YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
THE MOUNTAINS OF
CALIFORNIA
BY
JOHN MUIR
lI-L.U.STl!ATI';i) FTJO.AI rRELIMTNARY .SKETCHES AND
rTroTor.RMnis Ft'tiKisnED tsy the author
IWew anO eiilargcO e&itloii
1^
NF.W YOUK
THE CENTURY CO,
1913
Copyrij^lit,, IKiM, liy 'run ('KNTlMtY (!().
Copyriglil, 1911, liy The Centiiky Co.
TO
THE MKMOKV (IK
IjOUIZA STRENTZEL
THIS NINTH EJJITION OF
THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
IS AFFECTIONATELY nEDICATKn
CONTENTS
(!ii,M'ri;K Page
I The Sierra Nevada 1
II The Glaciers 20
irr Tino Snow 36
IV A Nkar View op 'jtie Hioh Sierra 48
V TiiK I'ASSics 74
vr. The Glacier ] JAKES 98
VII The Glacheh Meadows 125
VIII The Forests 139
IX The Douglas Squirrel 226
X A Wind-Storm in the Forests ....,,. 244
XI The River Floods 2,')8
Xll Sierra Thunder STt)i{.MS 271
XIII The Water-Ouzel 27G
XIV The Wild Sheep 300
XV In the Sierra Foot-Hills 325
XVI The Bee-Pastures 338
Index 383
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page
Hooped Locusts Frontispiece
Mount Tamalpais— North op the Golden Gate , 5
Map op the Sierra Nevad,v 7
Mount Shasta 13
iMouNT Hood 19
Map op the Glacier Country 23
Mount IJAiNUoit; Noicrii IMiv.\llui' (Jlachsr pko.m
Eagle Clipp 31
KoLAN.v Rock, Hetch-Hetchy A'^ alley 45
Photograpli by W. L, Hubcr, 1900
General Grant Tree, Generm, Grant National
I'ark 61
I'hotogrnph by W, L, Hnbcr, liiflS
Map op the Yosemite A^^lley 67
Map op the Yosemite Valley, Showing Present
Reservation Boundary 77
Rancheria Falls, Hetch-Hetciiy Valley ... 87
Photograph by W. L. Huber, 1909
View op the ]\Iono Plain from the Foot of Bloody
(Ianon 97
Lake Tenaya, one ok the Yosemite Fountains , 102
The Death op a Lake 107
Shadow Lake (JMerced Lake), Yosemite National
Park Ill
Photograph by W. L. Hubor, IDS
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Pa(ik
Veunal 1'\\li-, Yosemite V^vlley 1L5
Photograph by W. L. Hubor, 1U07
Lake Starr King 119
View in the Sierra Forest 141
Edge op the Timber Line on ]\Iount Shasta . .143
View in the Main Pine Belt op the Sierra Forest 145
Nut Pine 147
The Grove Form . 149
Lower ]\Iargin op the Main Pine Belt, Showing
Open Character op Woods ... ... 151
Sugar Pine on Exposed Ridge 157
Young Sugar Pine beginning to bear Cones . . 160
FoRES'i' of Sequoia, Sugar Pine, and D()ugl,\s
Spruce 161
PiNus Ponderosa 164
Silver Pine 210 Feet High 166
Incense Cedar in its Prime 171
Forest op Grand Silver Firs . 172
View op Forest op the Magnificent Silver Fir . 175
Silver-Fir Forest Growing on Moraines op the
Hoffman and Tenaya Glaciers 177
Sequolv Gigantea. View in General Grant
National Park ]81
Photograph by AY. L, liiiber, )!HI8
MviR Gorge. Tuolumne G\\on, Yosemite
National Park . 191
Photograph by W. L, lIubtT, lillW
View in Tuolumne Ca.son, Yosemite Nationaij
Park 197
Photograph by ^V. L. liiiber, 1909
list of illustrations xiii
Page
Juniper, or Red Cedar 205
Storm-Beaten .Iunipers 207
Photograph by Katlieriue Hooker
Storm-Beaten Hemlock Spruce, Forty Feet High 208
Group op Erect Dwarf Pines 212
A Davarf Pine ........:.... 214
Oak Growing AMONG Yellow Pines '217
Pate Valley, Showing the Oaks. Tuolumne
Canon, Yosemite National Park 225
Photograpli by W. L. Hubcr, 1909
Track op Douglas Squirrel once Down and Up a
Pine-'J'uee when Showing oi^'i' to a Speciwtor 231
Seeds, Wings, and Scale op Sugar Pine 234
Trying the Bow 243
A Wind-Storm in the California Forests . . . 245
Yellow Pine and Libocedrus . 253
Photograph by Kathcrine Hooker
Bridal A^eitj Falls, Yosiomitp. Vallioy 273
Photograph by W. L. Hubor, 19(17
Water-Ouzel Diving and Feeding 277
One of the Late-Summer Feeding-Grounds of the
Ouzel . . 285
Ouzel ]{;ntering a White Current 287
The Ouzel at Home ... . . ... 293
¦^'osEMiTB Birds, Snow-I^ound at the I'oor op
Indian Canon ... 297
SNOW-liOUND on JTount Sh.vsta 306
Head op the JIekino Ram . . 309
Head op Rocky Mountain Wild Sheep .... 311
xiv LIST OF illustrations Page
Crossing a Canon Stream . . . ^ , . . 314
Wild Sheep Jumping over a Precipice . , . . 319
Indians Hunting Wild Sheep 321
A Bee-Ranch in Lower California 341
Wild Bee Garden 357
In the San G.^briei^ Valley.— White Sage . . . 365
A Bee-Rancii on a Spur op the San Gabriel
Range.— Cardinal Flower ... ... 369
Wild Buckwheat. — A Bee-Ranch in the Wilder
ness 371
A Bee-Pasture on the Moraine Desert.— Spanish
Bayonet 375
A Bee-Keeper 's Cabin 379
THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
THE MOUNTAINS OF
CALIFORNIA CHAPTER I
THE SIERRA NEVADA
GO wliero you may within the hounds of Cali
fornia, mountains are ever in sight, charming
and glorifying every landscape. Yet so simple and
massive is the topography of the State in general
views, that the main central portion displays only
one valley, and Iavo chains of mountains which seem
almost perfectly regular iu trend and height: the
( -oiist liaiigo on tlio west side, tho Sierra Nevada on
the east. These two ranges coming together in
curves on the north and south inclose a magnificent
basin, Avith a level floor more than 400 miles long,
and from 35 to GO miles wide. This is the grand
Central Valley of California, the waters of which
have only one outlet to the sea through the Grolden
Gate, But with this general simplicity of features
there is great complexity of hidden detail. The
Coast Range, rising as a grand green barrier against
the ocean, from 2000 to 8000 feet high, is composed
of innumerable forest-crowned spurs, ridges, and
rolling hill-waves which inclose a multitude of
smaller valleys; some looking out through long,
4 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
forest-lined vistas to the sea; others, with but few
trees, to the Ceuti-al Valley; while a thousand others
yet smaller are embosomed and coHctialed in mild,
I'ound-browed hills, each Avith its own climate, soil,
and produetioHS,
Making your Avay through the mazes of the Coast:
Range to the summit oE any of the inner peaks or
]iassos o]>posite Sail Francisco, in the clear spriiig-
iiiiu^, lliii gi'a,ii(lesl, a^iid iiiosl. li^lliiigol' ill! Calironiia.
huidstiapes is outspread bet\)re you, iVt your I'ec!!.
lies the great Central Valley gloAving golden in the
suushine, extending north aud south farther than
the eye can reach, one smooth, flowery, lake-like bed
of fertile soil. Along its eastern margin lises the
mighty Sierra, miles in height, reposing like a
smooth, cumnlous cloud in the sunny sky, and so
gloriously colored, and so luminous, it seems to be
not clotlicd with light, but; wholly coiu[)ose<l ol" it,
like the wall of some celestial city. Along the top,
and extending a good way down, you see a pale,
pearl-gray belt of snow; aud below it a belt of blue
and dark purjile, marking tlie extension of the for-
(wi.s; and along tlie base ol' tlie range a broad belt
ol' ros(!-[)iH'[)l(» and yellow, wlic-re lio llie miller's gold-
fields and the foot-hill gardens. Ail these colored
belts blending smoothly make a Avail of light inef
fably fine, and as beautiful as a rainbow, yet (inn
as adamant.
When 1 first enjoyed this superb view, one glow
ing April day, from the gumniit of the Pacheco Pass,
the Central Valley, but little trampled or plowed as
yet, Avas one furred, rich sheet of golden cora-
positte, and tho luminous Avall of the mountains
THR SIERRA NEVADA, 5
shone in all its glory. Then it seemed to me the
Sierra should bo called not the NeA^i<la, or Snowy
Ra,nge, but tho Jiango of Light, Aud after ten years
spent in the lieai't ol,' it, ivijoiciug and wondering,
bathing iu its glorious Hoods of light, seeing the
/unbursts of morning among tho icy peaks, the
Tioondiiy radiance on the trees and rocks and snow,
the ilusli of the alpenglow, and a tlpHisand dashing
waterfalls Avith their marvelous abnudanco of iriscd
spray, it still seems to me above all others the Range
of Light, the most divinely beautiful of all tho moun
tain-chains I have ever seen.
The Sierra is about 500 mihwlong, TOmih^s wide,
and from 7000 to nearly 15,000 feet high. In general
Anews no mark of man is visible on it, nor anything
to suggest the richness of the life it cherishes, or the
de]3th and grandeur of its sculpture. None of its
maguitic-ont forest-crowned ridges ris(>,s much aboA^e
the gtnicral level to })ultlisli its Avealth. No great val
ley or lake is seen, or river, or group of well-marked
features of any kind, standing out in distinct pic
tures. Even the summit-peaks, so clear and high
in the sky, seem comparatively smooth and feature
less. Nevertheless, glaciers are still at Avork in the
shadows of the peaks, and thousands of lakes and
meadows shine and bloom beneath them, and the
whole range is fiirrowivl Avith cauons to a depth of
from 'JOOO to -501)0 i'&^.t, in Avliicli once lloweii nui-
jostic glaciers, and in Avh'icli now flow and sing a
baud of beautiful rivers.
Though of such stupendous depth, these famous
canons are not raw, gloomy, jagged- Aval led gorges,
savage and inaccessible. With rough passages here
6 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
and there they still make delightful pathways for the
mountaineer, conducting from the fertile loAvlands
to the highest icy fountains, as a kind of mountain
streets full of charming life and light, graded and
sculptured by the ancient glaeicirs, and presenting,
throughout all their courses, a rich variety of novel
and attractive scenery, the most attractive that has
yet been discovered in the mountain-ranges of the
world. In many places, especially in the middle region
of the Avestern flank of the range, the main canons
widen into spacious valleys or parks, diversified
like artificial landscape-gardens, Avitli charming
groves and meadows, and thickets of blooming
bushes, while the lofty, retiring Avails, infinitely
varied in form and sculpture, are fringed with ferns,
flowering-plants of many species, oaks, and ever
greens, which find anchorage on a thousand narrow
steps and benches; while the whole is enliA^ened
and made glorious with rejoicing streams that
come dancing and foaming over the sunny broAvs
of the cliffs to join the shining river that flows in
tranquil beauty down the middle of each one of
them. The waUs of these park valleys of the Yosemite
kind are made up of rocks mountains in size, partly
separated from each other by narrow gorg(!s and
side-canous; and tliey are so sheer iu front, and so
compactly built togcither on a h^vel floor, that, com
prehensively seen, the parks they inclose look like
immense halls or temples lighted from above.
Every rock seems to glow with life. Some lean
back in majestic repose; others, absolutely sheer,
lialit, Itni, l)y Win r. woniinMi. iHiiiiii", Jl. I.
MAP OP THE SIERRA NEVADA
8 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
or nearly so, for thousands of feet, advance their
brows in thoughtful attitudes beyond their com
panions, giving welcome to storms and calms alike,
seemingly conscious yet heedless of everything go
ing on about them, awful in stern majesty, types
of pernianence, yet associated with beauty of the
frailest and most fleeting forms ; their feet set in
pine-groves and gay emerald meadows, their broAvs
in the sky; bathed in light, bathed in Moods of
singing Avater, while snow-clouds, avalanches, and
the winds shine and surge and wreathe about them
as the years go by, as if into these mountain man
sions Nature had taken pains to gather her choicest
treasures to draAV her lovers into close and confid
ing communion with her.
