except during
the rains, when the current is rapid and the stream wide, and only
passable in boats, the road lies through the small villages of Tel-
loole and Wellegangodde. These are hardly worth a remark, being
scantily inhabited, and their cultivation being limited to yams, paddy,
maize and kurukkan. The road thence is to Boondelle, upon the
banks of the leway of that name, about a quarter of a mile from the
sea, from which it is separated by a bar of sand. Beyond Boondelle

586 CEYLON. [part IV.
at a village called Aloot Kangalle, inhabited by fishermen, very fine
surmullet, soles, seer-fish and prawns may be procured at the lowest
conceivable rate. This village is also situated on the banks of a
leway, now exhausted, called Matelle Kalapoo, but the tourist will
prefer to rest at Udumalle, upon the left bank of the Matelle-aar,
which is dry except during the rainy season. From Udumalle, which
is no great distance from the great but useless tank of Badagiri, the
general route is between Koholankale and Maha leways and the
sand hills, but as the sea breeze is preferable to the monotony of the
leway downs, by edging to the left, the rest of the journey by the
sea beach will be found the most pleasant part of it.
Common salt is obtained from the leways, or natural salt pans,
which are principally situate on the coast of the Mahagamapattoo, and
is of rare occurrence indeed in the interior, except in minute quantities
dissolved in water. Every parrah of salt contains about one-fourth
of mud or sand, and it often happens that no more than half the
quantity of good salt is produced by evaporation.
The salt lakes of the southern coast are collections of water in the
natural hollows of the beach, confined by a high sand bank, thrown
up along the shore by a tempestuous sea. The lakes from which the
best salt is obtained are the Konakatee-leway, the Sitricale-leway,
the Maha-leway, the Kolankale-leway, the Boondelle-leway, the
Durava-kalapoo and Paltoopane leways. The other lakes in the
same district contain brackish waters, but seldom or never suffi
ciently concentrated to produce salt. The seven lakes mentioned
vary in extent from nine miles in circumference to one and a half.
They are all very shallow, the deepest when its water is highest
not exceeding six feet. In the rainy season they frequently over
flow and break through the bar of sand, and at this season their
diluted water is merely brackish. In the dry season, more especially
in June and July, when a strong parching south-west wind blows,
and evaporation is rapid, their waters are more or less concentrated
to the state of brine, and often dried up entirely, when the bottoms
of the lakes are covered with a crust of salt, which varies from an
inch to a foot in thickness.
The "source and formation of this salt is from the sea, which is
close at hand, and evaporation is the cause of its production. Thus
in the soil there is nothing peculiar, it resembling that of the country
in general, and resulting from the decomposition of granitic rock ;
the incrustation of salt that forms is merely superficial ; the deeper
an excavation, the less saline the ground becomes. In the close
vicinity of more than one of the salt lakes there are collections of per
fectly fresh water ; the more rain there is in the wet season, the less
salt is obtained, and occasionally no salt has formed when the year
has been unusually rainy ; the more boisterous the sea, the greater
the chance of a plentiful production of salt ; and what is more than
all, the saline contents of the lakes themselves are similar to those of
the sea, of which common salt is only the chief ingredient, and all the

CHAP. I.J LEWAYS OF MAHAGAMAPATTOO — HAMBANTOTTE. 587
lakes receive salt either from the sea directly, by the waves breaking
over the bar, or by salt water percolating through the sand. One
instance may be found where, perhaps, from the unusual width of
the bar, the salt is supplied in neither of these ways, the lake in the
rainy season communicating with another that is so supplied. The
formation of salt may be accelerated and ensured best by cutting the
bars early, and diminishing rapidly the quantity of brackish water.
This is a most important subject. The leways are capable of yield
ing a large and increasing sum to the Government, and the whole
island is almost entirely dependent on this district for the supply of
this necessary of life. The production of the lakes has far from
approached its maximum ; and by a yet more scientific management,
they might be made to yield not only a sufficient supply for all India,
but almost any quantity of magnesia might be extracted from the
residual brine. And in procuring wood ash, which this preparation
would require, it would be necessary to burn the jungle with which
this part of the country is overrun, that would diminish the preva
lence of miasma, so fatal to population, and check the increase of
wild animals, so hostile to the agriculture of the district.
With the exception of the vicinity of the leways, the soil of the
Mahagamapattoo is so remarkably fertile, that industry and capital
are the only requisites to make it one of the most productive districts
of the island ; and should cultivation extend, the country would be
gradually abandoned by the wild beasts that infest its woods and
jungles, and become as healthy as any in the maritime provinces.
The approach to Hambantotte is remarkable for the deep red colour
of the road, and the dark green hue of the milky hedge (Euphorbia
tirincalli) with which the enclosures are fenced in. Hambantotte,
derived from the Singhalese words "Hambane," country boats,
and "Totte," creek or small bay, is situate in lat. 6° 6' 58" N. and
long. 810 14' 44" E. and a more solitary or barren situation cannot
well be conceived, the soil being totally unfit for cultivation. The
bay affords good anchorage for vessels of 150 to 200 tons burthen.
The town lies beneath a hilly promontory, projecting seaward towards
the south-east, and forming the south-west side of the small bay,
which convexes to the northward and eastward, and is about a mile
and three-quarters across to its eastern extremity. The town, con
taining about 1500 inhabitants, chiefly consists of mud-built houses
thatched with cajans, but those of the Mahommedan population are
much superior. The gaol, cutcherry, and Assistant Government
Agent's house are situated on the hill, which commands an extensive
view of the sea, the Koholankale, Maha, Karaganare and Sitricale
leways, and of the seven hills of Kattragamme, the local Vatican of
Paganism. The fort and the commandant's house are on the east
side of the hill, about fifty yards from the sea. This place is the
grand depot of the salt gathered in the Mahagamapattoo, and of red
dust, which imparts its colour to every thing with which it comes in
contact. The white ant (Termes fatale, Linn.) is quite in its element

588 CEYLON. [PART IV.
here, the red sand enabling it to burrow to a great depth, and under
the very foundations of the houses ; and from the brickdust appear
ance of every thing upon which its minute particles are deposited by
the wind, these destructive insects are enabled to carry on their
covered ways to the roof, without being perceived even by the most
careful servant. Between the sea and the town, the enormous hills
of sea sand, upon which a heavy carriage may be driven with as
much facility as on the best macadamised road, encroach so very
rapidly, that houses have been continually pulled down and rebuilt
at a greater distance, to prevent their being overwhelmed, and the
principal source from whence water was supplied to the town has
been cut off. The accumulation of sand must have been as rapid as
the growth of the adjoining cocoa-nut trees, for some of sixty feet in
height are, according to Mr. Bennett, buried up to the crests, the
only parts visible above the surface ; and the bunches of nuts he
upon the sand as if they were the produce of a gigantic plant, instead
of being the fruit of one of the tallest of the palm family, and may
be cut from their stalks by a child.
Though the principal station of the Mahagamapattoo, Hambantotte
was till lately without a rest-house, but the deficiency was supplied
by the hospitality of the local authorities. The next stage from
Hambantotte is the rest-house of Wallawe, eight and a half miles
distant ; the road lies to the right of the eastern extremity of the
Karaganar6, or long leway, and adjoining the high promontory by
which the small bay of Hambantotte is formed. This leway lies
considerably below the level of the sea, and might be filled with salt
water by cutting through about 130 yards of sand. It stretches
nearly along the sea-shore for about three miles, and is about half a
mile broad ; a small quantity of very bitter salt occasionally forms
upon its edges, which possesses medicinal properties. The village of
Erabocke, the residence of a Modeliar, where paddy, maize, and
kurukkan form the chief objects of culture, lies to the right of the
high road, and is famed for its forests of daluk (Euphorbia anti-
quorum), which are from fifteen to twenty feet high, and afford a
remarkable contrast to the irregular plains around, which, when the
salt has formed, have a dazzling whiteness. A neglected plantation
of cocoa-nut trees, on the right of the road, points out the site of a
former village, where there is now not a house or hut to be seen,
again evidencing the depopulation of this once well peopled and cul
tivated district. The size of the trees proves the care with which
they must have been tended, or else their destruction by the ele
phants, who abound in this vicinity, would have been inevitable.
The next leway is the exhausted one of Sitricale, which has the
appearance of a large oval fish-pond ; it is about a mile and a half in
circumference, and lies to the right of the road between it and the
sea, from which it is about 250 yards distant. The shore is here
bounded by a high sand bank, and the intermediate space to the left

CHAP. I.J THE WALLAWE-GANGA — RESOURCES OF THE COUNTRY. 589
of the road is filled with thick jungle. About half a mile beyond the
Sitricale leway, is the lesser Sitricale, the furthest from the sea, and
called by the natives Koda-leawawa. Between this place and the small
village of Pybocke, the country is frequently inundated ; and after the
subsidence of the waters, patches of white, interspersed with the bright
green of the herbage, meet the eye in every direction; these on a nearer
approach are found to be mushrooms, which for size and flavour are not
to be surpassed . At night these plains appear studded with fire-flies, and
at sunrise teem with elephants, herds of wild hogs, spotted deer and
peafowl, and the adjoining larger patches of water bordered by jungle,
with flamingoes, spoonbills, wild ducks, widgeon, pelicans, herons,
toucans and kingfishers. Here is also a large artificial tank, of com
paratively modern construction, capable of holding sufficient water to
irrigate 100 ammomams of paddy ground, of which the average
produce is 1600 parrahs, or nearly 1,100 bushels. Wanderope
is the name of the next village after leaving Pybocke, on the left
bank of the river Wallawe, and consists with one or two exceptions
of scattered cottages and huts, of which a few are tiled. The only
thing to interest the antiquarian is a granite post, like an old English.
milestone, under an umbrageous Bogaha, in the area of the neigh
bouring temple, which is said to constitute its title to the adjoining
lands so long as the sun and moon may endure.
The Wallawe or Wallaway river bears about E. by N. f- N. four
leagues from Tangalle ; the coast between them is low and barren
close to the sea, but groups of cocoa-nut trees are seen near the river's
mouth, and its banks are shaded with some of the most magnificent
trees in the world ; the coast is high inland, and may be approached
to twenty-five fathoms within four or five miles of the shore. The
Wallawe-ganga is the fourth river in Ceylon in importance, but a
bar of sand, through which it percolates, forms a dam at its extremity,
except during the rainy season, when it rises full twenty feet above
its usual level. At other times it is almost every where fordable from
about half a mile above the ferry at the village of Wanderope (which
is about two miles from the sea) to its source in the mountains of
Ouva. The natives residing on the banks of this beautiful stream,
will not bathe in it during the rainy season, on account of the quantity
of decomposed vegetable matter carried down by the stream, render
ing not only the water, but the air unwholesome, and producing
jungle fever if drunk or bathed in. Off the entrance of the river,
at the distance of three or four miles, there is a rock on which the
sea generally breaks, and is said to have a channel with seven or
eight fathoms water, sandy bottom between it and the shore, through
which small vessels may occasionally pass. A little inland from the
entrance of the river, stands a small mountain of barren aspect. The
light but rich alluvial soil upon the banks of this river is well
adapted for the cultivation of sugar, pepper, ginger, cotton, turmeric,
cardamoms, arrow-root and the canna glauca. Such, however, is the

590 CEYLON. [PART IV.
neglect of agriculture, that the most indispensable condiments for
the natives' food are not grown in any quantity here, where sufficient
to satisfy the wants of the whole island might be grown on a part of
the waste lands alone, with but little trouble, beyond planting and
weeding. Land also may be obtained at a merely nominal rent, or
purchased at a trifle, on account of the alleged insalubrity of the dis
trict. The village of Wallawe is on the right bank of the river. If
the improvements of the district were to commence from hence, its
progress would be rapid. This is just the tranquil locality adapted
to the silk worm, and the mulberry thrives here luxuriantly. Wells
can easily be sunk, and the purest water be obtained within twenty
yards of the river.
During the rains, the Wallawe, becomes, as we have already remarked,
a deep and rapid stream, and can only be crossed in boats. The horse-
boat in general use at the Ceylon ferries, is a very convenient one for
horses and carriages ; for being flat bottomed, it draws only a few
inches of water, and as it is strongly built, about eighteen feet in
length, and six or seven in breadth from head to stern, both which
are square, the upper part abutting about three or four feet from the
bottom, is capable of conveying a considerable burden. The common
mode of ferrying five or six passengers across the Wallawe river, is
by joining two canoes and placing a platform over them, capable of
containing as many chairs conveniently. This is also the best for
excursions up the river ; for a temporary awning may be fitted up
in ten minutes, and a couple of boatmen, one being seated in the bow
of the near canoe, and the other in the stern of the off one, or vice
versd, propel it along rapidly with their short paddles, and seldom fail
to secure whatever birds may be shot and fall into the water from the
overhanging trees, without moving from their seats. Paddy is sown
in this district in October and November, and reaped in January and
February, but that called the second sort, is reaped in December and
January. Maize (Iringhee Singh) is sown in August and September,
and reaped in November and December ; the brown and white kur-
rukkan (Cynosurus coracanus, L.) are sown in August and Sep
tember, and reaped in November and December ; Moong (Phaseolus
mungo, L.) and badhama, an excellent substitute for rice, are sown
in October and November, and reaped in January and February.
The GiraWe-pattoo lies between the Wallawe-ganga, its limit
on the east; the Kahawatta-oya, its bound on the west; and the
Morruwa or Morva-korle on the north. It comprises nearly fifty
villages, and its fisheries are extensive and afford considerable em
ployment. The forests abound in elephants, which were formerly
caught here in great numbers for exportation, and the great elephant
hunts spoken of by Cordiner, took place in this district. The original
means of irrigation possessed by this province were of the most
extensive description. Clay, for the purpose of brick making, is
abundant in several localities, and limestone rock is abundant.

CHAP. I.J WANDEROPE — THE GIRAWE-PATTOO. 591
The pansala at Wanderope is a very low building, covered with
pantiles, and the wihare a mere heap of brick ruins j but these afford
very ample proof of the excellent quality of the materials employed
in their manufacture, which were procured in the vicinity and made
upon the spot. These ruins, which are partly covered with jungle
underwood, lie within an enclosure on the left hand, immediately
adjoining the high road, and about one hundred yards from the
ferry ; but the Buddhists have not the means, if they had the inten
tion, of re-employing the materials in the restoration of the wihare.
In the vicinity are the remains of a Singhalese inscription cut in
stone, but much defaced, and on an adjoining pillar are coarse out
lines of the sun and moon, emblems of royalty and duration, com
monly attached to grants of Crown lands made by the Kings of
Ceylon. Tanks for irrigating the surrounding country might be
constructed here, and on the opposite banks of the Wallawe, to any
extent ; but the old Wallawe tank having been formed above the
level of the river, could only be supplied from it during its periodical
rise in the rainy season, when water is least wanted. The neglect
of this province is attributed by many to dread of the climate, by
others, to the interior having become the field of speculation in
coffee planting and the sugar-cane ; but the latter, though successful,
is not likely to be carried to any extent in comparison with the
former. Sugar might be grown with great success in the Mahagama
pattoo, where the cane grows luxuriantly, but the natives are fearful
of planting it, except in small patches near their dwellings, for
making syrups, and for their children's use in a raw state, in con
sequence of the herds of elephants that infest the country. The
villagers on either side the Wallawe, appear to have an insuperable
objection to the sea breeze ; for they allow the underwood to grow
so closely as to preclude its cooling and salutary influence. If this
were not the case, the village would become as salubrious as any of
the intermediate places between Tangalle and Colombo. Having
crossed from the left to the right bank of this river, the traveller
enters the Girrawe-pattoo, or parrot district, and just before sunset
the trees on the banks of the Wallawe, particularly those of deciduous
foliage, are frequently covered by these birds. The rest-house is
about one hundred yards from the ferry on the left of the highway,
which there begins to assume some sort of road-like appearance, and
intersects the jungle by which this large and convenient building is
surrounded, but though the compound is strongly fenced, it is sub
ject to the nocturnal incursions of elephants, which greatly infest
this road at that time, rendering travelling dangerous. A sand,
composed of rubies, sapphires and cats' eyes is peculiar to this dis
trict, and used in making transverse sections of the molares of
elephants, and for many of the purposes of diamond powder. About
a mile above the rest-house is the Government cattle kraal, where
the bullocks belonging to the salt department at Hambantotte, which

592 CEYLON. [part IV.
are sent to this distant place to graze, are penned, and are frequently
carried off by chetahs. The kraal lies in the midst of an extensive
plain, which is crossed to the left in the route by the sea side — which
is by far to be preferred — to the village of Wellepattanvelle, about 1£
miles from the Wallawe, from whence the road rises by a gradual
ascent. From the summit, the prospect commands a very extensive
range of both sea and land, including Tangalle, the Mahagama-pattoo
and the Kattragamme hills in the distance. Near the straggling
village of Loonawe, situate at the eastern extremity of the Tam-
boora-galle leway, which lies nearer the sea than the Konakatte
leway, the country has a delightfully verdant appearance after the
rains ; but being entirely dependent upon a small tank, which is filled
at that season, for its irrigation, the produce is very limited in pro
portion to what it might be, and the relics of former embankments
and drains in almost all the villages of this district are plain evidences
that its former was much more extensive than its present state of
cultivation. The yield of paddy is not more than eight or nine-fold
here, while that of the brown and white kurukkan and badhama is
from twenty-five to thirty-fold.
After crossing the wooden bridge over the Ranne-oya, where that
river is about twenty feet wide, the rest-house, which is elevatsd a
few feet above the road on the right hand as one ascends the hill,
offers shelter from sun and rain, but no comfort, being both hot and
disagreeable, from its low roof and small size ; the rock and temple
of Kahandawia are here distinctly seen. The village of Ranne is
eleven miles from Wallawe, -and nine from Tangalle. Crocodiles
infest the river, and the natives catch them in kraals, composed of
strong and high stakes. The porcupine also abounds here. About
a mile and a quarter from the bridge on the right hand, there is a
spacious but dilapidated tank, which was once capable of irrigating
300 ammomams of land, the annual average produce of which, in
the two harvests, amounted to 9600 parrahs of paddy, equal to 6200
bushels ; a great extent of luxuriant rice fields are now watered by
the Ranne-oya, the course of which may be traced at some distance
from the gigantic reeds that rise above its banks.
Throughout this part of the southern province in the former
district of Tangalle, the remains of innumerable tanks, some of very
remote antiquity, afford ample proofs of the skill of its ancient
population in the collection and distribution of water. Many are
excavated on level plains, which were supplied by dams across rivers,
and over deep ravines, others by watercourses carried from hill to
hill over valleys, forming extensive reservoirs for irrigation, when
drought precluded a supply of water from natural sources. A few
miles before one enters Tangalle, the belt of cocoa-nut palms, which
borders the sea in myriads, begins and continues with a few intervals
all the way to Colombo, but not a palmyra-tree is to be seen. There
is an excellent Government house, formerly the residence of the

CHAP. T.J TANGALLE— THE MORRUWA KORLE — KIRIM& CANAL. 593
collector at Tangalle. The house is immediately under the hill
where the fort stands, and has a spacious verandah, between which
and the sea there is a magnificent row of trees, (Mimusops Elengi,
Linn.) There is no other civil officer at Tangalle than the district
judge, and not even a custom-house establishment.
Tangalle may be seen at a great distance from the offing, and is
easily known by the small fort and the ruins of an old pagoda, situated
on an elevated and projecting point on the west side of the bay.
The bay itself is of considerable extent, it being four miles from
Tangalle Point to the extreme point of land opposite. The shore is
sandy. From each point run extensive and dangerous reefs. Within
the reefs there is good anchorage and shelter during the south-west
monsoon. The proper entrance to the bay lies between the western
rock and a breaker N.N.E. £ E. of it. Between the rock and the
breaker is a channel more than eight fathoms deep. The rock is
always visible, being large, and rising several feet above the surface
of the water. A vessel should keep nearer the rock than the breaker.
Should the swell be great, which is generally the case, the best
entrance is midway between the breakers and rock, in eight or nine
fathoms, over a fine sandy bottom. From thence the course is
N.W. £ W. direct for a small double hill, rising considerably inland,
and bearing exactly in the middle of an opening in a plantation of
cocoa-nut trees, until in seven fathoms, fine grey sand, when a vessel
can either anchor or run farther up the harbour, as circumstances
require. In the latter case, vessels bearing W.N.W. f W. steer for
a small white pagoda on a small conical shaped hill, appearing over
the end of the cocoa-nut grove. Either of these courses will bring
them directly into the harbour. In the middle of the harbour lies
a bank with two fathoms water on it, and a breaker is seen over it.
Inside this bank are four and a half fathoms with a fine sandy bottom.
Vessels wishing to anchor inside of it, pass it to the northward,
leaving it on the starboard hand, when a channel will be found of
four and a half fathoms over a sandy bottom. Between this and the
reef running off Tangalle Point, there is also a channel, but the bottom
is rocky, and the soundings irregular. This breaker almost always
shews itself, and can therefore be easily avoided. Within it a
vessel is completely sheltered from the west and south-west wind, and
rides in smoothish water from the reef, which runs from the point,
breaking the force of the southerly swell. The landing place, which
is entirely free from surf, lies under the rising ground upon which
the fort stands, having the ruins of a house a little to the south of it.
About a quarter of a mile from the landing place passing the fort,
is a well of excellent water. A pathway leads direct from the fort
to the well, where water may be filled, and the casks rolled down to
the beach. A small jetty built at the landing place would greatly
facilitate the lading of boats. This bay lies completely exposed to
the east and south-east winds, which are most severe on this coast,
and prevail during October, November, and part of December, blowing
with great violence at the full and change of the moon, but as they
2 a

594 CEYLON. [part IV.
are of short duration, ships might avoid touching at Tangalle while
they last. The rise in the tides is inconsiderable. It is high water
at full and change. The tide runs N.N.W. and S.S.E.
The harbour of Tangalle might be made capable of giving shelter
to large ships, and is deserving of attention from the Government.
The inhabitants are chiefly occupied in agriculture and fishing. The
view from the fort is beautiful and extensive, and is an excellent place
for a signal station for communicating with Indiamen makhig Dondera
Head. The Morruwa Korle, adjoining the Girawepattoo on the
north, is divided into two parts, Odugaha and Yattigaha, and com
prises twenty villages. From its position it is both well watered and
fertile. Of the several national and arduous undertakings of the Govern
ment of Ceylon, during Sir E. Barnes's administration, the canal of
Kirime is justly entitled to rank with the foremost in agricultural
importance, and as a splendid memorial of skill, talent, and perse
verance. It was commenced in 1824 under the personal superin
tendence of an officer of the civil service, and was completed in 1827.
This most important auxiliary to native agriculture was begun at
Kirime, about thirty miles to the northward of Tangalle, situate at
the foot of the lofty mountains called Rameli- Kandi, which divide
it from the Morruwa Korle in this province, by constructing a dam
52 feet high, 540 long, and gradually diminishing in breadth to 12
feet from a base of 160 feet, which was indispensable in consequence
of the rapid rise and fall of the mountain streams during the rains.
Into this reservoir, which is composed entirely of fine red soil, with
Scarcely a pebble to be found in it, the course of a mountain rivulet
was diverted, and the Kirime canal, which as a work of labour, excels
that of the dam, was the next object of the attention of the able and
zealous superintendant. The completion of these splendid works,
was followed by the distribution of honorary titles and gold medals,
which were conferred by his Excellency the Governor upon the most
deserving headmen, by way of marking publicly the unqualified
approbation of their conduct and services by the executive.
Twelve miles inland from Tangalle are the Buddhist temples of
Mulgirigalla. This rock is about 350 feet high, perpendicular on
three sides,,but connected on the north with a low rocky range, of which
it forms the abrupt termination. The small level spot on the summit,
from which there is an extensive prospect over the southern maritime
provinces, is surmounted by a dagobah : the ascent is not difficult,
stone steps being placed wherever the rock is very steep. The dwel
lings of the priests of the establishment are situated near the base of
the rock, and behind them, where there is an overhanging ledge, the
remains of the oldest temples now in ruins may be distinguished.
The modern temples are excavated under a ledge within a little
distance from the summit, and are in good repair. The rock temples
of Mulgiri, though similar in design, are very inferior to those at
Dambool : the old temples were formed by Saidatissa in the second
century before Christ : Kaloona Detootissa completed the new temples

ClIAP. l.J ROCK TEMPLES OF MULGIRI— DONDERA. 595
in the seventh century. A colossal stone image of Buddha, in a
recumbent posture, is to be seen in either wihare.
From Tangalle to Dikwelle the distance is eleven miles, and a
great part of the road hilly, but though tolerably good, it is much
broken up during the rains. • From the more elevated parts of the
road, the country appears to the greatest advantage at that season
when the verdure of the surrounding scenery is very grateful to the
European eye. Paddy fields abound in every direction Passing
so near the well known Dondera Head, or Dewinuwara (city of the
god) nine miles from Dikwelle, and about two and a half or three
miles from Matura, the traveller will find it well worth his time to
diverge to the left from the main road, and visit the ruins of the
ancient Hindoo temple there.
Dondera Head, the southernmost point of Ceylon, and the site
of the Singhalese capital during a part of the seventh century, is a
steep, narrow, and rugged promontory overlooking, and about a
mile to the eastward of, a low tongue of land covered with cocoa-
nut trees. At this place are a wihare with a dagobah, its usual
accompaniment, and a Hindoo Dewale," dedicated to the great
great Vishnu (Govinda of the Singhalese), and similarly ornamented in
its interior to the Kattragamme temple. The temples are delightfully
shaded by cocoa-nut and areka palms, yellow Bignonia, (Bignonia
Indica), Bogaha, and plantain trees, and afford a cool and pleasaut shade
during the heat of the day. The priests and attendants are extremely
civil and obliging to strangers, as if pleased at the temple being
noticed by Europeans. Here, interspersed among native huts,
gardens, and cocoa-nut plantations, several hundred upright stone
pillars still remain ; they are cut into various shapes, and exhibit
different sculptures, among others, Rama with his bow and arrows
may be discerned in various forms. A square gateway, formed of
three stones, elaborately carved, leads to a wretched mud edifice, in
which four stone windows of superior workmanship, are proofs that
a very different style of building formerly occupied the site of the
present temple. Dondera is still held particularly sacred by the
votaries of Vishnu, as being the utmost limit which now remains of
his conquests when incarnate in that perfect prince and warrior
Ramachandra ; and an annual festival, which takes place in the full
moon in July, continues to attract many thousands of the worshippers
of Vishnu. Near the sea shore is a group of plain stone pillars, and
on a low rocky point a single pillar, over which the sea breaks amidst
hewn stones, the remains of some ancient building. This lone pillar
is supposed to mark the utmost limits which remain of Vishnu's
conquest and religion. The pillar is of a form alternately octagonal
and square, and exactly resembles columns that are to be seen on
the sacred promontory of Trincomalee. A short distance inland, is a
1 While the famous temple at Dondera was in progress, the inhabitants of a
village in the vicinity were ordered to feed the crows that resorted thither. The
words used in calling them, Ka Ka-witta, were uttered so often, that the village
assumed the name, substituting for Ka, Ma-Kawitta.
2 o. 2

596 •* CEYLON. [part IV.
stone building called Galgana, completed or restored in the reign of
Daapulo II., a.d. 605, and consisting of two rooms, the roof as
well as the walls are of hewn stone, and exhibit excellent specimens
of masonry ; on the top there appears formerly to have been a
dagobah, but the ruin is now covered with shrubs and creeping
plants. Dondera is included in the Wellebodde-pattoo, a subdivision of
the district of Matura, which extends from thence to the Kahawatte-
oya, having the Kandabodde-pattoo, comprising sixty villages to the
north ; the Gangabodde-pattoo on the west derives its name from the
Neela-Ganga traversing its western, and the Kirime-oya its eastern
side. It is almost surrounded by hills, and the soil is extremely
fertile. It comprehends eighty-three villages. Approaching Matura
from the eastward, the country is very beautiful, presenting extensive
grazing plains and paddy fields, intersected with canals and rivulets,
and interspersed with cocoa-nut and areka palms. The town lies
low, and the lines that remain upon the left bank of the Neela-ganga
(Blue river) suffice to shew that under the Dutch, the fortifications
were very extensive. On the right bank there is a small fort, built
of stone, with five bastions that command the bridges, which are
connected by an islet and the ferry There are several excellent private
houses at this place, chiefly of Kabook or iron-stone clay, a district
Court-house, chapel, and barracks. The Cutcherry is an extensive
building, and there is also a Wesleyan Mission-house and chapel.
The country around Matura is so extremely fertile, that every article
of food is abundant and cheap ; and no place is better supplied with
fish. The neighbourhood affords the most delightful walks and
drives, completely sheltered by a variety of umbrageous trees, and
dense cocoa-nut topes, from even a midday sun. The town lies in
lat. 5o 58' N. and long. 80° 37' E. and bears about E. % S. from
Red point, the east point of Redbay, eight miles distant, the land
between them is moderately elevated, and the coast very steep,
having sixty fathoms water in some places, within twenty miles from
the shore.
Matura (Maha-totta, the great ferry), in allusion to the width and
rapidity of its river, is a considerable town, and the fort is conspicuous
from seaward, when it bears N.N.W. and N.E. Ships can anchor
here in the N.E. monsoon, abreast of the town in twenty and twenty-
two fathoms, the bottom is generally foul. Plenty of wood and good
water, poultry, fish, fruits, roots and vegetables may be procured,
the two former at the entrance of the river or very near it, about half
a mile to the westward of the fort ; but boats" entering it, should
have a native pilot, as there are some dangerous sunken rocks at the
entrance. Matura or Pigeon island, stands opposite the fort and
near the shore, and is small and rocky, resembling a haycock. Boats
find shelter under it, the surf being generally high on shore. Canoes
are used for passing to the main. An assistant Government agent in
charge of the revenue, and a district Judge, are the only public officers
resident here during peace. Matura is adapted for the cultivation of

CHAP. I.J WELLEBODDE AND KANDEBODDE-PATTOOS — MATURA. 597
pepper, indigo, cardamoms, coffee, cotton, ginger, and even sugar, and
the country between Matura and Wallawe is a succession of rich rice
fields in the valleys. The district of Matura extends from east to
west upwards of forty miles, and eighteen from north to south, and
produces as great a variety of grasses as any in the island, exclusively
of the esculent species cultivated under the" name of small grains. It
is bounded on the east by the Wallawe-ganga, and west by the Talpse
and Gangabodde-pattoos, and comprehends, exclusive of the gravets,
fifteen pattoos and 464 villages. This district is perhaps the most
attached to the Buddhist religion of any in Ceylon, as is evidenced
by its numerous wihares and the multitude of priests, and Dondera
is its great stronghold. Matura is famous for poultry, with which it
supplies the Galle and Colombo markets, but coir, arrack, and cocoa-
nuts are its principal staples. Beautiful sofa and palanquin mats and
carved figures of the native castes are manufactured here for sale to
the curious, and the petrified wood of the tamarind tree, which is
much esteemed, is commonly manufactured into snuff-boxes and seals,
and sold at reasonable prices. On the right bank of the Neela-ganga,
over which there is a wooden bridge, the Hat-bodin (seven bo-trees),
though now a cocoa-nut tope, retains its ancient name, and serves to
point out the spot where the funeral pile of the murdered poet
Kaalidaas was prepared. The next stage from Matura is Belligamme,
(Welligama) distant rather more than eleven miles, and situate upon
Red Bay, which is formed by two beautiful promontories, inclosing
several bare rocks and two wooded islands. It is a fishing village,
a port of export and entry, the chief town of the Korle of the
same name, and is densely wooded with cocoa-nut, bread-fruit, jack,
areka, and other trees, from one of which, Beli (Cratseva Marmelos,
L.) and gamme, village, its name is derived. The intermediate
country is fertile and well cultivated, and the road excellent. Snipe
and teal abound in the lower grounds, and a variety of doves, mango-
birds, bulbuls, parrots, and finches in the upper. The finest fish
may be procured for a trifle, as well as green turtle, large prawns
and crabs, and no part of the province is better supplied with indi
genous fruits and vegetables. The rest-house is a substantial building
of stone, approached by an avenue of splendid teak trees.
The Agraboddigane, wihare and dagobah, as well as the dagobah
in the midst of the dense cocoa-nut tope to the right of the high
road to Galle, are worthy of a visit from the traveller. Agrabodhi-
wihare is situate upon a gentle eminence, and approached by flights of .
numerous and well worn stone steps. The recumbent image of the god
is on the left hand on entering the sanctum, and is about thirty feet
long, and covered with a beautiful lacker, which has made the surface
as smooth as polished marble. The body of the idol is a light yellow,
(the right arm and breast exposed), the eyeballs white, mouth red,
eyes and hair a deep black, the latter Kaffre-like and woolly, and
upon the crown of the head is a representation of the sacred flame.
The robe, in wavy folds and fitted close to the body, is of sacred
yellow or saffron, and reaches to the ankles ; and over the left shoulder

598 CEYLON. [paut it.
is a bright vermilion scarf, which, instead of falling with the position
of the Buddha, retains its place horizontally to the waist, as if
fastened to the outer robe, or as in an erect instead of a recumbent
figure. Among other emblems, the sacred Naga, and innumerable
images of the Hindoo deities are prominently conspicuous. A long
narrow table, nearly the length of the image, before which is sus
pended a painted cotton curtain, displays the fragrant diurnal offerings
of the neighbouring villages, among which, the Nelumbium specio-
sum, the Rat-manel-mal of the Singhalese is one of the chief in
point of beauty and odour. The walls decorated with native paintings
in the primitive style of outline and colour, without regard to shade
or perspective, of which the Singhalese are ignorant, display a most
extraordinary historical and emblematical medley. Pagan deities
are to be seen holding female figures in their arms, — kings and queens
receiving homage ; the former seated on thrones within moveable
palaces drawn by elephants, the latter in chariots of Roman shape,
propelled by means of a pole, as boats are in shallow water ; Bo trees,
palms, and lotus flowers intermixed, with executioners in the act of
decapitating criminals, with blue, white, and red-eyed devils, some
forcing their victims into the flames, others tormenting them in the
most excruciating forms ; and by way of finish, those condemned to
endless torment are enveloped in flame, which is as vivid as red and
yellow paint can make it. Near Belligamme is the figure called the
Kustia Raja (leprous king) : it stands by the road side, is twelve feet
high, and forms part of a great mass of rock, in which it is sculptured
in high relief. There are two traditions respecting its origin. One,
that the statue represents a prince from the continent of India, who in
troduced the cocoa-nut tree, and taught the Singhalese its many uses :
the other, that a king afflicted with leprosy, established himself at
this place for the convenience of worshipping at the adjoining wihare
of Agrabodhi, as he hoped to be relieved thereby from the loathsome
disease. .A remoter date is assigned to this statue than is warranted
by its fresh appearance, or by the dress and decorations on the figure :
small figures ofBuddhaarecutas ornaments on the high conical tiara
with which the statue is surmounted, and which formed the head
dress of Singhalese kings as late as the twelfth century. A little to
the west of Belligamme, is Nidigama (the sleeping village), so called
from the inhabitants having neglected to light up the road and lie in
waiting for Koomara Daas, when he passed through the village in the
evening. From Belligamme to Galle, seventeen miles, the whole line
of road is excellent, and entirely shaded by dense cocoa-nut topes or
by evergreen and umbrageous sea pomegranate trees (Barringtonia
speciosa). About midway, the serpentine lake of Kogalle, which,
during the rains overflows the road between it and the sea, into
which it at other times flows by a small stream, presents one of
the prettiest and most tranquil scenes to be met with in the island,
and notwithstanding that it is scarcely four miles long and about a
mile and a half broad, it is well worth a day to visit the pretty islands
which ornament its waters. This delightful basin is surrounded with

CHAP. I.J AGRABODHI — KOGALLE LAKE — GANGABODDE-PATTOO. 599
a natural amphitheatre of verdant hills covered to the very top with
shrubs and trees of every hue that the most luxuriant foliage can pre
sent, and from its translucent bosom rise three curious rocks called
Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. From the island where the agent of
Government's bungalow stands, the scenery is exquisite. The cajan-
roofed Bana Maduwas to the southward of the lake, from their extra
ordinary pagoda-like shape, have a very novel appearance to the
European, and embowered as they are among the deep green foliage
of talapat, cocoa-nut, and areka palms, shaddock and bread-fruit
trees, indicate a calm and delightful solitude. Pic-nic parties from
Galle frequently visit this charming spot, and tiffins and dinners are
occasionally given at the bungalow, the use of which is never refused
by the agent of Government to respectable people for such festive
occasions. There are many crocodiles in the lake, affording abundant
sport to the amateur, and upon its northern and eastern borders
there is plenty of game, but it produces no other species of fish than
has already been noticed, and those are so lightly esteemed, where
supplies from the sea are abundant, that they are never sought after
by the fishermen. Formerly this part of the district was much in
fested by leopards, and children were frequently carried off by them
into the jungle. The face of the country between Kogalle and Galle,
which is included within the limits of the little pattoo of Talpse,
forming part of the district of Galle, is undulating and extremely
fertile ; in many places the road is cut through hills of iron-stone
clay ; upon descending the road from the eastward, and opening the
harbour of Galle, the view through the line of the densely shading
cocoa-nut trees is one of the most delightful and grateful to the eye
that a tropical climate can present. The Gangabodde-pattoo ex
tends from the gravets of Galle, twenty- three miles into the interior,
until it terminates by a range of hills, and contains forty-three
villages, the soil of which is very productive. Ahangamme (Ya-
hangamme, the bed village), is supposed to have received that name
from Koomara Daas having reposed there, while on a tour through
this part of the country. From the offing, Galle has a very pretty
appearance when distinctly seen, but the first object upon making
the land is the Haycock peering above the intermediate clouds, and
the next the reflection of the cocoa-nut trees that line the shore in
the water, long before the trees are visible.
This district, which extends from the western limits of Belli
gamme Korle, to the Bentotte river, which separates it from
Pasdoom Korle, includes a tract varying in length from fifteen to
thirty miles, and in breadth from six to twenty-five, and is sub
divided into the Talpse-pattoo, Gangabodde-pattoo, Wellebodde-
pattoo, and Walawitte Korle ; its area is about 592 square miles,
and it is very populous. According to Casie Chitty, the Malabars
derive its name from the circumstance that this part of the island
was set apart by Rawana for breeding cattle, hence Galle vrould
signify a " pound ;" but this interpretation appears far-fetched, in
comparison with that given by the Singhalese themselves. The soil

fJOff CEYLON. [PART IV.
of the district is in general rocky, but produces a great variety of
grain and fruits in abundance, including cinnamon, coffee; black
pepper, cotton, and cardamoms. In some parts iron ore is found,
which is worked on some occasions by the natives. Fisheries are
carried on along the coast to a considerable extent, in kullah dhonies,
small canoes with outriggers, and fish are caught both with nets and
lines ; -the latter are composed of well twisted cotton rubbed with
glue. Point de Galle is in lat. 6" 0' 59" North, and long. 80° 17 2
East. The town,1 which is the third in the island in importance, and
the fort, which under the Dutch was a commandery, are built on the
point which is rocky and bluff to seaward, with a rocky islet near
it, called Pigeon island, surrounded by smaller ones. The bay or
harbour is formed between the point, and a piece of sloping high
land to the eastward, which projects farther out to seaward, than the
true point. The entrance of the bay is about a mile wide, the sound
ings in it from seven and a half to four and a half fathoms, but from
there being many rocks covered with different depths from three and
four, to twelve and fourteen feet water scattered over the entrance,
and also inside, a pilot is requisite to carry a ship into the harbour,
where it is moored in five and five and a half fathoms abreast of the
town. The outer road is spacious, and in the inner harbour, ships
may lie in perfect security for a great part of the year, and the water
is so deep near the shore, that vessels ean approach quite close to it.
During the prevalence of the S. W. monsoon, a heavy sea breaks in it,
and a rapid current from the westward frequently sets ships to leeward
of the harbour, in which case they are obliged to cross the line for
the purpose of again standing to the west. Ships outward bound
from Europe, generally make this their first harbour, after they have
come in sight of the land at Dondera Head ; and during the late war
it was the rendezvous of the homeward bound Indiamen waiting for
a convoy. A splendid light-house has recently been erected. Ships
from Eastern ports generally look in here during the north-east mon
soon. The trade with the Coromandel coast, which is carried on in
small vessels, built within the district, comprises its natural products,
coarse cloth, dornatil or paint oil, earthenware, cutlery, mats, gunny
bags, jaggery, and ehunam, for mastication and house-building, which
are exchanged for paddy, cotton, cloths, &c.
The bank of soundings on the south coast of Ceylon, gradually
extends farther from the shore as you increase the distance from
Dondera Head. Three miles' off Bentotte, there are twenty fathoms.
Off Galle the soundings are irregular. A mile off Belligamme, there
are twenty fathoms, and at a mile and three-quarters, thirty fathoms.
Three-quarters of a mile off Dondera Head, there are twenty fathoms ;
at a mile and a quarter, thirty. Three miles off Tangalle, there are
1 The town of Galle is indebted for its emblem, a cock, to an etymological error
of the Portuguese, who confounded the native name Galla, a rock, in allusion to
the situation of the town and harbour, with Gallus.

CHAP. I.J DISTRICT OF GALLE, HARBOUR, FORT, TOWN. 601
twenty fathoms, and at four, thirty. Three and a half miles off
Hambantotte, there are twenty, and at five, thirty fathoms.
The trade of Galle chiefly consists of exports, but it is by no
means equal to what might be expected from its natural position.
The export of salt fish to the continent of India was formerly large,
but that trade has declined considerably, though endeavours have of
late years been made to re-establish it. More coir rope, cocoa-nut oil,
arrack, and chaya root, are sent from this province, than from all the
other parts of the island put together, and a considerable portion of
the trade in coffee, cotton, rice, ivory, cinnamon, and tortoise-shell,
is carried on here. Exclusively of the Dutch and Portuguese mer
chants, there are here, Moormen, Hindoos, Chitties, Arabs, Parsees,
and Maldivian traders. Ships may obtain better supplies here than
any where else in the island, and fish, vegetables, and fruits are cheap
and abundant. Great attention is paid to onion gardens, within and
without the fort. Shipping is well supplied with pure water from the
well, under the hill called Bona Vista, which forms the east end of
the harbour.
The view from the harbour off Galle is certainly lovely ; the
entrance being narrow, the panorama is uninterrupted. To the right
is the picturesque fort, with its old walls and fortifications, jutting far
into the sea ; at the extreme point is the flag staff, and beyond it are
several rocky islands, upon one of which is a single cocoa-nut tree,
which adds much to the effect. In the centre of the town, and rising
above every surrounding object, are the two gable ends of the old
church, built by the Dutch, and from the harbour it appears shaded
by a large tulip tree. The whole place is shaded by trees, which ap
pear as numerous as the leaves, and make it look from sea like fairy
land, while the senses are no less enthralled by the balmy perfume of
the hot-house air, which, loaded to satiety with the perfume of rich
flowers, is felt far at sea. Farther on is the quay, where multitudes
of canoes are moored, which have an exceedingly picturesque appear
ance. On the left of the bay is a lofty headland, clothed to the
summit with trees, and the most luxuriant vegetation of the richest
and most varied colours, and the contrast presented by the thick
groves of dark green palms, and the white foaming spray dashing over
the black cliffs, is not the least pleasing feature in the scene. Two
lovely islands are in the same direction, partaking of the features of
the main land ; but the prettiest part of the whole is at the back of
the harbour ; here is the Galle face or esplanade, and at the back
three verdant hills clothed to the very summit with cocoa-nut trees.
At the top is the pretty little Catholic chapel, peeping with its white
face through the trees. At the foot of these, and close to the har
bour, is the native town and bridge, all of white, and shaded by
numerous trees. The ramparts on the sea face afford delightful
walks in the morning and evening, and the umbrageous Suria trees on
the north ramparts, which, as well as some very fine bread-fruit trees,
are numerous in the fort, enable one to walk there free from exposure
to the sun throughout the day, but it is maintained by some that the

602 CEYLON. [PART IV.
high walls of the fortifications, by effectually shutting out the de
lightful sea breeze, are a drawback rather than otherwise to the
salubrity of the place.
The fort is more than a mile in circumference, commanding
the whole of the harbour, but is in its turn commanded by a range
of hills about 700 yards distant, and contains besides the ordinary
public buildings, a great number of houses, occupied by Moorish
families, and a mosque, a Dutch church, Wesleyan chapel, and
some shops. After passing an ancient moss-grown Dutch gate,
appears an open building of somewhat venerable appearance, one
story high, surrounded by an airy verandah, with the figure of a
cock, and the date 1687 over the entrance. It is the queen's house.
The rooms which are large, are paved with stone. The doors are
made to serve the purposes of windows also. The lines of defence
on the land side, or across the isthmus, consist of one bastion, with
a cavalier, two half bastions with faussebrayes, and two curtains,
containing each half bastion with the whole bastion, with a half
finished ditch in front of the whole, but without casemated barracks
or store houses. The salient angles of the half bastions are appuyed
to the harbour and sea. The construction of the fort is entirely
irregular. The remaining defences consist of substantial lines built
on the edge of the outline of the peninsula, the base of which is
constantly washed by a heavy surf. The profile is irregular, in some
parts bold, but from the small height of the faussebraye, requires a
wet ditch in order to guard against escalade. The revetments are
composed of rubble stone and coral, laid in lime mortar, and are in
tolerable repair. The fort is also tolerably well supplied with water,
and there are four powder magazines within it. In front of the Govern
ment house stands a superb row of exotic trees (Mimusops Elengi),
which were originally introduced from Java. Great improvements
have of late been effected in the pettah and its bazaar, the former is
still far from regularly laid out, but it is extensive, and the houses
are in general good. It is separated from the fort by a wide place,
and consists of two long streets, formed of small one-storied houses :
on a foundation wall two feet high, built of stone, rest wooden pillars,
which with a wall of hurdles, support a broad overhanging cocoa-nut
roof, tiles being seldom used, except by Europeans. At the back of the
deep verandah, is the entrance to the one solitary apartment. The pro
prietor sits or lies on the raised floor above the foundation wall,
beside his wares or the implements of his trade. Soon after the setting
in of the south-west monsoon, the annual fleet of boats arrives from the
Maldives. The Maledives or Maldives are dependencies of Ceylon, and the
Raja communicates twice annually with the Government agent at
Galle. This wide stretching archipelago extends from 7° 6' North
lat., to 0° 40' South lat., or about 530 miles, but in no part is the
breadth of the chain supposed to exceed fifty miles in a direct line,
although the most western limit of the northernmost group or
Atoll, is in 72° 48' East long., and the most eastern boundary of the

CHAP. I.J MALDIVES, THE ATOLLS, ANDJTHEIR CHANNELS. 603
chain in 73° 48' East long. The most northern Atoll is about 350
miles from Cape Comorin.
The sovereign chief of these islands styles himself Sultan of the
thirteen Atolls, and twelve thousand islands, but the actual number
is believed to be more than treble that number. The whole archi
pelago is enclosed and protected from the sea, which, during the
south-west monsoon, is violently agitated in these latitudes, by narrow
strips of coral reef, which surround them like a wall. In many
places this bulwark against the angry ocean, scarcely reaches the
surface of the water ; in other places it forms a long sandy beach,
perhaps less than six feet above the level of the sea, and is either
circular or oblong. Each of these circular enclosures contain open
ings, into which small vessels can enter. The number of these coral
reefs is fourteen, thirteen of which lie to the north of the equator.
They lie on a long sand bank, to the edge of which their outer sides
extend, and beyond them there are no soundings. The channels
which divide these Atolls, are in some places deep and safe, and are
passed by the vessels bound direct for Ceylon, or the Bay of Bengal.
Two of these navigable channels are south of the equator. The
Adon or south channel is between Poona Moluque Atoll (the south
Atoll), and the island of Adon, and is about five miles long, and five
leagues wide, and the Equatorial channel is between Adon and the Atoll
Suadiva, which is ten leagues wide. North of the equator are first the
one and a half degree channel, which is seventeen leagues in breadth,
and formed by the Suadiva Atoll, and the Adoumatis Atoll ; it is the
widest and safest of all these channels, and frequently used by ships
proceeding eastward in the westerly monsoon. Farther north is the
Kollomandous channel, formed by the Adoumatis Atoll on the south,
and the Kollomandous Atoll on the north ; it is only seven or
eight miles wide, but it is safe. The most northern is the Kare-
dive channel, which also appears to offer a safe passage, but it is not
used at present, though much frequented two centuries ago.
Within the Atolls, the sea is not agitated by storms, and there are
always soundings in twenty or thirty fathoms water. The islands are
in general situated along the enclosing coral wall, the central part of
the Atolls containing only few of them. They are all small; not
many of them exceed a mile in length and breadth, and a few are
less than half a mile, and they are in general circular or lozenge-shaped.
Many are mere strips fifty or a hundred yards broad, forming a circle
which incloses a lower tract filled up with broken coral rocks, and
dry at spring tides. Within this ring there is sometimes consider
able depth of water, from one to ten fathoms, so that a perfect
lagoon is formed. The highest part of the islands is from six to
fourteen feet above water. Their surface consists of sand about
three feet thick, the top part of which is mixed with vegetable mat
ter, forming a black, light sandy soil. Beneath the sand is a soft
sand-stone, resembling indurated particles of beach-sand. This sand
stone, is about two feet thick, below which depth it softens again to

604 CEYLON. [PART IV.
sand, and here fresh water is found. All the inhabited, and many
of the uninhabited have fresh water.
The surface of the archipelago is in general covered with a thick
impenetrable jungle, among which there are many fine large trees, as
the banyan, the candoo, and the bread-fruit trees. On some islands,
the bamboo flourishes, and there are small plantations of Indian
corn, sugar-cane, and cotton, from which last, a small quantity of
cloth is made. Two kinds of millet are cultivated, but the chief
diet of the people is fish and the cocoa-nut, which is carefully tended.
This palm bears fruit of the smallest known species, none being as
large as a common tea cup, but the coir is fine, long, of a white
texture, very strong, and is largely exported. The Male Atoll sup
ports a few cattle, but there are no sheep or goats, and no poultry
other than the common fowl. The rat is here a great plague, and
causes great damage to the cocoa-nut plantations. The flying fox, as
it is called in India, is also very common. Fish is very abundant,
and salt-fish is a considerable article of export. Turtle are plentiful,
and cowries are collected and exported to a great amount.
The climate of the Maldives is far from unpleasant, the range of
the thermometer not being great. In December, January, and
February, the thermometer ranges during the day from 80° to 84° ;
at night it falls to 78°, and rain is frequent. The easterly winds
set in early in December, and seldom blow strong, but generally in
pleasant fight breezes. Towards the end of January, they pass to
the northward, and calms are frequent. During the remainder of
the year, westerly and north-westerly winds are by far the most
prevalent, and frequently stormy.
The people of the Maldives are Mahommedans, and are in all
probability an Arab graft on a Singhalese, or it may be, Malabar
stock. They are a simple, contented, and almost exclusively a sea
faring people. Their mercantile transactions are characterised by a
spirit of fairness, unusual among the crafty natives of the east. In
conversing with them, an European cannot fail to be struck with their
freedom from guile, the result of their sequestered life and general
oecupations. Two languages are in use among them, the vulgar one
which is peculiar to them— though it bears a great affinity to the
Singhalese — and the Arabic, as a learned language. They have also
a peculiar alphabet, differing both from the Sanscrit and Arabic. It
is written from right to left, and the vowels are indicated by points.
The population of the Maldives is estimated at between 150,000
and 200,000. The sovereign, who is called Sultan, administers the
government of the more distant islets through his chiefs ; and sends an
half yearly embassy,1 bearing presents of the products of the island,
i The presentation of the Nakodah — who is honoured with the title of " Am
bassador" — is always a scene of great merriment, from the naivete with which that
functionary fills his part in the ceremonial. After being escorted to the Govern
ment house by a party of the Ceylon Rifles, preceded by native music, he first
respectfully touches his forehead with the Royal letter, which he has thus far

CHAP. I.J EMBASSY FROM THE RAJA— GINDURA-OYA. 605
and receiving others in return. He resides at Male, the circumference
of which is seven miles. The common etymology assigned to the word
" Maldive," is from Male, and diva, a corruption of the Sanscrit
dwipa, but I would venture to propose Maha, Laala, and diva, which
is in all probability the root of Male itself.
The Maldives were formerly visited by vessels from the continent
for cowries and other produce, but the facilities offered by the abun
dance of the cocoa-nut palm for the construction of small craft, has
led to the substitution of native craft, which, secure in the heaviest
seas, carry komblemas,1 a species of dried scomber (Umbella Kadda
Singh,) cowries, coir, cocoa-nut oil, tortoise-shell, &c, to Ceylon,
and the continent, from whence they return with rice, which is not
grown in the islands, sugar, silk stuffs, broadcloth, hardware, and
tobacco. They arrive at Calcutta in June or July, with the south
west monsoon, and depart in the middle of December with the
north-east monsoon. These boats are remarkably well built, and
have a smart appearance, the sides being painted or plastered with
white and red streaks, and a large eye is painted on each bow : the
head and stern are alike.
The face of that part of the Southern province in the vicinity of
Galle is beautiful, and generally well cultivated with rice, and a
variety of other grains. Intersected by streams and canals, the
vegetation is luxuriant and verdant throughout the year, and the
succession of distant hills, adds to the variegated beauty, which
the landscape every where presents. Within a few miles, the most
favourable situations may be found, for an extensive cultivation of
sugar, coffee, cocoa, indigo, &c. The agent of Government for the
Southern province resides at the cutcherry, and is a member of the
Galle branch of the Education Commission. The district court is
superintended by a district Judge, with an assessor, secretary, clerks,
borne on his head, enclosed in a small bag of crimson silk, presents it kneeling,
and with repeated salaams. Then are introduced the Royal presents, and the
" Ambassador," having been informed that he shall bear an answer and presents
in return to his Sovereign, is told, more Asiatico, " that he may go." He then
respectfully takes his departure with his escort, and the interests of his august
master having been thus protected, his Excellency may perhaps be immediately
after seen bargaining for coir rope and cocoa-nut oil on the beach. The cere
mony of presentation is again performed towards the departure of the fleet, when
the usual presents, consisting of scarlet cloth (a colour exclusively worn by the
Sovereign), and a few pounds of cinnamon, &c. &c, are sent by him. As a proof
of the simplicity of this people, it is mentioned by Lieut, de Butts, that in the
absence of other topics, a friend of his jestingly remarked that there was a rumour
of an approaching war between Great Britain and the Maldives. The aged
chieftain, not doubting the assertion, started up, and earnestly begged that he
would contradict so unfounded and injurious a report; "for," added the Am
bassador, in a confidential whisper, "the Sultan of the Maldives is plenty 'fraid
of the King of England."
1 The komblemas has just the appearance of a ship's block divided longitudi
nally into several pieces, and is almost as hard ; nevertheless it is in great demand,
and, after having been well soaked and beaten, is rasped into an edible consistency
for Sambols, a sort of olla of chopped cucumber, onion, bilimbi, chillies, lime
juice, and pepper, as an accompaniment to rice and curries.

606 CEYLON. [PART IV,
and interpreters. The water within the fort at Galle is said to
possess some bad quality, and the prevalence of the distemper,
called goitre, has been attributed to it.
The next stage from Galle is to Hiccode (or Hiccodewa Singh),
twelve miles distant in the Wellebodde-pattoo. The Gindura, or
Giundura-oya, is four miles from Galle, with which it is connected by
a canal, and will not fail to attract the observation of the traveller by
its delightful scenery, and will interest the botanist by its plants.
It is navigable for small boats as high as Hiniduwa. Gindura itself
is a large village about three miles from Galle, with a small custom
house establishment ; the inhabitants carry on a considerable manu
facture of cordage, and have a small share of the trade of Galle.
No scenery can be imagined more picturesque than the river near
Baddagamma, the Church Missionary station, where the stream with
its grassy banks, the green meads, and the woody hills around,
forcibly recall to the mind the scene presented by the Thames in
the vicinity of Richmond, were the latter set off with the luxuriance
and splendid tints of a tropical vegetation. A handsome church,
and a number of schools have been constructed, and opened in this
vicinity by the Missionaries within the last few years. From the
church steeple, one of the noblest prospects in Ceylon may be
enjoyed. The church itself is a handsome edifice, capable of con
taining six hundred people, built of stone, and surrounded by a
verandah. The roof is supported by iron- wood pillars, about thirty-
five feet high, in two parallel rows, one on each side of the middle
aisle. The Maplegam-ganga, which has its source in the mountains
of the northern portion of Saffragam, falls into the Gindura, a little
below the populous village of the same name.
After crossing the Gindura-oya, over which a fine bridge has
lately been erected, the next village is the fishing hamlet of
Dodondewe, within the limits of the Walawitte Korle, and
forming part of the district of Caltura, where there is a Bana
Maduwa, a little out of the high road on the right hand, and a
small custom-house establishment. The coast, which, to the south
east side of the river is rugged and rocky, to the north-west side becomes
low and sandy. Two miles off the shore is Gindura rock, which is
very dangerous. The rest-houses throughout the whole line of road
from Galle to Colombo are excellent, and there are Postholders at the
intermediate stations to supply refreshments to travellers at twenty-
five per cent above the bazaar prices, which premium is allowed them
for their trouble, fuel, cooking, &c.
The face of the country is generally flat, but in certain places
undulating, and the roads are excellent. One continued tope of
cocoa-nut trees along the sea shore and line of road, renders travelling
delightful, whether by day or night, in carriage, palanquin, or on
horseback. The country is intersected by beautiful rivers, whose
banks are covered with verdant trees, and paddy fields, and horse
boats and passage boats at every ferry, render travelling any thing
but irksome, the delay being very trifling at either. Hiccode rest-

CHAP. I.J BENTOTTE — THE DISTRICT OF SAFFRAGAM. 607
house is most pleasantly situated, and a great resort of pic-nic parties
from Galle. The road level and good, is lined by myriads of ever
verdant cocoa-nut palms, which form an agreeable and almost imper
vious shade to the meridian sun. The next rest-house is that of
Amblangodde, (Ambalama, a rest-house, and goda, a bank), seven
miles distant. It is a large and populous village, with a fine wihare ;
the inhabitants are exclusively fishermen, and engaged in the trade
with the Coromandel coast. Crossing the Madampe river by a well-
constructed wooden bridge, the traveller arrives at Madampe, a
populous and flourishing village, and from thence through the villages
of Kosgodde, and Balapitimodera, where there is a small custom
house, and to Bentotte (Ben-tota), the distance is 14f miles. The
rest-house, situated on the left bank of the river, is a strong and
extensive Dutch building, is one of the best in the island, and most
delightfully situate upon a level green, at a pleasant, but not too
remote a distance from the sea, from whence the breeze is wafted
over the river with a refreshing and unusual coolness, when contrasted
with its passage over the sands. At this place is a large manufac
ture of arrack, and of the coir rope, the population is numerous, and
the village has a church. The means of irrigation are every where
so abundant, that the face of the country is one vast scene of culti
vation. Coffee grounds, fields of country hemp (Crotalaria Juncea),
for fishing nets, paddy fields, arum (Arum macrorhizon), yam,
(Dioscorea bulbifera, L.), and sweet potato (Convolvulus Batatus, L.),
plantain, and a country potato very small, but in some respects like
that of Europe (Solanum tuberosum), give an air of plenty and
of luxuriance to the general scenery of this part of the island. The
native farms and villages are surrounded by indigenous fruit trees,
including the shaddock, orange, lime and jambo. The Bentotte
river, over which an elegant bridge has lately been thrown, sup
plies Colombo, Galle, and the intermediate places with oysters ;
though the villagers are entirely ignorant of feeding them. The
scenery up this river, which has its source near Hiniduwa Kandi
or the Haycock, is beautiful ; the sides are covered with the curious
Mangrove, (Rhizophera Mangle, L.,) and a variety of magnificent
timber trees, among which innumerable monkeys play their destruc
tive gambols, every now and then descending to plunder the fruit
trees of the adjacent farms, which they do with perfect impunity.
Hiniduwa Kandi itself is very rugged, and is ascended by ladders.
The view from the summit is very grand, Colombo, seventy miles
distant, being visible on one side, and the whole sea coast from that
place to Matura on the other. On a third the Kandian hills, and
the mountains of the interior rising one above another. The country
in the immediate vicinity is hilly, and thinly populated. Hade
Demala Kandi is another" high hill, similar to Hiniduwa, with a
Buddhist temple on its summit.
If the traveller leave Bentotte in a pardie or covered boat over
night he will be in the midst of a fine country abounding in game
and intersected by small streams, where there is just room enough

608 CEYLON. [PART IV.
for a boat to pass clear of the overhanging trees and underwood by
day-light. A. few miles above Bentotte, there is an ancient and massive
wihare, which is approached by a wide avenue of fruit trees and by
several flights of granite steps. In the temple grounds a variety of
palm and other trees, displaying every shade of foliage, some bearing
fruit, others flowers, present a delightful change of scene ; at
noonday the avenue is delightfully shaded from the sun, and the rills
of pure water which flow to the right of the road, where there is also
an ancient and sacred well, almost as cold as if saltpetre were dis
solved in it, which by imparting a grateful coolness to wine, renders it
a charming rendezvous for the parties making a day's excursion in
the neighbourhood. Here the naturalist has also an ample field to
gratify his taste in whatever branch it may lie.
The district of Saffragam (Habaragamuwa) is very extensive, con
taining 1584 square miles, and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants. The
surface of the country is very diversified, presenting a succession of
magnificent mountains, rugged hills, beautiful valleys, and immense
forests abounding with the most valuable timber. The soil in general
consists of a yellowish clay intermixed with sand, but produces a large
quantity of paddy and other grain. Areka-nuts, coffee, pepper, jack-
fruit, kittul, talapat and jambo also abound, but the cocoa-nut tree
is not common here. The inhabitants are Singhalese, and manu
facture areka-nut cutters, arrows, spears, firelocks, silver snuff-boxes,
walking canes, umbrellas, talapats, and mats of different sizes and
descriptions, and a large quantity of jaggery is made from the juice
of the kittul tree. From the water communication furnished by the
Kalu-ganga, the province possesses great facility for trade. It exports
immense quantities of cardamoms, turmeric, precious stones, elephant's
tusks, deer horns, bees-wax, honey, dornatel, dammer, in addition to
the articles before named, in return for which it imports cotton stuffs,
tobacco, salt, salt-fish, &c. The subdivisions of Saffragam are the
Kooroowitte Korle, Nawadoon Korle, Kolonna Korle, Kookula Korle,
Atakalan Korle, Kadewatte Korle, and Medda Korle.
The celebrated temple of Saffragam dedicated to Saman, or Laks-
hamam, the tutelar deity of Saffragam, lies contiguous to the right
bank of the Kalu-ganga, close to Ratnapoora. The landing is by a row
of irregular marble stairs from the water's edge. On the east stands
the main entrance, opening into two court yards, the second forming
the more immediate compound of the temple, and rising above the
level of the first nearly twenty feet, the two occupying an area of about
two acres and a half, respectively inclosed by a wall three feet and a
half high, the latter surmounted by a tiled covering of nearly four feet
above it. The ascent to the temple from the gateway is up another
flight of marble steps, when a small covered verandah enclosed again
by a lesser wall fronting the first door is reached : this leads into an
aisle supported by columns, and at the west end stand the indicise of
Buddhistical worship, with images in relief on the opposite wall.
Above this room rises a small two-storied apartment, the uppermost

«HAP. 1.] RATNAPOORA— GEM FISHERY GILLEMALLE. 609
division of which forms the sanctum where the paraphernalia of
Saman are deposited. The temple is an oblong quadrangular build
ing of solid masonry, measuring 150 feet from end to end, and mid
way of the aisle on both sides stand two little square buildings
respectively dedicated to the worship of B.uddha and Patine. East
of the outer court are lines of huts, the temporary dwellings of the
thousands who resort to the temple during the pilgrimage. To this
temple are attached fifty dancing girls called Manikaweru, who during
the festivals perform certain ceremonies, and are remunerated from
the lands belonging to the temple. A festival takes place in July
and lasts fifteen days, when the Karandua containing a relic of
Buddha is carried in procession.
During the Kandian war this temple was occupied by a detachment
of troops, and a large quantity of silver and copper coins discovered ;
but it is to be feared they fell into the hands of those who were
ignorant of their value.
Ratnapoora (city of jewels), the principal place in Saffragam is a
small fort sixty-one miles south-east of Colombo, with good barracks,
on the summit of a rocky hillock, which rises in a long narrow valley,
bounded on all sides by high and thickly wooded hills. The fort, though
possessed of few means of defence against any other than a native
force, is sufficient to protect the large village which lies under its walls
from Kandian cunning or surprise. The Kalu-ganga, so called from
Kalu, black, in allusion to the dark shade over its waters, is even here
little more than fifty feet above the level of the sea, and runs near the
fort, affording to this district the convenience of water carriage both
to Caltura and Colombo ; but this advantage is in some measure
counterbalanced by its overflowing its banks around Ratnapoora in the
rainy season, leaving only the fort and a little rising ground, on which
stands the residence of the assistant agent of Government for the dis
trict of Saffragam, above water.
Ratnapoora charms from the beauty of its situation ; although
nothing now remains of its ancient monuments. Scattered over the
hill side are the detached buildings, with broad roofs and deep
verandahs, which constitute the town. The larger houses are painted
white and yellow, and have a foreground of lovely green turf with
thick flowering shrubs. One street only in Ratnapoora consists of
contiguous rows of houses, and that is the bazaar, where every
necessary of life may be procured at a cheap rate ; but here, as else
where, shops for the sale of spices predominate. Ratnapoora is the
seat of the gem fishery, the superintendant of which is a burgher.
At an opening in the gay border of gigantic bamboos with their ele
gant gold stems, and near a small tributary stream is the chief
treasure bed. Here natives may be seen up to their breasts working
about with long mamooties or mattocks. They stand in an oblique line
across the stream, and shovel up from its bed against the current all
the mud in which the precious stones are contained. The presence of
gems is indicated by the approximation in a yellow clay of the three
2 u

610 CEYLON. [PART IV.
descriptions of stone called Borullugalle, Gangalle, and Tirrowaana-
galle. The slime or mud being collected into heaps, and put into
porous tray-like baskets, the water as it flows on, washes away the
finer particles of silt, leaving the coarse gravel. Every half hour
they dip down, holding the flat baskets in their hands, which they
swing backwards and forwards in the water with much exertion, to
separate the lighter particles, after which they carry them to the
shore to examine. Rubies of large size are extremely rare, and fine
sapphires yet more so, but topazes, kirunchies, and yellow and yel
lowish green sapphires, are abundant.
In hazy weather the gorge, through which the Kalu-ganga issues
from the great mountain range, shews three peaks, of apparently
equal height, and it is very frequently only in the morning that two
of these peaks, called (the Bainah Dirval Gohare) are observed to be
much nearer than Samanala, and of inferior elevation. Gillemalle
famous for its betel, is the next village on the route to the Peak : the
road, which is very uneven and rugged, and no slight reproach to the
Government, considering the concourse who use it, the place to which
it leads, and the country beyond, keeps pretty close to the river
through dense jungle, passing under the shade of some rocks, sur
mounted by a Buddhist temple, and crosses a considerable and
impetuous stream, at times unfordable, near its junction with the
Kalu-ganga. The most delicious and exquisite odours are here
wafted from the jasmine, the orange, the citron, the lime, the
areka plants and flowering trees innumerable, which suffused in the
morning dew, border the line of route. Gillemalle is situated on a
gentle elevation, round which the river flows ; before it lies a rich
cultivated plain, interspersed with gigantic forest trees, from which
the screaming peacock and the notes of the jungle-fowl may be dis
tinguished, and bounded on all sides by wooded hills, which rise into
stupendous mountains towards the Peak. Near Gillemalle, and on
the right of a beautiful valley, is the residence of Gillemale Banda,
a Kandian chief, who dispenses the limited hospitality within his
means to the European. In passing along the plain many com
fortable native houses surrounded by gardens, containing cocoa-nut,
areka, jack, shaddock, plantain and other fruit trees ; also the talapat
with its immensely large fan-shaped leaves, and the bo-tree, which,
from being sacred to Gautama Buddha, is generally to be found pro
tected by a stone wall, bear evidence of an improved state of economy.
Some of these venerated trees are surrounded by several platforms,
on which are erected little altars ; and at these the natives may be
seen offering flowers to the sylvan representative of the object of their
devotion. At Mount Karangodde, a few miles beyond, and to the north-east
of Ratnapoora, the scenery is indescribably magnificent. The ascent
to the first landing is by some hundreds of broad steps, hewn in the
solid rock, which is covered with jungle and pine apple-plants, that
have sprung from the offsets and crests of the fruit casually thrown

tjnAP. I.] MOUNT KARANGODD& — PALABADOOLLA — DIABETME. 611
there, whose leaves are from five to six feet long, exhibiting the
effect of shade upon that plant. On the first landing is the residence
of the priests, an extensive and substantial stone building, with a
large interior square, protected from the sun by wide and covered
verandahs, into which the sleeping apartments open. A similar,
but less inclined, flight of rock steps leads to the second landing place,
where a rock wihare exhibits Buddha's recumbent image, daubed
over with the usual quantum of red and yellow lacker behind an old
curtain, surrounded with Hindoo deities, and having an oblong table
before it, profusely covered with flowers,: one great attraction to the
European at this part of the ascent is a well of the purest and coldest
water. From hence the approach to the summit is extremely rugged,
and covered with the gigantic groundsel, but the tourist is amply
rewarded for toil, trouble and danger, by the magnificent panorama
which, on gaining the crown of the mountain, bursts upon the view.
Here castellated Ratnapoora and surrounding country, interspersed
with every variety of champaign, undulating and hilly lands, inter
sected by the serpentine and impetuous Kalu-ganga ; there the Peak
towering high above the clouds to the north-eastward ; and in
another direction the various villages dispersed upon the banks of the
river and its tributary streams, bordered by extensive areka, kittull,
and cocoa-nut topes, with occasional patches of intervening jungle,
scattered among verdant tracts of pasture land, as if by way of con
trast to the golden glare of paddy and mustard fields in their ap
proaching maturity, and everywhere teeming with abundance ; the
nearest plains covered with innumerable herds of bullocks and buf
faloes, and the distant ones with deer and elephants.
At the extremity of the plain near Gillemalle another stream has to
be crossed ; and soon after, the path becomes very steep, ascending
through a continued forest. Four and a half miles from Gillemalle is
Palabadoolla, the last inhabited spot on this track. It possesses a large
and comfortable rest-house for pilgrims on their way to the Peak, with
several mean apartments chiefly inhabited by priests, and a wihare.1
From thence the ascent continues, being bordered by frequent preci
pices, whose terrors are hid by the close foliage and thick underwood.
The natives of this part of the country are called after the name of
their native hills ; thus, from Mallankandi, Mallankandiya ; the
penultimate syllable always serving to shew the application of the
term to the individual belonging to any particular hill. On reaching
the rock called Nihila-hellagalla, the great depth of the valley at the
bottom, the precipitous mountain opposite, and the country behind,
burst at once upon the view. A great difference here begins to be
1 In this temple is deposited on a small altar a celebrated representation of the
sacred foot. The tray -like plate is of copper, about six feet long and proportionably
broad, in four compartments, embossed on the sides and in the centre with orna
mental silver work in the form of double stars and flowers, many of which have
been abstracted by polluted hands. The outlines of an image or two are engraven
on the plate.
2 R 2

612 CEYLON. [PART IV.
felt in the temperature, and the creeping plants begin gradually to
yield to the mosses. The path is very rugged, serving more frequently
for the bed of a torrent than as a highway, and increasing the merits
of the pilgrimage, when the heavy rains must make it difficult to
strive against the steep ascent and rapid stream. In April and May,
the season when the great concourse of people make their pilgrimage,
there are generally heavy rains, which by causing a sudden rise in the
mountain torrents, often occasion the loss of lives ; and great hard
ships are borne by those who, being detained without food or shelter,
are alike unable to advance to their destination, or to return for sup
plies, until the waters subside .
At Diabetme, the full extent of the grand and magnificent spec
tacle, which has been gradually developing itself, begins to be
perceived. The view from hence embraces three fourths of a circle,
and with the exception of water, presents every variety of the sublime
and beautiful in forest and mountain landscape. The prevailing tints
of the forest comprise an endless alternation of the richest reds and
browns of every shade, which are produced by the young shoots and
leaves, which generally appear in these colours, or exhibit the palest
green ; and where so great a proportion of the trees are evergreen,
greatly add to the general effect.
The most striking views on the east are Samanala, four miles
distant, of a remarkably regular bell shape, rising on a long ridge of
mountains. The small temple on the summit is scarcely visible. On
the west is the stupendous rock, Uno-Dhia. To those who hold the
awful and the horrible to be necessary components of the sublime,
the views in Ceylon would appear defective, from the general absence
of water ; and the softness diffused over its scenes by an exuberant
vegetation, which conceals the noblest cataracts, decks with foliage
the steepest rocks, and clothes the summits of the highest mountains
with majestic forests.
Diabetme is four miles from Palabadoolla ; it contains a scarcely
tenantable rest-house : there the fowls or other animals, required.
during the traveller's stay on the Peak, are killed ; as no Buddhist
would break the first commandment of his religion, and destroy life
within the hallowed precincts. The Kandy or north road is the only
other approach to the Peak, and is not only free from dangerous pre
cipices, but can scarcely be called difficult. It was the route by
which the Kandian kings and chiefs always reached the Peak, and as
they travelled with a great retinue, the pathway was annually cleared
of the jungle, and other obstructions. It would be easy to unite
the Diabetme with the Kandy path before it reaches the cone, were
it not for the scruple against increasing the facility of communication,
which by removing the perils, might decrease the merits of the pil
grimage. At Diabetme the thermometer undergoes great variation,
frequently varying from 49° to 60°, between 9 p.m. and 5 a.m.
A ravine, from which the ascent continues up an inclined plane
by 130 rude steps cut in an immense face of the smooth rock,

CHAP. l.J THE SEETLA-GANGA — LEGENDS — FINAL ASCENT. 613
called Dharma Raja, that could not have been otherwise gained
except by a most circuitous route, is next reached. On the
left-hand side, about half way up, there is a grotesque figure of
a man, and an inscription cut in Singhalese characters. The figure
is but a poor specimen of native ideas of symmetrical proportion ;
and the inscription which, though faintly traced, is comparatively
modern, relates to the execution of the work. On other rocks are
chiselled figures of Buddha. The wild areka tree is interspersed in
the neighbouring jungle, and by its tall white stems and graceful form,
creates an agreeable diversity in the sombre green and profuse vege
tation of the sullen forest, which in most parts limits the view to the
abrupt path, at times facilitated by rough ladders or the thick jungle
that hems it in. Uncertain and devious as is the path, being in many
places worse defined than the elephant tracks which cross it, yet it is
the chief approach by which many thousands of pilgrims annually
reach the Peak :l it was the principal route even before the earliest
dates which tradition has preserved, and every remarkable stone or
peculiar bank has its appropriate name, generally blended with some
myth of the early gods, airy spirits, or malignant demons of this
mysterious region.
On the summit of the steps, the torrent of the Seetla-ganga (cold
river) is perceived, rushing through another ravine : here the pilgrims
perform their ablutions, which they consider to have the efficacy of
baptism, before they presume to approach the object of their reve
rence, and subsequently don their best attire. The stream of the
Seetla-ganga, which is supposed to be the parent stream of the Kalu-
ganga, precipitates itself over a ridge of rock, among whose detached
masses below are several pools : the sides of the torrent are formed
at this place of steep rocks, with large trees, whose branches close
across the stream. The water, from its intense coldness, is apt to
induce a sudden chill on all who have not been previously exposed to
the cold of the mountain air. From the circumstance that various
fruits have been occasionally carried down this stream, both the
Moormen and Singhalese believe, the former that Adam, the latter
that Buddha, had a fruit garden here, which still teems with the
most splendid productions of the East, but that it is now inaccessible,
and that its explorer would never return.
In passing under the rock called Diwiyagalla, the marks of a tiger's
foot, of gigantic proportions, but of the slightest pretensions as
regards delineation, is shewn, to which a fabulous legend is as usual
attached. For a mile from hence, the vegetation of the forest, though
stunted and moss-covered, is so thick as to conceal the Peak, though
1 Philalethes mentions that as soon as the pilgrim had reached the top of the
Peak, he was required to pull the rope of a bell, pendant from two upright stone
columns, on which a third stone was laid, to ascertain whether he were clean ; for
if he were unclean, they believed the bell would return no sound, in which case
the pilgrim had again to descend to the foot of the hill, and purify himself with
greater solemnity. This notion is now thought to be incorrect, the pulling of the
bell having reference to the number of times the pilgrim had visited the Peak.

614 CEYLON. [part IV.
immediately over it, until a clear space of ground is reached at the
base of the cone ; and on the summit of the continued ridge, called
Aandiyamalle-tenne, here is the grave of an Aandia or mendicant
priest, now a Mahommedan saint, who closed his pilgrimage, doubt
less to his great content, so near the place at which the father of
mankind and the first of Mahommedan prophets, had in his belief
been compelled, stans pede in uno, to perform so long and uncom
fortable a penance. After his body had lain for three months on this
spot, resisting the most inveterate causes of decomposition, it was dis
covered by a hermit from the wilds below, who had undertaken, as an
additional penance, the task of reaching the Peak, through trackless
deserts, thorns, rocks, under caverns, and over barriers of every kind,
where man had never trod before ; and he it was who came upon the
dead body, and performed the last office of humanity over the sainted
dead. The path now becomes steeper, and two or three chains afford
assistance, which is hardly as yet required, till at length a point is
suddenly reached, where it is necessary to turn to the left on the
brink of a tremendous precipice. The feelings are here anything but
pleasant ; a very slight trepidation, a gust of wind, or the least degree
of stumbling, being sufficient to precipitate a person into the untold
depths below. Such is however the result of habit and experience,
that the guides and natives in general will carry carpet bags and the
necessary supplies up the steepest places, without availing themselves
of the assistance of the chains ; the absence of shoes being an advan
tage in this part of the journey, and in an elevation where the region
of leeches does not extend. Repressing his feelings, and firmly
grasping the iron chains, will in a few minutes bring the traveller to
the summit of this steep acclivity, whose ascent has even been accom
plished by ladies through the active intrepidity of the guides ; and
an aged priest was once conveyed up in a light palanquin. The ladder
lies at the north-west face, up a perpendicular ascent of bare rock
forty feet high. The steps are about four inches broad, barely suffi
cient for the toes to rest on, and about eighteen long. The chains rest
upon and lie along the rock, being only attached to it at their upper
ends. Hence natives have been blown over the precipice, and yet
continued clinging to one of the chains during a heavy gust of wind ;
but in such a situation they could receive no assistance, and they all
perished. Natives have also become giddy and frightened in the act
of looking down the precipice, and falling, have been dashed to atoms.
Most of these chains are of very clumsy workmanship, and the links
are of different sizes : some contain inscriptions mentioning who have
placed and repaired them. These, though deserving of gratitude,
would have been yet more worthy of it, if they had raised the chains
from the ground, so that they might be used as a rail.
The height of the Peak is 7,420 feet above the level of the sea, and
its summit, of an elliptic form, 72 feet in length by 34 in breadth, is
surrounded by a wall five feet high : immediately within this a level

CHAP. I.J HEIGHT AND DESCRIPTION OF THE PEAK — PANORAMA. 615
space of irregular breadth runs all the way round, and the centre is
occupied by the apex of the mountain, a solid granite rock about nine
feet high at the highest part ; on this is the Sree Pada or sacred foot
step. Whether this much cherished memorial is rightly attached to
Saman (whence Samanala, Hamallel or Samantakuta) by a prior
claim, the Sri Pada' is now held by the Buddhists as a memorial of
Gautama Buddha ; by the Mahommedans it is claimed for Adam,2
and called Baba-Aadamalai ; and the Malabars and other Hindoos
maintain that it was Siva who left the impression of a monster foot
step, and call it Sivanolipadam.
This venerated memorial is five feet seven inches in length, two
feet seven inches in breadth, and the slight similitude it bears to the
shape of a foot, is produced by a margin of plaster coloured to imitate
the rock : it is upon this moulding that the yellow metal case, which
is profusely ornamented with gems of plain and coloured glass, is
fitted before the usual time of the pilgrims' arrival. A temple built
of wood surmounts the rock, and is kept in its position only by several
strong iron chains fastened to the stone and also to the trees which
grow on the steep sides of the cone. The roof is lined with coloured
cloths, and its margin decked with flowers and streamers. This
wooden temple, three feet high, dedicated to Saman ; a pansala
(priest's house), six feet square, built of mud ; one large and one
small bell (the former cracked), complete the catalogue of objects
discoverable on the summit.3 A beautiful pagoda is said to have once
stood on it, but there is no trace of such an erection now discoverable,
any more than of the water tank,4 which the Singhalese called the tank
1 Many people pretend to trace the toes of a foot, and aver that they point to
the westward, while the impress is that of the left foot. This, if true, would
coincide in a remarkable manner with the Balic account of Sommona Codom's in
Siam, which the Siamese call Prabat, or the venerated foot. M. de la Loubere,
in his admirable description of Siam, derives this from the Balic words Pra,
venerable, and Bat, foot, as Pad in Sanscrit ; and states that the Siamese call
their deity Sommona Codom, the son of a king of the famous Ceylon, who placed
his right foot upon their Prabat, and his left upon Lanka. A magnificent temple
is erected in the vicinity, round which many of the priests of the country dwell.
2 The Mahommedans believe that Adam, whose height was equal to a tall palm-
tree, after having been cast down from Paradise, which was in the seventh heaven,
alighted on a peak in the isle Serendib or Ceylon, and remained standing on one
foot until years of penitence and suffering had expiated his offence, and formed the
footstep. That Eve, on the contrary, fell near Jeddah or Mecca, in Arabia ; and
that after a separation of 200 years, Adam was, on his repentance, conducted by
the angel Gabriel to a mountain near Mecca, where he found and knew his wife —
the mountain being thence named Arafat ; and that he afterwards retired with her
to Ceylon, where they continued to propagate their species. — Note to chap. ii. of
Sale's Al-Koran.
3 Baldseus speaks of sixty statues or figures having been discovered in the
crevices of the mountain.
4 On the north side of the cone is a spring of the coldest water, which may pos
sibly have led to the error in question.

616 CEYLON. [PART IV.
of fecundity, the water being said to have been drunk by women who
were unfruitful, and to whom it was brought by the Jogis.
The devotions of the pilgrims are assisted by a priest, according to
a prescribed ritual. It comprises, among other things, the utterance
of the pan-sil or five precepts, and the tune-sarana. It is customary
at the conclusion of the ceremony for relatives, young and old, to
salute one another, and the usage is accompanied with symptoms of
the liveliest affection. Each pilgrim makes a small offering ; these
are placed on the sacred impression, and removed by a servant. They
are the perquisites of the chief priest of the Malwatte Wihare.
The view from Samanala is in every respect the grandest that can
be conceived, though chequered somewhat by monotony : in every
direction are seen mountains clothed to their very summits in eternal
forests, with bare rocks and precipices of such huge size, that even
the luxuriant vegetation which screens many of the most sublime pros
pects, has been unable to conceal their awful grandeur.
Beyond the higher mountains, a few cultivated but distant valleys
may be indistinctly seen amid the hills, gradually decreasing to the
sea, which may be distinguished blending with the humid blue haze,
in which all distant objects are confounded. Batugedera appears to
be almost under the feet, and in the distance may be discovered the
Kandian mountains interspersed with clouds.
Over some of these, small cascades, shining like streams of light,
may be seen to rush, serving by their flashes to attract the eye to
the course of the meandering Mahavelle-ganga, and several streams,
which would not otherwise be discerned. The general impression of
the scene is a feeling of dreariness, and an idea of desolation arismg
from the recollection that the vast forests beheld on every side, have
in some places encroached on cultivated districts, and in many in
stances over cities, temples and tanks, scarcely exceeded in magnifi
cence by those of the greatest nations of antiquity.
A peak, called Deiya Guhawa (cave of the god), on one side over
hanging its base, rises at a short distance to the south of Samanala,
and seems but little inferior to it in height ; and by natives its summit
is believed to remain as yet unpolluted by human footsteps. A self-
confident priest, presuming too much on his sacred character, is said
to have ascended so far, that the light was observed which he had
kindled at night beneath the overhanging summit of this haunted
mountain ; next day he returned, a hopeless maniac, and unable to
give any account of what he had seen. " There is nothing," says
Forbes, "incredible in this story; for the dreaded mountain is appa
rently easier of ascent than Samanala ; and we need not be surprised
at the melancholy fate of the priest, if we consider how strongly the
mind of a native (nurtured in the belief of demons) would naturally
be acted on when alone in an untrodden solitude, haunted by the
vague terrors of superstition and the just dread of savage animals."
On the eastern side of the Peak, is the Bhagawa-Lenna, a jutting

CHAP. I. f VISITS OF THE BUDDHAS — A NIGHT ON THE PEAK. 61/
rock, under which all the four Buddhas are said to have rested during
their visits to the Peak. The mountain on this side is covered,
from the summit to its very base, with large rhododendron trees,
whose branches extending into the inclosure, there offer their superb
crimson flowers to the shrine of Saman, as if in return for his
guardianship. The Buddhas have certainly shewn that they were
actuated by high motives of policy in selecting for the chief place of
their worship a spot from whence such objects of natural grandeur
and one of the fairest portions of earth are visible. On Samanala's
Peak, as on a throne of clouds, no one can help being penetrated
with the most profound emotion ; and the mind irresistibly led to a
contemplation of the source whence all this grandeur has originated,
cannot fail to trace it to the Being, whom, whether Buddhist,
Mahommedan, Hindoo or Christian, he may respectively worship.
The native annals record with due solemnity the visits of the four
Buddhas of the present era, who left the impression of their feet (on
which are the mystical symbols), as seals of their authenticity and
evidences of their divine power. The first of these, Kakusanda,
is supposed to have visited the Peak, then called Deiwakuta (Peak of
the god), about 3000 years before Christ. Finding the traces of
Buddhas of former eras on the summit, he would seem to have walked
in their light and revived their doctrines.
The second Buddha, Konagamma, appeared about 2099, B.C. and
the'Peak had even then obtained the name of Samantakuta1 (Peak of
Saman), which, with little variety, it has since preserved.
The third Buddha, Kaasiyapa, followed at an interval of 1100
years, or about 1014, B.C. The fourth, Gautama, having arrived at
Kellania from the continent of India, passed on to the Peak, rested in
Bhagawa-Lenna, and from thence proceeded to Digganakhya,
577, b.c.
A night on the Peak is thus described by Forbes :- — " Varied and
extraordinary scenes of earth and air may here be witnessed. At
first the moon shining bright, made the features of the nearer moun-
1 Called probably after Saman, the brother and companion in arms of Rama,
when he conquered Lanka, according to the Singhalese records in 2386, B.C. He
is mentioned in the Ramayan and by the Hindoos under the name of Lakshman,
Two miles below Ratnapoora is the principal temple dedicated to him, who is
considered the tutelar deity of this portion of the island, and in the holiest part
of this building is contained the bow and arrow of the god. The figure of Saman
is always painted yellow, and in Singhalese traditions this prince is related to have
retained dominion over the western and southern parts of Ceylon after the death
of Rawana, and to have been distinguished as a legislator. The accounts of Saman
seem to be involved in great confusion, owing to a convert and follower of Buddha's
bearing the same name. This disciple of Gautama, appears to have retired to the
Peak, and to have taken advantage of the locality to inculcate the doctrines he
professed. The earliest mention of the Saffragam temple of Saman, which is
either this or the one on the Peak, is that in the reign of Dappoola, a.d. 795,
a statue of Ramachandra — an incarnation of Vishnu — formed of red sandal-wood,
was sent from Dondera to be placed in the temple of Saman at Saffragam,

618 CEYLON. [PART IV.
tains appear distinct ; while the deep valleys looked fathomless from
the dark shadows that fell on some and the cold grey mists that lay
in others ; from these small clouds occasionally detached them
selves, and ascended, casting a chilling damp for the few seconds that
they hung around the sacred pinnacle ere they slowly floated onward
or sank back again upon the mountain. A breeze then stirred, and
clouds that had hitherto lain in repose were at once in wild commotion,
passing, enveloping, or pressing in tumultuous masses along the
mountains, which overspreading, they seemed to engulph. When
these airy billows rolled and heaved round the Peak, the rock
appeared to sink in the abyss ; another second overwhelmed me in a
sea of vapour. Every circumstance here conspired to recall the
native legends, that here the spirits,' from unrecorded ages down to
the present time, hover in clouds and darkness near their sacred fane
and native forests. The wind fell and morning dawned on a smooth
lake of matchless beauty, from the number of abrupt and richly
wooded islands which it contained. This, far from being a creation
of fancy, was a deception of nature, and required the aid of reflection
and memory to recall the true features of the scene, and to assure
me that it was but the troubled vapour of the night that had subsided
into the calm expanse, and that I had previously admired those
islands in their true form of rocks, woods, and mountains." The
thermometer on the Peak is seldom below 50°, and at this point only
a short time before and at the time of sunrise, in general fluctuating
between 51 and 60°, but persons who are accustomed to the heat of
the plains experience a chilly sensation.
The south-western portion of Saffragam is generally low and un
interesting, and not so well cultivated as the other divisions. Within
three or four miles of Ratnapoora it greatly improves in appearance,
and affords a favourable example of the scenery of Saffragam : flat
green meadows occur in succession, at times diversified by paddy
fields, bounded by low wooded hills, and skirted with a border of
palms and fruit trees, under which the scattered dwellings of the
natives are here and there visible ; but the country suffers greatly
from floods.
Between Ratnapoora and Balangodde, on the eastern confines of
Saffragam, twenty-nine miles distant, there is considerable variety of
country. The first part of the way is through charming and ex
tensive meadows, bounded by lofty mountains ; the chain of which
Adam's Peak is the summit towering magnificently on the left ; the
latter part of the road is hilly, and the immediate ascent to Balan
godde is steep and mountainous. The scenery is in general of a very
exquisite character, gradually increasing in wildness with the eleva
tion of the country. The valleys are very well watered, and appear
1 The natives believe that none but priests or Europeans can pass a night on
the Peak with impunity, and that sickness, and perhaps death, would follow their
violation of the rule.

CHAP. I.J EASTERN SAFFRAGAM— WESTERN PROVINCE — CALTURA. 619
to be populous and well cultivated. About two miles from Ratna
poora is the village of Batugedera, consisting of a single street,
inhabited chiefly by Moormen pedlars from the low country, who
supply the natives with salt, tobacco, and the finer cloths, bartering
them generally for rice at a high profit. At Gonagamme, another
village, there is a wihare, upwards of five hundred years old, but
exhibiting no peculiarity. The country immediately around Balan
godde is rather hilly and covered with jungle, consisting of guavo,
with forest trees interspersed ; it is very partially cultivated, and the
fields being situated in hollows are generally hid from view. The
neighbouring scenery is wild and picturesque, especially towards
the north, in which direction four distinct chains of mountains have
a fine effect, rising one above another, all of various colours, the
nearest green, the most distant purple, and the intermediate two of
different shades of blue.
The Bentotte river separates the Southern from the Western pro
vince. The superficies of this province is 6032 square miles, and its
population, which was 329,797 in 1843, may be estimated at 358,550
in 1848, being about 59 to the square mile.
The Western province is bounded on the west by the sea, on the
south and south-east by the Southern province, on the east by the
Central province, and on the north and north-east by the Northern'
province. The district of Caltura (Kalutotta), extends along the
most southerly part of this province. Its greatest length from
south-east to north-west is thirty-eight, and its breadth from east to
west eleven miles, and it is one of the most salubrious, pleasant and
populous parts of the island. The soil is remarkably fertile, the low
lands producing three crops of paddy in the year, while the highlands
are covered with groves and plantations of cinnamon, cocoa-nut, areka,
&c. The cocoa-nut-tree affords the inhabitants the means of carrying
on an extensive distillation of arrack, and also of manufacturing
cordage and jaggery. The district is divided into three Korles,
Pasdoom, Raygam, and Wallawitty ; which are sub-divided into
ten pattoos, and upwards of three hundred and seventy villages.
The next village, on the coast route from Bentotte, is Barberyn,
(Beruwala) six miles and three-quarters distant, the road excellent,
occasionally undulating and hilly, but well shaded with cocoa-nut
palms, tamarind, and various other beautiful trees. Barberyn island,
in lat. 6° 28' north, being small and close to the coast, is not
easily perceived from the sea except when passing near. Ships
can anchor to the northward of it in six or seven fathoms, and in
a small bay farther in ; but large ships passing between Caltura
and this place seldom approach nearer than two or three miles off
shore. Barberyn is a large fishing village, with a spacious native
bazaar. Fish is salted here in considerable quantities — but in the
1 See Preface.

620 CEYLON. [PART JV.-
usual careless manner of the Singhalese — for the Kandian markets,
where, notwithstanding its inferior preparation, it is ever in demand.
The trade coastwise is considerable, and a great deal of coir cord and
rope is manufactured and exported coastwise, as well as cocoa and
areka nuts. A considerable trade is carried on with Saffragam by the
Kalu-ganga. Till recently there was no rest-house at Barberyn, but
the traveller received every attention from the officer in charge of
the minor custom-house there. Near the village, upon a projecting
promontory, there is a small mosque, which is more remarkable for
its delightful site than for any particular merit it possesses as a place
of Mussulman worship.
From Barberyn to Caltura, distant five and a half miles, the road
is excellent, in some places cut through hills of Kabook clay, and the
country is undulating and well cultivated. Nearly equi-distant
between the two villages there is an extraordinary lusus naturae, on
the right hand, in a double cocoa-nut tree, the heads of which branch
off at about sixty feet from the ground, like the letter Y, and its
average produce is equal to that of two good trees. It is considered
by the superstitious natives an omen of great good to the family to
whom it may belong. A rich undergrowth of yellow, red, and blue
campanulas surround the old fashioned but neat dwellings, built in
the Dutch style, with verandahs at their sides, which lie scattered on
this coast road, and old Dutch inscriptions are to be met with in every
direction on the decaying walls.
Caltura is twenty-five miles south of Colombo, on the left bank
of the Kalu-ganga. The coast is low, and should not be approached
under fifteen or sixteen fathoms in large ships. Both to the north
ward and southward of the fort there is foul ground, which should
not be approached under ten fathoms. The Government House is
a large and substantial building, having a spacious verandah in front
and rear ; the former shaded by several beautiful jambo trees, and
the latter open to the ever welcome cool sea breeze passing over the
Kalu-ganga, which winds between the grounds and the sandy ridge
that intervenes between the river and the sea to its embouchure to
to the westward of the village. The adjoining cutcherry is also a
very substantial building and shaded in front by some fine specimens
of the India-rubber tree. The Wesleyan mission has a large and
commodious house, and a neat and well constructed chapel and
school here, both of which are constantly and well attended. Coffee
of a very superior kind is grown in this district. Land may be
purchased at moderate prices where there are no cocoa-nut trees,
its value being usually estimated by the number of those palms
growing upon it. For cotton the soil is well adapted, as well as for
the cultivation of the chocolate nut (Theobroma Cacao, L.), which
requires much shade. The rising grounds should be planted with
the former, and the valleys with the latter. Pepper is fond of shade,
and might be grown in sufficient quantities in this province alone to
render the island altogether independent of the Malabar coast for

CHAP. I.J THE KALU-GANGA AND THE COUNTRY ON ITS BANKS. 621
that spice to fill up the interstices in the bales of cinnamon exported
to Europe. The view from Mount Layard, on the left bank of the
river, is beautiful, but one scarcely knows which of the two reaches
of the river to admire most : the old fort, an island and the open sea
over the sandy ridge, make the view down the river the finest, but
for the Indian impression given by the areka trees and cocoa-nut
topes ; but the mellow richness of the scenery up the river towards
Gal-Pathe would appear to some most interesting. There is a canal
from this river of which the naturalist may advantageously avail
himself. On either side the Kalu-ganga are extensive paddy,
Kurukkan, mustard, millet, and tannahal fields.
The Kalu-ganga, little inferior to the Rhine in breadth or volume,
though at first exhibiting no remarkable scenery, soon presents, as
you ascend it, numerous picturesque river scenes, with rugged banks,
wooded hills, rocks and rapids. The stream is so extremely rapid,
that the ascent of the river in a boat, or pardie, is wearisome to the
last degree, it having to be dragged by a number of natives at the
falls, between the rocks or Ellas, with rattan ropes ; the return pas
sage is capable of being effected within a reasonable time. The trade
is carried on by pardies between Caltura and Ratnapoora, freighted
chiefly by the Moormen from Barberyn, with salt fish, white and
coloured cotton cloths, kerchiefs, country soap, &c, for the Kandian
markets, which they barter for areka-nuts, bees-wax and jaggery.
The priests at thepansalas, near the river, offer great accommodation
to the traders, by permitting depots for the collection of areka-nuts
on their grounds, which are purchased by the ammomam of 25,000.
At Galpathe, eight miles from Caltura, the scenery becomes
romantic and pleasing, with little mounds or hillocks rising on either
bank, covered with rich and dense foliage Here and there grassy
vales, contrasting in their lighter green with the deeper shades of
the rising grounds, beautifully diversify the scene. The left bank of
the river, abounds with monkeys, and the sportsman will find pea
fowl, wild ducks, widgeon and snipes, in as great a profusion as any
locality in the island, or perhaps in India. The numerous little
landing places on either side first indicate to the tourist, as he steals
along, the habitations of the peasants, and the small herds of cattle
browsing on the open space near some group of cocoa-nut or plantain
trees, mark the extent of their possessions, and the fruit of their in
dustry. A rise in the floods happens here occasionally, to the great
damage of the grain fields, but not to the same extent as in the years
preceding the opening of the new mouth of the river. The village
of Koongodde is devoted to the growth of kurukkan and minere.
The back-ground from the banks of the river is flanked by a con
tinuous range of hills, broken at short intervals by undulating sur
faces, which are used as pasture grounds, or rice fields. Rafts are
occasionally seen floating down the Kalu-ganga laden with vegetables,
which are either purchased by the villagers on the banks, or carried
to the more populous sea coast ; the raft itself, composed of bamboo

622 CEYLON. [PART IV.
and firewood, is in demand at Caltura for temporary buildings and
fuel for the distilleries. The larger rafts, composed principally of
heavy timber, are used for permanent buildings. The agricultural
aspect of the country as one ascends, shews no great marks of im
provement. The people seem quite content to remain behind the
age, and have not a thought beyond their immediate wants. The
heavy impenetrable jungle, with which three-fourths of the country
is covered, bespeaks their indolent character. Blessed with the
superior advantages of soil and climate, if they had but a share of
European energy, they might look to the attainment of means far
beyond that which now supply their coarse and scanty enjoyments ;
but with the limited capital they now hoard up, they might double
the interest, and transmit to their children the advantages.they may
not live to reap.
The first thing that almost always marks the entrance to a village,
near the coast, is an arrack tavern. At Tebboene, a mile beyond
Yattewere, the country assumes a beautiful appearance ; the land
scape becomes diversified with little detached cottages peeping through
a grove of plantain and other fruit trees. The village stands on the
right bank, and paddy cultivation is extensively carried on ; Odowere
is a Chalia village, and exhibits marks of considerable industry. On
the right bank is a conspicuous little hill called Dewul Kandi, rising
very abruptly within a few yards of the stream. On its rock summit
are a little tank, and the vestiges of ancient buildings, supposed to
have been the retreat of a Kandian prince during his wars with the
Portuguese. Two or three villages distinguished rather for the vege
tation lavished in rich and wild profusion by nature than the result
of man's industry, succeed, and the first rapids are reached. These
are occasioned by a layer of rocks stretching across the channel,
which is rather narrow at this point. When the tide ebbs the pas
sage is difficult, as the boat has to pass through a narrow opening on
the right, barely sufficient to admit of a pardie, and so shallow that
the keel may at times be heard rattling over the rocks as the rush of
the stream hurries it along. A sort of superstitious awe is attached
to the undertaking by the boatmen, who invoke the aid of their
deity, Saman, with the most solemn expression of countenance.
Several small villages being passed, Naragalle is reached, where there
is an arrack godown that supplies the taverns of the vicinity. The
people in this neighbourhood have already become greatly addicted
to this baneful liquor, and it has increased the callous indifference and
listlessness which was before the characteristic of the Singhalese in
the maritime provinces. When to this is added the encourage
ment to gambling, and the frequent robberies that ensue to make
losses good, a frightful picture of demoralization is seen to loom on
the future. The arrack is not distilled here, though the rich heavy
clusters of cocoa-nuts shew the excellence of the soil they grow on,
and the rich returns it would give if the industry of the people were
properly directed. As it is, the banks of the river only are continuously

CHAP. I.J RAPIDS — VILLAGES — FEATURES OF THE LANDSCAPE. 623
cultivated, and very few acres beyond a mile from them have ever been
subjected to the plough share, or had their thick motley forests fall
before the woodman's axe. At the second series of rapids, a reef of
rocks again traverses the stream, and the rumbling of the waters as
they force their way over the thick masses and through the passage,
may be heard from afar. The banks of the stream are here flanked
by massive rocks, over which the wild but nimble natives, that seem
to emerge from some creek in them, or the scarce visible openings
in the jungle around, run with the rope from the boat till they get
up to the extreme end of the right flank, and then one at a time
plunge into the boiling stream, and make head against a current that
one would imagine that no living creature could buffet, till they
come to another prominent rock, almost in a line a head of the
critical passage from whence they pull up the boat till it reaches
it, while two or more of them stand by on one edge of the rocks
that form the narrow outlet, and some of the boat's-crew with poles
to steady it and keep it from being dashed against the flanks by the
irresistible pressure of the stream. At Illembe, in the Raygam
Korle, the cocoa-nut thrives on both banks ; the village is famous
for its rich soil, but the paddy fields are liable to inundation, whence
they are only cultivated triennially. Pasdoom Korle on the other bank
is wilder, and the country is not so populous.
The village of Wagwatte is remarkable for its beautiful cocoa-nut
topes and its numerous and neat little cottages covered with Illook,
a description of coarse long grass. The cleanliness and taste of these
dwellings, and the independent tone and manners of the people,
indicate strongly their industrial qualities and superior intelligence,
ascribable perhaps to the proximity of European capitalists engaged
in sugar and cocoa-nut cultivation. After passing some small
secluded villages, with the rudest possible habitations, the scenery
assumes the bold aspect and the wilder and loftier appearance
peculiar to the mountain region. The hills are capped with frowning
rocks that look down their steep declivities and rear their tall heads
amid the solemn stillness of a dense waste, broken only at intervals
by the shrill tones of the peacock, or distant cry of the elk, roaming
in wild freedom around. Oroogalle is inhabited by the Hakooroo
caste, who enjoy the exclusive right to the cultivated lands here, where
paddy, kurukkan, minere, amoo, and various kinds of roots, thrive
well on the rich soil, while the younger branches of the people be
take themselves to the wild sports of the forests around. The
orange, the shaddock and plantain, may still be seen here, but no
longer so plentiful as hitherto. Hill paddy is sown on the face of the
hills, the rice looks reddish, has a high flavour, and is supposed to be
more wholesome and nutritious than the varieties grown in the low
muddy fields. The people here seem to look with some mistrust upon
their countrymen from the coast, who in landing do not scruple to pilfer
anything they can lay their hands upon unperceived. The banks of
the river become steeper and higher as one ascends, being generally

624 CEYLON. [PART IV.
twenty feet above the level of the stream, yet such is the mighty rush
of waters from the mountain torrents in the rainy season, that not
only are the banks overflowed, but hardly a relic of the cottage roofs,
some twenty feet above, can at times be discerned ; and the women
and children and the elderly men retreat to the hills in the back
ground, while the younger men remain perched up in lofts, placed
on the larger trees near the house, to protect the fruit, &c. from the
depredations of those, who availing themselves of the occasion, go
about in canoes to pick up any stray property.
Nambaapane, a Hakooroo village, boasts a rest-house, situate on
the site of an old Kandian fort on the right bank of the river, and is
about midway between Caltura and Ratnapoora. It presents just
such a spot as a wine grower would select for a vineyard, the
alluvial soil being both rich and stony, and water being abundant.
The next rapids are at Pannigalle-Elle, where the scenery is ex
ceedingly picturesque. Two beautiful hills overlooking the surge, and
richly clothed in eternal verdure, offer an enchanting scene ; here a
more athletic description of men seem as it were to drop from the
surrounding heights, and convey the boat through the rocks, strewn
in careless confusion by the caprice of nature. It is needless to add,
that the same dexterity is here shewn in mastering the impetuosity
of the stream. At Kiri Elle the density of the mists may be
said to define the more humid climate of the interior. The
people also differ in appearance from those even at the last village.
They are essentially Kandian in their costume and idiom, and some
what migratory. Occasionally a solitary hut is seen at intervals, and
a scanty crop of grain, but the frail materials of the hut are borne
away by the periodical flood, and its late tenant seeks elsewhere a
precarious subsistence. Two or three villages, whose inhabitants live
by the manufacture of jaggery, succeed, until the tourist enters
Kooroowitty Korle, stretching north-east of the right bank. Re
markable as it may appear, at these villages and Idangodde the
people have more of the lowland dress and cast of countenance than
those below. The Kookool Korle, south-west of the left bank,
appears wilder and thinly peopled.
A succession of villages, none offering anything worthy of notice
as far as Arukpittiya, succeed. The country, though infested by
elephants, is very fertile and luxuriant. The bazaar at this village
is well supplied. This part of the country is remarkable for its rich
and magnificent groups of green and yellow bamboo, which droop
over the stream, and give the country a beautiful rural character.
Their massive floats lie around for conveyance down the river, and
they form a considerable article of trade. Fishermen from the coast
may here be seen in their canoes in the evening shade, catching fish
by torchlight with the iron instrument they call a sword, something
like a horse comb, being a pronged blade of iron about twelve inches
long, with a wooden handle two feet long, fastened round the wrist
of the fisherman, who strikes the fish with it, while another holds

CHAP. I.J PANTURA— DISTRICT OF COLOMBO— MOROTTO. 625
the torch over the fascinated creature as it rises to the surface and
remains motionless till the deadly blow is inflicted. Mullets of from
six to eight pounds are thus taken. At Damboolowene the talapat
prevails, and at Dodamp6 paddy and cocoa-nut trees are extensively
cultivated. The villages between this place and Ratnapoora are
inhabited by the Hakooroo and Goewanse, who in this neighbour
hood live more frequently near each other than elsewhere in the
island. The pride of caste, though no longer sanctioned as formerly
by law, still frets the surface of society, and recently some of the
low caste before-mentioned were assaulted by the other while attend
ing a marriage in an attire deemed unfitting to their low position in
the social scale. It is needless to add that they met with the punish
ment they deserved. Nevertheless, in this very neighbourhood
lately resided a Dissave, animated by the noblest sentiments of
humanity, who not only discouraged the oppression of the superior
castes, but gave a practical proof of his sincerity by the manumission
of every slave in his possession. Below Ratnapoora the Kalu-ganga
divides into two streams, one of which flows due north, and the other
in an easterly direction. The northern branch is remarkable, now
for its impetuosity, the rocks through which it runs, and the forests
that border it, now for its placid and tranquil bosom. It receives
the water from a great many rivulets and watercourses as it descends
till it meets the icy waters of the Seetla.
To return to Caltura. The country between this place and Colombo
becomes more beautiful at every step ; nature and art seem to conspire
to render the landscape a charming one : picturesque country seats,
a rich vegetation, several rivers flowing softly between banks of ex
quisite loveliness, and distant views of mountains, follow each other
in rapid succession. The next stage from Caltura northwards is to
Pantura (Panadura), situate upon the south bank of the river of the
same name, and distant ten miles, the road level, good and well
shaded. It derives its name from an abbreviation of the word
" pambunratta," or " the country where lamps were broken," in
allusion to a legend of the reign of Wijeya. Pantura has two rocks
on the north side of the river entrance, and the anchorage is to the
southward, in ten fathoms, two miles off shore.
The rest-house at Pantura, which faces the ferry, is very substantial,
and the verandah is generally so cool as to afford a pleasant reading-
place during the heat of the day. Fish kraals extend directly across
the river, just leaving space enough for the pardie boats to pass and
repass. A few mats for palanquins and sofas may be purchased here,
but it has neither scenery nor manufactures to recommend it. Like
the whole of this coast it abounds with cocoa-nut trees, and the
principal objects of agriculture are paddy and sweet potatoes. A
district judge resides here, and there is a minor custom-house estab
lishment in charge of a supervisor.
The district of Colombo is divided into five Korles ; the Salpitty
Korle, Hewagam Korle, Hina Korle, Hapitigam Korle, and Aloot-
2 s

626 CEYLON. [PART IV.
koor Korle. These are subdivided into pattoos. The population
of the district is, after that of Jaffna, the most numerous, in pro
portion to its surface, in the island, being httle less than 280,000,
and the villages are upwards of 800 in number. The face of the
country is in general flat, at times liable to inundation, and the soil
varies from red and white clay to a ferruginous sand. Every variety
of tropical produce is grown with success ; and copperahs, cordage,
and arrack are exported to the Coromandel coast.
After crossing the river the road leads by the lake and through the
village of Morotto, or Morottowa, near to which are the cinnamon gar
dens or plantations, occupying an extent of from three to four hundred
square acres. The village is chiefly inhabited by carpenters, who fell
jack-trees, saw them into planks, and work them into every article of
household furniture on the spot, and generally after the most recent
English patterns. Morotto is fifteen and a quarter miles distant from
Colombo; the intermediate road lies through the large but straggling
villages of Galkisse and Colpetty, and throughout the distance is as
level as a bowling-green, thickly shaded by a variety of beautiful and
useful trees, and the sea side is bordered by cocoa-nut palms. The
former village may be said to be one continuous bazaar, and is very
well supplied with fish, of which the seir is chiefly esteemed for the
market, and therefore the most valuable to the fisherman. This
delicious fish is caught with hook and line, while the canoes are
apparently skimming the surface of the water at a railroad pace, and
in such quantities, that, after supplying the bazaar at Galkisse, the
renter of the fishery sends the surplus morning and evening to the
Colombo bazaar by Coolies, who actually bend under the weight of
their pingo loads. Strangers visiting the Buddhist temple near this
place meet with every attention from the priest, who is a great adept
at flattery and adulation. Galkisse is of some importance from its
proximity to the Governor's country seat at Mount Lavinia,
formerly a capacious bungalow, but now a palace in comparison, the
former building having been pulled down by Sir Edward Barnes and
the latter substituted in its place. It is now, however, little fre
quented, and is said to be in urgent need of repairs. There is a
Protestant church at this place. At no great distance to the right
of Galkisse is Cotta (Jayawardhanapoora), once a capital of Ceylon,
containing a splendid palace of blue stone, and temples and
monasteries for the priests, all now in ruins. The present village is
on the banks of a small stream, which communicates with Colombo
by the Kalane on one side, and with the Pantura-oya and Caltura on
the other. In the rainy season it overflows its banks, and inundates
the country around, rendering communication difficult except by
water. Cotta is completely embosomed amid groves of cocoa-nut,
areka, and jack-trees, entwined with pepper and betel vines. The
Church Missionary Institution for the training of native masters
and catechists is at this place, and several periodicals are issued
from its press. Throughout the whole line of road between Gal-

CHAP.I.J COTTA — COLOMBO, POSITION, ANCHORAGE, ETYMOLOGY. 627
kisse and Colombo, the traveller may walk under cocoa-nut trees
by the sea side without the least exposure to the sun. On the right
of the high road, where cinnamon plantations do not intervene, groves
of plantain and anatto would succeed. If the traveller have leisure,
and sleep at Pantura, leaving before gun-fire with the view of break
fasting at Colombo, a halt at the Tamarind tree, about three miles
from the fort, for a glass of the delicious toddy, always to be had
there from sun-rise till eight o'clock fresh from the flower, will
reward him for the delay. He then reaches the Galle-face, and the
walk through the beautiful avenue of trees by which the whole road
is lined will unfold the capital to his view.
Colombo, the maritime capital and seat of Government, is in lat.
6° 57' north, and long. 79° 50' east, distant about 368miles south-west
from Madras, and about six leagues south south-west from Negombo.
The bottom between these places is chiefly mud, with regular sound
ings, but the coast should not be approached close, on account of some
rocks stretching out about two miles from the north point of the
Kalane, or Mutwal Ganga, and in passing along shore a ship should
keep in ten or twelve fathoms, and may anchor in Colombo road in six
and a half to seven fathoms, with the flag-staff or fight-house in the fort
bearing from south to south by east of the town one and a half to two
miles. The harbour, which is in the form of a semicircle, is only
capable of receiving small vessels, and the road where the large ships
cast anchor, at upwards of a mile from the shore, is exposed to the
south-west monsoon, but severe gales seldom occur now, so that ships
frequent it all the year through. The Drunken Sailor Rock bearing
south-west by west, half west from the lighthouse, is two miles off,
and is very dangerous. It is in the track of ships coming from the
southward, when bound into Colombo roads in the north-east mon
soon, and the sea does not break upon it in fine weather. A steep
bank of coral, about half a mile broad, having fifteen fathoms water
on it, lies seven miles west of Colombo, stretching a few miles to the
southward, and in a northerly direction towards Negombo, where its
surface is sand. The water deepens at once to twenty-three fathoms
outside the bank, and to twenty-eight fathoms, greenish sand, at two
miles distant, which is not far from the edge of soundings. Within
the bank are twenty-five fathoms, gradually shoaling towards the
shore. The bar is a bank of sand, with seven feet water on its shoalest
part. Small vessels drawing less than ten feet water, ride within the
bar, protected from the sea and south-west wind. The sea breaks
heavy on the bar in bad weather, rendering the crossing it from the
shipping in the outer road dangerous for small boats. Pilotage is
not now charged at Colombo, unless a pilot be employed, when the
charge, according to a regulation of the Governor in Council, is fifteen
shillings. The land about Colombo is low near the sea, with some hills
to the south-eastward, a little way in the country. The high mountain
with a sharp cone, called Adam's Peak, is nearest to this part of the
coast, being about two-thirds of the distance that it is from the east
side of the island. 2 s 2

628 CBYLON. [PART IV.
Colombo is mentioned in Singhalese history as early as the
year 495 of the Christian era. MoogaUaana, who afterwards reigned
at Anuradhapoora, is said to have landed here with an army from
the continent and erected a fort. About the year 1374 it was fre
quented by trading vessels, and a colony of Malabars, under Aareya
Chakrawarti, took possession of the place, and threw up fortifications,
but they were soon expelled from it by the minister Alakaiswara, who
founded the city of Cotta in the neighbourhood. The Portuguese ar
rived in a.d . 1 5 1 0 . The etymology of Colombo is commonly attributed
to Colamba, a species of mango, which stood conspicuous at this
place in olden time. In the Sidahartha Sangraha, or Singhalese gram
mar, the word Colamba is mentioned as signifying a «ea-port and also
a fort, and in the former sense it seems to have been applied to the
metropolis of the island from its maritime situation by the natives,
being corrupted into Colombo by the Portuguese in honour of that
celebrated navigator.
The fort of Colombo mounts 126 guns and six mortars, and is
garrisoned by a European force of forty officers and 850 European
troops. The Gun Lascars and the Ceylon Rifle regiment are stationed
on Slave Island, where there are some good houses, usually occupied
by the officers of the regiment. The latter body, consisting of
Malays, Sepoys and Kaffres, has been recently augmented, and part
of it transferred to Hong Kong. Its present force at Colombo is
twenty-five officers and 650 men, and it is now being recruited by
Kaffres from Mosambique, who are to receive the European rate of
pay. Colombo would, perhaps, present difficulties in the way of
defence, from the great extent of the works, which to be manned
effectively would require at least 6000 troops, and the fort is capable,
in case of emergency, of accommodating 10,000 persons. The
present Governor being a civilian, the forces are commanded by a
Major-General, who usually resides at Kew House, on the verge of
the beautiful artificial lake, which adds so greatly to the appearance
and health of Colombo. This residence was formerly called Blanker's
Garden, having belonged to a Dutch Major of that name, and was
subsequently occupied by the commanding officer of the Ceylon
regiment. In 1812 the ground was converted into a botanical
garden, and the curator occupied the house. When this establish
ment was transferred to Paradiniya, the house and grounds reverted
to the military, and have ever since been considered as appropriated
to the commander of the forces. The fort, commenced by the
Portuguese in 1518, and completed in its present extent and strength
by their successors, the Dutch, is situate on a small projection of land,
washed by the sea for about two-thirds of its extent, and embraces a
a circuit of nearly a mile and a quarter. The ramparts are very strong,
having eight principal bastions, and a number of lesser ones, with
curtains, banquets, and parapets, communicating one with the other
all round, but the exclusion of the sea breeze, as at Galle, is no slight
drawback from this strong fortification. At the foot of the ramparts

CHAP. I.] FORT, DEFENCES, LAKE, GRAVETS, BAZAARS. 629
on the inside isabroadway, which extends round the whole fort, and
is connected with the bastions and soldiers' barracks ; and also affords
at the different angles open spaces for their private parades. The
whole of the fort is surrounded, except that side which is next the
sea, by a deep ditch or fosse ; and adjoining the covert way, and at
the foot of the glacis, is a lake which communicates with the Mutwal
river. The best houses in Colombo are within the fort. The Main
or Queen's Street is wide and well planted with umbrageous
sooria or tulip (Hibiscus Zeilanicus) and bread-fruit trees, and several
of the houses have gardens for shrubs and flowers in front, and coach
houses and stables in the rear. The streets are well watered during
the day, and the fallen foliage is regularly removed every morning
and evening. One may walk from either extremity of the fort to
the other in the heat of the day without being incommoded by the
sun's rays. During dinner-time a large and heavy, but beautifully
painted board, called a Punkah, equal in size to the table over which it
is suspended, is kept in motion inside the houses by a servant by means
of strings passing through the wall. All the rooms are quite open to
the verandah, which for the sake of coolness surrounds each story.
In the interior of the fort are several straight and regular streets with
smaller ones crossing at right angles. Behind the Queen's House,
the residence of the Governor, is the Lighthouse, an edifice the light
of which is ninety-seven feet above the level of the sea, and in clear
weather may be seen as far as the light is visible above the horizon.
All the military offices, as well as those of the Colonial Secretary, the
Commissioner of Revenue, the Vice- Admiralty Court, with the General
Post Office, are within the fort; there are besides an English church,
called St. Peters, a library, a medical museum, a hospital, two Tiotels,
and numerous shops.
The lake at the back of the fort almost insulates the town, being
connected by a canal with the Mutwal- oya ; and a lock having been
formed at St. Sebastian by Sir Edward Barnes, the inland navigation
is carried through the fort to the sea beach. In the centre of the lake
is a tongue of land, denominated Slave Island, from the use to which
it was applied by the Dutch. That part of Slave Island nearest to
the fort is very cool, being only separated from the sea by an isthmus,
commonly called the Galle-face. Communication from this place with
the fort or pettah is very easy by land, passing over a very pretty
little stone bridge, which opens to the south end of the Galle-face near
the village of Colpetty, or by boats, which cross the lake at all seasons.
There is now also communication by a good bridge opposite the sally
port ; a new road has likewise been formed along the side of the lake
leading from St. Sebastian to the fort, a portion of a new road along
the sea shore at the back of Sea Street and facing the anchorage is
formed, and will perhaps ultimately be continued outside the ramparts
to the Custom House, and thus relieve the main gate of the fort ot
two-thirds of the immense number of vehicles constantly crushing
through it.