Here, too, iu the middle region of deepest canons
are the grandest forest-trees, the Sequoia, king of
conifers, the noble Sugar and Yellow Pines, Doug
las Spruce, Libocedrus, and the Silver Firs, each a
giant of its kind, assembled together in one and the
same forest, suipassing dl other coniferous forests
in the world, both in the number of its species and
in the size aud beauty of its trees. The Aviiids floAV
in melody through their colossal spires, and they are
vocal everywhere with the songs of birds and run
ning water, IMiles of fragrant (teanothus and man-
zanita bushes bloom beneath tluiin, and lily gardens
and meadows, and damp, ferny glens in endh^ss
variety of fragrance aud color, compelling tlui ad
miration of every observer. Sweeping on over
ridge and valley, these noble trees extend a con
tinuous belt from end to cud of the range, only
slightly interrupted by sheer-Avalled canons at in-
TUG SIERRA NEVADA
Icrvals of about fifteen and twenty miles. Here
the great burly brown bears delight to roam, har
monizing Avitli the brown boles of the trees be
neath Avliich they feed. Deer, also, dwell here, and
find food and shelter in the ceanotlius tangles, with
a multitude of smaller peojile. Above this region
f)f gia.nts, tll(^ tr(H>s grow smaller until the utmost
limit of the timber line is reached on the stormy
mountain-slopes at a height of from ten to tAvelve
thousand feet above the sea, Avliere the Dwarf Pine
is so lowly and hard beset by storms and heavy
snow, it is pressed into flat tangles, over the tops of
Avhich wo may easily Avalk, Bch)AV the main forest
belt the trees likeAvise diininish in size, frost and
burning drouth repressing and blasting alike.
The rose-puri)lo zone along the base of the range
comprehends nearly all the famous gold region of
(Jalifornia, And here it Avas that miners from every
countrjr under the sun assembled in a wild, torrent-
like rush to seek their fortunes. On the banks of
every river, ravine, a.iid gnlly tlniy lia\'(^ left their
marks. Every gravel- and boulder-bed has been
desperately riddled over and over again. But in
this region tho pick aud shovel, once wielded with
savage enthusiasm, have been laid aAvay, and only
(|uartz-miiiing is iioav being carried on to any con
siderable extent. The zone in general is made up
of low, tawny, waving foot-hills, rongheiied here and
there Avith brush and trees, and outcropping masses
of slate, colored gray and red with lichens. The
smaller masses of slate, rising abruptly from the
dry, grassy sod in leaning slabs, look like ancient
tombstones in a deserted burying-ground. In early
o
10 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
spring, say from February to April, the whole of
this foot-hill bcilt is a pa.ra.dise of bees aud llowers.
Jiefresliing rains then fall fr(!ely, birds are busy
building their nests, and the sunshine is balmy and
delightful. But by the end of May the soil, plants,
and sky seem to haA^e been baked in an oven. Most
of the plants crumble to dust beneath the foot, and
the ground is full of cracks ; Avhile the tliirsty
traveler gazes with eager longing through the burn
ing glare to the snowy summits looming like hazy
clouds in the distance.
The trees, mostly Qnercus DoKglasii and Tinus
Sahiniana, thirty to forty feet high, with thin, jiale-
green foliage, stand far apart and cast but little
shade. Lizards glide about on the rocks enjoying
a constitution that no drouth can dry, and a,iits iu
amazing numbers, Avliose tiny sparks of life seem
to burn the brighter Avith the increasing heat,
ramble industriously in long trains in search of
food. Crows, ravens, magpies — friends in distress
— gather on the ground beneath the best shade-
trees, panting Avith drooping Aviiigs and bills wide
open, scarce a note from any of them during the
midday hours, (Quails, tot), seek the shade during
the heat of the day about tepid pools in the chan
nels of the larger mid-river streams. Rabbits scurry
from thicket to thicket among the ceanothns bushes,
and occasionally a long-eared hare is seen cantering
gracefully across the Avider openings. The nights
are calm and dewless during the summer, and a
thousand voices proclaim tlie abundance of life, not
withstanding the desolating effect of dry sunshine
on the plants and larger animals. The hvlas make
THE SIERRA NEVADA 11
a delightfully pure and tranquil music after sunset ;
and coyotes, the little, despised dogs of the Avilder-
iiess, bra\'(', hardy felloAvs, looking like withered
wisps of hay, bark in chorus for hours. Mining-
towns, most of them dead, and a few living ones
Avith bright bits of cultivation about them, occur at
long intervals along the belt, and cottages covered
with climbing I'oses, in the midst of orange and
peach orchards, and sAveet-scented hay-fields in fer
tile ilats Avhere water for irrigation may be had.
But they are mostly far apart, and make scarce
auy mark in general vicAVS,
hlvery wiiil-er the iiigli Sicwra and the middfe
forest region get snow in glorious aibundance, and
even the foot-hills a,re at times whitened. Then all
the range looks like a A^ast beveled wall of purest
marble. The rough places are then made smooth,
tho death and decay of tho year is covered gently
and kindly, and the. ground sccmhs as clean as tho
sky, Aud though silent in its flight from the
clouds, aud Avlien it is taking its place on rock, or
tree, or grassy meadoAV, how soon the gentle siioav
finds a voice ! Slipping from the heights, gather
ing in avalanches, it booms and roars like thunder,
and makes a glorious show as it sweeps down the
mountain-side, arrayed in long, silken streamers and
wreathing, SAvirliiig films of crystal dust,
Tli(\ uortli half of the range is mostly covered
Avitli Moods of lava., and (h)tted w'lth volcanoes and
craters, some of them recent and perfect in form,
others in various stages of decay. The south half
is composed of granite nearly from base to summit,
while a considerable number of peaks, in the middle
12 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
of the range, are capped with metamorphie slates,
among wliich are INbmnts Dana and Gibbs to the
east of Yosemite Valley, Mount AVhitney, the cul
minating point of the range near its southern ex
tremity, lifts its helmet-shaped crest to a height
of nearly 14,700 feet. Mount Shasta, a colossal a'oI-
canic cone, rises to a height of 11,44:0 feet at the
northern extremity, and forms a noble landmark
for all the surrounding region Avithin a radius of a
hundred miles. Residual masses of volcanic rocks
occur throughout most of the granitic southern por
tion also, and a considerable number of old volca
noes on the flanks, especially along the eastern base
of the range near Mono Lake and southward. But
it is only to the northward that the entire range,
from base to summit, is covered with lava.
From the summit of Mount Whitney only granite
is seen. Innumerable peaks and spires but little
lower than its own storm-beaten crags rise in
groups like forest-trees, in full view, segregated by
canons of tremendous depth and ruggedness. On
Shasta nearly every feature in the vast view speaks
of the old volcanic fires. Far to the uortliAvard, in
Oregon, the icy volcanoes of jMoiint Pitt and the
Three Sisters rise above the dark evergreen Avoods,
SouthAvard innumerable smaller craters and cones
are disti-ibuted along the axis of the range and on
each fiaiik, ( )f tliesci, La,ss(m's Butte is the highest,
being nearly 11,000 feet above sea-kivel, Mih^s ol
its flanks are reeking and bubbling Avith hot springs,
many of them so boisterous and sulphurous they
seem ever ready to become spouting geysers like
those of the Yellowstone,
r.ipyriglit, l»j Lnilrr-iWHl & Unaerwood, N, Y,
MOUNT SHASTA.
THE SIERRA NEVADA 13
The Cinder Cone near marks the most recent vol
canic eruption in the Sierra, It is a symmetrical
truncated cone about 700 feet high, covered with
gray cinders and ashes, and has a regular un(;lianged
crater on its summit, iu which a I'oav small Two-
leaved Pines are growhig. These show that the age
of the cone is not less than eighty years. It stands
betAveen two lakes, Avhicli a short time ago Avere
one. Before the cone Avas built, a flood of rough
vesicular laA^a was poured into the lake, cutting it
ill two, and, overflowing its banks, the fiery flood
advanced into the Ijine-Avoods, overwhelming the
trei^s in its way, ill(^ cha.riMMl (mkIs of some of whicli
may still be seen proj(^ctillg from l)eH(>a,th the snout
of tlie lava-stream where it came to rest. Later
still ther(^ was a.ii eruption of ashes and loose ob
sidian cinders, probably from the same vent, Avliich,
besides forming the Cinder Cone, scattered a heavy
sli<)W(!r ov(n' the surrounding Avoods for miles to a
dejith of from six inches to scA-eral feet,
Tlu^ history of this last Sierra eruption is also pre
served in the traditions of the Pitt River Indians,
They tell of a fearful time of darkness, when the sky
was black Avitli ashes and smoke that threatened
every living thing Avitli death, and that when at
length the sun appeared once more it was red like
blood. Less recent craters in great numbers roughen the
adjacent region ; some of them Avitli lakes in their
throats, others oA^ergroAvn Avitli trees and flowers,
Nature in these old hearths and firesides having
literally given beauty for ashes. On the northwest
side of Mount Shasta there is a subordinate cone
14 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
about 3000 feet below the summit, which has been
active subsequent to the breaking up of the main
ice-cap that once covered tho mountain, as is shown
by its comparatively un wasted ci'ater and the
streams of unglaciated lava radiating from it. The
main summit is abcnit a mile and a half in diaiiKjter,
bounded by small crumbling j^eaks and ridges,
among Avliich Ave seek iuA^ain for the outlines of the
ancient crater.
These ruinous masses, and the deep glacial
grooves that flute the sides of the mountain, sIioav
that it has been considerably lowered and wasted
by ice; how much Ave haA'e no sure means of knoAV-
ing. Just beloAV the extreme summit hot sulphu
rous ga.s(vs and A"a.]K)r issue from irregular iissnrcs,
mixed Avitli spray derived from melting snow, the
last feeble expression of the mighty force that built
the mountain. Not in one great convulsion was
Shasta given birth. The crags of the summit and
the sections exposed by the glaciers doAvii the sides
display enough of its internal framcAvork to i)rove
that comparatively long periods of quiescence in
tervened betAveen many distinct eruptions, during
which the cooling lavas ceased to flow, and became
permanent additions to the bulk of the growing
mountain. With alternate haste and deliberation
eruption succeeded eruption till the old volcano sur
passed even its present siibhuie height.
Standing on the icy top of this, the grandest of
all the lire-mountains of the Sierra, Ave can hardly
fail to look forward to its next eruption, Grardens,
vineyards, homes have been planted confidingly on
the flanks of volcanoes which, after remaining stead-
THE SlERItA NEVADA 15
fast for ages, liaA^o suddenly blazed into violent ac
tion, and poured forth overAvhelming floods of fire.
It is known that more than a thousand years of
cool calm liaA'e intervened between violent erup
tions. Like gigantic geysers spouting molten rock
instead of water, A^olcanoes work and rest, and Ave
have no sure means of knowing whether they are
dead Avhen still, or only sleeping.
Along tho W(>stern base of the range a telling
series of sedimentary rocks containing the early
history of the Sierra are now being studied. But
leaving for the present these first chapters, we see
that only a very short geological time ago, just be
fore tlie coming on of tliat Avinter of Avintei'S called
the glacial period, a vast deluge of molten rocks
poured from many a chasm and crater on the flanks
and summit of the range, filling lake basins and
river channels, and obliterating nearly CA^ery exist
ing feature on tho northern portion. At length these
all-destroj'ing floods ceased to floAv, But Avhile the
gr(>a.t AM)lca.ni(! cones built u[) along the axis still
burned and smoked, tho Avholo Sierra passed under
the domain of ice a.nd snow. Then over the bald,
featureless, flre-blackened mountains, glaciers be
gan to craAvl, covering them from, the summits to
the sea with a mantle of ice ; and then Avith in
finite deliberation the Avork Avent on of sculptur
ing the range anew. These mighty agents of ero
sion, halting iieA^er through unnumbered centuries,
crushed and ground the flinty lavas and granites
beneath their crystal folds, Avasting and building
until in the fullness of tune the Sierra was born
again, brought to light nearly as Ave behold it to-
IC) THE IMOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
day, Avitli glaciers and snoAv-criished pines at the
top of the rang(!, Avheat-fiiilds and orange-groves at
tlie foot of it.
This change from icy darkness and death to life
and beauty Avas slow, as Ave count time, and is still
going on, north and south, OA'or all the Avorld Avher-
ever glaciers exist, whether iu the form of distinct
rivers, as in Switzerland, Norway, the nioun tains of
Asia, and the Pacific Coast; or in continuous mant
ling folds, as iu portions of Alaska, (}i'eeiiland,
Franz-Josepli-Land,Nova Zcmbla, Spitzbi!rg(iii, and
the lands about the South Pole, But in no ccumtry,
as far as I kiiOAv, may these majestic changes be
studied to better advantage than in the plains and
mountains of California,
Toward the (-lose of the glacial ])eriod, Avlieii the
snow-clouds became less fertile and the melting
Avaste of sunshine became greater, the lowei- folds
of the ice-sheet in California, discharging fleets of
icebergs into the sea, begau to shallow aud recede
from the lowlands, and tluMi move slowly up tin*
flanks of the Sitirra in conqjliance Avith tlu! changes
of climate. The great Avhite mantle on tlui uioiiii-
ta.ins broke iqi into a series of glaciers more oi' less
distinct and river-like, Avitli many tributaries, and
these again were melted and divided into still
smaller glaciers, until now only a fcAv of the small
est residual topmost branches of the grand system
exist on the cool slopes of the summit peaks.
Plants and animals, biding their time, closely
folloAved the retiring ice, bestoAving quick aud
joyous animation on the iiew-boru landscapes.
Pine-trees marched up the sun-Avarmed moraines in
)ii|;lil, l>> \'u<li\\ I \ 1 lul.ntni.l, ^. ^ .
MOUNT HOOD.