630 CEYLON. [PART IV.
The square comprehended within what are called the gravets, is
about eight square miles ; the limits being the Fort, Tankesalgade,
Mutwal (mouth of the Kalane-Ganga), Pass Betal, Oeroegodewatte,
Maligawatte, Demettegode, Marandhan cinnamon plantations, Col
petty, and Galle-face. The term gravets is a corruption of the
Kandian word kaddewette, meaning the boundaries of a city, which
were surrounded with a thorn fence. Its primary signification was
perhaps the bounds within which certain low castes, such as Rhodias,
Gahaleyas, Kinnerayas, &c. could not approach without the special
consent of the Adigaar, or unless the occasion of certain religious
ceremonies called for their presence and services. The Portuguese
corrupted the word into garvette, the Dutch, in their rugged
tongue, called it gravetteja, and the British modified this into gravets.
There are now upwards of twenty commercial houses in Colombo.
Some handsome and well stocked shops have also been opened
by Europeans ; a number of others belong to respectable burghers of
Dutch descent, and Main Street pettah, is now one series of shops
and stores. The Moormen own the greater number of the shops,
the grain stalls are shared by Tamuls and Moormen, and a few
wealthy Parsee tradesmen transact an extensive business in this street.
Several respectable tradesmen of the same faith, who are connected
with the Bombay trade, are settled in the fort as well as pettah of Co
lombo. They receive supplies from the former place during the south
west monsoon and make their returns, chiefly in produce, during the
north-east monsoon, and, as is their custom elsewhere, they live as near
as possible to each other. The Nateacottah (cloth merchants) gene
rally live in Sea Street, which swarms with their Tamul countrymen.
Within the last year a company has been formed to import ice from
America. A great impetus has been given to internal and petty
trading by the abolition of the restrictions on auctioneers and auctions.
There are several bazaars or market-places in the pettah for fish, flesh of
every kind, fruits, grain, garden herbs, &c. Beef is to be had tolerably
good at from fourpence-halfpenny to sixpence per pound ; mutton
sells according to quality, when really good it is expensive. Ducks and
fowls are plentiful at about two shillings each the former, and one
shilling the latter ; geese and turkeys are expensive. Tropical herbs
and fruit are abundant, and generally cheap and good ; mangoes
from the hot climate and calcareous soil of Jaffna excel ; but for pine
apples and oranges, Colombo can compete with any part of India.
Fish is generally of good quality and in great variety, but scarce and
dear. Potatoes, for which some few years ago the island was altogether
dependent upon Bombay and Madras, are now cheap and abundant,
and exposed for sale soon after daylight. The bazaars are well and
regularly supplied every day alike, except Sunday, on which no traffic
is now allowed. There are also two steam engines and several native
presses used for manufacturing cocoa-nut oil, which are worked by
bullocks, and their vicinity is forcibly indicated by the tremendous
creaking which accompanies their movements. The first foundry ever

CHAP. I.J THE PETTAH— POLICE— PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 631
established in Geylon is in operation onSlave Island. The Pettah or black
town lies on the north side of the fort, on the margin of the sea, is
regularly built and divided into fifteen streets, of which eight run
east and west, and the others cross them at right angles. The
houses are in general built of kabook, and neatly washed with chunam,
which has all the appearance of marble ; some of them are of two
stories, and all are lofty and have a good appearance. Several of the
streets are lined on each side with rows of the Guilandina Moringa,
Hibiscus Zeilanicus (Sooriya gaha, Singh.), the Hibiscus albinischus
(Kapu Kinaisa gaha, Singh.), and the Melia sempervivens (Kas-
samba gaha, Singh.)
In 1814, the number of tiled houses within the gravets, was esti
mated at 2654. By virtue of a regulation passed in 1820, an
assessment was imposed for lighting and repairing the streets ; the
amount collected from 1820to 1829, was ^£6592, of which ^62140
was laid out at interest, with the view of accumulating a fund, and
by a further regulation in 1830, it was arranged that four-fifths of
the amount collected should be applied to the lighting and repairs,
andone-fifth be added annually to the accumulation fund, to be lent
out at interest under the direction of a committee. When the interest
amounted to £\ 200 per annum, the tax was to cease. Recently a
town surveyor with an assistant has been appointed to survey and
improve the town. Improvement was sadly called for, and the
scantiness of funds leaves much yet to be effected. Vested right and
the law of prescription, where they only rested on the ground of
nuisances that had been permitted for years to exist with impunity,
have been very properly set at defiance ; verandahs coexistent with
the houses to which they are attached, where they encroach on the
public way, have been either removed, or the owners have been called
to pay so much per square foot for the general improvement of the
town. This measure has of course produced much excitement and
discontent among the householders, but it only requires firmness and
strict impartiality in carrying out its regulations to ensure the con
currence of sensible persons. The streets have never yet been
lighted in this important city, and the police, which is pretty efficient,
is supported by a tax of five per cent on the value of buildings.
The force has been assimilated within the last few years in dress and
discipline to the new police of London, the present superintendant
having been chosen from that body. The advantages resulting from
clothing Asiatics, accustomed to free and flowing robes, in the stiff
and close dress of Europeans remain to be seen, but there can be no
question of the incongruity of the long hair and large coat of the
Singhalese policemen, and the peaked cap which rests on them.
The scene on landing at the Custom-house during business hours,
is one of great and incessant bustle, boats, bullock bandies, and
coolies hurrying to and fro, while coffee, cinnamon, and cocoa-nut
oil are being shipped, cotton cloth from Britain and India valued and
passed, and grain from India and Arracau being lauded and measured.

632 CEYLON. [part IV.
The United Service Library, nearly opposite the Queen's House,
-contains a good selection of books, upon every scientific and amusing
subject, the periodical publications of Europe and the Indian
peninsula, newspapers, &c, but within the two last years, the insti
tution has lost a large body of supporters. The merchants and
others not connected with the services, could only be admitted by
ballot, and as honorary members were deprived of a voice in the
management of the institution and the disposal of the funds, the
humiliation was too much to be borne ; and a new Hall of Commerce
or Exchange has been built, as a place of reunion for the professional
and commercial elasses, in connection with which is a small but
increasing library and news-room, to which all persons of respecta
bility and intelligence are admitted. Assemblies are occasionally
held in the rooms of the United Service Library. The situation of
that building, which is considerably elevated above the street, and
with its spacious verandah delightfully shaded by umbrageous trees,
and exposed to the sea breeze, presents an agreeable lounge during
the heat of the day. The Museum attached to the Medical Library
is situated in Hospital Street, and is well worthy of a visit. There is
a large and varied collection of specimens of natural history, but the
arrangement is not judicious. The Pettah Library is a very respect
able institution, with a large collection of books, the subscription is
only one shilling per month, but the rich pay higher according to
their means and inclination. It is a subject of regret that natives
are not yet admitted, nor have they formed a library of their own.
The two banks, the Ceylon and Oriental are side by side in Queen's
Street, nearly opposite the Queen'sHouse, which they completely eclipse
in appearance. Previous to their establishment, the mercantile interests
no less than private individuals were made sensibly aware of the incon
venience of being altogether dependent on the limited sale of Govern
ment and missionary bills for remittances to England. The Savings*
Bank has lately been a subject of legislative discussion, and in its rooms
meet periodically the members of the newly formed Ceylon branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society. This useful institution has branches at
Trincomalee, Jaffna, Galle, and Kandy, by which loans are advanced
upon good security, and deposits received, and business transacted on
certain days in every month, and on special occasions when required.
The extension of this bank to the various districts of the island
would be attended with inconceivable advantages to the native
population, who might receive advances at from eight to ten per cent.
where they now pay from twenty-five to thirty to the Chitties or other
usurers. The Couneil Room faces the fort esplanade, and is both
externally and internally a handsome building, but a drawback exists,
in the existence of an echo, which renders the speaker frequently
inaudible. The Colonial Secretary's office is beneath the Council
Room, and almost all the other Government offices adjoin it. There
are three or four hotels within the fort, the Royal Hotel, formerly
the Government rest-house, is a splendid building. A number of

CHAP. I.J PUBLIC BUILDINGS— SCENERY AROUND COLOMBO. 633
beautiful private residences have of late years been erected along the
sea shore at Colpetty, and in the Marandhan cinnamon garden, on
which has been mapped out the plan of a future city. The elephant
stables, which are an object of great interest, are at Kayman's Gate.
The other public buildings are the Hall of the Supreme Court,
situate at Hulfsdorp, in the heart of the town. A new edifice is now
being raised for this purpose at a cost of ^10,000. ; the District
Court of Colombo, the Court of Requests, the Fiscal's office, the
Debtor's Jail and the Police office are all contiguous. A splendid
new prison on the Pentonville plan is on the point of completion at
Wellicadde, and a new lunatic asylum has been built in the same
locality. The Cutcherry is pleasantly situated near the fort, and
looks out upon the lake. The Wolfendahl Church stands on a hill
in the centre of the town. It is a lofty building, and was erected by
the Dutch in 1 746, and now belongs to the Presbyterians. In it are
deposited the remains of the Dutch Governors who died in Ceylon.
Besides this are St. Andrew's belonging to the same body, St.
Thomas belonging to the Malabar, and St. Paul's to the Portuguese
Protestants, Trinity church to the English members of the Church.
The Romanist churches have been elsewhere noticed. The Wes-
leyans, and Baptists, have both their chapels, and the Moors have
two handsome mosques decorated with minarets ; the Hindoos also
have their temples, covered with rudely sulptured figures of lions,
dragons, &c, but strange to say, the Buddhists have none nearer than
Kalane, five miles distant.
The country about Colombo is flat, except a small part to the
northward and eastward, the soil alluvial and sandy in some parts,
and iron-stone, clay and gravel in others, is in all extremely fertile, the
shores covered to the verge of the sea with cocoa-nut palms, and the
inland beautifully diversified with umbrageous fruit and other trees,
cinnamon plantations, gardens and pasture lands, intersected by canals
and a fresh water lake, and to the northward by the Mutwal river or
Kalane-ganga and the grand canal. Soon after daybreak, when the
lofty mountain of the Sri Pada or Adam's Peak, is seen in the
distance from the south esplanade or Galle-face,'the view of Slave Island
rising out of the placid bosom of the water, called the lake of
Colombo, with its pretty houses, bungalows and other buildings,
interspersed among stately areka, bread-fruit trees, and cocoa-
nut palms, which afford an excellent shade, the bugles of the Ceylon
Rifle corps alone breaking the tranquillity of the scene, affords inde
scribable pleasure to the recently arrived European. It is at this hour
that on review days, the troops are seen marching to their ground
on the race course, and that the early risers of Colombo are setting
out upon their morning drives, rides or walks, many of them expec
tant of the rendezvous of the European civil and military officers and
merchants, at the well known Tamarind Tree, near the third milestone
on the Galle road, to quaff the wholesome and renovating nectar,
fresh from the toddy palm before its fermentation, which is^very rapid,

634 CEYLON. [PART IV.
commences. It is then that the natural sieve which nature presents
in the envelope of the petioles in the cocoa-nut fronds is employed in
one of its most useful offices for straining the liquid and clearing it
from the various insects that may have fallen victims to their love of
sweets during the night. The whole way from the esplanade to the
Tamarind Tree is a wide carriage road, shaded with tulip, cocoa-nut,
teak, bamboo, banyan, silky cotton, areka, Adam's apple, (Cerbera
manghas,.L.) andvarious other useful and ornamental trees, but the road
generally preferred for returning to the fort leads along the margin
of the sea, through a dense cocoa-nut tope to the verge of the esplan
ade. Emerging from the line of native huts upon the sea side of
the high road, the splendid fortifications of Colombo, which form a
prominent part of the grand panorama, are viewed with admiration.
There is a Horticultural Society at Colombo, under the patronage
of the Governor, but the Literary and Agricultural Societies have
been abandoned for want of support. The mail coach establishment,
commenced in 1832, by a joint stock company, conveyed passengers
from Colombo to Kandy (which by palanquins it took several days to
accomplish) in less than twelve hours. The coach started from
Colombo every Monday, Wednesday and Friday morning at gun-fire,
and reached Kandy, a distance of 72 miles, between 5 and 6 o'clock
on the same day, and left Kandy every Tuesday, Thursday, and
Saturday at gun-fire, reaching Colombo at 5 p.m., the former
journey being more up hill than the latter. The fare to and from
Kandy is £2. 10s. for Europeans, but is somewhat less for native
gentlemen, and considerably less for natives in general. There
are now two coaches a day to and from Kandy, and the journey is
performed in ten hours ; a mail coach between Colombo and Galle,
fare £2. 10s., and another between Colombo and Negombo. There
is also a Conveyance company between Colombo and Kandy, but its
success has been neutralized by the extensive mortality among the
cattle employed in the transit. The Ceylon Widows' and Orphans'
Fund is under official management and security, and greatly benefits
those widows and orphans whose provident husbands and fathers
may by their contributions have preserved them from destitution.
There the children of European soldiers and others are boarded
and educated, and a portion of a610. is given with each girl on her
marriage. Among other charitable institutions, there are the Leper and Pauper
Hospitals in the Pettah ; a Dispensary recently established ; So
ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel ; District Committee of the
Society for promoting Christian Knowledge ; Bible Association for
the Dutch and Portuguese inhabitants ; Church Missionary Society,
&c. &c. Colombo Friend in Need Society, (for the purpose of reliev
ing the really necessitous and for suppressing mendicity), under the
able management of a highly respectable and numerous Committee,
over which the Senior Colonial Chaplain presides, and the Governor
is Patron. And the Colombo Ladies Branch Society, composed of
a Committee of amiable and benevolent ladies.

CHAP. I.] KELLANIA, LEGENDS— THE KALANE-GANGA. 635
The country between Colombo and Seetawaka, (Seetawade) every
mile of which has witnessed the struggles of the Kandians with their
European invaders, is seen to the greatest advantage on the Kalane,
or Kellania-ganga, so called from an ancient city, now a mere village,
situate on its right bank, " Kellania possesses a remnant of antiquity
in its famous wihare, to which large bodies of pilgrims resort in July,
and in a dagobah, which was erected by the tributary king Yatalatissa,
B. c. 280, over one built on the same spot by the Naga king, Maho-
dara, B.C. 580. Kellania was probably the capital, and has for
ages been the chief place for the worship of Weebeeshana, a hero of
the Ramayana, grandson of Pulastyia, friend of Rama, and the trai
torous brother and deified successor of Rawana on the throne of
Lanka. At the time of Gautama Buddha's appearance, Kellania
would seem to have been the capital of a division of the island, called
Naga Diwayina, and its inhabitants called Nagas, were easily con
verted, and subsequently became zealous adherents to the doctrines
of Buddha, for which they were rewarded by various relics, and a
second visit of Buddha. In his first visit to Ceylon, Gautama con
verted the Nagas, and settled a dispute between two of their princes,
Cbulodara and Mahodara, who made an offering to him of the throne
composed of gold inlaid with precious stones, which had been the
original cause of their quarrel : over this throne, a. dagobah was
built, and is encased in the one now standing. At the request of
Miniasa, uncle of the Naga King, Mahodara, Gautama made his
third visit to Ceylon, and left the impression of his foot beneath the
waters of the river : a deep eddy in the stream is now pointed out as
the spot : it is near the temple, and the natives maintain that the
circling of the current here is the Kellania-ganga descending in
homage to this sacred memorial. Having arranged the disputes of
the Nagas, and confirmed their faith, the prophet departed for
Samanala, and the other places which had been rendered sacred by
the presence of former Buddhas." — Forbes, pp. 152, 153.
The Kalane-ganga, though inferior to the Mahavelle in magnitude,
is the chief river of the island in importance, is rather superior to the
Tay in size, and is formed by the union of several torrents which
have their source in the western division of the mountainous range of
Saffragam, connected with Adam's Peak, and just within the limits
of the Southern Province. It only takes its real name of Kalane at
the confluence of the Maskelle and Kehelgamua-oyas at Weraloo-
Ella — where it is eighty-seven feet above the sea level — whence it flows
to the sea, a distance of forty-three miles, debouching at Modera,
about four miles to the north of the fort of Colombo, where its local
name is Mutwal-oya. At this part the width of the river is consider
ably increased by a bar of sand at the entrance, which occasionally
acts as effectually as a dam in extending its bed, and though less
obstructive than formerly, still serves to increase the inundation that
takes^place during the season of the rains. The length of its course
is seventy miles ; for' nearly the first half of this distance, it flows

636 CEYLON. [PART IV.
through a thinly mhabited forest covered country, and here its
waters are clear, its bed rocky, and its current precipitous ; for the
last forty miles this river is navigable for large boats, and well adap
ted for inland communication, for which it is much used. It is
connected with the fort of Colombo by a canal constructed by the
Dutch, and is now connected with the flourishing and healthy
country lying between Colombo and the mountains by several roads.
The villages on its banks between Colombo and Hangwelle are chiefly
inhabited by potters, and the vegetation is for some distance very
luxuriant, the trees are exceedingly lofty, and many of them yield
the most fragrant odours. Lines of apparently interminable cocoa-
nut trees succeed each other, with their white stems and tufted tops
reflected on the water as in a mirror, except where diversified by
some swampy plain of levelled rice fields, or low ridges covered with
brushwood. Hangwelle is on the banks of the river, and contains a
rest-house within its small redoubt, which though of great import
ance in the event of a Kandian insurrection, from its commanding
the principal routes both by land and water from Colombo to the
interior, is said to be defended only by a dry ditch, now choked up
with vegetation, and is unoccupied by troops.
At Hangwelle the stranger begins to experience the difference
between the damp heat of the sea coast and the sharp air of the in
terior. Between Hangwelle and Avisahavelle the scenery gradually
improves in boldness and grandeur, the ground becomes more broken,
and the country, owing to its having once bordered on the Kandian
domains, is mostly covered with bamboos, which form one of the
most impenetrable kinds of low sized jungle. At a little distance,
a bamboo brushwood resembles gigantic rushes, each of which when
approached nearer, proves to be of the size and shape of a common
fishing rod ; as they are very tough, pliant and strong, they act as an
excellent substitute for rope, and are employed in that way by the
natives, and the ferry boat at Seetawaka, is propelled by a strong
flexible cane stretched across, and fastened to the opposite bank.
The situation of the village and rest-house at Avisahavelle is exceed
ingly picturesque, occupying a small spot at the base of bluff hills of
black naked rock, which rise precipitously from a surface of rich
foliage, to a height of nearly 1 000 feet. There are various routes
from Colombo to Ratnapoora. That vid Horona and Nambaapane is
52 miles, but the route by the south bank of the Kalane is 58| miles.
The face of the country along the latter road is alternately woody
and hilly, undulating and champaign, but in all parts well irrigated,
being intersected by the Kalane and its tributaries ; gems are obtained
in many of these by streaming. Four miles from Hangwelle, the
Kandian mountains and Adam's Peak appear through a wooded
valley, and form a magnificent termination to the view from this
point. From Avisahavelle in the direction of Ratnapoora, the road
is almost level, passing along a delightful valley, on one side of which
arise a variety of abrupt rocks and peaked hills, crowned with wood,

CHAP. I.] AVISAHAVELLE — SEETAWAKA— RUWANWELLE. 637
while on the other and more inland side, the range of mountains is
continuous. The Peak is here seen clearly unless hidden by a dense
mass of vapour, as well as the square pillar like mountain, called
Uno Dhia. Parawatia which towers over ridges of nearer hills, its
perpendicular sides, when reflecting the setting sun, contrasting pow
erfully with the verdant covering and deep shades that darken the
valleys, the whole presenting a magnificent spectacle.
The scenery along the bank of the Seetawaka-oya closely re
sembles an English park ; fine glades of green turf, with clumps,
thickets, and forest trees of enormous size combine to complete the
illusion, till a thick bamboo jungle serves to dissipate it. The ruins of
Seetawaka, which is within the district of the Three Korles, and was
once the residence of the centenarian Raja Singha, surnamed by Bud
dhists the Apostate, and for some time the capital of a lowland prin
cipality, are reached by a small but navigable river, a tributary
stream of the Kellania-ganga. Here on an angular piece of ground,
formed by a bend of the river and a ravine, and within several quad
rilateral inclosures, are situated the remains of the Bairainde
Kowilla, erected for demon worship by Raja Singha, about the
middle of the sixteenth century. It appears to have occupied the
centre of an elevated stone platform of eighty feet square, and to
have been about thirty feet long, formed of handsome carved pillars,
supporting a cornice. The plan of the pillars of this building, appears
to be as if eight ornamented pillars projected, two on each side from
a plain square pillar. This building was overthrown when Seetawaka
was taken and burnt by the Portuguese in the latter part of the six
teenth century, and the foundations and part of the walls of one of
their forts (Kotua) which commanded the site of this town still
remain on the elevated bank, and opposite side of the river. This
fort was nearly square, formed of three walls, one within the other.
The material was kabook, which hardens by exposure to the atmo
sphere. The outer wall was between eight and ten feet high, and six
and eight feet wide. At the angles it was still wider, and communi
cated with the inclosure by steps. Within is a deep well lined
with masonry. The second wall'was only a very few feet from the inner,
and seems to have been built for its defence. The inner inclosure
was probably roofed and was the donjon keep of the fortress.
Part of the stones of this picturesque ruin, which two centuries had
spared, were many years ago employed in the erection of a new rest-
house. In the adjoining jungle other ruins have been said to exist,
including the remains of temples and a royal palace.
Eight miles and a half to the north-east of Avisahavelle, and on the
old road to Kandy, lies Ruwanwelle, which, with the surrounding
country was almost a desert under the Kandian dynasty, but is now a
flourishing station. It is advantageously situated on a point of land at
the confluence of the Kalane-ganga, and the turbid Gooragooya-oya ;
a mihtary post, with excellent quarters for officers and men, and a
bazaar were established in 1817, which have attracted a consider-

638 CEYLON. [PART IV.
able number of natives to the locality. The inferiority of the
cocoa-nut trees grown in the interior, as compared with those on
the sea shore, is here strikingly manifest, and certainly justifies the
popular notion, that the sea air is conducive to their growth.
Further, the natives believe that they do not flourish at a distance
from their houses, hence their maxim, " that they will not thrive
unless you walk among them and talk among them."
Lower Bulatgamme, to the eastward of Seetawaka, is a broken
and difficult country, now beginning to excite the attention of the
agriculturist, but till lately was little cultivated, and thinly peopled.
Thick low jungle, chiefly of cane, and much frequented by elephants,
which the natives avoid by tying strong poles across the footpaths,
under which they can escape, but by which their huge pursuer is
completely stopped, prevails where the ground is low and damp, and
forest where it is hilly and dry. Few parts of the island are so
copiously watered as Lower Bulatgamme. Besides a great number
of small streams, there are some of considerable size, which when
flooded are not fordable, such as the Waha-oya, which nearer its
source exhibits the character of a mountain torrent, where pent up
in a narrow gloomy valley, its fine volume of transparent water
rushes down a rapid over immense masses of rock, and along with a
variety of other attractive features, forms one of the wildest and most
impressive scenes in Ceylon ; the Heeke-oya, a most tortuous stream,
the Bibile-oya, and Garankette-oya.
At Yateantotte, a little to the eastward of Ruwanwelle, a new road
has been opened through Upper Bulatgamme with Gampola, and
Kandy ; which is on some accounts preferable to the other routes.
The country between Yateantotte and Kittoolgalle, is wild and hilly,
but that place itself is situated in a cultivated plain, embosomed in
woody mountains. Beyond it the country becomes difficult and
exceedingly mountainous, but the beauty of the scenery is remark
able. The prospects from the mountain range, which is 3000 feet
above the sea level, are remarkably fine. On the one side is to be
seen Ambagamma in the midst of cultivated green paddy fields, sur
rounded by bare green hills, to the south a succession of conical
mountain tops, luxuriantly wooded. Ambagamma, though sixteen
hundred feet above the sea, is in all directions surrounded by
mountains, and the Mahavelle flows past it.
To return to Ruwanwelle, Idamalpan6 is eleven miles from hence.
The intervening country is better cultivated, and more populous
than the preceding stage. For the greater part of the way the road
is level, and through meadows or paddy fields, which possess a fresh
ness and peculiarity of verdure entirely their own. Idamalpane
was once a small military post, but from its situation being com
manded by the hills, it was transferred to Arranderre, where the
Dutch had once a fort, of which slight traces still remain. Hetty-
mulle, also formerly a small military post, is only five miles from
Idamalpane. All the intervening country is extremely hilly if not

CHAP. I.J UPPER AND LOWER BULATGAMME — AMANAPOORA. 639
mountainous, and the road is rugged, difficult and wearisome. The
lover of nature will find, however, remuneration for his fatigues, in
the beauties of the wild scenery, which are lavishly scattered over
this bold and romantic part of the country.
Fort King, (Attapittya Singh), the next stage inland, is seven
miles distant. The character of the intermediate country, is hilly
and picturesque, and well cultivated. Some of the valleys are so
deep and narrow that persons on one hill may almost converse with
those on the other. Fort King, derived its name from Captain King,
who planned and superintended the works. It was erected in 1820, and
was built in the most substantial manner on a low hill, commanding the
ferry of the Maha-oya, a considerable stream, on whose banks many a
sanguinary battle was fought, between the Singhalese and Portuguese.
In a picturesque point of view, the situation of the fort is unrivalled,
being surrounded by a foreground of gentle hills, and bounded on
every side by bold mountains, combining in one view the beautiful
and the grand. The country around is productive, and the bazaar,
which like the fort has sprung up, where jungle was before the sole
occupant, is large and well supplied. Fort King would not seem to
be occupied at present by a military force. This part of the country
is elevated about 630 feet above the level of the sea, owing to which,
and its proximity to the mountains, it enjoys an agreeable climate,
the nights being generally cool, and the days seldom oppressively
hot. Amanapoora is eight miles from Fort King, the Ballane mountain,
which is about 3000 feet above the level of the sea, intervening. Its as
cent is laborious, but much diminished by the new road. The traveller
is amply rewarded for his toil, when he reaches the summit ; he there
breathes a fresh cool air, is shaded by noble forest trees, with which
the whole mountain is covered, and when he stops to rest himself,
he enjoys every now and then magnificent prospects. Till the
summit is reached, there are only two small descents ; one in a narrow
deep glen through which a torrent rushes, and the other into a
hollow. The torrent in the first glen is the boundary line between
the Four Korles and Yattineura. It is impossible to conceive a
wilder and grander tropical scene than this presents, in the rocky bed
of the torrent a mere glimpse of the sky is obtained, but one looks up
and sees on each side a mountain towering above, and on each side
an overhanging gloomy forest. When the summit of the mountain is
attained, there is a most extensive view of the country towards
Colombo, which looks like a map laid out on a magnificent scale,
with a glow of colouring, warmth of light, and charm of landscape
rarely seen combined. After ascending the mountain, the road for
two or three hundred yards is nearly level, the descent is short and
pretty gradual. There is an extensive view of the country in front,
extremely hilly, and bounded by distant and apparently lofty
mountains, but scarcely comparable to the scenery on the other side.
Amanapoora is seen quite close on a steep hill, merely divided from

640 CEYLON. [part IV.
the Ballane mountain by a deep glen. Amanapoora was formerly a
considerable military station. The fort situated on the top of a
precipitous hill, about 2000 feet above the level of the sea, has a
very commanding aspect, and is naturally strong. At the foot of the
hill was a cantonment, consisting of officers' quarters and soldiers'
barracks, and hard by is a considerable village and bazaar.
The country to some extent around Amanapoora, except towards
the Ballane, consists of small green hills of rather irregular forms,
pretty free from jungle, and affording good pasture ; in the lower
grounds there are paddy fields, and at a distance lofty grey mountains.
Towards the Ballane the scenery is of a different character, every
feature is grand, particularly that huge mountain, which is seen
across the deep intervening glen and the lofty Narran-galle-Kandy,
a little more distant to the right, shooting its angular rocky top into
the very clouds. Kandy is twelve miles from Amanapoora. The
country between the two places is hilly. The hills in general are
covered with wood, the valleys which are narrow and deep are culti
vated with paddy.
To return to the coast route. After having crossed the Mutwal-oya
by the bridge of boats, the traveller comes to the village and rest-house
of Jayelle (Kanuwane), a distance of nine and a quarter miles through
a fertile, populous, and well cultivated country, which supplies the
Colombo market with a vast quantity of fruit and vegetables ; from
thence to Negombo the road lies chiefly through cinnamon plantations.
Every where the sight and the smell are gratified ; for on each side may
be seen the beautiful crimson Clerodendrum infortunatum, Linn, (the
Pinna-mal-geddi, Singh.) Coffea triflora, Ixora coccinea, Nepenthes
distillatoria of the cHmbing and dwarf varieties (scandens and nana),
the former clinging to the cinnamon bushes for support, and display
ing its pitchers, some with the lid closed, others with it open, and in
an erect position full of water, like so many fly traps, as if the liquid
they contained, were too valuable to be lost ; the latter shrinking from
exposure under the shade of the overhanging trees and grass, while
the wild orange, lime, and shaddock trees ever in fruit and blossom,
at the same time impart the most delicious fragrance to the surround
ing atmosphere. For a considerable distance through the cinnamon
plantations, the road is sandy, and in many places it leads through
large tracks of the pure white quartz sand, to which the cinnamon
tree is partial.
Negombo1 is twenty-four miles distant from Colombo, and two
1 The Singhalese ascribe the origin of the name to Meegamuwe, " the village
of honey," in allusion to a swarm of bees settling there. The Malabars, however,
with more reason, derive it from Nihumbala, so called from Nihumba, the
younger son of Kumbakarna, one of the brothers of Rawana. In the Uttara
Kanda of the Ramayana, Valmika relates that on the eleventh day of the siege of
the citadel of Rawana by the troops of Rama, Indrajit, the crown prince, finding
himself unable to hold out any longer against the besiegers, withdrew from the
place, and retired with a part of his army to Nihumbala, to make a Yaga, or
offering to the gods, to invoke their assistance, and render himself invulnerable.

CHAP. I.J NEO0MB0 — DISTRICT OF CHILAW. 641
leagues south south-west of Kaymel. It is a place of some trade,
but resorted to only by coasters. The coast between Negombo and
Kaymel forms a bight, and the former is known from the offing by
the point projecting a great way out, its being covered with cocoa-nut
trees, and defended by a long reef beyond it. The bight should not be
approached by large vessels nearer than two leagues off shore, nor
in less than eight fathoms water, until the fort flag-staff, bears south
east by south, by which the rocky ledge, projecting from this part of
the coast, and a rock with ten feet water on it, and six fathoms close
by, bearing from the flag-staff, or north point of the fort, north north
west, will be avoided. For vessels bound to Negombo from the
southward, the fort should be brought to bear south-east, a ship may
then steer direct for it, and anchor in five or six fathoms abreast of
the fort, which is an irregular pentagon, with a stone gateway. The
country about Negombo abounds with excellent pasturage, and hay
may be procured to any extent required, while an inland water com
munication with Colombo, enables the farmer to ship cattle over-night,
and land them at Colombo by daybreak the next morning. Negombo
is famous for its fish, kid, poultry, eggs, bread-fruit ; vegetables
may be obtained here in great plenty at moderate prices, and the
sportsman will find excellent snipe, curlew, and widgeon shooting.
The water is extremely brackish, unless it be procured from Kottidewe,
or Children's Island, where persons are employed for the purpose of
sinking pitchers, in the sand over-night, which in the morning are
found full of pure and sweet water that has filtered in the interval.
Very fine mushrooms are found here during the rainy season, and from
the care with which the country is irrigated, a great deal of paddy
is produced; indeed fertility and cultivation are every where
conspicuous, the pastures being of a rich and delightful green
interspersed with magnificent teak and fruit trees and toddy topes.
Several respectable Dutch families formerly resided in the pettah,
whose gardens were famous for their exotic fruits, originally intro
duced from Java and the Malay peninsula, but very few Dutch or
Portuguese families possessing wealth remain in any part of the
island, in comparison with their former numbers. The rest-house on
the bank of the Muli Waddie, or salt lake, is a large and substantial
stone building, with a spacious avenue of very fine teak trees in its
front. The revenue and customs are superintended by an assistant
Government agent, who is also a Judge of the Colombo District Court,
No. 2, South, and there are several places of worship belonging to
the different creeds. The neighbourhood of Negombo abounds with
medicinal plants.
Five miles beyond Negombo, the Kaymel (Kammale-oya) is crossed
at Tope or Topoo ferry, near which are fine groves of teak ; from
thence to Kirimetteane, in the district of Chilaw, the distance is six
miles, and to the bridge of Ging-oya, about four miles and a quarter,
the road flat and sandy, and the land but partially cultivated. The
district of Chilaw extends as far north as Oedepenkarre, and is
2 T

642 CEYLON. [PART IV.
upwards of thirty miles in length, and about seven in breadth. It
consists of five pattoos, Anoewooloondan, Monesseram,i Yagam,
Oetarapalata, Meddapalata, and Kaymel pattoo. The face of the
country is wild and dreary in the north, but well cultivated and pic
turesque in the south, and the soil, which in the former is in many
parts barren and sandy, in the latter is a rich clay. The chief pro
ducts are paddy, dry grain, tobacco, pepper, &c. and the manufac
tures are confined to salt, cloth, earthenware, bricks and jaggery.
This district was anciently called Pittigal Korle. The next rest-
house is that of Nattande, about a mile from the bridge over the
Ging-oya. The naturalist and the sportsman may find the most
delightful recreation and exercise in this neighbourhood ; the former
in collecting specimens of the various aquatic plants, ferns, mosses,
land shells, insects, and birds ; and the latter may select any game
he pleases, for he has not to go far inland to find elephants, leopards,
deer, elk, hares, and almost every variety of animal and bird the
country produces. But if the tourist be neither botanist, naturalist,
nor sportsman, and desire to have game procured for him, he has only
to hint his wish to the keeper of the rest-house where he may halt,
and a number of native sportsmen will soon be collected about him
with their uncouth guns, ready to bring him whatever game he may
require, upon receiving a charge or two of powder and shot, and a
promise of a similar quantity as their subsequent reward ; for as they
never fire until too close upon their object to run the least risk of
missing it, they always earn the promised gratuity. From Nattande
rest-house to the bridge over the Kaddoopitt6-oya, the distance is
5f miles, and half a mile further is Madampe (Mahadampa), once a
place of importance, and the residence of native sovereigns, but
subsequently a swampy unhealthy locality, tenanted by mosquitoes,
jackals, monkeys, and alligators, till Mr. Vanderstraaten obtained a
grant of land from the Government, and formed pepper gardens
there, rendering the island in some degree independent of the
Malabar coast for that spice. The vines are clustered round the
stems of high forest trees, and besides producing a luxuriant cool
appearance, form a pleasing shade over neatly kept walks ; on one
side of this forest garden, extends a tank, covered with water-lilies,
which with the base of the palace is the principal memorial left to
show that Madampe was a residence of princes, who aspired to
independence in the fifteenth century. Madampe produces large
quantities of cocoa-nuts and paddy, and abounds with widgeon, snipe,
curlews, sand-pipers, the large and small white and brown paddy-
birds, flamingoes, and other aquatic birds. The canal contains
abundance of small mud fish, of the genus Perca, L., and eels.
1 The village of Monesseram (Muniyaiswara) lies a little to the east of Chilaw,
and is remarkable for its ancient temple, which contains some scarcely legible in
scriptions in the Grantha character. Siva is worshipped here under the title of
" Muniyaiswara," or " Iswara the Penitent ;" but the shrine is more particularly
sacred to his consort, " Parvati."

CHAP. I.J MADAMPE — CHILAW — DISTRICT OF PUTLAM. 643
Seven and a half miles north of Madampe is Chilaw, on a penin
sula, formed by a river which runs from north to south, and commu
nicating with the Madampe canal, and the Kaymel-oya continues the
water conveyance to Colombo. The rest-house at Chilaw is roomy
and airy. An assistant Government agent resides there. The place
boasts an old fort commenced by the Portuguese, and completed
by the Dutch, and has a Protestant and Roman Catholic church,
manufactories of coarse paper, common cottons, table cloths and
towels; but from the soil being impregnated with salt, yields little else
than cocoa-nuts and tobacco, though the country in the neighbour
hood produces large quantities of paddy. Chilaw is called Salapam by
the Malabars, according to Casie Chitty, from the pearl fishery
formerly carried on in its neighbourhood, and Halawatta by the Sing
halese (the Halowat of Ibu Batuta), from a colony of Chalias having
formed a settlement in the place, and built a number of salavas or
halls, in which they carried on weaving ; hence it obtained the name
of Salavagama, or the village of halls, which was afterwards corrupted
into Halawatta, or the garden of the Chalias. By others it is
derived from Hala, to shake off. Chilaw would seem to have been
subject to the princes of Madamp6 during their local independence,
and to have been more than once attacked by Malabars and Moors,
but the latter were defeated in their attempts to form a settlement
here. Leaving Chilaw and passing over the Dedroo-oya, the rest-house
of Battooloo-oya is reached in 12£ miles; from thence to Moondel
is four miles, and to Marrundamkoolle, in the Putlam district, 7\
miles. There are artificial leways or salt-pans at Oedepenkarre,
Alempitty, Pulletchacolom, Moondel, Aneakadda, Pallandowe, Per-
rea Natchicale, Karativoe island, Calpentyn, Chinne Natchicale and
Rattande. The district of Putlam is bounded on the east by Demelepattoo,
and comprises six pattoos or hundreds, viz. Putlam, Calpentyn,
Akkarapattoo, Pomparippoo, Rajawannipattoo, Kumara Wannipattoo.
The face of the country is uniformly flat, and the soil is well adapted
for agricultural purposes, except around Putlam, where it is im
pregnated with salt, but the greater part is uncultivated and waste,
from the frequent droughts to which the country is subject, and the
want of capital for the repair of the tanks. It exports cocoa-nuts in
considerable quantities, and the palmyra-tree abounds. Tobacco and
cotton are cultivated in some parts, and chaya root grows wild all
over the district. The mango, bread-fruit, custard apple, yam, sweet
potato, pine-apple, guava, pomegranate, shaddock, papai, plantain
and grape of both kinds, all flourish. Its manufactures comprise
salt, coarse cloth, jaggery, coir rope, fishing nets, baskets, earthen
ware, ghee and cocoa-nut oil. Moors and Malabars are the chief
components of its population. By the canal a large number of
bullocks are sent to Colombo for slaughter, and British manufactures,
spices, &c. received in return. Full employment is found for the
2 T 2

644 CEYLON. [part IV.
fishermen by the demand for fish in the interior, into the various
parts of which it is distributed from Kurunaigalla, to which it is
conveyed by the road.
Akkarapattoo, denominated in some maps Navakarre, extends along
the peninsula, from Madikettan Ode to Oedepenkarre, is about 29
miles long, and 5 broad, and comprehends 42 villages, almost entirely
inhabited by Moors. Though the soil is sandy, the cocoa-nut tree
thrives exceedingly well, and the whole tract bordering the gulf is
covered with that most useful tree. In the southern parts, paddy is
grown, and large quantities of tobacco are raised everywhere ; the
highlands are sown with fine grain. Cinnamon grows wild in the
jungle, but being of an inferior quality is not peeled for exportation.
Salt is manufactured here in large quantities, and the produce of the
dairy is conveyed to the Colombo markets by the canal. The village
of Nawakadoo (Nawa, nine, and Kadoo, a sword,) in this pattoo, is
remarkable for the pompous visits paid to it by the kings of Kandy,
after their coronation, to assume the sword of state after bathing in
the sea in the neighbourhood. Palikooda, another village, is cele
brated for a Roman Catholic chapel dedicated to St. Anne, to which
, pilgrims resort from every part of the island, and even from the
Coromandel coast.
Calpentyn, the chief town of the hundred on the western shore of
the gulf of that name, has often been taken for an island, from its
being almost surrounded by water. It was anciently called Arasadi
from an arasa (ficus religiosa) tree of great size, which once stood
there, but it was subsequently changed for Kalputti or Kalpitti,
from kal, a stone, and putti, an elevation. Calpentyn is thought by
some to have been the site of a Hindoo city, several remains of that
people having been from time to time discovered. The present
Pettah contains but few large houses, yet it has a pretty appearance,
from being embosomed in groves of cocoa-nut and suria trees, and
contains a Protestant and Roman Catholic church, three Gentoo
temples, and three Mahomedan mosques. A small square fort was
built here by the Dutch in 1696, but it is now chiefly used as a
store-house. Calpentyn has a small custom-house establishment,
and is the station of a police magistrate. The harbour being full of
shoals, is not accessible to vessels exceeding 1 00 tons ; larger craft
unload therefore at Mutwal bay, and convey their cargoes to Cal
pentyn in dhonies and ballams. A considerable trade is carried on
with the Coromandel coast and with Colombo (93 miles distant),
by the inland navigation. Though the soil of this hundred is
excessively sandy, yet it is scarcely inferior to any in vegetation, and
its gardens produce every variety of fruit and vegetable, and vines
both of the purple and white kind flourish here in great perfection.
The fisheries of Calpentyn have greatly increased in importance
within the last few years, from an influx of fishermen from other
places. The gulf is rich in chanks of the best quality as well as
beche de mer, which has been occasionally collected and exported to

CHAP. I.J CALPENTYN— PUTLAM, ITS FORMER IMPORTANCE. 645
Singapore and Penang, and the naturalist may obtain various
specimens of shells, mollusca, madrepore, pearl-oyster spawn, coral,
and the fucus aurylaceus. It is also well stocked with fish, and
mullets are caught in large quantities on the north-west coast.
Porpoises, dolphins and turtle are abundant ; the latter are caught
in the shallower parts in kraals. In the neighbourhood of Putlam,
the bed of the gulf is muddy, and much infested with sea-snakes, the
bite of which often proves mortal. Near Calpentyn it is studded
with several small islands, and its breadth is about eight miles, a
little to the south of that place, between which and Putlam boats are
constantly plying, but it gradually decreases towards the south
east. The entrance is by two passages, one near Mutwal on the
west, and the other near Koodramalai point, where it forms a bight
on the north-east, and it affords safe anchorage for small vessels as
far as Calpentyn. Besides the navigation and fishery, the gulf is
useful for the supply of the leways with water. Chunam is prepared
here by burning shells ; wood oil is extracted from the forests, and
chaya root is met with in great abundance. Mutwal (Muhatwaram)
is a small island about ten miles long and from two to three, broad,
separated by a narrow strait from Calpentyn. The inhabitants are
chiefly employed in the fishery, the cultivation of cocoa-nut trees, and
the manufacture of chunam.
Demelepattoo (the Malabar province), so called from its having
been under the government of Malabar chiefs, is a small district,
diversified with large plains and forests. It possesses an extremely
fertile soil, and produces a large quantity of paddy and fine grain.
Part of this district has been severed, and united with those of
Chilaw and Putlam.
Pootalama or Putlam, the next stage from Marrundankoole eight
miles distant, is a populous village, on the shore of a shallow gulf, prin
cipally inhabited by Moormen and Hindoos. It derives its name from
Wijeyas having landed there, and literally means a society of young
men, such as those of this adventurous prince. Casie Chitty says it
originally bore the name of Magultotamuna, or the port of marriage,
from that prince, after having disembarked here, married Kuwani,
who lived at Tamana Nuwara, a few miles to the east of it. The
present name he derives from "pudu," new, and "alam," salt-pans,
in allusion to the leways contiguous. Putlam is thought to be the
Battala of Ibu Batuta, and was one of the royal villages belonging to
the Gabada or treasury of the kings of Kandy. — (See p. 466.) When
the Portuguese took this place in 1536, they erected a large church,
and made it the head-quarters of propagandism. Subsequently the
place having been taken by Raja Singha, the church was demolished,
and the converts compelled to renounce their new creed.
Salt is manufactured at Putlam in large quantities ; the coast
being very flat and sandy, and evaporation extremely rapid : the
artificial pans, soon after the salt has formed, appear at a distance as
if covered with snow. The face of the country is fiat, diversified by a

646 CEYLON. [part IV.
succession of rice fields, jungles, and plains, and abounds in tanks and
patches of water, all of which are infested with crocodiles. Putlam
is connected with Colombo and Chilaw by a canal, which is
formed by taking advantage of various streams, and the lake of
Quiparawa, so called from the abundance of Qui fish found in it.
The Moormen have one large and several small mosques at
Putlam, and near the burial ground there is a fine specimen of a
species of tamarind, distinguished from the common tamarind,
and called by the natives Papparapooli, or the giant's tamarind ; six
feet from the ground its solid stem is nearly 40 feet in circumference,
and at eight feet it divides into two branches, one 22 the other 26
feet in circumference. It is nearly 100 feet high, and has the ap
pearance of a black rock, but its age does not exceed 1 20 years.
The leaves are used medicinally, and to feed goats, and the pulp of
its oblong fruit is eaten by the natives.
Putlam was formerly a place of considerable trade and manufac
ture, and the coast vessels resorted to it in great numbers, with large
cargoes of piece goods, consisting of long cloth, comboys, handker
chiefs, &c, which they exchanged for areka-nuts and pepper. At
present its trade is chiefly confined to Colombo and Kurunaigalla.
The manufacture of coarse cotton cloth for the Kandian market
has sensibly declined since the duty on British manufactures
has been diminished. The forests around Putlam yield good timber
of nearly every kind, and shelter every description of game, including
elephants, bears and chetahs.
The next stages from Putlam to the Pomparipoo-oya are through
the village of Nellich-aar, distant 5 miles, and Wannataville, 6| miles
further, and the Pomparipoo-oya is 4 miles distant. The face of
the country is flat, but although none of the scenery of the more
elevated parts of the island diversifies the prospect, magnificent forest
trees and verdant plains, interspersed with neat native cottages and
paddy fields, form an interesting landscape. The sea is skirted by
low sands. The neighbouring jungle abounds with elk, deer, wild
hogs, elephants, chetahs, bears, sloths, monkeys, and various other
animals, besides birds and insects in great variety. On every side
may be seen vestiges of the former agricultural importance of the
district, where cotton might be grown in any quantity.
The country between Colombo and Kurunaigalla affords every
variety of scenery. At the Hattanagalla-oya, the road approaches
one of the low ranges of hills, which diverge in all directions from
the mountainous centre of the island, and four miles to the right is
situated the rock of Hattanagalla, surmounted by religious buildings,
the principal of which was erected a.d. 248, by Gooloo Abhaa, to the
memory of King Siri Sangabo. The streams as one ascends into
the Central province, not only flow more rapidly, but their waters are
crystalline in comparison with the sluggish and greasy waters that
steal through the low country, which are saturated with the slime and
mud of the rice fields. Not only the lower part of the irrigated

CHAP. l.J COUNTRY BETWEEN COLOMBO AND KURUNAIGALLA. 647
valleys, but the sides of every rivulet, as it descends from the hills,
however steep they may be, are formed into terraces, and when these
are cultivated, the brilliant green of the rice crops serves to diversify
the general olive tint of the Kandian landscape. The watch huts,
from whence the natives protect their fields, are often highly pictur
esque, perched as they often are on overhanging crags, or among the
branches of some huge forest tree, from which the watchers can
command a view of any intruding elephant, and to which they can
flee, if their discordant yells and lighted brands prove insufficient to
scare their giant foe.
Crossing the Maha-oya by the elegant bridge at Mahanella, five
miles beyond Ambapusse (the old mode was by a ferry at Allow), the
traveller continues his route through Hondelle, 8J miles, where there
is a large Government granary, to Kurunaigalla, eight miles from the
latter place.1 Allow (Alauwe) is a beautiful spot ; the river is
there clear and rapid, but the climate is variable, and at times pesti
lential, owing to its proximity to water. The defile of Allow was
strongly guarded in the time of the Dutch, and was considered by
them as one of the strongest points in the line of defence surrounding
the Kandian country. There is a tradition of Alauwe having once
been the seat of an independent chief or prince, probably in a period
of anarchy or foreign occupation, whence it is sometimes called by
the natives Alauwe nuwara. The rest-house stands on the left side
of the river. This stream rises at the base of the mountains, which
separate the four Korles from the Central province, and after a
tortuous course of nearly seventy miles in a west north-west and
south-westerly direction, falls into the sea at Kaymel, a little above
Negombo, where it takes the name of the Kaymel-oya. Dr. Davy
suggested, that the rocks in the bed of the river should be cleared
above Giriulla, but if this could be effected as high up as Allow, the
benefit would be still greater. Judging from the difference of levels,
and the^nature of the intervening surface, he was of opinion that a
canal to connect the Maha-oya with the Didroo was far from imprac
ticable, and bearing in mind the similarity of country, I would
further venture to ask if a canal, of four miles, from Allow to the
Gooroogooyae-oya, by which the Didroo-oyawould be connected with
the Kalane and Colombo, and by a further inland navigation with
Caltura, in all more than eighty-five miles in a straight line, would
not amply repay the sum required for the execution of the work.
To the left of the high road to Kurunaigalla, and on the direct
road between that place and Negombo, is Dambadiniya, once the
capital of the Mayaa division of the island; It stands in a very pic
turesque valley, terminated by ranges of lofty naked hills, rising
1 The route is the same as that given in p. 663, as far as Ambapusse, from
whence the road to Kandy, vid Kaduganava, diverges to the right. The next stage
from Ambapusse is to the Maha-oya, four and a half miles, to Hondelle, eight and
three-quarters, to Kurunaigalla, seven and three-quarters. The rest-house at
Ambapusse is a structure of some pretensions, and is situate in a valley formed by
a semicircle of bills.

648 CEYLON. [PART IV.
perpendicularly in a variety of peaked forms. On one of these a
fort was erected by the British during the Kandian war, but it was
subsequently abandoned. North of Dambadiniya, and a few miles
to the north-west of Kurunaigalla is the village of Kottadeniya,
also a military post during the Kandian war. The country
between the two places is well watered and fruitful. Padenia, further
to the north, was also for a time occupied for the same purpose, but
was in like manner abandoned for its insalubrity, though the soil in
its vicinity is very fertile, and produces immense quantities of paddy.
The Dedooroo, or Didroo-oya, which flows through this neighbour
hood is a considerable stream, which takes its rise at the base of the
mountains in Toompane, and after receiving the Kospotte and
Mongra-oyas, and several minor streams, pursues its sinuous course
through the Seven Korles, and past the ruins of Panduwas Nuwara,
and ultimately disembogues itself into the sea, two miles north of
Chilaw. Its flow and ebb are so uncertain and abrupt, that, accord
ing to Casie Chitty, the Malabars call it Maayawen-aar, Maayawa
being one of the titles of Vishnu, in the character of " Deluder."
Kurunaigalla, vulg. Kornegalle, is situated near the base of a rocky
granite mountain, about 600 feet in height above the plain, called
Aetagalla, from its striking resemblance to a tusk elephant. This is
the last of a range, which derives its name from the likeness of dif
ferent portions of it to various animals, beginning at Andagalla (eel
rock), Ibhagalla (tortoise rock), Kurunaikigalla1 (elephant leader
rock), and Aetagalla (tusk elephant rock), where the range abruptly
terminates. The palace of the kings of Ceylon formerly stood where
the Government house has been lately erected, and from thence a
path, with occasional stone steps, leads up the rock to the top of the
mountain, and passes by a dagobah and wihare, in which the footstep
of Buddha, copied from that on Adam's Peak (Samanala), is modeled.
Still further on, the remains of a wall built across a hollow, and pro
tecting a path, the only other approach to the summit except the one
from the lower palace, are visible. Near this place are some small
stone pillars, and a pond in the rock, partly natural, but improved by
steps of masonry descending to the water. On the bare rock above,
are the remains of buildings, which must have been intended to con
tain either penitents or prisoners, for none others could have lived
where the rock gets so heated during the day, that its proper
temperature is not regained until long after sunset, and is then suc
ceeded by chill blasts, or murky exhalations from the flat country
beneath. On the summit are the remains of the buildings which
contained the Dalada relic during the reigns of four pious and
1 The Singhalese, whose etymological traditions are always fanciful and far
fetched, differ in opinion as to the true origin of the name. Some derive it from
the circumstance of a part of its original inhabitants having come over from
Kurukshetra, or Kururatta (the scene of the bloody wars between the Pandava and
Kaurava princes), and settled there ; others from Kuruni, a bushel, and galla, a rock,
in allusion to a relic of Buddha concealed in a bushel under a rock in the neigh
bour-hood.

CHAP. I.J THE SEVEN KORLES — KURUNAIGALLA. 649
powerless kings who held their court at Hastisailapoora, as the Elu
word Kurunaigalla is called in Pali history. From the time that this
place became the capital, and even for hundreds of years after its
abandonment, the rocks of Aetagalla and Andagalla were used in
royal grants as symbols of duration ; thus, " So long as the sun and
moon, so long as Aetagalla and Andagalla endure, this grant is made,
and should any one violate the injunctions contained in this per
petual edict, he will be born as a dog or a crow." The impression
of Buddha's foot in the temple was made at the time Kurunaigalla
was a royal residence, that a princess who was unable to undertake a
pilgrimage to the real Sri Pada might here make offerings to a copy.
From the ruins on the summit of Aetagalla, the peak of Samanala is
visible. It has never been satisfactorily determined from what cause
Kurunaigalla was selected as the capital of Ceylon by the four kings
who succeeded Praackramabahoo III. A tradition of the cause of
its abandonment, is still, however, current among the people of this
district : a natural son of one of the kings, who is said to have been
the offspring of a Mahomedan woman, succeeded by stratagem in
seizing the throne on his father's death over the legitimate heir, who,
despairing of success, retired into exile ; for some time he endeared
himself by his beneficence to the country, but having subsequently
compromised the privileges of the priesthood, or shewn a preference
for the faith of his mother, Vashthimi Kumaraya, they assembled
on the summit of the rock to celebrate a religious ceremony, and
invited the king to honour it with his presence. On his arrival,
assassins, who lay in wait, rushed on the usurper, and hurled him
headlong from the precipice. After the murder of the usurper, the
legend runs, that the ministers made inquiries after the exiled prince,
and, according to their custom, caparisoned the state elephant, and
sent it blindfold to trace his retreat, themselves following with the
usual appendages of royalty. The sagacious animal, after perambu
lating several villages in succession, at length discovered him at
Kalundawe in the Udapalla Korle, engaged in ploughing. As soon
as the prince perceived the state elephant and the people in its rear,
he attempted to conceal himself under a rock in the neighbourhood,
fearing that the usurper was in quest of him, but the animal
approached the place where he was concealed, and making a profound
obeisance to him as the sovereign of the country, took him up gently
with his proboscis, and placing him on his back, conveyed him to
Kurunaigalla. On his arrival he was crowned king of Ceylon with
great pomp by the nobles and unusual joy by the people. Conceiving
that the Moorish usurper, by sitting on the throne, had polluted the
sanctity of the city, the young prince proposed to remove his
court elsewhere, and abandon Kurunaigalla. The people coinciding
in his views, Dambadiniya was selected as the future capital, and from
that time the chiefs began gradually to desert it for that place, until
it dwindled down to a Durawa village, in which state it remained, till
its important position attracted the attention of the British. This

650 CEYLON. [PART IV.
legend would seem to be either an anachronism, or to have reference
to the local sovereignty of an independent prince, as it by no means
agrees with the more authentic annals. Since the opening of the
eastern and other roads, Kurunaigalla has rapidly increased in
population and importance, and many native dealers from the coast
have migrated thither. The bazaar is now well supplied, and is the
centre to which the inhabitants of the whole country round bring
their produce to barter for the salt, salt fish, and manufactures
imported from the coast. The country in the vicinity is extremely
fertile and beautiful, and part of it is irrigated by a large tank, the
outlet of which, unlike those of Kandelle and Mennairia, is formed
in a natural manner by its embankment joining a low rocky hill.
The rocky precipices, magnificent trees, and beautiful patches of
bright green meadow, diversified with the profusion of jungle foliage,
and the miniature and well wooded islets, contribute to produce a
scene of mingled sublimity and beauty. In the vicinity of Kurunai
galla are sculptures of elephants, lions, and an animal resembling the
unicorn. Kurunaigalla, though the head-quarters of the revenue, and
judicial officers of the Government, and a military station, is much
infested by elephants, who, regardless of its rising population, con
tinue to make it their house of call in passing into the low country,
and vice versd.
Kurunaigalla1 is the chief station of the Seven Korles, and the
residence of an assistant Government agent. That district is very
extensive, containing the larger portion of the Western Province
within its limits, and is separated from the Harisiapattoo, in the cen
tral province, by the Dik-oya ; on the south by the Maha-oya, which
separates it from the Three Korles and Four Korles ; on the west by
the districts of Chilaw and Putlam, and the Demelepattoo, and on the
north by the Kalawa-oya, which separates it from Nuwera Kalawa. It
was formerly divided into seven korles (the seat of a dissavony), and
subdivided into twenty-four pattoos, called respectively the Eihala-dolos
pattoo, or upper twelve pattoos, and the Palaha-dolos pattoo, or
lower twelve pattoos. The face of the country in the former por
tion is diversified with mountains and huge abrupt rocks ; the latter
is in general flat. The climate in most parts is far from healthy,
and endemic fever prevails in some parts, at certain seasons, which
is to be attributed to the influence of miasma, arising from swamps
and marshes. Kurunaigalla, from being situated to the westward of
the mountains in the vicinity, is sheltered from the disagreeable in
fluences of the land wind, while it has all the benefits of the sea
breeze. The soil is for the most part fertile, yielding paddy, fine
grain, cotton and hemp, as also cocoa-nuts, jack-fruits, limes, and
even cinnamon in small quantities, which are exchanged for the
manufactures or produce of the coast.
From Kurunaigalla to Anuradhapoora, the route lays nearly north,
1 This place was attacked by the insurgents in the recent emeute, but they were
driven from it, after having done some injury to the public buildings.

CHAP. I.J ROUTE FROM KURUNAIGALLA TO ANURADHAPOORA. 651
and the footpath is either through rice fields, or over gentle eleva
tions, covered with brushwood. After some miles the country be
comes more level, fewer villages are seen, and less cultivation, with
more extensive jungles, mark the difference between that part of the
country which has a constant supply of river water, and the more
northern districts, which depend upon rain to fill the tanks, and
irrigate the fields. Although this part of the district is now little
better than a desert, from the ruined state of most of its numerous
tanks, yet the soil is extremely fertile wherever irrigated, and in the
plains around Galgamma, a village of Malabar Christians, where
there is a large tank, a proof is given of its capabilities. The dis
tance to Anuradhapoora is about eighty miles, through Koombakalawia,
Hierapitia, Madawatchy, Kattapitia-weva, Neelicolom and Epanella.
The rock of Ununugalla, near Hierapitia, Yakdessagalla (the devil-
dancer, from its supposed resemblance to that character), visible
from Kurunaigalla and Galgiriakandi, are the most prominent fea
tures on those ridges of hills, which gradually descend into the
plains and jungles, which surround the ancient capital of the island.
Near Koombakalawia are situated the remains of Yapahoo (Subha
Pubhattoo), for some time the residence of a branch of the Singhalese
royal race, one of whom succeeded to the throne a. d. 1303, and
made this place the capital, but it only remained so for eleven years,
when it was taken possession of by an army, sent by the King of Pandi
(Madura), which destroyed the town and carried off the Dalada relic.
The streams intersecting the route are the Dederoo-oya, Kimboola-
oya, Mee-oya, and Kalawa-oya. The Mee-oya has its source in
Matale, and is a very inconsiderable stream till it arrives at Mada-
galla, a little to the east of Galgiria-Kandi, where it receives the
waters of a ruined tank, and being joined by several tributary streams,
it assumes some degree of magnitude, and after a wandering course
through the Seven Korles, descends into the district of Putlam,
where it is known by the name of Welukar or Waliker-aar, and
empties itself by several channels into the gulf of Calpentyn.
The superficies of the Western Province, previous to its division,
was 4452 square miles, and the population which was 543,222 in
1843, may be estimated at the current rate of increase, at 595,750,
or upwards of 133 to the square mile. See preface for its repartition.
The bounds of the Central Province have been already implied in
those of the other provinces, and are more distinctly indicated in the
map than can be done by a general description, however clear ; suffice it
then to say, that the Mahavelle and one of its affluents separate it from
the greater part of the Eastern Province, and a triangular line from
the remainder ; that by another line running N.N.E. it is separated
from the Northern Province ; that by a continuation of that line in a
south and south-westerly direction, by the sources of the Didroo,
and a line drawn along the eastern face of the districts of Toompane,
the Four Korles, and Upper and Lower Bulatgamme, it is separated

652 CEYLON. [part IV.
from the Western Province. The line of separation from the Southern
Province has been described under that head.
Matale, the most extensive district in the Central Province, em
braces all the three peculiarities of surface by which Ceylon is distin
guished ; its southern division occupies the northern portion of the
mountain zone, its central a part of the hilly region, and its northern
the low and heated plains. The surface of the country is therefore
very diversified, but the greater part of it is covered with a luxuriant
vegetation. Its population is very scanty, probably it does not reach
twenty to the square mile. Matale is subdivided into the following
Korles : Ooodoogodde, Asgirie Korle, &c. &c.
In entering Matale from the north-east, the traveller passes
through Haburenne, sixteen miles from Dambool. Beyond Habu-
renne to the north-eastward, stretches an extensive forest as far as
Gantalawe, and the first open space is a very small plain near the
banks of the Gal-oya, whose rocky bed is frequently dry in the hot
season. The neighbourhood of Haburenne itself, is one of the
hottest in Ceylon, and the water is of the worst quality. The flat
bare rock of Haburenne was once the site of a dagobah and Buddhist
establishment; no remains of these now exist, although a long and
partly obliterated inscription in the Nagara character points to their
situation. From this place the rock fort of Sigiri, appears like a
crested helmet resting on a cushion ; it is about six miles distant
from Haburenne, and half way between it and the nearest hills of the
Matale district. Between Dambool and Nalande, a distance of
fifteen miles, lies the Andagalla pass, an abrupt ascent and stony
path, shaded by magnificent trees, and hemmed in on either side
by rocky mountains.
The rock of Dambool, in which are the celebrated Buddhist cave
temples, is a scene of peculiar interest, and appears to rise about 600
feet above the surrounding forests : on the north side it is bare and
black ; to the south its huge overhanging mass, by some art and much
labour, has been formed into temples, which are the most extensive,
perfect, and ancient in the island. The only easy ascent to these is
from the eastern side ; and the steep path first passes over a bare
shelving rock, then lies through a narrow patch of jungle, emerging
from whence, the bare rock is again visible, near the miserable
modern arch-way, which forms the entrance to the platform in front
of the ancient fanes of Dambool.
The first of the excavated chambers, which is seventy-five feet long,
twenty-one wide, and twenty-seven high, is called the Maha-deiyo
dewale, or temple of the great god, from a statue of Vishnu, held to
possess peculiar sanctity, and before which the most solemn oaths
were often sworn and litigated cases settled without any other trial :
this was when one of the parties agreed to abide by the oath of the
other, to be given in a specified form before this statue of Vishnu,
which is a rudely executed figure rather larger than life, and in the
form of Bamachandra. Although the great fame of this particular

CHAP. I.} CENTRAL PROVINCE — DISTRICT OF MATALE  DAMBOOL. 653
temple is derived from this statue of Vishnu, the chamber contains
also a monstrous but well wrought figure of Buddha, recumbent, and
the statue, as well as the couch and pillow on which he reclines, is
cut from the solid rock. This figure is forty-seven feet long ; at its
feet stands an attendant disciple, and it is opposite to the face in a
dark corner, that the statue of Vishnu is placed. This chamber is
long, narrow, and dark : Gautama Buddha's position and placid
aspect, the stillness of the place, all tend to impress a stranger with
the notion that he is in the chamber of death. The priests maintain
that such was Gautama, and such were those who were spectators at
his death.
The fronts of all the temples at Dambool are formed by a wall
raised under the beetling rock, rather more than four hundred feet
long, perforated with a number of doors and windows, and sheltered
and defended not only by the overhanging concave surface of rock,
but also artificially by a rude verandah, and these sacred caverns are
partly natural and partly excavated. The next temple, the Maha
raja wihare (temple of the great king), is by far the most extensive
and magnificent in Ceylon, being painted all over in brilliant
colours, and every part is in good repair. It derives its name from its
founder, King Wallagam-Bahoo, who is supposed to have assisted
personally in its formation ; it is 1 72 feet long, 75 broad, and
21 feet high near the front wall, and is lighted by numerous
windows and doors in front. The height from this place gradually
decreases in the arc of a circle, towards the floor on the interior side ;
but the bad effect otherwise resulting from such a design, is coun
teracted by a judicious disposition of the statues, and the drapery
hung up to protect them from dust, or the gaze of the vulgar. In
this temple are fifty figures of Buddha, many of them larger than
life, arranged in a row at a little distance from the sides and inner
walls of the room, but not grouped. Also a statue of each of the
gods, Saman, in yellow, Vishnu, in blue, and Nata, in white robes, of
the goddess Patine, and of the kings Walagam-Bahoo and Kirti Nis
sanga ; the first is the rudest figure, and its dress the simplest and
the least ornamented ; Kirti Nissanga, after repairing the ruin caused
by Malabar invaders, in a.d. 1 193, regilded the statues, at a cost of
600,000 pieces of gold, and ornamented the fanes of Dambool so
gaudily that it henceforward received the name of Rangiri, the
golden rock. It is also designated in an inscription of that date,
cut in the rock, Swarna-giri-guhaya, cave of the golden rock. Within
the Maha-raja-wihare, there is a beautifully formed dagobah which
touches the roof at the highest part, its broad circular pedestal is
ornamented with four figures of Buddha, each seated on the coil of a
cobra di capella, and shaded by its expanded hood ; and in a small
square compartment, railed in, and sunk two feet below the level of
the floor, a vessel is placed to receive water, which constantly drops
from a fissure in the rock, and is exclusively kept for sacred purposes,
no person daring to use it for any other.

654 CEYLON. [part IV.
The whole of the interior, whether rock, wall, or statue, is painted
with brilliant colours, in which yellow much predominates ; in one
place the artist has aimed at an illustration of an epoch in the early
history of Ceylon, which commences with the voyage of Wijeya,
who is pictured in a vessel with only the lower masts, and without
sails ; in the sea are seen fishes as large as the vessel, and lotus
leaves of the natural size are spread on its surface. In the represen
tation of the great dagobahs at Anuradhapoora, the proportions are
no better observed, and these huge works are pictured as but little
larger than the monarchs who ordered their erection. The dedi
cation of the island to Buddha after the arrival of the Dalada, is
figured by a king guiding a plough drawn by a pair of elephants,
attended by priests. The most successful attempt at historical
painting, is one which depicts the passage at arms between
Dootoo-gaimoonoo and Elaala, the delineation of which is spirited,
and in better proportions than any other of the historical compart
ments. The Malabar king is described in the act of falling from
his elephant, and transfixed by the javelin of his enemy. The
ornamental paintings in the temples at Dambool are neatly executed,
where an attention to proportion is of less consequence, and although
some of the colours have not been renewed for more than fifty years,
the whole appears bright and durable. The Passipilame (western)
and two alut (new) wihares are formed on the same plan, but are
inferior in size and decorations to the Maha-raja wihare, from which
they are separated by a stone wall, the portal by which they are
entered is therefore in front, and is a lofty archway, guarded on each
side by stone figures, intended to represent janitors. In one of them
is the statue of the King Kirti Sri, the last royal patron of Dambool,
and a zealous supporter of Buddhism. The celebration of the Bud
dhist service in this primeval temple, and the loud response of the
worshippers, are described by those who have attended it as a scene
of the most awe-exciting effect.
On the rocky platform, which extends in front of all the temples,
a bo-tree and several cocoa-nut trees have been reared, and have
reached a great size in defiance of their exposed situation, equally
exposed to tempests, and the scorching heats and long droughts, to
which this part of the country is periodically liable. Besides an
inscription on the rock over the entrance to the temples, and several
short inscriptions in the square character, called Nagara, there is near
the Maha-Deiyo temple, neatly cut in the rock, a long inscription in
the Singhalese character, as in use towards the end of the twelfth
century. It records the power, wealth, and meritorious acts of the
King Kirti Nissanga, and particularly his munificence in ornamenting
the temples and gilding the seventy-two statues of Buddha atDambool.i
1 For the account of the scenery and antiquities of Matal6, I am chiefly in
debted to a local publication of high standing ; but here, as in some other places,
the real contributor was Major Forbes, of whose vivid and felicitous sketches of
Singhalese scenery, it is impossible to speak in too high terms of praise.

CHAP.I.J ROCK TEMPLES OF DAMBOOL— MENIKDENNA NUWARA. 655
The summit of the rock commands a most extensive view over the
surrounding country ; to the south lie the mountains of Matale
and their intermediate valleys. The flat country immediately around
is the patrimony of the temples, and under the superintendence of
the priests, seven in number, who belong to the Asgirie wihare, to
which the temples are attached ; on the north and east lie the
wooded expanse and abrupt rocks of Nuwara-Kalawa. The most
conspicuous of these are the circular rock of Sigiri, Dahiakandi, near
the fort of Wigittapoora, memorable for its siege 2000 years ago,
and the mountain Ritta-galla, elevated 2000 feet above the level of the
plain, by which it is encompassed. The rock of Dambool was formerly
surmounted by three dagobahs ; these have crumbled down and been
washed away. About fifty feet below the summit of the rock there
is a pond, said to retain water when the springs for miles around are
dried up in the dry season. On the west side of the rock of
Dambool, are the ruins of the Soma Dagobah, which was completed
by Walagam-Bahoo, in the first century before the Christian era,
the numerous inscriptions at this place are a mixture of the ancient
Singhalese and Nagara characters.
Five miles north-east of Dambool is the Meerisagona-oya, which
for the greater part of the year is a bed of sand, though the banks
are in most places from six to eight feet high, and are supported by
matted roots of trees, more especially the kabook. During the north
east monsoon, it is impassable for days together, and is then an im
petuous torrent. In a forest eight miles from Dambool, and between
the former precipitous path which led to Nalande through the Anda
galla pass and the new road which winds round the mountain of
Lenadorra, are the ruins of an ancient town, called Menik Denna
Nuwara, the remains of two tanks, the ruins of a dagobah, a wihare
with numerous stone pillars, a stone bed (one end of which rests
upon a rock, the other extremity being supported by pillars) ; there are
also stone steps, and foundations of houses, to shew that this was at
one time a station of some importance. The mountain of Nik-woolla
or Heereedewatai Kandi rises behind these ruins, and a plain near
its summit has apparently been a place of retreat in times of danger,
as it is strewed with fragments of pottery ; and various kinds of fruit
trees, not commonly found wild, still flourish on this bleak plateau.
A pond, which contains water at all times in the driest seasons, was
doubtless the attraction of fugitives to this natural stronghold ; such
ponds, however remarkable, are not uncommonly to be met with near
the top of the highest mountains, and even on the summit of the bare
and elevated rocks of Ceylon. The traditions regarding Menik
Denna Nuwara assert that it was a residence of the King Sirisangabo,
but that it was greatly improved in the beginning of the fourth
century by Sri Danta Kumara, the royal importer of Buddha's tooth.
Twelve miles from Dambool is the village of Mahaellegamma,
where there is an embankment of a large tank, which is in good con
dition, and contains a supply of water sufficient to irrigate a consider-

656 CEYLON. [PART IV.
able extent of paddy land. From this place to the sluice of the
Kalawa tank is seven miles.
Nalande, although only fifteen miles distant, has not the same
moist and pleasant climate as Matale ; even at a distance of five
miles from the latter place, -coffee gardens are more rare, and less
productive, cocoa-nut trees scarcer and less luxuriant. As a
military post, which it was for some years, it proved very unhealthy ;
its small fort occupied the summit of a rocky hillock, and in situation
as well as insalubrity, resembled many of the mihtary positions
originally selected for the British troops in the Kandian country.
In the vicinity of Nalande are two caves, from which a small quantity
of saltpetre was prepared, under the native Government. At
Nalande the land leech is not seen ; at Matale it is abundant.
Beyond Nalande the talapat tree is seldom to be met with. From
Nalande to the lake of Mennairia is a distance of thirty-six miles,
through Nyakoombura, Gonawe, and Pae-colom ; near the former
place there is a small village, with a few paddy fields, forming the
only break in the damp and dreary jungle, from whence issue streams
that flow into the sea on either coast of the island. In traversing
the forest of Wagapanaha a few openings shew the rugged outline
and abrupt rocks of the range of Arrawella kandi.
Eyhelapola is about nine miles from Matale, and is about 1 200
feet above the level of the sea ; it is the seat of the family of the
late Adigaar of that name, consisting of a large house, with exten
sive grounds, encompassed by an elephant fence. Nine miles beyond
is the village of Wahakotta, on the range of hills extending between
the Seven Korles and Matale. In the forests on the side of Ambokka-
kandi, a mountain forming part of this chain, are situated the
remains of Rangalla Nuwara, and at its base a temple of the same
name is dedicated to the goddess Patine. This goddess, and the
temple of Ambokka, and the relics it contains, are supposed to have
extraordinary efficacy in preventing, or averting, small-pox. The
inhabitants of Wahakotta profess the Christian religion, and are the
descendants of Portuguese prisoners taken by Raja Singha, and of
some of their countrymen, who preferred retiring into the Kandian
country, in 1640, to remaining under the Dutch Government.
There is little difference either in feature, character, or colour,
between them and the Kandians of pure descent. These descendants
of Europeans are not so dark, and are free from the muddy complexion
and rough skin, so common among those wearing hats, and styling
themselves descendants of Europeans, in the maritime provinces.
From the extremity of the mountains which terminate abruptly
near Wahakotta, the view over the flat country, that extends to the
northernmost parts of the island, is extremely curious, from the
many detached rocks and precipitous mountains, which shoot up
from amidst the forest, covering the extensive plains of Nuwara
Kalawa. " At sunrise," says Forbes, " and for some time after, till
the mists are dispelled by the sun, partial fogs assume the exact

CHAP. I.J OLLEGAMMA — VALLEY OF MATALE — GODAPOLA. 657
appearance of lakes, some of these calm and undisturbed, will at
time3 reflect surrounding objects ; while others, agitated by a slight
breeze, will seem to dash their mimic waves against the forest, which
appears to bound these beautiful illusions. The descent from the
mountainous district at this place to the flat country beneath, is
through the wild, wooded and romantic pass of Kalugallahella (or
the hill of the Black Rock), which terminates at Gallawella.
A little to the north of the huge mountain of Artapola Kandi,
which is to the southward of Ambooka-kandi, but forming a part
of the same chain, is the village of Ollegamma, delightfully situate
in a fine hilly country, well adapted for coffee cultivation. About
two miles from it, on the side of a vast rock partly covered with fine
old trees, are the excavated temples, where a great annual festival
takes place. To reach the temples a steep flight of stairs is ascended,
at the top of which is a fine view of the country around. The images
and paintings are numerous ; the former are rudely executed, but
the colouring of the latter, said perhaps erroneously to be many
centuries old, is as brilliant as if only recently finished. There are
several inscriptions on the rocks, but in a character unintelligible to
the Singhalese of the present day.
Matale is an extensive valley, encircled with mountains, some of
which are 6000 feet in height, but clothed with thick wood to their
very summits. In the jungles are to be found cinnamon, as well as
various kinds of citrons, limes, oranges, mangoes, custard apples, and
jack-fruit trees : wild plantains and cardamoms abound in some of
the forests, and coffee, though not indigenous, is now found mixed
with jungle plants, and is, besides, generally and extensively culti
vated in this district. On the plain near the station of Matale,
commonly called Fort M' Do wall by Europeans, many foundations of
houses indicate the site of Walabanuwara. It was here that the
king Walagambahoo established himself previous to recovering his
capital of Anuradhapoora, and expelling the Malabar invaders of his
kingdom, b.c 90. Here also the rival kings or candidates for the
throne, Gaja-bahoo and Siriwallaba, in the early part of the twelfth
century, occasionally held their court, and assembled their levies.
In a.d. 1635 Matale and the adjacent provinces were formed into a
separate kingdom for WijeyaPaala, who fixed his court at Godapola,
a small mount, whose top is gained by a stone staircase of one
hundred and twenty steps ; the summit of this knoll is square and
surrounded by a wall with four gates. The interior buildings must
have been of frail materials, as the foundations of their walls alone
remain, and could be distinctly traced when lately the whole site of
the palace, from the innermost chamber to the public judgment-seat
at the gate, was cultivated with the surrounding parts of the royal
domain. Godapola unites many advantages in its situation, and commands
a varied and beautiful prospect, while its position on the verge of the
2 u

658 CEYLON. [PART IV.
Hunisgiri mountains, rendered escape easy and concealment secure.
In the forest, which covers these mountains, and three miles from
the palace are to be seen the ruins of a building called Kandi-nuwara
(hill station), which had been prepared as a place of refuge in times
of danger, and was occupied by the king before he finally abandoned
his dominions to his younger brother, the ambitious and crafty
Raja Singha. In the Mahommedan village of Gongawelle, a very
large spring of pure water rises in a basin of white sand, which is
surrounded by a wall, and overshadowed by trees. This fountain is
accounted for in ancient legends as having sprung up beside Seeta
(Lakshmi), wife of Rama, who 2400 years before the Christian era
rested here, when Rawana compelled her to journey from Lankapoora
to the forests in the interior of the island.
Two miles from Matale, on the side of the road to Trincomalee,
are situated the Aluewihare rocks, which look as if a portion
detached from the great mountain above had been precipitated into
the plain, and riven by the shock into those pinnacles and rude
masses which are heaped together in so remarkable a manner. A
single solitary cocoa-nut tree grows in a recess among these clefts,
and waves its thin stem and scanty leaves over the highest of the
rocks, among which large flights of blue rock pigeons have hitherto
found protection from the sanctity of the place, and the tenets of
Buddhism. Among the recesses of these crags, the doctrines of
Gautama Buddha were first reduced to writing, and under their
huge masses many temples were formed at a very early period.
These temples were destroyed by the British troops in 1803, and
only two out of eight have been since restored. On one of the
highest pinnacles is a print of Buddha's footstep, similar to that on
Adam's Peak, from which it is imitated, and a small hollow is formed
in the rock near it, for the purpose of receiving offerings. On a neigh
bouring crag are the remains of a dagobah, and amidst its scattered
fragments, a stone cut into twenty-five compartments ; in the centre
one of these the relic of Buddha is placed, and the remaining cells
in the stone contain the offerings made when the relic was deposited.
Through the middle of the Aluewihare rocks, there is a broad
natural street of unequal height ; to reach this a flight of rude steps
is ascended, a crevice is then passed through, and another ascent
ensues, till a flat rock is reached, which is pointed out as the spot
where the King Walagambahoo assembled the priests, who here
compared their texts or versions, which were then or soon afterwards
committed to writing, and form the Banapota or Buddhist Bible ; the
doctrines of Gautama having previously descended by tradition for
214 years.
In passing from Kandy to Matale, a distance of seventeen miles
by the road, the Mahavelle-ganga is crossed about three miles from
the city. At the ferry before crossing the green hills and mountain
peaks of Doombera, and from the opposite side looking back, the
wooded heights and rocky range of Hantana offer two equally beauti-

CHAP. I.J ROCKS OF ALUE-WIHARE — ANCIENT AMBULAMS. 659
ful and very different landscapes. From the Mahavelle-ganga the
road passes through seven miles of country, unincumbered with
forests, until it reaches the summit of the Ballakadawe hills ; from
thence the eye is directed through a narrow wooded pass to the
station of Matale, five miles distant, and 700 feet lower than the top
of the Ballakadawe pass.
" A tree of great size," says Forbes, " growing near the stream in
this forest pass, has for centuries marked the limits of two districts,
and beyond the memory of the oldest inhabitant has obtained the
name of Loku-Bambera-gaha or great bee-tree. For eight months
every year, from all its branches that stretch over the rivulet, one
hundred or more swarms of bees may be seen depending, each having
one large semicircular comb of the thickness of the branch so far as
it is attached, and gradually diminishing towards the ends of the
circle. These insects and their labour are considered to be under
the protection of a spirit, and from that circumstance remain unmo
lested ; but in 1 836, when the new road which passes near the tree
was repairing, the community having taken umbrage at some pioneers,
who were cutting down a hollow tree in their vicinity, sallied out,
attacked the workmen, then the soldiers, and finally put to flight
the whole party ; many of whom suffered severely, and one carriage
bullock was stung to death. For days after this attack the bees
were in great excitement, flying about the road in numbers, but they
did not molest passengers, and at last became reconciled to the
innovation upon their prescriptive right of solitude."
From Kandy to the mountains of Lakagalla, the traveller proceeds
a short distance along the Trincomalee road, and then strikes into a
jungle path on the right, and crossing a large stream, which rises
near Doombera Peak, and flows by the base of the Hunisgiri range
of mountains, enters the valley of Gantony. He then turns down
the valley to the left by another path, which at a remote period,
has evidently been a broad road, whose formation, though evincing
no ingenuity on the part of the constructor, in avoiding the steep
ascents that occasionally occur in its line of direction, shews that
it must have been intended for carriages.
"When a native king of the olden time," remarks Forbes, " made a
progress towards Adam's Peak, his carriage must have been impelled
up these eminences by the force of people who were always at hand ;
as the inhabitants of every district through which the royal proces
sion passed, were compelled to attend to provide its supplies and
carry the baggage." Wherever a path crosses or diverges from this
road, an ambulam exists, or its foundation may be 'perceived. An
ambulam is generally a strong shed of small size, raised on a stone
foundation, eight or ten feet in height, under its shade travellers
rested during the heat of the day, or if benighted, its elevated
position offered them security against elephants. Near these huts,
is often seen the far-extending peepul, with its ever rustling leaves
2 u 2

660 CEYLON. [PART IV.
and ample shade, or the light lively green foliage and solid trunk of
the tamarind, the rise of which may be. referred to the repast of
wanderers, who centuries before had rested at the ambulam. At a
bend of the river at Gigirinne, is an elephant kraal, where numbers
of that quadruped were formerly decoyed. The route proceeds along
the base of Opalgalla, a hill, on which may be traced the foundations
of a small fort, whose formation is assigned by tradition to Yakkas,
"the alleged architects of every ruin in Ceylon, whose origin is
unknown, and of every work too difficult to be imitated, or too
clumsy to be acknowledged by the Singhalese."
At Ambona, the stream, along whose banks the road has lain, is
joined by the Nalande-oya (which rises in the rocky mountains sur
rounding the romantic vale of Asgiri), and here changes its course
from north to east. From this place till its junction with the Maha
velle-ganga, at Kotawelle in Tamankada, a distance of forty miles,
it retains the name of Ambanganga, and the spot where these two
rivers join is nearly opposite to Dimbulugalla, a solitary mountain
rising from the plains of Bintenne. At the entrance of a large canal
near Ellaherra, completed (if not constructed) ' ' by the happy vic
torious and illustrious monarch of Ceylon, Praackramabahoo," a
wall of immense strength has been formed across the river, yet
notwithstanding the great size of the stones employed in the con
struction of this work, and although the remains of the dam are now
at considerable distance from the usual course of the river, still part
of it is occasionally displaced by floods in the rainy season. This
embankment appears to have served for a bridge as well as a dam to
turn water into the canal. This canal is said to have been formed
not only for conveyiug part of the water of this river into tanks, and
thus increasing the extent of irrigated lands, but also for purposes of
inland navigation, so that loaded boats might pass from hence to
Gantalawe, near Trincomalee, and by another branch of the same
canal to the ancient capital of Pollonnaroowa. Near the junction
of the Heerattee-oya with the Ambanganga, are situated the dilapi
dated rock, temple, and dagobah, of Gaetyagamma. Farther down,
the river for a distance of three miles, winds so as nearly to sur
round extensive ruins, now known by the name of Maluwaya : this
place is overgrown with jungle, and the principal remains are said to
be three buildings situated at some distance from each other. One
of these, founded on a rock, in which there is an excavated chamber,
is called the Paterippoa ; at each of the others there is a stone trough ;
one of them formed in the rock, the other having been removed to its
present site. The river before being joined by a considerable stream,
the Kalu-ganga, rushes through a narrow chasm called Namalku-
mara-ella, and forms a large and very deep basin beneath the fall.
From hence a hill is pointed out in the Tamankada district, on"which
there is said to be a tank, and the remains of Wijeya Nuwara.
Turning to the northern extremity of the Hunisgiri range, by a

CHAP. 1.J ANCIENT CANAL AT ELLAHERRA— LAKAGALLA. 661
path in some places overhanging the river, the district of Gangalla is
entered, when the route proceeds through unbroken jungle to the
flourishing village of Kamberawe, and from thence to Pallegamma,
between which a precipitous and elevated range of wooded hills,
separating Gangalla from Lagalla, is crossed : along the summit of
the ridge, an elephant path extends, till the view embraces the wood-
encumbered valleys of Lagalla, over which the grassy slopes and
wooded summits of mountains rise to a height of 6000 feet.
The rocky pinnacles of Lakagalla next attract the attention, and
its precipices are seen beetling over the artificial-looking crags, called
the Brahmin rocks. The village of Pallegamma, is on the banks
of the Kalu-ganga, and the route proceeds by a rocky path, through
several small but prettily situated villages, to Narrangamma : this is
a large village, and from its proximity to the mountains, and its
elevation, combines the advantages of a pleasant climate and pic
turesque situation. Amid its bright green rice fields, several masses
of rock are to be seen, surmounted by watch-huts around the margin
of the cultivated lands, a few of the houses may be distinguished,
and the presence of the cocoa-nut trees shews the position of the
remainder of the village scattered near the base of Lakagalla. In
the ascent of the mountain, a cool clear stream, which flows from it,
is passed, when the traveller enters a small level plain, covered with
rich black mould. This place preserves the name of Uyangamma-
tenna-wewa (lake of the garden flat), and here the growth of under
wood is prevented by the thick shade of forest trees and by the cir
cumstance of the ground being occasionally inundated. Into this
rock encircled basin, huge masses of stone, which occasionally detach
themselves from the Matale Peak, plunge with a tremendous crash,
and the natives believe that such occurrences are the forerunners
of domestic troubles in the country.
Forbes opines from the various names of places in the vicinity,
and the fact that although called Lankapoora in the Pali, it is
called in the Elu or Singhalese history, Lagalla, that the site of the
ancient capital was around this mountain. "If the narrow gap
leading to the Uyangamma-tenna were filled up even to the height of
four feet, the peaks of Lakagalla," he remarks, "might" again be
reflected in its embosomed lake." In the ascent, several springs of
the purest water are found, and when an elevation of 3000 feet
above the sea is reached, the deep narrow valley of Meemoorra on
one side, and the districts in the rear to the plains on the north
and east of the Kandian territory on the other, are clearly discerni
ble. Through these levels may be descried the course and the
silver fight of the Mahavelle-ganga, where it flows near the isolated
mountain of Dimbulugalla in the direction of Trincomalee. From
one side Lakagalla shews three peaks : one of them is so sharp-
pointed and narrow, as to resemble a steeple of surpassing height,
all of them are of solid rock. The upper part of Lakagalla is
covered with coarse grass, which spreads in patches over the moist

662 CEYLON. [part IV.
mass of solid rock that forms the summits of the mountain ; trees
and thickets occupy the sheltered ravines, and near its base the nelu
forms a dark disagreeable jungle.
The route to Puackpitia passes at a considerable elevation across
successive ridges of hills, in most places free from jungle ; the higher
parts of these open grounds being covered with illuk and common
lemon grass, herbage too coarse for the pasture of any animals except
buffaloes. The lower slopes produce, however, in immense quanti
ties some of the finest grass in the island, which has rendered the
milk of Lagalla and the fatness of its cattle proverbial among the
Kandians. " The people of the neighbouring districts," says
Forbes, " profit by its rich grazing grounds, and drive bullocks
and buffaloes in thousands (when their services in cultivation, or
as beasts of burthen can be spared), to fatten in these luxuriant
pastures : neither can the proprietors prevent this intrusion, as
all pasturage is common, according to Kandian custom, unless fenced
in by the proprietors. Puackpitia is a village built on either side of
a rapid stream, that dashes through a narrow cultivated valley, over
shadowed by the steep Batandua mountain and its sombre forests.
Through these, the top of the hill is ascended by a good foot
path. The forests of Dankandi being passed, the valley of Matale
is descried. The southern portion of Doombera presents the same fascinating
scenery as the northern, though it is more closely allied to the beau
tiful than to the sublime. The first part of the road between Kandy
and Taldenia, situate at the foot of a mountain in the fertile valley
of the Hulu-ganga, consists of a surface of green hills gently rounded,
free from jungle, and well cultivated, the latter part is more rugged
and rocky, and is in a great measure covered, with forest. Near
Taldenia is the Bamberra-galla-wihare, romantically situated on the
side of a steep hill among great masses of rock, interspersed with
fruit trees. An immense overhanging rock forms the roof and walls
of the temple, except the front wall, which is of masonry. The
cavity of the rock is divided into two compartments, very gaily
painted. In the largest is a recumbent figure of Buddha, twenty-
five feet long. The Hulu-ganga is here a considerable stream, and
cannot be forded during the rains. A huge mountain covered with
forest, flanks its eastern bank, from which there is a grand view of
the wild and wooded mountain scenery around. Beyond it, and at
its eastern base is the neat and picturesque village of Medda-maha-
nuwara, in which a hiding place was constructed by the last of the
Kandian kings. To the north of this place is Hanwelle, the country
between is mountainous and difficult. The ascent is first through a
steep valley, presenting a remarkable appearance, from the admix
ture of the wildest scenery, with the most artificial cultivation ; and
no contrast can be stronger than the numerous paddy fields, ascend
ing by steps and terraces the steep sides of the mountain and the
natural features of the country, the cloud-capped mountain, the

CHAP. I.J LAGALLA RANGE — SCENERY OF DOOMBERA. 663
overhanging wood, and the rapid torrent. In the middle of the
forest which overtops the scene of cultivation, was formerly a strong
Kadawette, which under the Kandian dynasty, was fortified and con
stantly guarded. It was flanked on each side by a thick stone wall,
and there was a large overhanging rock in its rear. After emerging
from this forest, an open and bold country succeeds, covered with
a long, sweet srhelling lemon grass. Beyond Hanwelle, to the north
is a beautiful plain, with a park-like appearance, from which a splen
did prospect of the mountains towards Kandy behind, and Maha-
veddah-ratte in front, is obtained. The country between here and
Meemoorra is remarkable for its wild solitude and forest scenery ;
at one place the narrow ridge of a mountain, hardly three feet wide
has to be passed, bounded by naked perpendicular precipices. Near
Meemoorra is a nitre cave of large dimensions, and striking appearance.
It appears in a perpendicular face of rock, about 300 feet high,
crowned with forest. The cave is 200 feet deep, and about 80 feet
high, and 1 00 wide at its mouth, which is nearly semi-circular. The
cave is partly natural and partly artificial.
The route to Kandy, the capital of the interior, from Colombo, is
three and a half miles to the bridge of boats across the Mutwal-
oya, constructed by Sir E. Barnes, to obviate the delay to which
travellers and the troops were subjected, when there was merely a
ferry boat to convey them. To Mahara, where there is a rest-house
on the right, five miles. From thence to the mail-coach station at
Kosrupe is 6| miles ; and to the rest-house of Henneratgodde,
where there is also a barrack, two miles ; to Kellegedehaine, mail-
coach station five miles. From thence to Veangodde, rest-house,
three miles ; to Walweldenia, mail-coach station, about 4£ miles. To
Ambapusse rest-house, 6 ^ miles ; from thence to the mail-coach
station at Ambanpittia, through Maha-haine, 91 miles. To Ootoo-
ankandi, a rest-house and mail-coach station, 8 J miles. To Kaddooga-
nava, rest-house, about seven miles ; from thence to Paradiniya
6£ miles, and to Kandy four miles. Total distance 72 miles.
Though there ate some very fine and richly varied scenes, chiefly
of the cultivated kind, between Ambapusse and Ootooan Kandi, yet
the mountain zone cannot be said to commence till the latter place is
left behind, but the world might perhaps be searched in vain for a
scene of greater sublimity than that viewed from the summit of the
Kadduganava pass. The first view of the stupendous mountains in
front seems to debar the hope of further progress, yet ravine after
ravine is passed, and chasm after chasm, affording the most delight
ful variety of prospect. At one time a mountain seems to rise perpen
dicularly on the left, and descend as perpendicularly on the right. At
another a roaring torrent appears to sweep over the head, as though
ready to carry the ascending traveller into the abyss beneath. Now
not a foot of earth is to be seen but that on which he stands, while
on turning an angle of the road a wide spreading view of the country
beyond meets the eye. Fearful chasms, frightful abysses, thunder-

664 CEYLON. [part IV.
ing torrents, and hanging rocks, succeed each other with marvellous
rapidity, till one fancies oneself transported into a different country,
an illusion by no means dissipated by the delightful freshness of the
air. A well proportioned column surmounts the pass, in honour of
the military engineer who superintended this great work.
Kandy is situate in latitude 7° 21' N., and in longitude 80° 48' E.
in a spacious and fertile valley, 1467 feet above the level of the sea,
surrounded by hills and mountains beautifully wooded and diver
sified with foliage of every hue, from the very darkest to the lightest
green, and yellow tints of the young and the deep red brown of the
falling leaf. The hundred of Udapalata, near to which it is situate,
was the seat of a dissavony, and it included Nillembe Nuwara, the
place to which Raja Singha retired after the rebellion. It yields
abundant crops of paddy, kurrukkan, amoo, &c.
Kandy (Senkada-galla) originally called Siriwardhanapoora, or
more commonly Maha Nuwara, (the great city) as it is still termed
by the natives, lies within the beautiful and fertile district of
Yattineura, and originally contained but few tiled houses in pro
portion to the rest. Those belonging to the chiefs were elevated
from the ground, and approached by steps. The other habitations
were built of waretchie (sticks and mud), and thatched with paddy
straw, the whole, including the great street, forming five streets,
all of which ran in straight lines, and did not cross at right
angles, and from their inclination from the eastward and westward
towards the north, appeared as if the original intention had been to
form the city in the shape of a triangle, with its apex to the north
ward, and its base bounded by the two artificial lakes, of which that
called the New Lake, was formed during the reign of the late Mala
bar despot, Sree Wickrama Raja Singha. The present city con
sists of two main streets, Colombo street, running east and west, and
Trincomalee street running north and south ; the principal bazaar is
situated at the point of intersection between these streets,
The relatives and connexions of the royal family, whom the
jealousy of the reigning sovereign had separated from the rest of the
Kandian community, were restricted to a part of the city called
Malabar street, which takes a south-easterly direction, from the Da-
lada Malagawa, having the hospital on its right, and between it and
the lake. Such, however, have been the improvements in Kandy since
the erection of the pavilion by Sir E. Barnes, which unites in a re
markable degree, the comforts necessary for a tropical climate, with
an elegant exterior, that with the subsequent improvements in laying
out the grounds by Sir Wilmot Horton, and the tasty villas which
have sprung up as if by enchantment all around ; it is doubtful if the
late Raja could revisit the former scene of his tyranny, whether he
would recognize the site of his own palace ; for all that remains of it
are the hall of audience, and the Pateripooa ; the former now employed
as the court-house on week days, and as a chapel on Sundays, and
the latter as a military blackhole.

CHAP.I.J KANDY, ANCIENT AND MODERN: PALACE: PAVILION. 665
The king's palace occupies a considerable space of ground. The
front, which was about 200 yards long, but of no great depth, still
presents rather an imposing appearance, looking towards the principal
temples, and rising above a handsome moat, the walls of which are
pierced with triangular cavities for purposes of illumination. At
one extremity it is terminated by the Pateripooa, an hexagonal
building, of two stories, in which the king appeared to the people on
important occasions, assembled in the square below. At the other
extremity it was bounded by the women's apartments, on the front
of which the insignia of royalty, the sun, moon and stars, were
carved in stone : here, on public festivals, the king and the ladies of
the harem stationed themselves to witness the processions. The in
termediate space was occupied chiefly by the great entrance to the
palace and by the temple of the Dalada Malagawa, a little in the
rear. The entrance, in front of which there is now a verandah, was
by a drawbridge over the moat through a massive archway on one
hand, up a flight of huge steps, closed by a door of clumsy device,
supported by posts, in the shape of dragons, and through another
archway to the hall of audience; and on the other hand up another
flight of steps to the temple and the hexagonal building. The
buildings in the background, with the exception of the hall of
audience, were in no way remarkable, being chiefly sleeping rooms,
offices, and baths, and were most of them dark, small and mean, and
have since been removed. The hall of audience, where the king
usually transacted business and kept his court, is a long room in
which nothing ornamental is now to be seen, but the beautiful carved
pillars of halmila wood by which the roof is supported, which were
cut and squared at Nalande, and the traces of battle scenes on the
walls, in which several leopards, a female figure, and that of a man,
are still discernible in despite of the thick coat of whitewash with
which some English would cover every thing. The walls of this
building, like those of the ruins in Ceylon of remote date, are five
feet thick.
At the north-east extremity of Kandy, in the centre of a lawn car
peted with the smoothest and richest turf, adorned here and there
with scattered groups of magnolias, or rocu trees, stands the pavi
lion, the first of public buildings, a handsome edifice of marble
whiteness, surrounded by regular colonnades, and remarkable for the
airy and elegant style, and the beautiful proportions of its archi
tecture. It is by far the finest structure in Ceylon, and commands
a view of the whole town, except Malabar-street and its neighbour
hood, as well as an extensive prospect beyond in several directions,
including the magnificent valley of Doombera, with the river winding
beneath. The grounds are beautifully kept, and the extensive park,
which stretches along the sides of the hills, encircling the whole
valley, unfolds at every point an exquisite mountain landscape.
Though not so large and commodious, it is fully equal, if not supe
rior, in outward appearance to any house in Chowringhee, in the

666 CEYLON. [PART IV.
neighbourhood of Calcutta, where all the most magnificent specimens
of architecture of which the city of palaces can boast, are centered.
It is composed of a centre and two wings, forming at the back three
sides of a square, and it is encrusted with a preparation of fine lime,
which takes a good polish, and has all the appearance of white
marble. A neat building has been constructed for the Colonial Secre
tary in its vicinity. Near it is the Major-General's residence, for
merly the quarters of the Commandant, but now appropriated to
married officers, a large and commodious edifice standing upon a
hill in the range forming the western boundary of the town, and com
manding a fine panoramic view of Kandy with the Hunisgiri range
and the Knuckles in the distance. Half way down this hill on a
level surface is the royal cemetery, near to Trincomalee-street, in
teresting more from the circumstance of its possessing the bodies or
ashes of kings and heroes, which were for many generations deposited
there, than from any external advantages either of situation or ap
pearance. It contains a number of indifferent looking tombstones,
(the best of which have lately been sacrilegiously abstracted for door
steps) each having a Singhalese inscription, as the monument of the
august personages who repose beneath them. It is enclosed by a
wall, and has within it a small temple, similar within and without to
all the other native sanctuaries of the same dimensions.
" The burial ground of the Kandian kings," says Forbes, " can
not be viewed without exciting reflections on the revolutions which
alike occur to man's estate, and the most ancient monarchies. Ere
the last of one of the longest lines of kings which history records,
had by death expiated his crime by suffering previously a long im
prisonment among his victors, the solid tombs of his ancestors were
ransacked by the hands of avarice, or riven in sunder and ruined by
the aggressions of the jungle. This hallowed spot, where the funeral
piles were raised, and the last solemn rites performed over the re
mains of the solar race, is now a wilderness where dank vegetation
reigns supreme. In 1828 the tomb of Raja Singha and Kirti Sri
were nearly perfect. In 1837 the former was a heap of rubbish
from which the stones had been removed, and the beautiful propor
tions, and even the form of the latter could no longer be traced.
Hopes of plunder or unmeaning wantonness, when the British entered
Kandy, precipitated the fate of these monuments, whose very site
may soon be forgotten."
The Roman Catholics had formerly a very considerable establish
ment at Bogambera in the outskirts, with a magnificent church,
erected by Padre Vaz, but on the accession of Narendra Singha
(Koondasaala) to the throne, the establishment was broken up,
and the church razed to the ground. Since the British conquest,
however, some adherents of that faith settled in the town and erected
a chapel for their use, and they are now numerous and active. The
Church Missionary Society has a neat residence and school-house,
used as a place of worship on Sundays, erected on a hill about the

CHAP.I.J ROYAL CEMETERY: PUBLIC BUILDINGS: INSTITUTIONS. 667
middle of Trincomalee-street on the east side. A large and hand
some edifice has recently been erected for the use of the Episcopa
lians ; the Baptists have built a chapel and mission-house ; a manse
has been erected for a Scotch minister, and a Kirk is on the point of
erection. Meanwhile worship, according to the Presbyterian form,
is conducted on Sundays in the old Hall of Audience, the present
district Court-house. The Mahomedans are a body of some import
ance, and have one or two mosques.
The United Service Library, is, like its sister institution at Colom
bo, exclusive. The Central Town Library is, on the contrary, open
to all classes. The engineering works at Bogambera and in Trinco
malee-street are interesting, from their shewing the advancement of
the country. Singhalese mechanical skill and industry are sadly be
hind the day and its wants ; but with such establishments an im
provement may be looked for. The Medical Hall, part of which is
used as a Post-office, is a handsome building. Kandy is the meeting
place of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, from which the colony has
derived no slight benefit. One of the prettiest objects in the town
is the Military Magazine, situate in the middle of the lake. It was
used by the late king of Kandy for the confinement of such women
of his harem as had incurred his displeasure. The Jail is a large
square building, much improved of late years, and would be yet fur
ther advantaged were the internal arrangements assimilated to those
of the new jail at Colombo.
Till 1832, Kandy was chiefly viewed as the central military post of
the interior. Since then it has become the centre also of its com
mercial and agricultural operations, and has been as much improved
in appearance, as it has thereby greatly increased in importance,
population and wealth. In 1819 the population did not exceed 3000
souls, it has now a settled population of more than double that
number, exclusive of a military force of 750 men. The accommoda
tion for this body of men is ample, consisting of six barracks for
English soldiers, capable of containing 500 men, eight for Ceylon
Rifles, that will contain 300 men, one for artillery to lodge twenty
men, and lines for gun lascars, sufficient for thirty men. The military
hospital is in Malabar-street. Instead of the occupation the troops are
now engaged in, forming gardens and raising vegetables, they would
benefit the public to a greater degree by clearing away the rank vege
tation around.
Deposits of magnesian limestone exist in the vicinity of Kandy,
from which good lime for building purposes is obtained. Bricks and
tiles are baked to some extent by the natives, and there is a very
extensive brick kiln kept constantly at work by Government, elephants
being employed to tread the clay, which is found deposited in black
veins beneath silicious sand.
House rent is very high at Kandy, having risen enormously in the
course of a few years. Servants' wages are also much higher than

668 CEYLON. [part IV.
at Colombo, Appoos receiving from 25*. to 40s. per month ;
"Ayahs," from 22s. 6d., to 25s. with food. Horse keepers, 18s,
to 25s.
The quantity of rice imported into Kandy for the supply of estates
is enormous, but the difficulty and expense of carriage have kept it
at a high price. A bushel, which can be purchased for 3s. 6d. in
Colombo, has been on certain special occasions three times that price
in Kandy, and has rarely sunk lower than 5s. 6d., until very recently,
when the pressure on the money market, and the large influx of rice
to secure return transport of coffee to Colombo, induced holders to
accept of 4s. 9d. Very good beef is procurable at 4\d. per lb ;
mutton is scarce, as the land leeches on the hills attack, and severely
injure sheep there depastured, but joints can be had from 4s. 6d., to
6s. per quarter. Pork can be had at 6d. per lb., fowls at 4\d., to Is.
Ducks are scarce and dear. Geese are reared by the Malay soldiers.
The climate is far too damp for turkeys. Vegetables are pretty
abundant, milk scarce and dear. Altogether the cost of living to
Europeans is at present considerably in excess of what it is at
Colombo, especially as dependence must be placed to a great extent
on supplies of English beef, pork, butter, &c, which the cost of
carriage renders dear. There are several stores kept by Europeans,
and well supplied, in addition to native shops, boutiques, and bazaars,
and several hotels and establishments for letting carriages and horses.
Under the auspices of the recently formed Ice Company, the residents
in the interior will receive large and welcome supplies of fish by the
coaches from the coast.
The tunnel on the Kurunaigalla road, one of the great public
works undertaken by Sir Edward Barnes, has lately collapsed, and
the road now winds round the hill, a further distance of two miles.
The waste of treasure and human life on this undertaking, would
scarcely appear defensible, but for the tradition current among the
natives, that no foreign nation could conquer and retain the Kandian
country, unless they obtained possession of Buddha's tooth, bridged
the Mahavelle-ganga, and bored a road through a mountain. The two
first feats accomplished, Sir Edward Barnes thought it politic to con
solidate our empire by displaying before the eyes of the astonished
Kandians the completion of the third. In less than thirty years,
his successors have felt the British power so firmly based, as to see
with unconcern one of the tests of dominion destroyed, and volun
tarily to resign another. Nor can the recent emeute be said to falsify
the grounds on which they have acted, for it was but the effervescence
of ignorant men acted upon by a wily and falling priesthood.
The first appearance of Kandy is striking, from its being surrounded
by verdant hills rising in the form of an amphitheatre, and reflected
in the silvery lake. A morning or evening ascent of any of the
neighbouring eminences affords a panoramic view of great splendour
and beauty. On closer inspection, however, the town does not justify

CHAP. I.J PRICES — A TRADITION — SCENERY AROUND KANDY. 669
the first favourable impressions. Situated in a basin, and on soil
exceedingly pervious to wet, the streets are extremely unpleasant in
rainy weather, and at no time can Kandy be considered particularly
clean or healthy. Cholera has within the last few years visited it
with awful severity, being particularly fatal to Europeans. But the
march of improvement now going on, will ultimately earn for it a
different character. The lower lake, reckoned the focus of disease, is
being drained and fitted for building purposes, a large circular main
drain is being run through the town, and the streets are being lined
with side drains and pavements. There is one circumstance which
will secure a rapid improvement in the appearance of the buildings.
A few years ago a public meeting was held at Kandy to memorialise
the Government for permanent grants in lieu of the thirty ' years
leases, on which building lots were held. The request was complied
with, but only on conditions which will ensure a certain amount of
strength and uniformity in the buildings. There are some very
handsome houses scattered over the face of the lower hills, about 200
feet high, immediately overlooking the town, and this would become
still more general, but for the scarcity of water. Kandy rests on
a bed of gneiss, and basins containing water are rare, especially on the
sides of the hills. The beautiful lake of Kandy, about a mile and a
half in length, and ranging from one hundred to five hundred yards
in breadth, is artificial, having been formed by the late king out of a
number of paddy fields, of which he deprived the owners, compen
sating them by grants of land in other quarters. Thousands of per
sons were compelled to labour at the embankments, and many lives
were sacrificed to the royal will. In the centre of the lake, and on a
small artificial island, stands a sort of pavilion, rising as if from the
water that encircles it. It was the bathing place of the king's
seraglio, and his favourite summer house, and is now used as a powder
magazine. The local Government is engaged in clearing away an
artificial mound at Bogambera, which intercepts the view through an
extensive gorge, and doubtless adds to the unhealthiness of the
town by preventing ventilation. The height of the Kandy lake,
which adds so much to the appearance of the city, is 1680 feet above
the level of the sea. This lake might be stocked with excellent fresh
water fish from the rivers of Bengal, which could be conveyed by
the steamers. It was well stocked with fish by the late king, who
would never allow them to be caught, but they are of inferior
quality. Kandy depends for its supply of labour on Tamil immigration, and
this is now so full and steady, that wages, which within the last few
years rose to an enormous figure, are now comparatively moderate.
Native overseers obtaining 25s. to 40s. per month ; artificers, Is. 6d.
to 2s. per day, and labourers 15s. to £1. per month. On Sundays,
when the labourers from the surrounding estates pour in for supplies,
Kandy presents an animated appearance, Colombo Street, in which

670 CEYLON. [PART IV.
the principal bazaars and shops are situated, being filled with a living
mass . The collection of heterogeneous articles ranged along its sides,
is calculated to create astonishment, and to convey a very vivid idea
of the impetus given in late years to native trade and industry. Here
may be procured catties and cumblies, rice, salt fish, curry stuffs,
crockery, cloth, and in short every article calculated to supply the
wants of an estate and all employed upon it from the European pro
prietor, or superintendent, to the simple Tamil cooly.
Branches of two banks, the Bank of Ceylon and the Oriental, have
been in operation at Kandy for some years. The Bank of Ceylon
was incorporated by charter the 24th September, 1840. Capital
£ 125, 000, with power to increase the same to 36250,000, and as
circumstances require, to ^6750,000. There are eight Directors in
London, two in Colombo. The terms are as usual in such institu
tions, but there is a special clause, empowering loans to planters
under agreement, for the purpose of securing their crops.
The Oriental bank, which has a branch at Kandy, has a capital of
362,000,000, in shares of ^6100 each; half paid. There are no
Directors connected with this bank in Ceylon, to which circumstance
the greater popularity of the institution has been ascribed, inasmuch
as there is a natural disinclination among the planters to have their
operations scanned by a local direction. Previously to the establish
ment of these branches at Kandy, it was customary for mercantile
agents at Colombo to furnish planters with funds by Treasury drafts
on Government agents at out-stations, these were usually at three days'
sight, but paid at sight if the "register" of the drafts had reached
the Cutcherry. There having been a considerable trade in rice, cocoa-
nuts, fish, &c. between Colombo and Kandy, planters paid to a
certain extent for their supplies and cash for coolies by drawing at
sight, or at three days, as might be agreed on upon Colombo, or at
a certain fixed rate of exchange on Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay.
These drafts on other countries were remitted to natives in Colombo
by their native friends in Kandy, and the exchange was invariably
paid by the planter. The rate varied from Is. ll\d. to Is. ll\d. per
rupee. The establishment of branches at Kandy was considered a
great convenience, for at the time that they opened much trouble was
occasioned to the planter by the scarcity of silver. A commission of
one-half per cent, was charged for letters of credit on the banks,
which rate was afterwards increased to one per cent. For every pur
pose of remittance and discount, the banks have proved of very
great utility, but in other respects it is to be feared they have stimu
lated over-trading and over-cultivation, so that when the intelligence
of the monetary pressure in the mother country arrived in Ceylon,
they were at once compelled to limit discounts, and so narrowed their
transactions, that many were seriously injured.
The buildings erected for the accommodation of the banks are sub
stantial and handsome. They are close to the Esplanade, and oppo
site the pleasant promenades, which skirt the lake of Kandy.

CHAP. I.J TEMP1ES — HEIGHT OF SURROUNDING MOUNTAINS. 671
Between the Kandian part of the town and Malabar-street there is
a large intervening space, which contains the principal temple of Da-
lada Malagawa (palace of the tooth), a lofty but unpretending
edifice. The sanctuary is closed with folding doors of gilded bronze,
into which a ray of day-light never penetrates. Within its sacred
walls, on a large table hung with white shawls and gold brocades,
stands the shrine of the Dalada, behind it are large plates of gold in
scribed with a variety of characters and emblems ; on two side tables,
loaded with gold and silver brocades, are placed lamps of silver gilt,
fragrant from the sweet cocoa-nut oil, that feeds their flames. The
walls are hung round with costly Indian shawls of the most beautiful
design. In the other apartment is a statue of Buddha as large as
life. The Hindoo pagodas or Dewalcs of Patine and Nata, the
former of which stands to the southward and westward, and the latter
to the westward of the palace, and between it and the pagoda of Patine
are in separate and extensive areas. The Maha Vishnu Dewale is
situate nearly north of the Nata Dewale, and the Kattragamme Dewale
about west of the Patine Dewal6, and are all shaded by umbrageous
palms and other trees.
In the vicinity of Kandy, the temples are kept in better repair
than elsewhere, and the Ganga-rama (river temple), and other
establishments near the town are good specimens of a complete
Buddhist establishment.
The Asgirie wihare adjoins the original burying-place of the Kan
dian kings, and is situate to the north-westward of the principal street
from which one enters the enclosure of the Awadana madima or Royal
cemetery, and the Malwatte wihare is situate on the south side of the
new lake.
There is a solemnity about the Malwatte wihare, that is altoge
ther opposed to the notion we form of Pagan worship, or its temples ;
and in contemplating the massive pillars of stone, sixteen cubits high
and of proportionate circumference, each formed of one block only,
which support the roof of the College hall, and contrasting these and
innumerable other vestiges of the remotest antiquity with the best
specimens of modern Singhalese architecture, one would conclude
that a different race reared these gigantic monuments, which have so
long set time and the destructive efforts of the ultra-barbarous Por
tuguese at defiance.
In addition to the splendid natural amphitheatre, which Kandy
presents, and the magnificence of the surrounding scenery, Mattan-
Pattana, the hill over it is 3192 feet, and the rocky ridge of Hantana,
about a mile farther off, is 4380 feet above the sea level. Hoonis-
giri 4990, the Knuckles 6180, Diatalawa 5030, Aloogalla 3440, and
Ettapola and Pannegaum about 4000 feet, all remarkable features in
the views seen from Lady Horton' s walk, which winds round the
wooded hills immediately behind the pavilion. The rapid Mahavelle-
ganga is seen winding below ; beyond are the green hills and forest-
clad mountains, while clumps of palmyra and cocoa-nut trees, with
every variety of foliage continue to exhibit themselves, till Kandy

672 CEYLON. [part IV.
and its lakes appear in the hollow. The road has a branch to com
municate with one which winds round the upper lake of Kandy, an
additional distance of about two miles.
Paradiniya, three miles south-west of Kandy, on the Colombo
road, may justly boast of its botanic garden, (presided over by a
distinguished botanist, who is indefatigable in tracing out the riches
of the island) ; its race-course, and bridge of satin-wood of a single
arch, having a span of 205 feet over the Mahavelle-ganga. The
colony is indebted for the former to Governor Brownrigg in 1819,
and for the two latter to Sir E. Barnes. For police and assessment
purposes, the gravets of Kandy extend to Paradiniya bridge. Dodon-
welle is about eight miles from Kandy, through a delightful but
steep and rugged country. The temples there are of ancient con
struction, but very small and paltry, and are unworthy of notice,
except by way of contrast to the magnificent avenue of iron-wood
trees (Mesua ferrea, L.) and Na-gaha Singh. From the entrance, the
avenue is upwards of a quarter of a mile in length, and from fifty to
sixty feet in width, and at the extremity is a circular area containing
the temples, shaded by an umbrageous Bogaha in all its majesty and
luxuriance, which is venerated from its great size and age.
Northward from Kandy, 26 1 miles, lies Kurunaigalla, just beyond
the limits of the Central province. From Kandy (the tunnel is now
disused) to the Mahavelle-ganga 3 miles ; to Madawallatenne rest-
house 8| miles, from thence to Kospotte Oya 6£ miles, and from
thence to Kurunaigalla 8|- miles. The road which traverses the
charming Harisiapattoo for some distance, and then Toompane,
is excellent, and the country salubrious. The most magnificent
scenery here meets the eye in every direction, forests abounding
with game, plains covered with verdure or the golden tints of the
ripening paddy crops, and tbe Mahavelle-ganga is seen meandering
through the immense area, which it intersects in its course and fer
tilises as it flows. Madawallatenne in Toompane is an important
military post, commanding the entrance into the Central province
from the west. It is situate on a rising ground, at the foot of the
Girriagamme pass, and at the head of the Galgedera pass. These
two passes, which this post commands, are naturally strong, being
narrow, steep and rocky, though not long, and are flanked by wooded
hills, which on the right present the appearance of perpendicular
walls. In addition the Galgedera pass is rendered more difficult of
access by the Deek-oya, through whose rocky bed the traveller has
to wade. The route from hence to Trincomalee by the new road is
to the Dedroo-oya, 5 J miles, over which there is a curious native
bridge for pedestrians of rattan (Calamus rudentum, Maha-we-
wela Singh.), Ibbagamme-oya 3 miles ; Polegala 3 miles ;
Ambanpola 3 miles ; Himbalwana-oya 2\ miles ; Omaragalla Ella
3| miles ; Gallawalla 4| miles ; Tolumbagalla 2 miles ; Damboola-
oya 5 1 miles ; to the junction Kandy road 2 miles. Total to Dam
bool 33 miles. For route from hence to Trincomalee, see p. 549.

CHAP. I.J COUNTRY IN THE VICINITY OF KANDY. 673
The face of the country presents on every side a variety of the
wildest and most romantic scenery ; hill and dale, mountain and
valley, forest and plain, rivers, streamlets and tanks alternating in
endless succession. Elephants and game of every description abound
throughout. The citadel of Kandy, situate on One-tree hill, communicates by
signals with Atgalle, a strong military post, about eight miles from
Kandy on the Trincomalee road, beautifully situate on a command
ing eminence, and during the rebellion it was of great importance.
From Atgalle the mountains of Hellemoette are distinctly seen over
the Ballane mountain, and the prospect, like the generality of Kandian
views, from the bold and romantic highlands, over a beautiful and
fertile country is transcendantly grand. The culture of the potato,
cabbage, cauliflower, and turnip at Atgalle has proved successful ; and
excellent wheat has for many years been grown there.
No station in Ceylon is more fortunate than Kandy in the beauty
of the surrounding country. Of the many magnificent views in the
island that of the Doombera plains in the immediate vicinity, is one of
the most remarkable. From the heights to the eastward of the town,
the best view of this sublime landscape may be obtained. The plains
comprise a vast extent of beautifully undulating country, dotted here
and there with groups of large and majestic trees, the intervals be
tween which are open and entirely free from jungle. The whole
bears a striking resemblance to an English park on an immense scale,
which would be complete, but for the total absence of cultivation,
and of the dwellings of man. A death-like stillness seems to reign over
this apparently deserted valley, through the midst of whose mag
nificent scenery rolls the Mahavelle-ganga. Being much interrupted
with rocks and shoals, no boats appear on its majestic stream, and
the lonely river wanders sullenly through a region that appears to
sympathise with and share in its solitude. The dark and lofty cone
of Hoonisgiri, which attains an altitude of 6000 feet, raises itself up
in the distance, and supported by a rugged and elevated range of
mountains that fill up the background, lends an additional charm
and grandeur to this enchanting scene. Nearly in the centre of the
valley of Doombera may be descried a slight eminence, crowned by a
solitary and ancient tree, generally known as Davie's tree. It is thus
denominated on account of its vicinity to the site of the massacre of
Major Davie's detachment in the Kandian war of 1803.
On each of the passes by which Kandy is approached, scenery but
little inferior to that of the plains of Doombera meets the eye. The
Kurunaigalla tunnel which ran through one of these passes, and was
540 feet in length, gave a finishing blow to the ideas the Kandians
entertained of ever regaining their lost nationality. An ancient
legend informed them that their country would never be subdued
until the invaders bored a hole through one of the mountains that
encircled the Kandian capital. This great object having been at
2 x

674 CEYLON. [part IV.
length accomplished, they believed that it was their destiny to
submit to foreign domination The road through the tunnel, which
has now collapsed, united itself at the foot of the Kandian hills with
the principal road to Colombo. By means of this circuitous route,
troops advancing on Kandy would turn the heights near Kaduganava,
on which the natives used to place great reliance as a strong natural
position for the defence of the capital.
The road between Kandy and Nuwera-Elliya is to the Paradiniya
bridge, neaT which the road branches off from that to Colombo, and
follows the course of the valley of the Mahavelle-ganga. The
country continues flat for some miles, and httle of interest occurs
until the large village of Gampolai is reached, where there is a
tolerable rest-house standing on a rising ground on the left bank of
the river, which is at that point confined and rapid, and commanding
a view of the distant blue mountains shortly to be ascended. The
river is crossed by means of a ferryboat, which acts as a substitute for a
bridge. The country on the opposite bank now begins gradually to
ascend, from the well watered and highly cultivated plain, and
assume a more wild and romantic aspect.
In the dry season, the coarse vegetation with which the mountain
of Ambulawe over Gampola is overgrown, presents a brilliant and
interesting sight, dotted lines of ruddy flame at times rage along its
whole extent, and consume it, casting back a lurid light on the
blackened and smouldering surface over which the fire has passed.
Lemon grass is the general covering of such parts of the hills in
this division of the country, as are not overgrown with jungle ;
although apparently with an even surface about seven or eight feet
in height, this grass grows in tufts, and it is this peculiarity that
gives to the conflagrations here that peculiar dotted appearance. The
burning proceeds rapidly against the wind, as it bends the long
grass over the plains, in which it is immediately withered and
scorched ; then bursts forth in a blaze succeeded by showers of
sparks and clouds of half illumined smoke. In this manner the
fire extends itself, a loud crackling noise being distinguished by any
one who is near, and a hollow roaring sound being heard by those at
a greater distance, until the progress of the conflagration is arrested
by the dark woods that occupy every deep ravine. The roots of the
grass are not destroyed by the raging flames that pass over the land,
1 Gampola is mentioned in Singhalese history as early as B.C. 502, when
Sudhodana, a brother or cousin of the queen who then reigned, and who had ac
companied her from Kimbulwatte-nuwara settled in this place. About 200 years
later, Uttiya, the brother of Kellania-tissa fled to Gampola, when his intercourse
with the queen was detected at Kellania. In a.d. 1347, it became the capital of
the island under Bhuwaneka-Bahoo IV. and continued so for forty years,
it was then dignified with the name of Gangasripoora, (the royal city on the
river.) A few carved stones are the only remains of a royal residence, whose very
foundations are now obliterated.

CHAP. I.J COUNTRY BETWEEN KANDY AND NUWERA-ELLIYA. 675
and after two or three days rain the blackened bushes and calcined
earth are hid by herbage of the most brilliant green, and in that
state, young and tender, even lemon grass affords good pasture to
buffaloes. Before reaching Pusilava, the next station, the steep pass of
Attabagge has to be surmounted. Near the head of this pass stands
the Pusilava rest-house, which is nearly 1200 feet above the level of
Kandy, and therefore 3000 above the level of the sea. At this
elevation the most delightful and salubrious temperature is ex
perienced, partaking neither of the intense murky heat of the
maritime districts, nor of the bitter keen mountain air of the lofty
plains of Nuwera-Elliya. Invalids who fear the sudden transition
from the damp sultry atmosphere of the valleys, to the chilly sensation
on the mountain's brow, frequently establish themselves here, where
may be enjoyed the bracing breezes without the frosts of the temperate
zones, to acclimatise themselves ere they advance to the summit of
their ambition. In this neighbourhood some valuable coffee plan
tations exist, and the temperature of the station is considered
especially adapted for the full development and perfection of the
coffee tree. The plantations near Pusilava flourish in great luxuri
ance, arising either from the favourable nature of the soil or climate.
Numerous plantations are scattered also over the country between
Pusilava and Nuwera-Elliya. The road frequently winds through
estates almost without an exception in a high state of cultivation.
After passing through Pusilava, the road immediately enters the
forest of that name, which extends for several miles, and contains
some majestic trees, the appearance of which is not injured by the
presence of any unsightly jungle. The forest of Pusilava from
consisting of detached trees of considerable size, affords a striking
contrast to the low jungle which skirts its edges, and scarcely any
part of the Kandian provinces combines so many charms as that in
the vicinity of this picturesque and extensive woodland. At Hel-
bodde the forest terminates, and the magnificent valley of Kotmale
spreads its gently undulating and varied surface before the fascinated-
traveller. The winding mountains here form a vast basin, in the
centre of which the various torrents that descend from them unite
into one deep and rapid stream, which after winding a long and
tortuous course, caused by the peculiar and almost chaotic formation
of the country that it traverses, ultimately discharges itself into the
Mahavelle-ganga. The Mahavelle-ganga,1 the largest river in the island, whose course
we have already traced from its mouth to the place where it receives
the waters of the Ooma-oya, drains about two-thirds of the Central
Province ; its principal branch has its source near Nuwera-Elliya, and
1 This river, whose name is erroneously supposed by a contributor to the
Asiatic Researches to be derived from Maha Bali, one of the heroes of Indian
romance, is from a Singhalese compound — maha, great, and welle or velle, sandy.
2x2

676 CEYLON. [PART IV.
flowing through the valley of Kotmal6, under the name of the Kot-
male-ganga, joins at Passbage a smaller branch rising near Adam's
Peak, which is dignified with the name of the main river. Dr. Davy
very intelligently suggested a quarter of a century ago, that it would
be practicable to connect the Mahavelle and Kalane, the two most
important rivers of the island at this point, viz. between Kittoolgalle
and Ambagamma, by a good road of about eight miles in length,
from the spot where either ceased to be navigable. " The interven
ing mountain," says he, "is indeed high, perhaps three or four
thousand feet, which must be crossed, but is not the object
worthy the labour that might be required to overcome this difficulty 1"
Could this enlightened writer have viewed the subject through the
vista of futurity, and have foreseen the celerity, perfection and cheap
ness with which tunnelling is now conducted, I may venture to
surmise that he would have recommended instead the clearance of
the bed of the two rivers, so as to diminish the distance from which
either is unnavigable, and would have finally joined them by a canal
bored through the intervening four miles of mountain. At this
lapse of time, when an excellent highway already connects Colombo
with Kandy and Trincomalee, and when a railway is on the eve of
construction, the policy of undertaking such a work might be
questionable, though it might possibly still yield an adequate return
for the carriage of heavy goods. Had Ceylon been in the possession
of the younger branch of our race for the same number of years that
we have held it, I do not hesitate to maintain that this work would
long ago have been completed. The Mahavelle-ganga is already
navigable for boats between Kandy and Gampola, and at no great
expense a channel could be cleared beyond Ambagamma.
Between Kandy and Bintenne, a distance of thirty miles, in which
it receives a great accession of waters, there is a descent of upwards
of 1000 perpendicular feet, but it has not yet been shewn that this
difficulty could not be remedied by locks. At Bintenne, at the foot
of the mountains, it reaches its greatest magnitude, there, when of a
medium height, and the water at the foot is about five feet deep, the
river from bank to bank is 540 feet wide. In its sluggish course
from Bintenne to the sea through a comparatively level country, and
for the greater part of the year excessively dry, it doubtless loses
by evaporation, and other exhausting causes a considerable portion
of its water.
The road to Nuwera-Elliya winds round the precipitous slopes of
the mountains, and at its salient angles are many points from which
the gaze may be extended into the inmost recesses of what may be
aptly termed "the Devil's Punch Bowl"." Between Pusilava and
Rambodde a glimpse of the towering cone of Adam's Peak may be
occasionally obtained. Its distance from those villages is upwards
of forty miles, and its elevation above them nearly 4000 feet.
The vicinity of Rambodde is announced by the stunning roar of
the falls of the Poona-ella and Girinde-ella in its neighbourhood, which

CHAP. I.J THE MAHAVELLi AND KOTMAL^-GANGAS — RAMBODDE. 677
greatly contribute to complete the effect of the surrounding scenery.
The forest above it rises to a gigantic height, and appears nearly
black from its vast bowers of dark foliage. This village is situate at
the base of the apparently inaccessible heights that girdle the plains
of Nuwera-Elliya. From the rest-house the valley of Kotmale is seen
to great advantage, and while the ceaseless, yet soothing, sound of
the cascades which pour down on every side affords to the ear that
indescribable pleasure which the noise of falling water rarely fails to
produce, the eye is gratified by the surpassing grandeur of their
appearance. These falls vary considerably in their volume of water
at different periods of the year. Influenced by the same causes as
those which so greatly affect the magnitude of the rivers in Ceylon,
the streams which supply the Rambodde cascades dwindle to com
parative insignificance during the fervour of the summer heats, but
this temporary diminution is more than compensated by the magnifi
cent appearance they assume on the commencement of the rainy
season ; when the aspect of their roaring and whirling eddies partakes
of the highest attributes of the sublime. The vale of Kotmale is, in
the opinion of many, the most enchanting spot in Ceylon. Its
sequestered situation and sublime scenery recommend it to the notice
of the melancholy, equally with the recent votary of Hymen; whose
followers may often be descried by the margin of the foaming torrents
into which the waters, after descending the falls, immediately resolve
themselves. It is in the pass of Rambodde, which emerges on the plains of
Nuwera-Elliya, that the greatest physical obstacles on the line of
road between that alpine station and Kandy were surmounted. The
elevation above the plains above Rambodde, from whence the ascent
commences, is between three and four thousand feet. Measured in
an horizontal plane, the distance between that village and Nuwera-
Elliya does not exceed eight miles. The result is that the greatest
portion of the road through the pass is on an inclined plane, which
ascends one foot in twelve or thirteen, an inclination nearly parallel
to that which occurs in the great mihtary road over the Simplon.
To keep this difficult road in repair, and clear it of the slips of soil
which not unfrequently come thundering down, a strong working
party of Kaffres, of about sixty or seventy men, are constantly em
ployed on different parts of the pass. The head of the pass is nearly
three miles distant from Nuwera Elliya, and from thence is obtained
the first view of the plains.1 From this point the road sensibly
1 Though called a plain, Nuwera Elliya is not really such, a ridge of hills run
ning from south-west to north-east, divides it into unequal portions, the larger
one being about two and a-half miles long by three-quarters broad ; the other
portion, in which the military buildings, consisting of the commandant's and two
subaltern's quarters, a barrack for 100 men, a hospital, jail, and cutcherry are
situate, is an extensive ravine. There is a third division, of intermediate size,
which is a bleak barren waste, the soil of which is a black peat, with a substratum
of gravel, marl, and kabook, that is prolific under cultivation. The whole is well
supplied with water.

678 CEYLON. [PART IV,
descends, and at length debouches suddenly on the wide and open
valley in which the village of Nuwera-Elliya stands.
This place was little known until 1829, when some Europeans
having accidentally wandered thither in the chase, reported its merits
to Sir Edward Barnes, who fixed upon it as a military convalescent
station, and ordered the erection of the necessary buildings. The only
evidence of former occupancy was a ruined temple, and the natives
only resorted thither in pursuit of the elk. There is nothing particularly
fine in this part of the plains, but the scene strikes forcibly on the mnid
of the person first beholding it, from the contrast it offers to the gene
rality of oriental landscapes, and leaves an impression not easily effaced
from the memory. The thatched cottages, the chimneys with then-
columns of smoke wreathing upwards, and the keen blast encountered
when the cover of the woods is past, and you emerge on the open
plain among moorlands, are so entirely dissimilar from any view or
sensation within the tropics, that the novelty is at first delightful and
exhilarating. This effect is much increased by the appearance of
the flowers and plants proper to the colder climes. On every side
may be seen splendid wild rhododendrons, which in this alpine
region seem to rival the best specimens of those nurtured in the
valleys of other lands. The violet, the geranium and the rose, all
flourish in perfection in and around the plains. Nor are the less
strong but more valuable plants of the vegetable kingdom in any
degree unappreciated or neglected by the dwellers in these elevated
plains, where the fruits and productions of Europe appear com
mingled with those of Asia. In addition to potatoes, cabbages, &c.
strawberries and gooseberries are found in great abundance in the
garden of the European residents, but neither peach nor cherry-trees
will bear fruit. The natives inhabiting the bazaar cultivate potatoes,
which they send to Kandy and Colombo.
The plains of Nuwera-Elliya contain about seven square miles. A
road circumscribes their entire extent, and forms the fashionable
drive, which it is long likely to remain. The centre of the valley
is occupied by rich grass land, through which a little river, one
of the sources of the Mahavelle-ganga, slowly meanders. The
scattered houses of the European residents, having a sombre and
melancholy appearance in their solitude, lie around. Nuwera-
Elliya is a new creation, and still in its transition state from
the state of wilderness to the less sublime, but more pleasing
charms belonging to cultivation. Many have left it with the
most grateful reminiscence of an invigorated1 constitution, but it
l Though Nuwera-Elliya is invaluable within the tropics, there is a sense of dry
ness and constriction of the skin, says Dr. Beatson, the inevitable consequence
of diminished atmospheric pressure, which distinguishes climate cold from elevation
from that where temperature is the effect of latitude, rendering the former inferior
in therapeutic efficacy ; to the healthy constitution, however, it is stimulant and
exciting, improving the appetite and mental organs, and producing an increase of
bodily and mental energy. The diseases most likely to receive relief here are
functional derangements of the gastric, hepatic, enteritic, and nervous systems,

CHAP. I.J NUWERA-ELLIYA AND ITS CHARMS, PEDROTALLA GALLA. 679
must be confessed that the merit of these plains rests rather on the
climate of the favoured region wherein they are located than on their
claims to beauty. An European climate within the tropics is not
however to be lightly thought of, even though it be obtained in the
presence of a tame landscape and a thick mist, which, owing to the
elevation and the attraction of the encircling mountains, constantly
overhangs the plains. Nuwera-Elliya is to Ceylon what the Neil-
gherries and the more southern of the snow-capped Himalayas are to
the presidencies of Madras and Calcutta ; but it possesses a great
advantage over them from its proximity to the principal stations in
the island, not being more than one hundred miles distant from
Colombo. The accommodations of the rest-house at Nuwera-Elliya
being intended for less ephemeral travellers than the generality of
hostelries is therefore much superior. There are about a dozen rooms
divided into three suites of apartments for the reception of different
parties. The windows look out on the plains, and command a bird's-
eye view of the principal houses, which are occupied by the Com
mandant of the station, the Assistant-government agent, and the few
military stationed at the place. Behind the house are the sources of
the rivulet that wanders through the plains. In pursuing its impe
tuous course down the sides of the neighbouring mountains, the
constant attrition of the stream has worn several natural baths in its
rocky bed, the intense frigidity of which operates like a charm ou
the relaxed nervous system of the inhabitants of the lowlands. It
was at one period intended to dam up this little river, and by thus
inundating the plain through which it flows, to form a small lake. A
narrow gorge, through which the stream makes its egress from the
plains, offers every facility for the proposed improvement. In that
event the place will attract nearly as much attention on the score of
beauty, as it now most deservedly does on account of its salubrity.
Till that improvement is effected, it will be difficult to discover pic
turesque scenery in a broad flat valley, skirted by a few desolate
white-washed cottages which are here in the worst possible taste.
From the summits of nearly all the craggy heights that encircle the
Nuwera-Elliya plains, extensive and magnificent views may be ob
tained. These heights when viewed from the valley they surround,
do not redeem the otherwise tame features of the landscape, their
outline being in general monotonous, rather resembling vast protu
berances than majestic mountains.
Pedrotallagalla, (Pedura-talla-galla,)i which attains an altitude of
unaccompanied by organic lesion, fevers uncomplicated with local affections,
debility arising from tedious convalescence or long residence within the tropics —
almost all the diseases of children; but the chief advantage of a temporary
residence is the prevention rather than the cure of disease. At times the sun, on
a cloudless day, is very powerful here, but Europeans expose themselves to it
without danger.
1 The real etymology is, Pedura talla-galla, a mat wove rock, in reference to a
rush used in mat-making, which is found in abundance on the mountain.

680 CEYLON. [PART IV.
8280 feet above the sea, and rise immediately above the Nuwera-
Elliya rest-house, is especially characterised by the absence of those
undulations and lower features, which so greatly add to the effect of
mountain scenery. Its reputation, therefore, rests on its loftiness
rather than its external grandeur, it being the highest elevation in
the island, and Adam's Peak, long considered so, only ranking
fourth in the scale of altitude. Pedrotallagalla is so frequently
enveloped in thick mist, that visitors to it are generally disappointed
in the object of their ambition. But as the view which it commands
in clear weather is unsurpassed for magnificence, few leave this
district without trying their fortune. The ascent is in many places
remarkably steep and tiresome, from the mountain path being fre
quently choked up with the surrounding luxuriant jungle, that unless
kept in check by the pruning-hook, would speedily be lost. Several
peeps through the intervals of the jungle at the grand scenery of the
surrounding country may be enjoyed before you reach the highest
point of the mountain, but when that is attained, the magnificent
prospect which is beheld in every direction, far surpasses all descrip
tion. Immediately at the base of the chain of heights, which is
crowned by Pedrotallagalla, the plains of Nuwera-Elliya stretch away,
as it were, beneath the feet of the spectator. The fine districts of
Upper and Lower Ouva, which are considered the richest parts of
the island, are seen more in the distance, and behind, in the back
ground, towers Adam's Peak, which is visible in all its glory. In
whatever direction the eye wanders, it may feast on the gorgeous
handiworks of nature unassisted by art, on every side meeting it.
Traces of the presence of mankind are no where distinguishable in
the landscape that rewards the exertions of those scaling the steep
and rugged sides of Pedrotallagalla. Mountains upon mountains,
horrid crags and impervious forests appear to defy the power and
progress of man in every direction, and serve to impart a stern and
magnificent, yet somewhat savage and awe-striking aspect to the face
of the country. The descent of the mountain is almost if not quite
as fatiguing as the ascent ; so that the traveller will experience the
most gnawing sensations of hunger, unless provided with food ere he
reaches Nuwera-Elliya.
The elevated portion of the island, famous in the Ramayana and
the most ancient Hindoo legends, as the Asoka Aramaya, is perhaps
seen to the greatest advantage on the Koondasala road, from Kandy,
where the varied scenery affords many beautiful views of the course
of the Mahavelle-ganga, and over the green hills to the mountain
ranges of Doombera and Matale ; these sweeping round, confine the
view down the river, and form a lofty barrier to the heated plains of
Bintenne. Four miles from Kandy, on the opposite side of the river,
are the remains of the palace of Koondasala, the residence of Sree
Weera Praackrama Narendra Singha, the last king of the Singhalese
royal race. Dying without issue in 1739, the family became extinct,

CHAP. I.J KOONDASAALA — THE ASOKA-ARAMAYA. 681
and a brother-in-law of the deceased monarch, a prince of Madura,
was chosen as his successor, and ascended the throne by the name of
Sree Wijeya Raja Singha.
Beyond Koondasala, the path continues near the bank of the
Mahavelle-ganga, whose waters may be heard dashing among the
rocks and echoed by the woods through which the road passes for
several miles before reaching the Maha-oya, a stream, which having
its source in the mountains bounding the valley of Hangurankette
to the southward, runs through its whole extent. After passing
this stream there is an ascent of three miles to the rest-house of
Gonagamma, fifteen miles from Kandy, and in the Hewahette ratte,
a rich and beautiful country diversified with high mountains and
valleys, well cultivated with paddy, and containing a large population.
From hence, Hangurankette may be reached over a ridge of the
Dhiatalawa mountain, 5030 feet above the sea level, from whence
there is an extensive view over the Walapane and Doombera districts,
only separated by the Mahavelle-ganga, which is seen for a consider
able distance, foaming and rushing through forests in a succession of
rapids down to the plains of Bintenne. Hangurankette possesses two
temples, one dedicated to Vishnu, the other to the goddess Patine ;
they are of mean appearance and in bad repair, but serve to remind
the traveller that this place was a regal residence in the eighteenth
century. The palace was accidentally destroyed in the rebellion of
1818, and its foundations cannot now even be traced. The following
inscription, however, shews that its royal architect had no deficiency
of lofty epithets.
" Be it known that this is the patent, whereby the victorious king,
who kept his court in the city of Hangurankette, of illustrious and
royal lineage, and effulgent with prosperity, did, while abiding at this
place, dedicate lands in the Wanny district unto the sacred bo-tree
on this day, Thursday, the 10th day of the increasing moon, in the
month Wesack, of the 1646th year of the glorious era of Saka."
From Hangurankette, the rugged tract winds over stones, along
watercourses, and through swamps, then crosses the Bilhool-oya, a
mountain torrent, after which for two miles there is a steep ascent to
Maturatta, a military post, the commandant of which had civil juris
diction over the surrounding districts. Untenable as a military
position against an intelligent enemy, this station appears to be only
commendable for its cool climate. Leaving Maturatta, the traveller
ascends the Halgaran-oya plains, about 4000 feet above the level of
the sea. For the beauty of the scenery they are surpassed by few
spots in Ceylon, but the whole region is uninhabited.
Turning to the left through the Bingulan Talawa, which signifies
an elevated and open space, the descent to the valley and village of
Alut-nuwara is by a precipitous path. Alut-nuwara derives its name
of nuwara (city, i. e. royal residence) from having been the place of
refuge of a fugitive king : when pressed by powerful enemies, Singha-

682 CEYLON. [part IV.
lese monarchs were accustomed to seek shelter on the mountains or
in the secluded valleys of this district, and the places where they
resided, have, in many instances, the addition of nuwara to their
names, although the royal residence may have been little beyond a
leaf hut. Kolagalla-nuwara, on the banks of the Bilhool-oya below
Maturatta, is one of these stations, and on the other side in a deep
valley beneath the lofty Pedratella mountain, a small hamlet bears the
poetic yet correctly descriptive name of Mandara-nuwara, "the city
of shadow." Near Alut-nuwara the Halgaran or Kooroonda-oya
descends in cascades, and with several smaller mountain streams,
supplies water to the numerous rice fields into which the valleys,
small hills, and declivities of the mountains have been formed. The
gorge of the Halgaran-oya valley facing the Doombera mountains,
opens from Alut-nuwara between the Yakkagalla (Devil's rock) and
a wooded precipice, on the verge and summit of which stands the
Buddhist temple of Waaterangodda ; beneath the entire slope is
niched into rice fields laid out in terraces, many of them not more
than three feet in breadth, and looking like the seats of this moun
tain amphitheatre. From Alut-nuwara, the way lies over a moun
tain ridge covered with grass. The site of the ancient station of
Madoolla is ascertainable by the straight fields still retaining the
name of streets, as Tom-tom beater's Street, Potter's Street, &c.
From this place which is within the dissavony of Walapane, so
called according to Knox, from the broken character of the country,
Gampaha is arrived at by passing over a ridge of hills. The Ooma-
oya which separates Walapane from Wiyaloowa, is a beautiful
stream, which like most of the rivers in Ceylon rises rapidly during
the rains. The Badulla-oya intersects Wiyaloowa, and the Medda-
oya separates it from Welasse.
Beyond Bobola is the primeval forest. Its deep and awful gloom
is enough to make the stranger shudder. The huge stems of its
trees stand close beside each other; creepers of almost tree-like
growth often bind together three or four of the sturdiest among them,
already partly dead. Often no more thau one stem of ordinary
thickness, and winding round in a spiral form, is to be seen like a
gigantic cork-screw tree. This is the stem of the creeper, the
trunk around which it has twined, oppressed by its weight has
rotted and worn away, and it has been left alone and unsupported. In
some places foaming mountain torrents, which have washed away the
soil from the roots of the trees to the depth of four or five feet,
present great impediments to proceeding. The next place is
Galbocka. To return to Maturatta ; about three miles from that place, on the
south, a steep descent begins and lasts without interruption to the bot
tom of the valley, probably httle less than 4000 feet below the loftiest
summit of its including mountains. This elevated mountain tract
bears some resemblance to Upper Ouva. Like it it is generally en-

CHAP.I.J COUNTRY NEAR MATURATTA— CENTRAL PROVINCE. 683
closed by higher mountains, and like it its surface is composed of hills
of a conical and undulating form. Its scenery is of such a nature that
any description of it would be feeble and inadequate to convey a
correct idea of it. The most beautiful part of the way, and the
most interesting is between two mountains, about a mile and a half
on each side of the Halgaran-oya. Here the country is compara
tively open. It is bounded on one side by a mountain ridge covered
with forest, and on the other by the blue summits of a few distant
mountains. The hills between Fort M'Donald and Maturatta are of
the liveliest verdure, ornamented with a profusion of rare flowers
and flowering shrubs, and the hollows between the hills are luxu
riantly wooded, presenting surfaces of the richest foliage of an aston
ishing variety of colour and tint, from admixture probably of different
kinds of trees in different stages of vegetation. An interest is given
to this wild and beautiful scenery by traces of ancient works on a
hill to the right, not far from a remarkably bold facade of rock pro
jecting from the side of the mountain like a promontory, and by a
new building to the left situated on a green declivity skirted by
forest. The ancient works consist of trenches and of low stone walls,
both as if intended not for fortifications, but as simple inclosures.
They are attributed to a native prince who, according to tradition,
being banished, stopped passing travellers and compelled them to
labour for him. The forests between Fort M'Donald and Maturatta
have a very peculiar character, especially one nearest the latter place,
whose gloom exceeds imagination. The trees small but lofty are
crowded together in the most confused manner — the young and old,
the living and dead intermixed. But the melancholy appearance
does not so much arise from this as from the density of the shade
and the extraordinary manner by which it is in great measure pro
duced by an exuberance of mosses, with which the trunks and
branches and even delicate twigs of the trees in general are covered.
The moss hanging in filaments actually conceals the leaves, and is
often mistaken for natural foliage. Farther, the dismalness of the
scene is increased by the closeness and chilling dampness of the air,
and by the profound, silence that prevails. The country beyond this
forest descending to Maturatta is partly wooded, and partly open,
only covered with long lemon-grass and low shrubs. The prospects
which open at times in the descent, are very striking, and may
without exaggeration be called sublime, especially the view of the
deep valley, exhibiting at the same time an extraordinary assemblage
of clouds and torrents, rocky heights and wooded mountains, green
fields and diminutive cottages.
The superficies of the Central Province is 3016 square miles, and
the population, which was 206,497 in 1843, may be estimated at
the current rate of increase at 227,350 in 1848.

684

CEYLON. [PART IV.

CHAPTER II.
Climate — How classified in Ceylon — Climate of Colombo throughout the year-
Humidity and variableness of the atmosphere at Kandy — Climate of the
Mahagamapattoo, of the northern and interior districts of the Eastern Pro
vince, of the Northern Province, exclusive of Jaffna, and the northern por
tion of the Western Province — Climate of the mountain zone — Improvement
of the climate of Ceylon in general — Misrepresentations — Description of a
storm, and its awful effects — Diseases — Affections of the skin — Intermittent
and remittent fevers, diarrhoea, dysentery, Beriberia, Elephantiasis, Goitre,
the small pox, hydrophobia, diseases of the eye, spasmodic cholera.
Ceylon possesses, perhaps, a greater variety of climate1 than any
other country on the face of the globe ; for the sake of classification,
it may be well to generalize it under the three heads of hot, inter
mediate and temperate, the reader bearing in mind that a consider
able difference is to be found in the several divisions of each, in pro
portion to their aspect and other natural causes. The first prevails
in the maritime provinces ; the second in the hilly region intervening
between the maritime provinces and the mountainous belt ; and the
third in and about the centre of the southern half of the island, com
prising the mountain zone, most of which is included within the
Central, and the remainder within the Southern province. In reference
1 At Trincomalee the greatest daily variation is 17°, and the annual range
from 74J° to 91j°. The mean annual temperature of the greater part of the
maritime provinces is between 79° and 81° ; the extreme range of the thermometer
between 68° and 90°, and the medium range between 75° and 85°. The mean
daily variation of the temperature at Kandy is 6°, and the annual range of the
thermometer from 56° to 86° ; the climate is therefore, in most respects European.
In the hilly districts between the Western and Central provinces, seed time and
harvest never cease, and while the heat is scarcely oppressive, cold and winter are
alike unknown. At Nuwera-Elliya the mean daily variation of the temperature
is stated to be as great as 10° and from that to 11° Fahrenheit, being more than
three times the mean daily variation on the coast, and the diurnal range of the ther
mometer from 36° to 81°. Yet it is free from that piercing wind so frequently
complained of in England, and so productive of pulmonary complaints. Both on
the Ballane and Idalgashina mountains, which may be said to represent the
extremes of the mountain zone, warm clothing is necessary, the thermometer
seldom ranging above 77°, and in the colder months of January, February, and
March, it varies from 63° to 70°. At night a good fire is indispensable, for the
thermometer is occasionally below 50°, and the mean temperature 72° in the
day and 63° in the night. In these very districts ice is not uncommon, and yet
sugar, cotton, coffee, and all other tropical products are cultivated in the vicmity
under different circumstances of climate. During the north-east monsoon in the
mornings the level grounds and Kandian valleys are commonly overspread by a
dense white fog above which the mountains rise in clear relief and peculiar beauty.

CHAP. II.'J CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE — AT COLOMBO. 685
to the supply of rain, the Northern and Eastern Provinces may be
said to be occasionally subject to long continued droughts, and the
Central, the Southern portion of the Western, and the Southern pro
vinces, are moist and comparatively cool.
The following notes of the weather at Colombo through the year,
have been taken by an intelligent and experienced observer. January
— This month may be conveniently taken as the commencement of
the meteorological as well as of the civil year. The rains which
accompany the setting in of the north-east monsoon, are usually just
over, tbe soil is moist, the sky is clear, and the nights cold, with an
along-shore or land wind blowing, which must be guarded against.
February — The along-shore wind, (a strong parching wind from the
north-east) often continues to blow the greater part of this month,
night and day. It carries off the moisture of the ground and the
skin rapidly, and gives rheumatism, &c. to those who expose them
selves incautiously to it. The difference between the wet bulb and
the dry thermometer sometimes amounts to 1 2°. March — The dry
earth now receives far more heat from the sun than it parts with by
evaporation or terrestrial radiation. The weather is becoming very
warm. The calmness of the ocean, however, and the alternate sea
breezes by day and land winds by night, give a pleasing variety.
But the heat is oppressive compared with that of the rest of the year.
April — Indications of the approach of the south-west monsoon are to
be observed in a ground swell in the sea, and south-west breeze, more
steady than the sea breeze of last month ; the temperature, however,
continues to rise, and all who can afford it, obtain leave or escape, and
are among the mountains. May — By the middle of this month
general showers usually begin to fall. The wind is steadily in the
south-west, and toward the close of the month there are usually thun
der and lightning every afternoon in the south-west, with heavy
showers, each preceded by a squall. June — It now rains heavily,
with squalls from the south-west. The sky is often clouded for a
fortnight, but it seldom rains twenty-four hours without intermission.
July — The rains are now over, and a steady south-west wind blows
day and night, perfectly balmy and innocent, the difference between
the wet and dry thermometer seldom exceeding six degrees. August
— Weather the same as July, but somewhat warmer, in consequence
of the smaller amount of evaporation. September — Weather the
same as in July and August, but still warmer, in consequence of the
still smaller amount of evaporation. These months are usually cool,
however, compared with March, April, and May ; and towards the
end of this month, heavy showers usually fall, which are very accept
able. October — The first half of this month is usually marked by
rains, which are very heavy, though of short duration. By these
the air is cooled and the soil refreshed, though extensive inundations
often result. November — The pleasant weather of the latter part of
October is usually continued to the middle of this month, when

686 CEYLON. [part IV.
thunder clouds gather every afternoon in the north-east, and night
rains fall, followed by land winds. It is the north-east monsoon.
December — The rains from the north-east of the preceding month
often continue during this, usually with much thunder and lightning,
and with alternate sea breezes and land winds, so that the new year
usually sets in with the soil saturated with moisture, and colder than
at any other time, from the enjoyment of which, however, the along
shore winds which now set in and blowing fresh, detract not a httle.
The climate of Kandy is generally much cooler than that of Co
lombo, but much more variable and trying to some constitutions.
The range of the thermometer being from 54° to 87°, the mean about
740. The quantity of rain that faUs in the course of a year at both
places does not differ so much as we might expect, being 84 inches
at Colombo and 90 at Kandy. But the mountain capital sees the
hills around it almost daily enveloped in misty drizzly clouds, which
ever and anon descend in showers. In Colombo the rains are occa
sionally tremendous, but there are long intervals of dry weather on
which Kandy can rarely count. The result is that Kandy is at pre
sent not so healthy a residence for Europeans as Colombo, and in
valids from the latter place find it beneficial to move further up
among the hills. Dysentery and fever are the prevalent diseases, and
for the cure of these a journey to the coast is the most efficacious.
The Tamul coolies suffer much from the humid climate of the inte
rior, and many of them die from the before-named diseases, which
are aggravated by their filthy habits, penurious mode of living, and
want of warm clothing. The positively unhealthy districts of Ceylon
are the Mahagamapatoo, in the Southern Province, where the pre
valence of jungle and its accompanying miasm, together with a sparse
population, and a backward state of agriculture, combine to produce
the never-failing result. Hence the mortality was formerly so great
here, that the Governor on one occasion withdrew the officers of the
detachment stationed at Hambantotte for six months until the
jungle fever had subsided. The climate of the adjoining districts of
Matura and Galle, though so damp, that unless books and clothes
are frequently exposed to the sun, they become covered with mildew
and decay, is sufficiently salubrious. The northern and interior dis
tricts of the Eastern Province are no less unhealthy than the Maha
gamapattoo, and from much the same causes ; the greater part of the
Northern Province, exclusive of the Jaffna peninsula and the northern
portion of the Western Province, may with some modifications be
classed under the same category. Of the climate of the mountain
zone to which we would fain draw the attention of the small capi
talist, who is desirous of adding health to the other advantages result
ing from leaving an over-peopled country, it is impossible to speak
in too high terms of praise.
The increase of cultivation has already produced a wonderful change
in every district, improving their salubrity by rendering the climate

CHAP. II.J CLIMATE OF KANDY, AND OTHER DISTRICTS. 687
more equable, and removing the standing water, that great source of
disease in tropical countries. With the clearance of the dense
jungles and impervious forests, where the decomposition of vegetable
matter had continued through countless ages and. the evaporation of
mephitic gases had been obstructed, malaria has disappeared, and in
places where only a partial clearance has taken place, a correspond
ing degree of salubrity has followed, and disease has ceased to
be permanent in its former habitat. When three-fourths, in
stead of one-fourth of the island, shall have been added to the
domains of agriculture, Ceylon will rank in point of salubrity scarcely
below Great Britain herself. I have endeavoured to view this ques
tion dispassionately. Attempts have been made by some to decry
the climate of Ceylon, and without any qualification, to class it in
the fist of human charnel houses. Others on the contrary have
pronounced it a sanatorial Elysium. It is needless to add, that both
are in great measure incorrect. We have already pointed out the
deductions necessary to be made before the general nature of the
climate can be accurately determined, and it only remains for us to
state, that, taking into consideration its geographical position, it has
no parallel in the East for general salubrity, Thus the maritime
provinces, where the heat would be otherwise insupportable, are
favoured with an almost continual sea breeze, rendering them much
more temperate than the climate of the peninsula. Yet the natives,
and even the Dutch, appear to have had an insuperable objection to
this antidote against the torrid heat, and allowed underwood to
grow around their houses to exclude its cooling and wholesome in
fluence. The great elevation of the mountains not only insures a cer
tain degree of cold to the interior, but attracts so many clouds and
so much moisture, as to perpetuate the evergreen of its forests and
permit the unceasing cultivation of the fields over one-half of the
country. The side of the great Kandian range of hills nearest to
the eastern coast, partakes, in part, of the deficiency of moisture
which distinguishes the maritime provinces nearest the range, and it
is remarkable that on one side of these hills the climate is moist and
cool, its vegetation rich, and continually refreshed by showers, while
on the other side, except during the rainy season, there prevail
oppressive heats and parching winds. The coolest season, at least in
one-half of the island, is during the prevalence of the south-west
monsoon, which sets in in May, and continues till the end of October,
when the sun is to the northward of the equator. The change of
the monsoon is generally preceded by copious and refreshing rains,
which continue at intervals more or less for three months. The
north-east monsoon is of shorter duration, beginning in Novem
ber and continuing till March, when the sun has passed to the
southward of the equator. The northern parts of the island are
then deluged with the heavy rains, and either monsoon is attended
with the most tremendous thunder and vivid lightning conceivable.

688 CEYLON. [part IV.
The results of these awful outbursts of elemental strife are in
great measure unattended with the casualties occurring in northern
countries, as if nature, conscious of her immense power, magnani
mously withheld the shock from engines of destruction that would
infallibly convulse the locality on which it might fall.
Previous to the fall of these deluges the sky in the quarter from
whence they approach, becomes gradually darkened upward from
the horizon, and appears of an inky hue so dense, that the distant
hills look less solid than the advancing curtain of clouds. The plains
seem lost in dull shadows,* and the mountains are lighted with a
lurid gleam of dusky red that escapes from the open part of the
heavens. Every second this clear space with its pale, cold blue
sky is visible, contracted by dark swollen masses of vapour, which
are gradually subduing the sickly lights that linger on the highest
pinnacles. At first during these symptoms there is an oppressive
calm under which in great measure every thing in nature seems
to droop. The leaves hang listless on the boughs, the beasts
retire to the forest glades, the birds seek shelter in the coverts ;
numerous flocks of white cranes following each other in lines,
or forming themselves in angles, alone attract the eye as they seek
new ground, and prepare for the approaching storm. Before a
breath of air is felt, tiny whirlwinds are seen beneath the bushes
twirling round a few light withered leaves, or trundling them along
the footpath. These fairy hurricanes, are succeeded by a rushing sound
among the trees overhead, accompanied by the rustling and falling
of decayed leaves, then a gentle and refreshing air suddenly gives
place to cold breezes, gusts, squalls, until heavy drops of rain crowd
into descending sheets of water, transforming steep paths into cata
racts, and broad roads into beds of rivers. Before the murky cur
tain that is closing over the sky, flickers a cold misty veil, and a
dull vapour rolls in advance along the ground; these appearances
arise from the rain drops splashing on the dusty ground, or jostling
and splintering as they descend from the teeming darkness. The
stream that before the storm did not exceed three inches in depth,-
has now to be swum over, so immense and sudden is the rainy
avalanche, and the smallest rivers become for a time impassable.
Down these streams may at these times be seen the dead carcases of
buffaloes rolling and tumbling. Occasionally some one alive, and
lately swept off, may be seen hurried along, while still plunging and
struggling in hopeless strife with the raging waters. The soil of the
mountains, softened and saturated by the continued floods, and
having no longer tenacity to retain the great stones or loose masses
of rock that rest on their steep sides and arched summit, they are
loosened, and rush with resistless force, crashing through the forest,
or thundering over the bare rocks until they reach the level grounds,
and there find a resting place. Landslips, entombing houses and
burying their inhabitants, are occasionally happening, and roads,

CHAP. II.] STORMS AT CHANGE OF MONSOONS— BUDDHA-RAYS. 689
bridges and rice fields, deluged or destroyed. The destruction of
cattle and the loss of human life is frequently great from the same
causes. A peculiar and beautiful meteor is sometimes seen in Ceylon,
called Buddha-rays ; it is supposed by the natives only to appear
over a temple or tomb of Buddha's relics, and from thence to
emanate. It is seen by day only in clear weather, and generally
after a long continued drought. Buddhists believe that these rays
appear in the heavens as a sign to the faithful that the religion of
Gautama will endure for 5000 years from the time of his death.
These bright rays are often sharply defined on the blue sky, and will
rise from one and sometimes from two opposite sides of the horizon,
but this beautiful phenomenon has been known to arise from the
four points of the compass, until the gradually expanded rays crossed
in the ethereal dome.
Few intertropical islands suffer less from violent storms and hurri
canes than Ceylon ; when the latter occur they are generally attended
with thunder, lightning, and heavy rain and hail, and will in a mo
ment unroof a house, and tear up from the roots the largest trees.
Hail is a phenomenon of rare occurrence in the maritime provinces,
where indeed it is hardly seen once a century. On the higher moun
tains it is of constant occurrence.
The ailments that visit the European immediately on his arrival in
Ceylon are of a trifling nature, and arising as they do from a change of
air, are generally the companions of good health. The prickly heat
(Lichen tropicus) consists of a troublesome affection of the skin,
which .is allayed by taking mild aperient medicine, abstaining from
acidulated drinks and using a light diet. Fever is the most common
disease of any severity to which the newly arrived are subject, and
commonly arises from imprudent exposure to the sun or from intem
perance. There is another disease which acts on the texture of the
skin, and is indicated by redness, slight swelling and severe itching,
and in most cases by a serous discharge. It is sometimes accom
panied with minute irritable pimples, still more rarely with minute
pustules that give rise to small superficial ulcers that heal readily if
not neglected. The diseased action commonly begins between the
toes and in the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands. It is a
wandering malady, and leaves one part for another till it wears itself
out or heals spontaneously. Exercise has a beneficial effect upon
it, and it is thought would alone cure it, if extensively taken. The
itching, which is often intense, and always the most troublesome
symptom, is allayed by covering the parts affected with simple dress
ing after washing them in lukewarm water.
Intermittent and' remittent fever are common at certain seasons,
the former most frequently attacks the natives, the latter Europeans.
Though remittent fever rarely terminates in ague, in case of relapse
ague mostly succeeds it, so that it is not usual for the same indi-
2 Y

690 CEYLON. [PART IV.
vidual to experience two attacks of the disease, except after an inter
val of some years. Both species are modified and diversified by
circumstances ; the fever of almost every year and season and place
has something peculiar to mark it ; sometimes there is a tendency to
delirium, sometimes to intermission and relapse, and disease of the
spleen, at others to dysentery. The use of opium would appear to be
very beneficial in remittent fever. There is one remarkable fact con
nected with diseases in Ceylon, that its climate does not breed or
tolerate any infectious fever. Typhus and the plague are both
equally unknown to the eastward of the Indus.
Diarrhoea is frequent, and there is one species in which tbe dejec
tions are white, the body becomes debilitated, emaciated and
feverish. Dysentery is a terrible disease in Ceylon from the severity
of its symptoms, the rapidity with which it runs its course, the diffi
culty of checking it, and its frequently fatal termination ; at its very
commencement it is attended with ulceration ; the mode of treating
this disease is still far from settled, but opium acts in a favourable
manner. Intemperance either in eating or drinking, the immoderate
use of fruit and exposure of the abdomen to the night air would
seem to be the predisposing causes. Nervous affections are not
common among the natives in their lighter development, but insa
nity is not unfrequent. Beri-beria, a disease almost peculiar to Cey
lon, is perhaps to be traced to an extraordinary state of atmosphere.
It only occasionally occurs.
Elephantiasis (Elephant leprosy) is prevalent in some districts in
the south of the island where the temperature through the year is
uniformly high, and the air loaded with moisture, though the cause
of the disease is unknown. It is truly distressing ; the legs assume
the shape and size of those of a young elephant, and the skin, their
asperity and wrinkles ; these the sufferer drags slowly along with
difficulty. This malady is without cure, unless powerful remedies
are applied at its first appearance ; in which case instances have been
known, where the native doctors, who are extremely skilful in the
treatment of cutaneous diseases, have succeeded in eradicating it. The
native name for this complaint is Aha and Koraah, and arsenic if re
sorted to in the incipient stage mixed with ghee and applied exter
nally, is the alleged means of cure. The two kinds of this disease,
" the leprosy of the joints" and the tuberculated species, are some
times here combined. '
1 Dr. Davy describes the symptoms of a Singhalese in the last stage of the dis
ease by which he had been affected fourteen years. The face and ears puffy, de
formed with tubercles, and the latter as well as the lips were enlarged. The eye
brows were without hair, the skin of most parts of the body was thickened and
tuberculated, the feet swollen and ulcerated, the fingers and toes were disfigured
and several joints of the former had dropped off in the course of the disease. The
patient was debilitated, and his health was greatly deranged. Shortly after, he
died, when the surface of the body was fissured and excoriated in a hundred dif-

CHAP. IV.] DISEASES — FEVERS, DIARRH(EA, DYSENTERY, &C 691
Goitre is by no means uncommon in the Galle district. The same
disease, which in Switzerland is attributed to the use of snow water,
arises here from a different but as yet inexplicable cause. The
water of the fort of Galle, though exceedingly transparent, is objected
to by all Europeans, except for culinary service, and the wells outside
the town are resorted to for the purpose. Neither Europeans nor
the native males are affected with this disease, and it seems to be
confined to native females, to whom it gives a disgusting guttural
protuberance. The small-pox is perhaps the most awful disease by which the
island has been visited, and has doubtless been one great cause of its
depopulation. Forbes thinks it was this visitation which is recorded
by the native annalists as the red-eyed demon of pestilence thai
swept the country of half its people in the third century, and in the
reign of Sirisangabo. The natives term it Mahailada, or the great
sickness, and believe it to be a direct infliction of the gods, and so
terrified were they a few years ago at its appearance, that near rela
tions, who were not on ordinary occasions deficient in fraternal feel
ing, would leave1 their afflicted kinsmen to perish unheeded and unat
tended, and would not be induced by bribes or entreaties to interfere
with a corpse, as they believed marked by the wrath of their gods.
In the forests on the side of Ambokka Kandi are situated, says
Forbes, the remains of Rangalla Nuwara, and at its base a temple of
the same name is dedicated to the goddess Patine ; this goddess, and
this particular temple or the relics it contained, were supposed to be
of extraordinary efficacy in preventing or averting small-pox, so that
when that dreadful disease raged in Matale, the kappuralle (priest) of
Ambokka was in constant request, and reaped an abundant harvest
from the terror and superstition of his neighbours. Every village in
the vicinity of an infected place by means of presents nominally of
fered to the goddess, the most valuable of which were appropriated
by the kappuralle, procured his presence and the relics from the
temple, consisting of a shield and bangle (armlet), which were borne
through the village followed by all the inhabitants, and duly ho
noured by the noise of every [tom-tom, pipe, chanque shell or trumpet
which they could procure. The kappuralle had been at a former
period afflicted with the natural small-pox, and was shrewd enough to
ferent places, the left foot was in a state of gangrene. After death the whole sys
tem appeared to have been disorganised, and the ramifications of the disease ap
peared equally minute and extended.
1 The devastations committed by wild animals during the absence of the fugitive
members of a family are described as heart-rending in the extreme, a whole
property being rendered desolate. Inoculation, discountenanced under the
Dutch, was introduced soon after the arrival of the British, and the Jennerian
improvement followed in 1802. Hospitals were also erected for the special re
ception of persons affected with the malady, and medical officers were allotted to
various districts, through which they were expected to itinerate. The result has
been most encouraging, and the red-eyed demon no longer decimates the population.
2 Y 2

692 CEYLON. [part IV.
have his own family vaccinated, though his supposed temerity in
visiting infected villages, and his good fortune in escaping- contagion
were accounted for by himself, and believed by the people, to
arise from the protection of the goddess. His influence was hence
considerable, and his selfishness led him to use every secret means of
checking the progress of vaccination among the dupes by whom he
was enriching himself.
Active measures have been taken of late years and with some
success to supply vaccinators, and to induce the natives to profit
by their exertions, hence a scene, such as I am about to pourtray,
may in a few years not be expected to recur. " I found," says
Forbes, "lying in a field, with her head close to a well, the body of
a woman, who had but lately expired. Tormented by thirst, and
deserted by her friends, she had crept to the water, whilst in the
last agonies of this loathsome disease. By permission of her relatives,
I offered her property, including a portion of land, to whoever would
bury the body, but all my arguments and entreaties would not induce
any one, even the most wretched pauper, to acquire a competency by
burying it." The same writer mentions another case, where a man
of weak intellect and eccentric habits had two children lying dead,
whom he had carefully tended, and another whose case seemed
desperate. In a paroxysm of grief, the old man caught up the only
survivor, and carrying her several miles over a mountain before
morning, laid her down beside a temple in another district, where he
made his offerings, and bore back his charge. The affectionate
parent was rewarded by the speedy recovery of his daughter, who
had probably benefited by the cool mountain air.
Hydrophobia, to which remedies have been applied in Europe, the
natives acknowledge their inability to cure, though they can heal the
wound. Three months is the time after which they consider any
one safe who has been bitten by a mad dog, but in this they are mis
taken. Hydrophobia is a frequent disease during the hot season,
and jackalls are sometimes affected with it, when they will attack
man or any other animal.
In relieving complaints of the eye, the native medical practitioners
are very skilful, and use most powerful medicines, though from their
ignorance of other branches of surgery, they are known sometimes to
do injury. In Ceylon there is a disease common to cattle and horses,
from which human beings are free, it is a worm that finds its way
into the aqueous humour of the eye, which it first distends, then
dims its colour, and eventually deprives of its functions. The appli
cations used, are almost, if not wholly, preparations or portions of
vegetables, which though causing intense pain, generally prove
successful, and the insect being destroyed, the eye eventually recovers
its transparency. In their management of boils and tumours (com
mon visitations in Ceylon) they are particularly successful, and
among many different forms of treatment, occasionally make most
daring and extensive use of the actual cautery.

CHAP. III.] GOITRE, SMALL-POX, SPASMODIC CHOLERA. 693
Spasmodic cholera is an epidemic, that has at different periods,
made fearful havoc in the island. In 1832, 59 out of a body
of 252 of the 78th Highlanders were carried off in less than a month,
— the cheerful falling victims no less than the desponding, the tem
perate as well as the drunkard, though the latter was of course the
soonest victim, to the fatal malady. This disease was fed by, if indeed,
it did not originate in the position and construction of the Trinco
malee barracks, to which an ill- ventilated hospital was attached. In
the preceding year, a vast number of elephants and other wild
animals had been carried off by an epidemic, which did not affect the
people. The natives account for this by a belief, that sickness among
wild animals, and cattle generally, precedes by a year any pestilence
amongst the population of the country.

CHAPTER III.
Geology and Mineralogy of Ceylon— Soils — Rocks, Minerals, Gems, &c. —
Springs — Salts.
The soils of Ceylon have certain points of general resemblance, as
indeed the geological conformation of the island would indicate.
Without an exception perhaps they are all derived from the decom
position of gneiss, of granitic rock, or of clay-iron-stone, or, as it is
called, kabook ; the principal ingredients of which are quartz in the
form of sand or gravel, and decomposed felspar in the state of clay,
with more or less oxide of iron. According to Dr. Gardner, kabook
is decomposed gneiss. Quartz is, in most instances, the predominat
ing ingredient, and often constitutes more than nine-tenths of the
whole. Carbonate of lime is rarely to be detected in the soil, and
phosphate of lime never. Carbonate of lime, or of magnesia, is not
always found, even in soil lying incumbent in dolomite rock, as at
Nalande, or on limestone rock, as at Jaffnapatam.
The soils of Ceylon do not, as is the case in other tropical coun
tries, abound in vegetable matter, seldom containing more than be
tween one and three per cent., and the only exceptional case is that
of soil at an elevation of from four to five thousand feet above the
level of the sea, where the temperature is comparatively low, and the
ground very damp. Thus among the mountains of Upper Ouva,
the soil is black, and contains between seven and ten per cent, of
vegetable matter in a state analogous to that of peat. The small pro
portion of vegetable matter that usually occurs, may with reason be
referred to the high temperature of the climate producing rapid
decomposition, and to the heavy rains which carry off any accumu
lations. To the latter cause also may probably be assigned the great
scarcity of calcareous matter.

694 CEYLON. [part IV.
The best and most productive soils in Ceylon are a brown loam,
resulting from a decomposition of gneiss, or granitic rock, abounding
in felspar, or a reddish brown loam, resulting from the decomposi
tion of the clay-iron-stone. The power this soil possesses of retain
ing water to a great degree, is an excellent quality in such a climate,
and to it may be attributed its singular productiveness. The result
of a well dried specimen has shewn this soil to consist of 83'5 of
ferruginous clay, and 16' 5 of water. The worst soils are those
which abound most in quartz, derived from the disintegration of
quartz rock, or of granite or gneiss, containing a very large propor
tion of this mineral.
The common soil of the coral island Delft, off the north coast,
celebrated/or its excellent pasturage, is destitute of calcareous matter,
though it is incumbent on a bed of coral. The colour is a dirty
yellow sand, very fine, slightly cohering, and consisting in its dried
state of 95 per cent, of silicious sand, tinged with iron, and perhaps
a little ahimine, 2-5 vegetable matter, and 2"5 water. No less
remarkable are some of the soils of Jaffnapatam; thus the soil of a
tobacco field of a reddish brown colour, which had been manured
by sheep like a turnip field in England, but collected when perhaps
partially exhausted, the crop not having been long taken off the
ground, consisted of 95'5 silicious sand, coloured by iron, with a
few particles of calcareous matter, 2 vegetable matter, 2*5 water.
The soil of a rice field in the same district, which received no manure,
hut was carefully irrigated, and was of a light grey colour, contain
ing a good deal of straw in minute particles, consisted of 95*5 sili
cious sand with traces of iron, carbonate of lime, and alumine, 2'5
vegetable matter, and 2 water. It is a subject of consideration
whether the fine silicious sand may not be drifted by strong winds
from a distance, as frequently happens at the Cape of Good Hope
during a south-east wind, but this does not wholly account for
the extraordinary circumstance that in islands, the foundations of
which are calcareous, there should be so little calcareous and so
large a proportion of silicious matter in the soil. The action of the
heavy periodical rains by gradually washing out the calcareous mat
ter, would, perhaps, joined with the other theory, in a great measure,
solve the problem.
The above description of the soils of Ceylon is equally applicable
to the Kandian and to the maritime provinces. In reference to
agricultural improvement, the subject is highly important, and no
where is it more deserving of attention and investigation than in
Ceylon, where the ground is in its original state, and where, with
few exceptions, now happily becoming more extended, httle or no
attempt has been made by man either to correct the defects, or to
increase the productiveness of the soil by the use of manure.
In Ceylon there is not that order and succession of rocks to be
found as in England and other parts of Europe. Uniformity of for-

CHAP. III.] SOILS— ROCKS OF PRIMITIVE FORMATION. 695
mation is the distinguishing characteristic of the geological character
of the island, and with but few and partial exceptions, such as at
Jaffna and the contiguous islets, and here and there along the shore
about high water mark, it may be said to consist of primitive rock,
and unconnected with any other class of rock, exclusive of those of
very recent formation.
Another remarkable geological fact is, that though the varieties of
primitive rock are extremely numerous, and indeed almost infinite :
the species are very few, and seldom well defined. The most pre
vailing species are granite or gneiss ; the less frequent are quartz-rock,
hornblende rock, and dolomite rock, which may be classed under
the head of imbedded minerals.
The varieties of granite and gneiss are endless, passing often from
one into another, and at times losing their character by the transition,
and assuming appearances for which, in small masses, there would
be a difficulty in finding appropriate names. These mutations and
remarkable variations are traceable chiefly to composition, the pro
portions of the elements, the excess or deficiency of one or more,
or on the addition of new ingredients. Nor should mechanical
structure, variation in which, though hardly palpable in reference to
causes, has an evident effect in regulating appearances, be omitted.
Regular granite is rare ; where found it is generally of a grey colour
and fine grained. Graphic granite is still rarer. The quartz, where
it is found, is black or grey rock crystal, and the felspar highly crys
talline and of a bright flesh colour. The quartz envelopes the felspar
in very thin hexagonal or triagonal cases, so that nothing can more
vary in appearance than the longitudinal and transverse fracture of
of the rock. Petrifactions of wood, combining quartz and felspar,
have been occasionally found in the interior. This is a mineralogical
novelty, the latter substance never having been found in petrifactions
of a similar nature.
Moonstone has also been found embodied in porphyric rocks in large
masses, and is more beautiful than moonstone hitherto dug from rocks
of decomposed white clay. Sienite is uncommon. It occurs in the
interior, rather forming a part of rocks of a different kind than in
great mountain masses.
Well formed gneiss is more abundant than granite. Its peculiar
structure may be seen in many places, but no where so clearly as at
Amanapoora in the Central province, where it consists of white fel
spar and quartz in a finely crystalline state, with layers of black
mica, containing, disseminated through it, numerous crystals of a
light-coloured garnet. Both the granite and gneiss are very much
qualified by an excess or deficiency of one or other of the ingre
dients. When quartz abounds in a fine granular state, the rock
often looks very like sandstone ; of this there is an instance in the
vicinity of Kandy. When felspar or adularia abound, the rock
acquires a new external character : this variety is common. In a

696 CEYLON. [part IV.
few places the rock contains so much of these minerals that it might
be correctly called adularia, or felspar rock. When mica prevails in
gneiss, which in Ceylon is very rare, it acquires not only the appear
ance, but very much the structure of mica slate. The instances of
change of appearance in the granitic varieties from the presence of
unusual ingredients, are neither few in number nor unfrequent in
occurrence. The more limited varieties of primitive rock, as quartz, horn
blende, and dolomite rock, seldom occur in the form of mountain
masses. Quartz is found in some places so abundantly in granite
rocks as even to rival mountain masses. It is generally quite bare,
and stands erect like denuded veins. From its precipitousness it
often exhibits the appearance of buildings in ruins. The quartz is
in general milk-white, translucent, full of rents, and so very friable
as to resemble unannealed glass. Pure hornblende rock and primi
tive greenstone are not uncommon, and though they constitute no
entire mountain, form a part of many, particularly of Samanala and
the Kandian mountains. '
Dolomite rock is almost entirely confined to the interior, where it
is found in veins and imbedded, and sometimes constitutes low hills.
The varieties of dolomite rock are almost as numerous as those of
granite. When purest it is snow-white, generally crystalline, com
posed of rhombs that are easily separated by a blow, but rarely
finely granular. When highly crystalline it is composed of about
56 of carbonate of magnesia, 36'9 carbonate of lime, 4*1 alumina,
1 silica, 2 water. A very fine granular kind is found, but it is so
uncommon, that it was appropriated under the Kandian dynasty to
the sole use of the king. The great variety of this rock arises both
from the proportion of carbonate of lime and of magnesia being
seldom the same, and from the commixture of other minerals. The
varieties most frequent are mixtures of dolomite with felspar and
mica, and even quartz. It is from the purer kinds of dolomite rock
that all the lime employed in building in the interior is procured.
The presence of magnesia injures its qualities as a cement ; but
though inferior in this respect to the lime from shell and coral, it
answers sufficiently well for ordinary uses.
In external character and general structure, the varieties of primi
tive rock exhibit fewer marked differences than might have been ex
pected. The masses that are exposed, are generally rounded, seldom
rising to craggy points or appearing in grotesque shapes. The
nature of the rock may often be surmised, from its external appear
ance, but generally cannot be precisely determined but by an exami
nation of a recently fractured surface. In structure the granitic
varieties most commonly exhibit an appearance of stratification, but
is not easy to decide positively whether this appearance is to be
attributed to the mass being composed of strata or of large laminae
or layers. Some great masses of insulated rock, several hundred

CHAP. III.] ROCKS OF SECONDARY FORMATION. 697
feet in height, exhibit incontrovertible proofs of this structure. In
these the same layer may be seen extending over the rock, like the
coat of an onion, and which if but partially exposed, might be adduced
as a strong proof of stratification, and if examined in different places on
the top and at each side, might be deemed an extraordinary instance
of the dip of the strata in opposite directions. With this hypothesis
of the structure of the rocks, the appearance of stratification in all
the granitic varieties may be easily reconciled.
Rocks of recent formation are of two kinds, limestone and sand
stone. The first is said to be confined to the province of Jaffna,
the most productive and populous district of Ceylon, which is an
extended level plain without a single hill or valley, and contains
numerous decomposed shells, and other marine productions ; it is
generally grey or light brown, very fine grained and compact, and
breaks with a conchoidal fracture. It is generally nearly a pure
carbonate of lime, affording but slight traces of the presence of vege
table or animal matter, and containing a httle water. Where it
occurs, the whole of the country is similar, and elevated but a few
feet above the surface of the sea, by which it was once probably
covered. The recession of the sea from this district is even now
going on, many natives recollecting the waves covering spots now far
above high water mark. It is proved also from the fact of coral
rock being found mixed with the limestone rock several miles from
the sea. Minute inquiry on the spot might elicit some valuable
information on the formation of this rock, which is still probably
extending in the shallows of the adjoining seas, and along the coasts
of Jaffnapatam. Its formation may possibly be connected with coral,
which is so abundant in the narrow seas between Ceylon and the
Indian Peninsula, that most, if not all, of the islets in the strait are
composed of it, and the gradual increase of coralline in the waters near
these shores proves the natural and steady encroachment of the
land. The only difficulty is, to find the cause of the solution of cal
careous matter in some places, and its precipitation in others
adjoining. Sandstone, the other rock belonging to the recent formation, may
be considered to surround the island with an almost uninterrupted
chain. It exhibits in every part the same general character, and is
found under the same circumstances, in horizontal beds along the
shore, chiefly between high and low water mark, which in Ceylon,
where the tide rises only about three feet in perpendicular height, is
a very limited extent. In shallow water, it may extend perhaps
further into the sea. Towards the land, it does not extend beyond
the beach. A remarkable instance of this rock is found on the north
side of the Kalane-ganga. In width the bed varies from a few to
fifty or even a hundred feet. Towards the sea, it presents a bold
face, above twelve feet deep, perpendicular like a wall, over which
the waves break, and which, when the sea runs high, as it does on

698 CEYLON. [part IV.
this shore, a great part of the year, is completely under water. On
the other side, towards the land, the rock commonly terminates in
sand, the beach generally rising above it. This bed is in most places dis
tinctly stratified, andwhere the strata are not deranged by fractures, and
subsidences, they are quite horizontal. The appearance of the rock is
not uniform : its principal varieties are a yellowish-grey sandstone,
another almost black, and a third of the first kind, but containing
nodules of the latter. These varieties occur in the same stratum,
and a vertical section often exhibits successive layers of the two first
kinds. They all consist of sand agglutinated by carbonate of lime,
which, from its texture, appears to have been deposited from water.
Thus the stone crumbles to pieces, and is reduced to sand when
heated before the blow-pipe or immersed in an acid. The proportion
of carbonate of lime is variable, being from 26'5 to 1 1 per cent.
The larger the proportion, the harder is the sandstone ; thus the
last-mentioned is soft and taken from a depth in an incipient state of
formation, while the former is taken from the surface, is completely
formed and extremely hard. Irrespectively of the proportion of
carbonate of lime, the sand of which the stone is formed, is of
different kinds. The sand of the light-coloured variety is chiefly
silicious, consisting of fine water-worn particles of quartz, like the
sand of the shore, and like it, it occasionally contains shell's and
pebbles. The sand of the variety nearly black, is a mixture of sili
cious particles, and of particles of iron glance becoming magnetic by
wasting. It is extremely hard, the iron no doubt acting the part of
a cement, as well as the carbonate of lime.
The question of the formation of the sandstone is involved in
much of the same obscurity as that of the limestone of Jaffnapatam,
and the same conjectures might be offered respecting the probable
cause of the deposit of the calcareous cement. This instance of the
formation of rock from the dissolved and disintegrated materials of
old rocks is not peculiar to Ceylon, as it is quite as common as those
of decomposition itself. Both the limestone and sandstone of this
recent formation, may become very useful. Very good lime may be
made of the former, and serviceable millstones perhaps of the latter,
if it can be found, as is very probable, of a coarse quality. For
architectural purposes both stones are well adapted, more especially
the sandstone for great public works, as it may be wrought at little
expense, and when the wind blows off the land, may be easily
shipped. The mineralogy of Ceylon, is, in some respects, remarkable and
curious. The island is remarkable for its richness in gems, and, so
far as has yet been ascertained, for its comparative poverty in the
useful metals. It is remarkable also for the number of rare minerals
that it affords, and for the small variety of the ordinary species :
thus in its miueralogical character, it accorded with the taste of its
late native rulers, who were more prone to display than any work of

CHAP. III.] MINERALOGY — METALLIC ORES — COAL. 699
utility, to pomp than profit. Its mineral productions may be classed
under two heads, those attached to granitic, which constitute the
greater part, and those pertaining to dolomite rock. The only
metallic ores that can be hitherto said to be found in any quantity
deserving of notice, are of iron and manganese. Iron in different
forms is pretty generally diffused, and somewhat abundant. Iron
pyrites, magnetic iron ore, specular iron ore, red hematite, bog-iron
ore, and earthy blue phosphate of iron are all found. Red hematite
and bog-iron ore are more common than the other species. It is
from these ores that the natives extract the metal. With the excep
tion of iron pyrites, magnetic ironstone and the blue phosphate, the
species of iron occur so frequently in granitic rock or its detritus, as
not to require notice. The first, iron pyrites, is found at Ratnapoora,
disseminated through a grey felspar rock, and in veins of quartz at
Mount Lavinia on the sea-shore. Magnetic iron ore is found in
masses, imbedded in gneiss in the vicinity of Kandy and in granitic
rocks in Welasse and Trincomalee. The earthy blue phosphate of
iron is procurable from a marshy ground near Colombo, and from a
bed of bog-iron ore near Kandy. It is said to be used by the natives
as a pigment.
It is to be observed that no great bed, and that no considerable
vein of iron ore has yet been found in Geylon ; though we must
remark, that a full half i of the island is comparatively speaking a terra
incognita to the Europeans in Ceylon capable of investigating it. No
foundery on an extensive scale could then, judging from present ap
pearances, be established with success. To the natives it may possibly
be worth while to collect scattered masses of ore for their little
furnaces, but unless an extensive bed or vein of ore be found, the
attempt to establish a foundery would be idle. Iron is melted by
the natives in crucibles, over a fire which is blown with two bellows.
The scoria is separated from it with tongs made expressly for the
purpose, and the melted mass is poured into a mould of clay, after
which it is purified further, and forged for smaller uses. But one
ore of manganese, the grey or the black oxide, is yet known in Cey
lon, and that occurs in parts of Saffragam and Upper Ouva. Like
most of the ores of iron it occurs finely disseminated, and imbedded
in small masses in granitic rock ; some specimens are pure, and in
some places a considerable quantity might be collected. Hitherto
it has been applied to no useful purpose, nor from its locale and dis
persed state is it likely to be exported with profit,
1 Coal is said to have been discovered in the island by the Dutch ; but from the
abundance of wood, and charcoal being the only fuel used by the native cooks, no
notice was taken of the discovery, so that its habitat is now unknown. The
discovery of coal would now be considered one of the greatest acquisitions of which
this favoured land could boast. It is not at all improbable that it exists in parts of
the scarcely explored districts in the north, where I venture to predict the mineral
wealth of Ceylon will be found to lie.

700 CEYLON. [PART IV.
From the nature of the rocks other metals might have been ex
pected in Ceylon, says a learned geologist, who mentions that he has
sought in vain among the mountains for tin, copper, and lead. All
three, however, are reported to exist by persons who have themselves
discovered them, and quicksilver and plumbago (kalu mirinan, Singh.)
which of late years has been largely exported to England, may be
added to the list. Gold and mercury, which are said to occur
native in Ceylon, according to this writer are rarely found, but small
lumps of the former have been at times met with. " Did any," he
continues, " of the common, and what is more, of the precious metals
occur in Ceylon it would have been known long ago ; for the natives
are inquisitive and curious, and being in the habit of searching for
gems, and collecting everything that glitters, or that is in the least
likely to sell, even bits of iron pyrites and ores of iron, it would be
very extraordinary were they to pass unnoticed substances more
attractive, with the value of which they are well acquainted." I
may cursorily observe that this remark is rather applicable to the
natives of the southern, than any of the other provinces of Ceylon,
and that the opposite conclusion of another learned geologist,
embodied in the note,1 is nearer the truth. Dr. Davy's erroneous
conclusion on these points must have arisen from the imperfect
opportunities at his disposal for the survey of the whole island, not
more than one-third of which he ever visited, and not from any
want of sagacity in observing, or ardour in pursuing the various
branches of natural science. Stahlstein, or crystallized pyrites, im
pregnated with a little copper, is used by the Singhalese for making
buttons. Most of the gems for which Ceylon is celebrated, occur in granitic
rock ; for though found in alluvial soil and the beds of rivers, their
true source may be conjectured from the nature of the surrounding
rocks and the quality of the sand and alluvium in which they are
found. The minerals pertaining to this rock are of the quartz family,
quartz, iron-flint, chalcedony and hyalite. Ceylon affords all the
varieties of quartz, as rock-crystal, amethyst, rose-quartz, cat's-eye,
and prase. Rock crystal occurs in abundance, both massive and
crystallized, of various colours, good quality, and in large masses.
Its localities do not need noticing. Buttons are made of it. The
black crystal is of a shining fracture, and falls into slate-like shivers,
which are transparent at the edges. It possesses electrical properties.
1 The sciences of geology, mineralogy, &c. in all their branches are but imperfectly
understood by the natives, notwithstanding Ceylon is the depository of such an
extensive variety of specimens. Their attention seems never to have extended
much beyond the valuable gems and the common ores. As to a thousand other
objects, both on the surface of the earth and imbedded in the hidden substrata of
nature, so interesting to men of science, they have allowed them an almost
undisturbed repose, never having exerted themselves either to quarry out a know
ledge of their latent properties or ascertain their intrinsic worth.

CHAP. III.] ABSENCE OF THE RICHER METALS — GEMS. 701
The natives use it instead of glass for the lenses of spectacles ; they
employ it too for ornamental purposes and statuary. In the Maha-
wihare, in Kandy, there is a small well-executed figure of Buddha of
this stone. Amethyst (Skuandi, Singh.) also is pretty abundant ;
very beautiful specimens of this mineral are found in the alluvium
derived from the decomposition of gneiss and granitic rock in Saf
fragam and the Seven Korles. The largest specimens are cut for
buttons, and the smaller for a smaller sized button. The more
saturated the colour is in them, the riper they are. They were
probably once in a fluid state, and previous to their crystallization
were tinged with a violet colour, which incorporated itself with a part
or else with the whole of the fluid. It is of a 'purple violet' colour,
differing much in the degrees in which they are coloured. Some are
so saturated as to appear almost black. They seldom reach the size
of a walnut ; the larger they are the paler, and less esteemed. Crys
tals of it, containing apparently two distinct drops of water, have
been found. Rose-quartz, which is pretty common, is often found in
the same place as amethyst.
Ceylon produces the finest cat's-eyes (Wairodi, Singh.) in the world ;
indeed, the only kind that is highly esteemed and that brings a high
price. The best specimens of this singular mineral have been found
in the granitic alluvium of Saffragam and Matura. It is a hard
stone, approaching more or less to white or green, semi-diaphanous,
with a streak of the breadth of a line in the middle, whiter than the
stone itself, and throws its fight to the side that it is turned. It is
a pseudo-opal, averaging the size of a hazel nut. Prase is a variety
of quartz that seldom occurs in the island. The second species,
iron-flint, is not uncommon in the Central Province, Saffragam, and
Lower Ouva. Some varieties of it much resemble hornstone. The
third species, chalcedony, undoubtedly exists somewhere in the moun
tains of the interior, as fragments of it have been observed in the
possession of the natives. The fourth species, hyalite, is extremely
rare, being met with only in a nitre cave in Doombera, partially en
crusting a granitic rock.
Belonging to the schorl family are two species, the topaz and
schorl (Purperagan, Singh.) The former is generally known as the
white or water sapphire. It is commonly white, or bluish, or yellow
ish white ; much water-worn, and perfect crystals of it are very rare.
It occurs .in many places in the alluvium of granitic rock, about the
size of a large nut, and is clearer than white crystal. Schorl is not
abundant ; common schorl is perhaps an exception, it is to be seen in
many places in the granitic rocks, and in places in Lower Ouva,
mixed with quartz and felspar, it constitutes a rock of considerable
magnitude. Tourmaline is rare, and the common varieties of green
(patje turemali), a name given both to chrysolites with tetraedal
prisms, and even sometimes to the chrysoprasi. It is often opaque,
and various shades, bordering on yellow, blue, and black, are classed

702 CEYLON. [PART IV.
under it ; honey yellow (kaneke turemali), is a topaz of a greenish
yellow in appearance, resembling amber ; some are more saturated
and ripe, almost of an orange colour. Red (pana turemali), is a
quartz ; when laid on a table it appears opaque ; held to the light it
has a pale red hue. They vary in size from a grain of rice to a pea.
They are seldom crystallized, and most of them are worn smooth and
polished from the action of the water. Blue (neela turemali), is a
quartz ; white (sudu turemali), is a topaz of a pale yellow, called the
Matura diamond. It is not perfectly transparent ; for this reason, it
is often calcined in the fire, which has an effect on the colour but the
stone is made clearer. It is then enveloped in fine lime and burned
with rice chaff. It is cut for setting in rings, &c. With the ex
ception of the last, most of these are of an indifferent quality, and
their locality is unknown. Some writers have maintained that both
the emerald and beryl are found in Ceylon. The former, says Davy,
is certainly not found, and there is much doubt as to the existence
of the latter, most of those offered for sale being imported ; and
those said to be found in the island being improperly so, as affording
an excuse for a higher price than that asked for those of the con
tinent, which are contemptuously called " coast stones."
Of the garnet family three species occur, in gneiss or granitic rock,
viz. the garnet, pyrope, and cinnamon stone. The common garnet is
abundantly disseminated through gneiss in almost every part of the
country. Its crystals are in general indistinct, small, contain a large
proportion of iron, and are very apt to decompose. The best and
most perfect crystals of this mineral are in quartz rock. The precious
garnet occurs but in few places, and not in first-rate quality. It is
contained in hornblende rock at Trincomalee.
Cinnamon stone, though an abundant mineral in this island, to
which it exclusively pertains, is found only in few places, and chiefly
in the Matura district. It occurs in granitic alluvium in small ir
regularly shaped pieces, and in large masses of several pounds weight.
Near Belligam a large detached rock is partly composed of this
mineral; the other ingredients of the rock are felspar, tablespar,
quartz, hornblende, and graphite. " The thick jungle," says Dr.
Davy, " round the spot where this interesting rock stands, prevents a
minute examination of the neighbouring country ;" but his opinion
seems to be that this rock had been detached from a vein or bed
included in gneiss or granitic rock in the hill above. Another mineral
of a doubtful nature, disseminated in small masses, occurs in many
places, as at Colombo, Mount Lavinia, &c. It is semi-transparent,
and never crystallized, and has the fracture and lustre of cinnamon-
stone. It certainly belongs to the garnet family, and is probably
merely a variety of cinnamon stone ; from which it appears to differ
chiefly in being of a redder hue, and in this respect approaches
pyrope. The zircon family is richer in Ceylon than in any other part of the

CHAP. III.] LOCALITIES OF GEMS — THEIR USES AND VALDE. 703
world. It is chiefly confined to the districts of Matura and Saf
fragam, more especially to the former, and is indicated by the popular
name ' Matura diamond,' which is applied to its finest varieties by
the dealers in gems. Besides the well known species, common zircon
and hyacinth, a third species, massive, opaque, uncrystallized, and of
a dark brown colour, some specimens of which, from Saffragam, have
been known to weigh two or three ounces, has been also found. The
natives are completely ignorant of the true nature of zircon. The
yellow varieties are sold by them as a peculiar kind of topaz ; the
green as tourmaline ; the red hyacinth as inferior rubies ; and the very
light grey as imperfect diamonds. All the varieties on sale are found
in the beds of rivers, or in alluvial ground derived from the decompo
sition of gneiss or granitic rock. It is to be seen, however, in its
original site in these districts sparingly disseminated through quartz
and schorl rocks, or quartz and felspar with tablespar and graphite.
The zircon in some parts of the mass so largely preponderates as
almost to entitle the rock to be called zircon rock. The mineral in
such a case is crystalline, and most commonly green or brown ; the
rock is remarkable for its heaviness, and for the resinous lustre of its
fracture. For the ruby family (Lankaratte, Singh.) Ceylon is no less cele
brated. Four species of it, spinell, sapphire, corundum and chryso-
beryl occur in gneiss or granitic rock. Spinell is comparatively
rare, though there are some small and most beautiful crystals of it
found in the interior, and it is found in specimens of clay iron-ore in
parts of the Central Province, where gneiss prevails. Sapphire is
common though widely scattered ; it occurs in great perfection and
in considerable abundance and magnitude in the granitic alluvium of
Matura and Saffragam, and about Nuwera-Elliya ; the principal
varieties being the blue, purple, red, yellow, white and star-stone.
Barbosa remarks that the Singhalese in his day bleached sapphires
in such perfection that they might be taken for the finest diamonds.
Fragments of blue sapphire of indifferent quality have been found as
large as a goose's egg. The purple variety or the oriental amethyst
is rare. A green variety is still rarer, and when found perhaps owes
its colour to a blending of blue and yellow, two colours of frequent
occurrence in the same stone. The black sapphire is no less rare.
It is not uncommon to find some other mineral included in the sub
stance of the sapphire, such as crystals of iron glance, or a small
mass of crystallized mica. Corundum is less frequently met with
than the sapphire, being rarely found except in Ouva, where it
is found in the bed and in the banks of a small stream ; the
sand, gravel, and pebbles among which the corundum occurs, in
their nature correspond with varieties of granite, gneiss and
hornblende rock. The corundum is often found in large six-sided
prisms, it is commonly of a brown colour, whence it is called by the
natives koroondu galle, (cinnamon stone). Occasionally it is to be

704 CEYLON. [PART IV.
met with partially or entirely covered with a black crust, perhaps
merely the stone with an unusual proportion of iron. The corundum
and sapphire are so closely akin, that the natives have even observed
the similarity. The two minerals are linked together by the coarse
and opaque varieties of the latter, which are common enough in
Saffagram. Chrysoberyl is of very rare occurrence, and is said to be
brought from Saffragam. The more perfect crystals of all the
varieties of ruby, sapphire, corundum and chrysoberyl, exhibiting in
every direction smooth facets like the garnet, the diamond, and so
many other minerals, seem to shew that they are contemporaneous
in their formation with the rock from whence they are derived ; that
they have crystallized in its substance ; and that they are not de
tached till it undergoes disintegration or decomposition, when they
are washed by the heavy rains and torrents with the detritus of their
parent rock to lower ground to reward the perseverance of the native
explorers who might search in vain in the mountain mass. Corun
dum is the only species of this family that is not esteemed as a gem,
and the only one that is applied to any purpose of utility. In its
powdered state it is extensively employed by the lapidary in cutting
and polishing stones, and by the armourer in polishing arms. It
enters, too, into the composition of an excellent hone made by the
natjves, consisting chiefly of this mineral in very fine powder, and of
kapitia, a peculiar kind of resin.
Of the felspar family, it is highly probable that several" species
exist in the island. Tablespar has been already alluded to, and the
subdivisions of felspar vis. adularia (including glassy felspar), Labra
dor-stone, common felspar, and compact felspar. These minerals are
common in gneiss and granitic rock, with the exception of Labrador
stone, which is seldom found, and then in a bed of graphic granite.
Adularia is very abundant in some parts of the interior, particularly
in the neighbourhood of Kandy, where it is occasionally the predo
minating ingredient of the rock.
Of the hornblende family, two species occur, common horn
blende, the constituent of the rock of this name and glassy tremolite
which has been observed at Trincomalee in a narrow vein of quartz
in gneiss.
Pitchstone is perhaps the only mineral of the family of this name to
be found in Ceylon, a small vein of it occurs near Trincomalee in
granite. Mica or glimmer (Mirinan, Singh.), as a constituent part
of granite and gneiss is abundant, besides, it often occurs in large
plates imbedded in these rocks. It is collected by the natives, who
use it for purposes of ordinary decoration, and for ornamenting tala
pat parapluies. Common chlorite is occasionally to be met with
both at Galle and Trincomalee disseminated through quartz. Green
earth is more rare ; it is found in Lower Ouva, where it is pretty
abundant near Alipoot in small veins, and includes masses in clay
derived from the decomposition of a granitic rock. This mineral

CHAP. IIT.J MINERALS; MAGNESIAN, CALCAREOUS, INFLAMMABLE. 705
is of an unusually light colour, varying from green to light apple-
green. Magnesian minerals are far from abundant in Ceylon, and are per
haps confined to dolomite, carbonate of magnesia and talc. The
very rare mineral, native carbonate of magnesia, has been discovered
in a nitre cave, accompanied with dolomite and encrusting and in
cluded in gneiss. The best specimens of it were of a pure snow-
white, earthy texture, rather harsh to the touch, destitute of smell
when breathed on, and not adhesive. A specimen of it, examined by
Dr. Davy, contained 86 carbonate of magnesia, 5 water, 9 silica,
with some slight traces of carbonate of lime.
This mineral is perhaps co-temporary with the rock in which it
occurs, and not deposited subsequently from water. It has long
been used by the natives of the adjoining country in whitewashing
their temples. Talc is very rare in Ceylon. It has been met with
at Doombera in a nitre cave, where, with calcspar, felspar and quartz,
it entered into the composition of a highly crystalline rock.
Calcspar, anhydrous gypsum, and calcsinter are the only pure
calcareous minerals to be found in Ceylon. The two former, well
crystallised, have been met with at Doombera nitre cave. They
occur in the compound rock just alluded to in reference to talc.
Calcsinter is not uncommon ; encrusting rocks of dolomite and
gneiss, it abounds in Matale, and is plentiful in Lower Ouva, and in
many places in the vicinity of dolomite rock, from which in all pro
bability it is derived.
There are two kinds of the inflammable class of minerals that
occur in Ceylon, graphite and sulphur Graphite in minute scales is
very commonly disseminated through gneiss, and it occasionally
occurs imbedded in this rock in small masses. In the latter form,
it is found to some extent in parts of Upper Saffragam, and might
probably be found in sufficient quantity to be collected and exported
profitably. Sulphur is extremely rare iu Ceylon, indeed its very ex
istence is not indisputably proved. A specimen of this mineral was
some time ago picked up in Doombera, which contained a large por
tion of sulphate, a small portion of sulphate of iron, and slight traces
of alum. The stone itself was composed chiefly of quartz, felspar
and oxide of iron, and of some grey crystalline grains. Had the
specimen been broken from a rock, little room for doubt would have
remained, but even as the case stood, it appeared more likely to be
native sulphur than an artificial accidental impregnation, for which
mdeed it would be almost impossible to account. The mineral pro
ductions occurring in the dolomite rock are of two kinds, those pecu
liar to it and hitherto found in no other rock in Ceylon, and those
common to it and to granitic rock. Belonging to the latter, the fol
lowing minerals may be enumerated. Iron pyrites, mica, white clay,
probably derived from the decomposition of felspar and graphite.
With the exception of mica, none of these minerals are common or
2 z

706 GEYLON. [PART IV.
abundant in dolomite. The mica is generally of a light brown or
straw-colour, translucent and crystallised in small six-sided prisms.
The minerals peculiar to dolomite are three in number, Ceylanite,
apatite and a bright yellow mineral, perhaps a variety of cinnamon-
stone. Ceylanite is pretty abundant in this rock and very generally
disseminated through it. It occurs crystallised and amorphous, and
exhibits a variety of colours, as bright azure-blue, resembling the blue
sapphire, violet, pink-red, grey and white. Its crystals are generally
very small. The fine sapphire blue Ceylanite is almost confined to
one locality. Of the pink-red, some good specimens have been met
with from a vein of dolomite in Saffragam, on the banks of a stream
that flows into the Kalu-ganga. Ceylanite of the other colours is
common, particularly in the dolomite' rock near Kandy and Badulla,
where it generally occurs amorphous, or very indistinctly crystallised.
Apatite, of a bright sapphire-blue colour, is frequently to be seen in
dolomite, disseminated in very minute particles. It occurs in one
place well crystallised, in six-sided prisms in few places. The bright
yellow mineral, perhaps, a variety of the cinnamon-stone, which it
resembles in its general properties, and has never been seen crystal
lised, is not uncommon in dolomite in the vicinity of Kandy. This
result is difficult to ascertain from the small particles in which it is
found. Though, then, the number of minerals hitherto found in do
lomite rock is small, it is highly probable more may yet be found to
reward the mineralogist, who may search in the quarries of the inte
rior, where it is broken for making lime.
Mineral or medicinal waters do not abound in Ceylon, owing pro
bably to the peculiar geological structure of the island. The hot
springs of Kannya, near Trincomalee (see pp. 543-4), are situated in
low ground, abounding in quartz. The bottoms of all the wells are
formed of quartz, sand and gravel, without encrustation, and clear,
except in those where the water is not quite clear, and in these there
is a little mud. The depth of the wells ranges from one to five feet,
and from one to four feet in width. They do not discharge much
water, comparatively speaking. The water of all has no smell
or peculiar taste : it has the same specific gravity as distilled water,
and nothing but slight traces of common salt, a little carbonic acid
gas and azote are perceptible ; a current of air bubbles may be per
ceived rising from the bottom of some. The temperature of the
wells constantly changes, ranging from about 85° to 1 10°. Though
the temperature of each differs, yet it is probable that all are supplied
with water from the same source. This may be reconciled by con
sidering the quantity of water discharged, which is greatest in the
hottest springs. The singular nature of these springs ; the purity
of their water ; their high temperature, its fluctuations, the quan
tity of azotic gas so nearly pure disengaged, are circumstances that
cannot fail to interest the natural philosopher, who ponders on the
causes of the mysterious and awful phenomena that are thus shewn
to exist beneath the earth's surface.

CHAP. III. J MINERAL WATERS — HOT AND CHALYBEATE SPRINGS. 707
Two very hot springs are found in the Veddah-ratte of Bintenne,
and one in Welasse. The former lie in the midst of an immense jungle,
in an extremely unhealthy country, swarming with wild animals. The
temperature of their water is said to be too high to be borne by man,
and sufficiently high to dress meat and vegetables, a use to which it is
applied by the Veddahs ; there is in both springs a constant bubbling.
The water of the hot spring in Welasse is clear, too hot for the hand
to bear, and constantly emits air bubbles. Slight traces of common
salt, vegetable matter, and carbonic acid may be detected in both.
Of the two warm springs in the province of Ouva, the one at Badulla
is 1861 feet above the level of the sea, where the mean annual tem
perature is about 69° ; the other, in Lower Ouva, is about 1061 feet
above the level of the sea, and the mean annual temperature is about
76°. The Badulla spring is a very fine one, and supplies the inha
bitants with excellent water ; the well is about five feet deep, and
eight or nine in circumference, discharging a stream of transparent
water, that on rising rapidly through the sand in the bottom, pro
duces considerable commotion, which is occasionally increased by the
disengagement of air. The temperature of the water is high, perhaps
about 90°. The other spring is quite neglected ; it is copious and
clear, has no peculiar taste or smell, and like the other, air bubbles
now and then appear in it. Two warm springs are found also in the
Central Province, and others are probably discoverable elsewhere.
" In many parts of the country," remarks Davy, " particularly in
the interior, there are appearances of chalybeate springs : the water
is often seen covered with an ochreous crust, and its channel marked
by a similar deposit. This crust I have found to be a mixture of
hydrate of alumine, and of red oxide of iron, with a little vegetable
matter. The water itself, immediately as it issues from the earth,
gives no indications of iron, when freed by filtration from a few
ferruginous particles suspended in it ; whence it seems highly pro
bable that these springs are not genuine chalybeate, and not dis
coloured by iron dissolved by means of an acid, but only by the
peroxide in a state of mechanical suspension washed out of the
ground, where it had probably formed." No true medicinal spring
can yet be said to have been found. In the Seven Korles the water
of Yapahoo is said to effect cures in certain diseases, but a specimen
seen by Davy did not confirm such a character.
" With the exception of these springs," says Davy, " the great
depth of the harbour of Trincomalee, which in some places not far
from shore is unfathomable, and the occurrence of iron ores at times
bearing a slight resemblance to lava, there are no circumstances that
can suggest even the idea of volcanic action in Ceylon, and much
less prove that such an action has taken place, and that Samanala
is one of the results of such an operation." Without venturing so
far as to controvert the opinion of Dr. Davy, in reference to the last
mentioned point, or to prefer positive proofs of the presence of vol
canic agency, it is but right to state that there are other collateral
2 z 2

708 CEYLON. [PART IV.
circumstances that might be added to those already bearing in favour
of the supposed agent. Experience has shewn that Dr. Davy,
though deservedly eminent, and in general to be relied on, somewhat
lost sight of his habitual caution in determining this and other mat
ters from the casual and desultory course of inquiry he had the
means of pursuing. If then he may be pronounced in general trust
worthy, the reader will perceive that we have been fully alive to the
points in which experience has proved his opinion to be erroneous.
The general springs and streams of the island are remarkable for the
purity of their waters. Those in the mountains differ from rain
water only by their containing slight traces of common salt and of
vegetable matter, and occasionally of carbonate of lime and suspended
clay. The saline productions of Ceylon are not numerous, consisting of
nitre, nitrate of lime, sulphate of magnesia, alum, and common salt.
With the exception of the last, these salts have been found nowhere
but-in the interior, and in certain caves, where, from remaining un
exposed to the heavy tropical rains, they may be seen intact. Common
salt, on the other hand, is seldom or never found in the interior, ex
cept in minute quantities, dissolved in water. The only known
exception is at the nitre cave at Maturatta, where it is found in the
solid form mixed with silica and carbonate of magnesia, and forms
a white crust on a small portion of dolomite rock, decomposing fel
spar and mica. Nitre and nitrate of lime are of frequent occurrence.
The names of nearly thirty places might be mentioned where salt
petre is produced and has been manufactured. The caves are gene
rally remote from inhabited places, being situated in the wildest and
most desolate parts of the country, and there is little doubt that this
salt will be found in other places when the interior is more explored
by Europeans. Most of the nitre caves are very similar as regards
geological formation ; the rock in which they occur contains felspar
and carbonate of lime, from the decomposition of the former of
which the alkaline base of the salt is generally derived, and the acid
principle is generated by the peculiar influence of the latter on the
oxygen and azote of the atmosphere. Thus, wherever air can have
access, saltpetre cannot be perceived except superficially ; is never
unaccompanied by nitrate of lime or magnesia ; in no rock not con
taining lime and felspar ; that the richness of the rock in general has
been proportional to the abundance and intimate mixture of these
two ingredients. Besides the important facts of the presence of
atmospheric air, lime, and an alkaline mineral, there are other cir
cumstances which greatly aid in the operation of forming the salt,
such as humidity, and the presence of a httle animal matter.
Humidity may be absolutely necessary, for how otherwise can spots
in a nitre cave, which, with this exception, seem to possess every
requisite for the production of salt, be accounted for. Animal matter
is by some considered the chief source of nitre, and the dung of bats,
with which the caves are more or less infested, has been assigned as

CHAP, in.] SALTS, NTTRE, ALUM, SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA, ETC. 709
the cause. That this is a merely co-operative, and not an essential
circumstance, is proved by the nitre cave near Doombera, where a
rich impregnation of saltpetre is found in a very compounded rock,
consisting of calcspar, felspar, quartz, mica, and talc, in a humid
state, exposed to the air and slowly decomposing, and free from bat
dung or other animal matter. Added to this, no traces of this salt
are discoverable in bat dung. The composition of the most pro
ductive nitre rock near Doombera, which was free from animal mat
ter, was found to consist of 60- 7 earthy matter, insoluble in dilute
nitric acid, 265 carbonate of lime, 9*4 water, 0'2 sulphate of mag
nesia, 0-7 nitrate of magnesia, 2-4 nitrate of potash.
The nitre earth from the great cave in Lower Ouva, near Wella-
way, was found to consist of 51-2 carbonate of lime and earthy
matter, 1 animal matter, easily soluble in water, 25- 7 animal matter ;
of difficult solubility, 15'3 water, 3-5 nitrate of lime, 3-3 nitrate of
potash, with traces of common salt and sulphate of lime.
Nitrate of lime is never met with, except in combination with nitre.
Sulphate of magnesia is seldom or never found, the only instance
being the cave near Doombera. In the same cave, and nowhere else,
alum is discoverable in a minute quantity. The acid of both these
salts is probably derived from decomposing pyrites and the magnesia
of the sulphate by decomposing talc. This sulphate forms with the
nitre, and crystallises with it. It is rejected by the ignorant natives
in their preparation of saltpetre.

CHAPTER IV.

Natural history : — Vertebrated animals — Mammalia — Elephants of Ceylon,
thought by some to be a distinct species, alluded to by Pliny, Dionysius, &c.
— Cuvier's definition — Tusk Elephants — Ceylon ivory — Intelligence and
sagacity of Elephants exaggerated, but their docility great — Rogue Elephants
— Elephant charmers — Injury done by Elephants to the crops of the peasants
—A great Elephant Hunt, under Mr. North, in its several stages— An
Elephant kraal — "Various modes pursued in different localities — Atmaddoos and
Gasmaddoos — Elephant stables — Training — Employed as executioners under
the Kandian kings — Kept also as playthings— Frequent insanity of Ele
phants — Numbers now beginning to decrease, owing to the premium offered
for their extirpation — Qualities requisite in the sportsman — Modes of pro
curing the game; one by encircling the herd, another by the sportsman enter
ing the jungle himself — Mistakes sometimes made as to the degree of vitality
in a prostrate Elephant, and its frequently fatal results — Death of Major
Haddock by a Tusk Elephant — How revenged — Barrels best adapted for the
Sp0rt — An Elephant charge — Parts where a wound proves mortal— Best
time of the day for Elephant shooting— Elephants greatly tormented by
flies — Description of the remaining animals of Ceylon — Birds — Fishes —
Reptiles — Invertebrated Animals— Insects, viz. Coleoptera, Diptoptera,
Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera - Myriapoda —
Crustacea — Leeches — Shells — Plants of Ceylon.
Ceylon has been renowned from the earliest times for its breed of
elephants. It is mentioned by Pliny : " Elephantos ibi multo majores

7»0 CEYLON. [PART IV.
et belficosiores1 quam quos fert India," and Dionysius styles it
M?;r£pa Acnnyevewv EKe<pavro>v. It would seem also that so highly
did the princes of the Peninsula prize the elephants of Ceylon,8 both
for size and docility, that they formed one of the most important
branches of the island trade. Cuvier thus defines the difference be
tween the African and Ceylon or Asiatic elephant: "ElephasCapensis,
fronte convexa, lamellis molarium rhomboidalibus." "Elephaslndicus,
fronte plano-concava, lamellis molarium arcuatis undatis."
The larger number of Ceylon elephants, more especially tuskers,
have part of their head and ears of a flesh-colour, speckled with
small brown spots, and some are mottled nearly all over. White
elephants have, however, seldom or never been known in the island,
though common enough in Siam. Not more than one in fifty ele
phants have tusks, and the formation of those differs little from the
common elephant. All tuskers are males, but this proposition, as
has been already shewn, cannot be inverted ; the vast majority having
short tushes like the females, which always incline downwards, and
never project more than six or eight inches beyond the mouth.
Tusks, on the contrary, in all cases, incline upwards from the centre,
though sometimes almost straight, and those of a full grown elephant
vary from two to seven feet in length. Some tusks are curved, some
turned out, others project straight forward or across one another in
front of the trunk. The weight of tusks is as various as their appear
ance, and in no way depends upon their length, ranging from 40 to
150 pounds, but 60 is the common average.
Ceylon ivory is considered the most valuable for manufacturing
purposes, being whiter, and of finer grain than any other. Elephants'
tusks are occasionally found buried in the jungle, but whether by
the natives for concealment, or by the animals themselves, is still pro
blematical, though it is known that they will often fall on their
tusks, and shiver them to the sockets. It has not yet been decided
whether the elephant of Ceylon is the smallest of the race, as men
tioned by Tavernier, and whether its courage exceeds all others, nor
is his assertion proved in reference to the first elephant the female pro
duces alone bearing tusks, for in that case they must inevitably be
more numerous. The modus copulandi is the same as that of the
horse. The elephant seldom exceeds ten feet in height, and rarely
even nine, yet we are assured by Finlayson, that the elephants of
Ceylon are larger than those of the Ultra-Gangetic peninsula, and
tame are in general larger than wild elephants. Their intelligence
and sagacity has been much exaggerated, and the ease with which
they have thrown down and pulled up trees, or removed timber, at
1 The elephants engaged in the Persian wars, the wars of Pyrrhus, the Punic
wars, and indeed in all the struggles between the various nations of the east, were
procured from Ceylon, from whence they were shipped to the Persian Gulf, or to
the various ports on the Red Sea, by the Phoenicians.
2 I have heard it remarked by a naturalist of some authority that he believed
the Ceylon to be a distinct species of the Asiatic elephant.

CHAP. IV.J ELEPUANTS — PLINY, DIONYSIUS — SPECIFICATION. 711
the direction of the keeper, who communicates his ideas on the sub
ject to them by means of an iron instrument like a boat-hook, has
been cited as an example, but the real agent at work is their enor
mous strength. The cocoa-nut trees, which are thrown down by
wild elephants, are upset by continual shaking, produced by pressing
their heads against those plants which are least able to resist; but a
goat will shew more ingenuity, and contrive to reach leaves or the
top of such plants as he may covet, in comparatively more difficult
positions than can be done by an elephant. Their sparing the lives
of human beings, which has been assigned to magnanimity, is now
thought to be traceable to stupidity and ignorance of their own
power, and how to apply it ; for they have oftener failed than suc
ceeded in their fierce but awkward attempts to kill persons com
pletely in their power. The ease with which half-trained elephants
have been re-caught, after having escaped into the jungle, is a proof
also that their instinct is not of a superior kind ; for so far from be
coming more wary from being partially trained, they are rather the
reverse. They are fond of climbing steep hills, and do not shun
slippery rocks, on which, from their clumsiness, they are necessarily
in peril ; indeed, they are frequently known to be killed by falling
down precipices. If not then pre-eminently sagacious, elephants are
peculiarly docile, though there is great difference among them both
in temper and tractability, and some few are found to be so sulky
and ferocious as to be entirely useless. In all the sense of smell and
hearing is acute, while that of sight is dim, particularly in a bright
light, which they generally avoid. On plain ground their long step
or shuffling trot does not exceed the speed of an active man, and
sportsmen have in an open path escaped by their speed from a pur
suing elephant, but in jungle, the pace of an elephant is but little re
tarded by forcing through brushwood so thick as to be impervious
to man. The marks of elephants and their paths are as abundant
in most of the elevated and thickly wooded regions of the interior,
as in other parts of the country, thus disproving the general impres
sion that these animals are unfitted to endure any great vicissitudes of
climate ; for they will range over every part of the island, voluntarily
clambering to the summits of the highest mountains, and undergoing
a change of temperature frequently nearly 50°, and an elevation
approaching from water level to 8000 feet.
The skin of the elephant is not so impervious as might be expected,
being pierced by a large grey fly about an inch in length, with power
ful fangs. When elephants emerge from the jungle, they are gene
rally of a dusky red colour, from the quantity of sand and red earth
with which they cover their hides, as a preventive against the jungle
tick, and their much dreaded foe, the mosquito.
An elephant found alone is in general called hora-alia, or rogue
elephant. The Singhalese believe them to be turbulent members
expelled by the unanimous will of the herd. Also that they are
destructive to crops and dangerous to people, and they are alike

'I2 CEYLON. [PART IV.
dreaded by their own kindred, and by the inhabitants near then-
haunts, as they seldom range more than ten or fifteen miles, and are
generally to be found in the same forest. Rogue elephants have killed
many people ; for their dread of man being once overcome, homicide
seems to become to them a favourite amusement, and they have been
known to remain quiet and concealed, contrary to their usual habit,
which is to be always in motion, until a victim comes within their
reach, and without provocation to trample or otherwise put him to
death, and then leisurely retire into the forest. During the Kandian
rebellion, great numbers of native baggage porters were alleged to
have been killed by rogue elephants, when carrying loads of rice.
Formerly elephants were so numerous in some neighbourhoods, that
a rough ladder was placed against every large tree on the sides of the
paths, to facilitate the escape of travellers. " In 1835," says Forbes,
" the Kapuralle, priest of Vishnu, a shrewd and intelligent man,
met his death while endeavouring to sustain his character of elephant
charmer in the face of a wounded and savage rogue elephant. The
Kapuralle had accompanied a party of gentlemen, who, coming acci
dentally upon the elephant, wounded him with balls, but not mor
tally; the animal continued to charge the party; the Kapuralle stood
forward, and while holding up his hand in an imposing attitude, was
seized by the uplifted arm, which was torn from his body, and the
elephant passed on, leaving him a mangled corpse." Elephants will
frequently enter villages in the Southern and Eastern Provinces at
night, and removing the thatch from houses containing a store of
paddy, deliberately help themselves, and walk off leisurely before
daybreak. The damage done to paddy fields, bo-trees, of whose leaves they
are remarkably fond, and cocoa-nut topes in the course of a night is
so great, that whenever these destructive animals are known to be
near, watchmen are stationed under a shed, upon a platform fixed
upon four lofty poles, having a rustic ladder at one side, or against
trees commanding a view of the whole field, to give an alarm upon
their approach. In cases where one of the herd is mutilated or
killed, its carcass is an object of aversion and irritation to the others,
who will stroke or butt it; yet the Singhalese maintain, that they have
the greatest affection for their young of all irrational creatures, and
the female will cherish and assist the young of any one of the herd
equally with her own. In crossing a stream, which is here in gene
ral swift, they will combine with their trunks to convey their young
ones over. They are fond of lying and tumbling in the water, and
swim well.
The Southern Province was the chief seat of the great elephant
hunts under the Dutch and the early British rule, and while the
Honourable F. North was Governor,1 two thousand men would be
j As the aim of this work is completeness in all its parts, it would seem to be
only consistent to give the reader, in a condensed form, an account of the former

CHAP. IV.J ELEPHANT CHARMERS — INJURIES TO THE CROPS. 713
employed under the system of Raja Karia, for three months, in
driving 300 elephants into a kraal, to the oppression and destruction
mode of capturing elephants, more especially as it is now seldom adopted, and
then only in a modified form, and is contained in a work now rare and almost un
known. There were three great inclosures in the district of Matura for ensnaring
elephants, which were used alternately, as the foliage of the thickets was so com
pletely destroyed as not at once to afford the necessary food. When a capture had
been determined on, natives were sent into the forests to mark in what spots the
elephants ranged in the greatest numbers. As soon as the locale of two or three
herds had been ascertained, an order was issued to all the inhabitants of the dis
trict to surround the forest in which they fed, with a chain of fires, which were
kept constantly burning, and commenced thirty miles from the snare. To sup
port this, three thousand men were employed for two months. The fires were
raised four feet from the ground on moveable stands, formed of four perpendicular
sticks and twigs wattled across them, on which earth was laid to receive the fuel,
and covered with a sloping roof of cocoa-nut leaves to ward off rain. Placed at
first about four hundred paces from each other, they were gradually drawn nearer,
till at last the distance between them did not exceed ten paces. The chain ap
proached the snare at the rate of from a furlong to a mile daily, which was effected
by cutting off corners of the ground, out of which the elephants had departed. At
length the people entered at opposite sides into a foot-path in the woods with
hurdles of fire, and a mutual communication being opened the enclosure was
diminished. Their vigilance now augmented, as the efforts of the elephants to
escape increased with the narrowing of the space. The shouts and flames how
ever sufficed to repulse them whenever they attempted to charge. "Were it not for
this timidity, no barrier of the stoutest timber could withstand the shock of these
enormous animals rushing on impetuously in a compact and impenetrable phalanx.
At the end of two months they were enclosed in a circle, of which the wide entrance
of the snare formed a part, and were at last brought near to it. The grand busi
ness of the campaign was then considered terminated, and the unthinking herd
were in the power of their captors.
Now the various persons who intended witnessing the scene to ensue, resorted
to the place selected for the purpose, where the utmost silence was required to be
observed. This was a critical stage of the proceedings ; for accustomed as the
elephants had been to the fires and noise of the people, it was to be feared that
being less terrified by these than by their captivity, they might attempt to break
out of the narrow ring into which they had been pressed. To guard against this,
a party of natives, armed with muskets, squibs, and rockets, acted in concert
with the men stationed on the line of fires, now forming a sweep of three-quarters
of a mile. The funnel-like enclosure had a palisade six hundred feet broad, run
ning across a little way within its wide end, and containing four open gates, at
which the elephants entered. The enclosure was formed of the strongest trees in
the island, from eight to ten inches in diameter, bending inwards, sunk four
feet into the ground, and from sixteen to twenty feet high above it, at a distance
of sixteen inches from each other, and crossed by four rows of powerful beams
bound fast to them with pliant canes. To this palisade were added supporters
more inclined, several feet asunder, to augment the strength of the fence. The
part of the fold in which the elephants were at first confined, was 1800 feet in
circumference, but it communicated with a smaller fold 100 feet in length and
40 broad, through which a rivulet five feet in depth flowed. The elephants
entered this place of confinement at only one gate, and the fence gradually con
tracted beyond the water, ending in a strong passage five feet broad. The signal
having been given, the wild roaring of the elephants, the shouts, muskets and
rockets of the drivers, betokened their approach. Then crashed the forest, and
the tumultuous herd, in pushing forward, levelled every tree which opposed their
passage. The people followed, with their lights, each waving in their hand a
blazing torch, which illuminated the foliage around; at times a strong elephant

714 CEYLON. [PART IV.
of the animals, and to the danger and ruin of the men's health, so
long detained in pestiferous jungles, and with no corresponding advan-
would dart through his pursuers and effect his escape, but the others were now
within the enclosure, and the gates were secured and closed. Large stakes were
driven into the ground, connected together with transverse beams, &c. and fresh
boughs were strewed over the various parts of the palisade to deceive the elephants
as to the structure of the fence.
A chain of fire and torches, was now formed within the enclosure to drive them
into the smaller fold at the narrow end of the snare. The drivers easily passed in
and out through the interstices of the pale, and escaped or advanced at pleasure.
The gate of the water fold was formed of horizontal round sticks, fastened together
with ropes and pliant twigs, and rolled up like a curtain, which were cut on a
given signal by axes. The pliable nature of this door added greatly to its strength,
and, with the vigilant activity of the spearmen, never failed to resist the attempts of
the distracted elephants to burst it open. As soon as a sufficient number had
been driven into the water snare, the barricade was dropped down, and the ani
mals were so closely wedged together as scarcely to have the power of motion.
The remainder of the herd were left for a time to range at greater freedom within
the larger prison. The appearance of a great number of enormous animals within
so small a compass, was a strange and moving spectacle. Pressing heavily upon
each other, incapable of any movement but convulsions of distress, their parox
ysms of anguish were of the most piteous kind : from the water toil to the dis
charging passage, the ground rose, and the elephants ascended part of it on steps
formed in the bank. The gallery was so narrow, as only to admit one animal at
a time. In entering, they, imagining that they had discovered an opening through
which they could escape, eagerly ran to the end, and being checked and unable to
wheel round, attempted to return by moving backwards, but bars let down behind
them secured them fast. When but few remained they had to be pricked with
spears from the top of the fence, and burning torches, rockets and muskets were
used before they could be forced out of the water. The moans of their friends in
distress, and their never seeing any of them return, filled them with dread, and
caused them to prefer their present condition. When at length compelled to move,
they would press so much upon one another that many of the young were drowned,
and some of the full grown crushed to death. Every exertion was made by them
to regain their liberty, but their powers were greatly lessened by the pressure of
the surrounding water, and the incumbrance of their unwieldy bodies crowding in
all directions upon each other. The confinement in the discharging passage, by
contracting the powers of their prodigious strength, permitted the binding their
legs without danger. The transverse beams also prevented the elephants from
rearing on their hind legs, and enabled the people to pass cordage round their
necks. Here their efforts to regain their freedom were made with extraordinary
violence, often raising their fore legs, they crushed the beams laid acros their backs,
and shook the whole fabric to its foundation. The people on the top opposed
them with sharp-pointed spears, and additional bars were shoved in above them,
and fastened down with ropes. Great ropes formed with nooses were laid down
to catch their hind legs, and drawn tight. Meanwhile a man stood before the gate,
tickling the trunk, or otherwise turning their attention. When the wild elephant
was completely harnessed, two tame ones, trained to the business, were brought to
the gate, and placed one on each side of it. These, surveying then- prisoner, and
feeling his mouth to see whether he had tusks or not, laid hold of his proboscis to
ascertain what degree of resistance he was likely to make. Ropes being then
passed through the collar of the wild, and fastened to those of the tame elephants,
the bars of the gate were Unloosed and drawn out, when the wild captive darted
forward between his tame keepers ; he could, however, only advance a little way ;
as the ropes securing his hind legs, still continued fastened to the strong stakes of
the toil. Thus he remained, until the riders mounted on the tame elephants had
drawn tight the cords which bound him to the necks of his sagacious conductors.