THE SIERRA NEVADA 17
long, hopeful files, taking the ground and establish
ing themselves as soon as it was ready for them ;
brown-spiked sedges fringed the shores of the new
born hikes; young rivers roared in the abandoned
channels of the glaciers; tloAvers bloomed around
the feet of the great burnished domes, — Avhilewith
qui(^k fertility mellow beds of soil, settling and
Avarmiiig, oft'ered food to multitudes of Nature's
Availing children, great and small, animals as well as
plants; mice, squirrels, marmots, deer, bears, ele
phants, etc. The ground burst iuto bloom Avitli
magical rapidity, aud the young forests iuto bird-
song: life in every form wa.nniiig a.iid sweetcMiing
and growing richer as the years passed away t)ver
the mighty Siisrra so lately suggestive of death and
consummate desolation only.
It is hard without long and loving study to realize
the magnitude of the Avork done on these mountains
during the last glacial period by glaciers, Avhich are
only streams of closely compacted suoAV-crystals,
Cai'cful study of the phenomena presented goes to
shoAv that the pre-glacial condition of the range
was comparatively simple : one vast waA^e of stone
in Avhich a thousand mountains, domes, canons,
ridges, etc, lay concealed. And in the development
of these Nature chose for a tool not the earthquake
or lightning to rend and split asunder, not the
stormy torrent or eroding rain, but the tender suoav-
flowers noiselessly falling through unnumbered cen
turies, the offspring of the sun and sea. Laboring
harmoniously in united strength they crushed and
ground and Avore aAvay the rocks in their march,
making A^ast beds of soil, and at the same time de-
18 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
veloped and fashioned the landscapes into the de
lightful variety of hill and dale aud lordly moun
tain that mortals call beauty. Perhaps more than a
mile in average depth has the range been thus de
graded during the last glacial period, — a quantity of
mechanical work almost inconceivably great. And
our admiration must be excited again and again as
Ave toil and study and learn that this vast job of
rockwork, so far-reaching in its iiiMueiUies, Avas done
by agents so fragile and small as are these floAvers
of the mountain clouds. Strong only by force of
numbers, they carried away entire mountains, par
ticle by particle, block by block, and cast them into
the sea; sculptured, fashioned, modeled all the
range, and developed its predestined beautj'. All
these new Sierra laiidscapes Avcre evidently predes
tined, for the physical structure of the rocks on
which the features of the scenery depend Avas ac
quired while they lay at least a mile deep below
the pre-glacial surface. And it was Avhile these fea
tures were taking form iu the depths of the range,
the particles of the rocks marching to their ap
pointed places in the dark Avith reference to the com
ing beauty, that the iiarticles of icy vapor in the
sky marching to the same music assembled to bring
them to the light. Then, after their grand task was
done, these bauds of snow-Mowers, those mighty
glaciers, Avere melted and removed as if of no more
inqiortaiKH) than dew destined to last but an hour.
Few, however, of Natur(3's agents have left monu
ments so noble and enduring as they. The great
granite domes a mile high, the canons as deep, the
noble peaks, the Yosemite vaUeys, these, and indeed
THE SIERRA NEVADA 19
nearly all other features of the Sierra scenery, are
glacier monuments.
Colli cinplatiiig tho Avorks of these floAvers of the
sky, (Hie may easily fancy them endowed Avith life:
messengers sent doAvn to work iu the mountain
mines on (M'rands of divine l()\a\ Silently flying
t hroiigh tliii dnrkeiied air, swirling, glinting, to their
a,])[)oiiited phices, they seem to have taken counsel
together, saying, " Com(>, avo are feeble ; let us help
oue another. We are many, aud together we Avill be
strong. Marching in close, deep ranks, let us roll
a.wa.y the stones from these mountain sepulchers,
and set the landscapes free. Let us uncover these
clustering domes. Here let us carve a lake basin ;
there, a Yosemite A'^alley ; here, a channel for a river
Avitli fluted steps and brows for the plunge of song
ful cataracts. Yonder let us spread broad sheets
of sf)il, that man and boast may be fed; and here
pile trains of boulders for pines and giant Sequoias.
Here make ground for a meadow; there, for a garden
aud grove, making it smooth and fine for small
daisies and Auolets and beds of heathy bryauthus,
spicing it well Avitli crystals, garnet feldspar, and
zircon," Thus and so on it has oftentimes seemed
to me sang and planned and labored the hearty
snoAV-floAver crusaders ; and nothing that I can write
can ])Ossibly exaggerate the grandeur and befiuty
of their Avork, Jjike morning mist they have
vanished in sunshine, all save the few small com
panies that still linger on the coolest mountain
sides, and, as residual glaciers, are still busily at work
completing the last of the lake basins, the last beds of
soil, aud the sculpture of some of the highest peaks.
CHAPTER II
THE GLACIERS
OF the small residual glaciers mentioned in the
preceding chapter, I have found sixty-flvii in
that portion of the range lying betAveen latitude
36° 30' and 39°, They occur singly or in small
groups on tho north sides of tlu* peaks of tho High
Sierra, sheltered beneath broad frosty shadoAvs, in
nniphitheaters of their oavu making, Avhe.re tlu^
snoAV, shooting down from the surrounding heights
in avalanches, is most abundant. Over Iavo thirds
of the entire number lie betAveen latitude 37° and
38°, and form the highest fountains of the San
Joaquin, Merced, Tuolumne, and Oavcii's rivers.
The glaciers of Switzerland, like those of the
Sierra, are mere Avasting rcsmnants of mighty ice-
floods that once filled the great valleys and poured
into the sea. So, also, are those of Norway, Asia,
and South America, Even the grand continuous
mantles of ice that still coA-er Greenland, Spitz-
bergeu. Nova Zembla, Franz-Joseph-Land, parts of
Alaska, and the south polar region are shallowing
and shrinking. Every glacier in the Avorld is smaller
than it once Avas, All the world is groAving warmer,
or the crop of snow-flowers is diminishing. But in
contemplating the condition of the glaciers of the
THE CLACIERS 21
Avorld, Ave must bear in mind Avhile trying to ac
count for the changes going on that the same sun
shine that Avastes them builds them. Every glacier
records tho expenditure of au enormous amount of
sun-heat in lifting the A'apor for the shoav of Avliich
it is made from tho ocean to the mountains, as
Tyndall strikingly shows.
The uimiber of glaciers in the Alps, according to
the Schlagintweit brothers, is 1100, of which 100 may
be regarded as primary, and the total area of ice,
snow, and neve is estimated at 1177 s(piare miles,
or an average for each, glacier of little more than
one s(piare iHil(>, On tho same authority, tlie average
height aboA'e sea-level at Avhich they melt is about
7414 feet. The Crindelwald glacier descends below
4000 feet, and one of the JMontBlanc glaciers reaches
nearly as low a point. One of the largest of the
Himalaya glaciers on the head waters of the Ganges
does not, according to Captain liodgson, descend
below 1 2,01 4 feet, '^Plie largest of the Sierra glaciers
on IMoiint Shasta descends to Avithin 9500 feet of
the level of tho sea, Avhich, as far as I have observed,
is the lowest point reached by any glacier within
the bounds of California, the average height of all
being not far from 11,000 feet.
The changes that have taken place in the glacial
conditions of the Sierra from the time of greatest
extension is Avell illustrated by the series of glaciers
of every size and form extending along the moun
tains of the coast to Alaska, A general explora
tion of this instructive region shoAvs that to the
north of California, through Oregon and Washing
ton, groups of active glaciers still exist on all tho
22 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
high volcanic cones of the Cascade Range, — Mount
Pitt, the Three Sisters, JMounts Jefferson, Hood, St,
Helens, Adams, Rainier, Baker, and others, — some
of them of considerable size, though none of them
approach the sea. Of these mountains Rainier, in
Washington, is the highest and iciest. Its dome-like
summit, between 14,000 and 15,000 feet high, is
capped with ice, aud eight glaciers, seven to twelve
miles hmg, radiate from it as a center, and form
the sources of the principal streams of the State,
The lowest-descending of this fine group flows
through beautiful forests to within 3500 feet of the
sea-level, and sends forth a river laden with glacier
mud and sand. On through British Columbia and
southeastern Alaska the broad, sustained mountain-
chain, extending along the coast, is generally glacier-
bearing. The ui^per branches of nearly all the main
canons and fiords are occupied by glaciers, Avliich
gradually increase in size, £iiid descend loAver until
the high region between Mount Fairweather and
Mount St, Elias is rea.(jlie<l, Avliere a considci-able
numluH' discliarge into the Avaters of the ocean.
This is priHimiiKMitly the* ice-land of Alaska, and of
the entire Pacific Coast,
Northward from here the glaciers gradually di
minish in size and thickness, aud melt at higher
levels. In Prince William Sound and Cook's Inlet
many fine glaciers are displayed, pouring from the
surrounding mountains ; but to tho north of latitude
02° few, if any, glaciers remain, the ground being
mostly low and the snowfall light, BetAveen lati
tude 5G° and ()(J° there are probably more than 5000
glaciers, not counting the smallest. Hundreds of
Copyrlgllt, 1807 Diid 1002, by Tho Century Co,
MAP OF THE GLACIER COUNTET
24 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
the largest size descend through the forests to the
level of the sea, or near it, though as far as my
own observations luu'c reached, after a pretty
thorough examiiicition of the region, not more than
twenty-five discharge icebergs into the sea, AU
the long high-Avalled fiords into Avhicli these great
glaciers of the first class floAv are of course croAvded
Avitli icebergs of every conceivable form, Avhicli are
detached Avitli thundering noise at intervals of a
few minutes from an imposing ice-Avall that is
thrust forward into deep Avater, But these Pacific
Coast icebergs are small as compared Avitli those of
Greenland and the Antarctic I'c^gion, and only a fiiw
of them escape from the intricate system of chan
nels, AvitliAvhich this portion of tlie coast is fringed,
into the open sea, Nea.rl)^ all of tlicm are swasluMl
and drifted by wind and tide back and forth in the
fiords until finally melted by the ocean Avatei-, tho
sunshine, the warm winds, and the copious rains of
summer. Only one glacier on the coast, obsorA'ed
by Prof, Russell, discharges its bergs directly into
the open sea, at Icy Cape, opposite ]\Iount St, Elias,
The southernmost of the ghu-icrs that reach the
sea occupies a narrow, picturesque fiord about
twenty miles to the uortliAvest of the mouth of the
Stikeen River, in latitude 5G° 50', The fiord is called
by the natives "Hutli," or Thunder Bay, from the
noise made by the discharge of the icebergs. About
one degree farther north tliore are four of those
complete glaciers, discharging at the heads of tho
long arms of Holkam Bay, At the head of the
Tahkoo Inlet, still farther north, there is one ; and
at the head and around the sides of Glacier Bay,
THE GLACIERS ^¦)
trending iu a general northerly direction from
Cross Sound in latitude 58° to 59°, there are seven
of these complete glaciers pouring bergs iuto the
bay and its lirauches, and keeping up au eternal
thundering. The largest of this group, the Muir,
has u])Avard of 200 tributaries, and a width below
the coiiMuence of the main tributaries of about
twenty-live miles, Bcitweou the west side of this
icy bay and tho ocean all the ground, high and low,
excepting the peaks of the Fairweather Range, is
covered with a mantle of ice from 1000 to probably
.')000 feet thiidv, Avliich discharges by many distinct
moullis. This fragmentary ice-sheet, and the immense
glaciers about Mount St, Elias, together with the
multitude of separate river-like glaciers that load
the slopes of the coast mountains, evidently once
formed part of a continuous ice-sheet that flowed
over all tlie region hereabouts, and only a compara
tively short time ago extended as far southward
as the moiitli of the Strait of Juan do Fuca, prob
ably farther. All the islands of the Alexander
Archipelago, as well as the headlands and prom
ontories of the mainland, display telling traces of
this great mantle that are still fresh and unmistak
able. They all have the forms of the greatest
strength Avith reference to the action of a vast rigid
press of oversAveeping ice from the north and nortli-
Avest, and their surfaces have a smooth, rounded,
overrubbed appearance, generally free from angles.
The intricate labyrinth of canals, channels, straits,
passages, sounds, narrows, etc., between the islands,
and extending into the mainland, of course mani-
20 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
fest in their forms and trends and general char
acteristics the same subordination to the grinding
action of universal glacia.tiou as to their origin, aud
differ from the islands and banks of the fiords only
in being portions of the pre-glacial margin of the
continent more deeply eroded, and therefore covered
by the ocean waters Avliich floAved into them as the
ice Avas melted out of them, 'fhe formation and
extension of fiords in this manner is still going
on, and may be witnessed in many places in Glacier
Bay, Yakutat Bay, and adjacent regions. That the
domain of the sea is being extended over the land
by the wearing aAvay of its shores, is Avell kuoAvn,
but in these icy regions of Alaska, and even as far
south as Vancouver Island, the coast rocks have
been so short a time exposed to Avave-action they
are but little wasted as yet. In these regions the
extension of the sea effected by its oavu action in
post-glacial time is scarcely ajipreciable as (;ompared
Avitli that eCfecjted by ice-action.