CHAP. IV.J GREAT ELEPHANT HUNT — A KRAAL. 715
tage to the community. Gangs of elephant catchers from Bengal,
under the command of a military officer, were formerly employed in
The knots of these he would try to undo with his trunk, and aim a destructive
blow at the agents of his captivity. They, however, were vigilantly observant of
his motions, and never failed to prevent him from doing any mischief, by gently
lowering his proboscis, and if he continued long refractory, battered him with their
heads, and brought him to the most perfect submission. The nooses of the ropes
were then opened, his hind legs left at freedom, and himself entirely disengaged
from the snare. His tame keepers still pressed close to his side, and proceeded
leisurely to the garden of stalls, where they delivered up their charge to experience
another species of hardship. On the march the riders struck up a rustic lay,
which, with their position on the necks of the tame elephants, of which they kept
hold by short inverted spear hooks struck perpendicularly into their collars, helped
to form an unique spectacle.
On reaching their destination, the tedious process of fastening them began.
This was done with expertness and ease, for the tame elephants continued close on
each side of him, and acted their part with so much judgment, that their wild com
panion kept as quiet as a lamb. When an elephant was not very formidable nor
unruly, it was sufficient to place him lengthways between two large trees about
forty feet from each other, and binding his hind legs in contact together, to fasten
them close to one of the trees with five or six turns of thick rope, and to bind one
fore leg, to which greater freedom was given by the length and slackness of the
cordage. His disengagement from his tame guardians, was the most trying
moment to a wild elephant. While guided and soothed by them, he stood tranquil
and gentle, appearing to forget his sorrows, but as soon as they had marched away,
finding himself closely bound, a solitary and helpless prisoner, he was agitated
with despair, broke out into a roaring, which made the forest tremble, and, in the
fury of his grief, often fell a sacrifice to his exertions to regain his liberty. The
tempting provender laid before him he tossed contemptuously away, or trampled
with indignation under his feet. But the cravings of hunger at length induced
him to eat, he became gradually more resigned, and fed tranquilly at the end of a
few hours.
When of large size, and apparently fierce and stubborn, they were led to stalls
erected for the purpose. Four strong stakes were driven into the ground in a
front line, with two large trees, which helped to support them, and thence hori
zontal bars were made fast across them, uniting the upright posts together. These
were likewise strengthened by a second line of stakes joined in the same manner,
and all were secured by ropes like the yards of a ship. The head of the wild ele
phant entered in between the two middle stakes, and was enclosed above and below
by two of the cross bars. On the backs of tame elephants, posted between the
stakes and trees, five or six men were employed fastening his neck, and as many
more busy tying his legs in the most complete and secure manner, and binding
the ropes to the large trees, generally living ones. In defiance of the web cast
around him, the huge animal would at times shake the whole fabric to its founda
tion, making the loftiest trees to tremble to their very roots, and bellow so tre
mendously as to fill the spectators with terror.
The casualties on these occasions were numerous. Some strangled themselves
in their exertions to get loose, others fell down between the tame ones, and though
those sagacious animals, aware of their hazardous situation, knelt to the ground
to prevent their suffering, and used every means in their power to induce them to
rise, yet they often fell victims. Some fell down in the discharging passage, and
though a strong fire were kindled around their bodies, and forced them to move, as
the business of the hunt would be retarded by the choking up of the passage,
they would proceed but a few paces and die. One, perhaps, would in the face of
every precaution get loose, and though soon surrounded by a thousand armed
men, break through the line and escape. At times, three or more of the larger
elephants would charge up to the end of the narrow passage, pressing one after

716 CEYLON. [PART IV.
.procuring elephants for the East India Company's service. The
Ceylon elephant establishment was attached to the Civil Engineer
and Surveyor- General's department.
There are several modes of snaring elephants in Ceylon ; the most
simple, and yet most dexterous, is noosing them in an open forest.
With this view, the hunters having ascertained the position of one,
steal up to leeward, carrying their atmaddoos, or ropes of bullock's
hide, with a noose at one end. Having closed upon the enemy's
flank, they watch for the time of his starting off or turning round,
near some fallen tree or other impediment, to slip the noose under
one of his hind feet, simultaneously running round a tree with the
other end of the rope. Checked and tripped, the animal stumbles,
and ere he can rally, additional hide ropes are fastened to his other
legs, which are afterwards entangled by cords made from the
kittul, or sugar palm-tree, and twisted from one foot to another, in
the form of a figure of eight. The elephant is then fixed to the
nearest tree, and a shed erected over him, unless tame ones can be
procured to escort him to the stable.
Another and less dangerous mode of capturing elephants is, by
laying a large noose of gasmaddoo, a thicker kind of rope, called
" tree snares," to distinguish it from atmaddoo, or hand snares, in a
path, covering it slightly with earth, and fixing the other end to a
shady tree, in which a man lies hid, who holds a leading rope
attached to the noose. The elephants being driven towards the
snare, if any of them put a foot within the noose, it is raised around"
his leg by the man who is on watch : by the animal's exertions to
escape, the noose is tightened, and the hunters coming up, the
capture is completed. This mode is dangerous as respects the
animal, which will often overstrain itself before the hunter can
come up.
another, crashing the intervening bars, and shaking the whole structure. But
the activity of the hunters in separating them by new rollers lashed together with
ropes, and the dexterity of the spearmen in mounting the toil and penetrating
their foreheads, prevented the terrible effects that might otherwise have ensued.
Now and then a man would tumble down in the passage, and would be immediately
trampled to death under the elephants' feet.
An elephant has often been tamed in eight days, but where obstinate, in not less
than two months. His first abhorrence of the human species was diminished by
seeing his wants regularly supplied through that channel ; he soon gained a
thorough knowledge of his keeper, and at last followed his commands with the
most implicit obedience. The cries of a captive elephant had all the expressions
of sorrow, grief, and despair. The female, from natural causes, felt the oppres
sion of the yoke with keener sensibility, and more frequently fell a sacrifice in the
struggle than the male. Though the Singhalese were expert in this operation,
they seldom secured more than twenty animals in a day.
The grandeur of this spectacle principally consisted in the crowd of elephants
confined within a narrow compass, the enormous size of that quadruped, the
danger of the pursuit, and the striking example it afforded of the supremacy of
human intellect. When sufficiently docile, the whole body of elephants were sent
to Jaffna, where they were sold by public auction, and thence transported to the
continent, in open boats adapted for the purpose. Elephant kraals were at times
formed in other parts of the maritime provinces, as occasion required.

CHAP. IV.J MODES OF CAPTURE — ATMADDOOS, GASMADDOOS. 7 1 7
In the Kandian provinces, both the systems of capturing elephants
and driving them into kraals, and then using the gasmaddoos and
atmaddoos were formerly practised together. In the Doombera dis
trict near Kandy, there were kept a herd of half tame elephants for
the purpose of inducing passing herds to continue in the vicinity of a
kraal formed at a short distance from the villages of the elephant
hunters. Two or three good tusked elephants, of a large size, two
female decoys, a large body of people, bearing a due proportion of
pipes, tom-toms, hide ropes and hunters' spears, formed what was the
requisite array, and all the necessary apparatus for driving in and
securing a herd not exceeding twenty elephants.
The enclosure for catching elephants, commonly called a kraal, is
composed of trees, about a foot in diameter, of a triangular form,
sunk three or four feet into the ground, and rising twelve feet above
it : on the outside of these upright timbers, trees are placed length
ways, and tied to each post by jungle ropes (tough creeping plants) ;
these longitudinal pieces are farther supported by trees with forked
ends sloping from them, and resting in the ground at some distance
from the fence. The space between the upright timbers is left of
sufficient size to admit of a man passing through, and in choosing
the situation and arranging the plan of the enclosure, it is absolutely
necessary that the entrance should be at a spot where the elephants
are in the habit of passing, and that the kraal should have a copious
supply of running water. As elephants cannot be driven far without
a great expenditure of human labour and risk of accidents, small
kraals are preferable to large ones, and the sides of a ravine, ledges
of rock, or other natural barriers, may, in general, be made available.
An enclosure of fragile construction has availed for this purpose
when the hunters have found it to their interest.
The kraal having been completed, and the people arranged, so as
to surround the herd, driving is commenced by firing a few blank
shots, followed by the rolling pattering sound of tom-toms and shouts
from the beaters. On the large trees persons are stationed to give
notice of the elephants' movements, and prevent their resting under
the shade ; for if the day be clear, and the underwood low, it is dif
ficult to dislodge them from the protection of a forest tree with thick
foliage. To gain this point, the watchers would not hesitate to lower
themselves down from a branch, of which they still retained hold,
upon the backs of wild elephants, and regain their position in the
tree, while the animals were effectually and speedily dislodged by the
loud shout, sharp goad and unlooked for descent of these watchers.
When the herd approaches the kraal, the decoys, which are without
any trappings whatever, are taken in front, and they, following the
keepers, who are on foot, become leaders to the wild ones, who, thus
seduced, enter the snare, while the hunting tusk elephants being
close on their track, move up, and the gate is fastened under their
protection and by their assistance. At the same time the hunters
spread themselves around the fence ready to resist the first efforts of

718 CEYLON, [PART IV.
the animals ; for, frightened by the tumult, and enraged at their en
trapment, they sometimes charge furiously at the barricades, but are
soon repelled by sharp sticks, blunt spears, and smoking brands.
They have been known, however, to disregard all obstacles, and rush
with such violence against the enclosure, as to force a portion asunder,
and falling upon the watchers outside, to injure several of them.
The Vederalles (native doctors) are skilful in amputation, though their
whole surgical apparatus consists of a knife, a pair of scissors, and a
searing iron. In general the violent excitement of the leaders of a
herd on their entrapment is soon over, and the whole draw up with
their heads in a line in the thickest brushwood within the enclosure.
Occasionally some one more valiant than the rest, after various
scrapes of his feet, having duly elevated his trunk and sounded a
charge, rushes forward as if irresistible, but a few pricks from spears
directed against his feet and proboscis are sufficient to send the single
champion sulky and discomfited back to his ranks. There is scarcely
a more awkward figure to be found than an elephant charging, with
his great triangular ears set out like studding-sails from a huge head,
in front of which ascends the trunk like a funnel of a steam engine,
while the main body comes lumbering after, terminated by a half-
cocked scanty scrubby tail. The tails of elephants ranging in thick
jungles, are generally denuded of hair, or at most but a few broken
stumps near the extremity : when the hairs are thick, and seven or
eight inches in length, they are used for forming bracelets and other
ornaments, and being difficult to procure, are proportionably es
teemed. Amidst the confusion and shouting by the people about
the kraal, the note of a Kandian pipe may be distinguished, an in
strument supposed to soothe the captive, and it does appear to
produce some effect in restoring them to tranquillity. Nothing, on
the contrary, excites their anger so much as the barking of a dog,
and the intrusion of that animal into a kraal, has infuriated a whole
herd. At night fires are kept burning round the enclosure, and
against its supporting beams the hunters and watchers bivouac next
day, the wives and families of the men, having donned their gayest
and best attire, bring their husbands' provisions, and display their own
ornaments to the surrounding throng. The elephant catchers
having completed their preparations, the entrance is unfastened, the
hunting elephants introduced, and with their protection, the people
fix their gasmaddoos and arrange their hand snares. A tame elephant
is brought up close to the wild one that is to be secured, who is as
sailed from under cover of his civilized brother : one of the hunters
pricks the animal's foot ; if he lifts it, another whips a noose under,
and raising it up, pulls the cord tight ; if successful, a shout an
nounces the feat, as a premium is bestowed on each of those who fix
the two first ropes. These prizes are generally dress clothes. It is
the duty of the two riders that are placed on each trained elephant,
and hold short inverted spear-hooks, to prevent, as much as possible,
any annoyance to the hunters, and it is a very remarkable fact, that

CHAP. IV.J ELEPHANT STABLES, TRAINING—USES OF ELEPHANTS. 719
the wild elephants seldom offer to molest a tame one or his riders
under any provocation. After having secured one of the herd, and
tied him, so that he can barely put one foot before another, a tame
elephant is brought up on each side, and to these he is fastened in
such a manner that he can neither resist nor lie down, the hunter
turning them by means of the spear and by pressing it to their skin,
makes them move in any direction required : the three then move
off in state, and according to ancient custom, if the captive be a tusk
elephant, the pipes and tom-toms play before him until he reaches the
stable. Elephant stables, when filled with animals recently caught, present
a most unpleasant sight : in front the appearance is that of a number
of malefactors in the stocks, the animals being so fixed, as to be
unable to move their heads or legs ; the latter are bound to four
separate posts, and their heads project from between two large beams
that reach to the top of the building. The cords with which they
are bound produce numerous sores, and to prevent flies from irritat
ing these and annoying the animals, fires of green wood are kept
smouldering in every part of the building. In such a miserable po
sition, few would survive, if they were not taken to water and allowed
to lie in it for several hours every day, and as this cannot be done
without the assistance of tame elephants, it is useless and cruel to
catch too many at one time ; for the number will depend on the nu
merical strength of those already trained and attached to the hunting
department. Elephants, from the period of their capture until tame enough to
be fastened to one post only, are not permitted to lie down in the
stable, and the time required to make them sufficiently tractable for
this indulgence, varies from one to three months, according to the
disposition of the animal and skill of the keepers. When removed
from the stables to the water, it is the duty of the keepers daily to
scrub their elephants with rubbers formed by cutting across the
fibrous covering of the cocoa-nut ; sometimes a rough stone is used
instead of this instrument of luxury, and appears to gratify the
animal in no slight degree.
Under the native sovereigns in the Kandian country elephants
without tusks were seldom captured, as they were not used in state
processions, nor had any been trained for agricultural purposes, and
but few as a means of conveying baggage, until the British set the
example of employing the strength of elephants to clear forests and
move heavy bodies. The general weapon of offence against elephants
in ancient times in the Kandian territories would appear to have
been bows and arrows, and the natives, by dodging about the trees,
contrived to escape the animal's charges.
By the assistance of female decoys and the inhabitants surround
ing and driving the herd, elephants were sometimes brought into the
town, and their capture completed under the eye of the king in the
square before the palace at Kandy, but the speckled and tusked

720 CEYLON. [PART IV.
alone were retained. Knox adds, that if the elephants caught did
not please the king, he ordered their liberation, but if they did, he
selected some spot in the vicinity of the city whither they were to be
driven with the females, for without them they would not stay, and
there they were kept until the king ordered their secural, which
might not take place for three or four years, during which interval
headmen and watchers were set over them, and if they should chance
to stray beyond the royal bounds, they immediately brought them
back, apprehensive of the king's displeasure, which was little short
of de(ath. These elephants did great damage to the country, eating
up the corn or trampling it, throwing down cocoa-nut trees, and
frequently houses ; nor could they be resisted, as it was considered
to be the king's will, and the result of their devastation frequently
was that they were liberated and sent back to the woods, being caught
for no use or benefit but for the king's recreation and pastime. This
was by no means so difficult an undertaking as might at first sight
appear, for the approaches to the capital, and even the paths in the
immediate neighbourhood of the palace, were more likely to deter
travellers than to excite suspicion in an elephant following his Dalilah.
It appears that the Kandian kings made use of them as executioners,
first, by treading on the culprit, and then running their tusks
through the body, and tearing it in pieces. For this they were fur
nished with a sharp iron and a socket with three edges, which they
put on their tusks, for the king's elephants had all the ends of their
tusks cut to strengthen and increase them in size. The keepers would
sometimes force the elephants to take water in their trunks, and
then to squirt it at somebody, and with such force that a man could
hardly stand against it.
If it be intended to use the tree snares in catching elephants, they
are driven towards the place where the noose is concealed under a
slight covering of earth or leaves ; they however carefully avoid the
spot where the earth appears disturbed, and may be seen with their
huge snouts pointed up and smelling at the man who watches in the
tree above, holding a line communicating with the noose. While
thus engaged, a push from a tame elephant sends some of them
staggering into the snare, which is immediately, by pulling the lead
ing rope, raised up round one of their legs, the first step the animal
takes tightens the noose, and the rest of the herd being driven away,
the farther securing of the captive is easily accomplished.
So accustomed formerly were the natives of the interior to elephants,
that those persons who were unconnected with the hunting establish
ment might be^ seen crossing through the kraal rather than go a few
yards further by the outside of the enclosure ; and on their way, if
charged by any of the captives, the people seemed to calculate to a
nicety the pace necessary to insure a safe retreat, and skipped through
between the barricades, while the pursuer's head was met by a suffi
cient number of spear points to prevent his rushing against the
timbers. A case has happened where a fierce and very large

CHAP. IV.J COOLNESS AND CONFIDENCE OF THE PEOPLE. 721
elephant has charged towards the entrance before it could be closed ;
the hunting elephant, who should have defended the post, fled ; the
people followed, with the exception of one old man who remained
unmoved supporting a great beam poised on its end, which his party
had been in the act of placing when the charge commenced. Con
fident in his own intrepidity the old man looked round in triumph,
then gradually lowered the piece of timber, and so well did he judge
both time and distance, that the furious animal was brought up by
her forehead being dashed right against the end of the descending
beam. The shock actually shook the ground for some distance, and
the half-stunned animal recoiled for several paces, while the headman
reassembled his fugitive followers, who were now as eager to shew
their zeal as before they had been backward in displaying their
courage. Spears used in elephant hunting should have their handles
of a tough light wood, ten feet in length, and for heads have iron
balls, from which a small point projects, but not so far as to permit
it to pierce entirely through the thick skin of an elephant. With com
mon spears dangerous wounds have been sometimes given, and sores
formed which are aggravated by the discipline of the stable. Spears
are no efficient protection to the hunters, and are apt to induce
recklessness, yet all are most anxious to have them. A man has
been known, when run at by an elephant, to place his spear against
the animal's forehead and allow himself to be pushed back till he has
made his exit between two trees of the enclosure. At times, from
a sudden panic, the movements of the more experienced hunters
have been impeded by the inexperienced, and their spears shivered ;
the animal has seized them in its trunk and griped them so severely
as to draw blood from their mouths and ears, till a ball sent through
the elephant's head has released them. At other times they have
been caught, thrown down, and shuffled first between the forefeet,
and then through the hind ones of a wild elephant, and killed, or
their ribs have been broken, and their bodies roughly grated.
The capture of a herd of elephants by torch-light is one of those
scenes never to be forgotten. Surrounded on every side by blazing
chules, confused by the noise of tom-toms, and the screeching of
Kandians, the bewildered animals rush into the snare, at the same
time that the hunting elephants come up and occupy the gate by
which the herd has entered until the beams can be secured. The
hunters immediately close around the barricade, intimidating the
enraged captives by waving lighted brands in whatever direction
they rush. After a few violent efforts the whole herd will draw
up closely pressed together in a small spot of thick brushwood, from
which their eyes may be seen glaring at the blaze of torches which
lights up the surrounding forest.
When any of the tame male elephants become furious (which they
do periodically), they are bound to a tree with a strong iron chain,
and supplied with food and water, but cannot be unloosed till the
3 A

722 CEYLON. [PART IV.
symptoms abate : the time of this infirmity, which is a species of mad
ness, and is preceded by an oily discharge from their cheeks, varies
from four days to four weeks, and is said to continue longer in tuskers
than other elephants. When this season is approaching they be
come dangerous even to their keepers, and there are few, if any, of
the old hunting elephants that have not killed persons employed
about them, often with peculiar trickery and cunning. Sometimes
when secured to a tree, and as the keeper has barely stood within
reach, the elephant has suddenly seized him at the moment another
elephant was passing and pressed the unfortunate man against this
animal until one of the thick blunt tusks has passed through the
keeper's body. At other times the tame elephant has in a capricious
and irritable mood, contrived to unseat bis riders by violent exertions
in the midst of a herd of wild ones, when the men would run the
greatest risks of death.
Under the forced labour system various classes of labour, such as
hunters, trainers, leaf-cutters, and elephant doctors, were always em
ployed. Since 1831 the government of Ceylon has permitted, nay
encouraged, the destruction of these animals, which in certain dis
tricts rendered useless the labours of the agriculturist, by breaking
through the fences of the paddy fields, and a premium is given
in some districts for elephant's tails, which being minced into a
thousand pieces to prevent imposition, are then buried. The
decrease in numbers of this comparatively useless animal, is doubt
less owing to this cause, and the thinning they undergo at the hands
of the sportsman ; but while thousands of square miles of fertile but
uncultivated land remain, they will find a covert from extinction.
The dead carcass of ,an elephant is sufficient to induce an effluvia in
its vicinity for two months, and becomes the nightly prey of jack-
alls and other beasts, who fight for the precious morceaux amidst
terrific howling. Hence the natives will endeavour to frighten away
an elephant from their villages, if they chance to hear of a sports
man being in the locality, or they would be unbearable. Elephants
petit-toes pickled in strong toddy, vinegar and cayenne pepper, are
by some considered an Apieian luxury.
The magnificent sport of elephant shooting demands the most
unflinching aim, the most imperturbable coolness, great promptitude,
and a complete knowledge of the animal's organization, in a sports
man, or he will not only fail in bagging them (as it is here facetiously
called), but probably be truncated by the animal. The brain of an
elephant occupies but a small space of the head, the bones of which
are thin and very light. The fore part of the head — in front of the
brain— for a thickness of eight inches, is formed of cells, separated
by thin plates of bone : this, with the muscles necessary to move
their trunks and support their enormous heads, is the cause why
sportsmen have always missed their game when distant more than
a few paces.
The mode in which elephants are procured for sportsmen is, by

CHAP. IV.] QUALITIES REQUISITE IN A SPORTSMAN — MISTAKES. 723
encircling, or rather semi-circling the herd with a number of persons
who drive them forward with tom-toms. It is a moment in which
every conceivable form of excitement is concentrated ; the signal
being given generally by persons stationed on trees, who can see the
whole proceedings, the sportsman taking his station on the sheltered
side of the cover, as otherwise from the keen sense of smell of these
animals they would avoid breaking out of the jungle near his ambush.
The beaters commence operations : then follows a distant shout upon
the breeze, and then silence for a considerable time, while the beaters
are cautiously advancing into the position just abandoned by the
elephants, as the latter will sometimes shew unmistakeable signs of
keeping their ground.
This concluded, the shouts near upon the ear, and the sound of
the tom-toms is distinguished ; the general effect of the long con
tinued shouting, and the noise of the approaching elephants, is that
of the rushing sound and heavy fall of a great volume of water ; but
as the mass approaches, the breaking of branches, the beating of
tom-toms, the wild shouts of the people, and the crash of decayed
and falling trees can be distinguished from the ponderous tread of
the advancing herds, as they press through the yielding forest. The
elephants are now near the sportsman, who is advantageously posted,
remaining perfectly still lest the elephants should be turned back ;
and for the same reason the leader of a herd should be allowed to
pass, as the others will endeavour to follow at all hazards and in the
same direction, while there will be a greater chance of sport. The
beaters close in, and loud shouts of people propel the animal forward
to become a mark for bis human enemy. Out of a herd of twenty
from six to eight will generally fall before the sportsman, who will carry
away their tails as a trophy ; and 106 elephants have been bagged
in three days by four sportsmen, but accidents frequently occur to
the inexperienced that in some degree mar the otherwise unsurpass
able pleasure of the sport, and laughable scenes have occurred by
young sportsmen proceeding to dock the elephant's tail before
making sure of his death. A case once occurred where a sportsman
having shot an elephant, apparently in full vigour, was surprised to
find its deficiency in that respect ; his companion coming up soon
after, produced the trophy, and was requested to point out the
carcass from which he had cut it. He proceeded to the spot, but
the marks of blood alone remained to vouch for his having amputated
the tail of a live elephant.
The present mode of shooting elephants is for the sportsman him
self to enter the jungle ; this is more sportsmanhke, and the only
risk is to himself and immediate followers.
Instances have been known where what has been considered a life
less trunk and been treated accordingly, has on a sudden sprung up
and dealt death on its persecutors. Major Forbes thus describes an
occurrence of this sort. " We were leisurely descending the hill and
3 a 2

724 CEYLON. [PART IV.
approaching the bulky mass— a dead elephant -as we had for the
last twenty minutes supposed it to be. Around the carcass fifty or
sixty people had assembled, and were squatted on their haunches
chewing betel. Suddenly we saw them spring to their feet, and the
assembly appeared to be rapidly diverging from the late centre of
attraction. We could now distinguish the elephant moving on the
ground, then heard him blowing shrilly through his trunk, and per
ceived that he was attempting to rise. We had discharged our good
guns, and they were not reloaded, so that three cut down muskets
were all we had left, except one single barrel, which had been given
to a young boy to carry, and he was still far behind. The elephant
was already on his knees ; no time was to be lost : we rushed for
ward and discharged the three muskets close to his head. Luckily
for us he moved off in the opposite direction from where we stood.
At this moment the gallant little native boy came up and thrust the
single barrel into my hand. I fired ; the elephant dropped on his
knees, and in that situation remained full half a minute, then
recovered himself and dashed into the jungle near to where he first
broke cover. While we were loading our guns the beaters again
surrounded the jungle. This was only completed when we saw the
elephant dash through the bamboo thicket, which yielded before his
furious charge and weighty body, as if it was but a field of water-
reeds. His trunk was now erect, and emitting a loud and long con
tinued squeal, he directed his headlong force against a withered tree
which grew on a rocky bank. The tree was broken and hurled to
the ground. The day was now far spent, and the animal appeared
so furious that the beaters were recalled, and we were about to pro
ceed homewards when the modeliar was informed that there was the
mangled body of a man lying near the tree which the elephant had
cast down. We were not long in getting a path cleared to the place,
and in having the unfortunate man removed to the outside of the
jungle ; he was still alive, but insensible and dreadfully mangled.
One native asserted that he was near when the accident happened,
and saw the elephant strike the man as he was falling from the tree,
but from the nature of the wounds I believe they were occasioned by
the man being pitched from a considerable height and alighting head
foremost among broken rocks. The man survived three days ; the
elephant died the same night, after making his way to a neighbour
ing stream."
The death of Major Haddock, to whom a stone pillar, with an
inscription, marking the spot on which the melancholy catastrophe
occurred, was erected by Sir W. Horton, was caused in the follow
ing manner :- — The elephant he was in pursuit of, after being severely
wounded and driven back into the forest, reappeared close to him,
"when he immediately fired and moved to one side : his servant, who
had stood behind him, then fired, and the animal turned off towards
Major Haddock, whom he seized, threw down and trampled to

CHAP. IV.] ACCIDENTS UNFREQUENT — BARRELS BEST ADAPTED. 725
death. This was the work of a moment ; for the servant flew to the
spot, and while he was raising the mangled remains of his master,
the elephant slowly retreated. Shortly after another officer was
killed in a somewhat similar manner, by a tusker in the same neigh
bourhood. Two of his brother officers having determined to revenge
his death, effected it in the following manner :'
A sportsman, fairly equipped for elephant shooting, ought to have
at least four barrels, consisting of two double-barrelled guns, carry
ing balls of an ounce and a third in weight, and of strength sufficient
to take a large charge of powder. Plain are to be preferred to rifle
barrels, as they occupy less time in loading, which is sometimes of
great consequence, and smooth barrels carry balls with sufficient
accuracy ; for shooting at a distance is seldom or never successful in
this sport, and it is not advisable to fire until you are within fifteen
yards of the animal, and half that distance is preferable ; as then
your shot, if it fail to kill, will in all probability check him for a
1 " The elephant having been constantly watched, no delay took place in point
ing out his position ; but owing to heavy rain, it was not till the afternoon that
they could go in search of him. Shortly after entering a dense bamboo jungle,
they discovered him slowly approaching them, and having allowed him to come
pretty close, both gentlemen fired together at his head. The atmosphere being
exceedingly damp and heavy, the smoke hung around for some seconds, during
which they were in the most anxious suspense, from their ignorance of the posi
tion of the elephant, till on its clearing a little, they saw him still advancing on
them, when, on receiving the contents of their two remaining barrels, he turned
round and fell on his knees. Quickly recovering himself, however, he retreated
rapidly through the jungle, closely followed by his pursuers, who again fired three
shots at him without any apparent effect, his position rendering it exceedingly
difficult to see a vulnerable spot. The fourth shot, fired as the elephant turned
half round, took effect somewhere in the side of his head, and again brought him
to his knees. A halt now took place, to load the guns, and the sportsmen ran
on the elephant's track, for nearly half a mile, at their utmost speed, without
getting a sight of him, till at last, on reaching the commencement of a slight
descent, he was discovered about twenty yards off, still retreating, but on seeing
his pursuers, he wheeled round and rushed furiously at them. The one in front
fired both barrels deliberately into his head, but without stopping him for an in
stant, and had barely time to throw himself to one side of the path of the infu
riated animal, whose trunk was within six feet of him. At this instant, his friend,
who was about six yards behind, fired at the right temple of the elephant, and
the next moment had to crouch to one side to allow the brute to pass him, which
he did, almost touching his companion, without appearing to notice him. Directly
he had passed, one of them ran for a yard or two across the jungle, hoping to get
a side shot at his head, and in this he succeeded ; for the moment he crossed the
path, so as to come on the left side of the elephant, the brute wheeled round to
get at him, and when in the act of doing so, he fired his last barrel, which taking
effect, immediately behind the left ear, produced instant death. On examining
the head, it appeared that the shot fired at the right temple, when one of them
jumped to one side had providentially knocked out the elephant's right eye ; and
as both gentlemen fortunately took to their own left in getting out of the brute's
path, this circumstance accounted for their escape. Had they taken the other
side, one, if not both, must have perished. This elephant was one of the largest
ever seen." — Colombo Observer, 1838.

726 CEYLON. [PART IV,
sufficient time to allow of exchanging your gun and hitting again.
Brass balls are recommended by old sportsmen, or the American
plan of cutting a small portion of the surface of two balls flat, and
screwing them together, is equally useful. As the sportsman's
attention must be entirely occupied in forcing through the jungle,
and keeping a good look out, his followers should have good nerves,
sufficient activity, and some experience ; if this is the case, there is
little risk, as his follower will hand him the loaded gun immediately
on hearing the other discharged.
This is done by those accustomed to it in such a way that the
sportsman is not required to withdraw his eye from the animal,
whose advance might not allow him time to return to his proper
position, and take a steady aim. When an elephant charges, he
rushes headlong forward with the trunk upright, at the same time
making a wild, loud, long continued noise, resembling the sound of
a bad trumpet, and very different from the deep hollow growl which
he utters when alarmed or slightly irritated. It is necessary to know
those parts of an elephant's head, by hitting which your ball can reach
the brain ; for this occupies but a small space in proportion to the
size of their skulls. It is also necessary to bear in your eye the
height of the elephant before you relative to the position in which
you stand. A tall elephant advancing straight upon you, if the
ground be level and his head erect, cannot receive a mortal hit, and
it was in this way that one near Gampola, famed for the number of
natives he is said to have killed, always advanced ; certain it is, that
he had often escaped the vengeance due for his numerous victims,
and was at last killed while charging, up a steep hill, at a gentleman
who, with only one gun, accidentally encountered him in the dusk of
the evening. Luckily, however, advancing with the head erect when
they approach any obstacle is not usual with elephants, and it seems
natural for them to lower their heads and curl up their trunks when
resolved on removing any thing that obstructs their progress.
Through fear of mutilating their trunk, they seldom strike with any
great force when they make use of it, though a wounded elephant
has been known, in running away, to strike and kill with one blow
of its trunk, an unlucky buffalo that crossed its path ; and on an
other occasion, an elephant that had turned and broken through the
line of beaters at an elephant hunt, reached up in passing, and killed
a man who had taken refuge in a tree. The man had hold, with
both his hands, of a branch above that on which he stood, and could
easily have raised himself higher, but he was looking down, and con
sidered himself beyond reach of danger ; it was at this moment that
the elephant, stretching up, struck the man with such force as to
break both his thighs, and hurl him to the ground ; the elephant
took no further notice of his victim, but passed on : the man lived
but a few minutes. A herd of elephants never charges en masse,
although affection for their young may induce some of the females,

CHAP. IV.] AN ELEPHANT CHARGE— TIME FOR SHOOTING. 727
if closely pursued, to turn upon the sportsman ; and on reaching very
thick jungles, they generally turn round, either from feeling them
selves secure of a retreat, or afraid of being taken in forcing their
entrance. In shooting elephants, by forcing up to them in the jungle, the
forenoon is the best time, as then they are least inclined to move
from the shade, under which they may be seen flapping their ears,
crossing and rubbing their legs, swinging their bodies ; in short,
always moving, unless alarmed1 or listening, in which case they seem
to trust most to their sense of smell, and move their trunk in every
direction, trying to fix the point from whence they may expect dis
turbance. If the wind should favour them, after a short time the
trunk will be found pointed in the proper direction, and the whole
endeavour to steal off as quietly as they can, but never allowing any
of the young ones to fall behind.
In dry weather, and during the heat of the day, elephants are
seldom to be found without a leafy branch held in their trunk, with
which they switch off the flies, by which they are especially tor
mented. When lying down, they sleep soundly, and may be easily
surprised, but they do not often indulge in this mode of rest, and gene
rally recline against a tree, on which they have been rubbing themselves
with the red earth scattered over their bodies ; the trees are so marked
as to enable those who are employed in watching them to form an
idea of the size of the largest elephants in the herd. The elephant
hunters are seldom mistaken as to the size and numbers of a herd,
though they may not have fallen in with it, as they can trace the
foot marks on the hardest soil. If the sportsman has alarmed the
herd, he should make a dash forward before they have time to turn
themselves round and commence their retreat. If unsuccessful in
this, and unable to get a shot at their heads, an active man, by fol
lowing them closely, may sometimes succeed in overtaking them, and
causing them to turn upon him.
When elephant shooting was in its infancy, the sportsman who re
turned to his native country, and had anticipated no little pleasure
from the credit his achievements in this untrodden field would bring
him, was woefully disappointed when he found that the relation of
his deeds was met by laughter that could not be suppressed, and
looking round saw incredibility in every eye, and having " practical"
men to deal with, was fain to explain away what would, if persisted
in, at once have ruined his character for veracity.
" The Elk," ( Cervus unicolor) or Gona Rusa. —Is a shy and appa
rently solitary, though really a gregarious animal, which soon detects
1 An elephant may be approached to leeward within reach, and sportsmen
have been known to clap their hands and shout, and upon the animal's looking
round, plant a two-ounce ball in the centre of the os frontis, or immediately be
hind the ear, when in a moment the mighty animal would roll lifeless on the
earth.

728 CEYLON. [PART IV.
the approach of an intruder, and shrinks from his presence into the
thickest covert. In appearance, it closely resembles the Scottish red
deer, but is soon tired, and remains at bay, making a feeble resistance
to the hounds. The colour is a dark dusky brown, approaching to
black on the neck, belly, and hind part of the thigh. When full
grown, it attains to the height of five feet. It differs from the stag
kind by its short mane on the neck and throat. Those attempted to
be tamed have been playful and harmless, till the second year, after
which they have become vicious, and it is never safe to come near it
in the rutting season. It is found in great plenty near all the woods
and thickets of the island. The Singhalese call it Gona.
Axis Deer — (Cervus axis, or Axis maculata)-, Muwa, Singh.
Is to be met with in great numbers in the Northern Province, ven
turing out to graze in the open country, only before sun-rise and
after sun-set, and affording good sport to those who are fond of
coursing. These deer are prettily spotted, the colour being a choco
late brown, are in general from three to three and a half feet high,
and more elegantly formed than the fallow deer, which, how
ever, they much resemble : they are easily tamed, but the males be
come dangerous when old, and even the does are apt to butt and bite
when they are full grown. Albinos are not uncommon in this species
of deer, with peculiar red eyes. There are two species, the spotted
and middle sized ; the latter is never spotted. It has rough and
strong horns, trifurcated. In a state of nature both are exceedingly
shy and timid, but become bold and ferocious, and not to be trusted,
when domesticated. The flesh is not much esteemed, having httle
fat upon it, and being very dry. The male only has horns.
The Indian Samver, or Musk Deer, called in India Meminna,
hence its Linnean name Moschus Meminna — in Ceylon, Mooua ? is no
larger than a common hare, viz. one foot five inches long, five pound
weight, of an cinereous olive colour ; throat, breast, and belly white ;
sides and haunches spotted and barred transversely with white ;
ears large and open ; tail very short. It is, nevertheless, as beauti
fully made, and as perfect in form as the larger species, and has
tusks. It is considered fit to eat.
Stylocerus Muntjak — the size of the roebuck, horns small, with
only one anterior snag ; standing upon elevated pedicles ; long canines
in most males ; deep suborbital sinus ; small muzzle ; colour fulvous.
Pariar Dog.— These animals, are all mongrels, and rank per
haps the lowest in the canine scale, holding a similar position to that
of vagrants and vagabonds among the human castes, but are en
dowed with great sharpness of wits and facility of digestion, which
enables them to exist where the higher bred animal would starve.
When pressed by hunger they will feed on fallen jack fruit, and the
most juvenile of the species will display a precociousness in providing
the ways and means, which is truly wonderful. The general appear
ance of these dogs is wretched in the extreme, lank sides, lame legs,

CHAP. IV.J DEER, BUFFALO, WILD HOG, AND CHEETAH. 729
blind eyes and blotched bodies being a characteristic of the race. The
length of the body is about twenty-two inches, of the tail sixteen ; the
latter tapers to a point. The nose is long, thick, and blunt at the end.
The claws are more like those of a cat than a dog : the colour
cinereous yellow; belly ash-coloured; the legs almost entirely brown ;
the hair close set and soft. One kind look is sufficient to attach one
of these dogs to a stranger for ever ; yet such is the inveteracy of
habit, that these dogs, when adopted and placed in good quarters,
where they soon become fat, cannot break off their partiality for
marauding excursions, in which indeed they are frequently killed.
To diminish the number of this next to useless animal the Govern
ment has lately imposed a small tax on the owners, greatly to their
annoyance. The Gaura, or Gauvera of Knox, formerly supposed to have been
a large and fierce animal, that had once existed, but had subsequently
become extinct in Ceylon, but of which several localities retain the
name ; as the Gaura-flat, Gaura-ellia, &c. is nothing more than the
Ceylon buffalo (Bos bubalus), a variety of the Malabar. This animal
is commonly found in the thinly inhabited districts of the flat coun
try : it is strong and fierce, and the form of the head is such, that
a ball fired against it, is apt to glance off. Hence the shoulder
is the mark for the sportsman's fire ; but to secure a fair shot,
the best way is for two persons to place themselves so that one
may be opposite to the side of the animal, when it charges at the
other in front. A wild buffalo, when charging, advances in a curved
line, with the head down, and inclined sideways in such a manner
that one horn is advanced. Their courage and perseverance in attack
is as remarkable as their tenacity of life : good guns of a large size
are therefore absolutely requisite. The wild buffalo differs so much
in spirit and appearance from the tame, that a person ignorant of
their common origin, might readily take them for two distinct species :
this arises from domestication and labour. See p. 563.
Wild Hog (Phacochcerus), Singh. Wai uru — Is a variety of the
Malabar hog. This animal has great strength and ferocity, and will
make up for any traveller it may see approaching. The only re
markable feature about the animal is the snout, which nature seems
to have particularly adapted to the employment designed by it, which
is that of ploughing up the ground in search of roots. It is found
in almost every part of Ceylon, especially in the jungle, where large
herds are not unfrequently met with, which are not to be molested
with impunity, though perfectly inoffensive when not disturbed. Its
usual size is that of the common hog of Europe. The colour is in
general black, inclining to grey on the neck and shoulders. The
flesh being dry and of a high flavour, is not much relished by
Europeans, but the natives are exceedingly partial to it.
The Cheetah (Felis jubata) Kotia, Singh. — Is very destructive
to cattle ; it is sometimes eight feet in length, yet it seldom attacks

730 CEYLON. [PART IV.
human beings, unless when wounded, and in self-defence. Children
have been seized, but doubtless from the animal's anticipation
of an attack from them ; as they have been generally abandoned
when grown-up people were perceived. Cheetahs are destroyed
m the Kandian province by spring-guns or by cross-bows, set with
large bladed arrows, and caught in enclosures having a fallen
gate, and formed round some animal they have recently destroyed.
They are also caught in pitfalls and by a platform, supporting a great
weight of stones, suspended over some bullock recently killed, the
whole being so constructed as to descend and secure any animal
which passes underneath. The best way to destroy cheetahs, is to
employ natives who are accustomed to watch and shoot these destruc
tive animals, as they will not only guess the time of their approach
to a certainty, but kill the intruder with equal precision. A cheetah,
when wounded, is able to spring and strike a man down, and will
strip the member it seizes of its flesh. This animal is so fond of
preying on dogs, that they will seize them when running before their
master, and dash back with them into the jungle. The mere smell
of a cheetah will produce a panic in cattle ; as also the imprint of its
feet, and they will start off kicking and plunging. The Ceylon
cheetah has some peculiarities distinct both from the panther and
leopard, one of which is that it cannot entirely retract its claws into
their sheath.
There are several species of the Viverrinse and Felidse, including
Felis rubiginosa. It is a brownish yellow cat, with dark-brown
streaks on the forehead, and spots along the back. The remainder
are undescribed.
Bear (Prochilus labiatus) — The Ceylon bear, though of small size,
is fierce, and much dreaded by the natives, some of whom have been
terribly disfigured, where they have been fortunate enough to escape
with life from the strong arms and sharp teeth of these animals.
Major Forbes relates an interesting anecdote, wherein a military
officer was attacked by two of these formidable animals, one of which
he struck so severe a blow with a brandy bottle, the contents of which
dashed over his face, that the bear made a precipitate retreat, fol
lowed by his companion.
" Sloth" (Manis pentadactyla.)
Porcupine (Hystrix Leucura.) — This animal is one of the most
destructive to the agriculturist, as it will destroy the labour of years
in a very short time. Its favourite food is the heart of young cocoa-
nut trees, which it is difficult to guard against its attacks : as it
will burrow under, and destroy the plant, even if surrounded with
stones and a wall. They are also very destructive to fences, through
which they easily gnaw a passage. If disturbed in their pursuit
(and they are the most capricious of animals) a porcupine will cut a
new gap every succeeding night for a week before hitting on one that
will serve them for a permanent approach. They can be entirely

CHAP. IV.J BEAR, PORCUPINE, CHAKAL, BABOONS. 731
domesticated, but will sometimes absent themselves, and then return
to their old haunts. They are fond of crickets, for which they sniff
about a house, and soon remark any change in the position of the
furniture of a room. The porcupine is one of the most fretful of
animals, and when indulged with perfect liberty, will constantly
exhibit some act of pettishness or passion. When hunted by dogs,
and they have seen no chance of escape, they have been known to
turn upon their pursuers and maim them with their sharp quills.
The hystrix has frequently bezoar stones in its stomach, which,
scraped to a fine powder, are here often administered in all kinds of
disorders. These stones consist of very fine hair, which has con
creted with the juices of the stomach, and laying one over the other,
consist of rings of different colour. They vary in size from a hen's
to a goose's egg, are perfectly globular, and entirely brown. The
reign of its pretended alexipharmic qualities is now over as regards
Europeans. Tavernier mentions that he gave five hundred crowns
for one, which he sold to advantage.
The Hare (Lepus nigricollis) — is very abundant, but is seldom
eaten, being considered unwholesome, It is often caught for the
pleasure of seeing it leap, and then released or given to the dogs. It
would quite overrun the fields but for the Jackal, its great destroyer,
which robs it of its young, and surprises the old ones when asleep.
The Malabar Jackal is to be found in every jungle ; it resembles
the European fox, except that the hair of its coat is somewhat longer,
and of a greyer colour.
The Malabar Goat is a delicate animal, that browzes on the rocks :
it is more sought after than any other game, for, contrary to the gene-
"" ral nature of the goat, its flesh is tender and excellent when broiled.
A species of Chakal either the Corsac or Adive (the Nougi hari
of the Malabars). It is not larger than the common weasel, and the
tail descends three inches lower than the feet when it is completely
pendulous. All the upper parts of the body and the tail are of a
greyish fawn, and the lower of a yellowish white.
Baboons (Cercopithecus latibarbatus). — Purple-faced monkey.
With a great triangular white beard, short and pointed at the
bottom ; face and hands purple ; body black ; tail much longer
than the body, terminated with a dirty white tuft. (Simia Silenus, L.)
Wanderoo, Singh. Nil Bundar of the Hindoos. This species of mon
key is large, of a dark grey colour, almost black, with long white
beards, which give them a sedate appearance. The face is long,
with a greenish mane, and like that of a dog. The tail terminates
with a tuft of hair, like that of a lion ; large canine teeth. Their
habits are grave, and their voices hoarse. This ape frequently voids
a stone from its gall-bladder, called Bezoar, which is very scarce. It
is commonly called ape-stone, and is smooth on the outside.
There are two other monkeys nearly allied to the above, published
in Bligh's collection.

732 CEYLON. [part IV.
Cercopithecus Pileatus— Rilawah or Rollewai, Singh,— are of a
reddish fawn-colour, with the hair on the top of their heads standing
erect like an upright crest, besides which it has a peculiar and appro
priate character in the rim of the under lip being of a deep black
colour, forming a remarkable contrast with the light tan-colour of the
surrounding parts : their appearance is sober, but their manners do
not correspond, as they are restless, inquisitive, and unsurpassingly
mischievous. From this hallowed race, which roam up and down
the country in large parties, the peasant often receives great damage ;
as they will rob him of his fruit and rice, &c. They have been
known to snatch hold of a native child, and run up a tree with it, and,
after admiring it for some time, bring it down unhurt, and lay it
gently down on the same place where they took it up— a circum
stance, thought by the natives to forebode good fortune to the child.
The mother handles her young cub and lays it to her breast for
suckle, far more like a human creature, than a brute. The natives
have been frequently shot by each other in mistake for these animals,
whom they highly reverence, and will never pursue.
Stenops Gracilis (The Slender Loris), — the Lemur Loris of
Shaw, and the Loris Macauco of Pennant. The fur reddish, with a
white spot on the forehead. Loris Ceylonicus : fur, brownish black ;
back, quite black ; cutting teeth.
The common Rat (Mus decumanus) and the common Mouse, both
abound, the former is most destructive to the young coffee plants.
Musk Rat or Shrew (My gale). — This animal abounds in the
maritime provinces, and is a great nuisance from its strong smell. In
appearance, the musk-rat is more like a small-sized light-coloured
mole, and may be heard uttering a most particularly shrill, but faint
squeal, as it goes along the edge of a wall, and behind the furniture,
searching for crickets. So searching and subtle is its smell, that it
is said to taint the wine in any bottles it may have passed, but this
opinion is thought by some to be fallacious, and the smell to arise
from a previous contact with the cork, before the wine is bottled, or
with the mouth of the bottle. It has a long slender nose : the upper
jaw extends far beyond the lower : whiskers long and white : feet
naked and pink-coloured. Length, from nose to tail, nearly eight
inches : tail thick at the base, tapering to a point.
There are three or four varieties of Squirrels, viz. the Sciurus Cey-
lonensis, S. trivittatus, and the S. Macrourus or Dandoeloena. The
palm squirrel, Sciurus trivittatus, lives chiefly in the cocoa-nut trees,
and is very fond of the liquor extracted from the palms. Upper part
of the body grey-brown, marked with three longitudinal bands, of a
pale-white ; length of the body, almost six inches.
Sciurus Macrourus (Dandoeloena or Roekea, Singh). — This squir
rel, in appearance, differs little from the other species, except in
size, and by its wonderful leaps or flights, which it commences at the
close of the evening, now leaping from branch to branch, and ascend-

CHAP. IV.J MONKEYS, MUSK-RAT, SQUIRRELS, BATS. 733
ing the highest bough of the loftiest trees. It assumes every variety
of form in its different gyrations, now appearing quite flat, about
eighteen inches square, and with a long tail projecting from the
middle of one side : without the slightest exertion or noise, the
animal will float through the air to its object, only its flight is still
getting lower, until depressing its tail, when near and a little below the
place it is about to light on, the creature glides upon the branch, and
in its original shape resumes its course along the boughs of the trees.
Flying squirrels do much mischief in the cocoa-nut grounds. They
average about two feet three inches in length, including the tail, and
resemble the cat in appearance : they are easily tamed. The ears
are tufted with black hairs : the end of the nose is pink-coloured :
the cheeks, legs, and belly, are of a dull yellow, between the ears is a
yellow spot : the crown of the head and the back are black : from
each ear, is a bifurcated line of the same colour, pointing down the
cheeks : the upper part of the feet is covered with black hairs, the
lower part, naked and red. The tail is nearly twice the length of the
body, of a light ash colour, and extremely bushy. The part near the
body, quite surrounded with hairs : on the remainder the hairs are
separated and lie flat.
The Pteromys Petaurista, is of a chestnut-colour, with the
hairs tipped with white on the shoulders ; whitish grey underneath ;
thighs red ; feet brown, tail black and cylindrical.
There are, also, three varieties of the Bat, viz. the Cordate bat,
with its heart-shaped appendage to the nose, and the striped, Ves-
pertilio picta (Keriwoula, Singh.) : no tail ; a web between the hind
legs, broad and long ears, length two inches, a small short nose ;
wings striped with black, and sometimes with tawny and brown ;
varies in colour ; the upper part of the body being sometimes of a
clear reddish-brown, the lower whitish ; and the Pteropus medius,
without a tail, with long extended toes to the fore feet, connected
by thin broad membranes, extending to the hind legs ; has large
canine teeth ; four cutting above, the same below, a sharp black nose ;
large naked ears ; pointed tongue, terminated by sharp aculeated
papillae ; exterior toe detached from the membrane ; claw strong and
hooked; talons very crooked, strong, and compressed sideways;
head of a dark ferruginous colour ; on the neck, shoulders, and
under side, of a much lighter and brighter red ; on the back, the
hair shorter, dusky and smooth. This very large and hideous
looking animal, commonly called the flying-fox, abounds in most
parts of Ceylon, and may be seen in thousands, suspended by
the wings from the branches of some decayed tree : they may be
always perceived in the evening hovering round fruit trees, and at
night may be known by the flapping of their leathern wings, and
their offensive smell. They generally move in flocks, and will strip
a mango-tree of its fruit in a few hours. The Pteropus marginatus
is another species.

^34 CEYLON. [PART IV,
In addition to these the Rhinolophus speoris, and another variety
are also found.
The common Indian Genette is also found here. The Mangusta
Mungos has been elsewhere described. There are two or three
varieties of it. See p. 752. The Otter (LutraDukhanensis of Sykes.)
TheCetaceae comprise the Gladiator Dolphin, (Delphinus gladiator,
Cuv.), Grampus (D. orca, Guv.), Common Porpoise (D. phocaena,
Guv.), Dolphin (D. Delphis, Cuv.y
Birds of Ceylon.
Malabar or Wreathed Hornbill (Buceros Malabaricus)
Called in Ceylon " the year bird," being supposed to have an annual addition
of a wreath to its bill. They make a great noise when they fly, are sluggish in
their motions, perch on the highest trees, feed on berries, and are reckoned a
very sweet food. They swallow raw flesh, and devour rats, mice and small birds.
B. Bengalensis.
Bill, smooth, large, black-brown ; wing, blue-grey ; coverts, black tipped.
Rhinoceros bird, or Hornbill (B. Singhalensis).
Called Dubbeld Bek by the Dutch, from its singular recurvated accessory beak :
three feet long, nearly three broad, and almost as big as a turkey. Bill, ten
inches long, and two and a half thick at base. On the top of the upper mandible
is an appendage as large as the bill itself, and turning upwards contrary to the
direction of the bill, both of the mandibles of which bend downwards. This
curved horn is eight inches long and four broad, varied with white and black,
and divided longitudinally by a line of black on each side : head, neck, back,
breast, and upper part of the belly, black : lower part a dirty white : tail twelve
inches long : the feathers white at the base and ends, and black in the middle :
legs and claws a dull grey. Supposed to feed on flesh and carrion, and to chase
rats and mice, and after pressing them flat with the bill in a peculiar manner,
toss them up in the air, and swallow them in their descent. This is the Eaendatta
of the Singhalese.
" Jackdaw" (Corvus sp. Pennant).
Is the largest of the genus, weighs three pounds, and is two feet long and four
broad : bill, strong and thick, nearly three inches long, and covered with bristles
for two-thirds of its length, completely hiding its nostrils : colom- of its
plumage a fine rich glossy blue-black : under parts of a dull and more dusky hue.
The Bishop of Norwich thus describes this bird : — " In the island of Ceylon these
birds are exceedingly impudent and troublesome, and it is found very difficult to
exclude them from the houses, which, on account of the heat, are built open, and
much exposed to intruders. In the city of Colombo, where they are in the habit
of picking up bones and other things from the streets and yards, and carrying
them to the tops of the houses, a battle usually takes place for the plunder, to the
great annoyance of the people below, on whose heads they shower down the
loosened tiles, leaving the roofs exposed to the weather. They will frequently
snatch bread and meat from the dining-table, even when it is sm-rounded with
guests, always seeming to prefer the company of man ; as they are continually
seen hopping about near houses, and are rarely to be met with in woods and re
tired places. They are, however, important benefactors to the natives, making
1 I must apologise to the naturalist for the somewhat unmethodical manner of
my classification, an evil, which has arisen from circumstances I could not alto
gether control, but which will be remedied in a future edition. This he would the
sooner excuse, if he were made fully aware of the great variety of sources to
which I have been compelled to have recourse.

CHAP. IV.J BIRDS FOUND IN THE ISLAND. 735
ample compensation for their intrusion and knavery ; as they are all voracious
devourers of carrion, and consume all sorts of dirt, offal, and dead vermin ; in
fact, carrying off those substances, which, if allowed to remain, would in that hot
climate produce the most noxious smells, and give rise to putrid, disorders. Hence
they are much esteemed, their mischievous tricks are put up with, and they are
never suffered to be shot or otherwise molested."
Jungle Crow.
This bird closely resembles the magpie : its body, head, and tail are black ;
wings of a light brown colour, and its eyes bright red. It vociferates " ouk, ouk."
Purple-shouldered Pigeon (Columba Phoenicoptera).
Front, pale green : head and neck, fine light purple : breast, orange : back,
scapulars, and belly, light green : vent, scarlet : quills, dusky. Girrawe. Singh.
Pompadour Pigeon (Vinago Aromatica. Shaw).
Cuvier makes this Colomba pompadora, and a variety of phaenicoptera. The
general colour of this bird is a fine pale green : the male is distinguished by
having the coverts of the wings of a fine pompadour colour. They are found in
vast multitudes in the banyan and waringen trees, when their fruits are ripe,
and are caught with bird-lime by the natives, who prepare the twigs against their
arrival. They are excellent food, and are often shot by Europeans. Waringen
Grothebein. Singh.
Spotted Green Pigeon (C. maculata).
Cinnamon Pigeon (C. Cinnamomea).
Great-tailed Pigeon (C. Macroura) . Also the black capped pigeon,
(Ptilinopus melanocephalus.)
Tail as long as body, white tipped : body, cinnamon, beneath whitish.
Ring Dove (C. palumbus). — Turtle Dove (C. Turtur).
Bamboo Dove (Palumba Bambutina).
Black-backed Goose (Anas Melanotos).
Notwithstanding that Ceylon swarms with crocodiles, yet no country abounds
more with aquatic birds to which nature has given a quickness of sight and an
instantaneous locomotive power that enables them to elude the jaws of an enemy,
which it is well known cannot turn without difficulty. It is by a fine instinct that
the lesser and more agile species of duck frequent, in innumerable flocks, the
shores, the mouths of rivers, and the marshes, and are, with the crocodiles, joint
tenants of the waters ; while the larger and heavier fowl avoid those places, and,
dividing into small families, haunt only the lakes and streams that lie in the deep
recesses of the lofty and craggy mountains, protected by the cataracts, that pre
vent the approach of their enemy. This goose is very common and is equal in
size to our wild goose : the bill is long and black ; at the base is a knot, which in
old birds is very large. The head and neck are white, marked with small black
spots : the breast and belly of a pure white : the back and wings are black, but the
ends of the primary feathers of a fine variable green. The tail is sharp-pointed
and black : the legs of the same colour.
Anhinga (Plotus Melanogaster, Linn.)
This bird sits on the shrubs that overhang water, and in a country where
every one's ideas are filled with serpents, often terrifies the stranger, by shooting
out its long, slender neck, which in his first surprise, he takes for the darting
of some fatal reptile. Its body is about the size of that of the common duck,
but the neck is extremely long : the bill straight, long, and sharp pointed ; the
upper part of a pale blue, and the lower reddish. The eye is very piercing. The
head, neck, and upper part of the breast are of a light brown : each side of the
head, and the upper part of the neck marked with a broad white line. The crop
is very large. The back, scapulars, and coverts of the wings are marked length
ways in equal portions with stripes of black and white. The quill feathers, belly,
thighs, tail, of a deep black ; the tail remarkably long and slender. The legs and

736 CEYLON. [part IV,
feet of a pale green ; the four toes united by webs, after the manner of those of
the cormorant.
Spotted-billed Duck (Anas Poicilorhynchos).
The bill of this species is black, tipped with yellow, and marked on each side
of the base with a red spot : a white line passes from thence to and beyond the
eye. The cheeks and under side of the neck and body white, more and more
clouded from the chin to the vent, which is totally black ; the wings, back, and
tail are black, each feather slightly edged with white ; some of the tertials wholly
white : the speculum of a variable green, bounded above and below with a narrow
line of white. Also Anas arcuata.
Wild Duck.
Pea Fowl (Pavo cristatus) .
Are to be met with in numbers, at nearly every open space in the jungle where
water is to be found. They are naturally wary, and if they have been disturbed,
it requires great caution to get near enough for a shot at them. The morning is
the best time for pea-fowl shooting, as they keep near the edge of the jungle in
the evening, and in the forenoon they retire to some thick dark copse, generally
overhanging water, and there rest during the heat of the day : it is then the
natives kill them at roost.
Jungle Fowl (Gallus Lafayettii), Wai Keekula. Singh.
The appearance of the male bird approaches the red dunghill cock, but has
more glossy plumage, and a yellow spot in the centre of the red upright comb.
The female is much smaller in proportion, and in colour resembles the heath hen
of the moors. This bird continually reminds one of its presence by a shrill double
call, somewhat resembling the cry of the partridge, but unlike the crowing of a
cock. It is very pugnacious, and two jungle cocks have only to meet to give
battle to each other. In taste it resembles a pheasant.
Red-tailed Gallinule. R. Phcenicurus.
Forehead bare, flesh-coloured ; plumage above black ; vent and under tail
coverts, ferruginous-red.
Crested Gallinule (Gallinula cristata).
Forehead and crown bare, reddish, rising into a knot on the back part ; body
and wings greenish ash-colour : beneath, pale ash.
Ortolan (Emberiza sp.)
Coromandel Quail (Coturnix textilis).
Found here as well as in the Dekkan.
Widgeon (Anas Penelope.)
Woodcock (Scolopax Rusticola, Linn.)
Curlew (Numenius sp.)
Is as large as a duck, with white plumage, and black legs and beak.
Teal — Jack Snipe (S. Gallinula, Linn.)
Grey-sand Piper (Tringa squatarola, Linn.)
Large and small white, large and small brown Paddy Birds. (Loxia
oryzivora.) This genus resembles the heron in shape, and comprises five or six species,
varying in size. Their name is derived from their general habitat. Koka, Singh.
" Bitterns" — Tetrao bicalcaratus (Ceylon Partridge of Latham.)
Red-legged Partridge (Perdix Janninus.)
The same as the Perdix bicalcaratus of Forster, or double-spurred partridge :
the bill of the male is red : from that to the region of the eyes is a naked red
space. The head is varied with black and white streaks. The whole neck above
and below is black, elegantly marked with sagittal lines, the points tending up
wards. The thighs white. The primaries dusky, edged with rufous. The back
covered with rufous feathers, dusky on each sides of their shafts : tail dusky :

CHAP. IV.J BIRDS FOUND IN THE ISLAND. 737
legs red, on each a pair of strong sharp spurs. The head of the female is cinereous :
the colour of the back and belly rufous, brightest below. The tail dusky. Legs
red and unarmed. Haben-Kukella, Singh.
Indian Parrot (Psittacus orien talis.)
Small size. Bill bright orange : skin round the eyes of a pale flesh colom- :
top of the head red or deep orange : rest of the body green, or palest beneath :
lower half of the rump and upper tail coverts red, like that of the head : inside of
the quills and under the tail bluish green : legs and claws flesh-colour.
Ceylon Parakeet (P. Zeylanicus.)
Pigmy Parakeet (P. Pygmseus.)
Length six inches : body small : bill whitish : cere dusky : tail cuneated : the
tops of all the feathers of a greenish yellow : legs lead colour.
Alexandrine Parakeet.
Red-headed Cuckoo (Cuculus Pyrrhocephalus.) Malkoha, Singh.
Is found in the woods, and lives on fruits. Length sixteen inches : the bill
much arched, strong, and of a greenish-yellow colour : the crown of the head and
part of the cheeks are of a bright crimson, entirely surrounded by a band of
white. The hind part of the head and neck black, marked with small white spots :
the fore part of the neck entirely black : the back and wings black : the tail very
long, composed of feathers of unequal lengths, their lower part black : the ends
white. The breast and belly white : legs of a pale blue.
Cuculus dicruroides is another species.
Cheela Falcon (Falco Cheela.)
Rhomboidal Falcon (F. Rhombeus.)
Black and white Indian Falcon (F. melanoleucos.)
Length sixteen inches. Bill black : head, neck, back, scapulars, quill feathers,
and some of the middle coverts of the wings are black : the rest of the coverts,
those of the tail, the tail itself, the breast, and the belly, are of a pure white. It is
not known whether it is trained for falconry. Claws black. Kaloe Koeroelgoya,
Singh. Brown's Hawk (F. Badius, Lath.)
About thirteen inches long. Bill blue, with a black tip : iris yellow : upper
part of the head, back, and tail coverts brown : scapulars brown, with white spots :
quills dusky, with pale brown edges : fore part of the neck and the under parts
white, covered with numerous semicircular yellow lines : tail pale brown : legs
pale yellow : claws black.
Ceylonese eared Owl (Strix Ceylonensis.)
About one foot eleven inches long, and weighs two pounds nine ounces. Bill
horn colour : hides yellow : parts above of a pale reddish brown, beneath yellowish
white : ears, short and pointed : prime quills and tail barred with black, white,
and pale red : legs naked to the knees. Raja- Alia, Singh.
Coromandel eared Owl (S. Coromanda.)
Indian eared Owl (S. Bakkamana.)
This elegant bird is called Bakkamana by the Singhalese. The irides are
scarlet : the horns take their source from the base of the bill, and point to the
sides of the head : on their inner side they are dusky, on their exterior, white.
The bill is dusky, surrounded with long bristles. The circle of feathers round the
eyes is of a very pale ash colour : the external circle of a yellowish brown. The
head is of a deep ash colom-, the back, dusky : coverts of the wings grey, marked
with narrow lines of black, pointing downwards : the quill feathers regularly
barred with black and white: the breast buff-coloured, marked with small sagittal
black spots : the legs feathered half way down : the naked part of a reddish
yellow. Devil's Bird (Strix Gaulama or Ulama, Singh.)
A species of Owl. The wild and wailing cry of this bird is considered a sure
3 B

738 CEYLON. [part IV.
presage of death or misfortune, unless measures be taken to avert its infernal
threats and refuse its warning. Though often heard even on the tops of their
houseB, the natives maintain that it has never been caught or distinctly seen, and
they consider it one of the most annoying of the evil spirits which haunt their
counti-y. Knox, in his credulity, pronounced it to be a devil. It is, probably, a
species of owl, but certainly its cry is far more like that of a human being in dis
tress than any other species of that melancholy and ill-omened family.
Tufted Flycatcher (Muscicapa comata.)
Is very common in the interior, and may be seen flitting about in the thick
copses and dark ravines. It is about the size of a sparrow, with a black head,
and a tail five times its own length, composed of very flexible feathers of pure
white : the disproportioned length of this bird's tail gives it the appearance of
having a narrow piece of cloth fastened to it ; hence arises its native name, Eedi-
hora, cloth stealer. It is called by Europeans the Ceylon bird of Paradise. The
bill is black, and crooked at the point : head, crested : hind part of the neck,
back, wings, and tail, black : rump, sides of the neck, breast, and belly, white.
Red-vented Flycatcher (M. Hsemorrhoa.)
This bird has a rufous back and tail, and two feathers exceeding the others in
length by nearly nine inches : neck, and upper parts of the body clouded brown :
breast and belly, white : vent, red : tail, black : legs, dusky : bill, bluish : head,
black. Yellow-breasted Flycatcher (M. Melanictera.) Malkala kourlu,
Singh. Size of a goldfinch. Bill, grey : head and cheeks, black : back and wing
coverts cinereous brown, mixed with yellow : breast, yellow : quills and tail
dusky, edged with pale yellow : legs, pale blue. It is much admired for its notes
by the natives.
Cinnamon Flycatcher (M. Cinnamomea.)
Eight inches long. Bill, straight and black : plumage in general of a yellowish
cinnamon-colour, variously shaded on the upper parts : under, much paler, almost
yellow. The quills dusky, marked with ferruginous.
Flammeous Flycatcher (M. flammea.)
The bill, head, neck, fore part of the back, and lesser coverts of the wings,
black : rest of the back, bright orange or flame colour : primaries, partly black,
partly orange : breast and belly orange, sinking into pale yellow below : tail
dusky, yellow towards the point: legs, black. The upper part of the head and
whole back of the female is ash-coloured : about the cheeks and throat, dusky :
breast, orange : belly, white : across the primaries a flammeous band, bounded
above and below with black : tail, black above.
Malabar Lark (Alauda Malabarica.) — Skylark (A. arvensis.)
Cinnamon Creeper (Certhia Cinnamomea.)
Length, five inches. Bill, slig-hfly bent, and black ; about three-quarters of an
inch long : upper part of the plumage cinnamon-colour : under, white : legs,
dusky. Green Gold Creeper (C. omnicolor.)
Green, with a shade of all colours.
Indigo Creeper (C. parietum.)— Yellow-billed Creeper (C. lepida.)
— Tufted Creeper (C. Erythrorynchos.)
Ceylonese Creeper (C. Zeylanica.)
Size of a wren, four inches long. Bill, three-quarters of an inch, and black :
the upper parts of the body are of a dull brownish olive : the under parts yellow :
but the throat, fore part of the neck, and breast, are of a beautiful deep, bright
violet : quills, brown ; the edges of the feathers dull olive : tail, the same colour
as wings : legs and claws black.
Loten's Creeper (C. Lotenia.)
Five inches long. Head, neck, back, rump, scapulars, and upper tail coverts

CHAP. IV.J BIRDS FOUND IN THE ISLAND. 739
are green gold : beneath, from the breast to the vent, velvet black, which is
separated from the green on the neck by a transverse blight violet band : the
lesser wing coverts are of the same colour, middle coverts are green gold : greater
coverts are very fine black, edged with green gold on the outer edge : the quills
are the same colour : legs, black. The female differs in having the breast, belly,
sides, thighs, under wing, and tail coverts, of a dirty white, spotted with black ;
called by the natives Angala-dian.
Yellow-crowned Thrush (Turdus Ochrocephalus.) Tsutju crawan.
Singh. Size of the common thrush. Bill, black : crown of the head and cheeks, pale
yellow : breast and belly cinereous ; the first marked with white and dusky
sagittal lines : greater quills, tail, and legs, dull green. It is remarkable for its
power of mimicking every note that is whistled to it.
Long-tailed Thrush (T. macrourus.)
Size of a lark, eleven and a half inches. Bill, slightly notched near the tip :
colour, black : head, neck, back, and wing coverts, glossy purplish black : rump,
white : the under part, from the breast ferruginous orange : quills, dusky black :
the tail is cuneiform in shape : the two middle feathers being six and a half inches
long, and the outer ones only two and a half inches. The four middle feathers are
wholly black, the next on each side half black, half white ; and the three outer
ones wholly white : legs, pale yellow : claws, black.
Ceylon Thrush (T. Zeylanicus ; Lanius Erythropterus, Swainson.)
Size of a blackbird. Bill, black : crown of the head cinereous olive ; from
thence to the tail, a fine olive green : chin and throat yellow : belly, vent and
thighs yellow, tail cuneiform, the two midddle feathers are like the back : the
others are black, with yellow tips : legs blackish. In the female, the upper parts
are greenish yellow : the throat grey, and the breast and belly greenish-yellow,
but paler than the upper parts.
Common Kingfisher (Alcedo sp.)
Length seven, and breadth eleven inches : bill long and black, but the base of
the lower mandible is yellow.
Violet Kingfisher (A. Coromanda.)
A. Bengalensis.
Blue-green above : rufous beneath ; head striped blue and rufous. Four and
a half inches.
Pied Kingfisher (A. rudis.)
Eleven inches long : bill, black, and nearly three inches long : head, and hind
part of the neck, covered with black feathers, edged with white on each side :
back, wings, and upper part of the body, are spotted irregularly with black and
white : the breast and sides the same : throat, and under parts to the tail, wholly
white : quills spotted white and black.
Smyrna Kingfisher (Halcyon Smyrnensis.)
Length, eight and a half inches. Bill more than two inches long and red :
irides whitish. Head, neck, breast and belly, sides, thighs, under wing, and tail
coverts of an elegant chestnut : throat white : the lesser wing coverts dull-green :
the greater coverts, farthest from the body of the same colom-, on the outside and
tips, but blackish within. Quills the same : tail feathers blackish, but the two
middle ones are wholly of a dull-green, and the outer edges of the rest, of the
same colour, but all of them are blackish on the under side : the legs are red : tbe
claws, blackish.
White-headed Ibis (Tantalus Leucocephalus.)
In size, it is much superior to our largest curlews. The bill is yellow, very long
and thick at the base, and a little incurvated. The nostrils very narrow and
placed near the head : all the fore part of the head is covered with a pure yellow,
and seems a continuance of the bill, and the eyes are in a very singular manner
placed very near its base. The rest of the head, and the plumage, are of a pure
3 b 2

740 CEYLON. [PART IV.
white : a transverse broad band of black crosses the breast : the quill feathers
and coverts of the wings are black : the coverts of the tail are very long, and of a
fine pink-colour. They hang over and conceal the tail. The legs and thighs are
very long, and of a dull flesh-colour : the feet, semi-palmated or connected by
webs, as far as the first joint. It makes a snapping noise, with its bill, like a
stork, and its fine rosy feathers lose their brilliant colour during the rainy
season. Black-headed Ibis (T. melanocephalus.)
Maldivian Pratincole.
Taken at open sea, in the latitude of Ceylon, and the Maldives. Nine inches long.
Bill black : the head, and upper parts of the body, the colour of umber : under
wing coverts, red-brown : throat white, surrounded with a black band, and each
feather has a longitudinal black line : the quills and tail are black : the rump,
belly, and vent white.
The Frigate Pelican (Tachypetes.)
Is found about the coasts, as well as the Pelicanus Onocrotalus of Linnseus.
White Albatross (Diomedea.)
Green Wagtail (Motacilla viridis.)
Foui- inches long : head, cinereous : neck, back and breast, pale green : wings
and tail cinereous, edged with white : belly white.
Pink Warbler (Sylvia Caryophyllacea.)
Size of the willow wren. Bill reddish : general colour of the plumage, a pale
pink : wings and tail inclined to dusky : legs, red.
Green and Yellow Fig-eater (S. Zeylanica.)
The Zosterops palpebrosus of Horsfield.
Length, four inches and a half. Bill brown, plumage above changeable green :
beneath the neck, orange : breast and belly, yellow. Tar. GErithina Atricapilla.
Head black, upper parts olivaceous : breast and belly, yellow : tail tipped with white.
Black-necked Warbler (S. nigricollis.)
Length, four and a half inches. Bill, a trifle bent, and of a bluish grey colour :
crown and nape, black : back, green : beneath, wholly of a light yellow : wings,
black, crossed with two bars of white.
Tailor Warbler (S. sutorea.)
This bird, says Pennant, is remarkable for its nest. It has a greater shyness
than any other : it will not trust its nest even to the extremity of a slender twig,
but makes one more advance to safety, by fixing it on the leaf itself. It picks up
a dead leaf, and strange to relate, sews it to the side of a living one : its slender
bill being- its needle, and its thread some fine fibres ; the lining, feathers, gossamer
and down. Its eggs are white : the colour of the bird light-yellow; its length,
three inches ; its weight only three-tenths of an ounce ; so that the materials of
the nest, and its own size, are not likely to draw down a habitation that depends
on so light a tenure.
Cinnamon Warbler (S. cinnamomea.)
Very like the red-tail. The upper parts of the body are hoary : the throat,
black : breast, belly, and rump, crimson : the quills black : tail, black : the four
middle feathers obliquely rufous on the sides.
Olive coloured Warbler (S. olivacea.)
Size of a hedge sparrow. Bill, whitish, beset with pale-yellow feathers ; the
head, upper parts of the body, wings and tail olive : breast and belly, white. It
jerks up the tail so high as to make an acute angle.
Gaur Bunting (Emberiza Asiatica.)
Olive Bunting (E. olivacea )
This species is scarce bigger than a wren, being only three-quarters of an inch
long. The bill grey brown : the head and upper parts of the body are olive-green :
throat, orange ; fore part of the neck and upper part of the breast, black : the
vest of the under parts olive grey : quills, brown, edged with olive-green.

CHAP. IV.J BIRDS FOUND IN THE ISLAND. 741
Picus Ceylonensis.
Forehead, with long sharp feathers, scarlet : chin and throat black.
Red-winged Woodpecker (P. miniatus.)
Commonly called the Carpenter, from the noise it makes in boring trees. The
bill is of a dusky blue, the head of a deep dull red, and adorned with a long crest
pointing backwards : on the chin, is a spot of yellow. The hind part of the neck,
the back, the coverts and secondary feathers of the wings, are of the colour of
red-lead. The fore part of the neck is of a rose colour : the belly, white. The
quill feathers, black, marked with large white spots : the coverts of the tail,
green : tbe tail consists of sharp pointed feathers, like the European kind, and is
of a deep blue.
Malacca Woodpecker (P. Malaccensis.)
Lesser spotted, and another variety, (P. Minor.)
Bill one inch in length, of a lead-colour. It has white spots on the head, and
the upper part of the back is black, the under yellowish : throat and breast
brown, irregularly spotted with white : tail brown. Kirella. Singh.
Ceylon Finch (Fringilla Zeylanica.)
Small sized : bill and head black : the whole body yellow, inclining to green on
the back : the under parts white and dusky : quills and tail dusky : the outer
edges yellow.
Green-rumped Finch (F. butyracea.)
Bill, bluish : head, hind part of the neck, upper part of the back and tail
black : cheeks, chin, and the rest of the under parts, light yellow : vent, yellow :
wings black : on the coverts a white spot : lower part of the back and thighs
green : legs, grey.
Red-crowned Barbet (Bucco rubrocapillus.)
Size of a goldfinch : length five and a half inches ; prime quills, dusky : breast,
yellow : belly, white : tail, green : the exterior feathers dusky : legs pale red.
Yellow-cheeked Barbet (B. Zeylanicus )
Same size as the last. Bill red : head and neck, pale brown : back, pale
green : belly, pea green : tail, green : legs, pale yellow : the middle of each
feather spotted with white. Kottoreya, Singh.
Blue Barbet (B. Gerini.)
Green Barbet (B. viridis.)
Top of head and back of neck, olive green : body and wings green : paler beneath.
Yellow-fronted Barbet (B. flavifrons.)
Yellow Grosbeak (Loxia flavicans )
Baya of the Hindoos. Size of a canary bird. Bill, short and thick : head, neck,
breast, belly and vent yellow ; top of the head the same, but paler : back, wings,
and tail, greenish yellow : quills and tail margined with yellow : legs, pale. This
bird which, in some respects, resembles our yellow-hammer, is remarkable for its
pensile nest, and their curious position at the extremity of the branches of trees.
Yellow-rumped Grosbeak (L. Hordacea.)
Size of the white wagtail. Head, neck, and rump fulvous : temples white ; from
thence to the bill, the breast, wings and tail black : shoulders, thighs : and tail
feathers grey.
Eastern Grosbeak (L. undulata.)
Brown Grosbeak (L. fusca.)
Size of a Canary bird. Bill, short, thick and of a lead colour : the head and
upper parts of the body brown : lower, of a pale ash colour : quills, dusky black :
tail the colour of the quills with palish ends : legs, pale.
Ash-headed Grosbeak (L. Indica.)
Malabar Grosbeak (L. Malabarica.)
Size and shape of a tit-mouse. Bill, black : throat, white : body, cinereous ;
quills and tail black : vent, whitish.

742 CEYLON. [part IV.
Dwarf Grosbeak (L. minima.)
Size of a wren : bill, short and thick : the upper parts of the quills, white at the
base : secondaries, white on the inside towards the base : tail, even.
Black Tanager (Tanagra atrata.)
Size of a thrush : the colour of the plumage, wholly black, with a gloss of blue
on the back : bill, and legs, black : is a Lamprotornis ?
Ceylon Rail (Rallus Zeylanicus )
Larger than the common rail : bUl, red : head, dusky ; neck, back and tail fer
ruginous : prime quills, black ; fore part of the neck, breast and belly, reddish,
clouded with brown : legs, red.
Cape Rail (R. Capensis.)
This bird is also found in Ceylon, and is nearly the size of the Crake gallinule :
head, neck, back and upper part of the breast, ferruginous : lower parts of the
breast, belly, thighs, vent, quills and tail, undulated with black and white : two
middle tail feathers ferruginous : legs, of a deep blood red.
Boulboul Shrike (Lanius Boulboul.)
Size of a field fare : bill, yellow, and crooked at the end : head, neck, back and
tail, black : breast and belly, ash colom- : legs, yellow.
There is another variety. (L. Melanotus.)
" Common Hoopoe" or Widow Bird.
Is about twelve inches long, nineteen broad. Bill, black, slender and incur-
vated : neck, a pale reddish brown : breast and belly, white, but in young birds
marked with narrow dusky lines pointing down : back, scapulars and wings
crossed with broad bars of white and black : rump white. The tail consists of
only two feathers, white, marked with black, in the form of a crescent : the legs
are short and black : this bird is said to have two or three broods in a year, and
to lay the eggs in the holes of trees. It is a bird of passage. There are two
species ; one of which the natives call Ratoo Ptti Hora ; the other, Sudu Pili
Hora, both are elegant little birds.
Mango Bird or Golden Oriole. (0. melanocephalus.)
So called, from its feeding on the fruit of that tree.
Sun birds (Cinnyrida?.)
Ceylonese Starling. (Pastor.)
Bill, black : head, pale yellow : breast, light grey, marked with oblong yellow
ish white spots : back and belly, grey, marked with white and dusky semicircular
lines : quill feathers, dull green : tail, barred with pea green and black : legs,
bluish grey. Is said to whistle in a mocking way.
Grand Lory (Psittacus Grandis.)
The largest of all the Lorys, being thirteen inches long : bill, black : head and
neck, a fine red : lower part of neck, near the back, violet blue : breast richly
clouded with red, blue, violet and green : quills, and edge of the wing, from the
shoulder, sky blue : rest of the plumage, a deep red : half of the tail, red, and the
end yellow ; legs, ash-coloured.
Bee-Eater (Merops apiaster.)
And the greater Red Start, are both found here.
Short-Tailed Pye.
Approaching the size of a blackbird : bill, a brownish flesh-colour. Head par
tially black. Beneath from the throat to the tail, is a buff-colour, reddish near
the vent : legs, reddjsh yellow : quills and tail, black.
Grey-Tailed Roller (Irena vagabunda.) — Fairy Roller (I. puella.)
—Indian Roller (I. Indica.)
Fasciated Couroucou (Trogon fasciatus.)
This species is rare, Rantvan-kondea, Singh, Length, ten inches : bill,
black, thick, strong and arched, the base, beset with bristles : the orbits, naked,
and of a deep blue : the irides, yellow : head and neck, of a deep dusky blue,

CHAP. IV.J BIRDS FOUND IN THE ISLAND. 743
fading into a pale orange-colour. The back, is tawny : the coverts of the tail
grey : the coverts of the wings and the scapulars elegantly barred with narrow
undulated lines of black and white : the quill feathers dusky, striped with white,
on their outward webs. The tail is very long, tipped with black, and composed
of feathers of unequal lengths, the exterior being the shortest. The legs and feet,
small and dusky, the toes disposed, two backwards, and two forwards ; as in the
woodpecker tribe.
Spotted Couroucou (T. maculatus.)
Size of a nut-hatch. Bill, brown : neck, breast and belly, pale brown : edges
of wings, white : tail, dusky ; barred with white.
The Heme. — Brahmin Kite. —The Vulture.— Sparrow. — Fla
mingo (Phcenicopterus ruber.) — Crane. — Bombay Goat-Sucker
(Caprimulgus Asiaticus.) — Indian Plover (Charadrius Indicus.) —
Indian Jacana (Parra Indica.) — -Swallow (Hirundo esculenta.) —
Halisetus Pondiceriensis. — Brachypterus Zeylonensis. — Gecinus chlo-
rogaster. — Iora Zeylanica. — Zosterops palpebrosus. — Phyllonus. —
Pycnonotus flaveolus.— P. Haemorrhous. — Tephrodornis Pondiceria-
nus. — Dicrurus. — Campephaga Sykesii. — Pericrocotus flammeus. —
P. peregrinus. • — Praticola caprata. — Brachyurus. — Pomatorhina
Horsfieldii. — Malacocercus striatus. — Anthus Malayensis. — Den-
drophila. — Turtur duratensis. — Totanus glareola. — Ortygometra
Zeylanica. — Porzana phcenicea — Tigrisoma. — Ardeola malaccensis.
— Ardetta cinnamomea. — A. Sinensis. — Herodias intermedia. —
Hydrophasianus sinensis. — Rhynchsea bengalensis. — Gallinula
stenura. — Palaeornis Alexandri. — P. torquatus. — P. Cyanocephalus.
— Athene castanopterus. — Ninox Scutellatus. — Eurystoma orientalis.
— Phoenicophaus viridirostris. — Centropus philippensis. — Gracula
religiosa. — Acridotheres tristis. — Nectarinia Zeylanica. — Spoonbill.
Dicrurus Leucophaeus.
Grey lead colour ; tail, long, forked, nine inches long.
Fishes.
Seirfish, Cybium guttatum (Sora-malu, Singh), a species of Scomber.
This is generally considered the finest flavoured of the finny race that swarm
in these seas ; it has a good deal of the flavour of salmon ; its sole habitat is salt
Water, and its colour is white.
Synanceia brachio is found in the seas round Ceylon.
Kalandah (Singh.)
A species of Gadus ; a Meiiangus or whiting.
Several species of the Pegasus, Linn. — Fistularia paradoxa. —
Albicore or Thunny (Scomber Thynnus, Linn.) — Bonetta (S.
Pelamis, Linn.) — Scad, Scomber Trachurus.— Mackarel, gen. Scom-
beroidse. — Gadus carbonarius, Coal-fish.
Pomfret Bull's eye (Holocentrus ruber) Ratoo Pahaya, Singh.
Body, head, and fins bright red. Scales partially tinged with gold. Is found
at certain seasons in abundance on the southern coast of Ceylon in deep water.
It is greatly esteemed by the natives as an article of food, and reaches a consider
able size, frequently nearly two feet in length. The flesh white and solid. For
splendour and beauty, this fish is almost unsurpassed.
Snook or Cape Salmon, Inguru Parawah (Scomber Heberi.)
Body smooth and silvery, shot with gold, a tinge of grey (probably caused by
the removal of the silver by the hands of the fishermen), graduated from the back

744 CEYLON. [part IV.
to the lateral line, which is much curved above the pectoral fin, and thence
passes in a straight line, strongly serrated, to the centre of the caudal fin. Pec
toral fin elongated and curved : dorsal fin divided in two, with spines of various
lengths : two spines detached in front of the anal fin, the extremity of the upper
division nearly black. Head large : shoulders high : eye, full and prominent.
Fins different tinges of yellow. This fish is found in deep water, and is much
esteemed. It frequently exceeds two feet in length.
Sea Perch (Perca marina, Linn.)
Bearded Ophidium (Ophidium barbatum, Linn.)
Pampus (Stromateus Paru, Linn.)
Swordfish (Xiphias Gladius, Linn.)
Grows to the length of thirty feet. It is at perpetual enmity with the whale
tribe, and a most dangerous enemy ; for it will sink beneath those monstrous
animals, and rising with great force, transfix them with its vast snout. There
have been instances in which it has mistaken a ship for one of the cetaceous
genus. An East Indiaman once had its bottom pierced through by a swordfish,
and the weapon quite embedded to the very base in the timber. The fish was
killed by the violence of the shock ; but had it been able to withdraw the sword,
the vessel must have sunk in consequence of the leak.
Gemmeous Dragonet (Callionymis Lyra, Linn.)— Kurtus (Kurtus
Indicus, Linn.) — Dorado (Coryphsena Equisetis, Linn.) — Doree
(Zeus Faber, Linn.) — Sole (Pleuronoctes Solea, Linn.)— Red or
Sur mullet (Mull us barbatus, Linn.) — Striped Sur mullet (Mullus
Surmuletus). — Great Garfish (Esox osseus, Linn.)— Poisonous
sprat (Clupea). — Rock Cod, several species — Skate (Raia Batis,
Linn.) — Rays, great variety of — Sting Ray (Raia pastinaca, Linn.)
— Sharks. — White Shark (Squalus Carcharias, Linn.) — Sawfish
(S. Pristis, Linn.) Depta Mora, Singh. — Perca Pulchella (Holo-
centrus diadema.)
Tik-Girawe, Singh. (Labrus aureo-maculatus.)
Body light brown, inclining to yellow, a white line vertically passing from the
back to the commencement of the anal fin ; from this white division to the snout
there are numerous black spots, those on the plates of the head surrounded by a
circle of blue, and on the other side of the white division on the back there are
three brilliant orange spots diminishing towards the caudal fin, which, with the
anal and dorsal fins, are variously spotted with black, and marked with a yellow
band on their extremities. It is a beautiful species, and thence called in Ceylon
the spotted parrot, Lateral hue very visible, bow-shaped, convexing under the
sixteenth ray of the dorsal fin, and thence extending in a slightly curved line to
the sixth or seventh ray of the caudal fin. Is rarely taken ; delights in rocky
coverts ; seldom eaten by the natives, being at times held unwholesome. Attains
sometimes the length of eighteen inches.
Jul Potobara, Singh. (Tetrodon Ocellatus.)
Body variously spotted : a large black mark at the base of the dorsal fin, sur
rounded by stripes and dots, extending in regular elliptical forms toward the
pectoral and caudal fins. The eye placed high, and distant from the mouth :
small blue and pink stripes intermingled with spots on either side of the mouth
and eyes. No ventral fin. Found in great abundance on the coasts. From a
supposed resemblance of the colom- of the belly to that of the rind of the " Jul,"
a fruit known to Europeans by the name of Wood Apple, when ripe, the natives
have designated it accordingly. It seldom exceeds five or six inches in length,
and is not eaten, being considered poisonous.
Tik Kossah (Gerranus Tankervillse.)
Body yellow, with longitudinal streaks of pale red. A large irregularly formed
stain approaching to black, above the lateral line, and towards the caudal fin.

CHAP. IV.J FISHES FOUND OFF THE COASTS. 745
Head of a dull purple hue, spotted with darker tones of purple. Fins, various
shades of yellow, with reddish rays. This fish inhabits rocky spots, averages
seventeen inches in length, and is firm fleshed and wholesome.
Radiya (Chaetodon Tyrwhitti.)
Body yellowish on the upper part, graduating to a pale grey beneath ; fine
perpendicular equi-distant dark stripes graduated below, dark spots intervening.
Dorsal fin striated between each spine with grey or yellow, the upper parts
terminating diagonally in bluish grey. Head of the prevailing grey, with a pink
hue, and dark mark on the chief plate. Eye near the mouth : iris silvery, but
remarkably dull. This fish inhabits rocky spots, raivly exceeds five inches in
length, and is esteemed a wholesome food. Is occasionally found at a considerable
distance from the mouthsof fresh water rivers, and beyond the influence of the tides.
Panoo Girawe (Scarus quinque fasciatus), or worm Parrot.
Body dark purple, approaching to black, with five perpendicular light stripes ;
three touching on the dorsal fin, the third also touches the anal fin, the other two
near the caudal. The head beautifully variegated with pink, green and yellow
interspersed with markings of black, somewhat representing a highly coloured
map. Eye projecting, iris golden, surrounded by black, strongly marked on the
upper part. This splendid fish has been known to reach the length of thirty
inches ; its flesh is delicately white, firm, and wholesome. It derives its native
name from a fancied resemblance of the vertical stripes of yellow and green on its
body to a species of Palm worm.
Laboo Girawe (S. Pepo-or Magrathii.)
Body covered with scales, resembling a regularly marked net or trellis- work of
yellow, on a blue ground, graduating towards the under parts. Head yellow,
with various forms and spots of blue. Eye brilliant ; iris golden ; caudal fin
dark green, vertically tinged with reddish brown ; dorsal and anal fins reddish
brown, bordered with dark green. Pectoral and ventral fins yellowish brown,
the front rays green ; no spines. Laboo is the name of a species of gourd or
pumpkin, to which the marks and colour of the fish have a resemblance.
Balance Shark, or Hammerhead (S. Zygsena, Linn.) — Zope
(Squalus Galeus, Linn,) — Blue Shark (S. glaucus, Linn.) —
Shagreen or basking shark (S. Maximus, Linn.) — Squalus malleus.
Sea Dragon (Pegasus draconis, Cuv.)
Sepelawah (Perca argentea.)
Body silvery, back bluish, graduating towards the lateral line, which is strongly
marked. Fins pale yellow ; the caudal singularly marked with fine black longi
tudinal stripes. The lower plate of the head marked with radii. The iris large,
black, and brilliant. This fish inhabits the deep waters of the surrounding seas,
and is found on the shores of Ceylon at certain seasons, when driven into shallow
water by larger fishes of which it is the prey : it is then taken by the fishermen
in large quantities within the shoal water of the coral banks. Rarely exceeds
seven inches in length, and is excellent food.
Lena Girawe or Squirrel Parrot (Scarus Georgii quarti.)
Body green, with three longitudinal bright red lines, between which, on tbe
green parts, are various irregularly placed touches of red ; the form of each scale
on the green portions is defined by an edging of blue. The dorsal and anal fins
have each a stripe of red passing between their stripes of green, and each ray of
the caudal fin is touched with red at its base, and terminates in a tinge of yellow,
between the predominating green. Head irregularly marked with bright red ;
sharply defined. This, the most splendid of the Parrot fish, is found in rocky
spots. About eighteen inches in length. Is not sought for food. Derives its
Sin»-halese name from the three longitudinal stripes which distinguish the beautiful
but common Lena or Squirrel of the Singhalese.
Gini-Maha or Great Fire (Scorpsena volitans.)
Pectoral fins longer than the body ; the colours stronger on the spinous rays

746 CEYLON. [part IV.
than on the others ; the connecting membrane bluish and brown ; one spinous,
bluish, spotted with white. Some say it is never used as food ; but the native
fishermen maintain that it may be eaten, and that its flesh is white, solid, and
nutritive. Linnaeus describes the flesh as delicious ; but he is, perhaps, in error
in his opinion that it possesses the power of flying, the pectoral fins not appearing
sufficiently united or proportioned to the body to admit of volitation.
Seweya (Acanthurus vittatus.)
Body striated. This fish is scarce on the southern coast, inhabiting rocky loca
lities ; not in request as an article of food. Seldom exceeds sixteen or seventeen
inches in length, and is well armed near the caudal fin with a sharp curved
spine, which it raises or depresses at pleasure, but seldom exhibits except excited
or enraged. When depressed it is scarcely visible within its scabbard, which in
appearance resembles a recent incision in the body of the animal. Specimens vary
in the arrangement of the blue and yellow streaks near the caudal fin.
Koppra Girawe (Gomphosus fuscus, or Porpus Parrot Fish.)
Body brown. Gills, dorsal and anal fins brownish red. This fish inhabits
rocky situations. The Singhalese sometimes eat it ; but it is not nutritious.
Kola Handah or Leaf Moon (Chsetodon vespertilio.)
Dorsal and anal fins broad. Caudal fin with a brown band. Head without
scales, iris golden, mouth small, lips thick, lateral line arched. This fish is occa
sionally found in rocky spots, but generally in deep water. It attains a large
size, and derives its native name from the resemblance it bears in the dorsal fin
to the leaf of a marine plant, and in the shape of the body to that of the moon.
Is considered unwholesome by the natives, from its partiality for copperas and
other food.
Pookoorowah (Holocentrus Argenteus.)
Body silvery, with reddish brown longitudinallines. Pectoral, ventral, and anal
fins yellow, tinged with red. Dorsal fin neutral tint. Caudal fin, dark indigo,
inclining to black. This is a very delicious fish, seldom exceeding twelve or
thirteen inches in length, and is fond of rocky situations.
Gal-Lellah or Stone Plank (Chsetodon vagabundus.)
Body striate , snout cylindrical. Body pale yellow, with brownish purple lines ;
above the eyes a black band ; another at the end of the trunk ; and a third
through the middle of the tail. Scales of the body large ; of the head small.
Flesh good. Inhabits rocky situations ; about twelve or thirteen inches long ; is
eaten by the natives. In some specimens the purple lines on the body are
straight ; in others, nearly so, or partially curved.
Kaha Bartikyah (C. Brownriggii.)
Tail entire. Body and fins yellow ; above the lateral line bright, small. Body,
beneath the lateral line, and fins, yellow ; a deep black spot at the extremity of-
the dorsal fin. Lateral line marked by the termination of the yellow and bright
blue of the body. From its small size — not exceeding two inches in length — not
eatable. Ratoo Gini Maha, Great Red Fire (Scorpeena miles.)
Spines round the eyes and partially on the lateral line near the head. Head
large, with six cirri on the gills. Pectoral fin with large irregular black spots.
Ventral, anal, dorsal, and caudal fins with small black spots. Inhabits rocky
situations, and is described as a most voracious animal. The Singhalese fisher
men vary in opinion with respect to its fitness for food. The S. miles, besides
its colour, differs from S. volitans in the length of the pectoral fins, which in the
former are not so long as the body, in the cirri on the top of the head, and in the
formation of the membranes of the pectoral fins, which though in this animal
they are more united, are certainly not sufficiently proportioned to the body to
admit of volitation.

CHAP. IV.J FISHES FOUND OFF THE COASTS. 747
Ratoo-polobarah, or Mol-Kolah, Rice pounder (Balistes aculeatus)
— B. viridis.
First dorsal fin three-rayed. Tail entire, with two rows of recumbent'spines
at its base, three in each row. Ventral spine strong-toothed. Fins short, first
dorsal, very broad, and serrate forwards. Frequents rocky spots. Is eaten
by the natives ; but from its insignificance, and its almost impenetrable skin, is
not sought after by the fishermen. This fish seldom exceeds ten inches in length,
and when that size, the green colour of the body gives place to a darker hue)
and the fine orange of its lines and fins become of a dusky yellow.
Kara-Hamoowah (Acanthurus hirudo.)
Body strongly marked with five black stripes, three of them resembling leeches.
Lateral line much curved, and armed near the caudal fin with a sharp spine.
Inhabits rocky situations. Seldom exceeds twelve inches in length, and is esteemed
wholesome by the Singhalese. The sharp spine, horizontally situated near the
caudal fin, and pointing towards the head of the animal, can be raised or
depressed at pleasure ; but when recumbent, is scarcely visible to the naked eye.
Mal-Girawe (Sparus Hardwickii.)
The body marked with six perpendicular dark stripes intersected with horizon
tal lines of purple, green, red, yellow, blue and gl-ey, in gaudy colours. The
head is variegated with red and green marks, radiating- from the eye. The Mal-
Girawe owes its name to the brilliant variety of its colours, mal signifying flower.
This fish, though not sought after by the fishermen, is not objected to as food. It
seldom exceeds fourteen inches in length, and loves rocky situations.
Dewi Boraloowah (Bodianus Cuvieri.)
The body marked with strong brown longitudinal lines ; the head, back, and
tail, bright yellow, alternating with the brown stripes of the body. This is a
wholesome, but very scarce fish, inhabiting rocky situations on the southern coast
of Ceylon. Seldom exceeds eighteen inches in length.
Hembili Girawe, Basket Parrot (Sparus decussatus.)
The back green, gradually softening into a yellow tinge towards the lower fins ;
the body regularly marked, like wicker-work, by graduated purple and grey tints.
The head, green, ornamented with orange-coloured stripes and spots. The fins
and tail yellow. The Hembili-Girawe derives its name from a sort of pouch or
basket, in which the natives carry their betel leaf, chunam (shell lime) tobacco,
and areka-nut, called Hembili ; Girawe, the Singhalese name for parrot, is a term
indiscriminately applied by the natives to a variety of splendid fishes with which
the coast of Ceylon abounds. This fish is edible, but not sought after for that
purpose. It inhabits rocky situations, and seldom exceeds fourteen or fifteen
inches in length.
Ankatilla (Balistes biaculeatus.)
Body silvery throughout. The fins of a dull yellow, except the first dorsal,
which is black towards the base. Lateral line from the head to near the ex
tremity of the dorsal fin, arched. This fish derives its specific name from the pe
culiar structure of the ventral fin. It is found principally on the northern coast.
The outer skin is without scales and very tough. This fish seldom exceeds twelve
or thirteen inches in length, and is considered wholesome food.
Ratoo-Girawe (Labrus formosus.)
Body grey, irregularly marked with circular black spots. Head bright yellow,
intersected by two beautiful diagonal lines of blue, verging towards sea-green, one
of which ranges with the eye. The first dorsal spine twice the length of the fin,
and of a bright red colour, which passes through the extremity of the fin, above
and through the centre of which passes a greenish blue line ; the caudal fin is
curiously adapted, having its radii circular at the base, and alternately ornamented
with circular black dots ; rather more than half of the fin is bright red, the re
mainder semi-transparent white, inclining to a very pale yellow. Lateral line
very visible, convexing towards the head and also under the fifteenth ray, from

748 CEYLON. [part IV.
the termination of which it proceeds in a direct line to the centre of the caudal
fin. This fish is one of the most beautiful of its species. It is scarce, and not
sought for as food. Its flesh is firm, white, and nutritious. It is generally found
in rocky situations, and has been known to reach twenty-four inches.
Gal-Handah (Chsetodon araneus.)
Body very obtuse, perpendicularly striped with dark grey, approaching to
black ; the first stripe taking part of the dorsal fin, the shoulder, and the eye ;
the second about one-third of the centre of the dorsal fin, stretching forward to the
pectoral, and terminating with the ventral fin ; the third stripe takes a portion of
the dorsal fin, crossing the body and terminating with the anal fin : the caudal
fin is coloured like the stripes, the intervals are white, tinged with blue. The
iris silvery. Lateral line very visible and arched, convexing towards the eye.
This is a singular and much admh-ed fish. Found among rocks, where it can
escape from larger fish of prey. Flesh delicate and white, and much esteemed.
About three inches in length.
Nil Talapat-Girawe (Gomphosus viridis.)
Body dark green. Snout elongated. The pectoral fin marked with a black
streak ; the other fins of a paler green than the body. Eyes rather dim ; iris
golden. This fish is very scarce on the southern coasts. It is found in rocky
situations, but is not sought after by the fishermen as an article of food. The
dorsal fin of this fish is thought to resemble the young leaf of the talapat tree when

Green Talapat Parrot Fish.
Remarkable for losing its green colour after exceeding ten or twelve inches.
Dewi Koraleyah, Singh. (Chsetodon Atro-maculatus. )
Body silvery, apparently shot with a lilac and pink hue above the lateral line,
and irregularly marked with black spots of various forms. The fins remarkably
prominent, and with radii strongly indicated ; the spines on the dorsal and lower
fins very powerful ; the pectoral fin pale yellow. The general appearance inele
gant and formidable. Lateral line very visible, and arched. This fish is found
on rocky situations near the mouths of rivers, and as high as the tide flows. Its
flesh partakes of the flavour of trout, and is much esteemed. It is found wherever
the sea- weed, called by the Singhelese " Pendah," grows, of which it is particu
larly fond, and with this weed anglers bait their hooks for it.
Kaha Laweyah, Singh. (Perca flavo-purpurea.)
Body, from the eye to the dorsal and anal fins, purple ; gradually lighter towards
the latter part: the remainder of the body, and all the fins, bright yellow ; the upper
part and lower extremity of the caudal fin touched with an irregular black spot ;
the ventral has also a large and a smaller spot in conformity with the caudal fin.
The iris of the eye is golden. The teeth are numerous. The general appearance
of this fish is spendid and graceful. Is principally found on the eastern coast.
Its flesh is considered excellent. It inhabits rocky situations, and is found only
in deep water.
Pol Kitchyah, Singh. (Anthias Clarkii.)
Body dark purple, approaching to black, divided by three white streaks ; the
first curves from the front of the dorsal fin near the eye, and terminates on the
lower plate ; the second streak crosses the body from about the middle of the
dorsal to the front spine of the anal fin ; the third streak curves inwards from the
outer rays of the caudal fin. Part of the head, the body between the pectoral
and ventral fins, and the caudal fin are bright yellow, tinged with orange ; dorsal
and anal fins, purple. Mouth situated high ; iris, golden. This fish is scarce ;
its name is derived from the beautiful Java sparrow. It is rarely more than four
inches long, and is good, firm, and wholesome.
There is also a Balistes, the kangewena of the Singhalese, with one
horn on the forehead ; it grows to the length of two feet, and is
esteemed good eating. — Balistes maculosus, or Pottoe bora elegantly
spotted, also a good fish, grows to the length of fifteen inches.—

CHAP. IV.J FISHES FOUND OFF THE COASTS. 749
Balistes truncatus, seemingly cut in two, like ourMola.— A Diodon,
a singular species, armed with strong short spines. The Ikon
Toetomba, or box fish of the Malayans. — Among the fresh-water
fish are the Cat fish (angoloowa, Singh.) ; the Eel, Barbet, Grey
mullet, and the Mud fish, of the Perca genus.
Dschirau-Malu (Labrus Zeylanicus.)
The Ceylon "wrasse. This species resembles in form the elegant European
species, the L. Pavo and L. Juhs. The head is blue ; the coverts of the gills green,
marked with purple lines ; the whole body of a rich green, the dorsal and anal
fins purple, edged with pale sky-blue ; on the middle of the pectoral fin is an ob
long purple spot, environed with light blue : the tail is lineated ; the base blue :
the two side rays purple : the intervening rays yellow. The size about a foot and
a half. Is eaten by the natives. Reptiles.
The Ophidia of Ceylon are numerous. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 21, 23, are said by the Singhalese to be
venomous ; the rest are harmless. Noya, Naga, or hooded snake ;
Cobra di Capello.
This snake, though of the deadliest and largest, frequently attaining to six feet
in length, is much venerated by the Singhalese, being thought to have an amiable
disposition as regards mankind. It varies much in colour, those of a light hue
are called high caste, and those of a dark, low caste snakes ; and was formerly an
object of worship. Accordingly it is never killed like the other species, which are
gibbeted on branches of trees. The Nagas inhabiting the western coast of Ceylon,
and converted by Gautama, were probably worshippers of this snake. The bite of
the hooded snake is not necessarily fatal to other animals, fowls for instance ; and
in its effect varies a good deal, according to circumstances not easy to calculate ;
the poison is capable of being soon exhausted, the symptoms produced by it,
though not uniformly the same, pretty generally correspond, and along with the
appearances on dissection indicate that the lungs are the principal scene of action.
In four experiments with fowls, by Dr. Davy, three, where the animals were seve
rally bitten on the left pectoral muscle, breast, and thigh, were fatal ; and one,
where a cock was bitten on the comb, harmless. Three experiments on do°-s
all proved innocuous. For a detailed account, see Davy.
Berawa Naga. — Koboe Naga is said by the Singhalese to be the
Naga (Cobra di Capello, or Coluber Naja, Linn.)
In its last stage, and that every time it has expended its poison, the reptile loses
ajoint of its tail, until it changes its nature, and assumes wings like the pectoral
fins of the flying fish, at which time the head and mouth resemble the toad's. This
transformation is credited by the most intelligent of the natives. With the ex
ception of the various species of Nagas, and the Tik polonga, the bite of no other
snake in Ceylon is known to be positively fatal to man, and recovery follows in
the case of the former as often as death. The poison of each kind of snake being
peculiar, requires a different mode of treatment ; a circumstance not always kept
in view. Soeloe Naga. — Deput Naga, Dia Naga according to the Sing
halese, is amphibious, living six months in water, during whichperiod
it is venomous ; and for six months on land, when it is entirely harm
less. — Polonga. —Lee Polonga. — Nidi Polonga; mortiferous sleep is
said to follow the bite of this snake.— Pala Polonga.
The Tik Polonga,'
1 A legend illustrative of the contrast which exists between the dispositions of
the Cobra and the Tik-polonga, the former of which is considered a benevolent.the

750 CEYLON. [PART IV.
Is difficult of proeural, and is perhaps the most dangerous snake in the island.
When full grown it is from four to five feet long, and very thick in proportion.
The head is small, and nearly triangular ; the tail tapering, round, and short.
The colour of the upper surface is a dark, dull brownish grey ; of the under, light
yellow. The belly is not spotted, but the back is regularly marked. In some
specimens the marks are oval ; and in some more pointed, and rather trapezoidal ;
in others, surrounded with a white margin ; in a fourth, lightest in the middle.
This snake is rather indolent and inactive. It is averse to attack, lies coiled up,
and when irritated, hisses furiously, and darts forward. The difference between
a harmless and poisonous snake may be said to consist in the former being pro
vided with a double row of teeth, and the other with a single row and two fangs,
each of which is perforated with a canal ; that at the base of the tooth communi
cates with the poison-duct from the poison-gland, and terminates in a longitudinal
opening, just below the point of the fang, which is solid. The action of the poison
of this snake is peculiar, judging from the symptoms, and the appearances on dis
section, it seems to affect the blood and muscular system principally, tending to
coagulate the former, and convulse and paralyse the latter. In six experiments,
in each of which the bite affected a different member, it proved almost immediately
fatal. Pimbera or anaconda, is of the genus Python, Cuv., and is known
in English as the rock snake.
This snake has been known to attain twenty-five feet in length, and the thick
ness of a man. It twines round its prey like the boa, but is not much dreaded by
the natives, as it seldom seizes any animal larger than a jackal. A couple of
horny processes, in form and curvature not unlike the spurs of a common fowl,
penetrate the skin, and project a little anterior to the anus ; in this it differs from
the genus Coluber, which it resembles in abdominal scuta and subcaudal squama.
These horny spurs are useful to the animal in climbing trees and retaining its
prey. They vary slightly in colour, but are generally a mixture of brown, and
yellow ; the back and sides are strongly and rather handsomely marked with irre
gular patches of dark brown, with very dark margins. The jaws are powerful,
latter a malevolent being,runs as follows : — " In the isle of Serendib there is a happy
valley, that men call the vale of Kotmale. It is watered by numerous streams,
and its fields produce rice in abundance ; but at one season great drought prevails,
and the mountain torrents then cease their constant roar, and subside into rivulets,
or altogether disappear. At this period when the rays of the noontide sun beat
fiercely and hotly on the parched earth, a tik-polonga encountered a cobra di
capello. The polonga had in vain sought to quench his burning thirst, and gazed
with envy on the cobra, who had been more successful in his search for the pure
beverage. ' Oh ! puissant cobra, I perish with thirst ; tell me where I may find
the stream wherein thou hast revelled.' ' Accursed polonga,' replied the cobra,
' thou cumberest the earth, wherefore should I add to the span of thy vile existence.
Lo, near to this flows a mountain rill, hut an only child is disporting herself
therein, while her mother watches the offspring of her heart. Wilt thou then
swear not to injure the infant, if I impart to thee where thou mayest cool thy
parched tongue.' ' I swear by all the gods of Serendib,' rejoined the polonga,
' that I will not harm the infant.' ' Thou seest yonder hamlet ; in front of it
gushes forth a spring of water, that abates not during the intensity of the summer
heat.' The polonga wended his way to the spot, and there beheld a dark-eyed
girl bathing in the rushing waters. Having quaffed the delicious liquid, he re
pented him of his oath touching the infant. His evil soul prompted him to kill her,
and as she lay beneath the shade of a leafy tamarind tree, he approached and in
flicted a mortal wound. As he retired from his dying victim, he again met the
cobra, who seeing blood on his fangs, and perceiving the cause, thus addressed
him. ' Hast thou forgotten the sacred oath thou swearest unto me ? The blood of
thy victim cries for vengeance. Thou shall surely die.' And darting his fangs
into the body of the polonga, he slew him instantly."

CHAP. IV.J OPHIDIA — THEIR RESPECTIVE CHARACTERS. 751
and capable of great dilatation, and they are armed with large, strong sharp teeth,
reclining backwards. As the muscular strength of this snake is immense, and its
activity and courage great, it has been known to attack man : deer it overpowers,
and swallows entire. The natives have the most absurd notions respecting it ; hold
that when young it was a polonga, and had poisonous fangs, but at a certain age it
loses them, acquires spurs, and becomes apimbera. Itsspurs they suppose poisonous,
and that the animal uses them in striking its prey. Parturition they believe to be
fatal to the female, owing to the bursting of the abdomen, and that hence the
males avoid them, and choose female nagas.
Ahedoella. The movements of this snake are rapid, and from
its power of springing, it is called a flying snake.
Mapilla. The Karawilla
Is, after the hooded snake, the most common of the poisonous kind in Ceylon.
It averages a foot in length, the back is of a dull, reddish brown colour : belly, a
silvery white, greyish towards the tail. On each side, between the ridge of the
back and the boundary line, between the back and the belly, there are two rows
of black velvety spots. The head is nearly triangular and is compressed, darker
than the body, and free from spots. The jaws are very dilatable. The fang teeth,
long, slender, and sharp. It lies coiled up, its head projecting at right angles
nearly to its body. When provoked, it hisses, darts its head with great rapidity,
at the irritating object, and wounds almost to a certainty. It is active, and when
frightened, and anxious to escape, moves with great rapidity. From experiments,
it would appear that the bite of the Karawilla is rarely fatal to small animals ;
that its poison is not easily exhausted ; that the symptoms it produces are pretty
uniform, and different from those produced by the naga, the diseased action
being more local and much more inflammatory, commencing in the part bitten,
spreading progressively, losing its force as it extends, and seldom or never proving
fatal except it reaches a vital organ. In the experiments made by Dr. Davy,
dogs bitten by it, though suffering intense pain, much swollen in the affected part,
and discharging an ichorous fluid, recovered in a, few days, and of three fowls
bitten, two recovered.
Pala Panoowa. — Dia Berya.— Garrendiya (rat snake). — Ahare
Kocka.— Wal-Garwendiya.- — Doenoo-Karawilla — Mai Karawilla. —
Tib-Karawilla. — Kan-Koenda. — Galgoloowah — Hotambeyah. —
Etetullah. — Mai Karabeta. — Mai Polon. — Matribilla. — - Duberriya.
Boodroo Pam of Russell,
Is extremely rare, and has no native name. When full grown, it exceeds
two feet in length, the head is large, and irregularly heart-shaped, neck small,
body thin, sides compressed, and tail abrupt and tapering. It has two large
cavities, one on each side, between the eye and the nostril, the diameter of each
of which is about the tenth of an inch. Its lower surface is yellow variegated
with green ; its upper, bright apple green. This colour is confined to the scales ;
the cutis beneath is black, consequently where the scales are close, black is ex
cluded, and where they do not completely overlap, the green is shaded with
black. ' Above the upper jaw is a line of black scales, and a few appear along the
ridge of the back.
It frequently happens that the traveller in crossing or proceeding along the
rivers of Ceylon, discovers bags of matting tied at the mouth, and floating with
the stream ; these should be opened with caution, as they generally contain a
na»-a or sacred snake, that some superstitious Buddhist has cast upon the waters,
with a stock of provisions, consisting of boiled eggs and rice, on a similar principle,
to that execrable practice of the Romish Church, in the case of recreant nuns,
who walled up with a portion of bread, were doomed to as sure, though lingering
a death as if the demon superior had, with her own hands, perpetrated the murder.
In like 'manner the Buddhists, while objecting from religious or superstitious
motives to kill the naga, deem it no offence to send it upon an aquatic cruise
without a possibility of escape from its covert, conscious that, m the event of

752 CEYLON. [part IV.
meeting with Europeans, it will be taken up and dispatched prior to being de
posited in their cabinets.
The Ichneumon or Mongoose, mentioned in due order in p. 734.
(Goodoowa, Singh.) Herpestes, sp.
Is the mortal enemy of all venomous snakes, which it is supposed to distinguish
from harmless ones by the pupil of the eye. It resembles the common ferret in
shape and size, and when young, its fur is of a pencil grey, which changes in
time to an iron grey, tipped at the extremities with brown. The eyes are of a
bright flame-colour, ears small and rounded, nose long and slender, body thicker
than others of the genus : tail very thick at the base, tapering to a point ; legs,
short ; the hair hard and coarse. If placed in a room with closed doors, the
snake, when perceiving its antagonist, will be as sensible of its power in that case,
as the mongoose will be aware of its inability to oppose it, and while the one
expands its hood, and rapidly darts backwards and forwards its forked tongue in
its excitement, the other will exhibit its sense of danger, and will endeavour to
escape. But remove both of the belligerents into a compound, and after taking
precautions to prevent the escape of the snake, you will suddenly see the altered
position of affairs. The mongoose first hastening away for a moment to furnish
itself with the antidote which instinct has revealed to it, quickly returns, and
boldly prepares itself for the contest. After several detours, it will gradually
near its opponent, which is fixedly watching it, as if under the influence of the
same fascination which, in its own turn, it has produced in other animals. On a
sudden the mongoose may be seen crouching with its nose close to the ground,
and having watched his opportunity, springs forward, and in a second has
fastened his teeth in the back of the cobra's neck, which is never itself the
assailant. The huge reptile twisting itself in every direction, fruitlessly endea
vours to encircle the mongoose in its folds, and lashes its tail against the ground ;
the snake now begins to shew signs of exhaustion, whilst its little foe bravely
retains its hold, till, at length, the overpowered monster, after receiving a final
hug, is relinquished when life has become extinct. The mongoose, though gene
rally uninjured by the contest, on quitting the snake, will again repair to its vege
table antidote. The name, and even the properties of this plant are unknown.
Thus some maintain that it is the Ophiorhiza Mungos, Linn. (Mendi. Singh.),
because almost every part of the tree is employed by the native doctors in healing
snake bites ; others have it, that it is the Ophioxylon serpentinum, which is every
where abundant. Others, that it is a variety of Mimosa octandra or sensitiva
(nakulishta or desired of Ichneumons, Singh.) Both these plants are of the Eka-
wariya family of the Singhalese botanists, though the stems of each differ in theii
properties. It has also been affirmed, that the root and leaf of the Eupatorium Ayapana have
been used by the mongoose, and that a pan of hot water, in which a decoction of
its aromatic leaves was infused, along with the imbibing a similar liquid, has cured
a native whose wounded leg was suspended over it. A yet more insignificant
animal than the mongoose, is capable of destroying the Cobra di Capello, which may
be kept alive for years upon eggs, frogs, and mice. Thus instances have occurred,
where live mice have been placed along with a live snake, to serve as food, at the
pleasure of the reptile, but the result has been the reverse ; for instinct, having
taught the little animals that the only means of preserving their own lives was by
anticipating their enemy, they have effected it by earing its eyes, and depriving
it of sight, from which it could not survive, while they remained uninjured.
The pretended snake charmers or samp-wallahs are Hindoos, who provoke the
Cobra to bite at red rags, by which means it expends its venom, or lull it, by play
ing the Horanawa or country pipe, while anotherbeats with his right hand upon the
Oodikea, or by singing, or stroking it, though it can be only temporarily innocuous,
for so long as the cylindrical fangs and poison ducts remain perfect, its power to
inflict mischief will be restored by a reaccumulatibn of the venom. Great caution
is required in purchasing a Cobra di Capello from itinerant Bnake charmers, for no
reliance can be put on their profession of the harmlessness of the reptiles, for their

CHAP. IV.J OPHIDIA AND THEIR ENEMIES — SNAKE-CHARMING. 753
calling being deceptive, and dependent on the gullibility of their audience, so is also
their mode of dealing ; for they have been known to deceive, in more than one
instance, to the great risk of the deceived purchaser. The purchaser should see
that the fangs and poison ducts have been extracted. They are carried about in
circular baskets, and when these are opened for the occasion of display, the music,
or rather discord, is quickened ; the snakes move about the space allotted to them
with part of their bodies erect, and the rest of their lengths coiled, but their hoods
expand and their forked tongues continually project and retract. The snakes are
irritated to strike at the charmer's arms and knees, and blood flows, but he avoids,
with great agility, the attacks of the animal when really enraged, after which he
takes the reptiles by the neck, and holds their mouths close to his forehead, in
which position they are perfectly harmless, and he declares they are innocuous or
kutcha. In point of fact, the Samp-wallah saturates his hands and face with a
vegetable juice, to which the snakes are repugnant, while his confidence, courage
and acquaintance with the disposition of the snake, which he knows to be averse to
use the fatal weapon nature has given it for its defence, except in extreme danger,
and never to bite without much preparatory threatening, inspire in him a feeling of
security. Eau de Luce, has been successfully used in healing the bite of the Cobra
in various stages of the patient's sufferings, but it should be administered at an
early period after the bite ; thus, in two cases, where persons had been in strong
convulsions, and had lost the use of their speech, foaming at the mouth in a dread
ful manner, a, mixture of nitric and muriatic acid dropped and rubbed into the
punctures, made by the snake's fangs, and fifty drops of Eau de Luce, in a little
water, proved efficacious, and they recovered in a few hours. Oil has been of use
both when applied externally or internally. Sometimes a bite will almost imme
diately produce fatal effects, even in half an hour the face will become so disfi
gured as not to appear human, the mouth covered with saliva, and the part bitten,
swollen to a monstrous size. Snakes, though comparatively abundant in certain
localities, are seldom encountered by man, probably from a desire to shun his path,
like all animals ; the Polonga is the least active in removing from his approach,
while its poison' is most deadly. Sometimes they will be found in unoccupied
houses, when they are frequently difficult to remove. In the Mahagamapattoo
they are scarce, it is said, owing to their being destroyed by the pea fowl, with
which the plains and trees abound, and which are partial to them as food. The
groundless fear which some strangers first entertain on reaching Ceylon is soon
dissipated, and they finally cease to think of them.
Thunberg describes the serpent-stone as an infallible antidote against the bite
of serpents, but according to Dr. Davy, a large degree of qualification must be
applied to this remark. It is manufactured by the natives, and is, generally, of
the shape of a bean. It is prepared from the ashes of some root which is burnt,
and from a particular sort of earth. These two ingredients being mixed together,
are burnt a second time, and reduced to a paste, which is then moulded into the
required form, and dried. All have not the same colour, the over burnt being of
a lighter, and the under burnt of a darker grey : frequently they are variegated
with black and grey spots. The stone is pierced through with fine holes, and
is so brittle, that it will break in pieces if it falls. One of these stones is placed
upon the wound of one bitten by a serpent, over which it is bound tight, and left
there till all its pores are filled with the expressed poison. In this case it is said
to drop off of its own accord, like a glutted leech, and if it be then steeped in
sweet milk, the poison is supposed to be extracted from it, or, otherwise, the stone
is applied fresh to the wound. Great virtue is attributed to this stone in malignant
and even putrid fevers, if a small quantity scraped fine is taken in wine.
Counterfeit serpent stones are frequently made in imitation of real ones, and
possess no virtue, the true ones may be known by their fastening to the palate
and forehead, when a man is warm, and by their emitting small bubbles when
put into water. According to Dr. Davy, there are three different kinds of these
stones, one of partially burnt bone, another of chalk, and the third resembles a
bezoar, consisting chiefly of vegetable matter.
Ceylon crocodile (Crocodilus porosus.) Kimbolah, Singh. (Kay-
man, Portuguese.)
Is a very sluggish animal. They are caught in nets by the natives, as well as
3 c

754 CEYLON. [PA"RT. IV.
in traps, and with baited hooks. The first is the best sport ; for when dragged on
land, they offer aim for the gun or spear. The crocodile possesses great strength,
and is alike dreaded by men and animals. It has been occasionally caught in the
jungles, which it passes on its way to the rivers, when the tanks become dry.
Natives have been seized when bathing, by crocodiles, and swallowed whole,
and when the animal has been captured1 and opened, the putrified body has been
discovered within. Frequently, however, they will carry off their prey, and after
life has departed, deposit it and repose beside it, in some dark and caverned
1 Crocodiles are frequently caught in kraals, composed of strong and high
stakes. These animals are to be found in every small piece of water, in those flat
districts, in which the population is scanty. In the mountainous regions they are
seldom seen, but where they abound it is dangerous for a person to rest, as they
have been known to eye a person in the water, and crawling up the bank, carry
him off, while asleep, from fatigue. An instance has been known where a man,
crossing a river in a small canoe, has been seized and dragged underneath the
water by a crocodile. They destroy great numbers of deer, young cattle, and
animals of all kinds, which come to drink, or lie down to cool themselves in the
rivers and ponds. In hunting or coursing, it is advisable to ride well up with the
dogs, and fire on approaching water, as otherwise the dogs run a great risk of
being seized ; in fact, this is so common an occurrence, that the pleasure of hunt
ing is greatly diminished, and the difficulty of preserving good dogs increased.
Crocodile charmers, from their acquaintance with the habits of the animal, are
always successful in conducting a party through deep water, without accident.
The party being assembled on the bank, wait, while the incantations which are
accompanied by a splashing of water, are in progress, and on receiving an intima
tion that the crocodiles are effectually muzzled, rush in together, taking care to
create a sufficient disturbance to frighten the cowardly, slothful reptiles, and im
parting no less safety than confidence in their prowess. From the manner in
which the natives of Putlam, and some other places, venture into water where
crocodiles abound and drag them to the bank by means of a strong net, it may be
inferred that they are neither active nor courageous. This is an extraordinary and
interesting sight, but it is not without surprise and anxiety that the stranger, after
noticing- the movements of several crocodiles, sees the net arranged, and the
hunters, generally Moormen, wade up to their necks in the water, and form a
semicircular line round the spot where the animals had been last observed, which,
on perceiving the unusual commotion, instinctively lower their heads beneath
. the surface. Those engaged in dragging the net move their legs rapidly, while
others keep striking on the surface of the water with poles, the space within the
net being gradually contracted, till the crocodiles are landed, when the party on
the hank, arrned with spears and guns, commences the work of destruction, The
most vulnerable part of a crocodile is, that part of the body which is left exposed
when the reptile moves its fore legs, but the spear should be so formed as to be
easily extracted, with a view to striking a deadlier blow, in case the first should
have been futile. The persons employed in dragging (though inside the net) or
beating up the game, manifest no appearance of fear, and make no great exertion
to get out of the way, when the reptiles plunge and attempt to regain a deep
cover, which they will do on finding themselves in shallow water, and closely
surrounded. " The best way of destroying crocodiles is," says Forbes, " by means
of hooks, baited with flesh, attached to a strong cord not hard twisted, but com
posed of many small strings which get between the wide set teeth of the animal,
and cannot then be gnawed ; a block of wood to which the lines are attached,
serves as a float, and points out the place to which the crocodile has retired after
swallowing the bait. An attendant having laid hold of this float pulls very gently,
until the animal's head appears above water ; then a shot, directed between the
head and neck, breaks the spine, and renders the creature powerless ; after which
it is dragged ashore, and the tackling recovered. In this manner, several hun
dreds have been killed, by a sportsman, in the course of a year, in one district.
Although the hard and irregular surface of a crocodile's skin is apt to cause a ball
to glance off, yet there is no part of one that would resist an ordinary sized ball if
properly directed." — Pp. 274-5.

CHAP. IV.J CROCODILES. — SHELLS. — INVERTEBRATED ANIMALS. 755
channel, until they can devour it piecemeal. The Ceylon crocodile differs greatly
from the Lacerta Gangetica, the head being long and flat towards the extremity
of the jaws, the eyes very small, and so placed within their orbits, that the outer
part when shut, is not above an inch and a half in length, and parallel with the
opening of the jaws ; the nose is directly in the middle of the upper jaw, and
about an inch and a quarter from the extremity of it ; the neck is carinated, and
both the head and back are covered with a hard coat ; the tail, rough, with two
lateral crests ; but the belly is not musket proof. The size of the crocodile varies
considerably ; some of the larger size reaching seventeen and even twenty feet in
length, while others, little exceed half that size. Whatever is once seized by the
crocodile, can never escape ; for there are alternate cavities between the teeth in
both jaws. The upper jaw has upwards of thirty sharp-pointed teeth, and half
that number of a smaller size in the lower. The crocodile lays from eighty to
one hundred eggs, which are white, and of the size of a goose's egg, but more
oblong and convex at the extremities.
Among the other Singhalese reptiles may be specified, Lacertse. —
Argyrophis Bramiciris. — Cabrita Leschenaultii. — Siluboura Cey-
lonica. — Hemidactylus Leschenaultii. — Hemidactylus frenatus. —
Lyriocephalus scutatus. — Ceratophora Stoddartii, Calotes versicolor.
Among the Batrachia are Epicrium glutinosum, Tree-frogs (Hyli), &c.
Ceylon turtle, or Hawk's-bill (Testudo Imbricata), Lili-kas-hewa,
Singh.— Green turtle, (Testudo Mydas), or Gal-kas-hewa, Singh.
— Fresh water turtle, or Kiri-ba. —Two species of Tortoise, Testudo
stellata and Emys Seba.
Great varieties of Shells are to be obtained in Ceylon, but they
principally belong to the following Linneean and Lamarckian genera :
— Anomia, Area, Buccinum, Bulla, Cardium, Chama, Chione, Caro-
colla, Carinaria, Cerithium, Columbella, Conus, Cyprsea, Dentalium,
Donax, Glycimeris, Harpa, Haliotis, Helix, Mya, Mactra, Murex,
Mytilus, Nautilus, Nerita, Ostrea, Pholas, Pinna, Pleurotoma, Ptero-
ceras, Sufula, Solen, Strombus, Spondylus, Tellina, Teredo, Turbo,
Trochus, Venus, Voluta.
Ceylon is equally rich in the Invertebrated animals. Among the
Ceylonese Coleoptera are many fine species of Cicindelse (Tiger
Beetles.) — Colliuris. — Tricondyla. — Physodera. — Helluo, &c.
Elateridse of the genera Campsosternus Templetonii, Westw. me
tallic green.— Alaus sordidus, Westw. and other species.
Buprestidse of the genera Sternocera. — Chrysochroa.1 — Chrysos-
dema. — Belionota.
Cetoniadse of the genera Coryphocera. — Agestrata.— Clinteria. —
Macronota. — Tseniodera. — Protsetia.
Brentidee and CurcuhonidK.— Taphroderes.— Hypomeces. — Ca-
landra. .
Longicorns of the genera Trictenotoma Templetonii, Westw. —
Hamaticherus.— Cerambyx Telephoroides, Westw.

1 So rich, splendid, and various are the beetles of Ceylon, that they have been
used in the decorations of ladies' dresses, and with their many twinkling rays
have added such a lustre to the garment to which they have been attached, as to
excite universal admiration. The firefly, of Ceylon, is a species of beetle (Lam-
pyris), which emits a light scarcely inferior to that of heaven m brilliance. It is
found everywhere in the interior. More than one instance has ocourred,- where
the eccentric motions of this insect, from being mistaken for the flickering of a
more regular light, has led to accidents. 3 c 2

756 CEYLON. [PART TV.
Chrysomelidse of the genera Eumolpus, Chrysochus, &c.
Among the Lepidoptera, are the following : —
PapilionidjE : — Ornithoptera Haliphron, Boisd?— PapilioPolym-
nestor, Fab. — P. Crino, Fab. — P. Helenus, Linn. — P. Temple-
toni, Doubleday. — P. Agamemnon, Linn. —P. Eurypilus, Linn. —
P. Sarpedon, Linn. ? — P. Epius, Linn. — P. Polydorus F. — P Hector,
Linn. — P. Mutius, Fab. — P. Pammon, Linn. — P. Dissimilis, Linn.
Pieeid^e: — Pontia Nina, (Fab.) — Pieris Eucharis, (Drury.) —
—P. Valeria, (Cram.)— P. Phryne, (Fab.)— P. Paulina, (God.)—
P. Sererina, (Cram.), and 2 new species. — Iphias Glaucippe, (Linn.)
— Idmais,n. sp. — Thestias Pirene, (Linn.) — T.Mariamne, (Cram.) —
Terias Hecabe, (Linn.,) and 1 new species. — Callidryas Hilaria,
(Cram.) — C. Alcmeone, (Fab.) — C. Pyranthe, (Linn.)
Danaid^::— Euploea Prothoe, Boisd. — E. Cora, (Fab.)— E. Mi-
damus, (Linn.), and 2 new species.— Danais Chrysippus, (Linn.)—
D. Plexippus, (Linn.) — Hestia Lynceus, (Drury.) — H. Jasonia,
(Westwood.) Acr2Ead^i : — Acraa Violee, Fab.
NymphaliDjE : — Cethosia, and 1 new species. — Argynnis Niphe,
(Linn.)— A. Phalanta, (Fab.) — A. Erymanthis, (Fab.), and 1 new
species. — VanessaAsterie, (Linn.) — P. CEnone, (Linn.) — P. Orithyia,
(Linn.)— P. Callirhbe, Hiibn. — P. Cardui, (Linn.) — P. Charoriia,
(Cram.) — P. Lemonias, (Linn.) — P. Laomedia, (Linn.) — Salamis
Iphita, (Fab.), and 1 new species. — Cynthia Arsinbe, Fab. — Minetra
Gambrisius, (Fab.) — Limenitis Aceris, (Fab.) L. heliodora, (Fab.)—
L. Procris, (Fab.)— Diadema Bolina, (Linn.) — D. Auge, (Cram.)—
Adolias, and 3 new species.— Charaxes Bernhardus, (Fab.)— C.
Paphon, (Westw.) — Amathusia Philarchus, (Westw.)
SatyridjE : — Hipparchia, 3 new species, Leda (Linn.) — Satyrus
Chenu (Guerin.)— Libytheidjs : Lybithea, 1 new species.— Bib-
LID2E. Ergolis, 1 new species.— E. ariadne, (Linn.)— E. coryta,
(Cram.)— Melanitis undularis, (Fab.) — Lycenidje : Emesis, new
species, Loxura Atymnus, Horsf. — Polyommatus Nyseus, Guerin. —
Rosimon.— Ethion, 9 new species.— Nila, 1 new species. — Thecla,
Jarbas and Forbes, 7 new species. — Narada, Horsf. 8 new species.
— Amblypodia Hercules, King, 2 new species. — Loxura. — Hespe-
ria, 13 new species.
Sphingid^; :— Sphinx Nessus, Cram. Fab.— Nerii, Linn. 2 new
species.— Morpheus, var?— Dyras, Bdw. — Casuarina, var. — Actseus,
var. no specimen. — Norma. — Lycetas, Cram. — Celerio, Linn.—
Thyclia, Linn 1 new specimen, Vigil. Guer.— Convolvuli, Linn.—
Acherontia Satanas, Bdw. — Macroglossus passalus, and one new
species. — Sesia Hylas, Jircrc.— Deilephila Cyrene, Westw. C. 0. E.
t. 6. f. 1. — Bombycid-e : — Limacodes graciosa, Westw. Cab, Ore.
Ert. t. 24. f. 1.— L. lseta, Westw. p. 50.
There are three or four distinct species of Bees in Ceylon. The wax
contains no elements of acidity like the wax of Europe ; one of these
is the carpenfer bee (Xylocopa) . There is also the carpenter wasp,
a species of Eumenes.
The cockroach (Blatta orientalis.) The black-footed bug. (Cata-

CHAP. IV.J COLEOPTERA, LEPIDOPTERA, MYRIAPODA. 757
canthus nigripes) and C. aurantius. The green bug (Cimex viridis),
Cicada, and other species of Hemiptera, abound. The mosquito
(Culex molestus) is as troublesome in Ceylon as elsewhere. The
dragon-fly is here magnificent.
The white ant (Termes fatale, Linn.) is one of the greatest pests
in the island, and will devour or undermine almost any article with
which it comes in contact, the greatest vigilance is therefore neces
sary, or the most fatal consequences may ensue, buildings have
been known to have been overthrown from their foundations, and
what would almost appear impervious to their approach has even
tually yielded. The myriads of this insect that acquire wings and take
flight after rains, are beyond all calculation ; for attracted by the
lights, open or latticed windows, afford no obstruction to the irruption
of their overwhelming hordes.
The nest of the white ant is called " old boiled rice" by the natives,
it is a curious substance, reminding one of the honey comb, but
crumbles to pieces on the slightest touch.
The Mygale has legs, four inches in length, and the body is
covered with thick black hair. It is said to form a web strong
enough to entangle the smaller species of birds on which it feeds,
but this opinion is thought to be exaggerated. The long bodied
spider (Tetragnatha) is also found.
Ticks are to be found in all the dry parts of Ceylon.
They are one of the greatest torments within the tropics, completely overspread
ing a person, and biting him most pertinaciously. They are banded together in
lumps, containing several thousand, and remain attached to some leaf, which, if
touched by an unwary passenger, discharges a shower of these pestilent vermin,
which prick like red-hot needles, and cause intolerable itching. Ticks are in
general about the size of a pin's head, are round, hard, flat, and adhere to the
skin of men or animals, into which they introduce themselves, disregarding all
attempts to kill or remove them.
Among its Myriapoda are species of the
Genus Cermatia. Illiger, C. nobflis, Templeton, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. Vol. iii.
1843; C. dispar. Temp. Myriapoda of Ceylon, (privately printed, Ceylon). —
Lithobitts, Leach, L. umbratilis, Temp. id. — Scolopendra, Linn. S. crassa,
Temp. id. ; S. subspinipes ; S. pallipes, Temp. id. ; S. tuberculidens, Newport,
An. Mag. Nat. Hist. "Vol. xiii. ; S. Ceylonensis, Newp. Lin. Trans, xix. ; S. flava,
Newp. Lin. Trans, xix. ; S. trigonopoda, Templeton, not Leaeh ; S. olivacea, Temp.
loo. cit. ; S. brevis, Temp. id. — S. abdominalis, Temp. id. ; S. morsitans is not
uncommon, and when it rains, issues from its place of concealment and creeps in
shoals into the houses where doors are open. — Cryptops, Leach, C. sordidus,
Temp. id. ; C. assimilis, Temp. id. — Heterostoma, Newport, H. spinosa, Newp.
Lin. Trans, xix. — Geophilus, Leach, G. triangularis, Temp. loc. cit. ; G. specio-
sus, Temp, id.— Zephronia, Gray, Z. conspicua, Temp. id. ; Z. nigra, Temp. id.
 Z. hirsuta, Temp. id. — Cambala, Gray, C. catenulata, Temp. loc. cit. —
Polydesmus, Latreille, P. granulatus, Temp. id. — Craspedosoma, Leach, C.
juloides, Temp. loo. cit. ; C. prseusta, Temp. loc. cit. — Juius, Linnaus, J. ater,
Temp. id. ; J. dorsalis, Temp. id. ; J. pallipes, Temp, id.; J. flaviceps, Temp. id. ;
J. pallidus, Temp. id.
The Centipedes are common ; the bite is unpleasant, but not dangerous. The
black scorpion (Scorpio ater) emits a severe sting, but not dangerous to persons
in good health. Brown scorpion (Scorpio australis) is also found here.
Crustacea. — Crayfish.— Prawns. — Crabs, SoldierCrab. —Shrimp
(Cancer fulgens, Linn.)
Among the Leeches are the Land leech (Hirudo Zeylanica.)
This small but troublesome animal, which abounds in every uncultivated
place where there is long grass, but chiefly in such parts of the interior as

758 CEYLON. [PART IV.
are exempt from a continuance of dry weather, the excessive heat and drought
of the maritime districts, and the cold of the mountains being alike uncongenial
to its taste, is one of the greatest pests in Ceylon, as they will ferociously fasten
themselves on the feet, hands, and even neck. The wounds caused by them
will be irritated, if they are plucked off too forcibly or suddenly ; touching them
with brandy, or even salt, gunpowder or lime juice will quickly remove them.
These vermin are of a brown colour-, their ordinary size is about three-quarters of an
inch in length, and one-tenth of an inch in diameter ; they can, however, stretch
themselves to two inches in length, and are then sufficiently small to pass through
the stitches of a stocking. They move quickly, are difficult to kill, and it is im
possible to turn them from their bloody purpose ; for while in the act of puffin"
them from the legs, they will cling to the hands, and fix immediately on touching
the skin : they draw a great deal of blood, which, with considerable itching and
sometimes slight inflammation, is the chief annoyance their bites give to a man in
good health, but animals which are less able to resist their attack, suffer more
severely, and sheep will not thrive where they are found. In cases, where there
is a bad habit of body, or a debilitated constitution, which cannot afford to lose
blood, leech bites will frequently fester, become sores, and even degenerate into
ulcers, that in some instances have occasioned the loss of limb, and even of life.
Several of the troops both native and foreign, who served in the late war, were placed
hors-de-combat, in this manner, and in many cases, it was found necessary to have
recourse to amputation. Lime juice, vinegar, acids, or stimulants, will remove the
itching of leech bites and prevent ulceration, but prevention being, in all cases,
better than cure, the traveller, Sec. should provide himself with leech gaiters or
nankeen pantaloons, with feet attached, which should be made with well joined
seams, and to tie round the waist.
Indigenous Plants1 of Ceylon according to Linnean arrangement.
Class 1. MONANDRIA. Order Monogynia ; Of the Cannem are Canna
indica (But-sarana), C. coccinea (Wagapul-but-sarana), C. lutea (Kaha-but
sarana) ; Maranta paniculata (Gaeta-oluwa), M. spicata (Hulan-keeriya). — Of
the Scitaminem; Hedychium coronarium (Ela-mal) ; Globba racemosa, a
deciduous herbaceous plant, perennial, ornamental, with yellow flowers ; Alpinia
allughas (Alu-gas), A. Galanga (Ma-kaluwala), A. sericea (Ran-keeriya), A.
1 Ceylon is particularly distinguished by the rich varieties of its vegetable king
dom, and the natives have evinced greater industry in the cultivation _of this
branch of knowledge, upon principles of their own, than in any other department
of natural philosophy. One object of attraction, the medicinal properties of their
plants, has no doubt been the stimulus to exertion, and has had the effect of
making almost every native in some degree acquainted with the botanical theories
of his Own country. Besides which, native authors, in every species of composi
tion, have given force and beauty to their writings by a constant allusion to this
delightful science : historians, mythologists, moralists, and poets have each laid
the vegetable world under contribution for some of their most impressive and
instructive figures. It is supposed that the Singhalese once had a complete
system of Botanical arrangement, but it no longer remains, the uses of the diffe
rent parts of a flower being their only knowledge. The flowers of Monseoious
plants they divide into Nikan-mal or useless flower, and Gedi-mal or fruit flower,
and Dia?cious plants into Mal-gaha or flower tree, and Gedi-gaha or fruit tree.
Then- present division of genera approaches more nearly to a natural arrangement
by families ; thus the grasses are included under the genus Tana ; the esculent
greens, under Pala ; the edible roots, under Ala ; and the mosses under Pasi.
There are, however, exceptions ; thus, Ksebella coincides with the Linnean divi
sion of Agyneia ; Tolabo with Crinum ; Puwak with Areka ; Bowitiya with Me-
lastoma, &c. Generally speaking, the Singhalese names of plants indicate their
qualities, as Rat-mul, red root ; Kiriwael, milky creeper ; Kotala-mal, jug flower,
from the resemblance of the corolla to a jug, and from Wila marsh or tank, a
laro-e genus that delights in such situations. One proof of the accuracy with
which the Singhalese have kept exotic plants distinct from indigenous, is the con
stant prefix of Rata (foreign) to the former.

CHAP. IV.J CRUSTACEA, LEECHES, ETC. — INDIGENOUS PLANTS. 759
calcarata (Kseti-keeriya) ; Zingiber Zerumbet (Wal-inguru), Z. purpureum
(Ratu-wal-inguru), Z. cylindricum (Heen-ratu-wal-inguru) ; Costus speciosus
(Tebu-gas) ; Kaempferia rotunda (Sau-kenda), Amomum villosum (Heen-niya-
dandu), A. echinatum (Boo-keeriya) ; Curcuma longa (Haran-kaha), C. zedoaria
(Wal-kaha); Plirynium capitatum ( ^Et-basmi-keeriya) . — Of Chenopodece, Sali-
cornia indica. — Of the Nyctaginem are Boerhaavia glutinosa ( Pita-sudu-pala).
Class 2. DIANDRIA. Or. 1. Monogynia.— Of the Jasminea? are Nyctan-
thes arbor-tristis (Sepala-gaha) ; Jasminum pubescens (Boo-pichcha), J. undu-
latum (Wal-gseta-pichcha), J. angustifolium (Wal-saman pichcha), J. auriculatum,
J. azoricum (Wal-pichcha), J. grandiflorum (Saman-pichcha). The Jasminum
zeylanicum is an ornamental evergreen, climber, six feet high with white flowers. —
Of the Oleince are Linociera cotiuifolia (Heen-geri-a?ta;, L. purpurea (Geri-
ceta). — Of the Acanthacece are with anthers simple, Justicia Ecbolium (Kawu-
tumba), J. paniculata (Heen-bin-kohomba), J. echioides (Ha-kan), J. viscosa;
with anthers double, corolla bilabiate, J. nasuta (Anitta), J. bivalvis (Ayiyapana),
J. bycalyculata (Maha-nelu) ; anthers double, corolla ringent, J.adhatoda1
Adatoda), J. gendarussa (Kalu-wseraniya), J. betonica (Sudu-puruk-gas), J.
moretiana, J. repens (Sulunayi), J. procumbens (Manayi), J. pectinata. J.
purpurea, J. sanguinolenta ; Calyx single, corolla nearly equal. J. montana (heen-
nelu) ; Elytraria crenata (Wal-set-adiya) E. lyrata (Heen.ast-adiya).— Of the
Verbenacem are, Stachytarpheta indica (nil-nakuta), S. urticifolia. — Of the
Lentibulariae are, Utriciilaria vulgaris (Kaha-mal-diya-pasi), U. stellaris(Baru-
diya-pasi), U. coerulea (Nil-monaraessa ), U. bifida ( Kaha-indinnaru), TJ. uli-
ginosa (Nil-indinnaru), U. nivea (Sudu-indinnaru). — Of the Scrophularince, are
Gratiola lobelioides. G. veronicifolia (Kana-kok-wila), G. ciliata (Dati-wila), G
Monnieria (Lunu-wila), G. rotundifolia, G. lucida, G. parviflora (Bin-wila), G.
integrifolia, G. oppositifolia (Dara-wila), G. trifida (Ela-rat-wila) G. tenui-
folia (Heen-wila), G. cordifolia, (Handa-pat-wila), G. grandiflora (Kat-wilaJ, G.
hyssopioides, G. juncea (Bin-sawan).  Or. 2. Digynia — Of Graminece, are
Anthoxanthum indieum (Heen-pini-baru), A. Avenaceum (Pini-baru-tana). Or.3.
Trigynia. — Of the Piperacece are Piper sylvestre (Wal-gam-miris) P. malamiris
(Mala-miris), P. longum (Tippili), P. diffusum (Wal-tippili), P. subpeltatum
(Mala-labu >, and several varieties of P. betel.
Class 3. TRIANDRIA. Or. 1. Monogynia.— Of the Valerianece, are Vale
riana villosa(Heen-kapuru). — Of Olacinece, Olax zeylanica (Msella), O. scandens ;
Fissilia Psittacorum.— Of 4cerm<s, Hippocratea indica, H.viridiflora(Diya-kirindi).
— Of the Commelineee, are Commelina paludosa (Gira-pala), C. cuculata (Diya-me-
neriya) , C. nudiflora, C. diffusa ( Tana-pala). — Of the Junceaj, are Xyris indica(Ran-
mota). — Of the Cyperacece, are SchEenus Bobartiae (Is-gedi-tana), S. nemorum
(Goda-hiri); Rhynchospora aurea; Scirpus (with spikes, single, terminal) pygmseus
(Heenkola-gseta-pan), S. polytrichioides(Goda-gseta-boru-pan), S. fluitans (Len-
dititana), S. atropurpureus (Heen-gseta-pan), S. capitatus (Ela-gseta-boru-pan), S.
plantagineus (Boru- pan), S. spiralis, (Kamaranga-pan,) S nutans (Goma-talu-tana) ;
with umbels lateral, S. lateralis (Gseta- pan), S.supinus(Mooda-gceta-pan), S.arti-
culatus (Maha-gseta-pan), S. squarrosus (Heen-wa;li-gata-pan), S. capillaris (Kuru-
mini-tana), S. glaucus (Elu-boru-pan), Umbels terminal ; S. glomeratus (Ooru-
hiri), S. globosus (Hal-pan), S. arvensis, S. miliaceus (Moodu-hal-pan), S. quad-
ratus(Dara-hal-pan),S. dichotomus, S.ciliaris, (Palu-tana), S. aestivalis, S.cinnamo-
metorum ; Cyperus arenarius (Moodu-kalanduru), C. kyllingaeoides ( Wel-set-
kalanduru), C. pygmseus (Heen-wel-set-kalanduru), C. Haspan. C. pumilus
(GO-hiri) C. 'rotundus (kalanduru), C. Pangorsei, C. canescens (Ela-hiri) C.
Santonici ( Wel-tun-hiri), C. iria (Wel-hiri;, C. umbellatus (Nsendun-hiri) ;
Mariscuspaniceus (Wel-mal-kalanduru), M. umbellatus (Ma-wal-mal-kalanduru),
M. Cyperinus (Goda-wal-mal-kalanduru) ; Kyllingia monocephala (Sudu-mottu-
tana), K. brevifolia (Amu-mottu-tana), K. triceps. — Of the Graminece, are Pom-
mereulla cornucopia ; Cenchrus muricatus. Or. 2. Digynia. Of the GraminecB
are Saccharum spontaneum (Nala-tana), S. daemonum (Rambuk-gas), S. muti-
1 The Singhalese attribute to this plant the imaginary power of attracting the
foetus.

760

CEYLON. [PART IV.

cum (Wal-saswamdara), 8. cylindricum (Iluk-tana) ; Perotis latifolia (Ela-
balal-tana) ; Leersia ciliata (Wenu-tana) ; Paspalum scrobiculatum (Wal-amoo);
Panicum (with spikes simple), polystachyon (Balu-tana) P. helvolum (Rat-wal-
kawudu), P. muticum (Eeti-tana) ; with spikes alternate, secund P. brizoides (Ha-
tana), P. fluitaus (Wal-bada-amu), P. flavidum (Heen-wal-maruku), P. colonum
(Heen-maruku), P. cruscorvi (Wel-maruku), P. compositum. Spikes alternate,
scattered, P. aristatum (Ratu-bata-tana), P. paspaloides (Wal-bin-amu), P.
grossarium (Sudu-bata-tana), P. elatius (Beru-tana). Spikes fascicled, P.
cimicinum (Boo-deni-tana) ; Panicled, P. Ischaemoides (iEtora-tana), P. mili-
aceum (Wal-meneri), P. arborescens (Nala-gas), P. curvatum, P.trigonum (Deni-
tana), P. repens (Bata-daella), P. brevifolium. P. contractum. P. patens (Wal-
tana), P. plicatum (Rani-tana), P. hirsutum (Boo-bata-daalla) ; Digitariaumbrosa,
TJ. ciliaris (Boo-tut-tiri), D. linearis (Hee-tana) ; D. longiflora (Heen-konteru), D.
distachya (Konteru) ; Milium ramosum (Heen-kurulu-tana) ; Agrostis panicea
Boo-balu-tana) A. diandra (Gawara-tana) ; Melica nervosa (Gd-tana), M. barbata ;
Poa bifaria (Karalkuru-tana), P. Cynosuroides (Idal-kuru-tana) , P. amabUis (Kooni-
tana). P. chinensis, P. tenella (Heen-ela-balal-tana), P. reclinata (Mal-setora-
tana), P. glaucoides (Ela-kuru-tana) ; Eleusine coracana (kurukkan, five
varieties), E. aegyptia (Putu-tana) E. indica (Wal-mal- Kurukkan) ; Avena sativa.
Aristifla-setacea (iEt-tuttiri) ; A. biflora (Pini-tuttiri), A. biaristata (Ooru-tuttrri) ;
Rottboellia thomsea (Bin-puruk-tana), R. compressa (Puruk-tana), R. muricata
(Gona-puruk-tana) ; Orthopogon compositors, uninteresting, apetalous. Or. 3.
Trigynia. — Of the Eriocaulece, are Eriocaulon quinquangulare (kok-mota), E.
sexangulare (Heen-kok-mota), E. setaceum (Penda-kok-mota).— Of the Cary-
ophyllem, are Mollugo oppositifolia, M. stricta, M. pentaphylla (Telika-pala) M.
spergula (Andahera).
Class 4. TETRANDRIA. Or. 1. Monogynia.— Of the Rubiacea, are
Hedyotis fruticosa (Wseraniya), H. auricularia (Ma-boo-gseta-kola), H. racemosa
(Psepiliya), H. maritima (Moodu-baemi-tiriya), H. pumila (Wel-kawudu-dala),
H. diffusa (CEmbul-pala), H. herbacea, H. setacea, (Nu-wfflli-wBenna), H. gramini-
folia (Nil-kawudu-dala), H. stricta (Ma-kawudu-dala) ; Spermacoce hispida
(Heen-moodu-goeta-kola), S. scabra (Gaeta-kola) ; Hydrophylax maritima
(Moodu-goeta-kola), Knoxia zeylanica (Ela-rat-mul), K. corymbosa (Kayippu-
gas), Oklenlandia, verticillata (Ul-waeraniya), O. depressa, O. biflora (Heen-
kawudu-dala), O. pentandra, O. umbellata ; (Sayan-mul), Rubia secunda (Manda
mandina wasla) ; Ixora coccinea (Ratambala), three varieties, I. parviflora
(Mu-ratambala), I. alba (Sudu-ratambala), I. latifolia (Ma-pat-ela-ratambala) ;
Pavetta indica (Pawatta). — Of Verbenacece, Callicarpa lanata. — Of Gentianea,
Exacum pedunculatum, E. sessile, E. diffusum, E. heteroclitum, E. connatum. —
Of Plantaginece, Plantago asiatica— Of Sarmentacem, Cissus vitiginea ( Ma-to-
waella), C. suberosa (Wal-t6-waella), C. latifolia (Wal-diya-labu), C. verrucosa
(Wa?l-maediya), C. villosa (Boo-wal-wasl-midi), C. repanda (Heen-to-waella),
C. quadrangularis (Waal-heersessa), C. dentata, C. crenata (Wal-gonika), C.
carnosa (Wal-rat-diya-labu), C. pedata (Tun-angilla) ; Samara laeta (Kora-
kaha). — Of Terebintaeece, are Fagai-a triphylla (Lunu-an-kenda) — Of Incerta,
are Monetia barlerioides (Katu-niyada). — Of Onagraria, are Ludwigia oppositi
folia. — Of Salicario2, are Ammannia octandra, A. baccifera, A debilis. — Of
Urticeo3, are Dorstenia radiata. — Of Aroidea, are Pothos scandens (Potaj), P. el-
liptica (CEt-potae). — Of Eleagnece, are Eteagnus latifoha (Katu-cembilla). — Of
Santalacea, are Santalum album (Rat-kikiri). — Of Daphnece, Cansiera scandens
(OZtta-mura). Or. 2. Digynia. — Of Convolvulacece, are Cuscuta reflexa (Kaha-
aga-mula-naeti-w8ela). Or. 4. Tetragynia. — Of Boragine<e, are Coldenia pro-
cumbens. - Of Alismaceir, are Potamogeton lateralis (Mal-kekatiya)
Class 5. PENTANDRIA. Or. 1. Monogynia. Of Rubiaceat are Canthium
parviflorum (Kara-gaba) ; Nauclea orientalis (jEmbul-bak-mee), N. macrophylla
(Kana-bak-mee), N. parvifolia (Hcelamba), N. cordifolia (Kolong-gaha), N.tri-
flora ; Psychotria asiatica, P. scandens (Wal-gonika), P. herbacea (Agukarni) ;
Dentella repens (Pati-Eemiya) ; Coffea triflora (Gas-pichcha) ; Morinda umbellata,
M. citrifolia (Ahu-gaha), M. scandens (Ma-kiri-wa?la) ; Musssenda frondosa.— Of
Boraginece are Heliotropium indicum (Ek-«aBtiya),H. parviflorum.H. Zeylanicum,

CHAP. IV.J INDIGENOUS PLANTS. 761
H. persicum (Ayirawana) ; Cynoglossnm decurrens ? (Goda-katu-handa), C. ova-
turn (Boo-katu-handa) ; Borago indica, B. Zeylanica (You-tumba) ; Tournefortia
argentea (Garan-gaha) ; Anchusa tenella, a plant with white flowers. Of Pri-
mulacese, Cyclamen indicum (Oorala). — Of Gentianece, Menyanthes indica (Ma-
rembala), M. cristata (Heen-sembala), M. biflora (Renu-olu), M. campestris
(Bin-oiu). — Of Primulacece, Mottoms. indica ; Anagallis esculenta (kakkutu-pala),
— Of Plumbagineee are Plumbago zeylanica (Ela-nitol), P. rosea (Rat-nitol). — Of
Conyolvulacece, there are of the twining species, Convolvulus marginatus (Potu-
pala), C. medius (Heen-madu), C. tridentatus (Hawari-madu), C. obscurus (Boo-
tsel-kola), C. flavus (Kaha-toel-kola), C. Batatas (Batala), five arieties, C. maxi-
mus (Rasa-tael-kola), C.triflorus (Apasu-madu), C.bifidus (maha-madu), C. ma-
labaricus (Boo-wasa-tsel-kola), C. anceps, C. turpethum (Trasta-walu), C. gran-
diflorus (Alanga), C. speciosus (Ela-waella), C. nervosus (Heen-dumuda), C.
paniculatus (Ha-angilla) ; Stem prostrate or not twining'; C. repens (Bin-tam-
buru), two varieties, C. reptans (Kankun), C. pes caprae (Moodu-bin-tamburu),
Ipomaea bona nox (Kalu-alanga), I. campanulata (Ma-handa), I. bepaticifolia
(Nil-diwi-pahuu), I. pes tigridis (Sudu-diwi-pahuru), I. Zeylanica (Giritilla), I.
scabra (Boo-giritilla). — Of Campanulacem, Campanula zeylanica; Sphenoclea
zeylanica (Maha-muda-mahana) ; Lobelia zeylanica (Peti-wila), L. aromatica
(Rasnee-gaha). — Of Goodenovice, Scaevola lobelia (Ma-takkada), S. koenigii
(Heen-takkada). — Of Solanece are Datura fastuosa (Kalu-attana), two varieties, D.
metel (Sudu-attana) ; Solandra oppositifolia (jEtamburu) ; Physalis flexuosa
(Amukkara), P. angulata (Ma-mottu), P. minima (Heen-mottu) ; Solanum ver-
bascifolium (Haekarilla), S. nodiflorum, S. nigrum (Kaen-wS-riya), two varieties;
S. melongena (Wam-batu), four varieties, S. incanum (Katu-wam-batu), S.
ferox (Mala-batu), S. jacquini (Katu-wael-batu), S. indicum (Tib-batu), S. sodo-
meum (Kara-batu), S. trilobatum (Wael-tib-batu), S. giganteum (Gona-tib-batu);
Capsicum annuum, two varieties ; C. grossum, C. frutescens, three varieties, C.
minimum. I am unable to say whether this genus is indigenous to Ceylon. Of
Apocynes are Strychnos Nux vomica (Goda-kaduru), S. potatorum (Ingini), S.
colubrina, S. inermis (jEta-kirihdi), S. recurva (Katu-kirindi) ; Fagrasa zey
lanica ; Carissa carandas (Ma-karamba), C. spinarum (Heen-karamba). — Of Myr-
sineas are Ardisia humilis (Lunu-dan), A. solanacea (Balu-dan), A. longifolia
(Mii-balu-dan). — Of Geritianem are Chironia trinervia (Gini-hiriya). Of Cor-
diacece, Cordia myxa (Lolu) ; Ehretia aspera, E. Ia3vis, E. buxifolia (Heen-tam-
bala). — Of Sapoteae, Bumelia octandra (Koskaatiya). — Of Rhamni, Elaeodendrum
glaucum (Bat-hik) ; Zizyphus lineata, Z. Napeca (Ma-eraminiya), Z. jujuba
(Ilanda), Z. ^inoplia (Heen-eraminiya), Z. rotundifolia, Z. lucida, Z. spinosa ;
Celastrus emarginatus (Katu-pila) ; Evonymus zeylanicus ; Ceanothus zeylanicus,
C. asiaticus (Tel-hiriya) ; Ventilago madraspatana (Kola-wakka)- — o^ Solanaeece,
Scopolia aculeata (Kudu-miris). — Of Oehnacece, are Walkeria serrata (Bo-kaera).
— Of TerebintacecB, are Mangifera indica (CEtamba), eleven vai-ieties. — Of Grossu-
lacece, Ribes serratum (Maeti-bembiya), — Of Myrsinacece, are jEgiceras major
(Heen-kadol), JE. minor (Wanda-kilala) ; Embelia paniculata (Wael-sembiila), E.
robusta. — Of Violacece, are Viola enneasperma (Heen-yotu-waenna), V. suffruticosa
(Ma-yotu-waenna), V. hastata, V. crenata. — Of Balsaminem, are with one flowered
peduncles, Balsamina cornuta ; Impatiens latifolia (Ratu-kudalu), I. oppositifolia
(Heen-wel-kudalu), with many flowered peduncles, I. triflora (Wel-kudalu), I.
biglandulosa, I. repens (Gal-demata), I. bulbosa (Ala-kudalu), I. serrata. — Of
MeliacetB, are Leea sambucina (Bur-ulla). — Of Caprifoliaeea, Hedera terebinthi-
nacea (Ma-itta-waela), H. emarginata (Heen-itta-waela). — Of Viniferce, Vitis in
dica. — Of A maranthacece, Achyranthes aspera (Gas-karal-saebo, three varieties, A.
lappacea (Waelkaral-stEb<5), A. prostrata (Bin-karal-saebo), A. echinata, A. muri-
cata, A. angustifolia, A. corymbosa, A. diandra ; Celosia albida (Kiri-haenda), C.
argentea, C. cristata (Kukulu-karal-mal), two varieties, C. corymbosa (Sudu-wasli-
waenna), C. Nodiflora (Weni-waella) ; Illecebrum lanatum (Pol-kudu-pala) I. ja-
vanicum, I. sessile (Mukunu-waenna). — Of Rubiacem, Gardenia gummifera, G.
uliginosa (jEt-kukuru-man), G. dumetorum (Woali-kukuru-man). G. fragrans
(Mageta-kulu), G. micranthus ; Webera corymbosa (Ma-tarana), W,cerifera(La-
kada-tarana), W. lucida (Ma-seru),W. lanceolata(Gal-seru), W.internodis (Heen-

762 CEYLON. [part IV.
seru). — Of Apocynea, Cerbera manghas (Gon-kaduru), C. parviflora (Moodu-
kaduru) ; Vinca rosea (Wseli-wara), three varieties ; Nerium odorum, five
varieties, N. zeylanicum (Sudu-iddu), N. divaricatum; Wrightia antidysenterica ;
Echites fragrans (Boo-wal-anguna), E. laevigata (Wal-anguna), E. scholaris
(Ruk-attana), E. lanceolata (Kiri-walla) ; Ichnocarpus frutescens (Heen-kiri-
waela), I. paniculata (Gerandi-dool) ; Plumeria acuminata (Alariya) ; Cameraria
zeylanica (Patta- walla), C. oppositifolia (Gas-masdiya) ; TabernaeMontana dicho-
toma (Divi-kaduru), T. coronaria (Watu-sudda), three varieties. Of Paronychias,
are Lahaya corymbosa, a curious under shrub with white flowers. Or. 2. Digynia.
— Of Asclepiadece, are Stapelia adscendens ( Heen-gal-heeraessa), S. umbel
lata (Ma-gal-Heeraessa) ; Periploca esculenta, P. sylvestris ; Hemidesmus1 indicus
(Irimusu), three varieties; Sarcostemma viminale (Muwa-keeriya) ; Dasmia
reticulata ; Calotropis gigantea (Moodu-wara); Gomphocarpus volubilis (Mseda-
kangu) ; Asclepias lactifera, Asclepias maculata (Ma-pat-anguna) ; A. Gigantea ?
Marsdenia asthmatica (Boo-hangulu), M. vomitoria (Kiri-hangulu), M. tena-
cissima (mnruwa-dool) ; Hoyacarnosa (Kiri-gonika), H. viridiflora (Krri-anguna),
H. alexicaca (Kan-kumbala), H. hirsuta (Bin-nuga), H. reticulata (Wal-anguna),
H. parviflora (Heen-aramaessa) ; Ceropegia candelabrum (Wasl-mottu), C. tube-
rosa, C. biflora, C. juncea ; Gymnema2 Sylvestre, eight feet high, with green
flowers, G. lactiferum, G. asthmaa'cum, G. alexiaca.- — Of Chenopodece, Salsola
nudiflora, S. indica. — Of Amaranthacece, Gomphrena Globosa (Raja-pohottu),
three varieties. — Of TJlmacece, are Ulmus integrifolia (Dada-hirilla). — Of Con-
voltmlacete, Hydrolea zeylanica (Diya-kirilla. — Of Umbelliferte, Hydrocotyle
asiatica (Heen-gotu-kola), H. capitata. (Ma-gotu-kola) ; Bupleurum nervosum
(Wal-aenduru) ; Sium lobatum (Peti-kapuru), S. triternatum (Wal-assam6da-
gan). Or. 3. Trigynia. — Of Portulacea,3 Tamarix indica. Of Caryophyllew,
Pharnaceum Mollugo (Heen telika-pala), P. Distichum, P. triflora (Pat-pada-
gan), Alsine nervosa (Kukulu-pala), three species of Basella, rubra, alba,
cordifolia. Or. 5. Pentagynia. — Of Convolvulacece, Evolvulus alsinoides,
E. hirsutus (Wisnu-kranti), E. capitatus. Of Droseracece, Drosera Burmanni
(Wata-ressa), D. indica (Kandu-lessa), D. lanata. Of Portulacece, Gisekia
phamacioides (^ti-rilla-paia).
Class 6. HEXANDRIA. Or. 1. Monogynia. — Of Musacece, Musa paradi-
siaca (Anawalu-kesel), several varieties; M. sapientum (Kesel), nearly thirty
varieties of this species are either indigenous or cultivated ; M. rosacea, four
varieties cultivated ; il. troglodytarum (Nawari-kesel), four varieties ; M. superba.
 Of Commelmece, Tradescantia cristata (Bol-hinda), three varieties ; T. axillaris,
T. paniculata (Wal-diya-meneri), T. ruberosa, T. malabarica; Pontederia
vaginalis (Diya-habarala), P. hastata (Diya-beraliya), Cyanotis cristata, a bien
nial, blue flowers. — Of Amaryllidece, Pancratium zeylanicum (Wal-loonu) ;
Crinum zeylanicum, C. asiaticum (Heen-tolabo) , C.Toxi-carum (Ma-tolabo) ;
Amaryllis zeylanica (Goda-manel) ; Burmannia disticha (Ma-diya-jawala), B.
triflora (Heen diya jawala). — Of Liliacece, Gloriosa superba (Niya-gala).—
Of Asphodelea;, Anthericum Japonicum (Goda-wilanda-waenna), A. tube
rosum; Asparagus falcatus (Hata-wariya), A. sarmentosus; Dracaena termina-
lis (W:edi-kok-gaha) ; Dianella ensifolia (Ma-monara-patan), D. graminifoha
(Heen-monara-patan).— Of Hypoxidece, Curculigo recurvata (Waga-pol), C. lati
folia (Heen-bin-tal), C. angustifolia (Boo-bin-tal), C. pauciflora (Ma-bin-tal).—
Of Bemerocallidea:, Sanseviera zeylanica (Ma-niyanda) ; Polyanthes tuberosa, three
varieties— Of Aroidece, Acorus calamus (Wada-kaha).— Of Palma>, Coiypha

i

¦ Th iiutirvc and dett/ios bondage, in allusion to the incomplete coherence of
the anthers with the stigma, by which the genus is chiefly distinguished from
"^The'yvuvoe, naked, and vij/ia, a thread, or in botanical language, stamen,
in allusion to the peculiar structure of the latter. The milk of one species is
used instead of the vaccine ichor, and the leaves are employed in sauces instead of
C^ Roots venomous. Plant, beautiful, so called from its poison being as potent
as that of the Naga.

CHAP. IV.J INDIGENOUS PLANTS. 763
umbraculifera (Tala-gaha) ; Calamus rotang (Heen-we-waela), C. verus (Tam-
botu-we-waela), C. niger (Kukulu-we-waela), C. rudentum (Ma-we-waela). — Of
Loranthece, Loranthus bifloms, L. bicolor, L. longiflorus, L. elasticus, L. loni-
ceroides, L. pubescens, L. incanus, L. spatulatus. — Of Graminece, Bambusa arun-
dinacea (Una-lee), three varieties, B.spinosa(Katu-una-lee), B. stridula(Bata-lee).
Or. 2. Digynia. — Paddy, Ooru-wee (Oryza sativa, Linn.); akurumba, pointed ; an-
garaeli, horny-plaited ; Amba, Mango ; kahata, astringent; jEndi-gam, iEndi -village ;
iELjOrHjEL,  ;JEndi-gam,Mndi-village; cembala, acid; Indi,Date; Indi-pat,
Date-leaved; Ooru, Pig's; kamburu, brown; kara, saltish; kalu, black; kalu-kara,
black sea-coast ; kaha, yellow ; kahata, astringent ; kiri, milky ; kiri-baru, milky-
pendulous ; Mtulpat, Mtul-leaved ; kudu, bent ,- kuru, short ; kurulu, Bird's ; kot,
spiked; komadu, melon ,- kali,  ,- gana-hudu, thick-skinned ; gal-bada, rocky-
bank ; Girdtudu, Parrot-beaked; Gurulu, hawk; tatu, winged; tatu-pat,winged-
-leaved; Tala-mal, Sesamum-flower ; tulunu, sharp; Del-pat, Del-leaved ; Diwa,
sacred; Dewa-rdja, sacred king' s ; doluwa, watercourse ; do, shining ; do-wa-
tuwa, shining snipe's; Nala, reed; NalcL-mal, Reed-flowered; Nuga-pat,
Banyan-leaved; pat, leafy ; pinna,  ; pot, spotted ; Pol, cocoa-nut ; Poson,
June; batu, round; baru, pendulous ; mada, mud; mi, great; mi-pat, great-
leaved; Mee-pat, Bassia-leaved ; Moodu-kiri, sea-milky; Monara, Peacock's;
Mb-pat, soft leaved; Radd, washerman's; rat, red; rat-kara, red sea-
coast; rat-tatu, red-winged ; rat-pat, red-leaved ; Rawana, Rdwan's; Ruwan,
golden; Lena, squirrels ,- Watuwd, snipe's ; wangu, hooked ; san-kunda,  ,-
Saman, Saman' s ,- Sani, dung ; sihin, fine ; sudu, white ; sjudu-kiri, white-milky ;
sudu-mee-pat, white bassia leaved; suwanda, fragrant ; hdti, •  ¦; hdl. rice;
hanati, fine-stemmed ¦ JEli or jEliya, — white; Kaka-pot, yellow-husked ; gal-
bada, rocky-bank ; tisald, three-angled ; Ndla, reed; Ndran, orange; bara-pot,
heavy-spotted; bdla-mee-pat, early bassia-leaved ; md, great ; Mee-pat, Bassia-
leaved; mora-kcen, mora-cluster ; rat-pat, red-leaved ; heel, rice; Ilankali, 
Ooru, Pigs ; Kachchipota,  ; kalu, black ; kahata, astringent ; kunda,  ;
kalu, black; rat, red; Kumara, Prince's; kalu, black; sudu, white; kumba,
pot; kiri, milky; rat, red; kuru, dwarf; ata, arm; paya,foot ; maha, great ,-
kurumba, tender cocoa-nut ; giri,  ; kurulu, birds ; kurulu-tudu, Bird's beak ;
kot-wila, spiked-marsh ; kalu, black; sudu. white; komadu, melon ; kolo,  ;
kos-aeta, jack seed ; kalu, black ; sudu, white ; kohu, coir ; galpa, rock-bank ; gini-
ratna, fire-red ; giris,  ; Gurulu, hawks ; tulunga, sharp ; dak, beautiful ;
danahala, alros ; kalu, black ; sudu, white; dena, meadow; dewai-aeddiri, sacred
two-cropped: kohu, fibrous; doluwa, watercourse; md, great; Naran, orange ;
kiri, milky; kolti,  ; Maha, great, naehunseti, sprigless; pat, leaved;
kitul, kitul ; Del, bread fruit ; Mee, Bassia ; bdla-mee, early Bassia ; Hingul,
 ; patu, flat; pannati, leafless; kalu, black; sudu, white; podi, small;
pola,  ; Poson, June ; Balal-wane, Cat's hard ; mala-wariya ; ma, great ;
kalu, black; kaha, yellow; kuru, dwarf; goda, land; bdla, early; maha,
great; rat-kunda,red; sudu, white ,- Muttaes, Pearl ; maha, great ; sudu, white;
Muruna, Murunas ; Mookala, late or forest ; yal,  ; kara, sea-coast : batu-
kiri, round-milky ; maha-kiri, great-milky ; moodukiri, sea-milky ,- hati,  ;
rata, foreign ; Rada, washerman's ; Raja, king's ; Rawana, Rawana's ; rayana,
 : ruwan, golden ; Lena, squirrel's ; wangu, hooked ; watuwa, snipe's ; walu,
Plantain; goda-honara, land ; td,  ,- poo, flower ; nzadata, mud; Honara,
 ,- we-kola, Rattan-leafed ; sani, dung ; sihin, fine; sudu, white; hdl, rice;
suwanda, fragrant ; handiran, jointed-gold ; kalu, black ; kahata, astringent ;
rata, foreign; sudu, white; kal, rice; heenati, fine-stemmed; kalu, black;
gam-bada, village-border ; podi, small; Hunu, Chunam; kaha-pat-oeli, yellow-
leaved white ; kalu-honarawalu, black ; sudu-heenati, white, fine stemmed ; sudu-
honai-awalu, white ; heen-honarawalu, fine ; Kurukkan, Coracan ; karal, podded ;
kiri, milky ; kumburu, mud ; pas-mas, five months ; niookalan, forest ; wal-mal,
wild-flowered; hanahu, sheathed ; ha-mas, six months ; haetada, sixty days ; kalu,
black; kobo, large. Or. 3. Trigynia.— Of Polygons:, Rumex vesicarius (Soori).
— Of /wracftf, Flagellaria indica (Goyi-wad), three varieties. Or. 6. Hexagynia.
Of Alismacen, Damasonium indicum.
Class 7. HEPTANDRIA. Or. 1. Monogynia.— Of Leguminosa: , Jonesia

764 CEYLON. [PART IV.
pinnate (Diya-rat-mal) -Or Aroidee, Dracontium polyphyllnm (Kana-kidaran),
ke'hel) (Ma-komla), D. pertusum (Nil-waella), D. pinnatifidum (Dada-
Class 8. OCTANDRIA. Or. 1. MoNOGYNiA.-Of Melastomacee ; Osbeckia
^WJ11??', crenata-— 0f Combretacee, Combretum decandrum (Ham-palanda)
— Ut Malpighiacem, Vitmannia elliptica (Samadara).— Of Sapindacem; Ornitro-
phe serrata (Moodu-kobbae), O. Cobbe (Boo-kobbae), O. allophylus; Dimocarpus
pupilla (Rasa-mora) ; Molmaea canescens ; Melicocca trijuga, evergreen tree, twenty
feet high— Of Sapotem, Mimusops Elengi (Moona-mal), M. kauki, M. hexandra
(Palu-gaha).— Of Sahcance, Grislea tomentosa ; Lawsonia inermis (Maritondi) •
L. spinosa.— Of Terebintacece, Jambolifera pedunculata (An-kamdal ; Amyris'
zeylamca (waeta-hik-gaha), A. agallocha (Gugul), Balsamodendrum zeylanicum
medicinal evergreen tree, thirty feet high.— Of Rutacem, Cyminosma pedunculata
(Un-solu).— Of Santalacem, Memecylon capitellatum (Waelikaha) ; M. tinctorium
(Daedi-kaha), M. edule. Or. 3. Trigynia.— Of Polygonece, Polygonum bar-
batum (Ratu-kimbul-waenna), P. tomentosum (Sudu-kimbul-wamna), P. chinense
(Meean-waela), P. recurvum (Patul-wamna).— Of Sapindacea, Cardiospermum
Hahcacabum (Wael-penela) ; Sapindus laurifohus ; S. emarginatus (Gas-penela.)
Of Crassulacem, Calanchoe laciniata (Kaha-akka-pana), C. pinnate (Ratu-akka-
pana). Class 9. ENNEANDRIA. Or. 1. Monogynia.— Of Laurinm, Lauras Cin-
namomum (Kurundu), four varieties, L. Cuhlaban (Wal-kurundu), L. cassia
(Dawul-kurundu) ; Cassvte filiformis (Nil-aga-mula-naeti-waela). — Of Terebin
tacece, are Anacardium occidentale (Watu-kaju) ; Of Laurince, Tetranthera apetala
(As-bombi), T. cauliflora (Rat-kaeliya).
Class 10. DECANDRIA. Or. 1. Monogynia.— Of Leguminosce, Sophora
tomentosa (Moodu-murunga), S. heptaphylla; Bauhinia parviflora (Mayila), B.
purpurea(Kob6-neela), three varieties; B. acuminata (Sudu-kob6-neela),B. tomen
tosa (Petan), three varieties ; Cynometra cauliflora (Namnam), C. ramiflora (Gal-
masndora) ; Cassia absus (Boo-tora), C. Tagera (Poeni-tora) , C. Sophera (Ooru-
tora), C. Tora (Peti-tora), C. glauca (Wal-aehaela), C. Sumatrana (Aramana),
C. debilis(O-mara), C. alate (Mt-t6rst), C. auriculata (Rana-wara), C. mimosoides
(Heen-bin-siyambala) ; Cathartocarpus fistula (iEhaela-gaha), C. rosea ( Wa-gaha) ;
Poinciana elata ; P. prdcherrima (monara-mal), two varieties ; Caesalpinia mimo
soides (Goda-wawul-aetiya), C. sappan (Patangee), three varieties; Guilandina
Bonduc (Kalu-wawul-ffitiya),G. Bonducella (Wael-kumburu), G. paniculata (Diya-
wawul-aetiya ; Hyperanthera moringa ; Adenanthera pavonina (Madatiya-mara),
A. bicolor (mas-morn) ; Prosopis spicigera. — Of Ochnacem, Gomphia zeylanica,
an evergreen shrub, four feet high, with yellow flowers. — Of Malpighiacem (Puwak-
gediya-waela). — Of Aurantiacem, are Murraya exotica (.3Ltteriya) ; Limonia
(spiny) monophylla (yaki-naran) ; L. citrifolia (Gas-pamburu) , L. scandens (katu-
-balu-diwa), L. trifoliata (Kasturi-dehi), L. cinnamomum (Tun-pat-kurundu),
L. acidissima. Unarmed, L. pentaphylla (We-kurundu), L. arborea (Heen-
dodan-pana), Bergera Kcenigii (Watu-karapincha). — Of Meliacece, Swietenia
febrifuga (kokun), S. chloroxylon1 (Buruta) ; Melia azedarach (Lunu-midella), M.
azadirachta ^ilargosa) ; il. parviflora (Hal-bembiya), L. pumila(Bin-kohomba.) —
Of ZygophylleiF, Tribulus lanuginosus (Sembu-nerenchi). — Of Onagrarice, are
Jussiena repens (Bern-diya-nilla), J. tenella, suffruticosa, erecta, villosa and par
viflora. — Of Melastomacece, are Melastoma aspera (Heen-bowitiya), three varieties,
M. malabathrica (Ma-bowitiya), il. repens (Wsel-bowitiya), M. octandra, M.
bnxitblia. — Of Rhodoracem, are Rhododendron arboreum (md-rat-mal). — Of
Ericete, Andromeda flexuosa (Wael-kapuru). — Of Samydacea, Casearia ovate
(Wal-moona-mal). Or. 3. Trigynia.— Of Erythroxylece are Erythroxylon
monosvnum (kukul-maessa), E. lucidum (Bata-kirilla). Or. 5. Pentagynia. —
Of Terebintacece, Averrhoa Bilimbi (Bilin), A. carambola (Kamaranga) ; A.
acida ; Spondias maugifera (JSrnb.vraella). — Of Caryophyllece, Bergia verticillata
1 The satin wood is found chiefly in the eastern province. In appearance the
trunk is like the teak : the wood is used for all kinds of ornamental furniture. It
is of a beautiful colour, rather yellow, and takes a fine polish.

CHAP. IV.J INDIGENOUS PLANTS. 765
Gaeta-puruk-wila). — Of Oxalidece, Oxalis repens (Heen-aernbulsebiliya), O. sen-
sitiva (Gas-nidi -kumba).
Class 11. DODECANDRIA. Or. 1. Monogynia.— Of Sapotem, Bassia
longifolia (Tel-mee, or Ilipi), B. neriifolia (Gan-mee), B. latifolia (Kiri-haem-
biliya). — Of Rhizophores, Rhizophora gymnorhiza (Rat-kadol), R. candel (Ela-
kadol), R. mangle (Pat-kadol). — Of Guttiferm, Garcinia celebica, G. cambogia
(Goraka), four varieties. — Of Salicarim, Pemphis Acidula. — Of Capparidem,
Cratseva tapia, C. religiosa (Lunu-warna). — Of Tiliacem, Triumfette Bartramia
(Heen-patta-aepala), T. annua (Wael-ffipala. — Of Portulacece, Portulaca oleracea
(Genda-kola) , three varieties, P. quadrifida (Heen-genda-kola) , P. axillaris (Heen-
sarana). Or. 2. Digynia. — Of Rosacem, Agrimonia zeylanica. Or. 3. Tri
gynia. — Of Euphorbiacem, E. antiquorum (Daluk), E. neriifolium (Paluk), E.
Tirucalli (Gas-nawa-handi) , E.hirta (Boo-dada-keeriya), E. pilulifera (Sudu-boo-
dada-keeriya), E. thymifolia (Bin-dada-keeriya), three varieties, E. parviflora
(Ela-dada-keeriya), E. maritima (Moodu-dada-keeriya) . Or. 4. Tetragynia.
— Of Fluviales, Aponogeton monostachyon (Kekatiya), A. crispum (Kokatiya),
an aquatic perennial, flowers white.
Class 12. ICOSANDRIA. Or. 1. Monogynia.— Of Cacti, Cactus pendulus
(Wael-nawa-handi).- — Of Myrtaceee, Psidium pyriferum (Sudu-pera), P. pomi-
ferum (Ratu-pera), P. pumilum (Heen-pera) ; Eugenia malaccensis (Watu-
jambu), E. jambos (Rata-jambu), E. sylvestris (Wal-jambu), E. zeylanica (Ma-
tsembiliya), E. uniflora, E. parviflora (Heen-taembiliya), E. laurina (Bombu) ;
E. acutangula, E. racemosa, Stravadia alba (Ela-midella), S. rubra (Diya-midella),
S. integrifolia (Godamidella) ; Myrtus communis ; M. tomentosa (Sudu-kotela),
M. zeylanica (Goda-maranda), M. adrossemoides ; Calyptranthes (Flowers termi
nal), Jambolana (Alu-bo-dan), C. cordifolia (Panu-kaera) , C. caryophyllata (Gaeta-
dan) ; 2. Flowers lateral, C. cumini (Ma-dan), C. caryophyllifoha (Bata-domba) ;
Scolopia pusilla (Katu-kurundu) , Soneratia acida (Gedi Kilala). Or. 5. Penta-
gynia. — Of Ficoidm, Sesuvium pedunculatum (Ma-sarana). — Of Rosacem, Mes-
pilus japonica (Lokwat). Or. 10. Polygynia. — Of Rosacem, Rubus parvifolius
(Rodu-kaetambilla), R. paniculate (Nara-boota;) , R. moluccanus (Wael-bootae).
Class 13. POLYANDRIA. Or. 1. Monogynia.— Of Aurantiacem, jEgle
Marmelos (Beli), three varieties. — Of Capparidem, Capparis zeylanica ; C. hor-
rida, C. parviflora, C. grandis. — Of Paparveracem, Argemone mexicana. — Of
Tiliacem, Berria ammonilla (Hal-milla). — Of Nympheacem, Nymph aea stellate
(Tel-olu) , three varieties ; N. Lotus (iEt-olu), three varieties : the flowers of
this plant are of a deep rose colour, the roots are eaten by the natives, and the
seeds chewed by children. — Of Bixinece, a variety of Bixa orellana. — Of
Ochnacem, Ochna squarrosa (B6-kaera), Vateria indica (Hal.), three varieties.
— Of Guttiferm, Calophyllum inophyllum (Teldomba), C. Calaba (Gaeta-keena),
C. acuminatum (Walu-keena). — Of Tiliacem, Grewia orientalis (Wael-kaeliya),
G. laevigata (Gas-kffiliya) , G. asiatica (Dawaniya), G. tiliaefolia (Ma-pat-kaeliya) ;
Corchorus olitorius, C. acutangutus (Jala-dara), C. capsularis, Microcos pani
culata (Kohu kirilla) ; Dipterocarpus turbinatus (Hora-Gaha). Or. 4. Tetra
gynia. — Of Dilleniacem are Delima sarmentosa (Korossa waela). Or. 5.
Pentagynia. — Of Dilleniacem, Wormia dentata, ornamental evergreen tree,
twenty feet high, with yellow flowers. Or. 10. Polygynia. — Of Dilleniacm,
are Dillenia Integra, D. speciosa (Honda-para), D. retusa, D. dentate (Goda-
para), D. aquatica (Diyapara). — Of Magnoliacece, Liriodendron Uliifera (Halu-
halla) ; Michelia graveolens (Suwanda-sapu). — Of Nympheacece, Nelumbium
speciosum, three varieties (nelun). — Of Annonacem, Uvaria zeylanica (Palu-
-kasn) ; Unona tripetaloidea (Naetaewu), U. uncinate, U. esculenta (Panubam-
bara) ; Guatteria suberosa (Kalati), G. Korinti (Mee-wamna), G. Montana, G.
dulcis (Palu- weera) , G. pumila (Heen-kotahi) ; Annona asiatica, used for a
red dye. — Of Ranunculacece, are Naravelia zeylanica (Narawaela), Ranunculus
zeylanicus. Class 14. DIDYNAMIA. Or. 11. Gymnospermia. — Of Labiates, Nepeta
indica (Ma-gal-kappra-walli) ; Lavandula carnosa (Gal-kappra-walli) ; Mentha
auricularia (Haema-nilla), M. perilloides (Gan-kollan-kola) ; Perilla ocymoides ?
(Wal-kollan-kola), Ballota disticha (Heen-yak-wanassa) ; Leucas zeylanica (Gaeta-

766 CEYLON. [part IV;
tumba), L. indica (Sudu-tumba) , L. biflora; Leonotis nepetifolia (Ma-yak-wa-
anssa) ; Ocymum thyrsifolium, O. gratissimum (Gas-tela), O. minimum (Heen-tala),
O. tenuiflorum, O. polystechyon (Karal-tala), O. menthoides, O. scutellarioides
(Rat-tela) ; Plectranthus elongata (Wal-kappra-walli) ; Scutellaria indica. Or
12. Angiospermia. — Of Scrophulariacece, Rhinanthus indicus; Gerardia del-
phinifolia (Renu-haedilla), another species; Torenia asiatica (Wael-kotala), T.
hirsute, T. stricta ; Stemodia camphorata (Gona-kola), three var. ; S. lutea
(Kaha-gona-kola) ; Buchnera asiatica (Sudu-dadinnaru), B. euphrasioides (Da-
dinnaru), three varieties. — Of Pedalinm, Martynia lanceolate, M. nervosa, M.
crenata ; Sesammn indicum (Tun-pat-tala) ; S. orientale ; .Eginetia indica ;
PedaUum murex (iEt-nerenchi). — Of Bignoniacece, are Bignonia chelonoides
(Ela-palol), B. salina (Lunu-madala) ; Spathodea longiflora (Diya-danga) ; S.
indica (Totilla). — Of Verbenacem are Gmelina asiatica (Gaeta-demata) ; G.
arborea (J5t-demata) ; Premna integrifolia (Ma-midi), P. serratifolia (Heen-
midi), P. tomentosa (Boo-seru), P. villosa (Lee-kola-pala), P. procumbens;
Zapania nodiflora (Hiramana-daette) ; Volkameria scandens ; Clerodendrum
infortunatum (Gas-pinna), C. serratum (Ken-haenda), C. phlomoides, C. inerme
(Wael-boo-haenda) ; Vitex pubescens, V. altissima, V. Leucoxylon, V. trifblia
(Meean-milila), V. negundo (Sudu-nika), V. pinnate. — Of Elceocarpacece, Diceros
longifolius (Gas-kotala), D. aquaticus (Raewul-puruk-wila), D. paniculatus
(Puruk-wila).— Of Acanthacece, Rueftia fasciculate, R. undulate, R. ringens (Nil
paruk), R. zeylanica (Dara-paruk), three varieties, R. variabilis (Sudu-pamk)
Barleria longifolia (Katu-ikiri), B. prionitis (Katu-karandu), B. buxifolia (Katu-
nelu), B. cristate; Thunbergia fragrans; Acanthus maderaspatensis ; Duivaria
ilicifolia (katu-ikili) is fouudin swampy soil.
Class 15. TETRADYNAMIA. Or. 14. Siltq.uosa.— Of Capparidem, Cleome
heptephylla, C. pentaphylla (Awusada-wela-kola ), C. icosandra (Boo-wal-aba),
C. viscosa (Wal-aba), C. dodecandi-a, C. felina, C. monophylla (Ran-manissa),
C. zeylanica.
Class 16. MONADELPHIA. Or. 17. Triandria. — Of Leguminosce,
Tamarindus indica (Ma-siyambala). — Or. 19. Pentandria. — Of Byttne-
riacem, Waltheria indica (Heen-aepala), W. angustifolia ; Melochia pyramidata,
M. concatenate (Ma-gai-koora) ; M. corchorifolia (Heen-gal-koora.) . Or. 22.
Octandria. — Of Aroidem, Pistia stratiotes (Diya-parandsel). Or 24.— Of
Connaracem, Connarus asiaticus (Ela-radaliya), C. pinnatus (Rata radaliya),
C. santaloides (Goda-kirindi). Decandria. — Of Chlenaceis affines ; Hugonia
mystax (Ma-gaetiya), H. villosa (Boo-gaetiya). Of Connaracem are Ompha-
lobium indicum, an evergreen shrub, eight feet high, flowers a pale red. Of Leg.
pap. Lot gen ; Heylandia Hebecarpa, perennial trailer, flowers yellow. Of Leg.
Pap. Hed. Euh. Zornia diphylla, Z. Ceylonensis, curious annual, flowers yellow.
Or. 25. Dodecandria.— Of Bombacem, Helicteres Isora (Leeniya-gaha) .— Of
Bytteneriacece, are Pentepetes phcenicea, Pterospermum suberifolium (Ma-we-
langa), P. canescens. Or. 27. Polyanoria.— Of Bombacem, are Adansonia
digitate ; Bombax1 pentandrum (Pulun-imbul), B. Ceiba (Katu-imbul), B. hep-
taphyllum (Ma-telambu),B. Gossypinum (Ela-imbul). Of Myrtacem, Barringtonia
speciosa (Moodilla).— Of Malvacem are Sida acuta (Gas-baewila) , S. lanceolata ; S.
spinosa; S. rhombifolia (Koti-kan-baswila), S. alnifoHa (Kirandi-baewila), S. peri-
plocifoha WUwa;ra), S. persica? (Boo-anoda), S. asiatica, S. populifoha (Ma-
anodii), S. hirte (Wal-anoda), S.radicans (Bin-aepala) ; Malva tomentosa ; Urena
lobata (Patti-tepala) ; U. tricuspis (Boo-patte-aepala), U. smuata (Heen-patta-
sepala) ; U. heterophylla ; Gossypium indicum (Sinhala-kapu), Hibiscus ponulneus
(Sooriya-gaha), H.tiliaceus (BeU-patta), H. rigidus (Siri-waedi-baewila) H. ficul-
neus ; H. canna-binus ; H. surattensis (Ndpiritta), three varieties, H. Abelmoschus
(Kapu-kinissa), H. truncatus, H. tubulosus, H. vitifohus (Ma-sepala) -, Pavoma
zeylanica (GasbsewUa) ; Mesua ferrea (Na--gaha). „. „ , . „ , ,
Class 17. DIADELPHIA. Or. 22. Octandria.— Of Polygalem, Polygala
1 A tree growing to the size of our walnut, bears long pods filled with seeds,
wrapped in a fine short down too short for spinning, but serving when dressed for
stuffing beds.

CHAP. IV.J INDIGENOUS PLANTS. . 767
theezans, P. triflora, P. glaucoides, P. ciliata. Or. 24. Decandria  Of
Leguminosce, Dalbergia arborea (Magul-karanda) , D. lanceolaria (Nedun), D.
zeylanica, D. scandens (Wael-kalatiya), D. filiformis (Bokala-waela), Pterocarpus
bilobus (Gan-malu), P. santalinus ; Abrus precatorius (Olinda) , four varieties ;
Erythrina indica (Waeta-erabodu), E. picta (Yak-erabodu) ; Butea frondosa (Gas-
kasla), B. superba (Wael-krela) ; Aspalathus indica; Crotalaria (with leaves
C. micrantha, C. juncea (hana), simple, linifolia; C.retusa (Kaha-andana-hiriya),
C.verrucosa (Nil-andana-hiriya), C. biflora, C. Nana, C. nummularia, C. humifusa
(leaves compound), C. laburnifolia (Yak-beriya); Phaseolus caracalla(Moodu-mEe),
P. trilobus (Bin-ma;), P. radiatus (Ulundu-ma?) ; Dolichos rotundifolius (Wal-
awara), D. virosus (Moodu-awara) , D. medicagineus (Ma-wal-kollu) , D. scara-
baeoides (Heen-wal-kollu) ; Stizolobium giganteum (Kana-pus-wa;la), S. pruriens1
(Wael-damaniya), S. rugosum (Kapiri-pus-waua); Glycine tenuiflora, G. parviflora,
G. javanica, G. viscidum (Gas-gonika) ; Cylista tomentosa (Heen-goradiya), C.
esculenta (Ma-goradiya) ; Clitoria ternatea (Katarodu) , three varieties; Lathyrus
odoratus, two varieties ; Sesbania aculeata ; Smithia sensitiva ; jEschynomene
aspera (Ma-diya-siyambala), JE. indica (Heen-diya-siyambala), JE. pumila (Bin-
siyambala) ; Stylosanthus mucronata ; Hedysarum (leaves simple) nummulari-
folium, H. moniliferum, H. gangeticum, H.maculatum, H. vaginale (Aswaenna),
H. triquetrum (Baloliya), three varieties: leaves conjugate, H. diphyllum, H.
conjugatum : leaves ternate ; H. pulchellum (Ham-pilla), II. umbellatum, H.
biarticulatum (Undu-piyali), H. heterocarpum (jEt-undu-piyali), H. gyrans, H.
obtusum, H. capitatum (Gas-lastiya), H. heterophyllum (Boo-undu-piyali) , H.
triflorum (Heen-undu-piyali) : leaves pinnate ; H. sennoides ; Flemingia lineata ;
F. semialata (Wal-undu), F strobilifera (Ham-pinna), F. biflora (Gas-kollu), F.
viscosa; F. polysperma ; Indigofera cinerea (Alu-awari), I. enneaphylla (Bin-
awari), I. glabra, I. hirsute. I. tinctoria(Nil-awari), I. atropurpurea (Ma-awari);
Galega villosa (Boo-pila),G. maxima, G. purpurea (Gam-pila), G. tinctoria (Alu-
pila) , G. senticosa ; Psoralea corylifolia ; Trifolium indicum ; Trigonella indica.
Of Leg. pap. Hed. Cor. Euh. Desmodium capitatum, a shrub with purple
flowers. Or. 27. Polyandria — Of Aurantiacem are Citrus acida (Dehi), three
varieties ; C. medica, three varieties ; C. aurantium (Dodan), three varieties ; C.
nobilis (Naran), three varieties; C. decumana (Jambolu), four varieties. — Of Mal-
vacem, Durio Zibethinus (Katu-miida) . — Of Hyperacem. Hypericum Campestre
(Sanda-raja), H. auritum Ooru-kan), H. mysurense.
Class 19. SYNGENESIA. Or. 30. Polygamia tEqualis.— Of Compositm
Sonchus oleraceus ? (Gal-potu-kola) ; Prenanthes sarmentosa, P. sonchifolia ;
Vernonia anthelmintica (Sanni-nayan) ; Spilanthes Pseudo-acmella (Heen-ak-
moella), S. acmella (Ma-akmsella) ; Bidens chinensis (Wal-te-kola) ; Lavenia
erecta; Cacalia sonchifolia (Boo-kadu-para), C. sagittate (Wal-kadu-para) , C.
maritima (Mudu-kadu-para), C. laciniata ; Ethulia divaricate (Heen-muda-
mahana) ; Mikania tomentosa (Wel-daha-wiya), M. volubilis (Ma-kihimbiya) ;
Eupatorium zeylanicum (Wael-pupula) ; Ageratum. Or. 31. Polygamia su-
ferflua. — Of Composites, are Artemisia indica (Wal-kolondu), A. maderaspa-
tana (Wael-kolondu) ; Gnaphalium indicum (Ma-sudana) ; Baccharis indica ;
Conyza balsamifera (Le-weeraella), C. prolifera, C. cinerea (Heen-monara-ku-
dimbiya), Inula indica ; Tagetes erecta, two varieties (Yak-mal) ; Cotula minima
Heen-kimbu), C. bicolor (Ma-kimbu) ; Eclipta prostrate (Sudu-kirindi) ; Siges-
beckia orientelis ; Verbesina biflora (Moodu-gam-palu) , V. calendulacea (Ran-
wan-keekirindiya), V. dichotoma (Agada). Or. 34. Polygamia segregata. —
Of Compositm, Elephantopus scaber (jEt-adiya) , Sphaeranthus indicus (jEt-muda-
mahana). Class 20. GYNANDRIA. Or. 15. Monandria — Of Orchidem, Orchis,
viridiflora, O. cubitelis, O. strateumatica ; Habenaria undulate (Sudu-goda-
bindara) ; Malaxis Rheedii ; Geodorum dilatatum ; Aerides odoratum ; A. tenui-
folium ; Dendrobium crumenatum (Sudu-pareyiya-mal), D. macrostyachum, a
parasite with green flowers, Cymbidium aloifolium (Wisa-dooli), C. ovatum, C.
1 Pods hairy, attach themselves to the hands and cause itching, celebrated as a
vermifuge.

768 . CEYLON. [PART IV.
praemorsum, C. spatulatum ; Limodorum virens (Koena-hilla), L. carinatum ;
Epidendrum amabile : Vanilla aromatica (Heen-nilwaella). Or. 16. Diandria.
— Of Stylidem , Stylidium uliginosum. Or. 20. Hexandria.— Of Aristolo-
chim; Aristolochia indica (Sat-sanda).
Class 21. MON./ECIA. Or. 15. Monandria.— Of Fluviales; Caulinia
indica (Katu-penda); Chara zeylanica. — Of Urticecs; Artocarpus incisa (Rate-
del), A. pubescens (Wal-del), A. integrifolia (Heralee), six varieties. Or. 16.
Diandria. — Of Aroidem; Lemna minor (Diya-panshi). Or. 17. Triandria.
—Of Aroidem; Typha latifolia (Hambu-pan). — Of Graminem, Heteropogon
hirtus (Ee-tana) ; Coix lachryma (Kirindi-mana). — Of Cyperacem ,- Scleria tesel-
late, flowers panicled (Wel-karawu), S. hirsute (Boo-karawu), S. Uthosperma,
S. zeylanica, S. majus, S. alata (Goda-karawu) , S. latifolia (Ma-potu-pan)
flowers headed; S. stricta (Baka-munu-tana), S. axillaris. — Of Euphorbiacem ;
Tragia involucrate (Wsel-kahambiliya), T. mercurialis (Gas-kuppumeniya), T.
chamaelea. — Of Laurinm ; Hernandia sonora (Palatu-gaha). Or. 18. Tetran-
dria. — Of Onagrarim; Serpicula verticillata (Katu-diya-pasi). — Of Urticem ;
Boehmeria alienate, B. interrupt* (Gas-kahambiliya) ; Urtica heterophylla (Gaete-
kahambiliya), U. stimulaus (Ma-ussa), U. verrucosa (Gas-dool), U. aquatica
Ma-diya-dool), U. latifolia (Moodu-kaenda). Or. 19. Pentandria.— Of Com
posites ; Xanthium orientale ? — Of Cucurbitacem ; Luffa foetida (Dara-waeta-
kolu). — Of Amarantacem ; Amaranthus polygamus (Sulu-koora-tempala), A.
polygonoides (Koora-tam-pala), A. spinosus (Katu-tam-pala) . Or. 20. Hexan
dria. — Of Rubiacem; Guetterda speciosa, (Nil-pichcha). — Of Palmm; Cocos
nucifera (Pol), ten varieties ; Elate sylvestris (Ma-indi). Or. 27. Polyandria.
— Of Onagrarice ; Myriophyllum indicum. — Of Alismacem; Sagittaria obtusi-
folia. — Of Begoniaceee ; Begonia tenera (Bin-hakambala), B. malabarica (Ma-ha-
kambala), B. rupestris (Boo-kakambala). — Of Aroidem, Arum pentaphyllum
(Wal-kidaran), A. minutum (Ati^udayan), A. Colocasia (Gahala) ten varieties ;
A. macrorhizon (Habarala), five varieties ; A. divaricatum (Polong-ala), A. trilo-
batum (Panu-ala), A. spirale, A. auriculatum, A. foetidum ? Caladium ovatum
(Ma-ketela), C. nymphaeifolium (Alu-habaralu). — Of Palmm, Caryota urens (Kit-
tool), three varieties; C. horrida (Katu-kittool), C. mitis (D6-talu). Or. 28.
Monadelphia. — Of Euphorbiacem, Acalypha betulina, A. indica (Wael-kup-
pameniya), A. lanceolate; Stillingia populnea, an ornamental tree, fourteen feet
high, with yellow flowers, Croton Tiglium (Jaya-pala), C. coccineum, C. punc-
tatum (Gal-kaeppetiya), C. aromaticum (Gas-kaeppetiya), C. lacciferum (Wael-
kaeppetiya), C. rhombifolium (Wal-kaeppetiya), C. moluccanum (Boo-kaenda) ;
Ricinus communis (Endaru), two varieties ; R. mappa (Pat-kaenda) ; Agyneia
obliqua (Ma-ksebella), A. multilocularis (Heen-kaebella), A. latifolia (Ma-pat-
kaebella) ; Sapium indicum (Maskiliya) ; Phyllanthus maderaspatensis ; P. stel-
latus (Diya-hunu-kirilla), P. pubescens (Boo-hunu-kirilla), P. rhamnoides (Gas-
kayila), P. multiflorus (Wael-kayila) , P. Niruri (Pite-wakka), P. urinaria (Bin-
nelli), P. emblica (Awusada-nelli), P. pomacea (Wal-murunga), P. myrtifolius.
— Of Palmes, Areka catechu (Puwak), three varieties ; A. Dicksonii, or sylves
tris, (LenatEeri-puwak) ; Nipa fruticans (Gin-pol). — Of Cucurbitacem, Tricho-
santhes anguina (Podi-wilanga), T. caudate (Patola), T. cucumerina (Dum-
maalla) , three varieties , T. incisa ; Momordica charantia (Karawila), four varie
ties ; M. muricata (Batu-karawila), M. luffa (Titte-waete-kolu), M. cylindrica
(Waeta-kolu) , four varieties ; M. dioica (Tumba karawila), Cucurbite umbellata
(Boo-dummslla), Cucumis maderaspatanus (Kaskiri), three varieties : C. Colocyn-
this (Yak-komadu) ; Bryonia grandis (Ken-kaakiri), B. umbellate (Kawudu-
kaekiri), B. cordifolia (Heen-kaekui), B. Garcini, B. laciniosa (Gon-kaekiri) , B.
palmate (Tittahondala). — Of the Sterculiacem, Heritiera littoralis, Stercvdia Bal-
anghas (Nawa-gaha), S. urens, S. foetida (Telambu-gaha).
Class. 22. DIjECIA. Or. 15. Monandria. — Of Pandanem, are Pandanus
odoratissimus (Wseta-keyiya), P. humilis (Dunu-keyiya), P. fascicularis Moodu-
keyiyii), P. pumila (Heen-keyiya), P. scandens (Oya- keyiya). Or. 16. Dian
dria. — Of Hydrocharidem, Vallisneria octandra (Diya-hawari). Or. 17. Trian
dria. — Of Palmm, Phoenix farinifera (Heen-indi). Or. 18. Tetrandria. — Of
Rubiacem, Trophis aspera (Gaeta-nitul), T. spinosa (Katu-timbul). — Of Loran-

CHAP. IV.J INDIGENOUS PLANTS. 769
them, Viscum orientale, V. compressum, V. tomentosum. Or. 19. Pentandria.
— Of Terebintacem, Canarium balsamiferum (Mala-ksekuna). — Of Antidesmem,
Stilago lanceolaria; Antidesma alexiteria, A. zeylanica (Walaembilla), A. pubes
cens (Boo-aembilla). — Of Passiflorem, Modecca tuberosa (Ala-hondala) :Zanonia
indica (Wal-rasa-kinda). — Of Urticem, Cannabis sativa (Mat-kansha). Or. 20.
Hexandria. — Of Ebenacem, Maba buxifolia, (Kalu-habaraliya). — Of Smilacem,
Smilax zeylanica (Heen-kabarossa), S. latifolia (Ma-kabarossa). — Of Dioscorem,
Dioscorea pentaphylla (Katuwala), D. triphylla (Gonala), D. aculeata (Katu-
kukulala), D. alata (Kahata-kodol) , D. bulbifera (Panu-kodol), D. sativa; D.
oppositifolia (Hiritala). — Of Palmce, Borassus flabelliformis (Tal-gaha). Or. 23.
Dijecia Enneandria. — Of Laurince, Litsaea trinervia (Dawul Kurundu). Or.
24. Decandria. — Of Cucurbitacece, Carica papaya, four varieties. Or. 25. Dode-
candria. — Of Hydrocharidece, Stratiotes acoroides. — Of Menispermem, Cocculus
peltatus, C. Burmanni (Kehi-pittan) ; C. orbiculatus (Diyanutta), C. cordifolius ;
Menispermum fenestratum. — Or. 26. Icosandria. — Of Tiliacem, Flacourlia
nivea (Heen-katu-pila). — Of Euphorbiacem, Rottleria tinctoria (Ham-parandaella),
R. paniculata. Or. 27. Polyandria. — Of Cycadeee, Cycas circinalis (Maddu-
gaha). — Of Ebenacem, Embryopteris glutinifera (Ma-timbiri). Or. 28. Mona-
delphia. — Of Euphorbiacem, Exccecaria agallacha (Tela-keeriya), E. camettia;
Cluytia retusa (Ma-pat-ka:ta-kala) , C. collina (Madara). — Of Menispermecs,
Cissampelos hernandifolia (Wsela-titte), C. convolvulacea ( Weni-wa?la) , three
varieties. — Of Myristacem, Myristica tomentosa (Mala-boda), M. salicifolia
(Heen-eeriya), M. iriya (Mii-eeriya) ; Horsfieldia odorata, (Ruk-gaha). — Of
Nepenthem, Nepenthes distillatoria (Bandura).
Class 23. POLYGAMIA. Or. 35. Mon^scia.— Of Rubiacem, Ophiorrhiza
mungos (Waleka- weriya) . — Of Apocynece, Ophioxylon serpentinum (Ratu-
eka-weriya). — -Of Graminece, Andropogon caricosus (Ga?ta-ma.na) , A. crinitus,
A. acicularis ( Rat-tuttiri), A. squarrosus, A.. Nardus (Watu-saewuendara), A.
cymbarius (Kara-wata-mana), A. schaenanthus (Pengiri-mana), A. binatus ;
Chloris barbate (Mayura-tana) ; Ischasmum muticum (Bada-mal-tana), I. aris-
tatum (Heen-kudu-maette), I. barbatum (Ma-kudu-martta). — Of Urticem, Parie-
taria indica (Ma-telika-pala), P.reclinata (Kaeti-palu).— Of Chenopodem, Atriplex
coriacea. —Of Combretacem, Terminalia cateppa (Kottamba), three varieties, T.
alata (Kombook), T. Bilirica (Bulu), T. chebula (Aralu).— Of Aurantiacem,
Feronia elephantum (Diwul). — Of Terebintacem, Ailanthus excelsa. — Of Euphor
biacem, Briedelia spinosa (Katu-kaeta-kaela). — Of Laurince affines, Gyrocarpus
asiaticus (Hema-gaha). — Of Ulmacece, Celtis orientalis (Ga-dumba). — Of Legu-
minosm, Ingabigemina (Gaskalatiya), I. nodosa, I. umbellata; Mimosa rubicaulis,
M. entada (Heen-pus-waela) ; Desmanthus virgatus (Gas-nidi-kumba), D. cine-
reus; Acacia scandens, (Ma-pus-waela), A. odoratissima, A. vera, A. caesia, A.
pennata (Goda-hinguru).— Of Guttiferm, Stalagmitis cambogioides (Kana-go-
raka). Or.36.Di^EciA. — Of Graminem, Spinifexjquarrosus (Ma-rawana-rewula).
— Of Sapindacem, Schleichera trijuga(jEmbul-kon). — Of Flacourtianem, Hydno-
carpus inebrians (Ma-makulu). — Of Terebintacece, Semicarpus latifolium (Kiri-
badulla), S. obovatum (Kalu-badulla). — Of Urticem, Ficus Carica, F. glomerate
(Gan-attikka), F. religiosa (Bo-gaha), F. parasitica (Wael-amaetu), F. benjamina
(Debi-nuga), F. nitida (Panu-nuga), F. pohtoria (Sewana-maediya), F. bengalensis
(Ma-nuga), F. cotinifolia, (Boo-nuga), F. oppositifolia, (Kota-dimbula), F.
indica, ( Kiripaalla), F. stipulata, F. repens debilis.— Of Ebenacem, Diospyros
Ebenaster1 (Kadum-bmya), D. ebenum (Kaluwara), D. hirsuta (Kalu-ma=-diriya).
Class 24. CRYPTOGAMIA. Or. 38. Gonopterides. Of Equisetace^;.
Equisetum— (Aswalgatana). Or. 39. Stachiopterides. Of Lycopodiacejs ;
1 Diospyros Ebenaster in many respects resembles Calamander, though of
lighter colour and inferior beauty. D. Ebenum is jet black, fine grained, takes a
high polish, and is much used in making tables, chairs, &c. The wood is extremely
heavy, and the furniture made of it is very dear. It is chiefly found in the jungles
of the eastern province.
3D

770 CEYLON. [PART IV.
Lycopodinm phlegmaria (Ma-haedaya), L. mirabile (Kuda-hasdaya), L. repens
(Binhaedaya), L. rupestre ( Len-pahuru), L. cernuum (Badal-wanassa), L. ornitho-
podioides (Balal-pahuru), L. canaliculatum (Ma-pana-dsette) , L. ciliare (Heen-
pana-daetta), L. serratum (Gas-hsedaya), Bernhardia dicbotoma (^t-hawari).
Or. 40. Filices. — Ophioglossice, Ophioglossum ovatum (Ek-pati-benduru), 0.
pendulum (Pati-benduru) ; Botrychium ternatum (Kaerawu-waeraella), B. zeylani
cum (Ken-kok-waeraella). Of Polypodacecs, Hydroglossum pinnatifidum (Ma-
pamba), H.flexuosum (Heen-pamba), H.circinnatum (JEt-pamba) ; Mertensia dicho-
toma (Wil-ka;killa) ; Schizaea digitate. — Alsophila comosa, A. crinita ; Trichomanes
rigidum and T. intermarginale, T. filicula ; Acrostichum arifolium, A. quercifolium,
A. appendiculatum, A. esculentum (Kaera-koku-waeraella) ; Hemionitis Boryana;
Polypodium acrostichoides, P. nervosum, P. phymatodes (Wsel-benduru), P.
quercifolium (Gas-b6nduru) ; Aspidium splendens (Watu-waeraella), A.auriculatum,
A.pteroides, A. unitum (Rilla-waeraslla) , A. arboreum (JEt-mmecaa), A. speluncae,
A. viviparum (Ganga-miwana) ; Lowaria scandens (Wael-barandara) ; Asplenium
nidus, A. falcatum, A. ambiguum, A. esculentum (Miwana-pala) -, Pteris pilo-
selloides P. elliptica, P. scolopendrina, P. palustris, P. serrulate, P. crenata, P.
thalictroides (Pilihudu-pala), P. quadrialata, P. tripartita, P. lanuginosa (An-
kaekilla) j Blechnum orientale (Pattra-waeraella) ; Adiantum lanulatum (Kaha-
waerEella), A. caudatum; Cheilanthus tenuifolia ; Davallia patens, D. pedata,
D. affinis, D. Emersoni, D. contigua, D. elegans, D. Khasiyana, D. lonchitidea,
D, inasqualis, D. hirte, a very beautiful and distinct fern, with something of the
rigid habit &c. of the Polystichum group of Aspidium, D. polypodioides, almost
hispid beneath, D. tenuifolia, Lindsaea cultrata, L. Walkerae, L. caudate, L.
ensifolia; Dicksonia zeylanica ; D. deltoidea ; Cyathea simplicifolia ; C. sinuate,
fronds simple, lanceolate, very much elongated, sinuated at the margin, C. Walkerae.
Or. 43. Hydropterides. Marsilea coromandelina (Diya-aembulaebiliya).
Timber, and the more valuable trees of Ceylon.
The jack tree, Artocarpus integrifolia, (Jaca), (see p. 768), grows to a very large
size, and is not only the most useful, but also the most beautiful of the Ceylon
forest trees, from the great size of its spreading top, and the deep shade of its
dark green leaves. It produces an extraordinary quantity of fruit from its
branches, its trunk, and even from its roots. The fruit has a rough green covering,
and contains a great number of kernels about half the size of a pigeon's egg ;
these, when the fruit is ripe, are contained in a luscious yellow covering, which
is too strong tasted for Europeans, but before it ripens, the kernels when cooked
form a goo J vegetable, and are very commonly the foundation of the curries used
by the labouring Singhalese. The size and weight of the fruit varies from one
to fifty pounds weight, and contains from two to three hundred kernels, each, more
than double the size of an almond ; that of the smaller sort is larger than the finest
oranges. The wood of the jack tree is generally used in making furniture, and
much resembles the commonest kinds of mahogany.
There are two sorts of trees which produce the bread-fruit, one of which yields
a smaller fruit without seed, while the fruit of the other is larger, of more general
growth, and in higher repute. The fruit is all over prickles, with a thick and
soft rind ; the internal part of the fruit only is used for food by maD, and the rind
is left for the pigs. The larger sort of bread-fruit, which is almost universally
used in Ceylon, is called by three different names, according to the period of its
growth. When it has reached the size of an ostrich's egg, and is a month old, it
is called et polios ;" hereli, when it is half ripe and of the size of a cocoa-nut ; the
pulpy esculent part is then still of a white and milky cast. At both these periods,
the fruit cannot be eaten without previous preparation. When perfectly ripe, it
is called warreka j the pulpy part is then fit for use, and that which environs the
seed has a sweetish taste, is yellow, and without any preparation is both eatable
and relishing. The seeds may be eaten either alone like chesnuts, or together with
the pulpy part of the fruit itself prepared in different ways. They are used both
boiled and roasted ; the lower classes generally boil and eat them with the scrapings
of cocoa-nut and salt, and the rich employ them in fattening pigs, geese, and

CHAP. TV.J TIMBER AND OTHER TREES — THE TALAPAT PALM. 771
other fowls. Fifteen dishes are capable of being prepared from the fruit of this
beneficent tree.
Calamander, or variegated ebony, Diospyros hirsute. (Seep. 769.) (Kalumiu-
drie, from Kalu, black, and mindrie, flowing, Singh.) This beautiful wal-gaba, or
forest tree, is now scarce, from the ruthless manner in which it has been felled
whenever found, owing to the elegance of the wood, and the consequent demand for
furniture made of it. Calamander, with its alternate shades of black, clouded
like marble, and light brown, is much the prettiest of all the varieties of wood
found in Ceylon. It is extremely hard, and receives a very high polish. The
Ophioxylon serpentinum (see p. 769) has a bitter taste, and besides being used
as an antidote against the bite of serpents, is employed in ardent and malignant
fevers. Cups of the wood will yield a part of their virtue if wine be poured into
them : this is drunk as a stomachic. Water likewise extracts a green tincture
from it. The wood resembles that of the oak in colour, and by its pores, which
are frequently so yielding as to let water filter through them.
The Talapat tree, Corypha umbraculifera. (Talagaha, Singh.) (See p. 763.) The
size of this chief of the race of palms, in favourable situations, varies from 80 to 1 1 0
feet in height without the flower, which in some instances gives an addition of nearly
25 or 30 feet. The trunk of the tela is straight, but retains a mark wherever there
has been a leaf, and the circumference near the ground is from seven to eight feet.
The tela seldom lasts more than 1 00 years, for with the moment of its perfection,
commences also its decay -, the fruit, which is about the size of a chesnut and useless
for any other purpose, is produced in great numbers, ripens by degrees as the
flowers decay ; the leaves then wither, the upper part of the trunk and the roots
decay, and the only remaining part of the stem lies prostrate on the ground,
about twelve months after it first began to shoot up the great spike which is
the covering of the flower. This spike and its branches are from two to three
months in reaching their full size ; the flower, which is yellow, and of a strong and
oppressive smell, then begins to appear from the extreme point, and when it bursts
from the sheath, makes an explosion like the report of a cannon ; from this time
until all the minute stalks and numberless flowerets are disclosed, elapse about
three months more -, the remainder of its existence is but a course of rapid decay.
When this tree is cut down for the sake of the seed, the pith yields a sort of meal,
of which the natives make a cake, which tastes something like the finest bread.
It serves also as an occasional substitute for rice. The leaves are largest when the
tree is about 20 years of age, and are comparatively small when it has attained its
utmost size, and exerts all its vitality to develop its flowers and perfect its fruit.
The leaf is of a form which enables it without any preparation to be folded like a
fan ; it is 15 or 16 feet across, and (with the addition of the stalk) from the point
of the leaf to the extremity of the stalk where it is united to the tree, is sometimes
25 feet. These leaves are used as umbrellas, and for thatching houses, and such
is their circumference that it is large enough to preserve from six to a dozen
persons from wet in a pouring rain. When it is dried it is very tough, but at the
same time supple and flexible. Though nearly as thick as a man's arm, it is so
light that a person may carry it a great way without fatigue. In its full expanse
it has a circular appearance, but when cut in pieces, it has a triangular form.
When a man lays it on his head in a journey, with the points projecting outwards,
it serves to protect him through the bushes and thorns, while in other situations
it assists in shading him from the scorching rays of the sun. One of these leaves
cut off about five feet in length, and nearly the same in breadth, decorated with
various elegant embellishments, is carried over the heads of people of distinction,
both native and European, instead of an umbrella. They are also formed into
tents, and when prepared in strips from two to three inches broad, and 20 to 30
in length, they form the leaves of Singhalese books, called olas. The immense
quantity of seed produced by every tree is spread by animals over a great extent
of country, and the seeds all spring up, but few survive ; as the young leaves are
devoured the moment they appear by every animal feeding on vegetables.
Mee-tree. (See p. 765.) The flowers of this tree have a heavy and disagreeable
smell, the colour is white, and they sometimes fall in such profusion, as to cover
3 D 2

772 CEYLON. [part IV.
the ground for several inches in depth. In the districts where mee-trees are
abundant, the natives assert that if rains wash down and accumulate quantities of
flowers on the surface of the tanks, a noxious effluvia proceeds from the mass, and
gives rise to malignant fevers. This the natives endure on account of the oil
yielded by the fruit of the tree.
The kabuk, or kombook, a species of terminalia, flourishes on the banks of all
streams in the level and dry districts, and is even found at an elevation of 2000
feet. It grows to a large size, and is a strong and durable timber, of a red
colour. By natives it is believed that water will always be found by digging near
kabuk trees.
Nelu. (Seep. 759.) Is a brittle jointed plant, of which there are several varieties
in Ceylon. It flowers once in eight years, and then decays ; the blossom smells
strongly of honey, and attracts a large number of bees in consequence. On the
joints of the nelu plants may frequently be seen clusters of the large deep bell-
shaped flowers of some parasite, with yellow hearts and scarlet edges ; these have
no separate leaves, and appear so general and so completely united to the nelu
roots, as to induce a belief among the natives that they are two different flowers
proceeding from the same plant. It forms the chief jungle of the highlands, and
is from 12 to 15 years in coming to maturity.
Bogaha. (See p. 769.) The trees of Buddha form one of the most beautiful
characteristics of Ceylon ; they are most commonly met with in travelling through
the central province ; they are generally of great age, and guarded from injury by
superstition, while their huge trunks, rendered cavernous through age, seem ap
propriate emblems of an ancient worship. Two or three terraces, built up with
stone and filled with earth, surround the sacred bo-tree, on every side of which
are raised rough miniature temples of stone, about two feet high, including the
little cupolas with which they are surmounted. The long, broad and beautiful
leaves of this tree, which are in the shape of a heart, are reported to have often
furnished a cooling shade and soft repose to Buddha, when relaxing from the
devout labours of his mission. H ence tradition has consecrated it to his memory,
and so holy was it esteemed that the form of its leaves was not permitted to be
painted on any article of furniture, but what was designed for the palace of the
king of Kandy.
Palmyra, or Fan Palm, (Borassus Willd.) (Singh. Talgaha.) (See p. 769.) The
leaves of this tree, as well as those of the talapat tree, are used instead of paper by
the natives, and all their olas, or books treating of religion and the healing art, are
transcribed on them, but in a language elevated above the common idiom. The
leaves of both these palm trees lie in folds like a fan, and the slips stand in need of
no other preparation than merely to be separated and cut smooth and even with a
knife, after having been slowly dried in the shade and rubbed with oil. Their mode
of writing upon them, consists in carving the letters with a fine pointed style, and,
in order that the characters may be the better seen and read, they rub them over
with an ink made of lampblack, or some other substance, and a solution of gum,
so that the letters have altogether the appearance of being engraved. The iron
point made use of on these occasions, is either set in a brass handle, which the
Moormen and others carry about them in a wooden case, and which is sometimes
six inches in length, or else it is formed entirely of iron, and together with the
blade of a knife designed for the purpose of cutting the leaves and making them
even, set in a knife handle common to them both, into which handle it shuts up,
so that it may be carried by the owner about with him, and be always ready at
hand. On such slips all the letters and edicts of the Dutch Governmeut used to
b3 written, and sent round open and unsealed. When a single slip was not
sufficient, several were bound together by means of a hole made at one end, and
a thread on which they were strung. If a book had to be made for the use of the
wihari's or any other purpose, they sought for broad and handsome slips of talapat
leaves, upon which they engraved the characters very elegantly and accurately,
with the addition of various figures delineated upon them by way of ornament.
All the slips had then two holes made in them, and were strung upon an elegantly
twisted silken cord, and covered with two thin lacquered wooden boards. By

CHAP. IV.J PALMYRA, KITTOOL AND AREKA TREES. 773
means of the cords the leaves are held even together, and by being drawn out when
required for use, they are separated from each other at pleasure. Occasionally
their books were made of thin copper plates.
The Kittool-gaha, Caryota, (see p. 768.) grows very straight, but not so tall as
the cocoa-nut tree. It contains a pith like the talapat tree, which yields an uncom
monly sweet sap of very pleasant teste and wholesome qualities. A tree of the
ordinary size will yield several quarts a day. From this juice, after boiling, a brown
sugar, called jaggery, is prepared, and when particular care is used, it is scarcely
inferior to white. The leaves of this species of palm resemble those of the areca,
and are attached to a strong skin, which is as hard as a board, but full of fibres.
These they employ as thread, and make into cordage. The leaves keep falling off
as long as the tree continues to grow, but when it has attained its full growth, they
adhere for many years to the stem, and no fresh ones are produced. When the
buds on the top become ripe and wither away, they are annually succeeded by
others which keep continually growing lower and lower down the branches till
they reach the stem. The tree is then worn out, but will still remain for eight or
ten years before it rots. Of C. urens there are three varieties. There are also
two other species, horrida (Katu-kittool) and mitis (D6-talu).
Areka Catechu or Betel Nut (Puwak-gaha, Singh.) (See p. 768). This tree is
principally found on the south and west sides of the island. It cannot be said
to grow wild, being generally found in the vicinity of houses, but it is seldom
planted, the nuts when ripe falling on the ground and sowing themselves. This
tree is very straight and tall, but of no great girth ; the nuts grow in bunches at
the top, and when ripe are red, and have a beautiful appearance ; when gathered
they are laid in heaps until the shell be somewhat rotted, and then dried in the
sun, upon which the process of shelling commences. These trees vary in their
yield from 300 to 1000 nuts ; they bear but once a year generally, but there are
green nuts enough to eat all the year long ; the leaves of this tree somewhat
resemble those of the cocoa-nut tree ; they are five or six feet long, and
smaller leaves sprout from their sides, like the feathers on each side of a quill.
The Singhalese, in consequence, call the large leaves the boughs, and the small
ones the leaves ; they fall off annually, and the skin on which they grow with
them. This skin is a sort of medium between bark and leather, and is of great
service to the natives, whom it serves for basons to eat rice out of, and to tie up
provisions for a journey, being capable of containing either oil or water, by being
doubled up in the middle, and rolled like a purse. These skins vary in size
according to the trees, generally they are about two feet in length, and a foot and
a half in breadth. The wood will split from one end to the other, though it is
hard and strong; it is much used for laths to houses and for fences. Formerly
there was a considerable trade in this article with the Coromandel coast, from
whence the natives brought back manufactured goods and other necessaries in
return, but this has ceased for more than a century. The common price was
20,000 for a dollar. The chewing this nut has much of the same effect on the
natives as opium, &c. on an European, when taken to excess, it will produce
stupor, and even intoxication, and when eaten green, diarrhoea.
Cocos Nucifera (Pol-gaha, Singh.) (see p. 768), delights in a sandy soil, and the
nearer to the sea, the quicker its growth, and the more productive its yield. It
requires little or no attention, except being secured from the inroads of cattle ; for
fanned by the winds of the Indian Ocean, it gains strength by exposure, and though
its average height ranges from sixty to eighty feet, it frequently exceeds a hundred.
Its diameter at the base is from two to three feet, and the root, which is com
posed of strong flexible fibres, spreads in a circle, and of these some sink down
deep, and others creep along the surface of the soil. One of these beautiful and
verdant circles, formed of feathery fronds from fourteen to sixteen feet in length,
radiating from a common centre at the top of a tapering stem, eighty feet high,
is one of the most charming objects in nature. The fronds are supported at the
base by diagonal and horizontal layers of strong elastic fibres, capable of sustain
ing great weight, and so closely united as to form, when gently stretched, an
excellent substitute for a hair sieve for straining liquids, This fibrous support

774 CEYLON. [PART IV.
lies in laminse between the branches which it envelops, as well as the incipient
ones even to their rudiments, or what is called the cabbage, and seems providen
tially adapted for the security of the passing traveller from the constant dangers
that would otherwise attend him while traversing the cocoa-nut topes, as the
groves are called, from the sudden falling of decayed branches, which its very
firm adhesion to the trunk prevents, but it is not made into gunny bags, as
some authors have stated, and is merely used for straining toddy and other
liquids, and for kindling fires.
The finest arrack in the world is distilled by the Singhalese from the toddy in
a fermented state, which, in the course of a few hours, becomes an intoxicating
beverage, owing to the rapidity of the process. One hundred gallons produce
by the simple chymical process of the Singhalese, twenty-five of arrack (Pol-
wakere), which, when taken new, is injurious, but gradually acquires wholesome
properties. Toddy is also used by bakers for the purposes of yeast. Pine
apples steeped in arrack, impart a delicious flavour, and reduce its strength to
that of a liqueur unrivalled for making the nectarial punch, or punrjee of the
Hindoos. Lamp-oil is made from the kernel of the ripe cocoa-nut, after it has been
exposed to the sun on mats, until it has become rancid and discoloured (in
which state the natives call it Kopperah), by means of a simple press turned by
bullocks, and oil for culinary purposes by boiling the fresh pulp, and skimming
is as it rises. The former is now made into candles and soap, and the oil-cake
or poonac, is used for feeding cattle and poultry.
Vinegar is made by putting toddy drawn in dry weather into jars, and keeping
them closely covered, but exposed to the sun, for a month ; the toddy is then
strained, and replaced in the same jar with a little bird pepper (Capsicum
frutescens, Linn.), a small piece of the redghorka, and of moringa pod (Hype-
ranthera moringa) ; the jars are then laid in the earth for a month or five weeks,
and thus a very excellent vinegar, little inferior to that made from white wine, is
produced, which serves for making pickles from the young shoots.
Jaggery, a species of sugar, is made by suspending a clean and dry calabash,
or chatty, instead of one in common use for toddy drawing, and corftaining some
chips of the bark of the Shorea robusta (Halghas, Singh.), which will induce
sweetness in the toddy. Eight gallons of it, boiled over a slow fire, produce two
gallons of syrup, called Penni by the Singhalese ; which, being again boiled, pro
duces a coarse strong-grained brown sugar, named as before said, that is well
adapted for crystallization or refining in England ; this is formed into cakes in
bottoms of cocoa-nut shells by way of moulds ; which having been enveloped in
pieces of dried plantain leaf are hardened and preserved from humidity by being
suspended where smoke has free access to them. A cocoa-nut tree planted near
the sea generally blossoms in the fourth or fifth year, but in elevated situations
of the interior, it is six or seven years before this takes place, and from thence
forward for sixty years and upwards this most prolific palm will continue to pro
duce fruit in abundance, unless the tree be devoted entirely to the toddy drawer,
in which case it ceases to produce fruit.
The maturity of cocoa-nuts reserved for planting is indicated by the brown
colour of the husk ; they are then plucked, and having been laid aside for a few
davs, are ranged in rows, and partly covered with earth, or, as in many parts of
the country, suspended from the branches of trees until vegetation has com
menced In about three months, more or less, the plant will have appeared, and
in less than five months from that time will have attained the height of sixteen or
eighteen inches, and have thrown out three or four foliaceous fronds. The best
time for transplanting is during the rainy season, when tbe plants receive that
abundant nourishment which their nature requires.
The Singhalese are so extremely superstitious that they invariably throw a
little salt into the holes before they place the young plants in them, and they
observe great regularity in forming their topes by making holes for the plants in
parallel lines from twenty to twenty-four feet apart, about three feet deep, of the
£ime diameter at the top, and in the shape of inverted cones for the purpose of

CHAP. IV.J THE COCOA-NUT TREE AND ITS USES. 775
collecting the necessary moisture. If the salt were omitted, they would not
expect the plant to flourish.
The green fronds split, and their pinnated leaves interwoven, make covers for
plants, baskets, and cajan, or thatch, and when burnt produce a superior alkali.
The young pinnae, which are white and tough, make beautiful brushes, brooms,
mats, baskets, and boxes for ladies' work, and from the strips of the leaf Eolian
harps are made ; while tablets for writing upon, with an iron stylus, are formed
from the leaflets, and translucent lanterns from the young leaves.
The stem is at first of a very spongy nature, and full of tough perpendicular
and ligneous fibres ; and until it is about twenty years old, is applicable only to
the purposes of gutters, water pipes, and fences, but when it becomes old it is fit
for rafters, shingles, ornamental cabinet work, rice pounders, walking sticks, and
for building country vessels of from 80 to 200 tons burthen, called Dhonies.
Drums are formed from the crest of the trunk. The water of the green cocoa-
nut is a delicious drink, if it be plucked before sunrise; it is also used by house
plasterers for its adhesiveness in mixing their white and coloured washes, and
conjointly with jaggery and shell lime for stucco.
The pulp of the young cocoa-nut is an admirable vegetable blanc mange, and
the kernel of the seed cocoa-nut, after vegetation has commenced, is among
the delicacies of a Singhalese dessert. It is spongy, but pleasant to the teste,
and greatly esteemed by the natives. The expressed juice of the pulp of the ripe
nut is properly the milk, and is obtained by first rasping it with an instrument
called HieromaneV then soaking it in water and pressing it through a cloth,
when it forms an ingredient in all good curries. The cabbage is delicious
whether fricasseed or pickled, or in its raw state, when it is as sweet and crisp as
the Catappa almond.
A bunch of cocoa-nuts seldom exceeds fifteen ortwenty good ones, and from trees
growing in sandy situations, the fruit is gathered four or five times a year. The
external husk, after having been soaked in water for a certain period, is beaten
out into a fibre called Koir, of which yarn, ropes,2 cables, brooms, plasterers'
brushes, and stuffing for beds, sofas, mattrasses, saddles, &c, and bags are manu
factured. Cocoa-nut shells are made into cups, basons, lamps, sportsmen's liquor
flasks, ladles, skimmers, spoons, lampblack and charcoal, which last forms an
excellent dentifrice when pulverised.
A powerful oil is extracted from the bark of the cocoa-nut tree, which is em
ployed as a liniment in cutaneous diseases, and considered by the Singhalese
doctors eminently efficacious, provided a free use of the green cocoa-nut be strictly
adhered to as a principal article of diet, and an ointment is prepared from the
kernel, which is a certain cure for the ringworm in children. The list of articles
manufactured from the cocoa-nut tree has been enumerated at one hundred and
upwards, and the Tamuls have a poem descriptive of its various uses.
The root, which is sometimes masticated instead of areca-nut, is considered
by native practitioners so efficacious in intermittent and remittent fevers, that it
is almost invariably employed by them. Small pieces of it are boiled with dried
ginger and jaggery, and the decoction is given to the patient at regular intervals.
The same decoction, when used as a gargle, is mixed with the oil of the nut freshly
1 "The Hieromane," says Mr. Bennett, " is the best kind of grater that can be
employed to reduce the kernel for culinary purposes, because it obviates the
necessity of breaking the nut-shell in pieces, or the previous removal of the
kernel from it, which in its ripe state is difficult. It consists of a circle of notched
iron fastened to the end of a stout piece of wood cut in a peculiar shape, (which
custom has induced the Singhalese to consider the most convenient for this
domestic purpose,) and considered by Europeans to resemble a boot-jack."
2 This rope, from its strength and elasticity, and its possessing the peculiar
property of being best preserved for use in sea water, is well adapted for mooring,
and is used for running rigging in the India shipping. It is, notwithstanding,
considered inferior to rope made from Laccadive Koir, though it admits of im
provement in the manufacture audits mode of preservation.