Traces of the vanished glaciers made during the
period of greater extcsnsion aliound on the Sierra
a.s far sontli as latitude 3(i°, Even the jiolisluMl
rock surfaces, the most evanescent of glacial rec
ords, are still found in a Avonderfully perfect state
of iireservation on the upper half of the middle
portion of the range, and form the most striking
of all the glacial phenomena. They occur in large
irregular patches in the summit and middle regions,
and though they have been subjected to the action
of the Aveather Avith its corroding storms for thou
sands of year.s, their mechanical excefleuce is such
that they still reflect the sunbeams like glass, and
THE GLACIERS 27
attract tho attention of overy observer. The at
tention of the mountaineer is seldom arrested by
nioi aines, hoAvever regular aud high they may be,
or by callous, however deep, or by rocks, however
nobl(! in form aud si'ulpture; but he stoops audrubs
his hands admiringly on the shining surfaces and
tries hard to account for their mysterious smooth
ness. He has seen the snow descending in ava
lanches, but concludes this cannot be the work of
snoAV, for he finds it where no avalanches occur.
Nor can Avater have done it, for he sees this smooth
ness glowing on the sides and tops of the highest
doHKis, Only the winds of all tlu^ agents he knows
seem c.a})able of llowing in the directions indicated
by tho scoring, Indians, usually so little curious
about geological phenomena, have come to mo oc-
casiomdly and asked me, "What makeiim the
ground so smooth at Lake Tenaya ? " Even horses
and dogs gaze Avonderingly at the strange brightness
of tlie ground, and smell the polished spaces and
})laco their feet ca.utiously on theiuAvhen they come
to them for tho first time, as if afraid of sinking.
The most perfect of the polished pavements and
Avails lie at an elevation of from 7000 to 9000 feet
above the sea, Avliere tho rock is compact silicious
granite. Small dim patches may be found as low-
as 3000 feet on the driest and most enduring por
tions of sheer Avails Avith a southern exposure, and
on compact sAvelliug bosses partially protected from
rain by a covering of large boulders. On the north
half of the range the striated and polished surfaces
are less common, uot only because this part of the
chain is lower, but because the surface rocks are
28 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
chiefly porous lavas subject to comparatively rapid
Avaste. The ancient moraines also, though well
preserved on most of tho south half of tho range,
are nearly obliterated to the northward, but their
material is found scattered and disintegrated,
A simflar blurred condition of the superficial rec
ords of glacial action obtains throughout most of
Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and Alaska,
due in great part to the action of excessive mois
ture. Even in southeastern Alaska, Avhere the most
extensive glaciers on the continent are, the more
evanescent of the traces of their former greater ex
tension, though comparatively recent, are more ob
scure than those of the ancient California glaciers
Avhere the climate is drier and the rocks more re
sisting. These general views of the glaciers of the Pacific
Coast will enable my readers to see something of
the changes that have taken place in California, and
will throw light on the residual glaciers of the
High Sierra,
Prior to the autumn of 1871 the glaciers of the
Sierra were unknoAvn, In October of that year I
discovered the Black Mountain Glacier in a
shadoAvy amphitheater between Black and Red
Mountains, two of the peaks of the Merced group.
This group is the highest portion of a spur that
straggles out from the main axis of the range in the
direction of Yosemite Valley, At the time of this
interesting discovery I was exploring the ncue am
phitheaters of the group, and tracing the courses of
the ancient glaciers that once poured from its ample
fountains through the Illilouette Basin and the
THE GLACIERS 29
Yosemite Valley, uot expecting to find any active
glaciers so far south in the land of sunshine.
Beginning on the northwestern extremity of the
group, I explored the chief tributary basins in suc
cession, their moraines, roclies moutonnees, and
siilendid glacier pavements, taking them in regular
succi'ssiou without any reference to the time con
sumed in their study. The monuments of the trib
utary that poured its ice from between Red and
Black Mountains I found to be the most interest
ing of them all ; and avIicu I saAV its magnificent mo
raines extending in majestic curves from the spa
cious ain[»hilheat(>r between tho mountains, I was
exhilai-aled Avith the Avork that lay before me. It
Avas one of the golden days of the Sierra Indian
summer, Avhen the rich sunslnuo glorifies every
landscape hoAvever rocky and cold, and suggests
anything rather than glaciers. The path of the
vaui.shod glacier Avas Avarm now, and shone in many
places as if Avashed Avitli silver. The tall pines
growing on the moraines stood transfigured iu the
gloAving light, the poplar groves on the levels of the
basin Avere masses of orange-yellow, and the late-
blooming goldenrods added gold to gold. Pushing
on over my rosy glacial highway, I passed lake
after lake set in solid basins of granite, and many
a thicket and meadow watered by a stream that is
sues from the amiihitheater and links the lakes to
gether ; iioAV Avading through plushy bogs knee-deep
in yelloAV and purple sphagnum ; iioav passing over
bare rock. The main lateral moraines that bounded
the view on either hand are from 100 to nearly 200
feet high, and about as regular as artificial em-
30 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
bankments, and covered Avitli a superb growth of
Silver Fir and Pine, ]>ut this garden and forest
liixnriaiico Avas sp(Hidily h^ft behind. Tin* triuiS Avere
dAvarfed as I ascended; patches of the alpine
bryauthus and cassiope began to appear, and arctic
willoAVS pressed into flat carpets by tho Aviiiter suoav.
The lakelets, Avhicli a few miles doAvu the A^alley
Avere so richly embroidered Avith floAvery meadoAvs,
had here, at an eloA'^ation of 10,000 feet, only small
brown mats of carex, leaAdng bare rocks around
more than half their shores. Yet amid this alpine
suppression the JMountain Pine braA^ely tossed his
storm-beaten branches on the ledges and buttresses
of Red Mountain, some specimens being over 100
feet high, and 24 feet in circumference, seemingly as
fresh and vigorous as tho giants of the loAver zones.
Evening came on just as I got fairly Avithin the
portal of the main amphitheater. It is about a
mile Avide, and a little less than two miles long. The
crumbling spurs and battlements of Red Mountain
bound it on tlie iiorlJi, tho somber, rudely scul[)tured
precipi(!es of Bla(;k JMountain on tlio south, and a,
hacked, splintery col, curving around from moun
tain to iiumiitain, shuts it in on the east,
I chose a camping-ground on the brink of one of
the lakes Avhere a thicket of Hemlock Spruce
sheltered me from the night Avind, Then, after mak
ing a tin-cupful of tea, I sat Iiy my camp-fire reflect
ing on the grandeur and significance of the glacial
records I had seen. As the night advanced the
mighty rock Avails of my mountain mansion seemed
to come ncariii-, while the starry sky in glorious
brightness stretched across like a ceiling from wall
THE GLACIERS 31
to Avail, and fitted closely down into all the spiky ir
regularities of the summits. Then, after a long fire
side rest and a glance at my note-book, I cut a fcAv
leafy branches for a bed, and fell into the clear,
death-like sleep of the tired mountaineer.
Early next morning I set out to trace the grand
old gla.ci(>r that. lia.(l done so iniich for the beauty
of tho Yo.semite region back to ils l'a.rthest foun
tains, enjoying the charm that every explorer feels
in Nature's untrodden Avilderncsses, The voices of
the mountains Avere still asleep. The Avind scarce
stirred the pine-needles. The sun was up, but it
Ava.s yet too cold for tlio birds and the fc^wburroAV-
iiig animals that dwell here. Only the stream, cas
cading from pool to pool, seemed to be wholly awake.
Yet the spirit of the opening day called to action.
The sunbeams came streaming gloriously through
tli(>, jagged o])eiiiHgs of the col, glancing on the
biirnislKid [yavcMiieiils and lighting the silvcM'y la,k(>s,
Avliile cA'cry sun-touched rock burned white on its
edges like melting iron in a funuice, Pa.ssing ronnd
the north shore of my canq) lake 1 followed the cen
tral stream past many cascades from lakelet to
lakelet. The scenery became more rigidly arctic,
the Dwarf Pines and Hemlocks disappeared, and the
stream Avas bordered Avitli icicles. As the sun rose
higher rocks Avere loosened on shattered i>ort.ions of
the clid'.^, and cajiio down iu rattling avahuichcs,
ecJioing Avildly from crag to crag.
The main lateral moraines that extend from the
jaAvs of the amphitheater into the lUilouette Basin
are continued in stra.ggliiig masses along the walls
of the amphitheater, Avhile separate boulders, hun-
32 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
dreds of tons in Aveight, are left stranded hero aud
there out in the middle of the channel. Here, also,
T observed a series of small terminal moraines
ranged along the south Avall of the amphitheater,
corresponding in size and form Avitli the shadoAvs
cast by the highest portions. The meaning of this
correspondence betAveen moraines and shadows \vas
afterward made })laiii. Tracing the stream back to
the last of its chain of Ifikelets, I noticed a deposit
of fine gray mud on the bottom except Avliere the
force of the entering current had prevented its set
tling. It looked like the mud Avorii from a grind
stone, and I at once suspected its glacial origin, for
the stream that was carrying it came gurgling out
of the base of a raAV moraine that seemed iu process
of format i(m. Not a jihuit or AV((a.tli(^i'-sta.iii Avas
visible on its rough, uusettleel surface. It is from
60 to over 100 feet high, and plunges forward at
an angle of 38°, Cautiously picking my way, I
gained the top of the moraine and was delighted to
see a small but Avell characterized glacier swooping
doAvn from the gloomy precipices of Black Moun
tain in a finely graduated curve to the moraine on
Avhich I stood, 'i^lio compact i(to a.[)p(!ared on all
the lower portions of the glacier, though gray with
dirt and stones embedded in it. Farther up the ice
disappeared beneath coarse granulated snow. The
surface of the glacier was further characterized bj^
dirt bands and the outcropping edges of the blue
veins, showing the laminatcid structure of the ice.
The uppermost crevasse, or " bergschrund," Avhere
the neve was attached to the mountain, Avas from
12 to 14 feet Avide, and was bridged in a foAV places
THE GLACIERS 33
by the remains of sno v avalanches. Creeping along
the edge of the schrund,; holding on with benumbed
fingers, I discovered clear sections where the bedded
structure was beautifully revealed. The surface
SUOAV, though sprinkled Avith stones shot down from
the cliffs, was in some places almost pure, grad
ually Ixu'.oming crystalliiH^ and clia.uging to Avhitish
porous ice of dilfereut shades of color, and this
again changing at a depth of 20 or 30 feet to blue
ice, some of the ribbon-like bands of which were
nearly pure, and blended with the paler bands in the
most gradual and delicate manner imaginable, A
series of nigg(>d zigzags eiiabliMl me to ma.ko my Avn.y
down into the Aveird under-AVorld of tho crevasse.
Its chambered hoUoAvs Avero hung with a multitude
of clustered icicles, amid Avhich pale, subdued light
pulsed aud shimmered Avitli indescribable loveliness,
Wa.t(M- dri])ped ami tinkled overhead, and from far
below camo strange, solemn miirmurings from cur
rents that Avero feeling their Avay through A^eins and
fissun^s in the dark. The chambers of a glacier are
perfectly enchanting, uotAvithstauding one feels out
of place in their frosty beauty, I was soon cold
in my shirt-sleeves, and the leaning wall threatened
to engulf me ; yet it was hard to leave the delicious
music of the Avater and the lovely light. Coming
again to the surface, I noticed boulders of every
size on their journeys to the terminal moraine —
journeys of more than a hundred years, Avithout a
single stop, night or day, Avinter or summer.
The sun gav^e birth to a uetAvork of sweet- voiced
riUs that ran gracefuUy down the glacier, curling
and swirling in their shining channels, and cut-
34 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
ting clear sections through the porous surface-ice
into the solid blue, where the structure of the glacier
was beautifully illustrated.
The series of small terminal moraines Avliich I had
observed in the morning, along the south wall of the
amphitheater, correspond in every way Avitli the
moraine of this glacier, and their distribution Avith
reference to shadoAvs Avas iioav understood, AVhen
the climatic changes came on that caused the melt
ing and retreat of the main glacier that filled the
amphitheater, a series of residual glaciers were left
in the cliff shadoAvs, under the protection of Avhich
they lingered, until they formed the moraines Ave
are studying. Then, as the snow becauie still loss
abundant, all of them \'aiiishcd in su<'C(!Ssioii, exciipt
the one just de-scribed; and the caii.se of its long(!r
life is sulficiently appa.rent in the greater area of
snoAV-basin it drains, and its more perfect i)rotecti()n
from wasting sunshine. How much longer this little
glacier will last depends, of course, on the amount
of snow it receives from year to year, as compared
with melting waste.
After this discovery, I made excursions over all
the High Sierra, pushing my explorations summer
after summer, and discovered that Avhat at first
sight in the distance looked like extensive suoav-
fields, were in great part glaciers, busily at Avork
completing tho sculpture of the snmmit-iioaks so
grandly blocked (uit by their gia.iit pivd.MM^s.sors,
On August 2], 1 set a soriiis of sbik(^s in the
Maclure Glacier, near Mount Lyefl, and found its
rate of motion to be little more than an inch a day
in the middle, showing a great contrast to the Mrnr
THE GLACIERS o'o
Glacier in Alaska, which, near the front, floAVS at a
rate of from five to ten feet in twenty-four hours.