776 CEYLON. [PART IV.
made, and generally affords considerable relief to the patient in cases where pus
tules have formed in the mouth or glands of the throat.
In hemorrhoids, the expressed juice of the leaves, mixed with fresh oil of the nut,
and taken internally, is considered a sovereign remedy ; and in ophthalmic com
plaints, the external application of the expressed juice of the nut, mixed with new
milk from the cow or goat, mitigates, if it do not entirely remove inflammation.
The juice of the flower is of so astringent a nature, that it has the same effect as
a solution of alum upon the inside of the mouth ; this mixed with new milk and
taken in small quantities, not exceeding a wine-glass full, but at regular periods,
affords almost immediate temporary relief, and if persevered in, effectual cure, in
that most debilitating disease in tropical climates , Lues Gonorrhaea. The shade of
the cocoa-nut tree is salutary ; for wherever cocoa-nut topes are found, very little
underwood is met with. Accidents, which might be expected to be of constant
occurrence through the fall of cocoa-nuts on passers by, seldom or never occur,
and still rarer prove fatal.
Trees intended for toddy drawing are prevented from producing fruit by the
following process : the toddy drawer first ties the spathe in three places, with
strips of the tough white pinnae of the young fronds, which are of a beautiful white
when they first shoot up perpendicularly, but soon change to a straw colour ;
these are concave towards the heart of the crest, and when they are successively
forced from their position by new fronds, they gradually expand their pinnated
leaves, and ultimately become horizontal. The old fronds have a strong mid-rib,
with the footstalks nearest the tree proportionably thick ; these embrace the stem,
and as they gradually fall off, after hanging for weeks together by their fibrous
support, or are pulled down for fuel, torches or chules, and fences, they leave
successive and very visible scars. The purpose of tying the spathe is to prevent
its expansion ; it is then cut transversely to the extent of about two inches from
the point, and beaten with an ebony or iron-wood baton by the toddy drawer for
five or six mornings and evenings successively. The next operation is to remove
a portion of the footstalk of the spathe, so as to admit of its depression for the
juice to flow freely, and it is kept in that position by attaching it to an inferior
branch ; in the course of five or six days the toddy drawer suspends a calabash, or
earthen pot called a chatty, from the decapitated spathe so as to receive the juice
as it. exudes from the flower, and this he repeats every morning and evening,
taking off a slice of the flower as occasion requires while any part of it remains —
Toddv begins to ferment soon after the power of the sun is felt.
This delicious liquid, combining a pleasant but slight degree of sweetness, with
a still less degree of acidity, when fresh and of peculiar flavour, is called toddy by
Europeans; Ra, by the Singhalese ; and Suri,' or Sura, (palm wine), by the
Hindoos and being considered a gentle aperient is very often resorted to at early
dawn bv the bon-vivant to remove the unpleasant effects of the previous nights
linations There are five varieties of this palm at Ceylon, and the grounds
adjoining the wihares generally contain the best specimens of the indigenous
soec es The nuts present different shades of colour, from the Koroomba, or water
cocoa-nut, to that which approaches or has arrived at maturity. The peculiar
shane ami bright orange colour of the king cocoa-nut is remarkable, yet it is seldom
sbape ana ""«"" s  „i„_.ii„ nrrsmteA bv the Driests or headmen

Zt not of the beautiful pear shape of the first. The tnird is or a py™.,
i „j,f!™ and the fleshy substance of its husk, which is between the
ra her ™jM°>™- a°d f ^ '7 ;tg state. The fourth is the common
cicornu o co"in Me Easi and West Indies ; and the fifth is the Maldive,
or dwarf cocoa-nut, about the size of a duck's egg; this is rare and highly pmed.
No country in the world produces the cocoa-nut tree to such perfection as Ceylon,
<-w « regards height, or any other of its qualifications.
* Lemor! '-grass (Andropogon Schamanthus). This plant gives out a strong
flavour of lemon when bruised.  ^ 
' The word " Sura," in Sanscrit, signifies both wine and true wealth.

APPENDIX.

i.
Narrative of the Visit of Iambulus to Taprobane, as given by
Diodorus Siculus.
Iambdltjs, the son of a merchant, and a youth of enterprising habits,
in following his father's calling, was made captive in his travels, and
carried into Ethiopia. A custom prevailed in that country of purging
the land, by sending away two of the inhabitants on board a ship,
which, when provisioned, was left to the mercy of the waves, the crew
being forbidden to return under pain of death. Iambulus, thus
expelled, arrived at Ceylon at the end of four months, and found the
island to be of a circular form, and 5000 furlongs in circumference. On
nearing the shore, the natives came to meet them, and bringing their
ship into harbour, hospitably received them. " Unlike Europeans," says
Iambulus, " both in person and mode of living, tbey were tall, bending
their bones like nerves, and as the nervous parts after motion return to
their former state, so did their bones. Their bodies were tender, but
their nerves were stronger than ours, for what they grasped, none could
wrest from them. They had no hair other than that on their heads,
eyebrows, and chins, yet were they comely and well shaped. The
holes of their ears were much wider than ours, and had something like
little tongues growing out of them. Their tongues, too, were singular
and remarkable, the effect both of nature and art ; for they had partly a
double tongue, for being naturally a little divided, it was cut further
inwards by art, so that it seemed two as far as the very root ; there was
therefore great variety of speech among them ; they could imitate the
chattering of birds, and what was yet more wonderful, they could speak
perfectly to two men at once, both by answering what was said, and
aptly carrying on a continued discourse.
"The climate was temperate and excellent, and though lying under the
equator, was neither pinched with cold, nor scorched with heat, and
fruits they had ripe all the year long. The days and nights were of an
equal length, and there was no shadow atnoonday, the sun being directly
in the zenith over head. They lived divided into tribes and distinct
societies, and in plains where they were plentifully supplied with food
from the earth. Such was the fertility of the soil, that it grew a
surplus stock of corn, and a fruit which, on gathering, they steeped in
hot water, till it swelled to the size of a pigeon's egg, then bruising it
and rubbing it skilfully in their hands, they kneaded it into dough, and
baked and ate it. It was sweet and excellent to the taste. Their hot
and cold baths, for curing and preventing distempers, were sweet and
pleasant. They were learned in all sorts of sciences, especially astro
logy. Their speech contained twenty-eight letters, and seven charac
ters, every one of which were formed in four ways. They wrote not
across the sheet as we, but began at the top of the leaf, and went on in
a direct line to the bottom. They were long lived, often reaching 150
years. The lame or weak (according to the severe law of their coun-

778 APPENDIX.
try) were put to death. One of their laws fixed a certain number of
years for a man's life, at the expiration of which he poisoned himself
with an herb of a double nature, on which, if any one lay down, he
silently passed away and died, without any sense of pain, as if in sleep.
The men never married, but made a promiscuous use of women, and bred
up the children so begotten, as common to them all, and with equal
care and affection. The children were often changed by their nurses
in infancy, that they might not be known to their mothers, and there
being thus no ambition among them, they lived in peace and amity.
There were small beasts among them, the flesh of which was good, and the
blood had rare properties. The body was round like a tortoise, divided by
two streaks, which ran down the back, at each end of every streak they
had an eye and a mouth, so thatthey had four eyes, and four mouths, but
their food was conveyed through one throat, and thence into the belly,
the common receptacle of all. They had but one gut, and but one of
the other inner parts. The feet, placed round the body, and which they
used for moving on what side they please, were numerous. The virtue in
the blood of this little creature was such, that it instantly closed all cuts
and gaping wounds in the body, that had still life in it, and if any
member (that was not vital) were cut off, the application of this blood
would (while the wound continued green) heal it up again. Every
caste kept large birds of a singular nature, wherewith to try the courage
of their children, placing them on the birds' backs, and as many of
them as sat fast when the birds flew, they brought up, but the timid
they cast away, as unable to endure hardship, and as deficient in a
generous spirit.
" In every tribe or society, the eldest governed the rest as king, and all
yielded him perfect obedience. If the first put himself to death, after
he had lived out his due time, the next in age succeeded in the chief
authority. " The seas round the isle were rough, causing high tides, but the water
of the rivers was fresh and sweet. The bear star, and many others visible
with us, were never seen here. These islands (I suppose he alludes to the
isles off the north coast) were seven in number, of equal size and distance
from each other, and the same laws and customs prevailed. Though they
afforded plenty of food, yet the people used it not profusely, but were
frugal, and gathered no more than they wanted. Flesh was eaten, &c.
but they were ignorant of sauces and luxuries, and the savours contrived
for curious palates. For gods they worshipped the whole frame of
heaven ; next to that the sun, and then all celestial bodies. They caught
fish and fowl in various wayB, and had abundance of fruit trees, vines,
and olive trees. The serpents, which were larg-e, did no harm to any,
but their flesh was even thought good and sweet. Their garments
were of a softfine cotton, contained in reeds and canes. This cotton was
dyed with the shell-fish called Ostreses, and being made up into bales,
and wrought in among the wool, made purple garments. The isle
produced strange and even incredible creatures. Their diet was regular
but varied, on some days fish, others fowl, on some flesh, on others olives,
or meaner diet. They assisted each other in their callings. Some
employed themselves in fishing, others in manufacture, &c. Some held
public offices. On festivals and times of invocation upon their gods,
they celebrated their praises in acclamations and songs, especially the
sun, to whom they dedicatedtheir islands. Their dead they carried to the
sea shore at the fall of the tide, covering them with a little sand, that at
the full, heaps of sand mght be raised upon them. The canes whence

APPENDIX. 779
they gathered fruit to eat, were the compass of a crown in thickness ;
they believed them to increase towards the full of the moon, and
decrease at the new moon. The water of their hot springs continued
so, unless mixed with cold."
Iambulus was expelled, and after sundry adventures, ultimately
arrived in Greece, where he put into writing an account of his voyage.
Some writers have cast doubt both on the identity of the narrator, and
the authenticity of his narrative. On the first little remark is required ;
for it is unimportant from what source Diodorus derived his informa
tion ; but on the latter we may observe, that Ceylon was at that time next
to a terra incognita to the writers in question, who contrived to dogmatise
in a matter in which they have only displayed their ignorance. To
me, bating the tincture of fable, and the love of the marvellous pervad
ing it, the narrative appears remarkably coincident with the account
of Knox some 2000 years later.

II.
One point noticed by most ancient writers on Taprobane, Pliny
among the rest, is the long duration of human life, a hundred years
being considered in no way extraordinary. Pliny relates, in reference
to its geography, that Megasthenes reported, that there was a great
river that divided it in twain ; and that the people dwelling on its
banks were called Palseogoni1 or aborigines (Yakkas ; if so, an extraor
dinary fact). That Eratosthenes had taken its measure, which he found
to be 7000 stadia in length, and 5000 in breadth. That the passage
from the Prasian country, in vessels of large burden, was at one time
twenty days, but when bamboo boats and lighter tackling were substi
tuted, seven days. The sea between the island and continent he
describes as full of shallows and shoals, but there were certain channels
without soundings, and so straight and narrow, that a ship could not
turn within them, and to avoid the difficulty had prows at both ends
pointed each way. Their course was not regulated by the stars, but by
the direction taken by birds, which they carried out with them for the
purpose. Pliny then alludes to the monsoons, and mentions that in the
time of Claudius, a freedman of Annius Plocamus, who farmed the cus
toms of the Red Sea, whilst cruising on the Arabian coast, was driven by
a storm beyond the shores of Carmania, and after being tossed about
for fifteen days, arrived at an harbour called Hippuros, in Taprobane-
On landing, he met with great courtesy from the local prince, and in
return, he explained to him the power and resources of the Romans. The
chief was struck with their love of justice, and the equality in the weight
of their coins, notwithstanding the impressions shewed that they were the
work of various persons. He accordingly despatched four ambassadors,
1 To those who for a moment consider the medium through which Pliny
derived his information of Taprobane, it will appear strange that any of the
commentators, much as they have contrived to involve every thing by a misplaced
ingenuity, could have for a moment doubted the etymology of this word, and
traced its root to Bali, the Indian Hercules. The infliction of wading through
the geographical commentators of the French and English schools, I have endured
with great patience, but with the exception of MM. Gosselin and Larcher, who
occasionally make a successful hit, the rest offer hardly a ray of enlightenment in
consequence of their total ignorance of the theatre they have attempted to describe.

780 APPENDIX.
and one of his chiefs among the rest to Rome. These ambassadors
informed the Romans that their island contained 500 towns, and that
the south coast possessed an excellent haven, at no great distance from
Palesimundum,1 the principal cityof the realm, and that the population
was 200,000 in number. That in the interior of the island there was a
lake, more than 200 miles in circumference, dotted with numerous
islets, and that out of it issued two rivers, Palesimundus and Cydara ;
that the promontory stretching nearest to India from their island, was
called Colaicum, that it was four days' sail from the former, and that
several islands lay between. The water of the strait they described as
of a greenish hue (to the astronomical errors of the ambassador it is
needless to allude). They then referred to the Seres, with whom they
had commercial transactions, and mentioned the mode of barter with the
wild people, whom I take to mean the Yakkas, as they are described as
giants of horrible form, and speaking an unintelligible jargon. The
ambassadors went on to declare, that though they had more wealth than
the Romans, the latter turned theirs to better account. The manner of
building their houses, and the price of provisions, were both correctly
described. The king was chosen by election, and if he acted tyranni
cally, he was exposed to the wild beasts, but not put to death by his
subjects. Pliny would seem to repeat much of the information already
given by Solinus, and contained in p. 7.

III.
Though the Hindoos do not generally identify Lanka with Ceylon,
but believe it to be a distant region, yet the testimony of a Fakeer, who
visited the island in the middle of the last century, and whose narrative
is to be found in the fourth vol. of the Asiatic Researches, singularly
corroborates the unanimous opinion of European orientalists, and con
firms in a remarkable degree the more specific researches of Forbes into
the locality and scenes of the Ramayana. " From Jaggernauth, our
traveller returned by nearly the same route to Ramisher (Ramisseram),
whence he passed over into Silan (Ceylon), and proceded to its capital,
Khundi (Kandy) noora (Nuwara), whose king is called Khundi Maha
Raja, and from thence to Katlgang (Kattragam), on the Manik-ganga,
where there is a temple of Kartikiya, son of Mahadeiyo, to which he
paid his respects, and then went on to visit the Sreepad, or divine foot,
situated upon a mountain of immense height, on one part of which
there is an extensive miry cavity, called the Bhoput tank (there is a
tradition among the natives of a plain called the Bhoput Talawa, near
Nuwera Elliya), called also the tank of Ravan, one of the former kings
of this island, well known in Hindoo legends from his wars with Rama,
and from whom this Tapu (island) may probably have received its
appellation of Taprobane (i.e. the isle of Raban). Leaving this tank,
our traveller proceeded to Seeta Koonda, where Rama placed his wife
during his war with her ravisher Ravan, and then ascended the
Sreepad, where on the top, and on a flat surface, is a bungalow, built
over a print of the divine foot, after worshipping which he returned by
the same route."

1 Considering the source of Pliny's information, the etymology I venture to
propose for this much disputed word is Pulo - Saman-du, i. e. dib (island )

APPENDIX. 781
IV.
ORIGIN OF THE SINGHA DYNASTY.— See p. 26.
Although the following early mythus of the Singha family, is to
the last degree absurd, yet as it is gravely recorded in all the native
histories, and implicitly believed by the natives, it cannot legitimately be
excluded by the historian.
The Raja of Kalingoo (Northern Circars), having given his daughter
in marriage to the Raja of Waggoo (a principality of Madhyadaisaya
or the Magadha empire, which comprised South Bahar and the Gan-
getic provinces), that princess gave birth to a beautiful daughter, whose
union with a lion on her arriving at a certain age was predicted by the
astrologers. Informed thereof, the king ordered her to be strictly con
fined within the palace, and jealously watched. Inflamed, however, by
sensual desire, she contrived to escape, and making for the road to
Lalaa (another principality of Maghada), joined a company of
merchants bent on the same direction. While passing through the
wilderness, a lion burst forth upon them, and seeing the beauty of the
princess, caught and carried her into his lair, and there enjoyed sexual
intercourse with her. Twins, the one a male, and the other a female,
were the result of the union. When the former had arrived at years
of discretion, he ventured to interrogate his mother, with respect to the
startling difference between herself and his sire. She, in reply, unfolded
-he whole tale of his birth, and the cause of the union, whereupon her
son, seizing the first occasion on which his sire was absent in search of
food, opened the door of the cave, and walked a distance of several
miles. Then returning to the cave, he took his mother and sister upon
his shoulders, and directed his course for the city of Waggoo Ratte,
where he arrived in safety. That city was then governed by a cousin
of his mother's, and the princess, presenting to him her two children,
took up her residence there.
On the return of the lion to his cave, he became greatly distressed at
the loss of his wife and children, and leaving his retreat, approached
the city and slew some people in the outskirts. The tidings being
brought to the king, he sent a party to destroy the animal, but the
latter, breaking forth with a terrible roar, fell upon and killed several,
and dispersed the rest. The failure of the enterprise served but to
stimulate the royal will, and a proclamation was issued by beat of drum,
that the vanquisher of the lion should be rewarded with an allotment of
territory. The lion's son, hearing thereof, eagerly stepped forth, and
offered his services, and taking his bow and arrows, and approaching
the cave of his sire, called to him to come forth. The lion, though
aware of his mission, and grieved at his ingratitude, could not refrain
from meeting him. On coming near, three arrows were successively
shot at him by the son, but the points of all were inverted, and fell
harmless to the ground. On his seizing the fourth arrow, the lion
could no longer restrain his fury at his parricidal offspring, and eyeing
him fixedly, resolved to tear him in pieces. While thus engaged, the
son shot the fourth arrow, which, wounding him in the forehead, caused
instant death. In his last agony, he forgot the parricide in the son, and
calling him tenderly, laid his head on his lap, and making affectionate
mention of his wife and daughter, expired.

782 APPENDIX.
After cutting off the lion's head, and presenting it to the king, a new
city, called Sinhaba-poora Nuwara, was apportioned to the young
prince, and taking his sister to wife, he begat a numerous offspring, the
first-born of which was Wijeya, whose subsequent life is recorded in
pp. 26, 27, &c.

V.
LOVE OF THE PRINCE SALI.
Sali was son of Dootoogaimoonoo (see p. 43), and from the very
hour of his birth was begirt with a halo of miraculous accompaniments.
The courtly page of the historiographer, not content with assigning to
him the ordinary endowments of princes, hesitates not to ascribe to him
a combination of every manly virtue. Delighted with his accomplish
ments, the king raised him to the dignity of viceroy, and built him a
stately palace at the south-end of Anuradhapoora. On a certain day,
Sali, attended by a numerous retinue, betook himself to the pleasure
gardens, where a crowd of young chieftains were disporting themselves
among the flowers. Attracted by an asoka tree of surpassing beauty,
he approached it, and looking up, beheld among the boughs, a maiden
who had climbed it for the flowers hanging from its branches. The
splendour of her naked form, as it shone in contrast with the deep
green of the surrounding foliage, and the flowers that bedecked her,
seemed as it were an embodiment of lightning, or like the full moon in
a dark cloud. The courtiers, enraptured, began severally to be seized
with desire, and accosted her. " Beloved, who and whence art thou ?
Art thou a daughter of man or goddess 1 for never in the world was
beauty seen like thine. Tell us who are thy parents, and whether thou
art married or unmarried V " Lords," replied the maiden, " I am the
daughter of the chief of the Chandalls (a low caste)." Sali, hearing
the same, beckoned her to alight from the tree, exclaiming, "The
precious stones and the pearl are never rejected by man, though they
be found lying in a heap of excrement; wherefore should this damsel,
though she be born in the caste of the Chandalls 1" Thereupon con
ducting her to a linen conveyance, he escorted her to his palace, and as
no woman in Lanka equalled her in beauty, named her Asoka-malla,
from the tree on which she was found. Fame, with her thousand
tongues, suffered no long time to elapse, ere the whole city of Anurad
hapoora had learnt the tale of Sali's amour with the Chandall maiden,
till it finally came to the ears of the king. Dootoogaimoonoo, displeased
thereat, sent for the favourite lady of his harem, and said, " Go to my
son, and tell him, Lord, thy father will get thee a princess of the royal
or of the Brahmin's caste for thy wife, and thou shalt be proclaimed
king, wherefore forsake this daughter of the Chandalls, and stain not
the royal caste." Sali declared his unalterable attachment to the
damsel, and replied, "A woman in pregnancy cannot be satisfied with
the ripe mango, while she desires the pomegranate ; so will not I be
content with a goddess, much less a woman, except this very one."
The king, learning his resolution, sent for the priests skilled in sooth
saying, and bade them go and examine Asoka-malla, and report on
the tokens of fortune she possessed. On coming into her presence,

appendix. 783
the Brahmins were amazed at the tokens of beauty and good fortune
in her person, and returning to the king, intoxicated at the sight of
her charms, exclaimed, " O king, Asoka-malla is blessed with a body
the colour of gold, her large eyes resemble the petals of the blue
mahanel, and the soft soles of her feet the petal of the red tank flower.
Endowed thus, she is certainly propitious, and is fit for the chief consort
of Sakreya." Seized with the contagion, the king became desirous of
seeing her, and sent word of his intention to the prince. Sali, glad
thereat, called Asoka-malla, and said, " Beloved one, the king is this
day coming to the palace, I think, for the purpose of seeing thee, delay
not therefore in due preparation." Hastening therefore to prepare the
choicest viands, she advanced with her husband to meet the king
and his ministers, at the entrance of the palace, and deporting them
selves with great respect and obeisance, they stood aside in an humble
posture. The king, touched by the beauty with which she was illu
mined, accosted her : " Art thou then that happy maiden, Asoka-malla V
" I am," s^id she, " my lord." The sweet scent which issued from her
mouth at the utterance of these words, in a moment filled the palace,
and the king, taking his seat, was served by her in person. Repenting
of the intention . he had formed of depriving his son of this excellent
maiden, after beholding her enchanting qualities, he called the prince,
his son, and giving them advice for the future, placed them upon a heap
of gold, and performing the marriage ceremony, returned to his palace.
Sali, far from becoming palled with the charms of his wife, continued
to enjoy the most perfect happiness, and she, spending her time in acts
of charity, balanced the sufferings of the unfortunate from the supera
bundance of her own good fortune. Before his death, Dootoogaimoonoo
sent for Prince Sali, and said, "Son, thou may'st succeed to the
throne, and reign by protecting the world and our religion." But he,
aware of the alternative, and preferring Asoka-malla to the kingdom,
refused it. The legend of the amour of Sali is still current among the
Singhalese, and is probably one of the most authentic in their history.

VI.
KANDIAN COURT ESTABLISHMENT.
The officers of the palace were as numerous and miscellaneous as the general
wants of the monarch on whom they attended. The following summary will
afford an insight into the arrangements of the Kandian court. The Gajenayaka
nilame (elephant chief), was the first officer of the domestic household. He had
the superintendence of the royal elephant keepers, of whom a register was kept
by the Kooroone lekam, a subordinate officer. The functions of all the different
lekamships were originally of a military nature. Each lekamship was under the
control of a Lekam mahatmeya, whom the King called Mohottala and by a
Lekamy mohandiram, and certain petty officers. The six lekams first on the list
had each the command of a certain number of men, whose duties were very
similar, and consisted principally of carrying messages, and conveying the king's
orders. The Koodituakkoo-lekam commanded the king's artillery, consisting of
jingalls. The Bondikkulla-Iekam was at the head of a department instituted by
the last king, to take charge of the iron cannon belonging to his majesty. The
Madoowa-lekam had the command of a class of men whose duty it was to guard

784

appendix.

the capital at fourteen different stations, armed with muskets. While they were
posted around the environs of the city, the king's Malabar troops kept sentry round
tfie palace and protected his person. The Aspautia mohandiram nilame was the
master of the horse, and, with other subordinate officers, had the superintendence
• i. i. r°y staDlea- The Hoodooharakpantia mohandiram nilame was intrusted
with the care of the king's herd of white cattle, which were brought from the
Indian peninsula, and were highly esteemed on account of their colour. The
Patteavidane nilame had the general control overtheMng's cattle in differentpartsof
the country, under the care of the Pattea people. TheMaha-aramoodaly-wannakoo
nilame, the king's chief treasurer, was one of the first officers in the household.
There were five Lekams, and the same number of Kanganamas under him, ap
pointed by the king, and dignified with the title of Mahatmeya, or Nilame ; they
were the king's receivers and paymasters general, and had charge of all the royal
treasures, over which they were expected to exercise the greatest vigilance. The
Mahagabada nilame was the royal storekeeper, and took post after the treasurer ;
his office was to see that the royal dues in kind were properly paid and taken
care of. He had under him four lekams and four Kanganamas, appointed by the
king at his nomination, besides four Gayballanaralles and a number of workmen.
The duty of the lekams was to keep an account of the things stored and issued ;
that of the Kanganama to guard and open and shut the doors ; that of the gay
ballanaralles to take care of the things within as regarded packing, unpacking,
and preservation, and the workmen were employed in the ordinary business of
the store, &c: The Udagaba nilame had the superintendence of the king's pri
vate store for the reception of the dues of the royal villages, and derived his name
from the circumstance of his store being built on higher ground than the preced
ing ; from these two stores the king's household was supplied with every neces
sary. The Maha-haiti-penange mohandiram nilame commanded the Appohamies
or gentlemen in waiting on the king, and had under him a lekam-mahatmeya and
a kanganama mlanm ; the duty of the former was to take care of the jewels that
the king was in the daily habit of wearing, while that of the latter was to command
the guard of appohamies about the king under the direction of the mohandiram.
Formerly the number of these appohamies was not limited bythe late king ; after the
wai- of 1803 their number was reduced to forty-eight. The situation was consi
dered honourable, and was in great request, and was always held by the sons of
chiefs and people of rank, whom the king promoted to higher posts as vacancies
ensued. Their principal duty was to he in attendance to receive his majesty's
orders and communicate them to the chiefs ; when called, they approached the king
moving on their knees, hut after having received their instructions, they were
permitted to rise and retire. They had no direct stipend, except that their lands
were exempted from paying duty to the Gabadawe.
The Attepattoo-madoowa mohandiram nilame, like the last officer, had the com
mand of forty-eight appohamies, who were also the sons of chiefs. It was their
duty to be in waiting in the attepattoo-madoowa, a room near the king's, to convey
his messages and carry his " golden arms" in public. It must not be inferred
that these arms were really of gold ; the term was one of reverence, and was a com
mon oriental court expression.
The Ranauda-madoowa lekam mahatmeya, with the aid of forty-eight young
men of quality, kept a register of the royal arms, and took care that they were
preserved in good order by the different kinds of smiths attached to the depart
ment. The Audagewannakoo nilame, with two lekam and two kanganama
nilamies under him, had the charge of all the king's muskets, swords, and iron
and brass instruments. The Diawadene nilame had the care of the royal bath,
and when the king used it, it was his office to wash and comb and dress his ma
jesty's hair. Under him were ten Satambis, and the same number of Panuvida-
karayos ; the former acted as the petty chiefs of the people (about 500 families)
that were attached to the bath. Two satambis were required to be in constant
attendance in the palace ; and at the new year, when the king performed a cere
monial ablution, the presence of the whole ten was required. Their duty, besides

appendix. 785
taking care of the bath, was to pour water on the king, and those of the best
families might touch him and wash his feet. The pannivida-karayos were em
ployed in carrying messages to summon the services of the people of the bath.
The Haloowadene nilame had the superintendence of the king's wardrobe, and
was expected to lend his services in the attiring of royalty. The ordinary dress
of the late king was a shirt, a jacket over it with long sleeves, and a rich topetty
in the Singhalese fashion, or a loose trowsers in the Malabar : he wore a high
four-cornered cap of a particular form, and ornamented with tassels. The Bat-
wadend nilame was the king's caterer ; he had under him two Madapparalles and
many Piaharalles. The business of the former was to dress the royal table and
arrange the dishes: the latter were master-cooks, who presided in the royal
kitchen. The king's table was covered with a white cloth, and furnished with a
service of gold plate. When all was prepared, the table was brought before his
Majesty, sitting with a white carpet under his feet, and a white canopy over his
head. The batwadene nilame, using knives and forks and spoons, helped the king,
who ate with his fingers off a fresh plantain leaf that was laid on a gold plate.
His principal aliment was different kinds of curries ; his drink, water, and the liquor
of the cocoa-nut. He always dined alone, except on special occasions, when he
admitted, as a great mark of his favour and affection, a favourite queen to execute
the office of the batwadene nilame, who was then dismissed, and no one else allowed
to be present.
The Panivida-karoona nilame had the preparation of betel, and setting it before
the king. The ingredients of the royal betel, independent of the leaf which gave
name to the whole, were, the areka nut in four states, dried whole, dried in
slices, fresh, and macerated in water ; chunam or lime ; mandandoo, which is a
mixture of the buds and roots of an aromatic plant ; cardamums ; camphor ; kypoo,
which is an astringent exactly resembling catechu ; katchoondam, a compound
of different perfumes ; and extract of liquorice. The king never masticated all
these at once, but used them variously compounded according to his fancy.
The Baitge mohandiram nilame was at the head of the king's physicians, about
fifty in number, and had the charge of the medical stores, to which forty assistants
were added for the purpose of collecting medicinal plants, and making medicinal
preparations under the prescription of the physicians. Some of the physicians
attended particularly to one disease, and some to another : thus, some to diseases
of the eye, some to the treatment of boils, and some to the removal of charms.
There was no distinction among them of surgeon and physician. Some received
their education at Kandy, and were taught the art by the Baitge mohandiram ;
others were taught in the country, and having acquired reputation for learning
and skill, were summoned to the capital. It was only the mohandiram nilame and
the most respectable of the physicians, who were permitted to have a personal
interview with the king in cases where their advice was required, and it was only
in cases of great emergency that any of them were admitted to see the queens ; in
general they had to prescribe for the disease as described to them. If they suc
ceeded, they were rewarded by a gratuity ; but if they failed, they had none.
The two Koonam-madoowa lekam mahatmeyas were the superintendents of the
king's palanquin, and were required to be constantly at their post. Ten Satambis
were appointed under them who did duty alternately, two at a time. The bearers
of the royal palanquin, consisting of three or four hundred families, were under
their immediate orders.
The Soodalia mohandiram nilame and Mauroowalia mohandiram nilame, each
commanded a class of fencers ; one called Soodalia, and the other Mauroowalia,
terms applied to the people generally, the whole country having been formerly
divided between the two parties. The champions on one side or party were
always opposed to those of the other ; their engagements were single ombats,
either with the fist, or with sword and shield, or with clubs. Formerly 1hey
exhibited before the court like gladiators, endeavouring to draw blood and inflict
wounds. The bloody combat was at length discontinued, as it gave rise to serious
quarrels and feuds among the people. Of each set of fencers there were ten
3 E

786 appendix.
maitres d' amies in different parts of the country to instruct all who were desirous
to learn their art.
The Naitoom-elangame mohandiram nilame had the superintendence of the
king's company of dancers, who, according to the Malabar fashion, were women.
It being distasteful, from its indelicacy, in the opinion of the natives, they were
seldom employed at court.
The Kawiekara-madoowa mohandiram nilame had the direction of the king's
company of singers. The late king was fond of music, and his band frequently
performed before him, playing on certain instruments simultaneously with vocali
zation. The Wahala-elangame mohandiram nilame had the command of about thirty
men, performers of different kinds, some accomplished in slight-of-hand tricks,
some in vaulting, some in walking on sticks, and others in dancing, &c.
The Tamboroo-purampeetoo-kara mohandiram nilame commanded the king's
drummers and trumpeters; hence it may be inferred that both the instruments
from which it was derived were borrowed from the Portuguese.
The Sinharack-kara mohandiram nilame had charge of a company of tom-tom
beaters, formed by the late king for his own use ; it was their duty to heat these
discordant instruments at the palace at eight intervals during the day.
All these officers, who received their appointments from the king, were privi
leged to enter the hall of audience and appear before the throne. In no court
perhaps was there ever a greater display of barbarous pomp than in the Kandian,
or greater adulation paid to a monarch, or more rigorous attention to unmeaning
etiquette.

VII.
TENURE OF LANDS, &c.
The tenure of land in Ceylon was perfectly feudal under the native dynasty.
All the land belonged to the king by law, as the descendant of the first king who
conquered the island, and expelled the demons, by whom he found it inhabited ;
and where it had all been granted, or was still occasionally granted by him to
certain castes or families, it was under the imposition either of personal services
to be performed, or of certain shares of the produce, or it was granted to indivi
duals for one life, subject to the will of the crown, or as a compensation for exe
cuting the duties of certain public offices, and, consequently, held only as long as
the individual held those offices. The power of the chiefs was, therefore, greatly
circumscribed, and it was only by antagonistic influences, such as the imbecility
of the supreme power, that the all-controlling influence, naturally in the hands of
the lord and disposer of the soil, was in any degree modified. The chain of duties
and services thus established, bound every class and every individual, from the
highest to the lowest rank, and was a great moving machine, applied to enforce
the civil and judicial administration of government, to regulate the pursuits of
agriculture, or to carry on an offensive and defensive war; and though resembling
in some measure the duties and services established by the feudal law in Europe,
differ, in that the latter were introduced with a view to check and keep within
proper boundaries the power of barons, who were nevertheless actual lords of the
soil, and held in servitude the population attached to that soil, while in the former
the sole right to the land was centred in the king or lord paramount ; from
which it must be evident that the real foundation of the two systems (the one
being an allodial, the other a feudal tenure) was essentially different, and in like
.manner also their effects. These facts will serve as a key to the otherwise inexpli-
cable endurance with which the natives groaned under the oppressive rule of
some of their monarchs, and though satisfied of obtaining freedom from the
galling chain by espousing the cause of the European invader, invariably kept aloof
from his standard.

appendix. 787
All lands in the Singhalese provinces were distinguished by some peculiar deno
mination, indicating whether they still remained under the immediate occupancy
of Government, or whether, and upon what conditions they had been granted to
the inhabitants, and the nature of the tenure under which they held it. The
variety of these tenures was great. In the first class were all those lands
which had not been alienated by Government for a life, or during the performance
of certein services, or granted in fee-simple and made inheritable upon condition
of merely paying a certain share of the produce to Government, but had been im
mediately retained by it.
1st, Moottettoo-lands, of which the Government haB retained possession, and
which continue to be cultivated on its account, and the rice produced in them
was reserved for the use of the king and his household. 2ndly, Ratneinde-lands,
also unalienated by Government and still cultivated on its account. 3rdly, Rat-
mahai-a Government lands cultivated or capable of cultivation. Sometimes these
lands were waste tracts of jungle, which the natives took possession of, cleared
and cultivated without previously asking Government leave : in that case those
lands were subject to the payment of one-half of the produce, which was generally
of dry grain of inferior quality. When these lands were granted by Government
for cultivation, the conditions naturally depended on the agreement made between
the parties at the time. In general, they were, that the holder should enjoy the
revenue for the first five years without paying any tax to Government, and at the
expiration of that period, should pay, if on high soil, one-tenth, and if on low soil,
one-fourth of the produce to Government. Other lands similar to these were
called Chenas, and were generally elevated spots of land covered with low jung-le.
The natives, with or without leave of Government, set fire to the jungles, worked
the ground in a very superficial manner after fencing it in, and sowed it with dry
grains, and after collecting the first year's crop, abandoned it again for eight or
ten years, until the jungle grew again so as to make the ashes a sufficient manure
to yield another crop. If worked without the consent of Government, it was sub
ject to the payment of one-half of the produce; if with it, it then payed according
to agreement. The cultivator had, however, no actual or even qualified right of
possession, unless leave of occupation had been solicited of the king through one
of his ministers. That obtained, a security or title was given by the king under
the name of a sanus* or deed of gift. This instrument was generally of copper,
occasionally of silver gilt, and some were of stone, on which the royal signature,
such as " Sree" was inscribed. The land thus granted, could be sold or given
away by the occupier without asking permission, except he wished to make a
present of it to a wihare, when it was usual to petition the king in the following
manner : " I am desirous of making this present to the wihare for my good, and
* Here is the exordium of a sannas granted by King Kirti-Sri : " Our Buddha
who acquired Nil-wane, who came into the world like other Buddhas ; from whom
is derived the food of life (religion), who is celebrated for his thirty-two great manly
beauties, and for the eighty-two signs connected with them, and for the light
which shines a fathom round his body, and for the beams of light that dart from
the top of his head ; who is the preceptor of three worlds, and acquainted with
the past, present, and future ; who during- four asankeas of kalpes so conducted
himself as to be an example of the thirty great qualities ; who subdued Mareya
and his attendants ; in the eighth year from thence rose into the air, spread
beams of light of six different colours round his person, and stamped the impres
sion of his foot, bearing the noble marks Chakkra-laksana, and the one hundred
and eight auspicious tokens, on the rock Samanta-koota-parwatia ; which is cele
brated for the cold and lovely waters of its rivers, for its mountain torrents and
its flowery groves, spreading in the air their sweet-scented pollen, which is the
crown of the virgin island, rich in mines of all precious stones, like a maid decked
with jewels, &c. &c." 3 E 2

7-88 APPENDIX.
I pray your Majesty will permit me, as it is equally for yours." The necessity of
this request arose from the fact, that land granted to a temple was lost to the king,
temple lands paying no dues. If the original cultivator died intestate, or was
guilty of rebellion, the land returned to the king, who could dispose of it in three
different ways ; he might give it to a wihare, when it would he exempt from all
dues and services ; or he might bestow it on a favourite or a deserving officer as a
reward to be held at the royal pleasure, exempt from duties ; or he might give
the land to an indifferent person without any exemption. 4thly, Mallapalla, land
that was formerly granted under a tenure subject to personal services to Govern
ment, and which reverted to it from failure of male issue to perform those services.
5thly, Nellipalla, land granted under the same tenure as the former, and also
reverting to. Government in consequence of the failure of holders to perform the
services under which they were bound by that tenure. When cultivated, both
kinds paid one-half of the produce.
The second class consisted of lands alienated by the sovereign ; the possession
of which had been granted to families, and made saleable or heritable by male or
females ; the produce of such lands being subject to the payment of a share to
Government. 1st, Parveny,the general denomination of all lands ceded by the sovereign.
Sometimes these lands were acquired by purchase, at other times by gift.
These lands were frequently granted originally under service tenure ; but these
services having been neglected, and yet possession kept of the land, the right
to it became confirmed by prescription, which, under the Singhalese law,
required three full generations ; under the Dutch it was restricted to thirty
years, and by the British Government to ten. When this land consisted of
gardens or plantations of trees, it paid nothing to Government ; when of rice
fields, it was divided into two heads, viz. Otto-Parveny, heritable and saleable
land, held in fee-simple, and paying to Government one-tenth of the produce ;
or Anda Parveny — land of the same description, but paying one-half instead
of one-tenth.
Otto Kombra ParveBy, Owitte Parveny, and Kanoys Parveny, were lands of
the same kind as the above, held in some parts of the Chilaw district in fee-
simple, under the condition of paying one-fifth of their produce to Government.
Karwoodeny Parveny, lands similarly held, but paying one-fifth of the pro
duce, and distinguished by a different name, from being covered with low
jungle, and impregnated with salt water.
The third, aud last class, was composed, first of the lands granted in accom-
modcsans, namely, under the tenure of personal service ; in compensation of
the services which certain individuals were bound to perform for Government.
These lands were inalienable by the holder, either by will, sale, or mortgage,
and the possession was not transferable by inheritance, but the land reverted to
Government when the person to whom the accommodesan was granted died, or
was removed from his office. Under the native Princes, and the Portuguese and
the Dutch Governments, almost every native officer, high or low, was paid by
similar grants of land in accommodesans, by which title they held them without
paying any share of their produce to Government ; and in several districts or
villages, where Government bad no lands to grant under that tenure to native
officers, it resigned to them part of the share to which Government was entitled
upon the produce of the other fields belonging to that village or district.
Secondly, Divil Parveny, or lands granted under personal service tenure, and
also termed Weddawassan, or service land. The possession of these lands was
granted sometimes to certain castes, at other times to families, free of paying
any tax to the sovereign, but binding the occupant to perform certain personal
services in return for that grant. These lands, on the non-fulfilment of the
imposed service, or in default of male issue, to perform these services, returned
to Government, and became Mallapalla, or Nellipalla. The Weddawassan and
Divil Parveny could not be made liable to seizure for payment of the debts of

APPENDIX. 789
the occupant, and at bis death reverted undivided to the male heir. In this
manner the Singhalese civil and military service was paid, and was therefore
no pecuniary charge to Government.
A regulated number of public servants were summoned out of each rank at
a time, and they were relieved from that service at the expiration of fifteen
days, when others were called for. These public servants, moreover, were not
bound to personal attendance in any korle or province but their own, unless
paid for it. The people employed in hunting elephants were obliged to serve in
different korles without salary.
The tenure of land iu the northern province, inhabited by Malabars, was
totally different and much more simple. The Government share on paddy
fields was invariably one-tenth of the gross produce. Although tbe right of
the sovereign upon the soil was equally acknowledged in these provinces, it was
less positively so. It is related, that the kings of Kandy, after subjugating the
Malabar Princes, distributed their land among the chiefs who had followed,
and whose families fixed themselves in the lands they had thus acquired;
many of them, however, were afterwards dispossessed of them, either for mis
conduct, or through the intrigues and private views of the Adigaars and Dissaves,
and they were granted to others, who offered a better remuneration.

VIII.
ABRIDGED ACCOUNT OF KNOX'S CAPTIVITY IN CEYLON,
AND HIS ULTIMATE ESCAPE.
In 1657, the Anne frigate, of London, Captain Robert Knox, left
England for Fort St. George, in the service of the East India Company,
to trade from port to port in India. While lading for their return to
England, a violent hurricane forced them, while lying in the roads of
Masulipatam, to cut away their mainmast, which so disabled the ship,
that she could not proceed, and she was ordered to make for the bay of
Kotti-aar in Ceylon, and there to trade until she had refitted. At first
they were shy of the natives, as the English had not yet opened a trade
with them, but being unmolested, and even welcomed by the local chief,
they at length laid aside suspicion. At length, the king of Kandy heard
of their arrival, and as the captain had not, through ignorance of the
Singhalese customs, sent to apprize him of the object of his arrival, he
despatched a dissave with a small force, who sent to the captain to come
on shore, intimating that he had a letter from the king. His request
was complied with, when he asked the party sent, who they were, and
how long they should stay ? They replied, that they were English,
should not stay longer than thirty days, and asked leave to trade. He
replied, that the king was glad that the English had come into his
country, had directed him to assist them, and had sent a letter to be
delivered to none but the captain himself. As they were twelve miles
from the ship, they told him the captain could not come so far, but if he
would accompany them to the ship, the captain would there wait upon
him, and receive the letter, to which the dissave agreed. The same day
the dissave sent to say that he was sending a present to the captain,
and if they wished to send a letter, they could do so. This raised their
suspicions, and in their letter they advised the captain to let none come
on shore, until he saw them. This letter was not delivered. The next

790

APPENDIX.

morning, the present, consisting of cattle, fruit, &c, was brought to the
sea side, and delivered to the captain, who was invited on shore, and told
that the dissave was coming.
The captain, mistrusting nothing, came up in his boat with seven of
the men, and sat down under a tamarind tree till he should arrive. On
a sudden he was surrounded and seized by a party of soldiers, who
carried him without violence before the dissave on their shoulders. The
next day, the crew of the long boat who had come on shore to cut
timber for the mainmast were also seized, and on resisting, were bound
with withs. Ropes were afterwards brought out, at which the men
were greatly terrified, supposing they were about to be hung, but they
were only used for securing them better, and were loosened when they
became more quiet, and had got further up the country. The parties
were not allowed to communicate with each other. The house wherein
the captain was confined was hung with white calico, as a mark of
respect, and all had as good food provided as the country afforded. The
boats and a part of the crew being secured, their next aim was to
secure the ship; the dissave therefore informed the captain, that they
were detained, that the king might send letters and a present to the
English nation by him, and that the ship must not sail till the king
was ready, and requested the captain to send and order her up the river,
lest the Dutch should fire her in the bay. Concealing his dislike, the
captain replied, " that unless he could" send two of his men on board
with orders, the crew would not obey him, but would quickly sail
away." At length the dissave consented, and the . captain sent two of
his men, the natives carrying them in a canoe to the ship ; these he
ordered the crew to treat kindly, and set on shore, keeping the canoe,
and to secure the ship till further orders.
The men remaining, and the ship not coming up, the dissave angrily
demanded the reason. The captain replied, "that being detained on
shore, the men on board would not obey his command." On hearing
this, he bade him send his son with the same orders, he being security
for his return. The captain ordered Robert to see the guns shotted, and
to tell the crew, that, as they valued their lives, they should keep
watch, and suffer noboat to come near after dark, andcharged him, as he
should answer it at the g-reat day, to return, and not leave him in that •
condition, which he solemnly promised to do. Having drawn up a
letter to clear his father, stating on the part of the crew, " that they
would not obey the captain, but were resolved to stand upon their own
defence," he returned and delivered it to the dissave, who ceased to urge
the point, and gave him leave to send for what he pleased out of the
ship, stating that the king's order for his release would soon come.
Fearing that he had nothing before him but a sad captivity, the captain
ordered the ship's departure, of which the king hearing, recalled the
dissave. The captives were now carried higher up the country ; and
hence was a plan which they had formed of seizing a Moorish vessel
which lay in the river (which had been captured in the same manner
as their vessel would have been but for the firmness of Knox), and
making their escape, frustrated. In their new quarters they were
as well treated as before ; indeed the people on the coast, who, from their
former subjection to the Portuguese, had imbibed European manners,
were courteous and pitiful, and their behaviour contrasted strongly
With that of the highlanders, who were rude and insolent in comparison.

APPENDIX. 791
At length their condition altered for the worse, in consequence of an
order for their separation into different villages, Knox and his father
being made the only exception. Before parting, the united party supped
together. Their escort conveyed their clothes, and behaved kindly,
desiring them to proceed at what rate they pleased, and took care that
they should be plundered of nothing. The road lay through forests,
so that for four or five nights, they reposed under the shade of trees.
Their food was dried flesh, salt fish, and rice, besides venison, and honey
from the trees. On reaching the inhabited part of the country, they
got boiled rice, flesh and every kind of fruit. Though they were
billeted upon the people, yet the novelty of their appearance, and their
manner of eating, prepossessed them in their favour.
In September, 1660, Knox was placed in a village about thirty miles
to the north of Kandy, to wait the king's summons. The choice of a
hut being offered them, they selected one roofed, but unwalled, the
others being dark and dirty, wherein were placed a sort of bedstead,
with a mat upon it for the father, and a mat upon the ground for the
son. They were now scarce of money, for though they could have
procured a supply from the ship at first, they refrained, conceiving that
it would be appropriated by their captors. Their food was supplied as
regularly as could be expected, considering that the prevalence of ague
and jungle fever rendered the people frequently unable to bring it. At
length the fever extended to them, and the father grew worse, in his
grief that he had induced his son to return, contrasting his younger
days spent amidst dangers he had escaped, with his latter days spent in
hopeless captivity. A black servant, whom they had brought from
Porto Nova, seeing moreover their helpless state, obeyed their com
mands as he pleased. The elder Knox, reduced to a skeleton by
abstinence from food, at length died, after blessing his son, and giving
directions respecting his affairs and his burial. Though himself weak
and sick, Knox wrapped up his corpse ready for burial, and asked the
assistance of the natives to carry him to the grave ; they sent him back
a great rope, used for tieing their cattle, that he might drag it into the
woods, saying, "they could not further help him, unless he would pay
for it." This insolence sadly dispirited him, as he had nothing to dig a
grave with, and the ground was dry and hard. At length he procured
assistance, and performed the sad offices of sepulture. The news of
his father's death being carried to the court, messengers were sent to
inquire into the cause, and as to what he had left behind, but not with
a view to its seizure, and to direct that he should have the best food
that could be provided, lest he should also be carried off.
In this manner he spent several months with his black attendant,
with nothing to divert his mind but some books he had brought with
him. His ague having left him at the end of sixteen months, for a
change of diet he amused himself with angling for small fish in the
brooks. While thus engaged, an old man passed by and questioned
the boy as to his master's ability to read. Being answered in the
affirmative, the old man intimated that he had got a book, when the
Portuguese left Colombo, which he would sell, if his master pleased.
Knox despatched the boy with the old man, supposing it was some
Portuguese book, and was startled in no slight degree, when the boy
ran up to him, and cried that it was a Bible" Flinging down his rod in
his joy, he took and opened it, when his eyes fell on the 30th and 31st

7&2 APPENDIX.
verses of the 16th chapter of Acts, so remarkably applicable to his own
case. He now feared lest the owner should ask more than he could pay,
and in his joy was about to proffer all he had, but was stopped by his boy,
who offered to procure it at a small price, if he would only seem to sligfit
it in the eyes of the old man, and it was eventually obtained in exchange
for a knitted cap. Knox was soon after permitted to communicate with
the other captives, who had been placed in different villages to the
westward of Kandy, and had been billeted upon the inhabitants, and
though the guards were at first watchful, yet in time they allowed them
to stay two or three days with one another.
They were now astonished that they had never been called upon to
labour, and had been kept only to eat, but the king's order was to feed
them well, and look after them till he should send for them. They soon
therefore began to think themselves privileged, and the natives their
servants, and would no longer be content with their former food, but
would throw the vessels in which it was brought at the heads of the
natives, unless it pleased them, and they bore it patiently. As their
clothes were now almost worn out, they consulted on the best means
to procure native garments, and resolved to put themselves on half
rations, and barter the other half for clothing. Some of them having
learned to knit, the whole party took to that mode of industry, to
supply themselves with clothing, &c, but the supply exceeding the
demand, the trade grew unprofitable. The sailors, however, had now
regained their spirits, and where they did not receive the full allowance
of food, would enter the houses, and carry off what goods they found,
until the people came to redeem them with the full quota of provisions.
On another occasion, one of them went to buy pots of a potter, and
not meeting with them at his own price, became abusive, and was
roughly handled, on which he made complaint before a magistrate, as
being a person belonging to the king. The result was, that the potter was
condemned to be bound, and the Englishman told to go and beat him in
full satisfaction, and the pots were given up to him without payment.
Again, at a feast, when they wanted more wine, and sent money to
procure it, a native refused to sell, upon which they went with clubs
to take it by force, when the natives set on them, and beat them. But
the English fought so stoutly as to break several natives' heads, and
the latter went in a body before the magistrate to complain. He asked if
they had ever sold them wine before ; they replied, yes. He then asked
why they refused to sell it on this occasion : that they were rightly
served, and laughed at them.
By this time, Knox had learnt a little of Singhalese, which enabled
him to converse with the natives, and intimate that he would prefer his
food raw, to obtain a double quantity as the others. After many pro
tests on the part of the natives, who reminded him that it was not
seemly, that he as an officer should take the duties of a menial, and
that he would be shortly sent for by the king, and promoted to some
place of honour, he, after much ado, obtained his request, and was thus
enabled to provide himself with native clothiDg. fie now bethought
himself of increasing his house room, and having selected a pleasant
site in one of the king's cocoa-nut gardens, built himself, by the help of
the natives, a suitable residence, the walls of which, in ignorance of the
Singhalese law, he whitened with lime ; in doing this he committed a
capital offence, the use of this wash being forbidden to all but royal

APPENDIX. 793
houses and temples. But being a stranger, no notice was taken of it.
He now began to keep hogs and hens, which thrived well ; the cocoa-
nuts in his garden also afforded him oil for lamps, and for frying his
meat in, and the caps which he learnt to knit, supplied him with all other
necessaries. In this manner they lived, seeing very little hopes of
release. Some of the party had attempted to escape before they knew
which way to go, and were taken by the inhabitants, who suspected all
whites they met travelling in the country to be runaways, and, unless
they could give a satisfactory answer, would carry them back, where
they would be kept prisoners under guard, perhaps for their lives, with
out any other allowance of food than that they could obtain by begging.
The captors were no gainers by their zeal, for they were often appointed
to feed and watch them until the king called for them, when he
promised to reward them. But this promise was never kept, being
never again thought of, while they were little less prisoners than those
they had captured, as they dared not go home without leave. After
some years' stay, they endeavoured, by givingthe dissave of the district
a fee, to obtain leave of absence, and this was their sole reward.
Besides Knox and his crew, another party of English had been
taken captive in landing from their boats for refreshment and to buy
provisions, their vessel having been lost on one of the Maldives. The
Singhalese plundered them of every thing but their clothes, and when
they were carried before the king, he demanded whether the English
were at war with the Dutch, and if they could beat them. They
replied, yes, and had done it lately; on which the king ordered them
all some clothes, and selected two young men for his own service. This
party was lodged in the city of Kandy, and their food was dressed
and brought them twice a day from the palace. This reception led
them to look forward to their liberation : they therefore questioned an
old Portuguese priest on the point, mentioning how they had been
treated. But he told them the plain truth, which was, that it was not
customary to release white men. At this they were offended, and began
abusing him as a Papist and Jesuit, thinking that his predictions
accorded with his wishes. Their provisions were good considering
the country, but they thought otherwise, and contrary to the king's
order ; and that he might perceive how they were used, each man took
the limb of a fowl in his hand, and marched through the streets with it
to the court, as a proof to the courtiers of their ill fare, thinking the
king on hearing through them of their treatment, might order better
rations for the future. But this proved sport to the nobles, who,
knowing the country diet, laughed at their ignorance for complaining
where they had so little cause, and in fact the men themselves were
ashamed of their proceedings, when they came to understand the
country. As they were unaccustomed to so little flesh, and had no
money to buy more, they resolved to slaughter some of the native cows,
but doubting whether it would be right to take them without leave,
they applied again to the priest, who gave them a dispensation, and
told them, "that as the Singhalese were their enemies, and had taken
their bodies, it was lawful for them to satisfy their bodies with their
goods;" and to illustrate this logic, bade them bring him some, that he
might partake with them. On another occasion, a similar incident
occurred The party in question were located in a house that had formerly
belonged to a nobleman, whom the king had cut off, and escheated his

794 APPENDIX.
property. In his grounds stood a jack tree full of fruit. Such was the
absolute power of the king, that his servants could enter any man's
grounds, and gather any quantity for the use of his elephants. Some
natives entering on this errand, and beginning to pluck the fruit, were
stopped and turned out of the garden, though there were a great many
more than the party required. The officers overlooked the offence, but
the party were shortly after removed to a house and garden without
trees, and thus, because they would not allow the king a few, they lost
all. The two young men who had heen taken to court, soon became such
favourites, as to be kept always in the king's presence, and he would
often affably converse with them respecting their king and country.
One of these, in his anxiety to hear from home, obtained a secret
audience with the Dutch ambassador, of which the king became
informed, and ordered him to be watched and caught in the act.
This being done, the king was very angry ; for he permitted no one
to hold intercourse with the ambassadors at his court, much less those
residing in the palace. Had a native transgressed this rule, he would
have been impaled, but the young man in question was banished to the
mountains, where he was well treated, and married a native woman.
Shortly after, in gathering a jack from a tree with a crook, it fell down
on his side, and bruised him so severely, as to cause his death. The
other youth yet remained in favour, and was promoted over all the
native servants in the palace. At last, having broken one of the king's
china dishes, he became so alarmed, that he fled for refuge to a
wihare. This greatly incensed the king, who was annoyed at his
supposing that the priests could secure him against his displeasure.
However, he did not violently drag him from thence, but sent and bade
him not be alarmed for so small a matter, but return and act in his
place as before. Obeying the summons, he was immediately laid hold
of, and his arms being tightly bound above the elbows behind, swelled
alarmingly, and the cords cut through the flesh into the bones. Next
day the king ordered the ropes to be loosened from his arms, and chains
being put on his legs, that he should be kept in one of his noble's houses,
and there fed and cured. At the end of six months he was cured, but
no strength was left in his arms. He was now again taken into favour,
and resumed his former office, and the king often pitied his folly in
having thus caused his own ruin. Not long after he again offended
the king. A Portuguese had been sent for to Kandy, to be taken into
the king's service. Wishing to avoid it, he wrote to the young English
man, and entreated him to use his interest in his behalf. Being
ignorant of Portuguese, the latter handed it to another to read, who,
on learning the contents, thought it best to keep out of the affair, and
concealed the letter. On subsequently informing the king thereof, the
Portuguese, Englishman, and himself, because lie had not informed
before, were all three seized and torn to pieces by elephants. After this
occurrence, the king-, supposing that the English would become dis
contented or ill treated by the natives, sent special injunctions that they
should be of good cheer, and not be discouraged. Thus jealous was the
king of letters. When, therefore, the captain of the wreck before
spoken of, received some letters, and learnt that it was known, he
judged it best to go to court and present them himself. Presenting- the
letters, which he professed to have received long ago, he observed,

APPENDIX. 795
" that when he received them he was ignorant of its illegality, and as
soon as he had learnt his error, he consulted a Portuguese priest of
experience, who advised him to defer carrying them to the king, until
a more convenient opportunity arose. On his attempting to bring them
afterwards, he was prevented by the guards, and that was his first
chance." The king on hearing this, was not displeased, but bade him
read them in English, and listened attentively, as though he understood
every word. At the conclusion, the king handed him a letter from the
Agent at Fort St. George that he had intercepted, and asked him as to
the contents, which related to the victory gained by the English over
the Dutch, when Obdam, Admiral of Holland, was slain. The num
ber of English ships being mentioned at 150, the king inquired as to the
number ot guns and men they carried. The Englishman computed
the number of men, whereupon the king demanded the total, which he
was about to cast up on the sand with his finger, when the king
anticipated him by naming it.
This defeat of the Dutch pleased the king, who was particular in his
inquiries about it, and pretended that he would send a letter to Fort St.
George, requesting the Englishman to inform him of a trusty bearer.
This he did, but he was objected to by one of the nobles, who asked him
if he knew of no other, at which, suspecting their design, which was to
learn who had brought his letters to him, he answered them accord
ingly. On leaving, the king privately told him he would send him
home secretly, or otherwise he would dismiss him with drums and
honour, But he never kept his word, and the messenger he had
named was sent a prisoner into the country and kept in chains, under
the belief that he had brought the letters. In 1664, the Governor of
Fort St. George, and the Dutch ambasasador, treated for the release of
the captives, and the king again promised to send them away, and
commanded (hem all to be brought to Kandy, where the two parties
met, and were overjoyed for a time at the prospect of a speedy release.
A few days after their arrival they were summoned to court, and the
nobles, by the king's order, informed them that it was his Majesty's
pleasure to grant them their liberty, and to send them home to their
country, either with the Dutch ambassador, or in the boat Sir E. Winter
had sent, at which they bowed and thanked his Majesty. Knox pre
ferred going with the Dutch ambassador, fearing the boat's insufficiency,
and the excuses for delay that might hence be made, The nobles here
offered very great rewards, in the shape of lands, money, slaves, and
honours to all who would stay and serve his Majesty, but all refused.
They were then ordered to depart, till they had carried their answer
to the king. When they returned, the same offers were again made
and refused, and each man was interrogated as to his trade, handicrafts
men and trumpeters being most desired by the king. They had now
to wait at the palace gate daily, an order having been given that they
should personally appear before his Majesty.
Meanwhile happened a general rebellion of the people, who assaulted
the palace in the night, but their courage failing them, they stopped
short at the royal apartments, in which the king remained till day
break, and fleeing to the mountains, escaped out of their hands. The
captives were now in danger ; for the natives, thinking they might
oppose their designs, had resolved on cutting them off, but being
reminded that the king might hear the noise thereby occasioned, and

796

APPENDIX.

their designs be thereby frustrated, they determined, as they were
ignorant of what had transpired, and were quiet in their apartments, not
to harm them. The people of the city having followed the king, and aban
doned their houses and property, the English were permitted to ransack
the houses, and select what plunder they might find. They were now
carried away by the insurgents, who endeavoured to cheer them by
intimating that the king's ill government in detaining foreigners, dis
couraging trade, and his cruelty to his subjects, were the causes of the
insurrection, and that having been informed that it was contrary to the
custom of other countries thus to act, they assured them as soon as
matters were settled, they should be no longer detained. On Christ
mas day, the English were summoned to the palace at Kandy, and
money and clothes presented to them, with a view to enlisting them
into the service of the insurgents, who designed to follow in pursuit of
the king. But the flight of the prince, their captive, so amazed and
discouraged them, that the gifts were scattered about the court, and the
whole body took to their heels, some of them slaying each other to
make it appear that they had either remained loyal, or were making
amends for having joined the rebellion. Knox and party seized the
opportunity of collecting the money thus scattered, as their provisions
had of late been neglected by the natives, and provided themselves with
necessaries. They were, however, alarmed lest the king might hear of
their proceedings, and retired to their lodgings. Shortly after they
were summoned by a noble (who had drawn out his men and proclaimed
his adhesion to the old king) to aid him in seizing the rebels, who hav
ing escaped, they returned to the city, and were dismissed with a pro
mise from the leader that he would acquaint the king how ready they
were to fight for him, if there had been occasion. Accordingly, when
the king heard of what they had received from the rebels, this antidote
was also mentioned, on hearing which he was satisfied, and said, " Since
my absence they have been without food, and have been driven to take
what they did from want." The tumult being appeased, the king reco
vered his authority. And all this transpired in five days. They were
now distressed for food, requiring fresh orders from the king, and were
obliged to have recourse to begging. At length the king heard of their
distress, and ordered them to be billeted in the country as before, but
said nothing about sending them away as he had promised. They
were now placed one in a town, as before, and were better off than they
had ever been, from their knowledge of the manners and customs of the
people. They resumed also their former employments, and were suffered
to wander about, but not to approach the coast. The suspicions of the
natives as to their escape had now abated, many of the English having
married Singhalese women, by whom they had families.
Quartered to the west of Kandy, and nearer the sea than before,
Knox cherished a hope of escape, and to avert the suspicions of the
people, who, as a stranger, watched all his movements, he built himself
a hut on the bank of a river, and commenced going about the country
as a pedlar, Knowing that he was his own cook, the natives earnestly
advised him to marry, saying, it would be a help to him, and that it was
not suitable for a young" man to live alone in a house, and if the king
should send him hereafter to his own country, their manner of marriage
would allow his leaving his wife. Knox affected to weigh their advice,
and excused himself, under the plea that he would look for one he could

APPENDIX. 797
love, never dreaming of marrying there. Thus passed two years, during
which no opportunity of escape presented itself. In 1666, the Dutch
built a fort on the other side of the ridge of mountains near him, but
though only a few miles off, he could not communicate with them,
watch being kept at every outlet. Some years after the Kandians sur
prised this fort, and carried the garrison prisoners to Kandy : the Dutch
invasion led the king to give orders for the removal of the English to
Kandy Uda, lest they should make their escape. Knox thus saw him
self deprived of his little estate, and all the fruits of his industry sacri
ficed. They were now brought up into a village on the top of a moun
tain, where three of them were placed in one house, the other English
despairing of their release, having married native women : on their first
arrival, they were very much dejected, it being a dismal and isolated
place, and one to which the king used to send malefactors designed for
execution. At length, the king, apprehensive that they would become sad at
changing a pleasant country for one so desolate, sent a considerate
message through the headman of the place, and enjoined upon the
people " that they should not deem them malefactors, but men whom
he highly esteemed, and meant to promote to great honour, and that
they should entertain them accordingly: and if their means did not
suffice, it was the king's order that they should sell their cattle and
goods, and even their wives and children, sooner than they should want
their due allowance, and if they had not thatched houses to put them
in, that the English should take theirs." Knox and his party reassured,
now saw the king's motive in placing them there, which was as instru
ments of vengeance on the people, who, being attached to the court
during the late rebellion, had plundered the king's palace in his absence.
The services they had to perform for the king were to carry his palan
quin, and, as keepers of the king's cattle, to bring milk every morning
to the palace. In this village the captives remained three years, several
times repairing to the court to obtain a license of removal, but in vain,
till they were quite weary of the place, and the place and people weary
of them, as they were troublesome guests, from the authority given
them, and required their food good, and to be regularly brought.
Leave having been refused to Knox to visit his old quarters, he resolved
to take it, and hired a guide, whose prisoner he assumed to be, to carry
him through the military posts. On arriving at his former abode, by
pretending that his servant was sent down by the magistrate to see that
his debts were duly paid, he recovered some of them. Being no longer
in dread of the king's command, as he found that it was forgotten in
time, he went to the headman of the district, to inquire whether he
could lawfully purchase a piece of land that was for sale, and being an
swered, after some inquiries as to the owner, that he might act as he
thought fit, he purchased it for five dollars, the writings of his new
property being inscribed on a talapat leaf, and witnessed by seven of
the principal men of the village. This land was about ten miles to the
south of Kandy. He now built a house upon the land, in which he was
assisted by three of his countrymen, and the natives approved of their
proceedings, thinking it would tie them to the country. Knox now
thouo-ht it was time to return to his former quarters on the mountain ;
leaving his comrades in possession of the new abode ; he visited it, but

798

APPENDIX.

soon after returned, and the rest of his companions left that place. He
now commenced planting his little estate with fruit trees, which soon
yielded an abundance for all, Knox having permitted three of his com
panions whom he had found here, to live with him. It was previously
agreed, however, that they should all remain single, to prevent the dis
sension that would be caused by the introduction of women. In this
manner they lived contentedly and amicably for two years, taking it in
turn to keep at home, while the rest went about their business, and occa
sionally visited their other companions who were farther removed. They
could now walk where they pleased among the mountains, as the people,
seeing most of them were married, had laid aside suspicion. At length,
two of Knox's companions grew tired of a single life, and married native
women, as the rest had done. He was, however, as averse as ever to
an union with heathen women, and considered the Singhalese marriages
little better than whoredom, the parties not being united by a Christian
priest, nor could the better logic of the others persuade him to the
contrary. Most of the English now betook themselves to the cultivation of rice,
and breeding cattle, others distilled arrack for sale, or traded about the
country, exchanging in one part the commodities of the other. One of
Knox's countrymen having been assaulted by a native, the whole body
went to court to complain and demand satisfaction from the adigaar.
The offender, finding that it might go hard with him, bribed the judge,
but so pertinaciously did the English follow up the complaint, that he
was imprisoned, and was not released till he had again bribed the judge .
The king now took one of the English into his service, giving him the
command of 1,000 men, and the direction of his artillery, besides the
defence of several villages. This man was one of the few Europeans
who ever died a natural death in the Kandian service. The Dutch
having erected a small fort in the Kandian country, the king sent a
native force to dispossess them. Finding that they could make no im
pression, he invited the foreigners to enter his service, and invest it,
promising them ample rewards. About thirty Portuguese, English,
and Dutch renegades were enrolled, but before they had arrived, the
fort had yielded. The king, remembering that they had received his
gifts without having encountered his enemies, kept them for several
years at his gate without any pay or allowance, and it was only by
handing over the original gifts to others to take their place, that they
finally escaped.
The breeding of goats, hens, and hogs, &c. now furnished Knox with
every necessary the country afforded. He had now brought his house
and grounds to such perfection, that few noblemen's seats in the land
excelled it, having fenced it in with thorn gates in the usual native
mode, and built himself an open bungalow for enjoying the air. He
was already the envy of his neighbours, who continually resorted to
him to beg or borrow, and confessed that God had been more bountiful
to him as a stranger, than to themselves. Having discovered that ad
vances of corn, for the native seed time, was a profitable speculation,
and an easy way of living, Knox embarked in the trade. The trouble
of collecting the debt was commensurate to the profit ; for unless the
creditor watched when his debtor's field was ripe, and claimed his due
in time, other creditors would step in and clear the land. In this man-

APPENDIX. 799
ner many were left without payment at all till the next year, when
the debt was doubled. On the whole, however, the return was
remunerative. The people among whom Knox and his friends had been quartered
in the mountains had hitherto continued his allowance, but finding that
he prospered above themselves, they refused to send it any longer.
Knox, therefore, went to the court and appealed to the adigaar, who
ordered him to come monthly to the king's palace, and receive his
allowance out of the king's stores. His frequent appearance at court
caused him to be noticed by the courtiers, who wondered that he had
not been taken into the king's service, as he appeared capable. They
assured him that henceforward he would fare well, for the king should
be apprised of his merits. On hearing this, Knox resolved to forsake
the court and give up his allowance, as he dreaded nothing so much as
the service in question. Soon after, a soldier was despatched to him by
the adigaar, with an order, that he should immediately hasten to the
court, and appear before the king, and the bearer was authorised, in
case of delay, to call in the assistance of the local officers. On his
arrival, he found that a neighbour and friend, who knew his manner of
life, had recommended him to notice out of good will. Reporting him
self to that chief, he asked him the cause of the summons. He replied,
" Here is good news for you ; you are to appear in the king's presence,
where you will find favour and honourable employment greater than
any of your countrymen have yet enjoyed." Having considered what was
the best reply to make, he reminded him, that his nation had never
done any violence or wrong to his king, either in word or deed. That
the cause of his coming into the island was not like that of other
strangers, who were either enemies taken in war, or by distress were
driven to seek relief from the king's liberality, or had fled from fear of
punishment ; whereas he came to trade, and to give an account to the
dissave of the reason of their putting into Kotti-aar ; that his detention
had made him unhappy, his heart being always absent from his body.
Moreover, that he was unfit for employment from bodily infirmity. He
was then asked, if he could not read nor write English? the king not
requiring manual labour from him . He replied, that having come
ashore when he was young, he had forgotten, through want of practice,
what he then knew. He added, that it was contrary to the custom of
kings to detain men that came into their countries upon peaceable
errands, much less to compel them to serve them beyond their ability.
The smiles with which he first greeted Knox were now exchanged for
frowns, and he told him to go and to tell his tale to the adigaar, which
he did ; but that officer not being at leisure, paid no attention, and Knox
departed as before to his house in the country to procure food, no remu
neration having been allowed for his attendance. He was again sent
for to court, and blamed by his countrymen for refusing the offer that
had been made him. Hearing, on arrival, no more of the matter, he
again returned home, his stock of provisions being exhausted. He now
returned to his former employments, cooking his own food, and fetch
ing both wood and water, but reflecting how helpless he would be
when age should overtake him, he took one of his countrymen's
children to assist him in his employments.
In travelling about the country, he frequently entered into conversa
tion with the people respecting the roads and districts, and the position

800 APPENDIX.
of the watchers, and the commodities in demand in the respective loca
lities. Suspecting nothing, they gave him every information, and he
began to comprehend that the best way of escape was by travelling
northward, where the country was thinly inhabited. Furnishing him
self with such wares as were saleable in those parts, such as tobacco,
pepper, garlic, combs, all sorts of iron wares, they bent their course
thither. They found the tracks intricate and difficult (there being no
highways), some from one village to the other, some into the fields,
others into the woods, with which the country so much abounded, that
a man could only see just before him. The change in the direction of
these paths, and their abandonment to the jungle after the crop had
heen taken off, increased the difficulty, while it was dangerous to inquire
the way, lest they should be suspected of intending an escape. Guides
were generally engaged by the Singhalese of other districts to conduct
them. At length, having surmounted all difficulties, they reached the
district of Newarakalawa. Their wares being sold, they could not pro
ceed further, nor devise excuses. They were afraid, also, lest their
neighbours, perceiving their long absence, should give the alarm. In
this manner they went into this district eight or ten times, but were
prevented from reaching the coast by the drought, which compelled
them to drink putrid water : this brought on jungle fever and ague,
which carries off numbers of Singhalese. At length they learnt an an
tidote in the shape of a leaf, which being beaten to powder with
jaggery, intoxicated the brain, and expelled the nauseous effects of the
water. Thus gaming experience by every journey, they got farther and
farther, realisingthe Singhalese proverb, " the beggar and the merchant
are never out of their way-, for the one begs, and the other trades,
wherever he goes." In this district he met with his "black servant,
whom he had parted with years before, and who had now a wife and
children : he was of great service in conductiug him along the paths,
having lived many years in the vicinity. Perceiving him to be poor,
and unable to maintain his family, Knox offered him a reward to guide
them down to the Dutch, shewing him that he might return again
without its being known. He at once consented to the proposal, but
advised its postponement during the harvest time, as from the number
of people in the fields, it could not be so well contrived as in the two
following months. When the time arrived, and everything was pre
pared for their departure on the next day, Knox was seized with violent
pains, which rendered him unable to move. On his recovery, he was
accompanied by another of the English for greater security, having to
travel in the night through the woods. But though they took him
with them, they did not, as he had a wife, divulge their aim, till they
had proceeded further, lest he should acquaint her with it. Their guide
having absented himself previous to their arrival, they could not carry
out their design on that occasion. For many years the drought which
pervaded the northern province, and prevented the tillage of the ground,
hindered their design, as water could scarcely be procured in the towns,
much less in the woods.
In September, 1679, taking advantage of the full moon, they again
set forth, furnished with such arms as they could safely carry, and with
several sorts of wares to sell as before ; leaving an old man at the house
to look after the goats, &c. Passing through the thinly populated

APPENDIX. 801
country of Neuwarakalawa, and its jungles full of elephants, tigers, and
bears, they made for Anuradhapoora, the last inhabited spot in the
king's dominions, where a watch was always kept. Having heard that
the collectors of the revenue were at that time in the district, they
retired to a more secluded part of the country, lest they should be dis
covered and sent back by them, employing the interval in knitting caps.
As soon as they had departed, they resumed their route, having kept
the greater part of their goods to barter for food, and to serve as a pre
tence. Their way now lay of necessity through the headman's yard, of
the district, whose duty it was to examine all passers. This greatly
alarmed them. First, because he was a stranger and would feel con
vinced that they as prisoners were beyond bounds. There being no
mode of escaping- him, they resolved to put on a bold face, and to appear
as if they had leave to travel where they would. They had brought
knives with fine carved handles, and a red Tunis cap to sell or give him
as occasion required, knowing that they would have to pass by his
house ; and to prevent suspicion, they had sold their wares on the road,
bargaining for payment on their return. Having reached his house,
they went and sat down in the ambulam, to which the headman came,
and sat down by them. Making him a present of tobacco, they shewed
him the wares they had brought, telling him that their expenses were
greater than were met by the king's allowance, and that as dried flesh
was the chief commodity of that district, and they had failed to procure
the articles they were used to carry back, they would be glad to barter
or buy some, promising for the future to bring him any necessaries he
might require. To this he replied, that he was sorry they were come
at such a dry time, when deer could not be caught ; but if rain fell, he
would soon be able to supply them with flesh. In the meantime, he
advised them to go to the villages and see if they could procure any.
This reply satisfied them that he had no suspicions of their design, and
they were glad at the dearth of flesh, which, by obtaining, they would
have had no excuse for proceeding farther.
They were now six miles from Anuradhapoora, from whence it was a
further distance of two days' journey to the country inhabited by the
Malabars. Of these people they were no little afraid, as there was a
correspondence between them and the King of Kandy, and they might
send them back. Wishing to exhibit no symptoms of haste, they
remained at the headman's two or three days, one staying at the
governor's house to knit, while the others went about the towns to seek
for flesh. The ponds in the country being now dry, there was every
where an abundance of fish, which the natives dried over the fire :
these they now offered for sale, but Knox refused them, saying, they
would not bring so great a profit as flesh, which they would wait for.
Meanwhile, the king having quarrelled with and imprisoned some of
his nobles, sent down soldiers to the headman to order him to keep a
strict guard at the watches, that no suspicious or disaffected persons
might pass. The fugitives were greatly alarmed, lest they should be
ordered to return ; but the former departed after the delivery of their
message, and spoke kindly to them. In return, they professed to lament
that they could not return in their good company, for they were neigh
bours. They bade them, however, carry their remembrances to their
countrymen. The next morning they resolved to proceed, packed up
every thing necessary, left the remainder of their goods behind them,
3 F

802

APPENDIX.

giving the headman some gunpowder to shoot deer for them, while they
went on as they told him to Anuradhapoora in quest of flesh. The head
man, if he had indulged any suspicions, could not, after this, retain
them, and they left, before others could arise.
Although they knew not the road, and dared not ask, they passed
through a desolate wood, and came up with the Malwatte-oya, which
it struck them might run into the sea, and serve them if other
routes failed. Anuradhapoora, Knox describes as more of a territory
than a town, being situate in a vast plain, unlike any other in
the island, in the midst of which was an artificial lake, which served
the inhabitants for irrigating their fields. This plain was environed
with woods, and dotted with small towns inhabited by Malabars.
Hearing a cock crow, they advanced to the quarter whence the sound
had issued, and entered one of these places. Sitting under a tree, they
began to cry their wares, for they were afraid of rushing into the
yards, as among the Singhalese, lest they should frighten the people.
The latter were astonished at their appearance, but neither party could
understand each other's language, till one who spoke Singhalese
accosted them, and asked them whence they came? They replied,
from Kandy-Uda. This they disbelieved, supposing they had come
from Manaar. They led them, therefore, before the chief, who again
questioned them through an interpreter, and to test them, asked the
news at court, inquiring who were governors of such and such places,
and what was become of certain noblemen, whom the king had lately
cut off, &c. &c. To all these queries they gave a satisfactory answer,
on which he asked who had given them leave to come down so low.
They replied, the king himself, fifteen years before, who had declared
that they were no longer prisoners. To prove the truth of their state
ments, they reminded him of the distance they had already come, and
their passage through several provinces. The governor was now satis
fied that they were innocent traders, which was confirmed by the fact
that they had brought commodities to dispose of. The people were glad
of their coming, and desired them to stay two or three days, till they
could procure dried flesh for them, which they consented to do, hoping
by that time to learn the position of the watch and the roads. Having
purchased a number of necessaries for the journey, they found that a
watch was placed on the great road leading to Jaffnapatam. Had they
known the spot, their design was to slip away at night, the people being
then afraid to travel, and on coming up to the watch, to slip aside into
the woods, and having passed it, to strike into the road again. But this
project did not appear feasible, as they would have been missed in the
morning and pursued ; nor did their making for the woods and steering
their course by the sun and moon, appear more prudent, as the drought
had dried up the pools. They resolved, therefore, to retrace their steps
to the Malwatte-oya.
Taking their leave of the Governor, who had kindly entertained them,
they told him they were returning back to the headman, to whom they
had given the gunpowder to shoot deer, and doubted not he had by that
time obtained flesh enough for their lading home, on which they retired
with the good wishes of the people. To avoid the discovery of their
route, they remained in the town till it was so late, that they knewnone
would venture to travel afterwards through fear of wild beasts, while, if
pursued, they would have several hours start. The moon was now

APPENDIX. 803
eighteen days old, and they were furnished with every necessary, viz.
ten days' provisions, talapat leaves for tents, deerskins for shoes to
prevent thorns running into their feet, as they travelled through the
woods, and axes and knives to defend themselves against chetahs or
bears. Having reached the river, they now left the road, and struck
into the woods by its side, being careful to tread backwards in any
places where footsteps could be traced. Rain coming on, they pitched
their tents, and prepared themselves for the journey. Having thrown
away their wares, retaining only food, they travelled for three or four
hours, till they fell in with a huge elephant, whom they could not scare
away. They were forced, therefore, to kindle a fire, and wait till morn
ing. Looking around them, nothing appeared but wilderness, and no
signs of inhabitants, which led them to think, that they had passed all
danger of detection, and might safely travel by day.
A bend of the river in a northerly direction brought them, to their
surprise, in the midst of several villages, before they were aware, on ac
count of the density of the woods obstructing their view. They were
much alarmed at hearing the men's voices near them, knowing, that if
they had fallen into their hands, they would have been carried back
to the king, and beaten and plundered. But to return, after they had
passed so many paths and fields where people resorted, they did not
consider advisable, and that the danger might be greater than in going
forward. Spying a great tree, which they found to be hollow, they
crept into it, and sat there for several hours in the mud and wet, and when
it was dark they crept out and hastened across the great road they had
so long been expecting to find, keeping close to the river side. Hearing
shouting behind they thought they were pursued, but they soon found
by the crackling of the underwood and small trees, that they were on
the track of elephants. This reassured them ; for they knew the -people
would not dare to pass before those animals. In this condition they
pitched their tents, and making a frugal repast, laid down to sleep, the
shouting of the people, who lay watching the corn fields, being con
tinued all night. Next morning they resumed their route, as soon as
the moon began to shine, and passed out of the inhabited country into
that occupied by the Veddahs, by whom they ran the risk of being shot
if discovered.All along the sides of the river till they reached the Malabar districts,
they had discovered the tents of these wild men, made of the boughs
of trees, which in some places had only been recently left, as they could
see by the bones of cattle and shells of fruit scattered about. Once,
about noon, while sitting down upon a rock by the river side, they had
nearly been discovered by some of the women, who came down laughing
and chattering to the river to wash, on which they hastened away, lest
they should be discovered. Thus they kept travelling from morning to
night for some days, following the bend of the river, which was difficult,
from the bushes and thorns on its banks. The lower they got down the
river, the less water, so that at times they passed over its dry bed for
more than a mile, and in other places three or four streams would meet
together. They frequently encountered bears, hogs, deer, and wild
buffaloes, all of which took to their heels as soon as they saw them. The
river was full of alligators, and the upper part of it nothing but rocks.
Here and there was a mass of hewn stone pillars standing uprig-ht, and
other heaps of hewn stone, the remains of buildings, and in three or four
3 f 2

804

APPENDIX.

places were the ruins of stone bridges, some portions yet standing upon
stone pillars. In some places were points like wharves built out into the
river, but of no use for traffic, the river being so full of rocks that boats
could never come up into it. The woods in this northern province were
short and scrubby. In the evenings they used, on pitching their tent,
to make a great fire on both sides of it, to prevent the approach of
wild beasts, whose howls they constantly heard.
They now arrived at the Kurundu- oya, which separated the king's
country from the Malabar districts. They saw no sign of inhabitants
here ; the woods were thorny and scrubby, with clefts and broken land,
hut the river grew better, being clear of rocks, and dry, water being
only found in the holes. They marched, therefore, along the bed.
Next day they came among the inhabitants, whose footsteps they
traced on the sand, and heard the jingling of the bells on the cattle's
necks. They kept on their way, however, in the bed of the river, the
banks being impassable from the herds of elephants who came down to
water, wishing to shun the people, whose chief, though paying tribute
to the Dutch, was better affected to the king of Kandy, and might in
consequence send them back. They saw crops of kurukkan in the
fields, but no villages.
In turning a point, they came up with two Brahmins, who were sit
ting under a tree boiling rice, who seemed astonished and alarmed at
their appearance. They, no less fearful, thought it better to treat with
them than to escape, thinking they might have hows and arrows, while
they were only armed with axes and knives. Making a stand, they
asked leave to approach in Singhalese, which the Brahmins did not un
derstand, while Tamul was equally unintelligible to the English. Per
ceiving they were unarmed, Knox laid down his own arms and
approached them, signifying whence they had come, and whither they
were going. They seemed to commiserate his condition, and wondered
at his escape, lifting up their hands and faces to heaven. They next
offered him a share of their frugal repast of rice and herbs, in return for
which he presented them with some tobacco. He now signified his
desire to be led within the Dutch settlements, hut they were unwilling,
saying his greatest danger was past, and that he could reach them that
night. At length, persuaded by his importunities, one of them con
ducted him about a mile, and after another present led them a mile fur
ther, and then left them, telling them they were out of danger, and he
could go no further. Their money being thus thrown away, they feared
to exasperate him by demanding it back, but kept on their route down
the river until night, and spread their tent upon a hank under a tree,
where they were disturbed by elephants, whom they eventually drove
off by flinging firebrands at them. The next morning, at daybreak,
they continued their progress down the river, but were somewhat im
peded by the looseness ot the sand. The country here was as smooth
as a bowling green, but the grass was burnt up for want of rain.
At length they met a man proceeding slowly in their direction ; after
considering their position, and concluding they had reached the Dutch
territory, they at length accosted him, and asked him to whom he be
longed. He replied, in Singhalese, to the Dutch, and that all the country
was under their command ; that they were out of all danger, the fort of
Arippo being but six miles off. They now began to rejoice, and explained
their case, assuring him that the commandant at the fort would reward

APPENDIX. 805
him, if he would conduct them thither. But whether he doubted that,
or expected present payment, he excused himself on the plea of urgency,
hut advised them to leave the river, as it wound about, and to make for
the villages, where the people would direct them. The variety of paths
baffling their efforts, and the land being so exceedingly low that they
could see nothing but trees ; after much wandering they sat down under
a tree, waiting until the sun set or some people came by. At length
some Malabars, one of whom spoke Portuguese, was finally prevailed
upon by the present of a knife to conduct them to a village, from whence
a man was sent with them to the next, and so on to Arippo, which they
reached on October the 18th, 1679, after a captivity of nineteen years
and a half, Knox having been nineteen when taken prisoner.
In this their flight through the woods and desolate wilderness, they had
had little fear of wild beasts, and had slept soundly every night in the
midst of them, a proof how repellent of fear is habit. The Dutch were
greatly surprised at their arrival, it being the first escape yet made from
Kandy, and entertained them kindly, sending them to Manaar on the
following day. At Manaar they were brought before the commandant,
who was equally courteous. Every thing seemed strange to them, who
had so long dwelt in straw cottages, and were used to sit on the ground
and eat their meat on leaves, now to sit on chairs and partake of Eu
ropean luxuries, and that in such guise, that, except for their natural
colour, they seemed unfit to eat with the captain's servants. After
dinner, the captain interrogated them as to Kandian affairs, and the con
dition of the Dutch envoys, to all of which they replied. He then pro
mised to send them by a vessel sailing to Jaffnapatam, to the commander
of which he would recommend them, and from thence they could pro
ceed to Fort St. George. After making them a present of money, he
dismissed them, and they began to inquire if there were no Englishmen
among the troops. Having discovered a Scotchman and Irishman, they
were invited by them to their quarters, and hospitably treated. The
news of their arrival being spread about the town, they became an ob
ject of curiosity, and the people came to inquire about their relations im
prisoned at Kandy. Their passage to Jaffnapatam being delayed, they
received rations at the castle until the arrival of the Governor, who,
having to set sail for Colombo on the next day, carried them with him.
On landing they inquired if there were any Englishmen in the city.
News of their arrival having been circulated, several of their country
men came to welcome them. Being barefooted, in a Singhalese dress,
with great long beards, they excited much attention, and drew crowds
after them in passing through the streets, till they reached the houses
of their countrymen, by whom they were hospitably received. Next
day the Governor, Van Goens, son of the Governor-General of Batavia,
sent for them to his house, and welcomed them out of their long captivity,
telling them that he had endeavoured to procure their liberation equally
with that of his own people, but unsuccessfully. For which they thanked
him, telling him they knew it to be true. The Governor perceiving
Knox spoke Portuguese, began interrogating him respecting the king
and country, of the reason of his own landing at Kotti-aar, to which he
replied. They then inquired if the Kandian monarch had any issue ; he
told them, none. Who were the next in importance ? He answered,
the king had destroyed all the more powerful chiefs. How the people
stood affected towards him ? He replied, ill, on account of his cruelty.

806

APPENDIX.

If they had never been brought into his presence ? He replied in the
negative. What military strength he possessed ? He answered, little
for aggression, but much for defence, owing to the woods and moun
tains. What army he could raise on an emergency ? He replied, about
30,000 men. Why he would not make peace with them, when they
sought it, and endeavoured to conciliate him by presents? He replied,
because living securely in the mountains, he feared nothing, and cared
not for commerce. What was the safest means of sending spies or in-
' telligence to Kandy? He told them, by Jaffnapatam, and by the Mala
bars who frequented Neuwarakalawa. What would become of the country
after the king's decease ? He answered, that, the king having no issue,
it might fall into their hands. How many English had served the king,
and whether he had any acquaintance with the great men at court. He
answered, that he was in too humble a sphere to be noticed by them.
How the common people used to speak of them ? He replied, that they
used to praise their administration. Whether the king did ask his
ministers' advice, or rule according to his own will? He answered, he
is so great, that he does not require advice. If the king knew before
hand of the arrival of the French embassy ? He replied, he thought
not, as the people were surprised at it. If he knew any means by which
the prisoners at Kandy might be liberated. He told them none, except
war. They asked also as to the manner those condemned to death were
executed, the mode in which he was surprised, and his treatment ; in
what parts of the country he resided, his age, and whither he now pro
posed to go. To all of which he answered. They questioned him also
as to the number of Englishmen left behind, and how their ambas
sadors and other officers of rank were treated ; also, what the king
thought of Dutch deserters. He replied, that he looked upon them
as rogues. He then satisfied them as to his mode of escape and his
route. The Governor having inquired their destination, they answered Fort
St. George. He told them, however, that there would be no vessel
sailing that way for some time, and that he wished them to accompany
him to Batavia, that the Governor-General, his father, might see them.
Then calling an officer, he gave orders as to their treatment, and directed
that they should be furnished with European clothing at his own ex
pense, regardless of the objections of Knox, who merely required a tem
porary loan. The Governor further supplied them with money for their
expense in the city. During his stay in Colombo, Knox wrote to his
late fellow-prisoners at Kandy, describing in detail the route he had
taken, and advised them to steer the same course when opportunity
offered. This letter the Governor, having had translated into Dutch for
the use of his countrymen, also promised to see conveyed. Knox was
now requested to write on paper a statement similar to that he had al
ready made, and sign it, which he did. The Governor invited him to
all his entertainments during his stay, where he was sumptuously
treated. At length they sailed for Batavia. The reception they met
with from the Governor-General, was, if possible, kinder still. As soon
as they were introduced, he took them by the hand, and thanked God
for their miraculous deliverance, assuring them that he had neglected
no means for their deliverance. He loaded them also with presents,
and ordered them to be quartered at the house of one of his officers.
Knox was frequently invited to his table, where the greatest state was
observed.

APPENDIX. 807
Becoming polished by his intercourse with such persons, Knox now
cut off his beard, which he had hitherto permitted to grow. He was
again examined as to the localities of the Kandian country, and his re
plies committed to writing by the secretaries. The Governor-General's
youngest son being about to set sail for Holland in command of the
Dutch fleet, Knox was offered a passage, and was admitted to the Ad
miral's table. The arrival of two English merchants from Bantam
changed the plan, and returning with them, they gave him a passage
by a ship of their own, then lying in theroads bound for England, where
he arrived safe in September, 16S0. Soon after his arrival, Knox wrote
to the French ambassador to inform him of the captivity of the French
envoy and suite, who had been sent by De la Haye to treat with the
king, and offered to give any information he required, which was thank
fully accepted and forwarded to the French Government. His de
scription of Ceylon, and narrative of his own life and adventures, having
been submitted to the patrons of literature, including Sir Christopher
Wren and Dr. Hook, the former testified to the truth and integrity of
his statements, and the latter edited his work, prefixing to it a preface
of his own. At a Court of the Directors of the East India Company, it
was recorded, " that they esteemed Captain Knox a man of truth and
integrity, and that his relation of the island of Ceylon, which some of
them had perused in manuscript, was worthy of credit, and they had
therefore encouraged him to publish it." Finally, Knox was solicited to
re-enter the service of the East India Company, and appointed com
mander of a merchant vessel trading to Tonquin.

IX.
MISSION OF PADRE VAZ.
The following sketch of the mission of Padre Vaz, a Portuguese
priest in Ceylon, is taken from a Portuguese work, written by Padre
Dorego, which we have shorn of most of its absurd fables and the mira
culous appliances with which Romanists love to invest the more pro
minent of their ecclesiastics. Sufficient, however, will remain to shew
that Vaz was a man of no ordinary character and strength of mind.
After a series of remarkable adventures on his passage from Goa to
Ceylon, during which he learned the Tamul language, he finally arrived
at Jaffnapatam, but not before a violent storm had forced the ship in
which he sailed into Manaar (known to the Portuguese as the Island of
the Martyrs), and left him penniless and without food for several days.
Recovering his strength by the alms he begged at the latter place, he
proceeded by sea to Jaffna ; there a woman took compassion on his for
lorn condition, and permitted him to lie under her humble verandah ;
but the sufferings he had recently undergone had destroyed the tone of
the stomach, and brought on a violent dysentery. His hostess was
violently censured by her neighbours for letting the pilgrim remain
near her house ; and as he was too reduced to be able to walk, they took
him up and threw him down in a distant place, where he was exposed
to all the inclemency of the weather. " Oh !" observes the biographer,
" that these inhuman men could have been told that a time would come

808 APPENDIX.
when this very sick man, whom they now threw out of their district,
would harbour them in his house, and become a general attendant on
the sick ; that he would bear on his own shoulders their putrid and dis
eased bodies ; and that he whom they now despised as the worst among
the living, should ultimately save innumerable lives." The Padre,
whose servant was also disabled by illness, now thought his last hour
was come, and commended his soul to God ; but he was not yet to die,
for a woman who chanced to pass him, and saw him lying on the bare
ground, scorched by the sun by day and exposed to the cold by night,
brought him a mess of rice, which revived him, and led him to seek an
opportunity for discovering himself to the Catholics, in order to com
mence his apostolical ministry. The Catholics were at this period vigi
lantly watched and persecuted by the Dutch ; the fear was then, that
in making himself known, he might fall into wrong hands, as the people
of the two creeds lived among each other.
In walking through the streets, to notice the actions of the people,
and ascertain the religion they professed, he was recognized by the
Protestants as a Catholic stranger by the rosary of the. Virgin round his
neck, and insulted and pushed about. At length he was encouraged to
ask at the house of a person by whom he had been generously relieved,
and whose religion he suspected, if he was desirous of finding a minis
ter to administer to him the holy sacraments. With a sigh he replied,
that he was unworthy of so great a mercy ; and suspecting that the men
dicant was a priest in disguise by his attention to spiritual matters and
the modesty of his behaviour, he communicated the same to another
Catholic. The latter told him, that if he was a priest he ought
to declare it openly, and comfort the few Catholics in the country,
and that he would carefully secrete him from the observation of
the Dutch. Vaz then shewed him his patent, and at once com
menced his ministry by administering the sacraments nightly. He
was next removed to a charge in the country, where he voluntarily
submitted himself to a lay elder of the Christians there, as being better
acquainted with the customs of the people, and went about from place
to place through swamps and jungles, making many converts among
the heathen by the austerity of his manners. His voluntary poverty
was such that he would not accept money ; his modesty such, that in
confessing women he would avert his eyes : and his temperance such,
that besides frequently abstaining from food, he lived on the coarsest
diet. Catholicism appeared to revive throughout Jaffna, and the Dutch
attributed it to the arrival of some Jesuit in disguise.
Van Rheede, knowing that the Catholics assembled at night in certain
houses, formed a plan for surprising them and taking them prisoners.
This he effected, demolished the altars, destroyed the sacred images,
cruelly beat some, heavily fined the richer members, and condemned
the remainder to hard labour. Vaz, who was a perfect Proteus in dis
guising himself, escaped, and avoiding the public roads, and travelling
only by night, concealed himself in the jung-le, and crossing over to
Ceylon arrived at Putlam, then belonging to the King of Kandy, and a
place of some commerce. Here was a church built by the Portuguese,
and many native Christians. Among these Vaz laboured for some time,
till he longed to visit Kandy, where were detained several Portuguese
Christians and native converts. The danger was that he would neyer
return when once there, but be detained as a Portuguese spy. Vaz,

APPENDIX. 809
however, undaunted, applied for permission to enter through a Portu
guese, who, unfortunately for him, was connected with the envoy of
France, there detained, who being a Calvinist, was hostile to his faith
and slandered him to the king. On approaching Kandy he was accord
ingly taken prisoner and confined in a close dungeon in the suburbs of
the city, where he had nearly perished of hunger. At length the king
sent for him to examine him, and inferring from his demeanour that he
was not a spy, ordered him to be taken back to prison, but to be main
tained from the royal revenue. Vaz, meanwhile, applied himself to the
study of Singhalese, in which he made himself a proficient. The rigour
of his confinement was soon diminished, and he was allowed more
liberty ; he therefore built himself a hut, and placing therein an altar,
and erecting a cross, prostrated himself before it, and performed all the
services of the church unmolested. Not long after a Portuguese,
who had presented a piece of embroidery to the king, was told he
might ask any favour he might desire in return. This he did, request
ing an interview with Vaz, to whom he wished to unburthen his con
science in prison. This was granted but for once, but was finally
repeated, till at last all who wished gained entrance to him. At the
end of two years he was allowed to walk about the city, but not to cross
the river. Vaz now erected a large church at Bogambera, with the
assistance of the Portuguese residents, and contrived on several occa
sions to cross the Mahavelle to visit the flock under his charge. The
Buddhist priests, jealous of his success, combined with the French Pro
testants to traduce him, and pressed the king to destroy the new fabric
as being a place of resort for those who had designs upon his kingdom
and the Buddhist faith. Unsuccessful in their endeavours, they began
to maltreat the Catholics themselves, and only ceased when the perse
verance of that body shewed that they were not to be dissuaded. A
drought is now alleged, by his biographer, to have come to the aid of
Vaz, and the Buddhist priests being unable to mitigate it, application
was made to him, and with a successful result. Conversions to the
faith, before rare, were now numerous, and Vaz obtained additional
privileges. Vaz now visited several parts of the island, including Jaff
napatam, and entering Colombo in the garb of a mendicant, there
ministered to the people of his faith. The Dutch, gaining imperfect
information of his proceedings, ordered search to be made after him,
but he had fled, and after visiting several places on the coast and inte
rior, returned to Kandy. He was now strengthened by the arrival of
other priests, over whom he was appointed Vicar-General, with the
further superintendence of the churches dispersed throughout the
island. The small-pox now visited Ceylon, and made fearful ravages. The
people, believing that all persons labouring under the disorder were pos
sessed by the devil, avoided them as they would him ; the father ran
away from his children, the wife from her husband, leaving them to
perish without food : the sick perished, therefore, as much from hunger
and panic as from the virulence of the disorder. The dead became so
numerous that they were left unburied, or carried to distant places,
while the poor wretches affected were driven by the' government into
the jungle. When the contagion had reached Kandy, the king left it,
as the stench of the dead bodies in the streets was unbearable. Vaz
resolved to visit both Christians and Pagans, and being furnished with

810

APPENDIX.

provisions from his followers in Colombo, relieved their distress. He
also followed the sick into the jungles, and building huts as well as
time and place would permit, there sheltered them from the elements
and the. attacks of wild beasts : in a word, he contrived to supply every
want, temporal and spiritual, performed the most menial services,
opened hospitals in the deserted houses, and dared every thing for their
relief. The result was that numbers who were saved joined the church,
and had their children baptized. For a year did the pestilence con
tinue, and so long did Vaz labour unceasingly in his benign mission.
Cheered, however, by the happy result of their efforts, his strength
was in no way reduced, and Vaz next succeeded in converting one of
his bitterest enemies, who had constantly endeavoured to poison the
mind of the king against him, but who, being deserted by his relations,
was left destitute and relieved by the father.
The admirable conduct of Vaz had already gained him the confidence
of the king, who was only prevented from rewarding him by being
assured that he was too disinterested to accept anything. On the cessa
tion of the malady Vaz proceeded to visit the coast, and is said by his
biographer to have been again saved by a miracle from the hands of
the Dutch near Colombo. Vaz escaped to Seetawaka, where he heard
that one of his coadjutors had been expelled by the king, and that a
miracle had been performed in behalf of his faith in Saffragam, the
Dissave of which had been deposed from his office for attempting to
demolish a chapel. By bribes and intercessions however he regained
his post, and again determined to erect a granary over the site of that
fabric. This time, however, he was seized with a paralysis that no
efforts of the priests of Buddha could remove, and in despair, confessing
his crime, he assured the Christians that he would no long-er interrupt
them, and. requested their intercessions for the removal of the disease.
This was granted, and he recovered the use of his limbs.
In Kandy his enemies still continued their attacks for the purpose of
driving him from the capital : the priests of Buddha complained of the
diminution in their incomes through the increase of Christianity, and
at last the united body urged so many motives of policy, and hinted at
so many suspicions of treasonable designs, that the king yielded, and
the church at Bogambera being demolished, the priests were ordered
to leave the country. The chief agent of this subversion was, like all
the enemies of Vaz, punished by a Divine judgment ; but still the reli
gion, now persecuted in every quarter, appeared on the point of being
exterminated. On arriving near Kandy he was forbidden from passing
the river, and returned to his brethren, but finally resolved to return or
perish in the attempt. By another miracle the malevolence of his
enemies was averted ; and, through the intervention of a domestic, Vaz
was again admitted to his former privileges by the king ; a new church
of larger dimensions was reared in the place of the former structure,
and a hospital built in its vicinity. Passing over the miraculous con
version of a young noble, who subsequently relapses, is again converted,
and becomes instrumental to the conversion of numerous others, we
come to a persecution of the Christians by means of a report that they
used cow's blood in their baptismal rites ; a number of them being seized,
and their property confiscated, the king is informed by another miracle,
through Buddhist agency, of the falsity of the charge, though the
weight of convicting evidence appeared overpowering. To relate all the

APPENDIX. 811

undertakings of Padre Vaz, and to unfold the full tale of his energy,
boldness, austerity and devotion, would be incompatible with our design;
suffice to say, that the Dutch were never able to eradicate the faith
thus planted by his courage, and Catholicism continued to increase in
Ceylon till it arrived at its present position.

X.
EMBASSY OF GENERAL MACDOWAL TO KANDY.
On his arrival at Seetawaka, the General sent across the river to
inform the Adigaar, who lay encamped on the opposite side with several
thousand Kandians, that he intended passing over next day. A vast
number of Kandians flocked down to the water's edge to see the troops,
no such appearance having been presented to them for years before, and
were not a little surprised at the quickness and facility with which the
ponderous guns and artillery waggons were drawn over. The descent
was so great that the bullocks were obliged to be taken from the
waggons, and the troops employed to draw the artillery through the
water, while the ammunition was transported on the heads of lascars
and pioneers. Encamping close to the banks of the river, at a Kandian
village, where was a choultry, and several ranges of buildings erected
on purpose for the reception of ambassadors and their followers when they
repaired hither to have an interview with Europeans, the General re
ceived a visit from the Adigaar, who came preceded by a Kandian, car
rying the king's letter wrapped up in a white cloth, and bearing it over
his head, a mark of profound respect always paid to the royal colour.
The General in return delivered Governor North's letter to the Adigaar.
Next evening the Adigaar came in great state, by torch-light, to pay a
visit of ceremony to the General, when the conference continued for an
hour on complimentary matters. Their conversation was carried on
standing, and was very tedious. The Adigaar promised to send the
General 500 of his people to convey the presents intended for the king
of Kandy, and to assist the Singhalese peasants in the service of the
embassy, in transporting baggage and provisions, but this promise was
never fulfilled. Two days after, the Adigaar again waited on the
General in his usual state, being accompanied by several of the chief
men, and about 300 of his guards. Their great guns were carried on
men's shoulders, being little more than muskets of a very wide bore,
with blocks of wood attached to the lower end of the barrel, near the
breech. Those guns, when about to be fired off, were simply placed on
the ground, while the muzzle was elevated by the piece of wood. Im
mediately opposite the street leading to the place of audience, stood a
very fine Bo-tree, around which was a sort of platform. As the Adigaar,
and his train were to pass that way, several of the officers had planted
themselves on this elevated spot to view the procession. The Adigaar
chancing to observe them, expressed great indignation, and desired that
they should he ordered down, as no one ought, in his presence, to he
placed higher than himself, who personated a king, with whom none

812 APPENDIX.
was on a level, and before whom, as a descendant of the golden sun, all
should fall prostrate. The General was here informed, that the nature
of the country would prevent the progress of the horses and waggons
up to Kandy. The General having ordered the pioneers to make a
road in their front for the artillery, as the paths through which the
march lay, besides being exceedingly narrow, were so full of precipices
and ravines, that, without smoothing the one and filling up the other, it
was absolutely impossible to proceed, the Adigaar sent to express his
disapprobation of this measure, and remonstrated against any of his
master's territory being infringed upon in the slightest degree, though
he knew they must either repair the road or abandon their intention of
proceeding further.
Everything, indeed, shewed the ill-will of the minister. The whole
track, which it was intended they should pursue in their progress to
Kandy, was marked out by twigs and bushes set up at proper distances.
It was well known that a far easier road than that pointed out was
known to the Adigaar, and that he had pitched upon the most difficult
and intricate, in order that they might suffer the more in their march.
The circumspection with which they were constantly watched, shewed
how little confidence the Kandians reposed in the good faith of Euro
peans. At the distance of two or three miles from the encampment
lay a large body of the King's troops, which kept a few miles ahead of
them the whole way, and always remained just out of their view. None
of the officers were allowed to approach them, or to have an opportunity
of observing their numbers. Besides the regular troops, the whole inha
bitants of this part of the country were assembled in arms, and lay
around in every direction, and whenever any officer walked out from
the encampment, he seldom failed to perceive Kandians skulking
about the woods in the vicinity. Great difficulty now began to be felt
in dragging the guns through the ravines and defiles, and the pioneers
and troops had to clear away the stumps of trees and pieces of rock
which obstructed the road at every step.
Hitherto the river had been navigable for boats; which enabled them
to have a large proportion of stores and provisions conveyed by water,
as it ran in a direct line with their march. Above Ruwanwelle, it was
shallow, rocky, and narrow, and even native canoes could not proceed
without the greatest difficulty. The natives appeared very displeased
at their bringing artillery into their country, or stirring beyond the
limits of their camp, although permission had been obtained from the
court at Kandy to have this embassy more splendid and numerous than
any which had preceded it, and though orders had been issued to give
them the most friendly reception. It was, indeed, reported, that the
King found himself at that time in rather a precarious situation from
the internal divisions and factions among his subjects, which made him
wish that the escort should be as strong as possible. But the Adigaar's
intrigues, and his hostility to the English prevailed enough to overrule
the King's orders and counteract his intentions. The weather continu
ing still unfavourable, and there being no prospect of procuring a suf
ficient number of people to carry the provisions and stores requisite for
the whole escort, while the roads between them and Kandy were so
dreadfully had, as to render any attempt to proceed with their baggage
and artillery almost impracticable, the General was induced to leave the

APPENDIX. 813
artillery with the Europeans and the greater part of the native troops
at this encampment, and to proceed to Kandy with two companies of
Sepoys and two of the Malay regiment.
Having procured the Adigaar's leave to make shooting excursions
with people acquainted .with the country to conduct them, they had an
opportunity of seeing several of their villages, most of which they found
deserted by their inhabitants. On the approach of a red coat, the
alarm was instantly given, and the natives, men, women, and children,
fled directly into the woods. It was not till after some time, that they
could induce the first to remain in their habitations, and they found it
very difficult to procure hogs, fowls, and fruits, from the natives,
although such articles were in great abundance in the country, which
surprised them the more, as the King's officers had issued express
orders directing them to he supplied with every sort of necessaries.
They were more disposed to attribute this to the country people them
selves than to any deceit on the part of the court. The Kandians, indeed,
particularly the lower orders, shewed little inclination to have any con
nexion with them. Their dread and hatred of Europeans, occasioned
by the numberless aggressions of the Portuguese and Dutch, had become
too rooted to be easily removed. Hence arose that distrust and dislike
towards them which they took every opportunity of shewing. No
sooner had they heard of the departure of the embassy from Colombo,
than they immediately began to assemble in great numbers on their
frontiers, under the idea that they were approaching with hostile inten
tions, until a message from the King quieted their fears: the militia
then received orders immediately to join the regular troops, and in no
way to molest the English on their route.
The General having now arrived at the place where it was determined
he should reside, while he transacted the business of the embassy, ex
pected that he had overcome the almost insuperable difficulties that lay
in his way, and that the fatigues of his tedious march would have heen
compensated by a frank reception and ready admittance into the royal
presence. But it was the study of the Kandians to impress the ambas
sadors with the highest ideas of their dignity and their condescension
in receiving overtures from an European Government. With this view
so many ceremonies attended each introduction into the royal presence,
that little business could be transacted, and such a space elapsed between
each interview that the General was only admitted to three during his
month's stay. But previous to any interview, it was no easy matter to
adjust the ceremonies of introduction. It had been customary for the
kings of Kandy to demand prostration, and several other degrading
tokens of submission from the ambassadors introduced to them. The
Dutch ambassadors had always submitted to be led into the capital
blindfold, and to prostrate themselves before the monarch, and one
British embassy had failed from a refusal to comply with these humi
liating terms. Even after Colombo had been captured by the British,
and the Dutch expelled, the Kandian monarch would not recede from
his lofty pretensions, and Mr. Andrews, sent by the East India Com
pany on a mission to Kandy, shortly after we had taken possession of
the island, was obliged to kneel, on being admitted into the royal
presence. Nay, to such an extravagant pitch was this royal prerogative
carried, that when Trincomalee had been taken by General Stewart,
and the King was in consequence prevailed upon to send ambassadors

814 APPENDIX.
to Madras, these persons very modestly desired Lord Hobart to pros
trate himself before them, and to receive the king's letter on his knees.
This request, however, his Lordship declined to comply with, and
replied, " that as they were so much in -the habit of kneeling, and so
fond of prostration, a custom which his countrymen never adopted.
their best plan to prevent the omission of this essential ceremony,
would be to prostrate themselves before him, who held the supreme au
thority there ;" and this alternative, after they found his Lordship would
not submit to the other, they actually assented to. General Macdowal,
understanding that this ceremony was expected at his introduction, pre
viously informed his Majesty, through the Adigaar, that he could not
on any account submit to it. The King long objected, but the General
positively refused compliance, and informed the minister that his sove
reign acknowledged the superiority of no potentate on earth, and that
sooner than degrade him in the person of his representative, he would
return to Colombo without being presented. The King, not daring to
come to an open breach with us, upon this waved his prerogative, but
in order to reconcile this derogation from his dignity to his own feelings,
he informed the General that, it was his royal will to dispense, in his
case, with the usual ceremonies required of ambassadors at their intro
duction, as he came from his brother the King of Great Britain, whose
great power and strength he acknowledged to be far above that of the
Dutch, or the East India Company.
This important matter having been thus adjusted, and the time ap
pointed for the first audience having arrived, the Adigaar, with a nume
rous attendance, lighted by a great blaze of torches (audience having
heen always given here by night), came to the edge of the river to
conduct the General to the royal presence. The General, on his part,
crossed the river in the boats, which were in readiness, attended by his
staff, and the gentlemen belonging to the embassy with a small escort.
The way up the city was very fatiguing, and the escort was not a little
incommoded by the crowd of natives who eagerly pressed to gaze on
them. This circumstance and the glare of the torches prevented them
from having an accurate view of the city. The General was led up with
much ceremony and gravity by the Adigaar and the next chief officer
present, and placed along with the Adigaar on the uppermost step of
the throne. Although the rest of the hall was well lighted, that part
where the king sat was contrived to be made more obscure than the
rest, with the view of impressing a greater awe on those who approached
him. He was by no means so portly or well-looking as the Adigaar
and several of the officers around him, being very black, with a light
beard, and of a very youthful appearance. He was dressed in a robe of
very fine mnslin embroidered with gold, fitted close at the breast, with
several folds drawn round the waist, and flowing down from thence like
a lady's gown. , His arms were bare, from the elbows downwards. On
his fingers he wore a number of very broad rings set with precious
stones of different sorts, while a number of gold chains were suspended
round his neck, over a stiff frilled piece of muslin, resembling the ruff
worn in the seventeenth century. His head was covered with a turban
of muslin spangled with gold and surmounted by a crown of gold, an
ornament by which he was distinguished from all the other Asiatic
princes, who were prohibited by their religion from wearing this badge
of royalty, and whose ornaments, when they used any, consisted simply

APPENDIX. 815
of a sprig or feather of precious stone. His waist was encircled with a
rich sash, to which was suspended a short curved dagger or sabre, the
handle richly ornamented, and the scabbard of gold filigree work. The
only difference discernible between the dress of the Adigaar and Sove
reign was, that the former did not wear a crown, although his turban
was surmounted by something like a ducal coronet.
After General Macdowal had been presented in form to his Majesty,
and a numerous string of ceremonies had been gone through, the King
proceeded to inquire after the health of his Britannic Majesty and the
state of his affairs ; to all which the General replied. The conversation
was carried on with the most profound gravity and reserve. Even the
most trifling circumstances were mentioned in whispers with as much
ceremony and importance as if the fate of empires depended upon them.
The King directed his speech to the Adigaar, who stood on the step below
the throne, and who repeated his Majesty's words to the Maha Mode-
liar, who had come up with the embassy as Singhalese interpreter ; he
in turn gave it in Portuguese to a Frenchman, who repeated it in that
language to the General. Thus the conversation was carried on by five
different persons and in three different languages, and the replies
returned by the same channel. The tedious length to which such a
conference must have been protracted may be easily conceived, and
though it lasted nearly three hours, this first interview was entirely
occupied with complimentary matters. During the conference, rose-
water was frequently sprinkled around from curiously wrought vessels
of gold, and perfumes were handed about on salvers of gold and silver
filigree work. The oppressive heat of the room, however, joined to the
powerful exhalations of the scented oils burnt in the lamps, and the
rank smell of cocoa-nut oil with which the natives present were univer
sally anointed, overcame the effects of all these precautions, and almost
stifled the European gentlemen, who were allowed to remain at one end
of the hall where the General's guard were stationed. After this audi
ence, some days elapsed before another could be obtained, as it was a
standing maxim with the Kandians, never to hurry forward affairs, or
to betray any symptom of anxiety for their being brought to a conclu
sion. Their adherence to this principle, on the present occasion, cost
them no slight uneasiness, as their suspicions were too violent to allow
their minds to enjoy any rest while the embassy continued in the country.