Mount Shasta has three glaciers, but Mount
Whitney, although it is the highest mountain in the
range, does not now cherish a single glacier. Small
patches of lasting snow aud ice occur on its northern
slo])es, but they are shallow, and ju'csent no Avell
marked evidence of glacial motion. Its sides, how
ever, are scored and polished in many places by
tlie action of its ancient glaciers that flowed east
and Avest as tributaries of the great glaciers that
once filled the valleys of the Kern and Owen's
rivers.
CHAPTER III
THE SNOAV
THE first snoAV that Avhitens the Sierra, usually
fafls about the end of October or early in No
vember, to a depth of a foAV inches, after months
of the most charming Indian summer weather im
aginable. But in a few days, this light covering
mostly melts from the slopes exposed to the sun
and causes but little apprehension on the part of
mountaineers who may be lingering among the
high peaks at this time. The first general Avi liter
storm that yields suoav that is to form a lasting
portion of the season's supply, seldom breaks on
the mountains before the end of November. Then,
Avaruedby the sky, cautious mountaineers, together
Avitli the Avild sluiop, deer, and most of the birds
and bears, make haste to t.li(dowlands or foot-hills;
and burrowing marmots, nioiintain iH^avcM's, Avood-
rats, and such iieople go into Avinter quarters, some
of them not again to see the light of day until the
general awakening and resurrection of the spring in
June or July, The first heavy fall is usually from
about two to four feet in depth. Then, Avitli inter
vals of splendid sunshiiie, storm succeeds storm,
heaping snow on snow, until thirty to fifty feet has
fallen. But on account of its settling and compact-
THE SNOAV 37
ing, and the almost constant waste from melting
and evaporation, the average depth actuaUy found
at any time seldom exceeds ten feet in the forest
region, or fifteen feet along the slopes of the sum
mit peaks.
Even durhig the coldest Aveather evaporation
never wholly ceases, a.ud tho sunshine that; abounds
betwecMi the storms is sufliciently powerful to melt
tho surfa(!e more or less through all tho Avinter
months. Waste from, melting also goes on to some
extent on the bottom from heat stored up in the
rocks, aud given off slowly to the suoav in contact
Avith them, as is shown by the rising of the streams
on all the higher regions after the first snoAvfall, and
their steady sustained floAV all Avinter,
The greater portion of the suoav deposited around
tho lofty summits of tho range falls in small crisp
flak(;s aud broken o-ystals, or, avIiou accompanied
by strong Aviuds aud Ioav temperature, the crystals,
instead of being hxdccd together in their fall to
form tufted flakes, are beaten and broken into meal
and fine dust. But doAvii in the forest region the
greater portion comes gently to the ground, light
and featheiy, some of the flakes in mild Aveather
being nearly an inch in diameter, and it is evenly
distributed and kept from drifting to any great ox-
tent by the shelter afforded by tho large trees.
EAXM/y tree during tho progress of gentle storms is
loaded Avitli fairy bloom at the coldest and darkest
time of year, bending the branches, and hushing
every singing needle. But as soon as the storm is
over, and the sun shine.s, the snow at once begins
to shift and settle aud fall from the branches in
38 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA.
miniature avalanches, and the white forest soon be
comes green again. The snow on the ground also
settles a.iid lliaws every bi'ight day, aud fivczes at
night, until it becomes coarsely granulated, and loses
every trace of its rayed crystaUine structure, and
then a man may walk firmly over its frozen surface
as if on ice. The forest region up to an elevation of
7000 feet is usually in great part free from snow in
June, but at this time tho higher regions are still
heavy-laden, and are not touched by spring weather
to any considerable extent before the middle or end
of July.
One of the most striking effects of the suoav on
the mountains is the burial of the rivers and small
lakes. As tlio siiiiw fa's iu Uw ri\'^cr
A Hiomeut Avliito, tlioii lost forever,
sang Burns, in iUustrating the fleeting character
of human j)leasure. The first snowflakes that fall
into tho Sierra rivers vanish thus suddenly; but in
great storms, Avlieu tho temperature is low, the
abundance of tho suoav at length chills the water
nearly to the freezing-jioint, and then, of course, it
ceases to melt and consume the snow so suddenly.
The falling flakes and crystals form cloud-like
masses of blue sludge, Avhich are swept forward
with the current and carried doAvii to warmer cli
mates many miles distant, Avliile some are lodged
against logs and rocks and projecting points of tho
banks, and last for days, piled high above the level
of the water, and show white again, instead of being
at once " lost forever," while the rivers themselves
THE SNOAV 39
are at length lost for months during the snowy
period. Tho snow is first buflt out from the banks
iu bossy, over-curling drifts, compacting and ce
ment ing until the streams aro spanned. They then
Mow ill tli(\ da.rk beneaXh a continuous covering
across tho snowy zone, Avliich is about thirty miles
Avid(>, All the Sierra riA^ers and their tributaries in
tli((S(>. high regions are thus lost every Avinter, as if
another glacial period had come on. Not a drop
of runuing Avaler is to be seen excepting at a few
points Avliere large falls occur, though the rush and
rumble of the heavier currents may still be heard,
Towa.rd spring, Avlieii tjho Aveather is Avarin during
the day and frosty at night, repeated thawing and
freezing and new layers of suoav render the bridg
ing-masses dense aud firm, so that one may safely
Avalk across the streams, or even lead a horse across
th(>m Avithout danger of falling through. In June
the thinnest parts of tho winter ceiling, and those
most exposed to sunshine, begin to giA^e way, form
ing dark, rugged-e<lged, pit-like sinks, at the bottom
(^f Avhicli the rushing Avater may be seen. At the
end of June ouly here and there may the moun
taineer find a secure suoAv-bridge. The most last
ing of the winter bridges, thaAving from below as
Avell as from above, because of Avarin currents of air
]iassiiig through tho tunnels, are strikingly arched
and s('nl[)t.ur(Ml:; and by tlio occasional freezing of
the oozing, dripping Avaler of the ceiling they be
come brightly aud picturesquely icy. In some of
the reaches, Avliere there is a free margin, we may
Avalk through them. Small skylights appearing here
and there, these tunnels are not very dark. The
40 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
roaring river fills all the arching Avay with impress
ively loud reverberating music, which is sweetened
at times by tho ouzel, a bird that is not afraid to go
wherever a stream may go, and to sing wherever a
stream sings.
All the small alpine pools and lakelets are in like
manner obliterated from the winter landscapes,
either by being first frozen and then covered by
snow, or by being filled in by avalanches, Q'he first
avalanche of the season shot into a lake basin may
perhaps find the surface frozen. Then there is a
grand crashing of breaking ice and dashing of Avaves
mingled Avith the low, deep booming of the ava
lanche. Detached masses of the invading snow,
mixed with fragments of ice, drift about in sludgy,
island-like heaps, while the main body of it foi-ms
a talus with its base wholly or in part resting on
the bottom of the basin, as controlled by its depth
and the size of the avalanche. The next aA'alanche,
of course, encroaches still farther, and so on with
each in succession until the entire basin may be
filled and its Avater sponged up or displaced. This
huge mass of sludge, more or less mixed with sand,
stones, and perhaps timber, is frozen to a consider
able depth, and much sun-heat is required to thaw
it. Some of these unfortunate lakelets are not
clear of ice and snow until near the end of summer.
Others are never quite free, o])ening only on the
side o])i)osite tlie entrance of the a,\fa1a.iiches. Some
show only a mirrowcrciscentof waU'r lying bet ween
the shore and sheer blulifs of icy (iompacted snow,
masses of which breaking off float in front like ice
bergs in a miniature Arctic Ocean, while the ava-
THE SNOAV 41
laiiclie heaps leaning back against the mountains
look like small glaciers. The frontal cliffs are in
some instances quite picturesque, and with the berg-
dotted Avaters in front of them lighted with sun
shine are exceedingly beautiful. It often happens
that Avhile one side of a lake basin is hopelessly
snow-buried and frozen, the other, enjoying sun
shine, is adorned witli beautiful ll()vver-ga.rd((ns.
Some of the smaller lakes are oxtiiiguishcd in an in
stant by a heavy avalanche either of rocks or snow.
The rolling, sliding, ponderous mass entering on
one side sweeps across the bottom and up the op
posite side, displacing the water aud even scraping
the basin clean, and shoving the accumulated rocks
and sediments up the farther bank and taking full
possession. The dislodged Avater is in part ab
sorbed, but most of it is sent around the front of
the avalanche and doAvii the channel of the outlet,
roaring aud hnri-ying as if frightened and glad to
escape, SNOAV-15ANNEKS
The most magnificent storm phenomenon I ever
saAV, surpassing in showy grandeur the most im
posing effects of clouds, floods, or avalanches, was
the peaks of the High Sierra, back of Yosemite
Valley, decorated Avith snow-banners. Many of the
starry snoAA'-floAvers, out of A\diicli these banners are
made, fall before they are ripe, while most of those
that do attain perfect development as six-rayed
crystals glint aud chafe against one another in their
fall through the frosty air, and are broken into
42 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
fragments. This dry fragmentary snow is slill
further })repared for tho formation of banners by
the action of thoAviiid, For, instead of Miiding rest
at once, like the suoav which falls into the tranquil
depths of the forests, it is rolled over and over,
beaten against rock-ridges, and swirled in pits and
hoUoAVS, like boulders, pebbles, and sand in the
pot-holes of a river, until finally the delicate angles
of the crystals are Avorii oft", and the Avliole mass is
reduced to dust. And whenever storm-Avinds find
this prepared snow-dust in a loose condition on ex
posed slopes, Avliere there is a free upAvard sweep to
leeward, it is tossed back into the sky, and borne
onward from peak to peak in the form of banners
or cloudy drifts, according to the A^elocity of the
Avind and the I'onformation of the slo[)es up or
around which it is driven. While thus flying
through the air, a small portion makes good its es
cape, and remains in the sky as vapor. But far
the greater part, after being driven into the sky
again and again, is at length locked fast in bossy
drifts, or in the Avonibs of glaciers, some of it to
remain silent and rigid for (tenturies before it is
finally melted and sent singing down the mountain
sides to the sea.
Yet, HotAvithstanding the abundance of winter
snow-dust in the mountains, and the frequency of
higliAvinds, and the length of time the dust remains
loose and exposed to their action, the occurrence
of Avell-formed banners is, for causes Ave shall here
after note, comparatively rare, I have seen only
one display of this kind that seemed in every way
perfect. This was in the winter of 1873, when the
THE SNOAV 43
snow-laden sumniiisAvere swept by a Avihl" norther."
I happened at the time to be Avintering in Yosemite
A^alloy, that sublime Sierra temple avIi ere every <lay
one ma.y S(>,e the grand(>st sights. Yet even here
the wild ga,la.-(la,y of tlie north wind seiMtied .sur
passingly glorious. I Avas awakened in the morn
ing by the rockuig of my cabin aud the beating of
pine-burs on the roof. Detached torrents and ava
lanches from the main Avind-llood overhead Avero
rushing Avildly doAvii the narroAv side cauons, and
over the precipitous Avails, Avitli loud resounding
roar, rou.siug the pines to enthusiastic action, and
making the whole va.lley A'ibrate as thongli it avim'o
an instrument being playiid,
Ibit a.fa.r on tlii^ lofty expo.s(>d jieaks of the range
standing so high in tlio sky, the storm Avas express
ing itself in still grander characters, which I Avas
soon to see iu all their glory, I had long been
anxious to study soiiio ]ioints in tlio sl,ru('tiii'e of the
ice-cone that is formed every Avintcr at tho foot of
tli(> iqiper Yosemite fall, but the blinding spray by
Avhicli it is invested had hitherto prcA'cnted me from
making a sufficiently near approach. This morning
the entire body of the fall Avas torn iuto gauzy
shreds, and blown horizontally along the face of the
cliff, leaving the cone dry; and Avhile making my
Avaj'' to the top of an overlooking ledge to seize so
favorable au opiiortuiiity to examine the interior of
the cone, the peaks of the JMerced gnnip came in
sight over the shoulder of the South Dome, each
Avaviug a resplendent banner against the blue sky,
as regular in form, and as firm in texture, as if
AVO veil of fine silk. So rare and splendid a phenom-
44 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
enon, of course, overbore all other considerations,
and I at once let the ice-cone go, and began to force
my way out of tho valley to some dome or ridgo
sufficiently lofty to command a general view of the
main summits, feeling assured that I should find
them bannered still more gloriously ; nor Avas I in
the least disappointed, Indian Canon, through
which I climbed, was choked Avitli suoav that had
been shot down in avalanches from the high cliff's
on either side, rendering the ascent difficult; but
inspired by the roaring storm, the tedious walloAV-
ing brought no fatigue, aud in four hours I gained
the top of a ridge above the valley, 8000 feet high.
And there in bold relief, like a (dear painting, ap
peared a most uuposing scene. Innumerable peaks,
black aud sharp, rose grandly into the dai'k blue
sky, their bases set in solid white, their sides streaked
and splashed with suoav, like ocean rocks Avith foam ;
and from every summit, all free and unconfused,
Avas streaming a beautiful silky silvery banner,
from half a mile to a mile in length, slender at the
point of attachment, then Avideiiing gradually as it
extended from the peak until it Avas about 1000 or
1500 feet iu breadth, as near as I could estimati;.
The cluster of peaks called the " CroAvii of the
Sierra," at the head of the JMerced and Tuolumno
livers,— Mounts Dana, Gibbs, Conness, Lyell,
IMaclnre, Ritter, Avitli their nameless compeers, —
ea.ch luid its own refulgi^nt baniKU', Avaving wiili a,
(!lea.rly visible motion in Dm Hunglow, and there
was not a single cloud in the sky to mar their simple
grandeur. Fancy yourself standing on this Y(-»sem-
ite ridge looking eastward. You noti<;e a strange
THE SNOW 45
garish glitter in the air. The gale drives wildly
overhead Avith a fierce, tempestuous roar, but its
violence is not felt, for you are looking through a
sluOtored opening in t,ho Avoods as tlirougli a win-
<loAV, Tliere, iu the immediate foreground of your
picture, rises a majestic forest of Silver Fir bloom
ing in eternal freslim^ss, the foliage yelloAV-groen,
a.nd the snow IxMieath tho tre(\s strewn with their
b(<a.iitiful plume.s, plucked off by the Aviud, Beyond,
and extending over all the middle ground, are
somber SAvaths of pine, interrupted by huge swell
ing ridges and domes; aud just beyond the dark
forest you see the nioiiarchs of the High Sierra
Avaving their magnificent banners. They are twenty
niiles aAvay, but you Avould not Avish them nearer,
for every feature is distinct, and the whole glorious
shoAV is seen in its right proportions. After this
general aucav, mark Iioav sharply the dark snowless
ribs and buttresses and summits of the peaks are
defiiuMl, excepting the portions veiled by the ban
ners, and hoAV <leilicab'ly their sides are streaked
Avith SUOAV, Avhcre it has come to rest iu narrow
flutiugs and gorges, IMark, too, how grandly the
banners AvaA^e as the Avind is deflected against their
sides, and Iioav trimly each is attached to the very
summit of its peak, like a streamer at a masthead ;
how smooth aud silky they are in texture, a.nd Iioav
iiuely their fading fringes aro penciled on the azure
sky. See Iioav dense and oi3a(pie they are at the
point of attachment, and Iioav filmy and translucent
toward the end, so that the peaks back of them are
seen dimly, as though you were looking through
ground glass. Yet again observe how some of the
46 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
longest, belonging to tho loftiest summits, stream
perfectly free all tho Avay across intervening uot(!hes
a.nil [lasses from peak b» pi^ak, while others overkip
and partly hide each other. And consider how
keenly every particle of this wondrous cloth of
snoAV is flashing out jets of light. These are the
main features of the beautiful and terrible picture
as seen from the forest Avindow; and it Avould still
be surpassingly glorious Avore the fore- and middle-
grounds obliterated altogether, leaAung only the
lilack peaks, the white banners, and the blue sky.
Glancing now in a general way at the formation
of snow-banners, we find that the main causes of
the Avondrous beauty and perfection of those avo
have been contemplating A\''ere tho favorable direc
tion and great force of tho Avind, the abundance
of snow-dust, and the peculiar conformation of the
slopes of the peaks. It is essential not only that
the Avind should move Avitli great velocity and
steadiness to supply a sufficiently copious and con-
timions str(^a.iii of snoAV-dust., but that it should
come from the north. No perfcsct banner is ever
hung on tlie Sierra p(uiks by a, south Aviiid, Had
the gale that day blown from the south, leaving
other conditions unchanged, only a dull, confused,
fog-like drift would have been produced; for the
SUOAV, instead of being spouted up over the tops
of the peaks in concentrated currents to be drawn
out as streamers, avouLI have been shed off around
the sides, and piled doAvn into the glacier Avombs,
The cause of the concentrated action of the north
Avind is found in the ])0culiar bu'in of the north
sides of the peaks, Avhere the amphitheaters of the
THE SNOAV 47
residuiil glaciers are. In general the south sides are
convex aud irregular, while the north sides are con
cave both in their vertical and horizontal sections;
the Avind in a.scendiiig those curves converges to-
Avard till} summits, carrying the snow in concoiitrat-
ing currouts with it, shooting it almost straight up
iuto the air above the peaks, from Avliich it is then
carried aAvay in a horizontal direction.
This difference in form between the north and
south sides of the peaks Avas almost wholly pro
duced by the difference in the kind and quantity
of the glaciation to which they liaA^e been sub-
j(>.('tcd, tlio uortli sides Jiaving been IioUoavimI by
residual slia.dow-glaciors of a form that never
existed on the sun-bealini sidi^s.
It a.i)peai's, therefore, that shadows in groat part
.bMermine not only the forms of lofty icy moun
tains, but also those of the snow-banners that the
wild Avinds hang on them.
CHAPTER IV
A NEAR VIEAV OF THE HIGH SIERRA
EARLY one bright morning iu tho middle t»f
Indian summer, Avhile the glacier meadoAvs
were still crisp with frost crystals, I set out from
the foot of Mount Lyell, on my way doAvn to
Yosemite Valley, to replenish my exhausted store
of bread and tea, I had spent the past summer, as
many preceding ones, exploring the glaciers that lie
on the head waters of the San Joaquin, Tuolumne,
Merced, and Owen's rivers; measuring and study
ing their movements, trends, crevasses, moraines,
etc,, and the part they had played during the period
of their greater extension in the creation and de
velopment of the landscapes of this alpine wonder
land. The time for this kind of AVork Avas nearly
over for tho year, and I began to look forward witli
delight to the approaching winter Avitli its wondrous
storms, when I would be Avarmly snoAV-bound in my
Yosemite cabin Avitli plenty of bread and books;
but a tinge of regret came on wheu I considereii
that possibly I might not see this favorite region
again until tho next summer, excepting distant
views from the heights about the Yosemite walls.
To artists, foAV portions of the High Sierra are,
strictly speaking, incturesque. The whole massive
A NEAR VtKW Ol^' TJIK HIGH SIERRA 4iJ
uplift of the range is one great picture, not clearly
divisible iuto smaller ones; differing much in this
r(\spect from the older, and what may be cafled, riper
moiinbiiiis of t,h(^ ( !oast Range, All the landscapes
of' the Sierra,, as avo have seen, Avere born again, re
modeled from base to summit by the developing ice-
Moods of the last glacial Avinter, Ibit all tlie.so new
laiidsca.])es were not brought forth simultaneimsly ;
some of the highest, Avhere the ice lingered longest,
are tens of centuries younger than those of the
Avarmer regions below them. In general, the
younger the mountain-landscapes, — younger, I
Hi(>a.ii, with refiM'euce to the timiMif their emergeiKio
from the ice of the glacial period, — the less sepa
rable are they into artistic bits capable of being
made into Avarm, sympathetic, lovable pictures with
apprecial)le humanity in them.
Here, hoAvever, on the head Avaters of the Tuol
umne, is a group of Avild jieaks on Avliich the geol
ogist may say that the sun has but just begun to
shine, Avhicli is yet iu a high degree picturesque,
aud iu its main features so regular and evenly
balanced as almost to appear conventional — one
somber cluster of snoAV-laden peaks Avith gray piiie-
fringed granite bosses braided around its base, the
whole surging free into the sky from the head of a
magnificent A^alloy, Avhose lofty Avails are boA'eled
away on both sides so as to enil)ra.ce it all Avithout
admitting anything not strictly belonging to it.
The foreground Avas iioav aflame Avith autumn col
ors, broAvii aud purple and gold, ripe in the melloAv
sunshine ; contrasting brightly Avith the deep, cobalt
blue of the sky, and the black and gray, and pure.
50 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
spiritual Avliite of the rocks and glaciers, Doavu
through the midst, the young Tuolumno was seen
pmiring from its ciystal fimntains, now ri^sting in
glassy pools as if changing back again into ice, now
leaping in white cascades as if turning to suoav;
gliding right and left betAveen granite bosses, then
sweeping on through the smooth, meadoAvy levels
of the valley, SAvaying pensi\^oly from side to side
Avitli cahn, stately gestures past dipping Avillows and
sedges, and around groves of arrowy pine; and
throughout its whole eventful course, Avhotber floAV-
ing fast or slow, singing loud or Ioav, ever filliiig tlie
landscape Avitli spiritual animation, and manifesting
the grandeur of its sources in every moA'cmeut and
tone. Pursuing my lonely Avay doAvn the A^alley, I turncid
again and again to gaze on tho glorious picture,
throwing up my arms to inclose it as in a frame.
After long ages of growth in the darkness beneath
the glaciers, through sunshine and storms, it seemed
now to be ready and Availing for the ehujtcd artist,
like yelloAV wheat for tho reaper; aud I could not
help Avishing that I might cai'iy colors and brushes
Avith me on my travels, and learn to paint, lii the
mean time I had to be content Avitli photographs on
my mind and sketches in my note-books. At length,
after I had rounded a precipitous headland that
puts out from the west Avail of the valley, every
peak vanished from sight, and I pushed rapidly
along the frozen meadows, over the divide lietween
the waters of the Merced and Tuolumne, and down
through the forests that clothe the slopes of Cloud's
Rest, arriving in Yosemite in clue time — Avhich,
A NEAR VIEAV OP THE HIGH SIERRA 51
Avitli me, is autj time. And, strange to say, among
the first jieople I met here Avere tAVo artists avIio,
Avith letters of introduction, were awaiting my re
turn. They inquired whether in the course of my
explorations in the adjacent mountains I had ever
come upon a landscape suitable for a large paint
ing; Avhoreupon I began a description of the one that
had so lately excited my admiration. Then, as I
AV(>ut on further and further into details, their faces
began to gloAv, and I offered to guide them to it,
while they decjlared that they Avould gladly foboAV,
far or near, Avhithersoever I could spare the time to
lea,d them.
Since storms might come breaking doAvii through
the fine Aveather at any time, burying the colors in
snow, and cutting otf the artists' retreat, I advised
getting ready at once,
I led them out of the valley by the Vernal and
Nevada Falls, thence over the main dividing ridge
to the Big Tuolumne IMeadows, by the old Mono
trail, aud tliemje ahmg tho Ujiper Tuolumne River
to its head. This Avas my companions' first excur
sion into the High Sierra, aud as I was almost al-
Avays alone in my mountaineering, the Avay that the
fresh beauty was reflected in their faces made for
me a novel and interesting study. They naturally
Avere affected most of all by the colors — the in
tense azure of the sky, the purplish grays of the
gi-anite, the red and broAVUs of dry meadows, and
the translucent purple and crimson of huckleberry
bogs; the flaming yeflow of aspen groves, the silvery
flashing of the streams, and the bright green and
blue of tho glacier lakes. But the general expres-
52 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
sion of the scenery — rocky and saA^age — seemed
sadly disappointing ; and as they threaded the for
est from ridge to ridge, eagerly scanning the land
scapes as they Avere unfolded, they said: "All this
is huge and sublime, but avo see nothing as yet at
all available for eff'ective pictures. Art is long,
and art is limited, you knoAV ; and here are fore
grounds, middle-grounds, ba.ckgrounds, all alike;
ba.re rock-waves, woods, groves, diminutive* Mocks
of meadoAV, and strips of glittering Avater," " Never
mind," I replied, " only bide a Avee, and I will shoAV
you something you will like,"
At length, toAvard the end of the second daj^, the
Sierra Crown began to come iuto vicAv, and Avlien avo
had fairly rounded the projecting headland befoi'o
mentioned, tlie Avliole iiictnns stood revealed in the
flush of the alpenglow. Their enthusiasm was ex
cited beyond, bounds, and the more impulsive of
the two, a young Scotchman, dashed ahead, shout
ing and gesticulating and tossing his arms in the
air like a madman. Here, at last, Avas a typical
alpine landscape.
After feasting aAAdiile on the ahoav, I proceeded
to make canipiu a sheltered grove a little way back
from the meadoAv, where pine-boughs could be ob
tained for beds, and Avhero there Avas plenty of dry
wood for fires, Avhile the artists ran hero and there,
along the river-bends and up the sides of the canon,
choosing l'or(!grounds for skiib'hes. After dai-k,
Avhen our teaAvas made and a rousing fire luul been
buflt, Ave began to make our plans. They decided
to remain several days, at the least, while I con-
A NEAR VIEAV OF THE HIGH SIERRA 53
eluded to make an excursion in the mean time to
the untouched summit of Ritter,
It Avas iioAv about the middle of October, the
springtime of snoAV-flowers, The first winter-clouds
had already bloomed, aud the peaks were strewn
Avitli fresh crystals, Avithout, hoAvever, affecting the
(^limbing to any da.ngerous extent. And as the
Avea.tluM-Avas still prol'(niiidly calm, and the distance
to the foot of the mountain only a little more than
a day, I felt that I Avas running no great risk of
being storm-bound.
Mount Ritter is king of the mountains of the
uiiddh* portion of the High Si(M'ra, as Shasta of the
north and Whitney of the south sections. More
over, as far as I kiioAv, it had never been climbed,
I had explored the adjacent Avilderness summer after
summer, but my studies thus far had never draAvii
me to the top of it. Its height aboA^e sea-level is
about K),oOO feet, and it is fenced round by steeply
inclined glaciers, aud canons of tremendous depth
and ruggedness, Avhicli render it almost inaccessi
ble. But difficulties of this kind only exhilarate the
mountaineer. Next morning, the artists Aveiit heartily to their
Avork and I to mine. Former experiences had given
good reason to knoAV that passionate storms, invisi
ble as yet, might be brooding in the calm sun-
gold; therefore^ before bidding farewell, I wa,rnod
the artists uot to be alarmed should I fail to appear
before a Aveek or ten days, aud advised them, iu
case a snoAv-storm should set in, to keep up big
fires and shelter themselves as best they could, and
54 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
on no account to become frightened and attempt
to seek their Avay back to Yosemite alone through
the drifts.