XI.
OFFICIAL BULLETIN.
British Head-quarters, Kandy, 2nd March, 1815.
This day a solemn conference was held in the Audience Hall of the Palace at
Kandy, between his Excellency the Governor and Commander of the Forces, on
behalf of his Majesty and of H. R. H. the Prince Regent on the one part, and
the Adigaars, Dissaves, and other principal chiefs of the Kandian provinces, on
the other part, on behalf of the people, and in the presence of the Mohottales,
Koraals, Vidahns, and other subordinate headmen from the different provinces,
and a great concourse of inhabitants. A public instrument of treaty, prepared
in conformity to conditions previously agreed on for establishing his Majesty's

816

APPENDIX.

government in the Kandian provinces, was produced, and publicly read in
English and Singhalese, and unanimously assented to.
The British flag was then, for the first time, hoisted, and the establishment of
the British dominion in the interior was announced by a royal salute from the
cannon of the city. All the troops in garrison were under arms on the occasion
of this important event. By his Excellency's command,
(Signed) Jas. Sutherland,
Deputy-Secretary.
Official Declaration of the Settlement of the Kandian
Provinces.
Led by the invitation of the chiefs, and welcomed by the acclamations of the
people, the forces of his Britannic Majesty have entered the Kandian territory
and penetrated into the capital. Divine Providence has blessed their efforts
with uniform and complete success. The ruler of the interior provinces has
fallen into their hands, and the government remains at the disposal of his Majesty's
representative. In this sacred charge, it is his earnest prayer that the Power
which has vouchsafed thus far to favour the undertaking, may guide his councils
to a happy issue in the welfare and prosperity of the people, and the honour of
the British Empire.
Under circumstances far different from any which exist in the present case, it
would be a pleasing duty to favour the re-establishment of a fallen prince, if his
dominion could be fixed on any principles of external relation compatible with
the rights of the neighbouring government, or his internal rule in any reason
able degree reconciled to the safety of his subjects.
But the horrible transactions of the fatal year 1803, forced upon the recollec -
tion by many local circumstances, and by details unknown before — the massacre
of 150 sick soldiers lying helpless in the hospital of Kandy, left under the pledge
of public faith, and the no less treacherous murder of the whole British garrison,
commanded by Major Davie, which had surrendered on a promise of safety, im
press upon the Governor's mind an act of perfidy unparalleled in civilized war
fare, and an awful lesson recorded in characters of blood, against the momen
tary admission of future confidence; while the obstinate rejection of all friendly
overtures repeatedly made during the intermission of hostilities, has served to
evince an implacable animosity destructive of the hope of a sincere reconcilia
tion. Of this animosity a glaring instance was exhibited in the unprovoked and
barbarous mutilation of ten innocent subjects of the British Government,
by which seven of the number lost their lives ; a measure of defiance calculated
and apparently intended to put a final negative to every probability of future
intercourse. If, therefore, in the present reverse of his fortunes and condition, it may be
presumed the King would be found more accessible to negotiation than in for
mer times, what value could be set on a consent at variance with the known
principles of his reign ? or what dependence placed on his observance of con
ditions which he has hitherto so perseveringly repelled ?
Still less could the hope for a moment be entertained that any conditions of
safety were capable of being established on behalf of the inhabitants, who had
appealed to his Majesty's Government for protection, and yet more hopeless the
attempt to obtain pardon or safeguard for the chiefs, who had deemed it a duty
paramount to every other obligation to become the medium of that appeal.
How far their complaints have been groundless, and their opposition licen
tious ; or, on the contrary, their grievances bitterly and intolerably real, may
now be judged by facts of unquestionable authenticity.
The wanton destruction of human life comprises or implies the existence of
general oppression : in conjunction with that, no other proofs of the exercise

APPENDIX. 817
of tyranny require to be specified ; and one single instance, of no distant date,
will be acknowledged to include every thing that is barbarous and unprincipled
in public rule, and to portray the last stage of individual depravity and
wickedness, the obliteration of every trace of conscience, and the complete
extinction of human feeling.
In the deplorable fate of the wife and children of Eheylapola Adigaar, these
assertions are fully substantiated, in which was exhibited the savage scene of
four infant children, the youngest torn from the mother's breast, cruelly but
chered, and their heads bruised in a mortar by the hands of tbeir parent, suc
ceeded by the execution of the woman herself and three females, whose limbs
being bound and a heavy stone tied round the neck of each, they were thrown
into a lake and drowned.
It is not, however, that under an absolute government unproved suspicion
must usurp the place of fair trial, and the fiat of the ruler stand instead of the
decision of justice ; it is not that a rash, violent, or unjust decree, or a revolt
ing mode of execution is here brought to view ; nor the innocent suffering
under the groundless imputation of guilt ; but a bold contempt of every prin
ciple of justice, setting at nought all known grounds of punishment, dispensing
with the necessity of accusation, and choosing for its victims helpless females
uncharged with any offence, and infants incapable of a crime.
Contemplating these atrocities, the impossibility of establishing with such a
man any civilized relations either of peace or war, cea9es to be a subject of
regret, since his Majesty's arms, hitherto employed in the generous purpose of
relieving tbe oppressed, would be tarnished and disgraced by being instru
mental to the restoration of a dominion exercised in a perpetual outr.i^e to
every thing which is sacred in the constitution or functions of a legitimate
government. On these grounds his Excellency the Governor has acceded to the wishes of
the chiefs and people of the Kandian provinces, and a convention has in con
sequence been held, the result of which the following puhlic act is destined to
record and proclaim. Proclamation.
At a convention held on the 2nd day of March, 1815, and the Singhalese
year 1736, at the palace in the city of Kandy, between his Excellency Lieut.-
Gen. Robert Brownrigg, Governor and Commander-in-Chief in and over the
British settlements and territories in the island of Ceylon, acting in the name
and on behalf of his Majesty George III., and H. R. H. George Prince of
Wales, Regent of the United Kingdom, on the one part, and the Adigaars,
Dissaves, and other principal chiefs of the Kandian provinces on behalf of the
inhabitants, and in the presence of the Mohottales, Koraals, Vidahns, and
other subordinate headmen from the several provinces, and of the people then
and there assembled on the other part, it is agreed and established as follows .
]. That the cruelties and oppressions of the Malabar ruler, in tbe arbitrary
and unjust infliction of bodily tortures and the pains of death without trial, and
sometimes without an accusation or the possibility of a crime, and in the
general contempt and contravention of all civil rights, have become flagrant,
enormous and intolerable ; the acts and maxims of bis government being
equally and entirely devoid of that justice which should secure the safety of his
subjects, and of that good faith which might obtain a beneficial intercourse with
the neighbouring settlements.
2. That the Raja Sri Wikrama Raja Singha, by the habitual violation of the
chief and most sacred duties of a sovereign, has forfeited all claims to that title
or the powers annexed to the same, and is declared fallen and deposed from
the office of kiug ; bis family and relatives, whether in the ascending, descend
ing or collateral line, and whether by affinity or blood, are also for ever excluded
from the throne, and all claim or title of the Malabar race to the dominion of
the Kandian provinces, is abolished and extinguished.
3. That all male persons being or pretending to be relations of the late
3 G

818 APPENDIX.
Raja Sri Wickrama Raja Singha either by affinity or blood, and whether in
the ascending, descending or collateral line, are hereby declared enemies to
the Government of the Kandian provinces, and excluded and prohibited from
entering these provinces on any pretence whatever, without a written permis
sion for that purpose by the authority of the British Government, under the
pains and penalties of martial law, which is hereby declared to be in force for
that purpose ; and all male persons of the Malabar caste now expelled from
the said provinces are under the same penalties prohibited from returning
except with permission before-mentioned.
4. The dominion of the Kandian provinces is vested in the Sovereign of the
British Empire, and is to be exercised through the Governors or Lieutenant-
Governors of Ceylon for the time being, and their accredited agents, saving
to the Adigaars, Dissaves, Mohottales, Koraals, Vidahns, and all other chief
and subordinate native headmen lawfully appointed by authority of the British
Government, the rights, privileges and powers of their respective offices, and
to all classes of the people, the safety of their persons and property, with
their civil rights and immunities, according to the laws, institutions and cus
toms established and in force among them.
5. The religion of Buddha, professed by the chiefs and inhabitants of these
provinces, is declared inviolable, and its rights, ministers and places of wor
ship, are to be maintained and protected.
6. Every species of bodily torture, and all mutilation of limb, member or
organ, are prohibited or abolished.
7. No sentence of death can be carried into execution against any inhabitant
except by the written warrant of the British Governor or Lieutenant-Governor
for the time being, founded on the report of the case made to him through the
accredited agent or agents of the Government resident in the interior, in
whose presence all trials for capital offences are to take place.
Subject to these conditions the administration of civil and criminal justice
and police over the Kandian inhabitants of the said provinces, is to be exer
cised according to established forms and by the ordinary authorities ; saving
always the inherent right of Government to redress grievances and reform
abuses in all instances whatever, particular or general, where such interposition
shall become necessary.
Over all other persons, civil or military, residing in or resorting to these
provinces, not being Kandians, civil and criminal justiee, together with police,
shall, until the pleasure of the Home Government may be otherwise declared,
be administered in the following manner :
First, All persons not being commissioned or non-commissioned military
officers, soldiers, or followers of the army usually held liable to military disci
pline, shall be subject to the magistracy of the accredited agent or agents of
the British Government, in all cases except charges of murder, which shall be
tried by special commissions to be issued from time to time by the Governor
for that purpose : provided always, as to such charges of murder wherein any
British subject may be defendant, who might be tried for the same by the laws
of the United Kingdom in force for the trial of offences committed by British
subjects in foreign parts, no such British subject shall be tried on any charge
of murder alleged to have been perpetrated in the Kandian provinces other
wise than by virtue of such laws of the United Kingdom.
Secondly, Commissioned or non-commissioned military officers, soldiers, or
followers of the army usually held amenable to military discipline, shall in all
civil and criminal cases wherein they be defendants, be liable lo tbe laws,
regulations and customs of war, reserving to the Governor and Commander-in-
Chief, in all cases falling under this ninth article, an unlimited right of review
over every proceeding, civil or military, had by virtue thereof, and reserving also
full power to make such particular provisions conformably to the general spirit
of the said article, as may be found necessary to carry its principle iuto full
effect.

APPENDIX. • 819
Provided always, that the operation of the several preceding clauses shall not
^?-°u Ja?ned by the Pro"aions °f any temporary or partial proclamation
published during the advance of the army, which provisions in so far as they
are incompatible with the said preceding articles, are hereby repealed.
The royal dues and revenues of the Kandian provinces are to be managed
and collected for his Majesty's use, and the support of the provincial establish
ment according to lawful custom, and under the direction and superintendence
ot the accredited agent or agents of the British Government.
His Excellency the Governor will adopt provisionally, and recommend to the
confirmation of H. R. H. the Prince Regent, in the name and on the behalf of
his Majesty, such dispositions in favour of tbe trade of these provinces as may
facilitate the export of their products, and improve the returns whether in
money, salt, clothes, or other commodities, useful and desirable to the inhabi
tants of the Kandian country. God save the Kino.
By his Excellency's command,
(Signed) JAS. Sutherland, Deputy-Secretary.

XII.
PROCLAMATION.
By his Excellency Lieutenant-General Sir Robert Brownrigg, Bart., Knight
Grand Cross of the most honourable Military Order of the Bath, Governor
and Commander-in-Chief in and over the British Settlements and Territories
in the island of Ceylon and its dependencies.
The chiefs and people of the Kandian nation, no longer able to endure the cruel
ties and oppressions which the late King, Sri Wikrama Raja Singha tyrannically
practised towards them, invoked the aid of the British Government for their
relief, and by a solemn act declared the late King deposed, and himself and all
persons descending from, or in any manner related to his family, incapable of
exercising regal authority within the Kandian provinces, which were ceded to
the dominion of the British Sovereign. The exercise of power by the representa
tives of his Britannic Majesty, from the date of that convention (the 2nd March,
1815), till the hour that insurrection broke out, in October, 1817, was marked
with the greatest mildness and forbearance towards all classes ; the strictest
attention to the protection of the rites, ministers, and temples of the religion
of Buddha ; and a general deference to the opinions of the chiefs, who were
considered the persons best able, from their rank and knowledge, to aid the
Government in insuring the happiness of the mass of its new subjects. In ex
acting either taxes or services for the State, an extraordinary and unprece
dented laxity was allowed to take place, that the country might with more ease
recover from any evil effects sustained by the contrary practice of the late King.
In assessing punishments for offences, even where a plot to subvert the Go
vernment was proved, the spirit ever characteristic of the British rule, was
strongly to be contrasted with the ancient and frequent occurrence of executions,
preceded by tbe most cruel and barbarous tortures.
Under the mild regimen of the British Government, the country appeared to
rest in peace : cultivation was increased, and Divine Providence blessed the
exertions of the labourers, and rewarded them by plenteous crops ; yet, all this
time there were factious and intriguing spirits at work, seeking for an oppor
tunity to subvert the Government, for no purpose but to assume to themselves
absolute power over the lives and properties of the people, which, by the equal
justice of British authority, were protected from their cruelty and avarice.
3 G 2

820

APPENDIX.

These plotters against the State were found among the very persons who had
been restored to honours and security, by the sole intervention of British power ;
and the opportunity of raising disturbance was chosen when, relying on the
merited gratitude of the whole Kandian nation, the Government had diminished
the number of troops ; and the insurgent leaders, unconscious or forgetful of
the extensive resources of the British empire, thought, in setting up the standard
of rebellion, as easily to effect their purpose of expelling the English from the
country, as the people had been deluded to prostrate before the phantom, whose
pretensions they espoused merely to cover their own ambitious views, of sub
jecting the nation to their arbitrary will. After more than a year of conflict,
which has brought misery and destruction on many, the efforts of the Govern
ment, and the bravery of the British troops, have shewn the Kandians the folly
of resistance, and that in the Government alone resides the power of protecting
them in the enjoyment of happiness. The flimsy veil which the rebel chiefs
threw over their ambitious designs, was torn aside by themselves, and the
Pageant, whom the people were called to recognise as the descendant of the
gods, exposed as the offspring of a poor Singhalese empyric. After such a
display to the public of depraved artifice and cruel deception, the Government
might reasonably hope, that a sense of the misery brought on them by delusion,
should prevent the great body of the people from listening to any one who
should henceforth attempt to seduce them into rebellion against its beneficent
rule. But it is also incumbent on it, from a consideration of past circumstances,
and the fatal results of the blind obedience which the people have thought due
to their chiefs, instead of to the Sovereign of the country, to reform, by its
inherent right, such parts of the practice of administration, as by occasioning
tbe subject to lose sight of the majesty of the Royal Government, made him
feel wholly dependent on the power of the various chiefs, which, to be legal,
could only be derived, by delegation to them, from the sovereign authority of
the country.
His Excellency the Governor now therefore calls to the mind of every person,
and of every class within these settlements, that the Sovereign Majesty of the
King of Great Britain and Ireland, exercised by his representative the Governor
of Ceylon, aud his agents in the Kandian provinces, is the source alone from
which all power emanates, and to which obedience is due; that no chief who is
not vested with authority or rank from this sovereign source is entitled to obe
dience or respect ; and that, without powers derived from Government, no one
can exercise jurisdiction of any kind, or inflict the slightest punishment; and,
finally, that every Kandian, be he of the highest or lowest class, is secured in
his life, liberty, and property, from encroachment of any kind, or by any person,
and is only subject to the laws, which will be administered according to the
ancient and established usages of the country, and in such manner, and by such
authorities and persons, as in the name and on the behalf of his Majesty is
herein declared.
The general executive and judicial authority in the Kandian provinces is
delegated, by his Excellency, to the Board of Commissioners, and, under their
general superintendence, to resident agents of Government, in such dissavonies
of the said provinces in which it may please him to place such agents, with
more or less authority or jurisdiction as by their several instructions may be
vested in them, and of which the present disposition and arrangement is herein
after contained.
The Adigaars, Dissaves, and all other chiefs and inferior headmen, shall
perform duty to Government, under the orders of the said Board of Commis
sioners and British agents, and not otherwise. No person shall be entitled to
discharge any office, either of the higher or lower class of headmen, unless
thereto appointed by a written instrument, signed, in respect to superior chiefs,
by the Governor, and for inferior headmen by the Resident, or provisionally
by any agent of Government thereto duly authorized, except in certain villages
or departments, which will be allotted for personal services to the Dissaves, in

APPENDIX. 821
which the Dissave shall, as before, have the sole privilege of making appoint
ments. Honours shall be paid to all classes of chiefs entitled to the same under
the former Government, in so far as the same is consistent with the abolition
which the British Government is resolved to effect of all degrading forms,
whereto both chiefs and people were subjected under the ancient tyranny, and
which a liberal administration abhors. All prostrations, therefore, from or to
any person, including the Governor, are henceforth positively, as they were
before virtually abolished, and the custom that chiefs or others coming into the
presence of the sovereign authority should remain on their knees, is also
abrogated. But all chiefs and other persons coming before, meeting or passing
any British officer, civil or military, of rank and authority in the island of Ceylon,
shall give up the middle of the road ; and, if sitting, rise and make a suitable
obeisance, which will be always duly acknowledged or returned. It is also
directed, that on entering the Hall of Audience, every person shall make obei
sance to the portrait of his Majesty, there suspended ; and as well there, as in
any other court of justice, to the presiding authority, ; and it is further directed,
that when his Excellency the Governor, as his Britannic Majesty's representa
tive, travels, he shall be attended by all the persons in office belonging to each
province, the same as they attended the former Kings of Kandy, except that
the Dissaves may always use palanquins beyond the Mahavelle-ganga, within
which limit the Adigaars only have this privilege; and that, when any of the
members of his Majesty's Council, or the Commissioners for the Kandian pro
vinces, or the Commander of the troopsin those provinces, travel on duty, they
be met and attended in such province in the same manner as the great Dissaves
were and are to be attended in their provinces ; likewise the resident agents,
and the officers commanding the troops in each province, are there to be simi
larly attended, and receive like honours. The chiefs holding the high offices
of first and second Adigaar will be received by all sentries, whom they may pass
in the day, with carried arms, and by all soldiers off duty, or other Europeans,
or persons of European extraction, by taking off their hats, and by all natives,
whether Kandians or not, by rising from their seats, leaving the middle of the
street clear, and bowing to the Adigaars as they pass, and to all other Dissaves
and other chiefs, all natives coming into their presence, meeting, or passing
them, are to make a proper inclination of the body in acknowledgment of their
rank. The Adigaars, Dissaves, and other chiefs, shall further be entitled to
proper attendance of persons of the different departments, in such number as
shall be determined by his Excellency, on the report of the Board of Commis
sioners ; provided that where such persons are not belonging to the villages or
departments allotted to the Adigaars or Dissaves, the application for their
attendance when required, must be made to the Resident at Kandy, or to the
agents of Government in the provinces in which such agents may be stationed.
The persons entitled to sit in the Hall of Audience, or in the presence of the
agents of Government, are those chiefs only who bear commissions signed by the
Governor, or to whom special license may, by the same authority, be given to
that effect. Of these only the two Adigaars, or persons having the Governor's
letter of license, can sit on chairs; the others on benches covered with mats of
different heights, according to their relative rauk, in the courts hereinafter
mentioned of the agents of Government; when the assessors are Mohottales or
Koraals, they may sit on mats on the ground. As well the priests, as all the
ceremonies and processions of the religion of Buddha, shall receive the respect
which was shewn them in former times ; at the same time it is not to be under
stood, that the protection of Government is to be denied to the peaceable exer
cise by all other persons of the religion which they respectively profess, or to
the erection, under due license from his Excellency, of places of worship in
proper situations.
The Governor abolishes all fees payable for appointments either to Government
or to any chief, except for appointments in the temple-villages, which will be
made by the Resident, on the recommeudation of the Dewe nilame or Basnaike,

822

APPENDIX.

nilames, appointed by the Governor, the Dewe nilame or the Basnaike nilame
receiving the usual fee. Also, all duties payable heretofore by the Gabbedawas
aramudall awudege, and all other duties or taxes whatsoever, are abolished,
save that now declared and enacted, being a tax on all paddy lands of a portion
of the annual produce, under the following modifications and exceptions
according to the following rates : —The general assessment of tax on the entire
paddy lands of the Kandian province is fixed at one-tenth of the annual produce,
to be delivered by the proprietor or cultivator at such convenient storehouse, in
every province or district, as shall be appointed under the instructions of the
revenue agent.
To mark the just sense which his Excellency has of the loyalty and good
conduct of the chiefs and people of Oodanoora, the Four Korles, the Three
Korles, and the following Korles of Saffragam, to wit Kooroowite Korle,
Nawadoon Korle, Kolonna Korle, Kukula Korle, Atakalan Korle, the Uduwak
Gampaha of Kadewatte Korle, the Medda Korle, except certain villages; and the
following Korles of the Seven Korles, viz. Trigandahaye, except certain villages;
Oodapola Korle, Kattugampaha Korle, Oodookaha, Kattugampola Korle,
Medapattoo Pitigal Korle, Yagame Korle, Rakawah Pattoo Korle, Angamme
Korle, Yatekuha Korle, and of the villages Pubilia, Kougahawelle and Nika-
welle lying in the Oodoogodde Korle of Matale ; the Governor declares that
the rate of taxation shall only be one-fourteenth part of the annual produce.
But, on the contrary, that it may be known that the leaders in revolt ordis-
obedience shall meet punishment, all lands which may have been declared
forfeited by the misconduct of the proprietors, shall, if by the mercy of the
Government restored to their former owners, pay a tax of one-fifth of the
annual produce.
The Governor, desirous of shewing the adherence of Government to its stipu
lations in favour of the religion of the people, exempts all lands which now are
the property of temples from all taxation whatever, but as certain inhabitants of
those villages are liable to perform fixed gratuitous services also to the Crown,
this obligation is to continue unaffected. All lands also now belonging to the
following chiefs, whose loyalty and adherence to the lawful Government merits
favour, viz. Molligodde maha nilame ; Molligodde nilame ; Ratwatte nilame ;
Karloogamoone nilame; Dehieamme nilame; Mulligamme nilame, lately Dissave
of Welasse; Eknelligodde nilame ; Mahawalletene nilame ; Doloswalle nilame;
Eheyleyagodde nilame ; Katugaha the elder; Katugaha the younger; Dam-
boolane nilame ; Godeagedere nilame ; Gonegodde nilame, formerly Adikaran
of Bintenne ; shall be free of duty during their lives, and that their heirs shall
enjoy the same free of duty, except with regard to such as paid pingo duty,
which shall now and hereafter pay one-tenth to the Government of the annual
produce, unless when exempted under the next clause. All lands belonging to
chiefs holding office, either of the superior or inferior class, and of inferior
headmen, shall, during the time they are in office be free of duty. All lands
belonging to persons of the castes or departments allotted to the cutting of
cinnamon shall be free of duty ,- also lands held by persons for which they are
bound to cultivate or aid in the culture of the royal lands, and also the lands of
such persons who may be allotted to the performance of personal service to the
Dissaves by the Board of Commissioners, and of those who perform Katepurale
or Attepattoo service gratuitously, it being well understood that the persons
last mentioned have no right or authority whatever to exact or receive fees or
fines of any kind when sent on public duty, which they are required to per
form expeditiously and impartially. The Veddahs, who possess no paddy
lands, shall continue to deliver to Government the usual tribute in wax.
All presents to the Governor or other British authorities are strictly pro
hibited. In travelling, every officer, civil or military, chiefs, detachments of
troops, or other servants of Government, on notice being given of their intended
march or movement, are to be supplied with the provisions of the country iu
reasonable quantity, and on payment being made for the same at the current
price. All fees on hearing of cases to Dissaves or others, except as hereafter

APPENDIX. 823
mentioned, which are for the benefit of Government, shall be and are abolished.
The services of the Adigaars, Dissaves, and other superior chiefs to Government
shall be compensated by fixed monthly salaries, in addition to the exemption
of their lands from taxation. The services of the inferior chiefs shall be com
pensated as above by exemption from taxation, and they shall receive one-
twentieth part of the revenue paddy, which they shall collect from the people
under them, to be allotted in such portions as the Board of Commissioners shall
under the authority of Government regulate.
All persons shall be liable to service for Government on the requisition of the
Board of Commissioners and agents of Government, according to their former
customs and families or tenure of their lands, on payment being made for their
labour, it being well understood that the Board of Commissioners under his
Excellency's authority may commute such description of service as under
present circumstances is not usefully applicable to the public good, to such
other as may be beneficial, and provided further that the holding of lands duty
free shall be considered the payment for the service of the Katepurale and
Attepattoo dapartments, and persons allotted to the Dissaves' service ; and
also for the service to Governmentof certain persons of the temple-villages, and
in part for those which cut cinnamon; and also that the duty of clearing and
making roads, and putting up and repairing bridges, be considered a general
gratuitous service falling on the districts through which the roads pass, or
wherein the bridges lie ; and that the attendance on the Great Feast, which
pertain persons were bound to give, be continued punctually and gratuitously.
The washermen also shall continue to put up white cloths in the temples, and
for the chiefs gratuitously. All Kadewettes and ancient barriers throughout
the country shall be from henceforward discontinued and removed, and the
establishments belonging to them for their maintenance and defence abolished ;
the services of the persons usually employed therein being applied to such other
more beneficial purpose as the Board of Commissioners shall determine. And
it being necessary to provide rules for the service of certain persons who were
to perform duly to the person of the King of Kandy, viz. palanquin bearers,
talapat bearers and torch bearers, it is ordered by the Governor that such
persons being paid for the same, shall be bound to serve in their respective
capacities the Governor, the members of his Majesty's Council, any General
officer on the staff of this army, the Commissioners for Kandian affairs, the
Secretary of the Kandian provinces, and the officer commanding the troops in
the interior.
And for ensuring the due execution of all the above ordinances relative to the
collection of the revenue, and performances of public duty by all chiefs and
others, his Excellency directs that the Board of Commissioners at Kandy,
individually or collectively, and the Agents of Government in the provinces,
shall punish all disobedience and neglect by suspension or dismissal from office,
fine or imprisonment, as particular cases may require, provided that no person
holding the Governor's commission may be absolutely dismissed, but by the
same authority, and no other chief but by the Honourable the Resident; but
the Commissioner and other agents duly authorized by instructions from the
Governor may suspend chiefs of the superior or inferior order on their responsi
bility for disobedience or neglect of the orders or interest of Government ;
reporting imm2diately, as the case may require, to the Governor or the Resident
their proceedings for approval or reversal. And in order that justice may be
duly, promptly, and impartially administered throughout the Kandian
provinces to all classes, his Excellency the Governor is pleased to declare his
pleasure touching the same, and to delegate and assign the following juris
diction to the public officers of Government, for hearing and determining cases
wherein Kandians are concerned as defendants, either civil or criminal.
Every agent of Government shall have power and jurisdiction to hear and
determine alone civil cases, wherein the object of dispute shall not be land, and
shall not exceed in value fifty rix-dollars, and also criminal cases of inferior

824 APPENDIX.
description, such as common assaults, petty thefts and breaches of the peace,
with power of awarding punishment not exceeding a fine of 25 rix-dollars,
corporal punishment with a cat-and-nine-tails or rattan, not exceeding thirty
lashes, and imprisonment with or without labour not exceeding two months,
to which terms of imprisonment and fine such agents are also limited in
punishing neglect or disobedience of orders according to the provisions above
detailed. The Second or Judicial Commissioner shall, sitting alone, have power to
hear and determine civil cases, wherein the object in dispute shall not be land,
and shall not exceed 100 rix-dollars in value, and also criminal cases of inferior
description, with power of punishment as in the last clause conferred on Agents
of Government. The second Commissioner, or such Agents of Government in
the provinces as the Governor shall delegate, shall hold at Kandy and in the
provinces a court for the trial of all other civil cases, and of criminal cases
except treason, murder or homicide, with powers in criminal matters to assess
any punishment short of death or mutilation of limbs or member ; which court
shall consist in Kandy of the Second Commissioner and two or more chiefs, and
in the provinces of the Agent of Government and one or more Dissaves of the
province, and one or more Mohottales or principal Koraals, so that there shall
be at least two Kandian assessors or two Mohottales or Koraals where no
Dissave can attend. The decision of the courts in the provinces shall be by the
Agent of Government, the Kandian assessors giving their advice, and where
the opinion of the majority of such assessors differs from the opinion of the
Agent of Government, there shall be no immediate decision, but the pro
ceedings shall be transferred to the court of the Second Commissioner, who
may either decide on the proceedings had in the original court, or send for the
parties and witnesses and re-hear the case, or take or order the Agent to take
further evidence and shall decide the same.
Appeals also shall lie from the decisions of such Agents to the court aforesaid
of the Second Commissioner; in civil cases if the appeal is entered before the
Agent in ten days from his decree, and the object in dispute be either land or
personal property exceeding 150 rix-dollars in value, in which case execution
shall stay, and the proceedings be transmitted to the said Commissioner's
court, which shall and may proceed in the same as in the cases mentioned in
the former article. That appeals also may be allowed upon order of the
Governor or the Board of Commissioners, although not entered in ten days, if
application be made in a year. The decisions in the court of the Second
Commissioner shall be by him, the Kandian assessors giving their advice, and
if the opinion of the majority of such assessors shall be different from his, the
case whether originally instituted, or in appeal, or reference from the Agent of
Government, shall be transferred to the Collective Board, and by them reported
on to the Governor, whose decision therein shall be conclusive and without
appeal ; but that in civil cases decided by the Second Commissioner, either in
original, or brought before him by appeal or reference ; appeal shall lie to the
Governor, if entered before the Second Commissioner in ten days from his
decree, and if the object in dispute be either land or personal property exceeding
in value 150 rix-dollars, in which case execution of the decree shall be stayed,
and the proceedings be transmitted to the Governor. But appeal may be
allowed by the order ofthe Governor on application within one year from the
date of the decree. Appeals to the Governor will be disposed of by him in
correspondence with the Board of Commissioners. In criminal cases no
sentence either by the Second Commissioner or the Agents of Government shall
be carried into effect, if it awards corporal punishment exceeding 100 lashes,
imprisonment with or without chains, or labour exceeding four months, or fine
exceeding 50 rix-dollars, unless after reference to the Governor through the
Board of Commissioners, which will report on the case and sentence, and after
his Excellency's confirmation of such sentence.
The Honourable the Resident may, when he thinks needful, assist and pre-

APPENDIX. 825
side in the Court of the Judicial Commissioner, and the Resident may also
hold a court for hearing cases, to consist of himself and two Kandian chiefs, or
assessors, under the provisions respecting references and appeals and limitation
of execution of sentences in criminal caBes prescribed to the Judicial Commis
sioner, and to preserve regularity, the records of such the Resident's judicial
proceedings in each case shall be deposited with the Judicial Commissioner on
the conclusion of the same.
In all cases of treason, murder, or homicide, the trial shall be before the
courts of the Resident, or of the Second Commissioner and his Kandian asses
sors, whose opinion, as to the guilt of the defendent and the sentence to be
passed oh any one convicted, is to be reported through the Board of Commis
sioners, with their opinion also to the Governor for his determination. All
cases criminal or civil, in which a superior chief is defendant, shall be originated
and heard before the Resident or Second Commissioner, and all other cases
shall be instituted before the jurisdiction in which the defendant resides.
Provided that in civil cases the plaintiff may appoint an attorney to prosecute
in his behalf, as the defendent may to defend his case. In civil cases the
losing party may be, by the Second Commissioner or Agent of Government, dis-
cretionally ordered to pay a sum to Government of one-twentieth part of the
value of the object in dispute, not exceeding in any cases 50 rix-dollars. The
First and Second Adigaar shall and may execute civil jurisdiction over allKate-
purales and their property, subject to appeal to the Second Commissioner, and
also over such other persons and property, as the Governor may, by special
warrant, assign to the jurisdiction of either of these two great officers, subject to
appeal as before mentioned ; and the Second Commissioner or any Agent of
Government may refer cases for hearing, and report to him in his court to the
Adigaars, Dissaves, or Mohottales. The Adigaars shall have jurisdiction to
punish disobedience of their orders and petty offences, by inflicting corporal
punishment, not exceeding fifty strokes with the open hand, or twenty-five
with a rattan on the back, or by awarding imprisonment for a term not exceed
ing fourteen days. The Dissaves or chiefs, holding the Governor's commission,
may also punish offences by corporal punishment, not exceeding twenty-five
strokes with the open hand, and imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven
days ; and similarly the principal Mohottales, Lianaraales, and Koraals, being
in office, may inflict corporal punishment for offences on persons, over whom
they might have exercised such jurisdiction under the former government, not
exceeding ten strokes with the open hand, and may imprison such persons for
a term not exceeding three days, provided that the several persons on whom the
above power is exercised, shall be duly and lawfully subject to the orders of
such Adigaar, Dissave, Chief, Mohottale, Lianaraale, or Koraal, and that no
such power shall be exercised on persons holding office, or on persons of the
low country, foreigners, or on Moormen of the Kandian provinces, and in all
cases where imprisonment is awarded for a term exceeding three days, the
prisoner be sent, with a note of the sentence, to the Second Commissioner, or
the nearest agent of Government, to be confined.
To insure a due and uniform administration of justice, it is ordered by his
Excellency, that all evidence before the Resident, the Second Commissioner, or
other agent of Government, in a civil or criminal case, shall be taken on oath,
which oath, in the case of Kandian or Hindoo witnesses, shall be administered
after the evidence is taken (the witness being previously warned that such will
be the case) at the nearest dewal6, before a Commissioner or Commissioners
ordered by the Court to see that the witness declares solemnly that tbe evidence
he has given is the truth and nothing but the truth ; that no exemption can lie
to this mode of giving evidence, except where Buddhist priests are examined,
and that every person, except a priest, giving evidence, must stand while he
delivers it.
The people of the low country, and foreigners coming iuto the Kandian pro
vinces shall continue subject to the civil and criminal jurisdiction of the agents

826

APPENDIX.

of Government alone, with such extension as his Excellency may, by special
additional instructions, vest in such agents, and under the limitation as to
execution of sentences in criminal cases herein before provided as to Kandians
in the 42nd clause, until reference to the Governor through the Board of Com
missioners, except in cases of treason, murder, and homicide, in which such
persons shall be subject to the same jurisdiction now provided for Kandians,
and the same line shall be pursued in cases wherein a Kandian Moorman shall
be defendant.
And his Excellency takes this occasion to confirm the provisions of his Pro
clamation of the 2nd March, 1818, respecting the Moormen, but to explain
that they are, nevertheless, when living in the villages wherein also Kandians
reside, to obey the orders of the Kandian chief or headman of the village on
pain of punishment, by the Agent of Government, for disobedience, notwith
standing any thing contained in the said Proclamation. According to such
known rules, justice will be accessible to every man, high or low, rich or poor,
with all practicable convenience, and the confident knowledge of impartiality
of decision. And to give effect to this plan for the administration of justice,
and to collect the public revenue, and to ensure the execution of public duties,
his Excellency is pleased to assign to the immediate control and exercise of
jurisdiction of the Board of Commissioners the following provinces: the Four
Korles; Matale; Oodapalata, including Upper Bulatgamme; Oodanoora; Yati-
neura; Tumpanne, Harissiapattoo ; Doombera; Hewahette; Kotmale ; the part
of Walapane, lying west of the Kuda and Ooma-oya and the Hooroole, Tamira-
wane, Maminiya and OUagalla pattoos of Newera Kalawa ; in all, which the
higher judicial duties and the collection of revenues, will be made by the Com
missioners of the Board ; but in those limits there will be besides two Agents of
Government to hear minor cases at Attapittia in the Four Korles, and at
Nalande in Matale. There will be an Agent of Government resident in Ouva,
to whose immediate jurisdiction are assigned the provinces of Ouva, Welasse,
Bintenne, Wiyaloowa, and the royal village of Madulla; all civil and criminal
cases will be heard by him, with the exceptions mentioned, and under the
rules detailed above. He will give orders to collect revenue, perform public
service, suspend and banish headmen for disobedience, and exercise general
powers of Government in those limits, subject to tbe superintendence of the
Board of Commissioners. Similarly an Agent of Government in the Seven
Korles will exercise jurisdiction over that province, and tbe northern part of
Newera Kalawa. An Agent of Government in Saffragam will perform like
duties in that province. An Agent of Government will reside iu the Three
Korles with like power, and the collector of Trincomalee will hear all cases
and collect the revenue, and cause public service to be performed in the same
manner in Tamankada.
In all matters not provided for by this proclamation or other proclamations
heretofore promulgated by tbe authority of the British Government, his
Excellency reserves to himself and his successors the power of reforming abuses,
and making such provision as is necessary, beneficial or desirable. He also
reserves full power to alter the present provisions, as may hereafter appear
necessary and expedient, and he requires in his Majesty's name all officers, civil
and military, all Adigaars, Dissaves, and other chiefs, and all other of his
Majesty's subjects, to be obedient, aiding and assisting in the execution of these
or other his orders as they shall answer to the contrary at their peril.
Given at Kandy, in Ceylon, this 21st day of November, 1818.
By his Excellency's command,
(Signed) George Lusignan,
Secretary for Kandian Provinces.
God save the King.

APPENDIX.

827

XIII.
The Singhalese language contains seven short vowels with their corresponding
long ones, and thirty-four consonants, standing as follows, in the Singhalese
alphabet : —

Vowels. — a, a ; if,
Consonants. — ka,

i ; ii, u ; ilii, ilu ; irii, iru ; 8, e, ai ; 6, ou.
kha; ga, gha ; nya.cha, chba; ja, jha; gnya. ta, tha; da,
dha ; na. 'ta, 'tha, 'da, 'dha, 'na, pa, pha ; ba, bha, ma. ya, ra, la, wa, sa, sha, sa;,
ha, 'la.
In repeating these vowels or consonants, the word " yanu," is added to each,
as, " a yanu," " a yanu," " lyanu," " i yanu," and so on. Besides these are
the dipthongs, ai, eu, ou, eiu, 33, se,, seiu, sou, seu, ey.
There are also twelve symbols, substitutes for vowels and dipthongs, and for
the letters n, r, y, and w, and in some positions they double the consonants.
These symbols are sometimes written above the letters, sometimes below, and
before and after the letters. Nouns are divided into animate and inanimate, and
are thus declined : —

Singular.
N. Hora, thief.
Ac. Hora, thief.
Gen. Hora-ge, of thief.
D. Hora-ta, to thief.
V. HorS,, thief.
Ab. Hora-gen, from thief.

Singular.
N.fy V. Pota, book.
Ac. Pota, book.
G. Pote, of book.
D. Pota-ta, to book.
Ab. Poten, from hook.

animate noun. Plural.
N. Horu, thieves.
Ac. Horuu, thieves.
Gen. Horun-ge, of thieves.
D. Horun-ta, to thieves.
V. Horu, thieves.
Ab. Horun-gen, from thieves.
INANIMATE >"OUN. Plural.
N.ScV. Pot, books.
Ac. Pot, or potwal, books.
G. Potwala, of books.
D. Potwalata, to books.
Ab. Potwalin, from books.

The similarity of origin between a vast number of Singhalese words, and the
same in the Latin, Greek, and even English languages, will be at once perceptible
to the reader, from the following specimen : —

ENGLISH

LATIN.

SINGHALESE.

ENGLISH.

LATIN.

SINGHALESE.

God.

Deus.

Dewiyo.

Rays.

Radius.

Raes.

Day.

Dies.

Dawasa.

Water.



Watura

Month

Menses.

Masa.

Bubble.

Bibulus.

Bubula.

Serpent.

Serpens.

Sarpaya.

Ship.
Navis.
Nsewa.
Father.
Pater.
Pitra.
Stand.
Sto.
Sitinawa.

Abba.
Appa.
Young.
Juvenis.
Yowwanaya
Mother.
Mater.
Mitra.
Tooth.
Dens entis
Danta.
Daughter.
Filia.
Dutra.
Thou.
Tu.
TO.
King.
Rex-egis.
Raja.
Receive.
—
Labanawa.
Foot.
Pes-edis.
Pada.
Bind.
—
Bandinawa.
To give.
Do.
Denawa.
NUMERALS.
ENCLISH.
LATIN.
SINGHALESE.
One.
Unus.
Ekai.
Two.
Duo.
Dekai.
Three.
Tres
Tunai, or
tri.
828 APPENDIX.
The names of animate nouns, whether masculine or feminine, generally termi
nate with a long vowel, a long a or i. Those of inanimate nouns, with a short
a. There are only two numbers, singular and plural. The adjectives never vary
in termination, whatever gender the noun is to which tbey are applied. There is
a great number of pronouns for the second and third person singular, which are
used by the speaker according as he wishes to shew respect, or otherwise, to the
person he addresses. Of the second person singular, there are no less than thir
teen different words, and one of the most difficult things for a foreigner to under
stand is the proper use and application of these words, so as not to offend on the
one hand, or yield too much respect on the other. The following are the Singha
lese varieties for our second person singular, " Thou." 1 . T6 ; 2. Tama -, 3. U mha ;
4. Nuba ; 5. Oba (the two last seldom used vivd voce) ; 6. Umbada ; 7. Umbahe ;
8. Tamuse; 9. TamunnasbaB ; 10. Tamunnanse ; 11. Tamunwahanse ; 12. Nuba-
wahanse; 13. Obawahanse.
The verbs have four voices, called the volitive, involitive, causative, and reci
procal. There is no passive voice. To express the passive, it is necessary either
to give a different turn to the sentence, or to call in the aid of another verb. The
volitive expresses an act willed by au animated being, as, " he splits a tree."
The involitive, a natural or accidental effect, as " the tree splits (of itself).'' The
causative expresses tbe performance of an act by the agency of another, as, " he
gets the tree split." The reciprocal expresses an act which takes effect on tbe
agent, as, "he healed himself."
The position of words iu a sentence is very different from, indeed, the very
reverse of, the method adopted in all the western languages. Thus, Genesis
xlr. 3, 4 :
3 Yosaep tauiage subodarayanta kathakota mama Yossepya mage
3 Joseph of himself to brethren speaking I Joseph (am) of me
piya, tawama jiwatwa innawadaayi aesuwaya. Sahodarayu uttara denta
father yet alive is asked. Brethren answer to give
bseruwa ohu idiriye krelambi sitiyaya.
being unable him before troubled were.
4 Yosaepda sabodarayanta ma langata ewyayi klwaya : owunda ohu
4 Joseph and to brethren me near to come said : they and him
langata giyaya. ewita ohu topi Misarayata wikkawa topage Sahodarawu
near to went then he ye to Egypt having sold of you brother
Yosaep mamayayi kiwaya.
Joseph I (am) said.
In these sentences will be perceived the manner in which the Singhalese get
over what we may consider a great defect in their language, but which to those
acquainted with it is a beauty, the want of the pronoun relative. This is obviated
chiefly by the use of compound epithets and participles. Thus, the " Gospel
which I preached, which ye received, and wherein (in which) ye stand,'' is
thus rendered by tbe Singhalese : " I-to you-having-proclaimed ;" " you-
having-received ;" " you-being-established ;'' all agreeing with tbe word "Gos
pel," which comes last. For the above illustrative notice of the Singhalese lan
guage, I am indebted to the Rev. Mr. Selkirk, lately attached to the Church Mis
sion, in Ceylon.

XIV.
ABSTRACT OF THE CHARTER OF JUSTICE OF 1833.
Article 1. Revokes the three charters of George III. which established a
Supreme Court and a High Court of Appeal.— 2. Abolishes Provincial

APPENDIX. 829
Courts, Courts of the sitting Magistrates, of the Judicial Commissioner, of the
Judicial Agent, of the Agents of Government, the Revenue Courts, and the
Court of the Mahabadde.— 3. Abolishes the appellate jurisdiction of the Go
vernor and Judicial Commissioner in the Kandian, and the Minor Courts of
Appeal in the maritime provinces. — 4. Takes away from the Governor the
power of establishing any court, except in the terms of the Charter, but leaves
intact the local courts of native arbitrators, called Gamsabaa.— 5 & 6. Establishes
a Supreme Court, presided over by a Chief Justice and two Puisne Judges,
to be appointed by letters patent issued under the island seal, in pursuance of
warrants under the royal sign manual. — 7. Permits the Governor, in certain
casualties, to name a successor to, or substitute for, a Judge, by letters patent
under the island seal. — 8. Permits the temporary suspension of a Judge, by an
order of the Governor, under the island seal, and with the consent of the majo
rity of the Executive Council, but only upon the most evident necessity, and
mature deliberation, and after the most early, complete, and authentic infor
mation of the grounds of such proceedings have been furnished to the said
Judge, and a report of the same must be sent to the Secretary of State, and a
full statement be entered on the minutes of the Executive Council of the
grounds of suspension, and the evidence on which it is founded, a copy of
which must be forwarded to the said Judge ; and the Crown reserves to itself
the power of confirming or disallowing such suspension. — 9. Gives the Chief
Justice precedent rank analogous to that enjoyed by the Chief Justice of the
Queen's Bench in England. — 10. Gives the Puisne Judges rank after the Com
mander of the Forces, and the same as that enjoyed by the Puisne Justices of
the Queen's Bench, and in respect of each other, according to the priority of
appointment. — 11. Directs the use of a special Seal for the Supreme Court, to
be kept by the Chief Justice, or in case of his suspension, by the substitute
appointed by the Governor. — 12. Forbids the acceptance of any other office by
any of the^three Judges, except that of Judge of the Court of Vice-Admiralty,
or of Commissioner for prize causes and other maritime questions. — 13. Ap
points a Registrar and Keeper of the Court Records, and such other officers as
may seem necessary to the Chief Justice, with the approval of the Governor. —
14. The Crown reserves to itself the appointment of all the subordinate officers
of the Court, except the Clerk and Private Secretary of the Judges, who hold
the same at its pleasure, but are liable to suspension ' by the Court for due
cause. — 15. Empowers the Supreme Court to enrol as Advocates or Proctors of
the Supreme Court all persons of good repute and sufficient qualifications, and
in case of a refusal to admit any person, the reason thereof shall be declared
in open Court, and no person is entitled to plead in such Court but those so
enrolled. — 16. Divides the island for judicial purposes into the district of Co
lombo and three circuits, called the Northern, Eastern, and Southern circuits,
the first of which comprised all the maritime districts north of Colombo ; the
second, all the Kandian provinces and the maritime districts on the eastern
coast ; and the third, all the maritime provinces south of Colombo, including the
Mahagamapattoo ; but gives the Governor power to alter or modify such divi
sions on the requisition, in writing, of the Judges.— 17. Authorises the Go
vernor, with the concurrence of the Judges of the Supreme Court, to subdivide
the said circuits into districts, and to alter and modify them from time to time
as required. — 18. Assigns a Court to every district, to be holden by a District
Judge, and three Assessors, the former appointed by letters patent of the Go
vernor, under the island seal, subject to the approval of the Crown.— 19.
Directs the selection of the Assessors from natives or otherwise, who shall be of
age, of good repute, and fitting ability; and reserves to the Crown the right of
appointing a permanent Assessor in the respective districts.— 20. Directs the
appointment of the subordinate officers of the said Courts, and the admission of
Advocates and Proctors after the same rule as in the Supreme Court.— 21. The
Supreme Court to be holden at Colombo for the district of that name, and the
District Courts to be holden at the most convenient place within each district.—

830

APPENDIX.

22. Constitutes each of the District Courts a court of civil jurisdiction, with
full power to hear and determine all pleas, Buits, and actions in which the
defendant is resident within the district where they are brought, or where the
cause tliereof shall have arisen, or the act in question been performed ; and in
a case where the Judge himself should be concerned, the matter is cognizable
in the Court of the adjoining district. — 23. Appoints each of the District Courts
to be a court of criminal jurisdiction, with full power to inquire into offences
committed within its bounds, and to determine all prosecutions arising there
from, except in cases where the accused would be subject, on conviction, to
death or transportation, or imprisonment for more than a year, or a whipping
of more than one hundred lashes, or a fine exceeding ten pounds. — 24. Assigns
to the said Courts the care and custody of the persons and property of idiots
and lunatics within their respective districts, and the appointment of guardians,
and to make order for the maintenance of such persons, and the proper
management of their estates, and to take proper securities from guardians, and
call them to account for any balance, to enforce its payment, to make order
for its secure investment, and to remove such guardians as occasion may re
quire. — 25. Gives also to the said Courts full power to appoint administrators of
the estate and effects of intestate persons, or who may not have chosen an
executor thereof, and power to decide upon the validity of any document ad
duced as the last will of any person who may have died within their respective
districts, and to record the same, and grant probate thereof; with like power
to appoint administrators in cases where the executors thereby appointed shall
not appear to take out probate, or having appeared, shall have died subse
quently, or become incapable. Empowers the said Courts also to take proper
securities from the administrators of intestates, or of the wills of deceased per
sons, for the faithful performance of such trusts, with full power to call all such
executors to account, and to charge them with any balance due to the estates of
such persons, and to enforce the payment thereof, and to make order for its
secure investment, and to replace the said administrators as occasion may re
quire. — 26. Empowers the District Courts to try, as in ordinary cases, all
causes affecting the revenue, except where the rights, powers, and jurisdiction
of tbe Court of Vice-Admiralty is involved, or where the punishment to be
awarded would exceed that of ordinary cases. — 27. Declares that the several
jurisdictions thus vested in said Courts shall be an exclusive jurisdiction, and
shall not on any pretext be assumed by any other Court, except where actions
or prosecutions be brought by way of appeal before the Supreme Court. — 28.
Directs that every final judgment of the said Courts, and interlocutory order
having the effect of a final judgment, and every order postponing the final deci
sion of a cause there pending, be pronounced in open court, and that the Judge
shall state to the Assessors what are the questions at law and fact in any case
before them, and his own opinion, with the grounds thereof; and that the
Assessors shall, in open Court, declare their opinion, and give their vote upon
every question for adjudication, whether relating to any matter of law or fact,
and in case of difference of opinion between such Judge and the majority or the
whole of such Assessors in a matter of law and fact, the opinion of the Judge
shall prevail, and be taken as the judgment of the whole Court; but a record
shall be preserved of the case, and of tbe votes of such J udge and Assessors
upon each such question. — 29. Appoints the Supreme Court a Court of appel
late jurisdiction for the correction of all errors iu fact or law committed in the
District Courts, and assigns it the sole and exclusive cognizance, by way of ap
peal, of all matters originally brought before the same. Further grants it
authority to hold an original jurisdiction for inquiring into all crimes and
offences committed throughout the island, and for trying and determining all
prosecutions against parties charged therewith, and ordains that its civil and
criminal sessions shall be holden by one of the Judges in each of the circuits
aforementioned. — 30. Directs that each sessions of the Supreme Court shall
be held twice a year witbin the circuits, at such places and time, as the Governor

APPENDIX. 831
shall, with the concurrence of the Judges, appoint ; but that they shall be so
arranged that all the Judges of the Supreme Court shall not be simultaneously
absent from Colombo, and that all such Judges Bhall be resident there at the
same time, not less than twice a year. Gives the Judges the right of choosing
the circuits by seniority. — 81. Directs that at every civil session of the Supreme
Court in each circuit, three Assessors shall be associated with the Judge, and
that every criminal session shall be holden before a Judge and thirteen jury
men. — 32. Gives to the Judge and three Assessors, and the Judge and thirteen
jurors, when on circuit, all the powers vested in the Supreme Court. — 33. Em
powers the said Court, at its civil session on circuit, to determine all appeals
from any district Court within its limits, and {o affirm, alter, or modify every
judgment according to law, or, if necessary, to remand any case to the District
Court for a further hearing, or for the admission of further evidence, and in
hearing aii appeal therefrom, to admit or reject new evidence as justice may
require. — 34. Empowers the Court of Civil Sessions on circuit to issue mandates,
in the nature of writs of mandamus procedendo, against any District Court
within its limits, and to order the transfer of any case to any other District
Court, if it shall appear that there is sufficient reason to conclude that justice
would not be done in the Court it which it had been commenced ; and the Dis
trict Court to which the same is transferred shall have the same jurisdiction as
that in which the case had been commenced had. — 35. Directs that the Judge
of the Supreme Court and Assessors, in civil cases on circuit, shall severally give
their opinion, and vote according to the rule laid down in Art. 28, for the Dis
trict Judges.— 36. Directs that at every criminal session of the Supreme Court
on circuit, such Court shall determine all appeals from the District Courts
within its limits, and shall confirm, alter, and modify the same according to
law. Gives it power to admit or reject new evidence, as justice may require,
and empowers it in certain cases to transfer a prosecution from one District
Court to any other within its limits, under the rule laid down in Art. 34. — 37.
Prohibits the suspension of any sentence in the District Courts in criminal
cases with a view to an appeal to the Supreme Court, unless the District Judge
shall see fit to make such an order. — 38. Ordains that at every criminal sessions
of the Supreme Court on circuit, those cases in which it has original jurisdic
tion, and which the Queen's Advocate or his deputy may elect to prosecute be
fore it, shall be heard and determined by the same. — 39. Ordains that all crimes
and offences cognizable before the Courts constituted by the Charter shall be
prosecuted, and all fines and penalties be sued for and recovered in the name of
the Queen's Advocate or his deputy, by information exhibited without the pre
vious finding of any inquest or grand jury, but permits the Supreme Court
to regulate the mode in which minor offences shall be prosecuted in the District
Courts. — 40. Directs that all criminal cases at the sessions of the SupremeCourt
be decided by thirteen jurors, and that in case of non-agreement, the verdict of
the majority shall be taken as that of the whole. — 41. Directs that all questions
of law arising at the said criminal sessions shall be decided by the Judge, who
shall pronounce his decision in open Court, and assign the grounds of the same,
but he can refer the same for the decision of the collective Court at general
sessions. — 42. Respites the execution of any person sentenced to death at the
criminal sessions, until the case shall have been reported by the Judge to the
Governor. — 43. Directs the Judge on circuit to issue his mandate to the fiscals
or keepers of prisons within its limits to report the persons in their custody,
charged with an offence, and the said fiscals are required to certify and trans
mit a calendar, specifying the time when such persons were committed, by
whose authority, and on what charges. And to the said list shall be annexed a
copy of the informations taken against them on oath. And if need be, accord
ing to the exigency of such mandate, the fiscal shall bring the said persons in
their custody before the said Judge, wherever he may be holding the criminal
sessions of the Supreme Court, together with the witnesses, whose names are
endorsed on the commitments, to be dealt with according to law. Further,

832 APPENDIX.
any cases of committal on a criminal charge, arising during the session, shall be
inserted in the said list by an officer of the Supreme Court for trial. — 44. De
clares that any of the Judges of the Supreme Court remaining at Colombo shall,
within the limits of its district, exercise the same jurisdiction, and bold the
same civil and criminal sessions as those on circuit. — 45. Ordains that when
ever any question at law pleading, evidence, or practice shall arise at any civil
or criminal session of the Supreme Court on circuit, or within the district of
Colombo, that shall appear to the Judge to be doubtful or difficult, he shall re
serve the same for the decision of his brethren collectively at a general session
of the Supreme Court, which shall be held from time to time. — 46. Requires
Judges of the Supreme Court,*while on circuit, to examine the records of the
different District Courts, and if they find contradictory or inconsistent decisions
have been given by the different Courts, or by the same Court at different times,
upon any matters of law, evidence, pleading, or practice, to report thereon to
the collective body at the general sessions ; and after due consideration, to pre
pare the draft of a declaratory law, and transmit it, under the seal of the Court,
to the Governor, who shall lay it before the Legislative Council for considera
tion. Ordains the establishment, by the Judges, of such general rules and
orders for the removal of doubts in matters of pleading or practice as occasion
may require. — 47. Authorizes the Judges on circuit, or at the general session
of the Supreme Court, to issue mandates, in the nature of writs of habeas corpus,
to bring up the body of any person imprisoned within the said island and its
dependencies, and to discharge or remand him, or otherwise deal with him ac
cording to law, and to issue injunctions to prevent any irremediable mischief
from ensuing before the applicant for the same could prevent the same by
bringing an action in any District Court. Forbids the Supreme Court from
granting an injunction to prevent any party to a suit in a District Court from
appealing to a court of appeal, or from suing in any District Court, or from in
sisting upon any ground of action, defence, or appeal. — 48. Permits the Judges
of the Supreme Court, by general rules and orders, to require the District Courts
to transmit to them at Colombo their records in any cases upon which appeals
may have been entered. Empowers the Judges of the Supreme Court to hear,
with the consent of both parties, such appeals at general session, and to de
cide the same in a summary way, and without further argument to remit such
records, with their decision, to the District Courts, to be carried into effect. —
49. Authorizes the Judges of the Supreme Court, collectively, at general ses
sions, to form such general -rules of Court, as shall seem meet, both as to the
time and place of holding any general sessions of the Supreme Court, and any
civil or criminal session of the same, on circuit, or in the district of Colombo,
and the several District Courts, as shall not be inconsistent with the authority
granted to the Governor by Art. 32, together with such rules as to the form and
manner of proceeding to be observed in the said different Courts, and as to the
practice and pleadings upon all actions and criminal prosecutions, the proceed
ings of the fiscals and other officers of the Court, tbe process of tbe said Courts,
the mode of executing the same, the qualifications, summoning, impanelling,
and challenging assessors and jurors, arrest on mesne process or in execution,
taking of bail, duties of gaolers, the mode of prosecuting appeals from the Dis
trict Courts, the admission of advocates and proctors, and the administration of
justice in general, and to revoke, alter, or amend the same as occasion may re
quire. But no rules must be repugnaut to the charter, and all must be framed
to promote, as far as possible, the discovery of truth, and economy, and expe
dition in the dispatch of business, and must be drawn up in plain and succinct
terms, and promulgated in the most public and authentic manner, and must be
previously transmitted to the Crown for its approbation or disallowance under
the seal of the Court. — 50. Permits a party to any civil suit or action in the
Supreme Court to appeal to the Privy Council against any finul judgment or
order of the same, subject to the following rules : 1st. That before any such
appeal be brought, such judgment or order be reviewed by the Judges collectively

APPENDIX. 833
at the general sessions, which Judges shall i-egulate the form and manner of
proceeding in bringing such judgment or order by way of review before them,
and shall thereupon pronounce judgment according to law, the judgment of
the majority being taken for that of the whole. 2ndly. Every such judgment
or order appealed against shall affect a sum above the value of £500. or in
volve the title to property, or some civil right of equal value. 3rdly. The party
aggrieved by such judgment or order shall, within a fortnight after it shall have
been pronounced, apply to the Supreme Court at general sessions, by petition";
for leave to appeal. 4thly. If such leave to appeal shall be prayed by the party
adjudged to pay any sum of money, or to perform any duty, the said Supreme
Court shall direct that the judgment be carried into effect, if the party respon
dent shall give security for tbe immediate performance of any judgment pro
nounced by the Privy Council upon such appeal ; and a postponement of
execution must be shewn to be well founded by the appellant, and' he must
give security for the performance of any judgment pronounced by the Privy
Council, to the Supreme Court, 6thly. Security shall be given by the appel
lant for the prosecution of the appeal, and the payment of all such costs as are
awarded by the Privy Council to the respondent, and the Supreme Court shall
determine the nature, amount, and sufficiency of the securities to be so taken.
7thly. In cases where immovable property is at stake, and the judgment ap
pealed against shall not change or affect the actual occupation thereof, no
security shall be demanded from either party; but if otherwise, then such secu
rity shall not exceed the amount required to secure the restitution free from all
damage or loss of such property, or of the intermediate profit, which, pending
such appeal may accrue from its occupation. 8thly. In any case where the
subject of litigation shall consist of money or personal debt, the security to be
demanded from either party shall either be a bond of equivalent value to the
property in dispute, and entered into by one or more sufficient sureties, or by
way of mortgage, or voluntary condemnation of some immovable property within
the island of the full value of the amount in dispute above all mortgages and
charges affecting the same. 9thly. The security to be given by the appellant
for the prosecution of the appeal, and the payment of costs shall in no case
exceed £300. lOthly. If the appellant shall have completed his securities
within three months from the date of his petition for leave to appeal, then the
Supreme Court shall allow such appeal, llthly. Any person feeling aggrieved
by any order, or any proceedings of the said Supreme Court respecting the
security to be taken upon such appeal, shall be authorised to apply to the
Privy Council for redress in the premises. — 51. Reserves to the Crown the right
to receive an appeal on the petition of a person aggrieved by the Supreme
Court, under certain conditions. — 52. In all cases of appeal allowed by the
Supreme Court, it shall, on the application of the appellant, certify and trans
mit to the Privy Council a true copy of all proceedings, evidence, judgments,
&c. in the case, so far as they have relation to the appeal, under the seal of the
said Court. — 53. Directs that the Supreme Court shall carry into immediate
effect the judgments and orders of the Privy Council in all cases of appeal in
the same manner as any original judgment or decree of its own. — 54. Revokes
all laws, customs, and usages repugnant to this charter. — 55. Declares that any
person lawfully administering the government for the time being, shall be con
sidered the Governor. — 56. Ordains, that at the expiration of two months after
the arrival of the charter in the island, the Governor shall, by proclamation,
announce its operation therein, and any suit or action then depending before
any court, shall be subject to its provisions, and be removed to the Court
thereby established. — 57. Reserves the full right of revoking, altering, and
modifying, the said charter to the Crown, as it may think fit, by letters patent
under the great seal.
3 H

834 APPENDIX. XV.
SUPPLEMENTARY CHARTER.
Owing to the absence of certain provisions, deemed essential for the
prompt and effective action of the Government in relation to the ad
ministration of justice, a Supplementary Charter was issued in 1843, by
which the Governor was empowered to provide for the furtherance of
that object by certain laws or ordinances, passed with the advice and con
sent of the Legislative Council, and for altering and amending the
constitution of the Supreme or any other court, and the limits, territorial
or otherwise, of their jurisdiction, and the time and places of holding
them, the number and functions of the officers employed, the powers
and authority of the Judges, and all other matters incident thereto, or
which may to them appear necessary for the economical, prompt and
effective administration of justice, civil or criminal, and such laws shall
have the same force as all other laws and ordinances, provided they be
in such a manner and form, and subject to all such rules as shall be in
force in reference to any other law of the local Legislature, and shall
not have force until they be ratified by the Crown, unless passed unani
mously by the Legislative Council, and unless the Judges of the Supreme
Court shall have certified under their hands to the Governor, that it is
expedient that such law should take effect, and should not be suspended
till the pleasure of the Crown be known. But in any case wherein any
such unanimous votes of the Legislative Council he given in favour of
the immediate operation of any such law, then the same shall take effect
within the said island, and shall have force immediately after the date
and enactment thereof, subject to disallowance by the Crown, if it should
be so advised.
The extreme inconvenience, under any circumstances, of a previous
reference to the Crown before the enforcement of an ordinance, led to a
representation from the local Government, and the issue of another
Supplementary Charter in 1846, by which so much of the Charter of
1843 as required the previous consent of the Crown to an ordinance for
the better administration of justice, was revoked, and the Governor was
empowered to annul, by any ordinance passed by the Legislative Council,
any provisions of the previous Supplementary Charter, subject to its
disallowance by the Crown.
I have been indulged with an inspection of the instructions furnished
to Lord Torrington by the Crown, but as they are in the main identical
with those issued in times past to preceding Governors, and the tenor of
the original instructions is nearly similar to those issued for all the
Crown colonies, I refer those requiring information to pp. 326-32 of my
work on Mauritius. In reference to Ceylon, I may add, that a supple
mentary instruction revokes a previous one, forbidding the naturalisation
of aliens except under certain contingencies, and that another gives
additional facilities for the payment of Crown lands, which was before
confined to the Surveyor General's department at Colombo.
An ordinance promulgated in 1844 divides the island into three
iudicial circuits, called the Northern, Midland and Southern circuits.
'Hhe Northern circuit comprehends the Northern and Eastern provinces,
and the districts of Chilaw, Putlam, Calpentyn, and the Demellepattoo,
in the Western Province. The Midland circuit comprises the Central
Province, the "Western, except such parts as are comprised in the
Northern and Southern circuits, and the district of Saffragam, in the

APPENDIX, 835
Southern province, except that portion attached to the district of Galle.
Ihe Southern circuit comprehends the Southern province, except that
part of Saffragam attached to the Central, and a portion of the Western
province. The Northern circuit is subdivided into six districts : -Chilaw and
Futlam, Court held alternately at each ; Manaar and Silawatorre, Court
held alternately at each; Nuwara Kalawa, Court at Anuradhapoora:
Jaffna, Court at Jaffnapatam ; Trincomalee ; Batecalo.
The Midland circuit is subdivided into seven districts: Colombo,
JNegombo, Kandy, Kurunaigalla, Badulla, Matale, Ratnapoora.
The Southern circuit is subdivided into four districts : Caltura, Galle,
Matura, Hambantotte.
Police Courts and Courts of Requests are held at the following places :
at Colombo for that district; at Negombo ; at Caltura; at Bentotte for
part of the Galle and Caltura districts ; at Ratnapoora for that district;
at Galle ; at Matura ; at Tangalle for part of the district, of Ham
bantotte ; at Hambantotte ; at Chilaw and Putlam for part of those dis
tricts ; at Calpentyn for part of the district of Chilaw and Putlam ; at
Manaar ; at Anuradhapoora for Nuwara Kalawa ; at Jaffna for part of
that district and the Wanny ; at Point Pedro for Oodoopitty and Katte-
welle and Point Pedro ; at Chavagacherry for the parishes adjacent;
at Kayts for the islands; at Moellitivoe for the adjacent districts of the
Wanny; at Trincomalee ; at Batecalo; at Kandy; at Kurunaigalla ; at
Kaigalle for the Three Korles and Lower Bulatgamme and the district
adjacent ; at Matale ; at Nuwera Elliya for that district ; at Badulla.

XVI.
Abstract of Ordinance enacted by the Governor of Ceylon, with the advice
of the Legislative Council, to meet the general desire of the Public,for a
definite arrangement, and to make provision for more easily ascertaining
ihe boundaries of Estates, and protect the Crown against the conse
quences of double sales. Dated January 17th, 1844.
The liability is restricted to parties holding grants from the Crown or deeds to
which maps and surveys are annexed, but provision is made for extending its opera
tion to all lands which, in process of time, shall be surveyed by the Government agents.
By the second clause they are empowered to make surveys of estates held by prescrip
tion or under instruments, to which correct surveys are not attached, as it was manifest
that the respective limits of the natives could not have been marked out without excit
ing numerous disputes and disturbances, which the judicial tribunals would have
been unable to arrange without first procuring surveys, which must have been delayed
for an indefinite period, the cost of which surveys are to be defrayed by the owners of
estates, and the Crown is then to grant a disclaimer to any right to the property in
the manner prescribed by the seventh clause of the Ordinance, No. 12 of 1840, for
preventing encroachments upon Crown lands. To enable the Government agent to
ascertain whether persons hold under such titles as will bring them within the act, he
may, as often as he thinks fit, demand an inspection of their title deeds ; a refusal at
any time will expose the person making it to penalty of five pounds. The right of
action is taken away for any trespass on lands, the boundaries of which are not clearly
defined along their whole line, unless the trespass or injury to the property has been
wilfully committed. Any person having held land for three years, under a grant from
the Crown erroneously made, if he has entered and kept up the boundaries, and culti
vated the same, may retain the land so cultivated and improved, to the exclusion of
3h2

'-*" APPENDIX.

the original grantees, on payment to the latter of the value of the land at the time the
grant was so erroneously made, which value is to be determined by arbitration. If
the second grantee has not been three years in possession, then the original grantee
f L*\e j'" °D pay™S three-fourths of the improved value of the land, less the value
ot the land ra its uncultivated state, and if the first grantee decline to enter, then he
may recover from the second grantee the value of the land, and one-fourth the value
ot the improvements ; but if the first grantee knew the second grantee to be cultivating
the land, and fraudulently omitted to claim it, the second grantee may demand a con
veyance to himself of the land, on payment of its value at the time of the second grant.
J hese appear to be the provisions relating to grants of land erroneously made by the
Tn ", ¦ 0Se wticl1 affect the title t0 ""y lan<1 whatever, the property of individuals,
not held direct from the Crown, and having been entered upon when in an uncultivated
state, and held adversely to the rights of the proprietor, would appear to be as follows :
Where a person has held possession of any such land for not less than two, nor more
than five years, having entered on the same " without fraud, and in perfect good faith,"
the proprietor shall not be entitled to re-enter except on payment to the party who has
ousted him of possession of three-fourths the improved value of the land, less the value
of this land in its uncultivated state. There are provisions, as in the case of lands
obtained direct from the Crown, for giving to the proprietor the value of the land in an
uncultivated state, if he decline to re-enter, and also, against any fraud on the part of
the proprietor, if he conceal his claim to the land, knowing that it is being brought
under cultivation at the expense of another party. There are, also, clauses which
provide for keeping up the boundaries of estates, and for an inspection by the Surveyor-
General, to ascertain their sufficiency, and for settling disputes and questions of value
by arbitration, for the exemption from the operation of the Act of Minors and Luna
tics, and for imposing penalties for removing land marks.

XVII.
NEWSPAPER PRESS.

The newspaper press in Ceylon consists of three journals issued bi
weekly—the Observer, Examiner, and Times, all published at Colombo ;
the Government Gazette, at ditto ; and the Morning Star, a bi-monthly
publication, in Tamul and English, published at Jaffna, and designed
for the benefit of the Tamul people. The subscription price to the
last-named publication is Is., and the circulation averages 700 on the
island and continent. Of the three Colombo papers, the Observer is
the most liberal or illiberal, it is hard to say which. The Examiner is
more moderate in its tone, and the Times cultivates the good opinion of
the powers that be. Unfortunately, the pent-up passions of journalism
here too seldom finding vent in forcible argument or legitimate discus
sion, degenerate into a rabid animosity or bootless contention ; and the
fourth estate, divesting itself alike of dignity and usefulness, has ceased
to influence public opinion in the colony, or to re-act favourably upon
the friends of the colony at home. This is all the more to be deplored,
as it has tended to retard the concession of free institutions, has operated
in many respects most perniciously upon the native mind, by exhibit
ing to its view a debased standard of thought and feeling, and has
abstracted public attention from the true interests of the colony to
pointless personalities or unseemly partizanship. And yet in the face
of these evils, evils that cannot be too deeply reprobated, there is a
large degree of latent talent and energy that, directed into a proper
channel, would bid fair to place the press of Ceylon high in the list of
what I may call the lay mission of civilization. For example : the

APPENDIX. 837
editor or editors of the Observer have the clearest and soundest notions
of political economy; they have undertaken the thankless task of
probing the causes that have led to the present temporary depreciation
in coffee estates, and that with a courage that cannot be too highly
praised, but so warped does the mind become in the unbridled conflict
of party, that the same mind that you would gladly see preside in
economical, you would be tempted to pull from its chair m political
n i ami can r\m

discussion.

XVIII.
TAXES.— DUTIES.— FEES.
Land Revenue.1 — Tax on Paddy.'] The receipts classed under this Bead are derived
from the tax of one-half, one-third, one-fourth, one-fifth, one-tenth, or one-fourteenth
of the produce. In the Central province, this tax, till 1826, had been exclusively
levied by an annual assessment of the crop of each harvest, and had been chiefly
collected in kind. In the districts adjacent to the crown of Kandy, the annual
assessment was then commuted, with the consent of the proprietors, for the annual
payment of a given quantity of grain ; which arrangement continued in force
till the end of 1830, when that system was further improved by giving the pro
prietors the option of that commuted fixed assessment, either at a fixed rate in
money, or in kind. The term of the first settlement having expired with the
year 1832, the proprietors had the option of either renewing the settlement on
the same conditions for another term of three years, or of reverting to the former
system of annual assessment. The renewal of the commutation assessment was ac
cepted throughout the former commuted districts. As the end of 1855 the renewed
commutation also expired, and a notice was issued that the assessment might either be
renewed for twenty-one years, or that the tax might be redeemed in perpetuity by pay
ing ten years' purchase of the commuted annual tax. The permission to redeem has
been availed of by the proprietors to some extent, but such of them as are not pre
pared to redeem, have accepted the commutation assessments for periods varying
from five to twenty-one years. In the Colombo district the commuted paddy tax,
was rented experimentally in the beginning of 1 841 in six or eight villages only, and the
system was subsequently authorized to be extended. The commutation system prevails
in all the other provinces, except the Matura, Tangalle and Hambantotte divisions of
the Southern province, in which it has not yet been introduced.
1 By a singular anomaly, the land in Geylon having the greatest claim to exemption from
taxation is most heavily taxed : I refer to the paddy lands ; all lands producing coffee, pepper,
&c. being exempt. The prevailing system of collection is such, also, as to aggravate the evil in
every possible way. When the crop is sufficiently advanced to enable an estimate to be formed
of its probable produce, the Government assessors proceed to calculate its value, with direct
reference to the quality of the soil, the period of the harvest, and the appearance of the grain,
and a return is made to the Agent of the Province of the amount liable upon every field,
according to the nature of its tenure. The farm of the tax of each district is then sold by
public auction for ready money to the highest bidder, who is empowered to collect it under
certain conditions and restrictions, set out in his contract. As the harvest approaches maturity
the cultivator is obliged to give five days' notice to the renter of his intention to cut, two days*
notice if he finds it necessary to postpone, and, if the crop be not threshed immediately on
being severed, the renter is entitled to a further notice of the day fixed for that purpose ; and
for any omission on the part of the proprietor the renter has a stringent remedy by suing for
a penalty in the District Court. The same process pursued for the collection of this tax is
equally resorted to for the realization of the tax upon dry grain in the uplands and hills,
differing only in the proportion which is claimed by the Government. The discouragement to
the extension of agriculture, inseparable from a system so vexatious and oppressive, is shewn
by a return of the produce of the taxes for the last ten years, during which, while every other
description of cultivation has been rapidly advancing, this has been all but stationary. The
immediate abolition of this tax is therefore recommended by Sir E. Tennant, and the substitution
in its stead of an acreable land tax, to be collected by Government officers from all lands, as
likely to compel land jobbers to cultivate or else dispose of their estates, to put an end to Ihe
present unwise exemption of the headmen from the paddy tax, to include in some degree the
tenants of the temples, and modify their at present degraded condition and servile tenure, and
to levy a moderate assessment on coffee and cinnamon plantations, when the duties on those
exports shall have been withdrawn.

°38 APPENDIX.
Tax on fine Grain.] By the proclamation of 1803, and ordinance of 1840, a tax of
one-tenth is imposed on the produce of all high lands, i. e. lands not producing paddy.
Tax on Gardens.] This revenue is derived from the produce of Government gardens,
either rented, or collected in aumany.
Tithes redeemed.] A measure adopted by Government in 1813, under the convic
tion that the proprietors of paddy lands would cultivate them more carefully and with
greater advantage to the public, if subjected to one-tenth only instead of half and
quarter. The redemption is effected by the owner paying the estimated value of the
difference of tax for eight or ten years at one payment. Under instructions from the
Home Government, preparations are in progress for the general redemption of the
land-tax upon the same principle, and it is already in progress in the Central province.
Land Customs.] Taxes levied at ferries, bridges, canals, and the lock and cart tolls
established from time to time under the authority of Government, according to the
ancient Dutch laws. Sea Customs. — See Tariff.
Cinnamon.] The proceeds of cinnamon, the collection of the plantations retained
by Government. All the cinnamon gardens have been sold off except a portion of the
Marandhan near Colombo, which is reserved for gradual sale in building lots. By the
Ordinance of 1 842, the duty was reduced to one shilling per pound, and now stands at
fourpence. Two hundred bales of cinnamon were put up at every monthly sale, and sold
without reserve to the highest bidder ; but this will from henceforth be discontinued.
Licences.] Arrack and Toddy. Tax on the consumption of these articles, or the
exclusive privilege of retailing, generally farmed in the several provinces. To cut
timber, issued chiefly in the eastern districts.
Stills.] The duty on liquors distilled is two shillings a gallon.
Weights and Measures.] These are supplied by the Commissariat, and sold at the
several cutcherries to individuals requiring them.
Chanks.] A duty of one-tenth of the value of chanks dug on public lands.
Salt.] The retail trade from the Kaymel river in the Western province to the Ma
tura district in the Southern province, has been recently thrown open. The importa
tion of salt, except by license under the authority of the Governor, is prohibited by
the Ordinance of 1840.
Stamps and Judicial Receipts.] Amount of stamps sold at the several cutcherries,
and by the Commissioner of Stamps. Amount of stamps sold injudieial process, and
paid into the cutcherries by the several District Judges throughout the island.
Fines and Forfeitures.] Fines levied and sums obtained for articles confiscated and
sold for the benefit of the Crown by the Supreme Court and District Judges.
Pearl Fishei'y.] Can only be considered a casual revenue. The banks are protected,
and the possession of certain nets aud instruments within certain limits, which might
otherwise be used to the detriment of the pearl banks, prohibited.
Lands and Houses.] Under this head are receipts from the monthly rent of Govern
ment houses and lands occupied by individuals, the proceeds from sales of Government
houses, gardens, waste grounds, &c, and the collections made at the several Govern
ment rest-houses in the island from travellers occupying the same.
Assessment of Houses.] This tax is levied from occupants of houses at Colombo aud
Galle. The Ordinance of 1843 repeals the enactments formerly in force, and fixes
the tax payable on all houses at ten per cent, on the annua] value thereof, for the pur
pose of providing a fund sufficient for the maintenance of a police force within the
towns and limits therein specified. The actual amount now directed to be levied is
seven-and-a-half per cent. The sum received in 1 845 was £4008, expended £5116;
and for many years the expenditure has exceeded the receipts.
Government Gazettes, Sfc] Receipts accruing from the sale of, and advertisements
inserted in the Government Gazette, also from the sale of the Ceylon Almanac, Ordi
nances, &c. XIX.
CURRENCY, &c.
The coin in circulation in Ceylon under the Dutch Government (for no
vestige remains of any Portuguese currency), was, besides the various

APPENDIX. 839
monies current in Holland, a colonial copper coin in stivers, now called
pices. The value of the latter was arbitrary, eighty of them being
made equal to a silver ducatoon, and received at that rate at the Trea
sury. This stiver, differed from the Dutch coin of the same name, sixty-
six of which were equal to the ducatoon. The remittances of the Dutch
settlers, or public servants to Holland and Batavia, were effected in
Government bills, from which the Government derived a fixed profit
of eleven per cent., or by the bills of public servants, who were entitled
to receive their fixed pay in Holland ; and to the continent of India in
specie in return for cloth, &c. which specie being Indian, was coined at
Tutacorin. In consequence of the deficiency of the colonial revenue, as
compared with the expenditure, and the increased military force ren
dered necessary for the defence of the colony by the American war, a
forced paper currency, called credit brieven, was introduced at Ceylon
in the year 1785, by Governor Van der Graff, payable on presentation in
Ceylon copper coin, at the rate of forty-eight stivers for each rix-dollar.
While all public payments were thenceforward made in paper money,
gold and silver coins were for the first time sold by his order at public
auction, and at a considerable profit, which occasioned the first step in
the depreciation of the Ceylon currency ; the copper coin becoming
thin, the standard, regulated the value of the whole currency, instead of
the ducatoon, as was formerly the case. Though great profits fell to the
otherwise scantily paid servants of the Company from this source, yet
the disarrangement of every branch of industry caused thereby, and
the factitious enhancement of prices, ill repaid the Government for the
temporary relief. The changes effected in the currency after the island
fell under the Government of the English East India Company only
tended to aggravate the evil ; one of the first of these was the issue of
a new copper coin of the same weight and quality as the Dutch. But
the revenue being inadequate to the expenditure, it became necessary
to draw on Madras for star-pagodas or bills to make up the deficiency,
and again to depreciate the copper currency of Ceylon to equalise it with
the former. The silver ducatoon had already risen fifty per cent, in
value, and as we shall shortly see continued to rise. The civil servants,
whose pay was at first fixed in pagodas, were apparently gainers by this
state of things, but the value of commodities soon accommodated itself
to the new value of the rix-dollar, fanam and stiver, and the Dutch
inhabitants were in consequence seriously distressed. The natives being
very unwilling to accept the star-pagoda at the rate fixed, the Govern
ment was compelled to pay their servants in bills, which were at times
difficult of negotiation at the current relative value of money. In 1800
the currency, though still greatly depreciated, became more fixed,
meanwhile the credit brieven had, by the Dutch capitulation, been trans
ferred into a funded debt at no great sacrifice to the holders, and was
withdrawn from circulation. An alteration was again effected on the
transference of the colony to the Crown, by the issue of silver rix-
dollars somewhat diluted, and paper rix-dollars equal to forty-eight
stivers, and the exchange with the three Presidencies, which was
slightly altered, was maintained at the same rate with England.
The exchange had been kept up by Government at a fixed rate till
1805, and the colony had been well supplied with bills owing to the
Kandian war, &c, which obliged the local Government to draw largely
upon the British Treasury ; but in that year, it being found that a pre
mium was paid for private bills by the merchants, Government bills on
the Presidencies of India were sold at public auction to the highest
bidders.

840 APPENDIX.
By the issue of silver rix-dollars, a new copper, and paper currency
in Treasury notes from 1802, the currency was again deteriorated ; the
first indeed was diluted, the second was lighter than before ; but as bills
on England were granted by the local Government for rix-dollars at their
nominal not their real value, and bills on Madras at four rix-dollars the
star-pagoda, it was not for some time felt, as no Ceylon coin was mean
while exported. On becoming a Crown colony, the pay of the civil
servants was altered from star-pagodas into rix-dollars, four of which
were equal to one pagoda. They were now liable to suffer by all the
changes in the currency, but for some time this was averted by Govern
ment receiving them back in exchange for foreign coins or bills at the
same rate at which they were issued. When, however, this rule was
broken, the whole currency of the island fell down to the intrinsic value
of the pure silver or copper in the coin.
A new coinage of silver rix-dollars was issued in 1808, with ten per
cent, alloy more than in the former coinage, with a view to prevent its
exportation, by which the value of the currency, chiefly consisting of
paper money, was further deplorably depressed, and bills were no longer
granted to public servants. An extreme and alarming depression of the
exchange took place in 1812-13, in consequence of the total exportation
from the island of all the silver and nearly the whole of the copper coin
during a scarcity of food. The star-pagoda then rose to seventy-five
and eighty fanams, instead of forty-eight, as in 1802, and no good bills
could be obtained on England at other than ruinous rates. A new rate
of pay was therefore established for the public servants in consequence
of the fall of the exchange, which had taken place previous to 1811.
Every measure adopted after the disturbance of the currency by Van
der Graff will be seen to have increased the evil, and in 1813 the depre
ciation of the Ceylon stiver from its original value was 210 per
cent. No slight auxiliary of the calamities thus entailed on the colony-
was the unfavourable balance of trade ; this, though greatly diminished,
still continues to a large extent, but the evil is now modified by cir
cumstances not then in operation. i Though the importation of rupees
within the last few years has been large, the greater part is almost
immediately re-exported, or hoarded and carried back by the coolies,
who, with the rice importers, refuse to receive payment in any other
form. The rupee in Ceylon should not therefore exceed in legal value
the same coin on the continent. The injunction of the Home to the
Colonial Government, to give currency to it only at its sterling value of
Is. 10^d. was disregarded, and it was fixed at 2s. in order to retain it in
the colony, and avoid the expense which the Government would have
had to incur by being compelled to import a large quantity. Though
still disapproving of the policy of this measure, yet in considerationof
the interests which had grown up in the meantime, and to avoid the in
convenience of repeated changes in the currency, the Home Government
has allowed that valuation to continue. Although the English currency
is that in which accounts are calculated in Ceylon, the currency actually
in circulation consists in great measure of rupees ; it is therefore
recommended by the Committee on the Finance and Commerce of the
island, that Indian should be substituted for British currency.
1 Since the above was written, I learn that a premium of nearly 12 per cent, is
now paid for good bins on England. To a few this system is no slight profit, to
the many I know it to be intolerable. The evil cannot be wholly obviated, while
the balance of trade remains in its present disproportion, but I have yet to learn
that it could not be modified by a combined interposition of Government and
other classes.

APPENDIX. 84 1
The amount of paper currency now in circulation is 44,031 notes of
£1 each ; 20,932 of £2 ; ] 66 of £5 ; 50 of £50 ; 3 of £25, and 5 of £20,
giving a total £87,400. The value of the paper is nearly the same as
the precious metals it represents, but as the amount of the paper in cir
culation is limited to a sum which is now unequal to the public demand,
Government paper money is occasionally at a small premium.

XX.
MILITARY EXPENDITURE.

Although the present charge incurred by the colony for its military
establishments is capable of being reduced by the consolidation of the
two Queen's regiments of six companies each, now in Ceylon, into
one regiment of ten companies, by which the entire staff of one would
be saved, yet there are no just grounds why the mother country should
be saddled with any additional burthen, if, indeed, there are not ample
reasons why she should not be further divested of that borne at present.
To one like myself, who has formed a strong opinion on the monstrous
nature of the burthen endured by the mother country, in contributing
even half of the amount required for the defence of her colonies, seeing
the relative circumstances of the people of either, the observation of Sir
E. Tennant, that the colony has actually paid a few thousands more
during the last eight years towards her military defence than Great
Britain, is calculated to excite a smile. The argument based on the
principle, that Ceylon is hardly served in comparison with other
colonies, may be fitting enough when brought within that vicious
circle of argumentation, from which our colonial policy is only now
beginning to extricate itself, but it must at once be scouted by all pre
pared to argue on high and elevated principles of policy. The line
must somewhere be broken, and Ceylon, with her inexhaustible, though
at present hidden wealth, is quite competent to set an example. I will
yield to none in the ardency of my attachment to my fatherland ; I am
equally eager to uphold the rights of its colonies ; but I maintain that it
is in the interest of neither, that the one should endure a burthen, which
in the aggregate is beyond her strength, and that the latter, to whom
individually it is after all a paltry consideration, should, for the wretched
and meanly wrung boon, be prepared to retain the contemptuous indif
ference of the majority of their countrymen.
The most ordinary capacity may venture to take the highest ground
on this question against all comers. I have ventured to sound the
depths of that indifference. To me it was long incomprehensible; I had
searched history in vain for a parallel. The expression of that indif
ference is embodied in as great a variety of popular forms, as the in
difference itself is entertained by a variety of classes. The tradesman
tells you " he does not care twopence for those colonies ;" the capitalist,
that he will not there risk his wealth, for they do not pay their way ;
the philosopher sighs over the abortion of the first of the nations. Even
the statesman, inured as he is to a formula of expression different to that
of the world in Igeneral, shudders as he lends his countenance to the
unnatural system. Each, in their several gradations, finds that the pro
position stamped in the clearest characters on the face of nature, "her
colonies were made for England," has by a monstrous process of reason
ing been converted into, " England was made for her colonies ;" and the

812

APPENDIX.

indignation naturally arising at such a violation of the first elements
of economy, though it may periodically gall and chafe, as some supple
mentary estimate is required to be thrown into that whirlpool — an ab
sorbent not improvised be it observed, but deliberately constituted — has
finally sunk to a huge platitude of indifference, and a contempt for the
object that, under other circumstances, it would have been their highest
pride to cherish.* I rejoice, therefore, that the Lords of the Treasury
have refused to countenance the attempts repeatedly made to fasten
£24,000 a-year on the Queen's Chest, and I trust that they will continue
to withhold their sanction from any measure of so pernicious a tendency.
The dislike of the people of Ceylon to the payment of this specific sum,
is grounded partly on their ignorance of the colonial accounts, which
are not there made public, and partly on the knowledge that it was
imposed by Lord Glenelg in 1838, in consequence of the large additions
temporarily made to the revenue from the pearl fishery and the cinnamon
duty, elements of revenue now comparatively unproductive.
If, however, they can suggest any means other than those already
adduced, consistent with the safety of their own persons and property,
by which a reduction in this item may be effected, they will receive
their share of the benefit thence accruing, and none will rejoice more
than myself that a further balance is at liberty to be applied to purposes
of public improvement.
Statement of the Military Charges defrayed in Ceylon by the Queen's
Chest and the Colonial Funis from 1838 to 1845 inclusive.

Years.

By
Queen's Chest.

By Colony.

Total.

1838 1839
1840 1841 1842
184318441845

£.
83,699 84,24461,42355,93857,45154,81855,37650,658

£.
69,881 72,635
70,79568,539 67,561
64,993 65,362 75,899

£.
153,580156,880
132,218 124,478
125,013 119,812 120,739126,557

Total

£503,610

555,669

1,059,280

The above colonial payment includes the cost of provisions, forage,
fuel and light, or money allowances in lieu thereof, the pay of general
staff officers and the colonial allowances to officers on duty in general,
and a part of the pay of the troops. Thus, to a Colonel, £45. 9s. per
month ; Lieutenant-colonel, £32. 2*. ; Major, £23. 19s. ; Captain, £13.16*.;
Lieutenant, £8.5*. ; Second ditto or Ensign, £6. 6*. ; Paymaster, £13. 16s. ;
Surgeon, £17.10*.; Assistant ditto, £12.10*.; Adjutant, £10. 4*.;
Quarter-Master, £10. 4*. An additional allowance is also made to
officers in command of corps ; also to officers in command of garrisons,
except Colombo, Trincomalee, Kandy and Galle.

XXI.
The Return of the Population of Ceylon, its Components, their Pursuits, and of the Births, Marriages, and
later than 1843, and is as follows :

Deaths, does not extend

Provinces.

Area in
Square Miles.

Whites.

Coloured
Population.

Military and
Civil Ord
nance Officers
with their

Coloured ditto
with ditto.

Aliens &
resident
Strangers not in
cluded in
precedingcolumns.

Popu
lation
to the
Square Mile.

Persons employed in

Deaths.

Males.

Females

Males.

Females.

Families.

Males.

Fe
males.

Agricul ture.

Manu
factures.

Com
merce.

Births. 1I nages.

Males.

Fe
males.

Western Province
Southern Province
Eastern Province
Northern Province
Central Province "}
Exclusive of the >
Military. J
Grand total .
4,452
6,032
4,8956,053
3,016
1,648 451
472453
334
1,359 453
424
473 159
274,553 173,169 37,344
153,187
102,248
249,311 154,139 31,957
144,246 88,118
710118
236 10
598
130 31
121 5
90
880
506
485 191
920
2,982
611377
336 183
595
4,020 553
1,928 495
13,435
119-24 54-50 14-73
49-37
67-73
73,617
83,597 12,123
103,561
9,6299,4662,060 7,032
13,611
11,320 1,671
13,296
13,122 9,426
3,100 6,439
8,579
6,162
3,063 663
1,241-
6,664
9,791
5,8251 135
5,1325,513
24,448
4,358
2,868
740,501
667,771
1,672
377
2,102
20,431
58-69
272,898
28,187
39,898
40,666 17,793
27,396
There are no regular manufactories :, mills, &c. in Ceylon, with the exception of those worked by steam engines and sawing mills. There is also
scarcely one regular yard for ship-building, though no speculation would be more likely to succeed in the hands of a bold but prudent capitalist, as there
is a profusion of every description of timber, for the carriage of which the countless streams and rivers afford every possible facility ; small sloops
and schooners are, however, occasionally built in the Southern and Eastern Provinces. There were in 1843, 953 looms in the Western Province ; the
description of cloths manufactured were handkerchiefs, table-cloths, towels, and coarse white cloth used by the natives for dress and the sails of boats
r^° \'l °f ' a^TI i\? °^fPressed be,.nS co™l~n?l gingely and mee' and three steam mills for a Uke P^se. Southern Province,
683 of the former, and 35 of the latter. Eastern Province, 730 of do. and 8 of do. Northern Province, 1,814 of do. and 75 of do. Central Province
3 sugar mills There were at the same date 17 quarries, principally of limestone, in the Western Province. The number of boats employed in the
SMffiNS SZCuS? St*"-" of *" catch £2S,m- Southem Province' 2,00°- Eastem province' M0 ; 55'672 lbs ; £12- 561-
>
4-.
844

APPENDIX.

XXII.
TARIFF.

IMPORTS.

£. s. d.

Books (printed), maps, bullion,
coin, pearls, precious stones,
coal, coke, copperah, garden
seeds and plants, horses,
mules, asses, neat cattle, and
other live stock, iron tanks,
casks, staves, headings, and
hoops, ice, types, instru
ments, musical and scientific,
machinery, implements, and
tools for agriculture and
any kind of manufacture,
regimental clothing and ac
coutrements, specimens il
lustrative of natural history,
timber, wearing apparel and
personal baggage . . Free.
Ale, porter, and all other malt
liquorsin casks, per imp.gall.
Ditto in bottles, per doz. quarts
Gunpowder, per lb.
Opium, per lb. .
Paddy, per bushel
Rice,1 per bushel
Spirits and liqueurs, per imp.
gall 
Tea, per lb 
Wheat, grain, peas and beans,
per bushel . . .00
Wine in bottles, per imp. gall. 0 2
Ditto, not in bottles, do. . 0 1
Ditto, theproduce of any British
possession, per imp. gallon 0 0 6
Goods, wares, and merchandise,

£. a. d.

0 0

0 1

0 4

not otherwise charged with
duty, being the growth, pro
duce, or manufacture of the
United Kingdom, or of any
of her Majesty's possessions
abroad, for every ,£100. of
the value thereof in this
market . . . .500
Ditto, being the growth, pro
duce, or manufacture, of any
foreign state, for every .£100.
value thereof in this market 10 0 0
EXPORTS.
Books (printed), bullion, coin,
pearls and precious stones,
horses, mules, asses, neat
cattle, and other live stock,
instruments (musical), iron
tanks, casks, staves, headings
and hoops, plants and seeds,
specimens illustrative of
natural history, wearing ap
parel and personal baggage Free.
Cinnamon, per lb. . .004
Ditto oil, per oz. . . . 0 0 4
Goods, wares, and merchandise,
of the growth, produce, or
manufacture of the island of
Ceylon, not being subject to
other export duty, nor par
ticularly exempted from ex
port duty,fbr every £100. of
the value thereof . . 2 10 0

1 This tax is thus referred to by Sir E. Teunant in his able report : — " This impost is really
levied in a twofold shape— as a land tax within the colony, and import duty from without
In proportion to the first cost of the article in India, it ranges from 50 per cent, on the lowest
descriptions to 25 per cent, on the highest qualities of rice. It was formerly regarded with
favour as a protection to the home grower, but it now presseswith equal weight on the cultivator
and casual consumer. As an encouragement to native cultivation it has proved abortive; the
disproportion between the demand aud the home supply being greater now than ever since our
arrival in Ceylon, and a large part of the agricultural population, both on the coast and in the
interior, are compelled, not only on the failure of their own crops from drought or inundation,
but habitually to subsist on the imported rice, with all its chargesfor duty, freight, and carriage,
which raise it more than cent, per cent, above the cost of that produced at home. Owing to tbe
sheer dependency of the natives upon the supply of rice, the failure in the crops, or a sudden
advance in the cost of rice above the amount of their wages, is productive of the most disastrous
consequences, and such as cannot be estimated byanEuropean example of the effects of scarcity.
There the labourers' wages are necessarily spent on other articles besides food — on rent, clothing,
furniture and fuel, in any one of which he can retrench if the cost of the other is increased ;
but here, 'where the whole of the labourer's gains are converted into the precise quantity of food
which will supply the wants of himself and family, every advance on its value over his means
is productive of instant distress, and, ir aggravated to an extreme, is sure to be followed by
disease and extensive mortality ; results which have only been averted on several occasions by
the precautions of Government." The present high rate of wages would not seem to render the
abolition at once advisable, he therefore recommends its gradual reduction, to begin from Id to
Ad as the present Btate of the revenue will not admit of a bolder experiment Even this
reduction would have a sensible effect upon the market, by inducing other parties than those
at present enjoying the monopoly to enter into the trade.

APPENDIX.

845

XXIII.
IMPORT, EXPORT, REVENUE, &c.
Analysis of principal Articles imported into Ceylon during the year 1845.

Name of Article imported.

Value.

Name of Article imported.

Value.

Apparel, Wearing

£. 3,399

Oilman Stores

£. 3,268

Arms and Ammunition

4,730

Pepper and Spices

1,391

Books

3,799

Provisions

1,397

Bullion

441,156

Saddlery and Harness

6,498

Coal and Coke

13,675

Salt Provisions

2,515

Confectionery and Preserves

2,630

Seeds

2,635

Cotton Goods

234,643

Shell, Tortoise

1,801

Cotton Thread

3,117

Silk Goods ,

6,947

Curry Stuffs .

5,121

Spirits

7,344

Cutlery and Hardware

11,868

Stationery

2,838

Earthenware .

9,932

Sugar, Soft

4,458

Fish .

16,266

Tea .

3,474

Furniture

2,251

Tobacco and Cigars

5,103

Glass . . .

4,303

Umbrellas

2,396

Grain, Gram, and Peas

8,368

Wines, French

5,608

 Paddy

71,076

 Madeira

4,460

 Rice

380,402

3,226

— ^— — jruriiUgeU. * •

 Wheat .

6,230

12,777

Gunnies and Twine
Haberdashery and Millinery .

6,227
27,859

1,485
6,673
Wood
Malt Liquor .
16,475
Woollens
2,655
Manure
1,410
Minor Articles
29,450
Marine Stores
2,387
Value of Articles producing less
Medicines
3,747
than £100. duty .
67,021
Metal, wrought and unwrought :
Value of other Articles imported
Brass
6,796
free
2,852
Copper .
Iron
7,269
5,627
Plate and Jewellery
2,515
Total Value of Imports £
1,491,549
Statement of Articles exported, producing more than £100. duty.
Name of Article exported.
Value.
Name of Article exported.
Value.
£.
£.
Arack
5,641
Tobacco and Cigars
16,826
Areca-nuts
31,838
Wood
14,298
Cinnamon
40,821
Articles producing less than
Coffee
363,259
£100. duty
62,713
Cocoa-nutsCoir Rope
6,4178,655
Oil, Cocoa-nut
15,936
Total
£566,407

846

APPENDIX.

Value of Exports from,

and Imports into

Ceylon, from 1825 to 1839.

EXPORTS.

IMPORTS.

Years.

Value. 1 Years.

Value.

Years.

Value.

Years.

Value.

£.

£.

£.

£-

1825

224,388 1837

296,023

1825

296,301

1837

541,239

1826

262,942 1838

258,411 1 1826

309,747

1838

490,083

1827

318,570

1839

331,696

1827

343,309

1839

510,664

1828

245,983

1840

409,947

1828

323,933

1840

733,512

1829

324,783

1841

368,383

1829

340,200

1841

679,670

1830

274,810

1842

463,445

1830

349,581

1842

794,758

1831

152,293

1843

-421 083

1831

282,987

1843

1,034,531

1832

160,110

1844

531,586

1832

351,222

1844

1,366,037

1833

132,570

1845

583,100

1833

320,891

1845

1,495,127

1834

145,833

1846

467,620

1834

372,725

1846

1,011,289

1835

199,268

1847

961,116

1835

352,077

1847

1,421,787

1836

334,519

1836
411,167
I have returns of the value of Exports and Imports of Ceylon as late back as
1806, but as they would only affect the trade of the maritime province* up to
1815, in which year the interior came into our possession, and inasmuch as the
commercial weight of the united territory cannot be said to have been sensibly
felt till 1825, I have thought it best to commence with that year.
Aggregate of Imports into Ceylon, from, 1839 to 1844.
Countries from whence
imported.
1889.
1840.
1841.
1812.
1843.
184*.
United Kingdom
Cape of Good Hope,
and Mauritius
India, British . .
Foreign European .
Native States . .
Islands in the Indian
All other places . .
£.
152,882 2,100
443,893 49,013 4,1422,850
2,110
5,133
662,123
£.
127,148 3,922
533,944 57,858 4,3581,475 749
4,196
£.
230,002 3,397
438,449 56,607 4,872
2,133 657
7,105
£.
199,312 601
562,139 52,549 6,463
3,438 1,670
5,139
£.
257,508 2,303
700,410 54,575 304
6,0555,8432,157
£.
242,538 1,091
1,052,008 38,984 13,519 7,744
4,837
From all parts . .
733,747
743,222
8 31.311
l,029,515'l,360,721
Aggregate of Exports from Ceylon from 1839 to 1844.
Countries to which exported.
1889.
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
£.
£.
£.
£.
£.
£.
United Kingdom
228,266
297,580
280,804
344,303
330,189
417,098
Cape of Good Hope
and Mauritius
5,912
4,882
8,504
8,764
2,107
6,091
India British . .
130,041
100,595
98,544
95,745
85,027
103,929
Foreign European .
3,836
5,294
6,169
4,573
3,872
2,599
South Sea Islands .
987
500
1,974
4,003
1,229
2,177
All other places . .
6,182
1,513
2,198
758
55
273
Total to all parts .
375,224
410,363
398,093
458,146
422,479
532,167
Specie imported 1840, £174,948.; 1841, £110,796.; 1842, £172,311. ; 1843,
£314,386.; 1 844, £51 7,795 ; 1845, £441,156. ; 1846, £381,842. ; 1847, £454,972.
APPENDIX.

847

Statement of ihe Revenue and Expenditure of Ceylon, from 1821 to 1847
inclusive.

182118221823 1824 18251826
1827 1828 1829
1830 1831183218331834

459,699 473,669 355,406387,259 355,320 278.350264,735 305,712389,534
403,475 420,170369,437437,555377,952

Expendi ture.

481,854 458,346476,242 441,592 495,529394,229411,648 339,516344,757 347,029346,565 338,100
331,764334,835

Surplus.

£.
15,323

44,777 56,44673,605 31,337
105,791 43,117

Defi
ciency.

22,155
120,836 54,333
140,209115,879 146,913 33,804

18351836 1837
1838 183918401841 1842
1843 1844 18451846 1847

Revenue-

£,
371,995
406,787371,994 339,437
372,013331,200344,465 322,369383,118444,348 454,146416,403 437,502

Expend;. ture-

323,277 352,986 390,706 359,074 383,592355,298361,326327,103 325,155374,876 448,232498,205476,192

Surplus.

48,718 53,801

57,96369,442 5,914

Defi
ciency.

£.

18,712 19,63711,57924,098 16,861 4,734

81,80138,690

Heads of Expenditure for 1846 — Governor and Civil Establishment, £197,090.
Judicial and Police, £53,310. Survey and Roads, £24,958. Public Works,
£44,949. Military and Military Works, £75,645. Ecclesiastical Establishment,
£7,418. Education. £8,182. Pensions, £25,191. Charities, £3,806, Miscel
laneous, £8,671. Arrears of former years, £48,985. Total £498,205.
The Heads of Revenue for 1846; the latest obtainable are as follows : — Mono
polies, including the distillation and sale of arrack, wines, spirits, and the sale of
salt, £96,857. Taxes on the cultivation of corn, £44,004. Import and Export
duties, £140,279. Regular Revenue, including tolls,1 stamps, postage, ;&c.
£60,765. Casual Revenue, £55,790. Arrears, £18,698. Total, £416,403.
The annual average taxation per head, in Ceylon, is 4s. lOd,
1 No better proof of the increasing activity of the colony can be afforded than that given by
the license duty levied on carts plying for hire in the towns of Colombo and 0alle, which in
1836 produced £86.; in 1846 £1,467. It is proposed to extend this system to other districts of
the island, and to include public carriages of every description, as well as barges on the
navigable rivers and canals.

Custom dues paid in all the Ports of Ceylon on Exports and Imports.

Years.

Amount.

Years.

Amount.

Years.

Amount.

£.

£.

£.

1833

64,419

1838

135,196

1843

124,932

1834

103,030

1839

116,901

1844

154,843

1835

114,394

1840

—

1845*

144,423

1836

141,049

1841

107,321

1846

140,379

1837

134,958

1842

91,635

1847

150,080

Expenses of the Customs' Establishment during 1845, £9,256, 14s.

848

APPENDIX.

Receipts and Expenditure of the Pearl Fishery of Ceylon, for ihe
years 1799 to 1845 inclusive.

Years.

Receipts.

EXredi' *"-

Receipts.

Expendi ture.

Years.

Receipts.

Expendi ture.

£.

£. 1

£.

£.

£

£.

1799

32,063

7,188 i 1824

300

1835

40,346

5,586

1801

15,022

2,200 , 1825

300
1836
25,816
5,826
1803
16,315
1,057 | 1826
200
1837
10,631
2,373
1804
77,020
2,347 1 1827
200
1838
1,205
1806
41,284
1,339 | 1828
30,523
1,651
1839
160
758
1808
84,257
1,963 i 1829
38,273
1,166
1840
231
614
1809
27,246
655 1 1830
22,256
926
1841
1,510
223
1814
105,187
3,634 | 1831
29,336
1,204
1842
139
1815
584
159 j 1832
4,581
1,100
1843
2
1816
926
550 | 1833
32,050
7,559
1844
105
248
1820
3,040
483 | 1834
200
1845
195
1823
300 1
Revenue to Government
from Cinnamon,
from 1799 to 1845 inclusive.
Years.
Amount.
Years.
Amount.
Years.
Amount
Years.
Amount.
£.
£.
£.
£.
1799
12,456
1811
70,321
1823
9,761
1835
81,763
1800
12,821
1812
69,086
1829
76,871
1836
126,425
1801
5,194
1813
60,003
1825
111,474
1837
119,260
1802
23,266
1814
60,033
1826
59,231
1838
79,204
1803
24,943
1815
65,509
1827
26,283
1839
106,369
1804
52,325
1816
111,033
1828
36,045
1840
60,116
1805
63,431
1817
121,540
1829
94,939
1841
43,459
1806
60,000
1818
130,688
1830
95,041
1842
13,949
1807
60,025
1819
84,751
1831
106,434
1843
47,396
1828
63,064
1820
109,433
1832
147,549
1844
79,417
1809
60,012
1821
139,823
1833
165,270
1845
26,889
1 1810
60,010
1822
155,367
1834
114,900
From 1802 to 1822 inclusive, the monopoly was in the hands of the East
India Company. From 1834 to 1845 inclusive, the revenue arose from the
export duty, and the Cinnamon sold by Government.
entered inwards, and cleared outwards, to and from, ihe ports
of Ceylon, from 1837 to 1847 inclusive.
INWARDS.
| OUTWARDS.
Years.
Ships.
Tons.
Men.
Ships.
Tons.
Men.
1837
1,470
76,368
15,575
1,304
79,562
12,181
1838
1,594
96,292
16,907
1,692
95,667
16,584
1839
1,804
105,838
18,169
1,743
100,166
16,326
1840
1,849
103,005
18,060
1,871
104,015
18,127
1841
1,883
109,606
18,694
1,998
109,187
17,916
1842
2,077
130,327
20,806
1,975
124,692
19,603
1843
2,279
140,853
22,496
2,334
139,622
22,511
1844
2,834
165,329
27,102
2,763
155,354
25,934
1845
3,281
196,364
31,200
3,207
189,815
30,000
1846
2,969
211,946
32,753
2,966
211,424
32,912
1847
3,111
228,738
35,711
3,062
228,998
3 4,974
APPENDIX.

849

Coffee exported from Ceylon from the
year 1831 to 1847 inclusive.

Quantity. cwt.
63,162
80,584
119,805 94,847
133,957178,603 173,892
245,000

Years.

Quantity.

Years.

cwt.

1831 .

. 17,287

1840

1832 . .

. 33,719

1841

1833 .

. 18,901

1842

1834 .

. 21,124

1843

1835 .

. 22,071

1844

1836 .

. 52,835

1845

1837*

. . 43,164

1846

1838 .

. 49,541

1847

1839 .

. 41,863

Cinnamon exported from
Ceylonfrom the year 1835
to 1845 inclusive.
Years. Quantity. lbs.
1835 .... 330,321
1836  724,364
1837  558,110
1838  398,176
1839  596,592
1840  389,373
1841  317,919
1842  121,145
1843  662,704
1844 .... 1,057,841
1845  405,669

Revenue from Sale of Crown lands.-f
In 1833, 146 acres of land were sold by Government ; in 1834, 377 ; in 1835, 434.

1836

3,919 acres

produced

1837

3,661

1838
10,401
1839
9,570
,,
1840
30,788
,,
1841
78,685
1842
48,533
,,
1843
59,800
1844
20,415
1845
19,062
,,
1846
4,182
1847
3,545
£4,742 14
0
5,465 2
0
7,474 14
0
8,239 16
0
19,994 12
0
29,712 3
0
25,956 5
0
29,600 18
0
26,534 0
0
37,946 13
0
A large and increasing demand would immediately spring up for certain lands
in Ceylon that are now unsaleable, if the price were reduced ; at present it is
prohibitive.
* The duty in favour of Ceylon over foreign coffee in the home market was, in
1837, 39s. 2d. per cwt. ; in 1847, it was 18s. 8d. per cwt. I had obtained an
elaborate estimate of the outlay and receipts on a coffee estate of 300 acres of
average fertility, and that from a source on which I could rely ; but as this branch
of agriculture is now labouring under a state of depression (I hope but temporary),
and cannot fail to fluctuate considerably, even within the next few months, I have
deemed it prudent to abstain from inserting it here, and will confine myself to
remarking, that if any of my readers will do me the honour to apply for this, or
any other information, I shall be most happy to afford it. The same desire of
not consciously misleading the intending emigrant, will lead me to forbear from
fixing a definitive estimate of the cost of clearing per acre, as so great a variety of
circumstances have to be taken into consideration — such as whether the land to be
cleared is jungle or forest (generally the latter), whether done by contract or by
hired labour, in what locality performed — that such an estimate could not fail to
be fallacious in its application to all contingencies. Thus, jungle has been cleared
by contract as low as 14s. per acre, and the clearance of forest has frequently
cost as much as £14. The average perhaps would give about £3. for the former,
and £8. for the latter. The Singhalese of the interior, while reluctant to engage
in regular and continuous labour, will at all times gladly contract for the clearance
of jungle, it being alike congenial to their tastes and then- pride. The result is,
that a field of competition is thus opened between them and the Tamul labourer,
of which the colonist can avail himself to advantage.
f Only one square mile, or 640 acres, are sold at one time.
3 I
850 APPENDIX.
Agriculture. — Return of the Produce, Stock, cfc.

NAME OF THE COUNTRY.

Central
Province.

Northern
Province.

Eastern
Province.

Southern
Province.

Western
Province.

Total.

§•
o
•s 03
¦S c
c3
Hi O CDO
<*!
OQ °
o 1
« Sc
£ e
OSp)oEhoo p
!

Paddy.

59,130

100,992 32,460

121,212

67,931

381,726

Fine Grain.

15,238

34,880

1,268

34,820

10,446

96,652

Coffee.

17,255

4,238
10,276
31,760
Pepper.
20
2
6
84
1,189
1,302
Mustard.
77
1
19
3
101
Grain.
352
778
22 104
1,257
Indian Corn.
830
13
263
8j 150
1,265
Peas.
1,088
64
22
1,174
Gingeley.
100
1,286
32
7
1,426
Cotton, lbs.
769
667
173
53
184
1,806
Tobacco.
125
6,465
865
44
537
8.037
Pasture.
282,961
27,143
84,490
394,594
Total No. of acres
in each crop.
93,896
429,138
62,274
245,000
90,844
921,153
No. of acres of
uncultivated land.
3,439,424
14,282
243,454
1,003,906
1,701,067
W 1
Horses.
855
140
45
130
1,403
2,553
Horned Cattle.
123,400
155,938
14,562
74,925
144,422
513,247
Sheep.
500
54,519
248
61
1,750
57,078
Goats.
15,115
35,592
1,214
1,522
5,593
59,036
4¦s cdg.
si 1 *
S O£
1
Paddy, bushels.
2,612,900
1,076,030
188,562
1,201,369
2,129,886
7.208,747
Fine Gram.
242,500
284,309
16,946
54,015
100,088
697,858
Coffee.
225,200
8,552
54,701
288,453
Pepper.
1,075
32
22
330
18,094
19,553
Mustard*
450
7
83
209
749
Grain.
5,300
3,454
60
3,189
12,003
Indian Corn.
8,400
15
4,138
235
561
13,349
Peas.
5,330
251
468
6,050
Gingeley
6,000
7,644
135
20
4,563
18,362
Cotton, lbs.
79,500
105,168
18,260
12,332
77,288
292,548
Tobacco, lbs.
200,735
1,370,916
1,069,035
3,749
6,972,043
9,616,478
APPENDIX.

851

Average Prices of various

Produce and Merchandize, Sec.

£. s.
d.
£. s. d.
Wheat l
Flour, per_.
barrel of
196 lbs, |
'"Western Province
1 16
9
["Western Province.
0 o 44
| Southern do.

\ Southern do.
0 0 2J
Eastern do.
4 18
0
Beef,
per lb.
c Eastern do.
0 0 3f
1 Northern do.

i Northern do.
0 o 24
^ Central do.
3 13
6
^ Central do.
0 0 44
["Western do.
0 10
0
, Western do.
0 0 6
Wheat,
| Southern do.
—
L Southern do.
per imp. <
Eastern do.
0 7
0
Mutton,
J (per leg or sh.)
0 12 0
bushel.
1 Northern do.
—
per lb.
} Eastern , do.
0 0 44
v. Central do.
0 10
0
r Northern do.
0 0 2
'Western do.
0 0
4J
^- Central do.
0 0 44
Wheaten
| Southern do.
0 0
44
f Western do.
0 0 2i
Bread, '
per lb.
v Eastern do.
( Northern do.
v^ Central do.
0 0
0 0
0 0
44 2\5i
Pork,
per lb.
\ Southern do.
\ Eastern do.
f Northern do.
0 0 2i
0 0 3l
0 0 3
[" Western do.
3 0
0
L Central do.
0 0 6
Horned
1 Southern do.
1 8
0
C Western do.
0 3 6
Cattle, •
\ Eastern do.
2 12
0
Rice, per
bushel.
l Southern do.
0 3 8
each.
^.Northern do.
2 8
0
\ Eastern do.
0 4 0
^ Central do.
2 10
0
i Northern do.
0 3 7
f" Western do.
25 0
0
V, Central do.
0 5 6
Horses, ,
each.
1 Southern do.
30 0
0
C Western do.
0 13 0
¦v Eastern do.
40 0
0
Coffee,
\ Southern do.
0 14 0
f Northern do.
9 5
0
per
< Eastern do.
1 10 0
_ Central do.
20 0
0
bushel.
1 Northern do. pr. lb.
0 0 7
["Western do.
0 5
0
v. Central do.
0 18 0
Sheep, ,
each.
I Southern do.
0 16
0
C Western do.
0 7 0
\ Eastern do.
0 7
6
Tea,
per lb.
1 Southern dp.
0 8 0
f Northern do.
0 3
0
< Eastern do.
0 5 0
._ Central do.
0 4
6
1 Northern do.
0 8 0
["Western do.
0 10
0
V. Central do.
0 9 0
Goats, each.
i Southern do.
0 7
6
C Western do.
0 0 5
f Eastern do.
0 10
0
Sugar,
per lb.
\ Southern do.
0 0 7l
J Northern do.
0 2
6
¦\ Eastern do.
0 0 6
^ Central do.
0 9
0
/ Northern do.
0 0 8
r Western do.
0 12
0
V Central do.
0 0 9
Swine, each.
i Southern do.
.0 15
0
C Western do.
0 3 0
J Eastern do.
1 15
0
Salt,
\ Southern do.
0 3 72
| Northern do.
0 18
0
per
< Eastern do.
0 2 8
^ Central do.
1 17
6
bushel.
i Northern do.
0 2 8
["Western do.
0 0
3
L Central do.
0 4 6
\ Southern do.
0 0
1
^Western do.
J Southern do.
\ Eastern do.
0 3 0
Milk, per
bottle.
( Eastern do.
| Northern do.pr.gal.
0 0
0 0
5*
Wine, per
bottle.
0 3 3
0 19
__ Central do.
0 0
6
# Northern do.pr.gal.
0 10 0
'"Western do.
0 1
6
v. Central do.
0 4 0
Butter,
\ Southern do.
0 2
0
f Western do.
0 2 6
Fresh, •
^ Eastern do.
0 2
0
Brandy,
J Southern do.
0 4 3
per lb.
| Northern do.
0 0
8
per
\ Eastern do.
0 3 0
1
._ Central do.
0 6
0
bottle.
f Northern do. pr .gal .
0 15 0
^Western do.
0 2
6
V- Central do.
0 4 0
Butter,
1 Southern do.
0 2
6
C Western do.
0 10
Salt, ^
Eastern do.
0 2
3
Beer, per
bottle.
y Southern do.
0 1 32
per lb. .
| Northern do.
—
\ Eastern do.
0 10
{
__ Central do.
0 2
6
f Northern do.pr.gal.
0 3 9
i
^Western do.
0 2
0
v. Central do.
0 13
'
1 Southern do.
0 3
0
["Western do.
0 10
Cheese,
Eastern do.
0 2
0
Tobacco, per lb.
l Southern do.
0 11
per lb.
1 Northern do.
0 3
0
c Eastern do.
0 0 3
(
_ Central do.
0 2
6
| Northern do.
0 0 5!
^ Central do. . j
0 2 0
3
I 2
852 APPENDIX. XXIV.
STANDARD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES,
The Imperial standard for Colonial weights and measures, is that adopted by the
Government and Europeans, in all their transactions, but as the Dutch and native
standards of dry measure are frequently used by other classes, they are here subjoined,
as being likely to prove useful to the capitalist designing to settle in the island.
Weights were very little employed by the Singhalese except by gold and silversmiths
and their medical men. By the former the weights used were a seed, and a brass
weight (the kalande) equal to twenty-four seeds. The seed is red, hard, and heart-
shaped, the produce of a large tree called by the natives Madatea-gaha. It averaged
about 3*6' grains.
The Dutch parah, is a cube of 11 AJ^ inches in depth and breadth, which wasdivided
into 24 seers, and the seer, a cylinder of depth 4*35 inches, equal to its diameter 4'35
inches, subdivided into half and quarter seers. The internal measure of a standard
parah, is a perfect cube, of 13 ^^th inches; the seer is a perfect cylinder, depth, 4.35
inches, diameter 4.45 inches ; the weight of the parah measure, according to the Cus
tom house account, is, for coffee, from 35 to 50 lbs. pepper, 27 to 30 lbs. ; salt, 52 to
55 lbs. ; paddy, (rice in the husk) 30 to 33 lbs ; rice 42 to 46 lbs ; the candy or bahar,
500 lbs. avoirdupois, or 461 Dutch trey weight.
Native- Dry Measure.
4 (cut) chundoos, 1 (cut) measure or seer, — 4 4-5 seers, 1 coorney, — t 1-2 coor-
nies, 1 markal, — 2 markals, 1 parah, — 8 parahs, 1 ammonam, — 9. 3'8 ammonams,
1 last. The specific parts of this measure varied both in proportion and name in the Kan
dian Provinces. Thus their smallest measure of quantity, whether dry or liquid
was the hundua, equal to a, bandful ; two hunduas, were equal to one nellea ; four
nelleas, to one punchy-laha, and one and a-half punchy-Iaha, to one lochoo-laha. Ten
lochoo-lahas, were equal to one pala, and four palus to one ammonam. These last were,
however, merely nominal, to express large quantities. The lochoo-laha was the
largest dry measure in actual use, and the nellea, equal to eight hunduas, the largest
liquid measure. Both kinds were used in measuring grain and oil. For grain, the
measure was made of rattan, for" oil of bamboo : their measures varied, and no two
were to be found exactly alike.
When these measures prevailed, standard gauges were deposited for reference in
every cutcherry, as a protection against fraud through defective weights, a precaution
absolutely requisite, where the natives would frequently place the wooden measures in
boiling water, then dry them in the sun, and complete their roguery by coating the
interior surface with a thick layer of transparent dammer or pine resin.
The bale of cinnamon consists of about ninety-two and a half pounds.
Liquid measure. Gallons with their multiples and sub-multiples : 150 gallons
make one leaguer.
Long measure, linear or cloth measure, land measure, are according to the imperial
Kandian Measure of Surface,
Eight lahas make 1 coornie (10 {§ square perches); 10 coornies make 1 peyla (2
square roods, 29 £ square perches) ; 4 peylas make 1 ammonam (2 ncres, 2 square
roods, Sl\ square inches). The measurement of land, however, is not calculated for
the specific area, but from the quantity of seed required to be sown on it, and in some
measure, according to its fertility, an "ammonam of land being that which requires an
ammonam of seed.

APPENDIX.

853

The native measures of space were very singular. In estimating the distance be
tween place and place ; the shortest measure in common use was the whoo, a loud
hollo : two of which were considered equal to an attakme ; four <>f the latter to a gow,
and five gows made a. day's journey, varying from twenty-five to thirty miles. The
banda and the bandera-bamba, which were occasionally used, were re' her more precise
measures of distance. The former was considered equal to the space between the arms
extended, measuring from the tips of the finger/s, and was about six feet, and the latler
about nine feet, was the height to which a man could reach above bis head with his
hand. Five hundred bandera-baraba were equal to an attakme. In addition to the
above, they had other measures both larger and smaller. Their smallest measure was
the seventh part of a veete (a grain of paddy) ; seven veetes were equal to oneangula ;
seven angulas to one veata ; nine veatas to one doona (about nine English feet); 500
doonas to one attakme ; four attakmes to one gow, and four gows to one yoodoona.
Carpenters and some other artificers had measures of their own. The carpenter's
angula was equal to the space between the second and third joint of the forefinger, and
his wadduranea was composed of twenty- four angulas, and divided into four parts.
Coins.
Singhalese coins are rare, the money of the continent, brought over by the
Malabars, being the chief native currency. Thunberg describes one of the Singhalese
coins as very remarkable on account of its form, &c. : it was current on the coasts of
Malabar and Coromandel. It was struck by the King of Kandy in various sizes and
rates of value, and was commonly called Laryn. Davy mentions it, also, under the
name of riddy or rheedy. It consisted of a silver cylinder of wire, hammered out and
bent together in the middle, the ends being afterwards turned up like a hook, and the
upper end distinguished either with certain letters or stars, or else with engravings.
To counterfeit this was a capital crime. One was valued at twelve and another at
nine Dutch stivers, and smaller sizes, equal to seven-pence English, and equivalent to
sixty-four Kandian challies were in vogue. According to Mr. Dundas Campbell, the
editor of Mr. Boyd's works, a coin called Tangom Massa, struck by the Portuguese
for circulation in Ceylon, value nine-pence. They were of the finest silver. The
Indian pagodah is the only gold coin now to be met with. An antique gold coin, called
a Dambadiniya rhatra was found some years ago in the neighbourhood of that place in
the Seven Korles, which was, probably, struck there, when it was a royal residence. In
size and appearance it resembled the Dambadiniya chally.
A leaden coin representing a low value, was also issued by the Singhalese monarchs.
Coins have also been found belonging to an Hindoo dynasty, one, a gold coin, exhibit
ing as the device, a male figure seated in the Indian manner, with dhoti ; left hand
raised, and face looking to the left ; on the side in the Nagara character. " Sri Lankes-
war j" reverse a rude standing figure, with a flowing robe ; right hand extended over
two emblems ; left hand, supporting a crown or globe ; beneath, a scroll. Also a
copper coin very similar, but of ruder execution. The chally was a copper coin, of
which there are two kinds. Dutch challies, which are common, and Dambadiniya
challies, which are rare. The characters on this ancient coin, have a nearer similitude
to hieroglyphics than letters, as « "proof of which the natives cannot decypher or
explain their meaning. As every necessary and luxury could be obtained through the
medium of barter, money was not required by the Singhalese for any but extraordinary
occasions, and the quantity of gold and silver coin in circulation, through the whole
country, would not equal that of a small provincial town in England. Thus the total
revenue in specie of the late king, who exacted as much as possible, did not exceed
£1500 sterling. The undermentioned foreign coins are received at the following-
rates: — Every sort of English money is now in use; besides which, there are rix
dollars of English coinage, value Is. 6d. each; Spanish and American dollars, value
4s. 2d. each; Company's rupees, value 2s. each; Silver two-anna pieces, value 3d.
each; two-pice pieces of English coinage, value 3 farthings each; one, 1 \ ; half^f.
Dutch copper challies taken as prize at Kandy. Little or no gold coin is now in cir
culation, and though a very considerable amount of silver coin is annually imported,
the greater part is almost immediately exported for rice and cloth.

854

APPENDIX.

Course of Exchange.

With England, at
With Madras, at
With Bombay, at
With Calcutta, at
And 100 siccas per 106 Com
pany's rupees
With Mauritius and Penang, at

1 6 per rix dollar
111 per rupee
111 per ditto
2 1 per sicca rupee

Accounts are kept
in pounds, shil
lings, and pence.

4 4 per Spanish dollar ^
The rates of exchange with Great Britain and foreign countries have been fixed ac
cording to the relative value of the Ceylon rix-dollar to the British and foreign
countries. Rates of Postage.1
Overland letters cost in Colombo, single postage, one shilling, newspapers and price
currents one penny. One of the fortnightly mails2 comes direct to Galle. The rates
of island postage for letters have recently been very considerably reduced. Single
postage from Colombo to the most distant portion of the island is no more than six
pence in lieu of one shilling and sixpence, and one shilling, the rates which formerly
obtained. Newspapers, pamphlets, and price currents, not exceeding one ounce in
weight, are still carried for the original moderate charge of one penny.
Port dues have recently been reduced from fourpence to twopence per ton of the
registered tonnage of any ship or vessel anchoring in any port of the island, excepting
chartered transports, vessels belonging to Government, vessels in ballast, or with car
goes for exportation.
Vessels employed between one port and another of the island are allowed to compound
for port dues for twelve months at Is. per ton.
No coasting vessels are liable to pay port dues within thirty days from the date of the
last payment thereof.
The Master Attendant and Pilots are authorised to receive the following fees for pilot
ing every square-rigged vessel, sloop, or schooner, at the Ports of Colombo, Trincomalee,
and Galle.
Colombo, ;
' Vessels of 600 tons and upwards
400 ,, and under 600
Trincomalee <( t[ 200 „ and under 400
100 „ and under 200
under 100
" Vessels of 600 tons and upwards
400 „ and under 600
Galle <( „ 200 „ and under 400
100 „ and under 200
under 100
The above rates of pilotage are chargeable to all vessels going into the inner har
bour of Trincomalee and the harbour of Galle, whether they make a signal for a pilot
or not. In Colombo and Back Bay at Trincomalee, the charge is only made if the
vessel makes the signal and a pilot actually repairs on board.
i The Post-office receipts were, for 1845, £7,885, expenditure, £6,889.; J846, receipts, £7,576,
expenditure, £7,448. ;but it is expected that the small surplus will be absorbed by the extension
of communication into new and rising districts. The steamer Seaforth is now no longer em
ployed in conveying the Ceylon mails to Bombay, but a contract has been opened with the
Peninsular and Oriental Company, whose vessels stand off Colombo, as well as put into Galle ;
and the Bombay passage every fortnight, is in like manner performed by contract; the colonial
steamer is therefore at liberty for the purpose for which she was designed, the supervision of
the pearl banks, which have been injured by the fishermen.
2 The average passage from England to Ceylon, by the Vessels of the Peninsular and Oriental
Company, is of 123 days' duration1; 'and a first-class passenger is charged, male, £113. ; female,
£122.; whole cabin throughout, for a gentleman and his wife, £290; ditto, for best reserved
cabin, £885.; children, 5 years and under 10, £65.; above 2 and under 5, £45. ; servants;
European, female, £46. ; male, £44. ; native, female, £32. ; male, £28. These charges include
every thing but extra baggage in the overland route.

£. s.

d.

£.

s.

d.

0 15

0

6*3

£ 2 0
0
O
J?
4
0
0
M 1 10
2 1 1
0
a
3
0
0
0
K
2
2
0
§ 0 10
6
01
1
1
0
« 0 6
0
a
0
15
0
3 0
0
2 5
0
1 10
0
1 2
6
0 15
0
APPENDIX. 855
Rates of Wages.
The wages of servants at Colombo have risen within the last ten years very con
siderably. House servants receive from£l. to £2. per month; cooks £1, to £1. 10s.,
and horsekeepers 18s. to £1. 5s. The paucity of washerwomen, their high charges,
dilatoriness and the rapidity with which their mode of washing destroys clothing are
sources of grievous complaint. They charge 10s. for washing 100 pieces of clothing,
agreements by the month being in proportion. The following are the rates at present
paid for labour by the Royal Engineer's Department: — Overseers Is. 3d. per day;
Artificers Is. 3d. ; ditto middling Is. ; ditto inferior 9d.; labourers 8d. and inferior
Sd. per day ; carts 2s. per day.
Predial labourers may be procured in the country districts as low as 4\d. per diem.
The following Table will shew the average Rate of Wages :

\ Southern
Domestic Servants. < Eastern
J Northern
^_ Central
C Western
1 Southern
Predial. < Eastern
J Northern
\_ Central
" Western Southern
Mechanics. <^ Eastern
1 Northern Central

£

s.

d.

per diem 0

0

6

0

0

6i

*>

1

0

per month 0

7

6

per diem 0

1

0

0

0

6

0

0

6

o

0

0

per month 0

9

0

per diem 0

1

0

0

1

0

o

1

0

o

2

0

per month 1

2

6

per diem 0

2

0

XXV.
RETURN OF THE NUMBER OF CHURCHES AND CHAPELS BE
LONGING TO THE VARIOUS RELIGIOUS BODIES IN CEYLON,
AND THE MEMBERS OF THE SAME.— RETURN OF SCHOOLS,
SCHOLARS, AND MONEY GRANTED IN AID THEREOF.
In the Western Provinee are eleven places of worship belonging to the Establish
ment, capable of containing upwards of 3000 persons. Service is also performed at
the school-rooms of twenty, two villages by the Church Missionaries and Catechists
to 1000 natives.
To the Romanists belong 155 chapels, holding 59,660 persons, under the superin
tendence of sixteen Missionaries. To the Wesleyans twelve chapels ; to the Baptists
twelve chapels.
In the Southern Province are six churches or chapels belonging to the Establish
ment, holding upwards of 2000 persons. Service is also performed in nine school
rooms to 500 persons. To the Romanists two churches, holding 1600 persons ; to
the Wesleyans seven chapels ; to the Baptists one.
In the Eastern Province. To the Establishment two churches holding 350 per
sons ; to the Roman Catholics seventeen chapels, holding 4330 persons, under the care
of one Missionary ; to the Wesleyans three chapels.
In the Northern Province. To the Establishment three churches, holding 700
persons, and service is performed also at seven schools under the superintendence of
two Missionaries and three Catechists ; to the Roman Catholics 160 chapels, holding
37,040 persons, ' and superintended by five Priests ; to the Wesleyans four chapels.

856 APPENDIX.
The American Mission has several stations in this Province with about 1000 audi
tors ; the whole superintended by five Missionaries, assisted by thirty natives.
In the Central Province. To the Establishment two churches, and service is per
formed in nine schools under the superintendence of two Missionaries and two Cate
chists ; to the Baptist Missionary Society three chapels.
The Western Province contains the following Public Schools ;
The Colombo Academy and model school attached to it, containing 233 scholars ;
superintended by two masters and five assistants ; salary of Principal £500 ; total Go
vernment contribution £1,073 less £336, raised by voluntary effort ; mode of in
struction comprises the usual branches of an English, classical and mathematical edu
cation. The Colombo central school in the Fort, and Normal class attached to it,
contains 57 scholars ; receives Government aid of £356 ; is superintended by one
master ; mode of education, commercial. The public schools devoted to elementary
education are, St. Peter's school, Fort, master and assistant, 102 scholars; Govern
ment aid, £87. Dutch consistorial, boys and girls' school, Pettah, master, two assist
ants ; mistress, two assistants; scholars — male 175, females 84; Government aid
£33 1 . Colombo female seminary, mistress and three assistants ; scholars 58 ; Go
vernment aid £186. St. Paul's boys and girls' school, Pettah, master and assistant-
master and mistress ; scholars — male 50, female 40 ; Government aid £246. Grand
Pass school, master and assistant ; scholars 84 ; Government aid £90. St. Thomas's
boys and girls' school, master aod two assistant-masters and mistress; scholars —
male 101, female 38 ; Governmeut aid £20?. Mattacooly boys and girls' school,
master and assistant, mistress ; scholars — male 50, female 10 ; Government aid £63.
Marandhan girl's schoolmaster and mistress; scholars 15; Government aid £27.
Wellicadde gaol school, master ; scholars 20 ; Government aid £36.
There are fifteen other public schools for boys and girls, with fifteen masters and six
assistants, and six mistresses, attended by nearly 700 scholars, and receive £889. 10s.
Government aid. Besides these, there is an orphan school at Coipetty, superintendant-
mistress, and writing master; scholars 21; Government aid £36. Six boys and
girls' military schools, in the Fort, with two English and two native masters and three
assistants, and a mistress; scholars — male 164, excluding 71 adults, female 14; Go
vernment aid £64, several being supported by subscription.
The Church Mission Free schools are, the Institute at Cotta, with three masters ;
scholars 23. English boys and girls' school at ditto, masters three ; mistress ; scholars
— male 79, female 100. Boys' Singhalese school at ditto; master ; scholars 24.
Besides these they have twenty-eight Singhalese and one Tamul school at other
stations in the province, containing 632 male, and 258 female scholars.
The Wesleyan Mission has also sixteen Free schools at Colombo, under thirteen mas
ters and three mistresses ; scholars — male 616, female 97. Nineteen schools in the
Negombo district, under twenty-four masters and one mistress ; scholars — male 507,
female 61. Eleven schools in the Caltura district; masters 14; scholars — male 471,
female 32.
The Baptist Mission has seven schools at Colombo, containing 237 scholars^ and
twenty-two at other stations in the Province, with 765 scholars.
The private schools are one male school in Wolfendahl-street under three masters ;
scholars 144 ; Government aid £100 ; and three female schools, with five mistresses,
and 1 1 9 scholars.
Southern Province. — Public schools, Galle central and elementary school, master
and assistants ; scholars 90; mode of education, commercial ; Government aid £287.
l\ ormal school, scholars 4 ; Government aid £40. Two Elementary schools at ditto
for boys and girls, with two masters and two assistants, and a mistress ; scholars 1 10 ;
Government aid £146. Ratnapoora school, master; scholars 19; Government aid
£36. Bentotte school, master ; scholars 31 ; Government aid £38. (Amblangodde)
BallepiUymodera school, master ; scholars 25 ; Government aid £36. Belligam
school, master (no returns). Matura school, master ; scholars 60 ; Government aid
£100. The Church Mission has a seminary at Baddagama, master ; scholars 15.
English school at ditto, master ; scholars 1 4. Singhalese boys and girls' school at

APPENDIX. 857
ditto, master and assistant, mistress and ditto ; scholars — male 40, female 115. Six
Singhalese schools at other stations, scholars — male 154, female 40. The Wesleyan
Mission, eighteen schools in the Galle district under eighteen masters and three mis
tresses ; scholars — male 682, female 197. Eleven schools in the Matura district,
under eleven masters and two mistresses; scholars — male 385, female 68. Baptist
Mission, five schools in the Matura district ; scholars 120. Private schools, one at
Galle, the Bona Vista in the Talpepattoo, master and three female assistants; scholars
— male 20, female 30 ; Government aid £90.
Eastern Province. — Public schools : Trincomalee boys and girls' school, master and
assistant -mistress ; scholars — male 46, female 36 ; Government aid £106. Batecalo
school, master ; scholars 24; Government aid £12. Amurodegalle school, master ;
scholars 26; Government aid £l2. Chaplain's boys and girls' school, Trincomalee,
master the Government chaplain (no returns). Ceylon rifle regimental school, master ;
scholars 31. Wesleyan Mission Trincomalee English boys' school, scholars 30. Two
Tamil at another station, scholars 80. Batecalo English boys and girls' school,
scholars — male 40, female 30. Tamil boy's school, scholars 26. Nine ditto at other
stations, 234. Private schools, Trincomalee district : Eleven native schools, scholars
135, supported by voluntary effort. Batecalo district, twenty-eight schools, scholars
588. Self-supporting.
Northern Province. — Five public schools with five masters and four assistants, 156
scholars ; Government aid £232. Church Mission, Seminary at Chundicully, master,
scholars 20. Day school at ditto, master, scholars 19. Girls' boarding-school at
.Nellore, matron and monitors, scholars 30. Day school at Nellore, master, scholars 50.
Boys' English school at Nellore, master, scholars 70. Twenty-one Tamil schools at
other stations ; scholars — male 878, female 7. Wesleyan Mission : Jaffna English boys'
school, scholars 100 ; ditto girls, scholars 32 ; Tamil ditto, scholars 30. Five Tamil
at other stations in the district; scholars — male 369, female 83. Point Pedro English
boys' school, scholars 52 ; Tamil ditto, scholars 50 ; ditto girls, scholars 24. One
English and one Tamil at another station, scholars 160. American Mission Semi
nary at Batticotta, a principal and three professors, assisted by six English or native
instructors, scholars 113, self-supporting. One female boarding-school at Oodooville,
a male and female superintendent and native ditto, three native teachers, one female
ditto, scholars 100, Female boarding-school at Varany, male and female superintendent
and three native teachers, scholars 20. English and Tamil day-school at Batticotta,
native teachers and two assistants, scholars 38 ; ditto at Tillipally, master, scholars
27 ; ditto at Valvetty, master, scholars 17 ; ditto at Oodooville, master, scholars 20 ;
ditto at Manepy, master and assistant, scholars 22 ; ditto at Panditeripo, master, scho
lars 15 ; ditto at Chavagaeherry, native teacher, scholars 9 ; ditto at Varany, native
master, scholars 8. Seventy-five Tamil schools in thirteen parishes ; scholars — male
1742, female 1036.
Private schools, Jaffna, two masters, scholars 59. One hundred and ten native
schools, scholars 2497. Manaar, Peasalle, master, scholars 19. The Wanny, seven
native schools, scholars 53.J
Central Province. — Public Schools. Kandy, master, scholars 49 ; Government aid
£70. Matale school, master and assistant, scholars 21 ; Government aid £48. Ba
dulla school, master, scholars 39 : Government aid £57 ; four military schools, with
two masters, two native teachers and a mistress ; scholars 140 ; Government aid £80.
Church Mission- Girls' seminary at Kandy, mistress and two assistants, scholars 14.
English school at Kandy, master and assistant, scholars 40. Singhalese school at ditto,
two Native teachers, scholars 25. Four Singhalese and three Tamil schools at other
stations, scholars— male 134, female 7. Baptist Mission : two schools at Kandy,
scholars 55 ; two at other stations, scholars 47. Matale, two ditto, scholars 35. Pri
vate schools : Kandy, 189 native schools (no returns) ; Badulla, 36 ditto ; Nuwara
Elliya, 4 ditto. Gaols, Prisoners, &c.
Prisoners under sentence of transportation were, till lately, sent to Van Diemen's
Land ; they are now exchanged with the convicts from the Straits settlements.

858

APPENDIX.

The common gaol at Hulftsdorf, in Colombo, is capable of containing 12 prisoners
in separate, and 195 in mixed cells. In Michaelmas, 1843, there were 88 male and
2 female coloured persons convicted for felony, and 3 untried; and 31 males and 2
females convicted of misdemeanours within its walls, besides 13 untried coloured per
sons, and 8 debtors. During the year 143 males and 3 females were under hard labour
in the prison, and 44 not employed. The greatest number under confinement at any
one time in the year were 1 66 persons. The total cases of sickness during the year
were 307 ; at any one time 40 ; deaths during the year 6. Visited by the Fiscal and
Judges of the Supreme Court. Gaol divided into six classes : one for prisoners sen
tenced to hard labour ; one for simple imprisonment, and one for untried prisoners ;
one for female prisoners ; one for debtors ; and one for lunatics. Food supplied by
contract at 2§ d. per day to natives, and 7\d. per day to Europeans. Clothing is
provided by Government. A new mat is allowed to natives every three months, and
ordinary bedding to Europeans. Hours of labour, from 6 h. to 10 h. 30 m. a.m., and
from 12 h. 30 m. to 5 h. p. m. Prisoners employed in breaking stones for macadamiz
ing roads, cooking for the prison, keeping the gaol, courts, and environs in order, and
making roads. The construction of the gaol does not at present admit of a strict
classification, but it is in contemplation to make it so. Prisoners are permitted to
see their friends in the presence of an officer of the gaol, but there is no regular chap
lain, though there are no restrictions to religious teachers. Whipping is resorted to in
cases of insubordination, and irons for escaping. There are 23 insane persons kept in
separate buildings in the gaol.
A new prison has lately been erected at Wellicadde, on the plan of the Pentonville
prison, where a large number of criminals are at present confined.
The common gaol at Ratnapoora in Saffragam, consists of tight rooms, five of which
are appropriated to the prisoners, and capable of containing from 35 to 40 persons.
Total number of prisoners in confinement at Michaelmas, 1843, 12. Greatest number
at any one time in the year, 33 ; of these 1 7 were under hard labour out of the prison
and 16 not employed. Total cases of sickness, 8. Remarks under gaol at Colombo,
here inapplicable ; no clothing or bedding here allowed ; a classification of prisoners
is observed. The common gaol at Kurunaigalla can accommodate 40 prisoners. Greatest number
of prisoners at any one time in 1843, 29. Total committed during the year, 46. Total
cases of sickness during the year, 8. This gaol is ill adapted for the due classifica
tion of prisoners. Weekly allowance to Europeans remanded for further examination,
5s. 6d. per week ; hard labour, &c. 3s. 6d. ; burghers under hard labour, &c. Is. 9d. ;
Natives, 2s. in the former, and Is. 9d. in the latter case. Allowance of clothing as at
Colombo. Fever and dysentery appear to be the common complaints at all three gaols.
This prison is too slightly constructed to afford security, and no dependence is to be
placed on the persons employed as turnkeys, on account of the low scale of remune
ration. The common gaol at Galle is capable of containing 90 prisoners, and has two sepa
rate cells. The Bridewell, also, within the fort has room for 50 prisoners. At Michael
mas, 1843, there were 19 tried coloured felons and 9 untried ; 7 convicted of misde
meanours, and 2 untried for ditto. In the latter, 9 untried felons and 2 debtors. Total
number of prisoners in confinement at any one time in the year, in the former — whites
1 coloured 36 ; in the. latter — coloured, 12. Total number of prisoners committed
during the year, 22. Total cases of sickness, 91.
Common gaol at Matura within the fort can contain 150 prisoners ; has no separate
sleeping cells ; consists of three wards, one for the accommodation of convicts and pri
soners for trial, one for females, and one for debtors, with two hospitals. At Michael
mas, 1843, there were 4 male and 3 female tried felons, and 21 untried ; 2 untried
persons for misdemeanours. Greatest number in confinement at any one time in the
year 30. Number of persons under hard labour during the year, 59. Total cases of
sickness during the year, 14.
Common gaol at Tangalle within the fort can hold 100 ; no separate cells. At
Michaelmas, 1843, contained 2 tried and 1 untried felons ; 3 tried and 7 untried for

APPENDIX. 859
misdemeanours, and 3 debtors. Greatest number in confinement at any one time in
the year, 16. Total number committed during the year, 65. Total cases of sickness
during ditto, 3.
Common gaol at Hambantotte can contain 300 persons ; has no separate cells.
Five wards and an hospital. Such convicts under hard labour as are required for the
public works at the station are kept in this prison. Total number of commitments
during 1843, 3 ; employed at hard labour, 50. Total cases of sickness during the year,
174. Observation — The Bridewell at Galle was established to extend the system of
classification ; petty offenders, women and prisoners committed for trial, are alone con
fined here. The visitation of the gaol is in the same hands as in the Western Pro
vince. The gaol at Galle is spacious and airy, as also the Matura ; the dietary, or
weekly allowance is 5s. 3d. at the four places for Europeans, 3s. 6d. for burghers, and
Is. 9d. for natives. Clothing and bedding are supplied. Hard labour consists of
employment in all the public works ; the only classification in each is, that the worst
characters are confined together and apart from the better disposed. There is no ap
pointed religious instruction, but missionaries have unrestricted access. Fever and
dysentery are the prevailing complaints.
F.astern Province. — The common gaol at Trincomalee will hold 125 prisoners, and
has besides six cells. Line gaol at ditto will hold 75 prisoners, aad has one separate
cell. Prisoners in confinement at former, Michaelmas, 1843, 6 tried felons and 19
convicted of misdemeanours ; debtors in latter, 8. Greatest number of prisoners in
confinement at any one time in the year, at the former 29, at the latter 12. Total
number of commitments during the year, 39 at the former, and 32 at the latter. Under
hard labour out of the prison, 43. Total cases of sickness during the year, 84.
Common gaol at Batecalo, situate at the Isle Pooliantivoe, can^hold 74 prisoners ;
has no separate cells. Greatest number confined at any one time during the year, 8 ;
number of commitments in 1843, 23. Dietary — Europeans 7Jd. per diem, burghers
4%d. and natives 3fd. Clothing and bedding supplied. Prisoners employed at any
public works required.
Common gaol at Jaffnapatam will accommodate 312 ; has no separate cells. In con
finement, Michaelmas, 1843, tried felons 47 ; untried 13 ; for misdemeanours — tried
48 males, 13 females ; untried 4 ; debtors 8. Greatest number confined at any one
time during the year, 156. Total number of commitments during the year, under 18,
males 20, females 3 ; above 18, males 284, females 42. Under hard labour in the
prison — males 6, females 24 ; out of the prison, 238. Total cases of sickness in
1843,195. Common gaol at Manaar will contain 40 prisoners ; no separate cells. At Michael
mas, 1843, confined — tried felons 4; misdemeanours — tried 6, untried 1. Greatest
number of prisoners confined at any one time in 1843, 22. Number of commitments
in 1843, 66. Total cases of sickness 1843, 39.
Common gaol at Mulletivoe, situate within the fort at Mulletivoe, will hold 25 pri
soners ; no separate cells. Total number of commitments 1843, 44 ; total cases of
sickness, 1843, 10.
Common gaol at Anuradhapoora will contain 12 prisoners ; no returns. The gaol
at Jaffna was formerly military quarters ; there is a due classification of prisoners.
Dietary— Europeans, for debt, 5s. 3d. per week, for trial ditto ; under hard labour, &c.
3s. 6d.; burghers, debtors, 3s. 6d. under hard labour, 2s. 7\d.; under sentence, Is. 9d.;
natives, Is. 2d. ; debtors under hard labour, Is. 3|d. No clothing or bedding allowed.
Employed on the construction and repair of the roads in the immediate vicinity, at
Manaar and Mulletivoe, on public works at Anuradhapoora, and clearing the vicinity
of underwood. No religious instruction, the prisoners being mostly heathens. Fever
is the prevalent disease. The gaol at Jaffna might be considered crowded by Europeans,
but is not so with reference to natives. The appearance of the prisoners shew they
are not unhealthy ; those under hard labour are extremely stout and healthy, a suffi
ciency of food of a better description than that procurable at home, is, with regular
exercise, the cause of this. Imprisonment, even with hard labour, is not made suffi
ciently disagreeable to the natives, and there are difficulties in making it so, from the
characters of the persons employed as attendants.

860

APPENDIX.

Central Province. — Common gaol at Kandy has 17 separate cells, and will contain
200 prisoners. Prisoners confined at Michaelmas, 1843 — felons tried 32, untried 30 ; for
misdemeanours — tried, 25, untried 9; debtors, 7. Greatest number of prisoners in con
finement at any one time in 1843 — males 163, females 9. Number of commitments
1843, 368. Under haid labour out of the prison 266. Total cases of sickness 1843,
214. Common gaol at Matale has 15 separate cells, will contain 30 prisoners. In con
finement, Michaelmas, 1843, 10 untried for misdemeanours. Greatest number of pri
soners at any one time in 1843, 9.
Common gaol at Badulla has four separate cells, will contain 50 prisoners. Number
confined at Michaelmas, 1843; for misdemeanours — tried 17, untried 4; debtors, 2.
Greatest number at any one time in 1843,31. Total cases of sickness during
1843, 50.
Common gaol at Nuwera Elliya has eight separate cells, will contain 16 prisoners.
-Greatest number in confinement at any time in 1843, 44. A due classification of
prisoners is observed at Kandy. Dietary, 5s. 3d. per week Europeans ; natives Is. 6fd.
Europeans are furnished with clothing, and the natives with mats and blue cotton
cloth. The average amount of expense for clothing an European is £l per annum,
for a native, 12s. Employed in the construction or repair of streets, roads, or public
buildings. Gaol at Kandy visited by the missionaries. Fever and dysentery chief
diseases.

XXVI.
GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS APPENDIX.
There is a remarkable peculiarity of moral character among the
Singhalese domestics familiar to the residents in Ceylon — their almost
habitual dishonesty in matters not committed to their care, and for
which they do not consider themselves responsible, and their scrupulous
honesty as to those entrusted to them ; this has led to the custom of
each guest at a dinner party bringing his servant, so that when plate is
cleaned, each servant is put into a separate apartment to perform it.
Names of the Singhalese Months.— Doorootoo-masse, January; Navan-
masse, February ; Meddun-dinne, March : Bak-masse, April ; Wesak-
masse, May ; Poson-masse, June ; Esselle-masse, July ; Nikini-masse,
August; Binnerre-masse, September; Wak-masse, October; Il-masse,
November: Oondoowak -masse, December.
Days of the Week.— Erie-da, Sunday ; Sandoo-da, Monday; Ange-
harroowa-da, Tuesday ; Bada- da, Wednesday ; Brahaspattin-da, Thurs
day ; Sikkoora-da, Friday ; Sewnesoora-da, Saturday.
Throne of the Kandian Kings.— 'The ancient throne of the Kan
dian sovereigns for the last century and a half, resembled an old
arm-chair, such as is not unfrequently seen in England. It was
about five feet high in the back, three in breadth, and two in
depth ; the frame was of wood, entirely covered with thin gold sheet
ing (studded with precious stones), the exquisite taste and workman
ship of which did not constitute the least of its beauties, and vied
with the best modern specimens of the works of the goldsmith. The
most prominent features in this curious relic were two golden lions
or sphinxes, forming the arms of the throne or chair, of very uncouth
appearance, but beautifully wrought, the heads of the animals being
turned outwards in a peculiarly graceful manner. The eyes were formed

APPENDIX. 861
of entire amethysts, each rather larger than a musket ball. Inside the
back, near the top, was a large golden sun, from which the founder of the
Kandian monarchy was supposed to have derived his origin. Beneath,
about the centre of the chair, and in the midst of some sun-flowers, was
an immense amethyst, about the size of a large walnut ; on either side
there was a figure of a female deity, supposed to be the wife of Vishnu
or Buddha, in a sitting posture, of admirable design and workmanship ;
the whole encompassed by a moulding formed of bunches of cut crystal,
set in gold : there was a space round the back (without the moulding)
studded with three large amethysts on each side, and six more at the
top. The seat inside the arms, and half way up the back, was lined with
red velvet. The footstool was also very handsome, being ten inches in
height, a foot broad, and two feet and a half long : the top was crimson
silk, worked with gold; a moulding of cut crystal ran about the sides
of it, beneath which, in front, were flowers, studded with fine amethysts
and crystals. The throne behind was covered with finely wrought
silver ; at the top was a large embossed half moon, of silver, surmount
ing the stars, and below all was a bed of silver sun-flowers. The sceptre
was a rod of iron, with a gold head, an extraordinary but just emblem
of his government.
Spirit of emulation among the Natives. — One remarkable and
pleasing trait in the character of both the Singhalese and Tamul
population, is the facility with which they can be stimulated, un
der the influence of emulation, to accomplish improvements for
the benefit of their respective localities; hence it occurs to me,
that therein lies an important engine for the restoration of the tanks,
that question of all-absorbent interest to those who desire to see
the industry of Ceylon placed on a sure basis ; and I have little doubt,
that, under the guidance of energetic and popular assistant agents, if
but one village were to set the example of undertaking the repairs of
its tank, every village in the northern province would immediately
follow the example, and it is far from improbable, that, under the im
pulse thus awakened, the cost of the skilled labour required in addition,
would be readily borne by the united community. For the furtherance
of this end, I would suggest that the tank so repaired should take the
name of the headman superintending its execution, and that the names
of those assisting in the work should be inscribed on a stone, according
to their respective merits, in the most prominent point of view. Of
this pleasing susceptibility I have many instances before me, but let
one suffice. A handsome bridge was erected, by the headmen in the
vicinity, over the Hingoooya, in the Four Korles, through the instru
mentality of Captain Gordon — hence called Gordon's bridge — whose
emulation had been excited by the voluntary erection of a smaller bridge
by the chiefs of another Korle. The Portuguese amply availed them
selves of this amour prof re, and by permitting the higher castes to
assume Portuguese names, and bestowing the title of Dom with great
profusion, they secured their good-will under critical circumstances. So
absurdly, however, has the title been multiplied, that it has become
ridiculous to the last degree, and I see no other mode of abating the
nuisance, and compelling this heterogeneous body to doff its borrowed
plumes, than by imposing a tax on the whole, and thus reducing it
within ordinary proportions.

862 APPENDIX.
Establishment of the Wesleyan Mission. — The establishment of the Wes
leyan mission in Ceylon was, even while in embryo, beset with features
of romantic incident, strangely inconsistent with the prosaic character
of that body at home. Dr. Coke, a gentleman educated atOxford, of in
dependent fortune and an ardent temperament, had long conceived the
design of planting, in Ceylon, a missionary offshoot of that rising sect,
to the interests of which he had devoted the best part of his life, with the
ultimate view of extending its operations to the Peninsula. With these
aims — aims long frustrated by the straitened resources of the connexion
— he finally guaranteed the whole expenses of the outfit and establish
ment of the mission ; and selecting seven missionaries, embarked along
with them, intending to superintend the undertaking. After passing
the line, he was seized with a violent attack of illness, which the con
stitution at his advanced age had not sufficient strength to encounter,
and he soon after expired, leaving the whole of his followers in a state
of destitution. To detail all the painful circumstances of such a situ
ation, in the midst of ocean, would scarcely fall within our province ;
it will be sufficient to remark, that that situation was aggravated to the
last degree by the failure of their leader to give them any previous in
sight into his pecuniary arrangements, while the comparatively infan
tile state of their society forbade a resort to the means of relief, that,
under other circumstances, would have been obtainable. Observations
such as these would apply in all their force to the case of persons who
should, in despair, resolve to abandon their undertaking and return
home, they would be almost inapplicable to the case of persons resolving
to persevere and go through their work ; yet even fortune is at the
beck of intensity of will, and that displayed, as in this case, she appeared
smiling, and raising up friends for them on deck, accompanied them on
the passage, procured assistance for them from a perfect stranger at
Bombay, sent them with letters of credit to the isle of their aspirations,
bespoke a reception there on which they had little reason to calculate,
and apportioning to each his peculiar sphere, laid the foundation of that
important and increasing field now occupied by the followers of Wesley
in Ceylon.
Olas. — The ola, or prepared talapat, on which Singhalese books
are written, is cutinto pieces, about eighteen inches long and twobroad.
Some of the books contain two or three hundred of these leaves. About
three inches from each end, a space of about an inch square is left, and
a hole is made in the leaf through which a string is passed. The two
backs are two pieces of wood, so that every book is literally in boards.
The letters are cut into the leaf with a sharp pointed iron stile, or brass
stile with steel point, and in order to make the letters legible, a prepa
ration of charcoal and oil is smeared over them, by which they become
black, while the leaf retains its original colour. A great length of time
is requisite to copy a book of ordinary magnitude, though those who
are in the habit of writing, are able to write with great rapidity. The
leaves are numbered with the letters of the alphabet. Some of their
books are very valuable, as the edges of the leaves and the whole of
the boards are covered with gold. A native copyist is always known
by his having a very long nail on the thumb of his. left hand, in
which a notch is made for the stile, as thick as a pen, to rest on while
writing.

APPENDIX, 863
Yakha, Superstitions.— The ancient'supersti tions of the Yakkas, though
long stifled, and even apparently expelled before the rising and. more
intellectual system of Gautama, resumed their sway over the minds of
the people, the instant its influence began to falter and ceased to be ex
clusive, and have now recovered their pristine vigour. The kapuas
(devil dancers) have each their kowila, or small temple, and gain a live
lihood by prescribing medicine, usually the commonest simples, to
which the ignorance of their patients lends a supernatural effect. They
are also soothsayers ; and previous to their incantations, generally work
themselves up to a state of inspired furor, which to their dupes ap
pears, when coupled with the dramatic appliances these crafty sons of
hell unsparingly call into requisition, a veritable embodiment of the
demon or demons to which their destiny is linked.
Influence of Buddhism. — There is one point we omitted to notice in
our sketch of Singhalese art, the remarkable progress of the people in
every branch of refinement that followed the establishment of the re
ligion of Buddha. They scarcely appear, says Mr. Upham, to have
entered on the career of civilization, ere we find them under Pandu-
wasa and his successors, founding cities, temples, and lakes — excava
tions rivalling the most remarkable works of antiquity, and scarcely
surpassed by the wonders of Egypt — all duly recorded in annals pre
served for three and twenty centuries. From these, we learn that a
people long regarded in Europe as savages, were comparatively civilized
before the discovery of Great Britain, and her aboriginal barba
rians. No less remarkable is it that we owe the preservation of the
Singhalese annals to the fact that their religion was blended with
their history ; thus, as long as Buddhism flourished, the history is
precise ; when it waned, the latter becomes vague.
Proverbs of the Singhalese. — I had intended to give some specimens
of the proverbs and jatakas of the Singhalese, but space will not permit,
and I must confine myself to remark, that nothing can bear a closer
affinity to the apophthegms of Solomon than many of these maxims.
Excursion Boats. — The boats used for excursions up the rivers of
Ceylon, in general consist of two canoes, about five feet apart, connected
by a small platform of split bamboos, over which a roof, covered with
cocoa-nut leaves, is erected ; the rowers are seated at the extremities
of the craft, and when favoured by the stream, impel her with con
siderable rapidity ; but the ascent of a Ceylon river is one of the most
tedious of undertakings, and is almost intolerable to an European.
Native Suspension Bridges. — The suspension bridges of Ceylon are
almost without a rival for their singularity, simplicity, and perilous
appearance. They are formed of the calamus rudentum (wanduru-we-
wtela), which is occasionally three hundred yards long, and of uniform
thickness, and being equally light and tough, combines every qualifi
cation for this particular purpose. A number of canes being fastened
round two large trees, growing on the opposite sides of a river (the
diameter of their stems determining the breadth of the structure),
small slips of the same material are placed across to complete the road
way. A cane is then tied at the proper height to form the hand rails,
which are united to the bridge by small sticks that form a mutual sup-

864

APPENDIX.

port and retain the rails in their proper position. Fastenings are then
let down from all the branches which project in the direction of the
bridge across the river, to diminish the vibration and support the struc
ture. The approach is generally by ladders tied together, like the rest of
the work, with jungle creeping plants. Though the European shudders
as he passes over these aerial bridges, the natives trip confidently
along them with the heaviest pingo loads, such is their flexibility of
limb. Major Rogers.— The late Major Rogers, the far-famed elephant shot,
had killed his two thousand elephants before he ceased to count the num
ber he had slain, and though he had been a thousand times within an inch
of death, an d several times grated, miraculously escaped from that source
of danger ; yet was it reserved for him to fall before a stroke of light
ning, a visitation seldom fatal in Ceylon. The manners of Major
Rogers bordered on those of a lady in refinement, yet so strong was
his passion for elephant shooting, that he would apply the reproach of
the Roman to himself, if he lost a day, without bearing a trophy of some
sort home with him; his night's residence was often under a few
heaped up logs of wood, the roof of a native hut, or better still, a ban
yan tree. The interior of his house contained an endless variety of
trophies. Once, while bathing in a river, after a shooting excursion,
his clothes were carried off by monkeys, which habilitated themselves
as well as they could in them, and decamped, leaving the luckless
sportsman in puris naturalibus, under a tropical sun, nor was he rescued
until he had lain up to the neck in water for several hours, when his
friends at length proceeded in search of him. The average annual num
ber of deaths caused by elephants is about twelve, that by snakes
fifteen ; the latter often arise from the reptile entering houses when
their holes have been filled by the rains, or by creeping through a win
dow when searching for rats and lizards, concealed in the cocoa-nut leaf
thatch. Winds, Rains, Mists. — The south-west wind is felt more generally
over the island, and prevails more steadily than the north-east : thus
at Colombo and Trincomalee, on the opposite shores, the south-west
wind blows almost constantly for five months in succession ; but the
north-east hardly half the time at the former that it does at the latter
place. The south-west wind does not reach Trincomalee till it has
crossed the mountains of the interior, and passed over a great extent of
low and unwholesome country ; it is therefore injurious, but during the
prevalence of the north-east monsoon, this place is comparatively
healthy. At Jaffna, the mean annual temperature is higher than else
where, from the district being free from wood and cultivated, and the
land wind, instead of blowing over a green surface of shaded forest,
passes along the sandy beach and the low sandy tract of the western
coast; yet the climate is healthy. The western coast, unlike any
other, is seldom a month without rain, hence it is seldom parched,
and its aspect is so perpetually fresh and verdant, as to excite the ad
miration of strangers from less favoured parts of India. The propor
tion of rain falling in Ceylon is three or four times as great as that in
England. At times, after sunrise, the mists that have formed in the
higher mountain hollows of the interior are displaced by the wind, and
poured in immense volumes into the warmer valleys, producing a sud-

APPENDIX. 865
den dullness and extreme humidity of air, far from agreeable, together
with an extraordinary reduction of temperature.
Udaneura and Yattineura. — The Rattes of Udaneura and Yattineura
appear to have been specialities under the Kandian kings, and from
their population and fruitfulness, and the circumstance that they were
the seats of the principal nobles, were privileged above the other
provinces, and their governor was always selected out of their own
body. Hence the old Kandian apophthegm, that if they wanted
a king, they might take any man of either ratte from the plough, and
after submitting him to an ablution, he would from his quality and
descent, make a competent ruler.
Dietetics. — By those familiar with the climate of Ceylon, a generous
diet, courage, and sufficient exercise, both for body and mind, are said
to be the only requisites for health and enjoyment. Chinese um
brellas sold at every bazaar, and very cheap, are an effectual protection
against the rays of the sun, and being formed of paper, covered with
thick black varnish, are easily carried.
Eastern Road. — The eastern road from Dambool to Trincomalee was
traced, under the direction of Captain Atchison, from the tops of trees.
In his report, he remarks, that the ruins of tanks, wihares, deserted
villages, &c. prove that the vast wilderness of beautiful and valuable
forest trees through which the road passes, heretofore supposed a track
less desert, fatal to the existence of man, and destitute of water and in
habitants, once contained a considerable population, by whose labours
an extensive tract of irrigated lands was regularly cultivated.
Oanga Bandera. — The offerings made to the Ganga Bandera, one of
the malignant spirits of Ceylon, comprise the formation of a miniature
canoe, ornamented with a canopy of cocoa-nut leaves ; under these are
placed betel, rice, flowers, &c. and such other articles as may be thought
acceptable to the fiend. After certain ceremonies, the frail bark is
launched upon the nearest river, where several may be seen gliding
down the stream or aground on the sand-banks.
Varieties of hue in the Maritime Districts.- — The great variety of
hue, feature and dress, observable among the people in the Maritime
Provinces, as compared with the uniformity of those of the interior, is
one of the first objects to attract the attention of the stranger. In the
former every shade from white to the deepest black prevails. The Por
tuguese, who have sprung from intermarriages with the natives, have
long arrived at the latter stage, and the Dutch intermixture is gradu
ally yielding to the same influence. The complexion of the Kandians
is more healthy than that of the lowlanders, but that of the latter is pre
ferable to that of the European cross, and even the dingy white of many
of the European residents.
Rest-Houses. — The rest-houses of Ceylon, there called ambulams, in
India choultries, are subject to the control of Government, and under
the management of post-holders, who receive a certain per centage on
every article they supply to the traveller. They vary greatly in accom
modation ; those in the remoter districts are mere mud huts, the floors
of which are in general coated with cow dung to keep off insects, and
here the traveller is subject to a wholesome self-denial. In the more
3 K

866

APPENDIX.

accessible districts, comparative comfort is within the reach of those*
who have a large purse, and even to those who love a simple fare.
Mosquito curtains are indispensable to the traveller who takes his bed
with him, not only to keep off that plague of the tropics, but to neu
tralise the malaria of the unhealthy districts.
Singhalese Pottery.— Ihe pottery of Ceylon, though unrivalled for
elegance of form, is extremely inconvenient from its brittle tendency,
and the impossibility of detecting impurities in vessels of the height they
generally run, and with such narrow necks, is a difficulty which is only
equalled by the impossibility of cleaning them when discovered.
Parasites.— The creeping and parasitical plants of Ceylon are of
extraordinary magnitude and form, and as soon as ever they have fairly
clasped the loftiest trees in their embrace, the latter exhibit unmistake
able signs of despair and decay. The crisis is hastened by the insect
tribes, till at last the burly wonder of the vegetable world yields at the
first touch of the elephant, or even the pigmy hand of man.
Fees to Medical Practitioners. — The mode of remuneration to a me
dical practitioner in the Kandian country, though calculated to draw
forth his utmost skill, shews the suspicion witlr which ignorance
clothes his profession, and the little reliance he has upon the gratitude
of the patient for a fitting gratuity. In every case a deposit is made of
the fee, which is seldom in money ; this is returned in case of failure,
except in extreme cases.
Kalpauruksha. — An almost obsolete Buddhist festival, called Kal-
pauruksha, is said to be occasionally celebrated in Ceylon. The tree of
that name figures in their account of the creation. For the purpose of
the festival a substitute is procured from the forests, which on being
fixed in the ground, is decked with the motley offerings of the people,
after which the priests address them in a suitable discourse.
Tides. — The rise of the tides in Ceylon hardly exceeds three feet, and
the harbours are inlets of the sea, in no way depending upon the tides,
and altogether unconnected with the rivers.
Indian History. — The Mahawanse, besides containing the larger por
tion of the Singhalese annals, includes fragments of Indian history,
more especially of the period when Buddhism was the prevailing reli
gion of Hindostan ; it also alludes to the Buddhist prince, contemporary
with Alexander the Great, and Seleucus, called Sandracottus in the
Greek, Chandragupta in the Sanscrit, and Chandagutta in the Pali
annals. The reason of this solitary reference to continental history is
to be found in the cessation of intercourse between the two countries on
the extinction of Buddhism in India.
Native Hyperbole. — The specific exaggerations occurring in the
Singhalese annals, may be considered perhaps nothing more than the
terms used to denote general magnitude ; thus laksha would be syno
nymous with our word countless, &c.
History of the Buddhas antecedent to Gautama. — From the circum
stance that every Buddha has, on arriving at the Buddhahood, been in
vested by his followers with the infinite titles of his predecessors, and
other causes equally detrimental to a clear solution of uncertainty, their
respective histories are exceedingly vague and obscure, though their

APPENDIX. 867
parentage and places of birth are handed down, as well as the princes
their protectors ; and the origin of each is traced through such count
less involutions, that sober reason gives up in despair the attempt to
trace anything in the shape of consistency, and with tolerable composure
learns that the Buddhas are incomprehensible ; that their doctrines are
incomprehensible, and that the magnitude of the fruits of faith to those
who have faith in this incomprehensible, is also incomprehensible.
Extracts from the Damma Padan. — As the bee collects nectar and
departs without injuring the beauty or the odour of the flowers, so the
sage sojourns among men ; he views their ways, and learns wisdom
from their folly. — As the lily growing from a heap of manure acciden
tally cast upon the highway delights the soil with the delicacy of its
fragrance, so the wise, the disciples of the all-perfect Buddha shine
among the foolish, and are grateful to the gods. — The wise man becomes
so by the consciousness of his own folly, but the foolish is rendered
more so by his pretensions to wisdom. — True nobility is not of one's
parentage but of a virtuous and noble soul. — That is the most skilful of
charioteers, who can guide the chariot of his own anger. — There is no
fire so fierce as lust ; nothing has a grasp so pertinacious as hatred ; no
net can be compared with folly, and no flood is so rapid as desire. — Sin
is frequently clothed in the garb of virtue, but its effects unclothe it. —
He is a more noble warrior who conquers himself than the warrior who,
in the field of battle, overcomes thousands of thousands. — As the solid
rock stands unshaken by the storm, so the wise man is unmoved by
contempt or applause. — The worldly-minded man who applauds religion
and understands its precepts, but does not practise them, is like the
herdsman of another's cattle ; he tends the flock, but receives not their
produce. — Religion is the path of immortality ; irreligion the path of
death. — The righteous die not, but the wicked are even now as dead. —
As aman elevated upon a mountain surveys in calmness the plains below,
so does the virtuous man behold without envy the actions of the sinful
multitude. — Let man perform those actions of which futurity will never
cause him to repent.
Kandian Cordon.— No slight auxiliary of the cordon formed by the
Kandian kings around their territories for the exclusion of the European
invader, was the miasm emitted from the rank vegetation around, which
give rise to a deadly fever that few could long withstand.
The Portuguese Policy. — The Portuguese, after they had wrested the
trade of Ceylon from the Indo-Moors and Arabians by their naval supe
riority, for they levied heavy duties on the Indian merchants, appear
to have chiefly aimed at procuring rich exports of its productions, on the
sale of which depended the revenues of the government and its ser
vants, but they interfered little in the civil administration of the colony.
The institutions, laws and customs of the natives, their distinctions of
rank, and even their habits and public ceremonies were preserved by
them with a most jealous care, and even imitated, yet proselytism was
followed with an activity and perseverance their successors dare not
attempt. Thus Portugal, too sparely populated to supply the demand
for troops for the defence of the island, by permitting intermarriages
between her troops and the native women, raised an adequate force
with little or no expense, but no positive reliance could be placed on such
3 k 2

868

APPENDIX.

troops. Their pride and insolence, joined to this policy, accelerated
their fall; all manual labour was by them considered degradation, and
every sort of labour was consigned to slaves. A Portuguese considered
himself degraded by anything but a military employment. They did
not even entirely man their own ships. This was all very well as long
as they had native enemies to contend against, but when they had to
encounter the Dutch, their inferiority was at once apparent.
Dutch Policy. — Van Imhoff was the first to permit a trade between
the ports of Ceylon and India, and thus to raise a custom's revenue in
the island. Land customs, or Alfandigo, was previously the chief item
of revenue.
Burghers. — The burghers of Dutch descent were ehiefly reduced in
circumstances from losing their employments after the conquest of the
island by the British. At the same time prices rose to an extravagant
rate, and brought many of them to destitution. Many of them took
to trade, but soon found the native capitalists, who now entered the
field of competition, dangerous competitors, for their wants being
fewer, and having the advantage both in buying and selling, they could
afford to trade upon much smaller profits. They have now for some
years been gradually improving in circumstances ; full employment is
found for all of them willing to accept it, and this is only fitting towards a
people, whose traditions and sympathies are so interwoven with our own.
Atheology of Buddhism. — Mr. Upham justly remarks, that notwith
standing the supposed atheology and materialism of the Buddhistical
system, Maha Brahma is the supreme of the universe, when a Buddha
is not living in the Kalpe ; and though a Buddha is sometimes want
ing, a Maha Brahma is always to be found ; moreover, its books teach
that both in the Brahma-Loka and the Asooria-Loka are refuge heavens
for souls progressing from the metempsychosis towards Nirwane,
wherein they are preserved from any catastrophe, which, during the
termination of a Kalpe, may occur to the Sakwalla, or world at large.
This is somewhat analogous to the Romish purgatory, or our hades. In
another place he remarks, that nothing can more fully mark the primi
tive character and the unquestionable antiquity of Buddhism than the
potency and attributes given to the evil spirit, Wasawartymarya and
his Asoorias. The latter, like the Titans of Greece, are unmixedly evil
and uniform enemies of the Supreme, but the great enemy of the Buddha
is made to attend his assembly, and offer his homage.
Cup of Buddha. — The legend of the cup of Buddha is as follows : —
When Gautama became Buddha, it was necessary that he should have
a drinking vessel of a particular kind ; in consequence, the four gods
ruling over the four quarters of the earth, Patine, Weebeeshana, Saman,
and Kandi Kumara, made each of them one and brought it to Buddha,
upon which he told them that one was enough, and desired them to set
them one on top of the other, which they did, and so they became one.
Maitre Buddha. — The fourth heaven, Toisite, being the abode of the
fifth expected Buddha, Maitre, all who are born into his heaven will
appear on earth with him, and enter into Niwane. Thus it becomes an
object of the most intense desire to a believer of Gautama.
Ruwanwelle Dagobah.— The description of the Ruwanwelle dagobah
in the Raja Ratnacari, is very similar to that of the temple of Bel in

APPENDIX. 869
the Apocrypha. If we recall the whole account, setting forth the nightly-
visits of the priests and their wives and children, to feed on the viands
offered to Bel, and the entrance, so concealed, as to be even unknown to
the king, we shall see that it was built in conformity with the practice
of the Buddhist priests, and the formation of their temples. It has been
conjectured, that the well known Egyptian colossi of the Memnonian
plains are Buddhist forms. The dragon form of Bel and of Dagon, are
perfectly descriptive of the historical books of the Nagas or snake deities
of Buddhism.
Capitation Taxes.— There were formerly several sort of capitation
taxes in Ceylon, one called Ouliam was^of a most oppressive nature,
and constantly drove the Moormen and Chetties subject to it into the
Kandian territories. It practically amounted to a tax on labour, and
was levied in a manner that forbade the person affected by it, from
alleviating the burthen by transferring any portion of the amount to
the article he produced, or to his employer, while taking ordinary
casualties into account, it abstracted one-seventh of his income, and
even if paid in labour, abstracted an equal share of his industry. Another
sort of capitation tax, was the joie or jewel tax, which was chiefly
levied on the people of the northern and eastern districts, and though
causing a large amount of trouble and litigation to the executive, like
the Ouliam, brought no corresponding revenue to the Government.
These taxes have been long abolished.
Civil Fund. — The civil fund of Ceylon was established by Mr. North,
with a view to provide a competency for retired civil servants ; it was
raised partly from stoppages from the pay of civil servants, the interest
of the same being annually added to the principal, and partly by a
contribution from Government. Of this fund the Secretary to Govern
ment, the President to the Board of Revenue, and three other persons
were trustees. By virtue of these regulations all civil servants, once
in receipt of £2000 per annum, were entitled to £600 per annum on re
tiring; all receiving £1500 to £500. It is now abolished.
Anda Tenure.— The term Anda refers to fields where the seed-corn is
first taken out of the crop, and then the Government share, the re
mainder being divided between the owner and the cultivator. The same
rule is observed in those fields which pay to Government any larger share
than one-tenth. But in those which pay one-tenth, andjare called otto
fields, the Government is entitled to that share, previous to any deduc
tion being made for seed. The whole remaining nine-tenths are divided
into two equal shares between the owner and the cultivator. The seed-
corn in some instances belongs to a third person, who receives not
only the quantity supplied by him, but something additional in com
pensation for its use.
Mr. Bertolacci. — Much of the valuable information contained in Sir
E. Tennant's report, is based on that Contained in Mr. Bertolacci's ad
mirable work on the finance and commerce of Ceylon published in
1817. In this work the acuteness and intelligence of the Italian in the
field of economical science, is strikingly conspicuous.
Additional names of Ceylon. — Besides the names given to Ceylon in
pp. 1 — 3, there may be added Ilangei, the Malabar name ; Teva Lanka,
the Siamese ; Lankapoore, the Javanese ; all from the Sanscrit word

870 APPENDIX.
Lanka, holy or resplendent. The Burmese call it Theho or Zehoo Te-
nasserim, the land of delights.
Egyptian Commerce with Ceylon under the Emperors. — The Egyptian
fleet of I20|vessels sailed annually from Myos Hormos (a port on the
Red Sea) to the ports of Musiris and Borace on the Malabar coast, and
from thence to Ceylon, the limit of their navigation. Hither were,
therefore, brought the fine cloths and other costly commodities of Ben
gal, Orissa, the Carnatic, China, and the eastern islands, which were
exchanged for gold, silver, or European manufactures. In December or
January the fleet sailed from Ceylon on its return to Egypt, laden with
silks, muslins, spices, and aromatics, pearls and precious stones. When
the Greeks lost the trade, it was for some time engrossed by the Per
sians at Ormuz.
Oils. — Ceylon is remarkable for the number of oils it produces.
Besides those already mentioned there may be added the punnai,
turpentine, makkool, koola, and castor.
Chank Fishery. — The chank fishery once employed 600 divers, and a
supervisor was employed by Government. There are two sorts of chanks,
red and white, the one called payel, the other patty.
Postal Communication. — The geographical position of Ceylon has
rendered it a point of signal importance to the great arrangements now
in process of formation for the establishment of improved postal com
munication between Great Britain and the East on the one part, and the
inter-colonial communication on the other. Ceylon is already the
centre of operations for the mails from China, the Straits settlements,
Bengal, Madras, as well as of the French, Dutch, and Spanish posses
sions of Pondicherry, Java, Manilla, &c, and when steam communica
tion shall have been opened with the Australian colonies (intercourse
between the two countries is now very indirect, being through Calcutta),
its importance will be proportionably apparent. Letters are sent to India
overland, as well as by the steamers, and are conveyed for eight months
of the year through Jaffna and Point Pedro, and by catamarans to Point
Kalymere on the opposite coast, and for the other four months through
Manaar and Talmanaar, whence they are passed over in hired boats to
Ramisseram, and reach Madras in from eight to ten days, and Calcutta
and Bombay in from seventeen to twenty days. Letters by the steamers
reach Madras in three and Calcutta in nine days from Galle, and Bom-
oay in five days from ditto. Letters from and to Mauritius are sent in
schooners from Galle, as opportunity offers, or by vessels in search of
freight. Letters for the Cape are sent by homeward bound vessels.
The inland communication is a daily one between Colombo and all parts
of the island, as well as between all the chief stations one with the
other. From Kandy to Trincomalee the mails are conveyed by foot
messengers, and in like manner from Matura to Tangalle and Ham
bantotte and from Colombo to Jaffna, the passage between which occu
pies four days, owing to the absence of European superintendence, the
presence of wild animals and the deep streams intersecting the route.
The chief item of the postage revenue is the overland correspondence,
the local correspondence being necessarily confined in great measure to
Europeans, indeed, the natives are rather a hindrance than otherwise,
seldom prepaying their letters, which thus become dead letters. The
Postmaster-General has recently been raised to the second class of the
civil service with a salary of £650, in lieu of £450 as formerly ; he has

APPENDIX. 871
the management of the mails of the Western Province, and the overland
correspondence ; those of the Central are under his deputy, and those of
the other provinces are controlled by their respective Government agents
in communication with him.
Further Particulars on the localities of Coffee Estates. — The quan
tity of land brought under coffee cultivation by European capitalists
since 1834, will probably exceed 120,000 acres ; but lands have been
purchased with the intention of being so employed to the extent of
400,000 acres. In nearly every particular the cultivation, though on
this extended scale, has been essentially an experiment. The possibility
of procuring labour, the means of transport, the quality of the crop and
its favour in the home market, were all points to be ascertained by ex
perience, equally with the climate, the nature of the soil, the geniality
of the temperature, the treatment of the plant and its probable duration,
as no other producing country presented a direct analogy either in the.
character of these requisites, or in the proportion of their combination.
Soils apparently, favourable were cleared and planted, but abandoned
after proofs of unfitness. The richest grass land generally failed to
produce a crop of coffee, and it is only forest land, not lying over clay
or any impervious basis, that can be said to succeed. The same land has
been cleared in the lower ranges of hills and converted into plantations,
but though the coffee tree grew luxuriantly and rapidly, it failed to
yield fruit in proportion, and soon ceased to bear, demonstrating the
necessity of altitude and its accompaniments of moisture and tempera
ture. From the native coffee growing best under the shade of other
trees, the early plantations were so formed, but contrary to calculation
the result was unsatisfactory, and the trees were removed. A combi
nation of rich soil, a lofty elevation, a warm sun and regular rains, have
now been ascertained to be the main desiderata : but even with these
combined, the estates on different aspects of the same mountain,
though with equal soil, and, to all appearance, alike in climate and
temperature, have been found to exhibit totally different results ; those
to the north-east and south-west having the full advantage of the rains
in the two monsoons, while those of the opposite extremes are partially
deprived of it. Again, some estates with every favour of altitude and
moisture have been swept by untimely winds to the destruction of the
trees, and in some districts which are affected only by one monsoon,
and lose the benefit of another, the coffee, though in external appear
ance equal in every particular to the best, has been found so deficient in
solidity after being cleared of the pulp, as to require one-third more by
measurement to make a given weight, the difference being neverthe
less chargeable with a due proportion of every attendant expense. Ex
perience has shewn that these, and an infinity of other and minuter
particulars, each more or less affecting the cost of production, and the
quality and price of the produce, are incident to particular localities, and.
the discovery led to the total or partial abandonment of the ill-situated
estates, and the proportionate extension of those positions ascertained
to be more favoured, and as the gross quantity of land already brought
under coffee cultivation, or purchased with a view to it, bears but a
small proportion to the great extent now known to be suitable to it, but
hitherto unapplied, there is every reason to conclude not merely that
an enhanced value has been given by the experiment to those situations

872 APPENDIX.
which enjoy the requisite combination of advantages, but that these are
of so considerable an expanse as to present an ample field for investment,
and to supply the fullest demand which is likely to arise in the European
market for the coffee of Ceylon. The increased difficulty till lately felt
of procuring a continuous supply of Tamul labourers, and the detention
that ensued in the conveyance of coffee to Colombo for shipment, owing
to the scarcity of bullock bandies, an evil far from entirely obviated
at present, together with the tightness of the money market at home,
and the unsettled state of the question of protection have, till lately,
so greatly embarrassed the coffee planter, that he ceased to extend his
operations in any way.
The character of Ceylon coffee is rapidly rising on the Continent as
well as in England, and orders have been executed on French account,
although from the absence of French vessels, the coffee has to be first
shipped to Pondicherry. Native coffee is still brought to market in
small quantities, but during the last three years, its export has greatly
diminished, owing to its indifferent quality and low price in the London
market. This is ascribable to the inaptitude of the native character for
conducting its cultivation with energy and success. Their plants are
never pruned or manured, and the produce is usually sold on the tree
by anticipation to Moormen pedlars, who hasten to gather it before it
is ripe, lest it should be pillaged if left to arrive at maturity. The
fruit is thus neglected during its growth, and being collected prema
turely, it never attains its due size and weight ; in addition to which, it
is so injured subsequently in colour and appearance by its careless and
imperfect preparation for the market, that it seldom brings a price more
than half that of plantation coffee, and has fallen gradually in value
from 90s per cwt. in 1840 to 28s per cwt. in 1847. A few Singhalese
headmen have, within the last few years established small coffee plan
tations in imitation of the English, but as the situation and soil were not
chosen with skill and experience, they have not been altogether suc
cessful, which is the more to be deplored, as discouragements, which
would scarcely affect a more energetic race, are all but fatal to enterprise
amongst a people so apathetic.
Defences of Colom.bo. — The Dutch improved the defences of Colombo
after a plan suggested by Coehorn, in which every advantage was taken
of the rocky nature of the ground towards the sea, and of the lake on
the land side, which supplies the ditch with water by means of sluices,
and, skirting the glacis, all but joins the sea on both sides, being only
separated from it at those points by a causeway, by cutting through
which, and opening the sluices, the fort can be completely insulated.
There are but few places on the sea-side where boats can land with
safety, on account of the rocks and a high surf always running more
or less, except at the common landing-place in the harbour, which is de
fended by Btrong batteries ; and the swell in crossing the bar at its
mouth is dangerous for common boats at most times. There is no hill
or high ground in the neighbourhood sufficiently elevated to command
the place, but the rising on the Galle face esplanade rendered it neces
sary that the bastions on that side should be raised beyond the usual
height, which required the construction of counter-guards to cover the
lower part of their escarps, and they so far remedy this defect, affording
moreover a second tier of guns. The works of the fort are about two

APPENDIX. 873
miles in extent, containing four large baBtions on the land side, with
their counter-guards and ravelins, and seven strong batteries towards
the sea adapted to the rocky line of the coast. They are capable of
mounting 300 pieces of ordnance of all descriptions, although only
about half that number are mounted in times of peace. The want of
bomb-proof buildings and casements is the chief deficiency in the
defences of the fort, and one which would be seriously felt in the event
of a bombardment from large ships, or in a siege. At no great dis
tance from the fort is the English burying ground, enclosed by a strong
fence of bamboos, over which a sentinel is placed. The graves are here
decorated with geraniums and various flowers. The water of the wells
in the houses within the fort is so brackish as to be unfit to drink or for
culinary purposes, and the inhabitants are supplied with water from
springs outside the fort by puckalles.
Veddahs. — In a work recently published, it is mentioned, that the
Singhalese were frequently accustomed to shoot the Veddahs for
amusement, and a party was actually proposed to be formed during Sir
W. Horton's government for this object.
The Elephant finder. — The elephant finder is personally acquainted
with every herd of elephants encamped within a dozen miles of him.
Formerly the services of an elephant finder were dispensed with, but so
numerous and frequent have been the invading parties on the territorial
domain of those animals, that they have in a great measure been scared
from the plain to the denser parts of the jungle.
Salt. — A slight export of salt took place from Ceylon to the continent.
of India in 1846, during a temporary .relaxation of their monopoly by
the East India Company, but ceased on its renewal. — Ceylon would
prove a formidable competitor to the British trade with India in this
article, if in India the import duty were removed. At present the
Company, by reducing the price of their very inferior commodity,
appear resolved to keep all competitors out of the market: this is
unjust as regards Ceylon, which has recently removed all discrimina
ting duties operating to the prejudice of the Company's territories.
Fees payable by land purchasers. — The fees charged for surveying are
for one acre 5*. ; for two, 8s. 5d. ; for three, lis. id. ; for four, 14s. Id. ;
for five, 16s. 8^., and so on in proportion ; for 640 acres £31. 16s. Id.
For preparation of plans, 6s. 10^. for one acre, and in proportion for an
additional quantity.
Parties making application for the sale of any land are requested to
make a deposit to the satisfaction of the Government agent, of the
probable cost of boundary clearing and the fees for survey. All crown
land is sold by auction, and no waste land is exposed for sale at a price
below 20s. per acre. The other regulations are such as obtain in the
Australian colonies. .
Upwards of thirty thousand acres have been recently surveyed m the
mountain zone, but from the Government having fixed the price at a rate
that every one knows cannot be maintained, except for land, in the out
skirts of towns and near high-roads, no sales are, comparatively speak
ing, effected in this part of Ceylon : the cessation in the land sales
generally commenced in 1846, owing to the tightness of the money
market at home and the impending removal of protection, nor can they
be expected immediately to revive.

874 APPENDIX.
Appropriation of Surplus Revenue. — The balance in the Colonial
Treasury, December 31st, 1846, was £141,992, the whole of which has
been since absorbed by the deficiency in the revenue in 1847 and 1848,
as compared with the expenditure.
Extent of Roads. — There are now 2358 miles of road open in Ceylon,
of which 786 miles have been opened during the last seven years.
Experiments in horticulture. — The tea plant has lately been cultivated
to some extent at Pusilava, and with considerable success, but the great
difference between the price of labour in Ceylon and China is likely
to prevent its profitable pursuit. A plantation of cloves and nutmegs has
recently been formed, and cardamoms and ginger might be cultivated
to any extent. Cotton of the best qualities may be grown to any
extent in the Wanny. At the Botanic Garden at Paradiniya exten
sive nurseries have been formed for the propagation and distribution of
useful trees and plants, hundreds of thousands of which have been sold
at a trifling price.
Mineralogical novelties. — Among the mineralogical novelties is tin,
which has been lately discovered in the Saffragam district, by a Swiss
geologist. It is not unlikely that it may yet be opened in considerable
quantities. Copper ore has also been discovered in the south, in the
immediate vicinity of water carriage ; quicksilver has been discovered
at Cotta in small quantities, and anthracite coal in Saffragam, but it
could scarcely be worked with economy in that district.
Kuolin or decomposed felspar of a fine white quality and even tex
ture, has been recently found in great abundance in the district of
Galle. It is well adapted for the manufacture of the finer kinds of
pottery and paving tiles.
Progress of Christianity. — The progress of Christianity is thus al
luded to in the last Blue Book of the colony. Of the Reformed religion
the most numerous sections among the Europeans and their descen
dants, and the wealthier Singhalese, are those of the Church of Eng
land, the Wesleyans, the Baptists, and Presbyterians of the Scotch and
Dutch Churches. The latter having been the established form of wor
ship when Ceylon was a colony of Holland, the Dutch Consistories have
still been left in the possession of the churches, and the most beneficial
impulse has been given to the extension of Christianity among the
natives, by the liberality with which they have at all times given the
use of their buildings to the Clergy of the Church of England. In the
coffee districts the majority of Europeans employed in the superinten
dence of estates are Scotchmen and Presbyterians ; it is, therefore, re
commended, as it would not only be difficult, but superfluous, to find
funds for the erection of separatejplaces of worship, that they should be
jointly used by the ministers of the Churches of England and Scotland.
Vernacular Schools. — As respects education, it is observed, that it
would be more useful at present to establish vernacular than English
schools, until the standard of intelligence shall have been raised, when
they could be again replaced by the latter; education in the vernacular,
especially of females, being more likely to improve the character and
usefulness of the natives than attempts to impart a knowledge of Eng
lish in places where there is no demand for it, and where the little that
is learnt at school is forgotten on leaving it. The paucity of good and

APPENDIX. 875
useful books in the Singhalese language, is also dwelt on. Thirty
vernacular schools have therefore at once been opened. The education
of the native youth in theology and medicine at Calcutta seems to have
been attended with considerable expense to the colony, and with very
indifferent success. It is proposed, therefore, for the future to carry on
the former at Colombo, under the auspices of the Bishop, and the latter
under the superintendence of the medical department.
Cholera. — Ceylon was visited by cholera in 1846 to a formidable ex
tent, the total number of cases being 6,338, of which 3,881 proved fatal.
Also in the same year by the small-pox, the total number of cases being
1,917, of which 399 proved fatal. Vaccination has now been extended to
every district but the sparsely peopled ones of the north-east, and the
ravages of the small-pox have been strikingly reduced, seldom proving
fatal to any but the lower classes of Moormen in the towns and villages,
whose prejudices in favour of fatalism restrain them from resorting to
this precaution.
Singhalese Industry. — The fatal policy of the Singhalese monarchs,
which, by forbidding the alienation of land to private parties, rendered
property in land unattainable, and prohibited commerce, has effectually
prevented the accumulation of money by any of the native landowners.
This spirit, though checked, still lives in its results, and at the present
moment, though there are chiefs who are proprietors of land to a consi
derable extent, and who enjoy a corresponding rank and influence in
their several localities, there is not a single Singhalese capitalist in
Ceylon. What is worse still, the upper classes have not only no means
but no inclination to embark in active pursuits, while the lower classes
universally refuse to labour, or to enter into the service of any but their
immediate chiefs. The native Singhalese are equally unconnected with
the external or internal commerce of the island, all of which is con
ducted by Moormen, Malabars, Parsees, &c, and by the capital of the
British merchants and planters ; and the Singhalese themselves see these
inspiriting and enriching operations going on from day to day for the
advantage of foreigners, without an apparent emotion at their own ex
clusion, or an effort to participate either as employers or labourers in the
the general benefits, which are increasing around them. The conclusion
is, therefore, irresistible, though depressing, that for some time to come,
and till education can stimulate to energy and awaken ambition, it can
only be through the agency of strangers and foreign capital that the
resources of Ceylon are to be developed, and its prosperity advanced.
Revision of the Financial System of the Colony. — In 1 847 a request
was made to the principal civil servants of the colony to furnish the
Governor with a minute of their opinions as to the nature of the changes
capable of being beneficially effected in its financial system. In con-
. sequence of this request, a detailed, expose of the working of the pre
sent system has been laid before the world. And truly it is difficult to
conceive any thing more clumsy and worse adapted to any country, not
to mention a colony of such rising importance. We have already re
ferred to the principal items of its revenue; with respect to the heads of
expenditure less requires to be said, for they will henceforth be subject
to some sort of local revision. The mode of disbursement is, however,
ludicrous in the extreme, the maximum of labour being brought to bear
on matters of a minimum importance. Thus, if a flat ruler, or a pewter

876 APPENDIX.
inkstand, be required for the Jaffna cutcherry at the northern extre
mity of the island, a missive is dispatched to the Colonial Secretary at
Colombo by "the local authorities, requesting an authorisation to purchase.
An answer is returned, upon which a quadruplicate record is made of the
valuable article thus added to the property of the colony, and one or
more copies are cautiously deposited in the colonial archives, to satisfy
the eager inquiries of an admiring posterity. In this way every such
article is enhanced threefold in actual cost, for, under an improved sys
tem, one half of the clerks employed in this useless labour might at once
be dispensed with. Another matter requiring alteration is the monthly
disbursement of their salaries to every official, a system pursued in no
other colony, and apparently designed for the employment of clerks,
who at the time of its establishment could be employed in no other
way. Lake of Colombo. — Thelakeforms one of the greatest attractions of the
place, and by its margin stand some of the most delightful residences of
the island, while its waters afford the favourite and healthful recreation
of boating. An annual regatta was established some years ago, and on
these occasions the lake puts on a most gay and animated appearance,
the number of yachts and sailing boats having considerably increased
in consequence.
Dhonies. — The large dhonies built on the Pantura river (the brigs
and schooners used in the coasting trade are mostly built at Cochin),
are launched when the bank of sand at its mouth is cut to prevent it
overflowing the country during the rains. The construction of these
vessels is curious, not a nail is used, but the planks are sewed together
with strong koir cord, passed through holes bored opposite each other
near the edge of the planks, and crossed thrice diagonally from one hole
to the other, a layer of loose koir, covered with strips of dried cocoa-nut
leaf being first laid along the seams, the work is completed or secured
by a coating of dammer, a resinous substance answering the purposes of
tar. The registered tonnage of the colony is 35,000 tons ; this description
of property is on the increase, in consequence of the demand for timber
and cattle from the eastern side of the island, and the large tracts of land
planted with cocoa-nuts in the northern and eastern districts.
Manufacture of Koir. — The export of koir is checked by the rude
ness of the process of manufacture and the want of proper machinery.
Women are seen in pens up to their knees in water beating out the
koir from the husk of the cocoa-nut, which has been previously well
soaked. It is then cleaned and laid out to dry, after which it is dis
posed in layers on which stones are placed, from whence it is drawn out
by the hand and twisted into the yarn from which the rope is made.
Cutcherries.- — The cutcherries of Ceylon are the local treasuries. The
agents have the sole management of them, and to these the native head
men of the district, who hold situations under Government, attend daily
to make their reports and receive their orders. Respectable young men
aspiring to Government offices, obtain admission into the cutcherry as
volunteers to be initiated into public business, and by their talents and
assiduity to recommend themselves to the notice and patronage of the
Government agent.
Coolie Emigrants. — It may not be generally known that an ordi-

APPENDIX. 877
nance is now in force in Ceylon, prohibiting natives of India from
entering into any contract in the island for labour to be performed in
any other British or Foreign colony, or from emigrating from thence to
any such colony.
Increase of Population. — Under this head it may be remarked, that
the rate of increase in the population of the island, must henceforth be
enlarged every day, as the fullest encouragement is now given to its
generative powers. The Singhalese never expatriate themselves. Small
pox is decisively checked ; the people are never enlisted either for the
land or sea services : none of them are engaged in foreign trade ; mar
riages take place extremely early, and peace and plenty now reign
around : indeed the only want of the island is capital. Of land there is
still enough to supply the wants of a population of five times the amount.
Whites — male, 5073 ; female, 3031. Coloured — male, 777,795 ; female,
727,265. Aliens and resident strangers, 42,491. Population to the
square mile, 62'98. Employed in agriculture, 405,962 ; manufactures,
40,507 ; commerce, 49,277. In the Blue Book for 1847, I find the
above estimate of the population for that year, which has been framed
with great care under the auspices of Sir E. Tennant, but I must again
observe it is only an estimate, not the result of a census.
King of Kandy. — The last King of Kandy was finally sent to Nellore,
where he died of dropsy in 1832. His embarkation from Colombo is
said to have been quite of a dramatic character, and the last of the race
of the sun maintained a most dignified and imperturbable coolness
through the whole proceeding.
Chenas. — I observe among the Dutch records an intimation of the
prejudicial effects of this wasteful system on the lands within their terri
tories, and I allude to the subject here because I am desirous of calling
the attention of Government to an evil which has already rendered all
but valueless a great part of what was originally land of first-rate
quality in the Kandian provinces. It is almost impossible to conceive
a system fraught with greater evil, and which, while it gives the
smallest return to the cultivator for the maximum of trouble and annoy
ance, strips the country of some of its finest timber, and exhausts the
soil to a degree that the tenant with an expiring lease, and of the most
revengeful feelings, could not hope to- imitate in this country.
Rural timidity. — The traveller cannot fail to remark, that in propor
tion as his distance from Colombo increases, so do the outward signs of
respect shewn him ; in some secluded districts he will excite fear, the
natives actually scampering off the moment they descry him.
Effect of change of Monsoon. — It is a remarkable fact, that a stranger
arriving at Colombo shortly after the setting in of the S.W. monsoon
with its strong sea breezes, may reside there four or five months with
out seeing the vestige of a mountain, when all at once the N.E. mon
soon having set in, and driven back the clouds and mists by which it
was enveloped, the magnificent range over which Samanala towers
strikes him with astonishment and admiration. From the peculiar state
of the atmosphere, the mountain, though about thirty-five miles off in
a straight line, scarcely appears a third of the distance, while the stratus
or stream of white mist arising from the valleys, and extending half way
up the mountain by the contrast, aids the deception.

878 APPENDIX.
Recent Emeute in the Seven Korles and M&talS, with Comments
thereon. — It will doubtless be expected by some of my readers that I
should advert in a more particular manner than I have as yet done, to
the recent emeute in the districts of Matale and Kurunaigalla. This I
should have been hardly tempted to do in reference to so ridiculous a
manifestation, but for the opportunity it presents to offer a word of ad
monition to those, who setting themselves up as the patrons of the Kan
dian people, have in the discharge of that self-appointed office, sedu
lously taken care to forget the only means by which that people can
become really happy, really prosperous, and I may add, really free. The
emeute itself would seem to have sprung from a medley of conflicting
passions, such as the history of party, even in this country, could never
shew arrayed for a political combination against the most unpopular of
ministers, and was a combination of a part of the remnant of the chiefs
of the last generation (few, if any, of the new school being implicated),
of the more infatuated of the priests (that body being equally dissatisfied
with the withdrawal of the countenance and support of Government to
their religion and piece of discoloured ivory, as to the contemplated en
forcement of one of the new taxes on themselves who have been hitherto
exempt), and of the people who have been equally deceived by the
abovementioned chiefs as by their priests with respect to the amount of
imposts to be levied, a recent attempt by the Colonial Secretary to obtain
the actual returns of the current year, instead of an annual repetition of
those of the five or six years preceding having, from the queries being
arranged under thirty-two heads, been tortured into an intention of
levying a corresponding number of taxes.
The result of this discordant accord — accord only so long as the three
elements of mischief saw their objects unaccomplished, four elements I
should say (for oh, parody of Paris ! the bandit was as ready here to
grasp the opportunity of inverting the law of meum and tuum, as the
forcat with thee), was an outbreak, and the temporary seizure of the
towns of Matale and Kurunaigalla by the insurgents, who forthwith
commenced the work of devastation, at once gutting every public and
plundering every private building of its contents, seizing the neigh
bouring estates in full right of seizin and soccage for a scion of the
hakooroo caste, whom the Dambool priests had anointed and set up,
blocking up the roads, and in short acting in every way as they thought
calculated to subvert English rule in the island, ridiculous as such
means may appear to an European. Small detachments of troops being
sent against the rebels, they fled in most cases after a brief skirmish,
leaving in the various encounters a total of fifty slain and an equal
number of wounded, together with about a hundred prisoners, most
of whom were at once tried by martial law, (the same having been pre
viously declared in Kandy as well as in these districts,) and several of
the ringleaders were at once shot, the others transported, while those
less deeply implicated have been tried before the Supreme Court at
Kandy and since sentenced to death, their moveable and immoveable
property confiscated by the Crown, and distributed among the sufferers
by their conduct. In this manner was tranquillity restored by the
energetic action of the Government, and the cool and judicious dispo
sition of the military force, recalling the truth of Forbes's remark, that
if a stern and decided example had been made at the outbreak of the
rebellion of 1815, it would have been instantly quelled. The causes of

APPENDIX. 879
this outbreak are far more numerous than the elements which set
it to work.* To a people to whom superstition is a rule of conduct
in the place of a passing phantasy, an alleged prediction in a native
book, declaring that a people corresponding to the English, should
hold Ceylon for thirty-four years and then be expelled, if after an
outbreak of fourteen days duration they should fail of successfully
quelling opposition, coupled with the voluntary resignation of the
Dalada, and the accidental collapse of another test of power, was
amply sufficient to induce them to try their luck once more, uncon
scious as they appear to have been of the hostile influences that have
for years been gradually rising to militate against their independence.
For example, the Tamul coolies, who were expected to hold aloof from
danger, if not to succumb before it, maintained their ground in every
instance, and defended every plantation on which they were engaged,
subsequently entering the deserted villages, and plundering the native
cottages of every article on which they could lay their hands, the most
intense hatred existing between the two people. But the more intelli
gent of the disaffected Singhalese, if the term can be applied to a people
so apparently devoid of intelligence, were not likely to remain long un
affected by the rumours of European convulsions, and even to the lower
classes, who for nearly ten months of the year are energetically em
ployed in the elevating pursuit of masticating betel, it could not fail to
filter through, from their daily increasing intercourse with Europeans.
A spirit of disaffection, if not conspiracy, is shewn to have swayed the
chiefs, and priests engaged in the plot for upwards of two years ; in this
the people cannot be said to have been participators ; none on earth
have lost so little and gained so much as they; their very prejudices
have been treated with the most indulgent tenderness ; a most organized
system of deception must have been therefore adopted to bring them
again within the toils they have for some time rather ostentatiously
shewn they had escaped.
The actual enforcement of three taxes, and the inquiries already
alluded to, may have been taken as an earnest of the truth of the state
ment made by mendacious headmen, and have led the people into open
revolt. Of the just grounds for this dissatisfaction it will soon be shewn
to the reader there are little or none. After'deducting from the revenue of
Ceylon the sums received for casual and contingent revenue, the amount
of actual taxation, direct and indirect, averages 4s. 10^. per head for
the whole population. It is needless to add, that a large proportion of
this taxation is paid by the European and Tamul capitalists, and that
even the Singhalese landowner has nothing to complain of under this
head. But for the mass of the Singhalese and Tamul people of Ceylon
the rate of taxation is ludicrous in the extreme, not exceeding, even if
it reach, Is. lOd. per head, and the whole taxation of a family of eight
persons, might be discharged by a few days labour per annum on any
coffee estate, inasmuch as the women receive little less wages than the
men. So far then from the Government halting on its course, it must
gradually increase the present rate of taxation, if it desire the speedy
* Since the above was printed, intelligence has been received of a revival of the
outbreak in the same provinces, and troops have again been dispatched to the scene
of insurrection, but it requires no great consideration to predict the hopelessness of
all such attempts.

880 APPENDIX.
opening of the country, and what is more important still, the improve
ment of this apathetic people. Education, unaccompanied by an in
creasing and skilfully levied taxation, will leave the Kandian wiser,
perhaps, but scarcely more industrious, a century hence than now.
Taxation, were it gradually brought to an equitable assessment, so as
in no respect to choke the industry of the people, might be increased
even threefold without bearing much harder upon them than now.
Those then who tell a people, emerging as these are from the midnight
of barbarism, that they are burdened like willing bullocks with a load
they cannot endure, must either labour under some strange hallucina
tion, or they manifest a most culpable spirit of dishonesty. The pro
gress of a nation in the onward march to civilization has fitly been
made a difficult one, the path is here and there strewed with a few roses,
but the thorns are more numerous still. The Kandians have as yet
learnt no more than the alphabet of our civilization, all has so far been
coleur de rose, it is high time they were told that the next course, the
syllabic one, requires something in the shape of men to encounter it,
and that the insensate apathy with which they can loiter away their
time for ten out of the twelve months, is not the mode by which it is to
be overcome. On the other hand, though we are very far from relying on
the statements put forth by some writers, that the Kandians are unable to
pay in money the smallsum required under thenew taxes,1 yetwecannot
shut our eyes to the fact, that the wretched system of barter to which this
people are compelled to resort in consequence of the scarcity of coin, is
likely to prove an effectual clog to every means taken to elevate their con
dition. The remedy for this evil is to be found in the accomplishment
of the undertaking we have ventured to point out as the greatest boon
in every sense the Government can now confer on Ceylon (we allude to
the repair of its tanks) ; and when this shall have been done, an increased
taxation, which should stimulate and not repress the industry of the
people, would, after education, prove one of the highest elements of
their moral renovation. Nothing can for any length of time prevent
the progress of the European and Tamul settler in Ceylon ; it remains
to be seen whether the Singhalese is to melt away before their onward
progress. 1 1. A tax on dogs, levied with a view to diminish the nuisance so sensibly
felt from the presence every where of this useless and mischievous animal.
2. A license duty of 2s. 6d. on all guns, established as much for the purpose of
regulating the use of them, as for purposes of revenue.
3. A road tax of 3s. on every male, which can be commuted for six days labour
on the roads.
4. A slight assessment on shops and boutiques in the towns.
Previous to the establishment of these imposts, the export duties had been
abolished, with the exception of the id. per lb. levied on cinnamon, and the Go
vernor has been authorised by the Crown to submit the expenditure to the inspec
tion of the Legislative Council.

INDEX.

Aaiiiya Chakkrawarti, 77, 78, 464,465,
499,513,514,516
Abhaya.reign of, 50
Abu Zeidal Hasan, narrative of a visit to
Ceylon in the 9th century, 81 , 82
Adam's Bridge, 19, 49, 503-509
Adam's Peak, 610, 612-618
Addagairaoonoo, reign of, 47
Adigaars, their rank and duties, 346,
354-356
Agathamerus's description of Salice, 9
Agraboddigane wihare, 597
Agriculture of the Singhalese, 362-367
Akkara-pattoo, East, 564
Akkara-pattoo, West, 644
Alakaiswara Adigaar, 78
Alipoot, 577, 578
Allaputty, 519
Allow, 647
Alue-wihare, rocks of, 658
Alut Sal festival, 336
Alvarengo Lopez Suarez erects a fort at
Colombo, 86
Amanapoora, 639, 640
American Missions, 432-435
Analativoe, 519
Analysis of principal articles imported
into Ceylon in 1845, 845
 exported from ditto in 1 845, 845
Ancient names of Ceylon, 1-3, 869
Ancients, knowledge of Ceylon by, 4-
17
Anda tenure, 869
Animal kingdom, 709-758
Annius Plocamus, driven on the coasts of
Taprobane, 7
Anoola, reign of, 46
Anuradhapoora, 13, 28, 29, 32, 39-40,
45, 46, 50, 54, 64, 529-535, 801, 802
Architecture, 282,283
Area of CeyloD, 3
Areca palm, 773
Arrian's mention of PalaBsimundus, 9
Arts, 282-284
Asoka Aramaya, 23, 680
Asoka Malla, 782, 783

Astrology, 276, 277
Astronomy, 277
Atheology of Buddhism, 868
Avisahavelle, 636
Awurudha festival, 334
Azevedo, Don Jerome de, expedition
into the Kandian territories, 101, 102
Baboons, 731
Baddagamma, 606
Badulla, 570-572
Banapota, or Buddhist Bible, 44, 279
Banks, 632, 670
Barberyn, 619, 620
Barbosa's visit to Ceylon, 83
Barnes, Sir Edward, 208, 209
Bassas, Great and Little, 581
Batecalo, 37-43, 102, 103, 111, 116,
327, 373, 396-405, 443, 559-565
Batiyatissa I., reign of, 47
Bats, 733
Batticotta, 516
Bears, 730
Bees, 756
Beligamma, 597
Bentotte, 607, 608
Betel, mastication of, 261
Bhuwaneka Bahoo VI., 78, 79
Bhuwaneka Bahoo VII., 89, 90
Bintennfi, district of, 566
Birds found in the island, 734-743
Bo-gaha, 772
Boschouder, Marcellusde, 109, 110
Botany, knowledge of, 758
Boyd, Mr. Hugh, embassy of, to Kandy,
136-140
Bretto, Lopez de, 87
British arrival, occupation, government,
135-214,325,427-429,430-435,440-
444,446-449,482,522,811
Brownrigg, Sir Robert, 186-208
Buddha, legend of the cup of, 868
Buddha-rays, 689
Buddhas, historic doubts respecting, 866,
887
Buddhism, beneficial inflaence of, on the
Singhalese, 864
3 h

882

INDEX.

Buffalo hunt, 503
Buffaloes, 729
Bulatgamme, Upper and Lower, 638
Burghers, 480-482,868
Burnand, M. 134, 427, 563
Cabinet making, 271
Csesare di Fredericia, 83, 84
Calamander, 771
Calcareous minerals, 705
Calpentyn, 644, 645
Caltura, 620, 621
Campbell, Sir Colin, Government of,
213,233, 401
Canoes, native, description of, 420, 421
Capitation taxes, 869
Castes, Tamul, 463-464
 Singhalese, 234-244
Cat's eyes, 701
Chank fishery, 420, 870
Charters of Justice, 446, 447, 829-835
Chavagacherry, parish of, 517
Chenas, 877
Cheetah,729, 730
Chilaw, 78, 641-643
Cholera, 875
Chora Naga, reign of, 45, 46
Christianity, by whom planted, 11, 84,
91,435-438
Christian missions, state and progress of,
435-444,874
Churches and Chapels, return of, 855
Cinnamon, 385-394, 874
 quantity exported from 1835 to
1845 inclusive, 849
Cinnamon stone, 702
Circuits, Judicial, 834, 835
Civil fund, 869
Civil servants, 206, 425, 426
Clearing of forest and jangle, 849
Climate of Ceylon, 684-689
Coal, 699
Cocoa-nut tree, 37G-377, 773, 776
Coffee, 377-385; Returns of quantity
exported from 1837 to 1847 inclusive,
849
Coffee estates, localities of, 871, 872
Coins, 853
Coleoptera, list of, 755, 756
Colombo, 56, 78, 85, 86, 87, 88, 94,
112, 120-123, 142, 159, 169, 395,
625-63 4,685, 876
Colombo, siege of, 120-123
Commerce of Ceylon, 11, 15, 81, 83, 88,
395, 396, 497-499
Conspiracy of chiefs, 210-212
Constantine de Saa, 111, 112
Convention with the Kandian chiefs.l 92,
817-819

Coolies, immigration of, 397-399, 877
Cosmas Indicopleustes, 10, 11
Cotta, 77, 78, 85, 91, 93
Cotton, cultivation of, 373
Courts of Judicature under the native
dynasty, 219,220; under the British,
446, 447
Coutinho's, Souza de, heroic defence of
Colombo, 120-123
Creeping plants, 866
Crocodiles, 753-755
Crown lands, return of revenue from, for
the years 1833-1847 inclusive, 849
Crustacea, 757
Currency, history of, in Ceylon, 838-
841
Custom dues paid in all the ports of the
island on exports and imports, from
1833 to 1847, 847
Cutcherries, or local treasuries, 876
D&gobah, description of a, 320
Dalada, or tooth of Buddha, 53, 321-327
Dalada of Sairuwawilla, 327-328
Dambool, rock temples of, 652-655
Damma Padan, extracts from the, 867
Davie, Major, pusillanimous conduct of
161-165, 166, 167-168
Days of the Singhalese week, 060
Deer, 727, 728
Defence, naval and military, 427-429
Defences of Colombo, 872, 873
Demons and Demon worship, 308-309
Dependencies of Ceylon, 3, 517-520
602-605
Dewale, fittings of a, 307, 308
De Weerd, murder of, 106, 107
Dhaatusena, reign of, 54, 55
Dharmapaala (Don Juan), 89-93, 97
98,111
Dhonies, 876
Diabetme, 612-614
Diarrhoea, 690
Didroo-oya, 648
Diego de Melo, march of, on Kandy,
114
Diet of the Singhalese, 263
Dietetics in Ceylon, 865
Digganakhya dagobah, 564, 565
Dimbulugalla, 566
Diodorus Siculus, 5
Dionysius Periegetes, mention of Ta
probane by, 6
Diseases, 689, 693
Dissaves, or lieutenants, 356-358
Dondera Head, 595, 596
Donna Catharina, 98,99, 101, 108, 109
Doombera, 662-663, 673
Dootoo-gaimoonoo, reign of, 37-43

INDEX.

883

Dutch, 102-107, 109, 110, 113,1 14-144,
438, 439, 481, 482, 804-807, 808-81 1
Dysentery, 686, 690
Eastern road, 865
East India Company, 135-140, 141,146,
392, 393
Ecknelligodde Dissave, 190, 203,204
Edrisi, the Nubian geographer, 12-15
Education, 274, 429-435
Egyptian commerce with Ceylon, 870
Eheylapola Adigaar, 182-187,189-203
Eheylapola, seat of that family, 656
Elaala, reign of, 37-40
Election of a king, 339, 340
Elephantiasis, 690
Elephants, 709
Elloona, reign of, 47, 48
Elu, or High Singhalese, 273
Emeute, recent Kandian, 668, 878-880
Eras, Singhalese, 275
Eroowil-pattoo, 564
Establishment, a complete Buddhist,
319,320
Exchange, course of, 854
Excursion boats, 864
Exports and imports, tables of, from
1825 to 1847, 846
Falck, Governor, 134, 386, 561
Females, education of, 431, 432
Festivals, Kandian, 328-337
Finance, 844, 848
Financial state of the colony, 206, 875,
876
Fishes of Ceylon, 743-749
Fisheries of Ceylon, 420-424
Fish tax, 423-424
Flora Zeylanica, 758-776
Fort King, 639
Fort McDonald, 580, 581
Four Korles, 639, 640
French, 128, 129, 140, 141, 181
Funeral ceremonies, 257, 258
Gajabahoo I. 49, 50, 329
Gajabahoo II. 67, 68
Galle, 106, 117, 128, 133,396, 599-602,
605, 606
Gampola, 77, 674, 675
Gamsabae, or village councils, 219,220
Ganga bandera, or river spirit, 865
Gangabodde pattoo, East, 596
Gangabodde pattoo, West, 599
Gaols, returns of, 857-860
Gautama, history and precepts of, 295-
305
Gems, 609, 636, 700-704
Gem fishery, 609
Geography of the Buddbistical system,
284-290

Geographical outline of the island, 487,
488
Geographical position, 3
Geographical science, statn of, among
the Singhalese, 275, 276
Geology, 693-698
Giant's tank (Cattoekare), 494-496
Gillemalle, 610, 611
Gindura-oya, 606
Godapola, 657-658
Gods worshipped by the Singhalese,
306-308
Goewanst! caste, 235,236
Government, form of, 425-427
Grant's, Ensign, heroic defence of Dam
badiniya, 169, 170
Gule Giedde, 110
Hagalla range, 575
Hambantotte, 587, 588
Hammanbeil, 3, 519
Hangarankettt;, 157, 158
Hangwelle, 171-173,636
Haye.M. de la, 128, 129
Hemiptera, 756
Himbleatawelle, post of, 573
Historical works, Singhalese, 280, 281
Horticultural experiments, 874
Horton Plains, 573, 575
Horton, Sir R. W., 208-212, 230, 401,
402
Hue, varieties of, among the natives of
the maritime provinces, 865
Hulst, General, 119-122
Iambulus, 5, 777, 778
Ichneumon, 734, 752
Idalgashina mountain, 576
Illipekadawe, district of, 510
Immigration, Hindoo, 397-399
Inauguration of a king, 342
Indigo, 375-376
Infanticide, 257
Insolvency under the kings, 22 1,222
Insurrection of the Kandians against
Raja Singha II. 126,127
Jack trees, 770
Jaffnapatam, 514,515
Jaffna peninsula, 511-518
Janiere, Maha Modiansi, 98-100
Johnston, Captain, memorable retreat of, .
174-179
Johnston, Sir Alexander, 228,229, 448,
449
Justice, administration of, 444-449, 828-
835
Kaalidaas, the poet, murder of, 56-57
Kaasiyappa, the parricide, reign of, 56
Kabook, 693, 772
Kalane, 33, 34, 77, 90, 306, 617, 635

884

INDEX.

Kalane-ganga, 635-637
Kalawa-oya, 489, 490
Kallaar, 492, 493
Kalpauruksha, festival of, 866
Kalu-ganga, 620-625
Kalupahane\ 576
Kandelle, lake of, 549-551
Kandian cordon, 867
Kandian kings, 337-347
Kandian rebellion, 194-205
Kandian war, 153-192
Kandy, 664-675
Kandy, route to, from Colombo, 663
Kannya, hot wells of, 543, 706
Kappitipola, Dissave of Ouva, sedition
of, 199,203
Kapuralle, qualifications of,307, 308
Karadive, 517, 518
Karadive, isle of, 491
Karawe caste, 236, 237
Karetchypattoo, 520
Kartikiya festival, 335-336
Katadenia, 158
Katina Pinkama festival, 335
Kattragamme, 582, 583
Kattu-colom-pattoo, 542-549
Kaudelle, ruins of the tank of, 553
Kinihirridaila, reign of, 47
Kirti Nissanga, reign of, 72, 73
Kirti-sree Singha, reign of, 133, 134
Kitsiri Majan, reign of, 53
Kittool palm, 773
Knox, Robert, captivity and escape of,
789-807
Kogalle, lake of, 598, 599
Koir, preparation of, 876
Kombookan-aar, 581
Kondatchie, 410, 411,493
Koodremale, 491-492
Koomara Daas, reign of, 56, 57
Kopmara Samy.the pretender, 207, 208
Koondasala, reign of, 131
Koondasala, 680 681
Koorle-pattoo, 561
Koster, murder of, 117
Kotti-aar, bay of, 547, 548
Kotti-aar, district of, 551, 552
Kshoodrawanse\ 236-241
Kurunaigalla, 648-650
Kustia Uaja, or leprous king, 598.
Lacertse, 755
Lagalla, range of, 661, 662
Lakagalla, peaks of, 661, 662
Lanerolle, M. de, French ambassador to
the Court of Kandy, 129, 807, 809
Languages of Ceylon, 272-275, 827,828
Lanka, 1, 17-19, 22, 23, 25, 26, 780
Laws of the Singhalese, 215-222

Leeches, 757-758
Leelawatee, Queen, reign and vicissi
tudes of, 73
Legislative Council, composition of, 426
Lepidoptera, list of, 756
Leways, 586, 587
Lorenzo d'Almeida's discovery of Cey
lon, 85
Ludovico Barthema,visitof, to Ceylon, 83
Maatsuyker, finesse of, 119
Macdowal, General, embassy to Kandy,
151,152,811-815
M'Kenzie, Rt. Hon. Stewart, 212,213,
231,232,371
Madampfe, remains of, 642
Madeipaliyar, 465
Madge, Captain, heroism of, 169
Madoolla, 682
Magaama, ruins of, 33, 584, 585
Magaama-pattoo, 581-592
Magnesian minerals, 705
Mahacboola, 45
Maha-elliya, 574
Maha-oya, 647
Mahasen, 52-53, 306, 489,490, 553,554
Mahavelle-ganga, 13, 567, 568, 675,676
Mahawanse, 28, 31, 36, 39, 42, 47, 48,
55, 56, 67, 74, 76, 77, 280, 281, 324
866
Mahawanse, or great dynasty, 53
Maitland, Sir T., 181, 206, 228, 370
Malabar invasions, 36-40, 44, 49, 50,
54, 55, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64-66, 73, 74,
77, 78, 463, 497, 498
Malays, 75-76, 152, 161-165, 482, 483
Malayaa Ratte, 361
Mallagam, 515, 516
Maldivian archipelago, 602-605
Mammalia, 709-734
Manaar channel, 500
Manaar island, 500-503
Manaar, straits of, 499
Manaar, 501
Mandetivoe, 518
Manmoon6-pattoo, 563
Mantotte, 496-499
Mantotte, district of, 499, 500
Manufactories, mills, &c. 843
Manufactures, 268-271
Marcian of Heraclea's description of
Salice,9, 10
Marco Paolo's visit to Ceylon, 82
Marriage, ceremonies of, 250-253
Marriage of a king, 343, 344
Mascarenhas, Don Philippe de, 117
Matate, district of, 652-662
Matura, town of, 596, 597
Maturatta, 682-683

INDEX.

885

Maundeville, Sir John, visit to Ceylon,
82, 436
Maya Dunnai, 88-92
Mayaa Ratte, 361
Measures and weights, 852-853
Medical science, state of, in Ceylon,277-
279
Medical practitioners, remuneration of,
866
Mee trees, 771-772
Mennairia, tank or lake of, 553
Meteorology, 684-686, 689
Mihindoo, 31-33
Mihintalai, 36, 47, 535-537
Military strength of the Kandian kings,
352, 354
Military expenditure, 841-842
Mineralogy, 698-700, 874
Mineral waters, 706-708
Modeliars, 358, 359
Moelitivoe, 540, 541
Mohandiram, 359
Mohottales, 358, 359
Molligodde Adigaar, 184,185, 187-189,
192, 194, 201
Monkeys, 731,732
Monsoons, effect of change in, 877
Monteith, Gen., important work of, 508-
509
Months, Singhalese, 860
MoogaUaana, reign of, 56
Mookwas, 466-469
Moors of Ceylon, 197, 199,236,237,
470-480
Mootoo Samy, Prince, 148, 157-164
Morality of the Buddhistical system,
304, 305
Mulgiri, rock temples of, 594
Music, 282
Musk-rat, 732
Myriapoda, 757
Nadukadoepattoo, 559,560
Nagara, 273
Nagas, snake worshippers, 635
Nalande, 656
Nalloer, 561,562
Namina-Kooli-Kandi, 571, 572
Nanaatan, district of, 494-496,
Nanamura festival, 335
Nayntivoe, isle of, 519
Nedoentivoe, 519, 520
Neela-patta-dara heresy, 62
Negombo, 116-119, 640, 641
Nellore, parish of, 516
Nelu, jungle tree, 772
Newspaper press, 836, 837
Nicolo de Conte, 83
Nitre caves, 708, 709

North, Hon. Mr., administration of,
146-181
Nuwera Elliya, 678, 679
Nuwera Elliya, country between it and
Kandy, 674-677
Nuwera Elliya, country between it and
Badulla, 577
Nuwera Kalawa, 527-540
Oaths, native mode of administering,
217,445
Obsequies ofaKandian monarch, 341,342
Odoricus's visit to Ceylon, 82, 83
Officers of the Kandian Court, 783-786
Official declaration of the settlement of
the Kandian provinces, 816-819
Oils, 870
Olas, 863
Oodooville, 516
Ophidia, 749-751
Ophioxylon serpentinum, 771
Ordeal, modes of, 217, 218
Ordinance for defining the bounds of es
tates, &c. 835, 836
Ordination of priests, 313, 314
Origin of regal authority according to
the Singhalese, 337, 338
Origin of the Singhalese, 20-22
Outcastes, 241-243
Ouva, districts of, 570-373, 577-580
Ovid, mention of Toprobane by, 5, 6
Padeviel colom, 542
Palace of the kings of Kandy, 665
Palresimundi oppidum, locale of, 511
Pali, or Maghada language, 272,273,280
Pallawarajen kattoe, district of, 510
Palmyra palm, 772
Pandarian Wanniya, 174
Paudukabhaya, 28-30
Panduwasa, 28
Panowa-pattoo, 565
Pantura, 120, 625
Paradiniya, 672
Parasitical plants, 866
Parsees of Ceylon, 484
Patine Deiyo, 259
Paumban passage, 504-509
Pearl, description of the, 410, 414-416
Pearl fishery, 409-419
Pedrotalla-galla mountain, 679, 680
Peninsular and Oriental Company, pas
sage by vessels of, to Ceylon, 854
Perraherra festival, 328-333
Pihitee Ratte, 361
Pilame Talawe, first Adigaar, 147-183
Pilam6 Talawe, 183, 203
Pilotage, rates of, 854
Planetary worship, 308
Plants of Ceylon, 758-776

886

INDEX.

Pliny's description of Taprobane, 8,
779-780
Poengertivoe, 519
Poetry and Poets, 275, 281, 282
Point Pedro, 517
Pollock, Captain, defeat of the King of
Kandy by, 172, 173
Pollonnaroowa, 60, 61, 65, 75-77, 554-
558
Pomparippo, district of, 489, 490
Pomponius Mela, 6
Pooliantivoe, isle of, 562
Poonaryn, parish of, 510
Pootoor, 515
Population of the island, 53, 450, 451,
843 ; increase of, 877
Porativoe, 563
Port dues, 854
Portrait of Raja Singha II. 34
Portuguese, arrival, conquest and occu
pation, 79-124, 143, 325, 409, 429,
436,437, 439,480,481, 501,502,545
Portuguese language, 273, 274
Portuguese policy, 867, 868
Postage, rates of, 854
Postal communication, 870
Potato, cultivation of, 372-373
Pottery, 271, 866
Praackramabahoo I. 67-72
Praackramabahoo II. III. and IV. 75,
76,77
Prices of produce and merchandise,
average of, 851
Priesthood, Buddhist, 312-321
Primitive formation, rocks of, 695-697
Proclamations establishing British rule,
817-819 ; subsequent to tbe rebellion,
819-826
Produce, return of, 850
Property, laws of, 221
Provinces, Northern, 489-540; East
ern, 540-569; Southern, 569-619;
Western, 619-651 ; Central, 651-683
Ptolemy's description of Salice, 8, 9
Punishments under the Kandian dynasty,
218,219
Pusilava, 675
Putlam, 645, 646
Pybus, Mr., embassy of, 136
Quiparawa, lake of, 646
Railway from Colombo to Kandy, 396,
406-408, 424
Rajadhi Raja Singha, reign of, 134, 147,
328
Raja-karia, 209-211
Raja-Ratnacari, extracts from, 39, 74
Raja Singha I. 92-97
Raja Singha II. 111-130

Raja-wali, extracts from, 39, 74, 85, 90,
93, 95
Rama, 22-25, 595
Ramayana, 24
Rambodde, 676-677
Ratnapoora, 609
Rawana, King of Lanka, 23-5
Receipts and expenditure of the Pearl
Fishery from 1799 to 1845 inclusive,
848
Reptiles, 749-755
Rest houses, 865, 866
Revenue of Ceylon from 1821 to 1847
inclusive, 847
Revenue from cinnamon from 1799 to
1845 inclusive, 848
Rbodias, 186, 241-243
Ribeiro's History of Ceylon, 124
Rice names, 255-256
Roads, 404-406, 874
Rocks, varieties of, 694-698
Rogers, Major, the celebrated sports
man, adventures of, 864
Roohona, 28, 33, 37, 44, 49, 54, 55, 62,
63, 64,65, 68, 69, 70, 361, 560
Rufus Festus' description of Taprobane,
10
Rumph, administration of, 131, 132
Ruwanwelle, 173, 637, 638
Ruwanwelle dagobah, 868, 869
Saffragam, 174, 179, 608-619
Saidatissa, reign of, 43, 564
Sali, Prince, 43, 782, 783
Sale of Crown lands, mode of, 873
Saline productions, 586, 708, 709
Salt, export of, 873
Sangamittra, the priestess, 32-36
Sanus, specimens of a, 467, 787
Schools and scholars, return of, 855-857
Sciences, 275-279, 700, 758
Secondary formation, rocks of, 697, 698
Seetawaka, 637
Seminaries, Buddhist, 312
Senerat, reign of, 108-113
Serpents, 749-751
Serpent stone, 753
Seven Korles, 647-651
Shells, 755
Shipping employed in the trade of the
island from 1837 to 1847, 848
Sholen, 464
Sigiri, rock of, 538-540
Silk, cultivation of, 374
Singha dynasty, origin of, 26, 781
Singhalese, their manners and customs,
character and appearance, 244-268 ;
Costume, 461-463; language, 827 ;
Industrial state, 875

INDEX,

887

Siri Sangabo's reign and dethronement,
51,52
Slavery, 223-233
Small-pox, 691, 692, 809, 810
Snake charmers, 752, 753
Soils of Ceylon, 693, 694
Solinus Polyhistor's description of Ta
probane, 6-8, 410
Souza's, Pedro Lopez de, expedition
against Kandy, 98-101
Spilbergen, 102-106
Squirrels, 732, 733
Sri Wickrama Raja Singha, 147-192
Statuary, 283
Stewart, Gen., capture of the island by,
141-144
Stock, return of, 850
Storms, 687-689
Strabo's description of Taprobane, 6
Subha, usurpation of, 48, 49
Submersion of parts of the island, 17,
19, 34
Suffren, Adm., gallant conduct of, 140,
141
Sugar planting, 374, 375
Sula-wanzae, or lower dynasty, 53
Superstition, 288, 289
Suspension bridges, native, 864
Talapat palm, 771
Tambalagam-pattoo, 549
Tamuls, 463-466
Tangalle, 592-594
Tanks, 368-372, 494-496, 500, 509, 510,
523-526, 528, 529, 532, 537, 540,
54 1 , 549-551 , 553,554, 565, 566, 584,
585, 586, 591, 592, 643,650,651,
861
Taprobane, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12,
13, 15,16, 17,81
Tariff as in 1848, 844
Taxes, 837,838,880
Temple lands, 402, 404
Tenna-Marre-waddie-pattoo, 542
Tenure of lands, 786-789
Theory of the tides, 291-292
Thesa Walama, 448
Throne of the Kandian kings, 860, 861
TillipalbS, 515
Tides, rise of the, 866
Tissa, 30-35

Tobacco, cultivation of, 373, 374
Toisite, the fourth heaven, 868
Torrington, Lord Viscount, 143, 144
Trial by jury, 448,449
Trikoil, temple of, 564
Trincomalee, 141,395, 396, 544-549
Trincomalee, battle off, 140-141
Udaneura and Yattineura, Rattesof, 865
Udaya, tyrannical reign of, 63
Van Angelbeck, Governor, 143
Van der Graff, Governor, 135, 248, 839
Van Eck, Governor, 133
Van Goens, Admiral, 129
Van Imhoff, Governor, 133
Vaz, Padre, career of, 807-81 1
Veddahs, 22, 308, 309, 452-461, 873
Venetian commerce with Ceylon, 83
Vernacular schools, 874, 875
Versluys, government of, 132
Vertativoe, district of, 509, 510
Vuist, Governor, 132
Wages, rates of, 854, 855
Wahala Pinkamas, festival, 335
Walagambahoo, reign of, 43-45
Waliyakun festival, 336
WallawS-ganga, 589-592
Wannapane, 514, 515
Wanny, country of tbe, 520-527
Wardens of temples, 359
Wasabha, reign of, 48, 49
Waswassana, season of, 315,316
Waste lands, 400-403
Weaving, native mode of, 271
Weights and measures, 852-853
Wejaya-bahoo, reign of, 65-67
Welasse, district of, 569
Wesleyans, mission of the, 443, 862
Wickramabahoo, reign of, 67
Wigittapoora, remains of, 537, 538
Wihare, description of a, 318
Wijeya, origin and reign of, 26-28
Wilbawe, a Kandian pretender, 203
Wilson Plains, 577
Wimala Dharma (Don John), 94-108
Wimala Dharma Suria II. 130, 131
Winds, rains, mists, 864, 865
Wytoolian heresy, 50, 52, 58
Xavier, mission of, to Ceylon, 436, 437
Yakkas, 25-27,29, 30, 451-454, 566
Yakka superstitions, 863

THE END.

v. NORUAN, PRINTER, MAIDEN LAKE, COVENT GARDEN.

ERRATA.

Vol. I.
P. 2, 1. 20,/or Katysrend Kayts.
P. 27, 1. 10,/or Neurecaleva read Nu
wara Kalawa.
P. 42, 1. 12fromtbottom, for Mettiyo
read Maitr§.
P. 43, 1. 14, for Lower read Lowa.
P. 44, 1. 1 from bottom,/or what be read
what may be.
P. 45, 1. 5,/or dogabahs read dagobahs.
P. 50, 1. 2 of note, for Pancea read
Panowa.
P. 68, 1. 1,/or Suffragam read Saffragam.
P. 75, heading, for Praackramabahoo III.
read II.
P. 109, 1. 2 of note, for Panna read
Panowa.
P. 125, 1. 21, for Van de Graff read Van
der Graff. 1 35, 1. 5, ditto.
P. 168, 1. 20, for Gonorooa read Gan-
nooroowe, & passim.
P. 171, 1. 2, for Cogel read Kogalle.
P. 185, 1. 25, for the sequel was far ex
ceeded, read tbe sequel far exceeded
them.

P. 312, 1. 10 from bottom, for niakoo
read nayaka — -for unanci, unnanse.
P. 354, 1. 6 of heading, for ilame read
nilame.
P. 473, 1. 16 from bottom, far Mohamet
read Mahomet. Vol. II.
P. 555, 1. 20, insert King before Upatissa.
P. 608, 1. 1, place comma before, by day
light, 1. II, delete which, and for
renders, read render.
P. 641, 1. 9 from bottom, for South read
North.
P. 647, 1. 8 from bottom, for Gooroo-
gooyae read Gooroogooya.
P. 676, 1. 11 from bottom, for foot read
ford.
P. 843,/orwhites,male4,358read 3,358.
P. 846, 1. 1,/or from 1825 to 1839 read
from 1825 to 1847.
For Exports for 1846, read for 467,620
read 679,286.
For Imports for 1846/or 1,011,289 read
1,372,701.