My general plan was simply this : to scale the
canon Avall, cross over to the eastern flank of the
range, and then make my way soutliAvard to the
northern spurs of Mount Ritter in compliance with
the intervening topography ; for to push on directly
soutliAvard from camp through the innumerable
peaks and pinnacles that adorn this portion of the
axis of the range, liOAVCA^er interesting, would take
too much time, besides being extremely difficult and
dangerous at this time of year.
All my first day Avas pure pleasure; simply
mountaineering iiidnlgence, crossing tlie dry iiatli-
wa,ys of the aiicieiit glaci(*rs, tracing Inqijiy sl.rea,iiis,
and learning the habits of the birds ami marmots
in the groves and rocks. Before I had gone a mile
from camp, I came to the foot of a white cascade
that beats its Avay down a rugged gorge in the
canon Avail, from a height of about nine hundred
feet, and pours its throbbing Avaters into the Tuol
umne, I was acquainted with its fountains, Avliich,
fortunately, lay in my course. What a fine travel
ing companion it proved to be, Avhat songs it sang,
and hoAv passionately it told the mountain's own
joy ! Gladly I climbed along its dashing border,
absorbing its divine music, and bathing from time
to time in Ava.ftings of irised spray. Climbing
higher, higher, new beauty came stnvuiiiiig on the
sight: painted meadows, late-blooming gardens,
peaks of rare architecture, lakes here and there,
shining like silver, and glimpses of the forested
o
A NEAR VIEW OF THE HIGH SIERRA 55
middle region and the yellow lowlands far in the
west. Beyond the range I saw the so-called Mono
Desert, lying dreamily silent in thick purple light
— a desert of heavy sun-glare beheld from a desert
of ice-burnished granite. Here the waters divide,
shouting in glorious eiitliusia..sui, and falling east
ward U) vanish in the volcanic sa.iids and dry sky
le (irc^'it IJa.sin, or W(wtwa.rd to the Grea.t V'a.l-
l(\y of California, and thence through the Bay of
San Francisco and the Golden Gate to the sea.
Passing a little way down over the summit until
I had reached an elevation of about 10,000 feet, I
]»uslied on soutliAvard toAvard a group of savage
peaks that stand guai'd about Ritter on the north
and west, groping my Avay, aud dealing instinctiA'ely
Avitli every obstacle as it presented itself. Here a
huge gorge Avould be found cutting across my path,
along the dizzy edge of which I scrambled until
some less precipitous point was discovered where I
might ,sa,fely A'cuture to the bottom and then, se-
l(>ctiiig some f(>asibl(^ portion of the oiiposite Avail,
rea.,sc(Mid witli the same slow caution. Massive,
iiat-topped spurs alternate with the gorges, plunging
abruptly from the shoulders of the snowy peaks,
and planting their feet in the warm desert. These
Avere everywhere marked and adorned with charac
teristic sculptures of the ancient glaciers that swept
over this entire region like one vast ice-wind, and
the polished surfaces produced by the ponderous
flood are still so perfectly preserved that in many
places the sunlight reflected from them is about as
tryuig to the eyes as sheets of snow.
God's glacial-mills grind slowly, but they have
56 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
been kept in motion long enough iu California to
grind sufficient soil for a glorious abundance of life,
though most of tin* grist has boon carried to tho
lowlands, leaving these high regions comparatively
lean and bare; Avhile the post-glacial agents of
erosion have not yet furnished sufficdent available
food over the general surface for more than a foAV
tufts of the hardiest plants, chiefly carices and eri-
ogoiia;. And it is intei-esting to learn in this con
nection that the sparseness and repressed character
of the vegetation at this height is caused more by
want of soil than by harshness of climate ; for, here
and there, in sheltered hollows (countersunk beneath
the general surface) into Avliich a few rods of well-
ground moraine chips have been dumped, avo find
groves of spruce and pine thirty to ftu-ty feet high,
trimmed around the edges with Avillow and huckle
berry bushes, and oftentimes still further by an
outer ring of tall grasses, bright with lupines, lark
spurs, and showy columbines, suggesting a climate
by no means repressingly seviu'e. All tho stnuims,
too, and the pools at this elevation aro furnished
Avitli little gardens Avherever soil can be made to lie,
Avhich, though making scarce any show at a dis
tance, constitute charming surprises to the appreci
ative observer. In these bits of leafiness a foAV birds
find grateful homes. Having no acquaintance with
man, they fear no ill, and flock curiously about the
stranger, almost alloAving themseh^es to be taken in
the hand. In so Avild aud so beautiful a region Avas
spent my first day, every sight and sound inspiring,
leading one far out of himself, yet feeding and
building up his individuality.
A NEAR VIEW OP THE HIGH SIERRA 57
Now came the solemn, silent evening. Long, blue,
sjiiky shadoAVS crept out across the snoAV-fields,
Avliile a rosy gloAv, at first scarce discernible, gradu
ally deepened and suffused every mountain-top.
Mushing tli(! ghwiers and the harsh crags above them.
This Avas the alpenglow, to me one of the most im-
pressiA^e of all the terrestrial manifestations of God,
At the touch of this divine light, the mountains
seemed to kindle to a rapt, religious consciousness,
and stood hushed and Avaitiiig like devout wor
shipers. Just before the alpengloAv began to fade,
tAvo crimson clouds came streaming across the sum
mit lik(^ Aviiigs of Ma.nie, r(Mideriiig the sublime scene
yet more impressive; then came darkness and the
stars. Icy Ritter Avas still miles aAvay, but I could pro
ceed no farther that night, I found a good camp
ground on the rim of a glacier basin about 11,000
font above the S(>a.. A snia,ll lake nestles in the
bottom of it, from Avhicli I got Avater for my tea,
and a stormbeaten thicket near by furnished
abundance of resuiy fire-Avood, Somber peaks,
hacked and shattered, circled half-Avay around the
horizon, wearing a savage aspect in the gloaming,
and a Avaterf all chanted solemnly across the lake on
its Avay doAvn from the foot of a glacier. The fall
and the lake aud the glacier Avere almost equafly
bare; Avhile the scraggy pines anchored in the rock-
fissures Avero so dwarfed and shorn by storm-winds
that you might Avalk over their tops. In tone and
aspect the scene Avas one of the most desolate I ever
beheld. But the darkest scriptures of the moun
tains are illumined Avith bright passages of love
58 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
that never fail to make themselves felt when one
is alone,
I made my bed in a nook of the pine-thicket,
where the branches Avere pressed and crinkled over
head like a roof, and bent down around the sides.
These are the best bedchambers the high moun
tains aft'ord — snug as squirrel-nests, Avell ventilated,
full of spicy odors, and Avith ])leuty of Avind-played
needles to sing one asleep, 1 little expected com
pany, but, creeping in through a Ioav side-door, I
found five or six birds nestling among the tassels.
The night-wind began to blow soon after dark ; at
first only a gentle breathing, but increasing toAvard
midnight to a rough gale that bil upmi my leafy
roof in ragged surges like a ca.sca.de, bea,riiig Avild
S(mnds from the crags overli(*a.d. The watc^rfall
sang iu chorus, filling the old ice-fountain with its
solemn roar, and seeming to in(;rease iu power as
the night advanced — fit voice for such a landscape,
I had to creep out many times to the fire during
the night, for it Avas biting cold and I had no
blankets. Gladly I Avelcomed the morning star.
The daAvn in the dry, Avavoring air of the desert
Avas glorious. Everything eii(;ouragcd my iimhir-
taking and betokened siiC(!ess, There Avas no cioud
in the sky, no storm-tone in the Avind, Breakfast
of bread and tea Avas soon made, I fastened a hard,
durable crust to my beltby Avay of iirovision, in case
I should be compelliHl toiiass a night on the monii-
laiii-b)]»; tlu^ii, securing the remainder of my little
stock against wolves and Avood-rats, I set forth free
and hopeful.
How glorious a greeting the sun gives the moun-
A NEAR VIEAV OP THE HIGH SIERRA 59
tains ! To behold this alone is Avorth the pains of
any excursion a thousand times over. The highest
pea.ks buriKul like islands in a sea of liquid sliade,
TluMi the lower peaks and spires caught the gloAv,
and long lances of light, streaming through many
a notch and pass, bit thick on tin* frozen mea.doAvs,
The inajoslic. form of Rillcr was full in sight, and
I pushed rajiidly on over rounded rock-bo.s.'^es and
pavements, my iroii-sliod sIkk'S making a clanking
sound, suddenly hushed now and then in rugs of
bryauthus, and sedgy lake-margins soft as moss.
Here, too, iu this so-called "laud of desolation," I
met ca..ssiop(\ groAving in fringes among tlie bat-
t(*r(Ml rocks. Her blossoms had faded long ago, but
they Avere still clinging Avith ha.ppy memories to the
CA'orgroen sprays, ami still so beautiful as to thrill
CA'cry fiber of one's being. Winter and summer, you
may hoar Ihm," A'oic(*, tlui Ioav, SAveot ni(iody of her
purple b(ils. No cA'angel among all tho uiountaHi
plants sjieaks Nature's Ioa'o more iilainly than
cassiope. Where she dwtils, the redcniqition of tlii^
col(l(>st solitude is conqih^te. The \'ory rocks and
ghiciers seem to feel her presence, and become im
bued Avith her oavu fountain SAveetuess, All tlihigs
were Avarming and aAvakening, Frozen rills began
to floAV, the marmots came out of their nests in
boulder-piles aud climbed sunny rocks to bask, and
thci duu-hea.ded sparroAvs Avere flitting about seek
ing their breakfasts. The lakes seen from every
ridge-top were briUiautly rippled and spangled,
shimmering like the thickets of the Ioav DAvarf
I'iiies, The rocks, too, seemed I'cspoiisive to tho
vital heat— rock-crystals and suoAv-crystals thrill-
60 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
ing alike. I strode on exhilarated, as if never more
to feel fatigue, limbs moving of themselves, every
sense unfolding like the tlniwing Mowers, b) take
part in the iioav day harmony.
All along my course thus far, excepting when
down in the canons, the landscapes Avere mostly
open to me, and expansive, at least on one side.
On the left Avere the purple plains of Mono, repos
ing dreanuly and Avarm; on the right, the near
peaks springing keenly iuto the thin sky Avith
more and more impressive sublimity. But these
larger views were at length lost. Rugged spurs,
and moraines, and huge, projecting buttresses
began to shut me in. Every feature became more
rigidly alpine, Avithout, hoAvever, producing any
chifling effect; bu' going to tho mountains is like
going home. We always find that the strangest
objects in these fountain Avilds are in some degree
familiar, and we look upon them Avith a vague
sense of having seen them before.
On the southern shore of a frozen lake, I en
countered an extensive field of hard, granuhir
snow, up which I s(!ampered in fine tone, intend
ing to follow it to its head, and cross tho rocky
spur against Avhicli it leans, hoping thus to come
direct upon the base of the main Ritter jieak. The
surface was pitted Avith oval hollows, made by
stones and drifted pine-needles that had melted
themselves into the mass by the radiation of ab
sorbed sun-heat. These att'orded good footholds,
but the surface curved more and more steeply at
the head, and the jiits became shallower and less
abundant, until I found myself in danger of being
(iKXEHAI,. flKAXT TI!KH— OUNI'UtAI, (ii;ANT JJATIONAL I'AllK.
A NE.VR VIEW OF THE HIGH SIERRA Oi
shed off like avalauching snow, I persisted, how
ever, creeping on all fours, and shuffling up the
smoothest places on my back, as I had often done
on burnished granite, until, after slipping several
times, I Avas compelled to retrace my course to
the bottom, and make my way around the west
(Mid of the la.k(^, a.nd thence up to the summit of
the diAide between the head waters of Rush Creek
and the northernmost tributaries of the San
Joaquin, Arriving on th(* summit of this dividing crest,
one of the most exciting j)icces of pure wilderness
wa.s dis(dosed that I over discovei'cd in all my
inountaiueering. There, immediately in front,
loomed the majestic mass of Mount Ritter, Avitli a
glacier SAvooping doAvii its face nearly to my feet,
then curving westward and pouring its frozen flood
into a dark blue lake, whose shores were bound
Avitli precipices of crystalline snoAv; while a deep
chasm dra.Avn between the diAudo and the glacier
separa.t.cd the massive picture from everything else,
1 coidd SCO only tho one sublime mountain, the one
glacier, the one hike ; the Avliole veiled Avith one
blue shadow — rock, ice, and water close together
Avithout a single leaf or sign of life. After gazing
spellbound, I began instinctively to scrutinize every
notch and gorge and weathered buttress of the
mountaiu, Avith reference to making the ascent.
The entire front above the glacier appeared as one
tremendous precipice, slightly receding at the top,
and bristling Avith spires and pinnacles set above
one another in formidable array. Massive lichen-
stained battlements stood forward here and there,
!-^
62 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
hacked at the top with angular notches, and sepa
rated by frosty gullies and recesses that have been
vefled in shadoAV ever since their creation; while
to right and left, as far as I could see, Avere huge,
crumbling buttresses, olfering no hope to the
climber. The head of the glacier sends up a feAV
finger-like branches through iiarroAV couloirs; but
these seemed too stoep and short to be aA'ai table,
especially as I had no ax willi Avhich to cut sti^ps,
and tho numerous narrow-lhroated gullies <k)wu
Avliich stones and suoav are avalanched seemed hope
lessly steep, besides being interrupted by A^ertical
cliffs ; Avhile the Avhole front Avas rendered still more
terribly forbidding by the chill shadoAV and tho
gloomy blackness of the rocks.
Descending the divide iu a hesitating mood, I
picked my Avay across the yawning chasm at the
foot, aud climbed out upon the glacien There
were no meadoAvs now to cheer Avitli their brave
colors, nor could I hear the dun-headed sparroAvs,
whose cheery notes so often relieve tho silence o^
our highest mountains. The only sounds were the
gurghiig of small rills doAVii in tho A'eiiis and cre
vasses of tli(igla.ci(!r, andnowand tli(;ii Un) ra.tl.liiig
report of falling stones, with the echoes they shot out
into the crisp air.
I could not distbictly hope to reach the summit
from this side, yet I moved on across the glacier as
if driven by fate. Contending with myself, the
season is too far spent,! said, and even should I bo
successful, I might be storm-bound on the moun
tain; and in the cloud-darkness, with the cliffs and
crevasses covered with snow, how could I escape ?
A NE.VR VIEAV OP THE HIGH SIERRA 63
No; I must Avait till next summer. I Avould only
approach the mountaiu now, and inspect it, creep
about its flanks, learn what I could of its history,
holdbig myself ready to flee on the approach of the
/irst storm-cloud. But we little know until triedX
/how much of the uncontrollable there is in us, urg- \ \ ^-
I ing acro.ss ghiciers and torrents, and up dangei'ous )
\ heights, let the judguient forbid as it may, /
\ 1 succeeded iirgaining the foot of the cliff on the
eastern extremity of the glacier, and there dis
covered the mouth of a narrow avalanche guUj',
through Avhich I began to climb, intending to fofloAV
it as far as possible, and at least obtain some fine
Avild views \\>v my pains. Its gencra.1 conr.so is
obrnpie to the plane of the mountain-face, and the
metamorphie slates of A\'liicli the mountain is built
are cut by cleavage planes in such a Avay that they
Aveather off in angular blocks, giving rise to irregu-
lar steps that grea.tly facilitate climbing on the
sheer places, I thus made my Avay into a Avilder-
iK-ss of crumbling spires and battlements, built to-
getlior in boAvildering combiuatious, and glazed in
many places Avith a thin coating of ice, which I
had to hammer off Avitli stones. The situation Avas
becoming gradually more perilous; but, having
passed soA^eral dangerous spots, I dared not think
of descending; for, so steep Avas the entire ascent,
OHO Avoulil iiievita.bly fall to tlie glacier iu case a\
single misstep Avore made. Knowing, therefore, the\
tried danger beneath, I became all the more anxious \ ^
coiicorning the developments to be made above, \
aud began to be conscious of a vague foreboding of I
Avliat actually befell; not that I was given to fear, /
64 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
but rather bccaiise my instiniitii_jiaiiaU¥ bo posi-
ij^it ra
4vn__nmjJIvi]c^ geeiiicd AMtiatcd ill some Ava.y, and
were leading me astray. At length, after attaining
anelevation of about 12,800 feet, I found myself at
the foot of a sheer drop in the bed of the avalanche
channel I Avas tracing, Avliich seemed alisolntely to
bar further progress. It Avas only about forty-five
or fifty feet high, and somewhat roughened by
fissures and projections; but these seemed so slight
and insecure, as footholds, that I tried hard to avoid
the precipice altogether, by scaling the AvaU^fJJ-ie
channel on either side. But, thouglrfesS'steep, the
walls Avere smoother than the obstructing rock, aud
repeated cft'orts only shoAved that I must either go
right ahea.d or turn back. The tv'w.d da,iigers Ixv
neath seemed even greater tliaii that of the cliff in
front ; therefore, after scanning its face again and
again, I began to scale it, picking my holds with
intense caution. After gaining a point about half
way to the top, I Avas suddenly brought to a dead
stop, Avitli arms outspread, clinging close to the face
of the rock, unable to moA^e hand or foot either up
or down. My doom appeared fixed, I must fall.
There Avould be a moment of beAvilderment, and
then a, lifeless rumble down the one general pre-
to the glacier below,
T'hen this final danger flashed upon me, I became
-shaken for the first time since setting foot on
the mouiita,ins, and my mind seemed to fill Avith a
stilling smoke, ibit this b'.rrible(H-,lip,se hisbxl only
a moment, when hfe blazed forth again with pre
ternatural clearness, I seemed suddenly to become
possessed of a ncAV sense. The other self, bygone
A NEAR VIEW OF THE HIGH SIERRA (J5
experiences. Instinct, or Guardian Angel, — call it
' Avhat you Avill, — came forAvarcl and assumed control.
Then my trembling muscles became firm again,
every rift and flaAV in the rock Avas seen as through
a microscope, and my limbs moA'ed Avitli a posi-
tiv(Miess and precision Avitli Avhicli I seemed to haA'e
nothing at all to do. Ibid I beiMi borm^ aloft upon
wings, my d(>liv(M'a.iice could uot have beiMi more
conqilete. Above this memorable spot, the face of the
mountain is still more savagely hacked and torn.
It is a maze of yaAAming chasms and gullies, in
the angles of Avhicli riso beetling crags and piles
of detached boulders that seem to have been gotten
ready to be launched below. But the strange in
flux of strength I had received seemed inexhaus
tible, I found a Avay Avithout effort, and soon
stood upon the topmost ci-ag iu the blessed light.
How truly glorious the landscape circled around
this noble summit! — giant mountains, A^alleys in-
nnnierabh^, ghiciers and mea.dows, rivers a.nd lakes,
Avitli thoAvide blm^ sky bent tdiidorly oviM" them all,
Ibit in my first hour of frcMMloni from tha.t terrible
shadow, the sunlight in Avhicli I was laving seemed
all in all.
Looking soutliAvard along the axis of the range,
the eye is first caught by a row of exceedingly
sharp and slender spires, Avliich rise openly to a
height of about a thousand feet, above a series of
short, residual glaciers that lean back against their
bases ; their fantastic sculpture and the unrelieved
sharpness with wdiich they spring out of the ice
rendering them peculiarly Avild and striking. These
6G THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
are " The Minarets," Beyond them you behold a
subbine wilderness of mountains, tluiir snowy sum
mits towering together iu croAvdod abundance, pi'.ak
beyond peak, SAvelling higher, higher as they sweep
on southward, until the culminating point of the
range is reached on Mount Whitney, near the head
of the Kern River, at an elevation of nearly 14,700
feet above the level of the sea.
Westward, the general flank of the range is seen
floAving sublimely aAvay from the sharp summits,
in smooth undulations; a sea of huge gray granite
Avaves dotted Avitli lakes and meadoAVS, and fluted
Avith stupendous canons that grow steadily deeper
as they recede iu the distance*, BeloAV this gray
region lies the dark forest zone, broken liere and
there by upsAvelling ridges and domes; aud yet
beyond lies a yelloAV, hazy belt, marking the broad
plain of the San Joaquin, bounded on its farther
side by the blue mountains of the coast.
Turning now to the nortliAvard, there in the im
mediate foreground is the glorious Sierra CroA\ni,
Avith Cathedral Peak, a temple of marA^elous arclii-
teciture, a fcAV degrees to tlui h^ft of it ; tlu^ gi'ay,
massive form of AlaninKjth IMountain to the right;
Avhile Mounts Ord, Gibbs, Dana,, Conness, Tower
Peak, Castle Peak, Silver Mountain, and a host of
noble companions, as yet nameless, make a sub-
Ibne show along the axis of the range,
Ea.stwa.rd, the whole region seems a, land of deso
lation covered Avitli bea.utiful light. Tiie birrid
volcanic basin of Mono, Avitli its one bare lake
fourteen miles long ; Owen's Valley and the broad
lava table-land at its head, dotted with craters, and
68 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
the massive Inyo Range, rivaling even the Sierra
iu height ; these are s^iread, map-like, beneath you,
Avith countless ranges beyond, passing aud over
lapping one another and fading on the gloAving
horizon. At a distance of less than 3,000 feet below the
sunnnit of Mount Ritter you may find tributaries
of the San Joaquin aud Oavou's rivers, bursting
forth from the i(;e and snow of the glaciers that
load its fianks ; Avhile a little to the north of hero
are found the highest affluents of the Tuolumne
and Mei'ced, Thus, the fountains of four of the
principal rivers of California are Avithin a radius
of four or five miles.
Lakes are siuiii gleaming in all sorts of places, —
round, or oval, or square, like very mirrors; others
narrow and sinuous, draAvn close around the peaks
like silver zones, the highest refleijting only rocks,
snow, and the sky. But neither these nor the gla
ciers, nor the bits of broAvn meadow and moorland
that occur here and there, are large enough to
make any marked impression upon the mighty
wilderness of iiiouuta,iiis, Tho eye, rejoi(ing in its
freedom, roves about the vast expanse, yet returns
again and again to the fountain peaks. Perhaps
some one of the nmltitude excites special attention,
some gigantic castle Avith turret and battloment,
or some (bitliic (lathedral more abundantly spired
tlian Mihin's, But, gciiierally, wIkmi looking (or the
first time from an all-embracing standpoint like
this,^ the inexperienced observer is oppressed by
the incomprehensible grandeur, variety, and abun
dance of the mountains rising shoulder to shoulder
A NEAR VIEW OF THE HIGH SIERRA 69
beyond the reach of vision; and it is only after
tliej^ have been studied one by one, long and lov-
i"&ly) that their far-reaching harmonies become
manifest. Then, penetrate the Avilderness Avliero
you ma.y, the main telling features, to which all
the siirroHiiding topography is subordinate, are
(piickly piM-ceived, and the most ('omplica,ted clus-
tiM's of pea,ks staiul revea.led Inirnionionsly corre-
liited and fashioned like Avorks of ai't — elocpient
monuments of the ancient ice-rivers that brought
them into relief from the general mass of the
range. The canons, too, some of them a mile
deep, mazing Avildly thrcnigh the mighty host of
mountains, Iioav ever laAvless and ungovernable at
first sight they appear, are at length recognized as
the necessary effects of causes Avhicli foUoAved
each other in harmonious sequence — Nature's
poems carved on tables of stone — the simplest
a.ud most empluitic of her glacial compositicuis.
Could Ave have been lu^'c to obseive during the
glacial period, we should have overlooked a Avrinkled
ocean of ice as continuous as tlia,t now covering the
land.scapes of Greenland; filling every valley and
canon Avitli only the tops of the fountain peaks ris
ing darkly above the rock-encumbered ice-Avaves
like islets in a stormy sea — those islets the only
hints of the glorious landscapes hoav smiling in the
sun. Standing here iu the denj), brooding silence
all the Avilderness seems motionless, as if the Avork
of creation Avere done. But iu the midst of this
outer steadfastness avo knoAV there is incessant
motion and change. Ever and anon, avalanches
are falUng from yonder peaks. These cliff-bound
70 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
glaciers, seemingly wedged and immovable, are
flowing hke Avator and grinding tho rocks beneath
them. The hikes a.re la[)]iing tluiir granite shores
and wearing them away, and every one of these
rills and young rivers is fretting the air into music,
and carrying the mountains to the plains. Here
are the roots of all the life of the valleys, and here
more simply than elsewhere is the eternal flux of
nature manifested. Ice changing to Avater, lakes to
meadows, and mountains to plains. And Avliile we
thus contemplate Nature's methods of landscape
creation, aud, reading the records shi* has carved on
the rocks, reconstruct, however imperfectly, the
landscapes of the past, Ave also learn that as these
AVO noAV behold have succeeded those of the pre-
glacial age, so thoy iu turn are Avithering and van
ishing to be succeeded by others yet unborn.
But in the midst of these fine lessons and land
scapes, I had to remember that the sun was Avheel-
ing far to the Avest, while a new way doAVii the
mountain Inid to bo dis(?overcd to some point on the
timber line Avliero I could have a fire; for 1 had uot
even burdened niysiilf Avitli a coat, I first scaniHid
the Avesteru spurs, hoiiing some way might appear
through which I might reach the northern glacier,
and cross its snout; or pass around the lake into
which it flows, and thus strike my morning track.
This route Avas soon sufficiently unfolded to show
that, if practicable at all, it Avould requh'o so much
time that reaching camp that night Avould be out
of the question, I therefore scrambled back east
ward, descending the southern slopes obliquely at
the same time. Here the crags seemed less foi-mid-
A NEAR VIEAV OF THE HIGH SIERRA 71
a.l,)le, and tho head of a glacier that flows north
east came in sight, which I determined to foUoAv as
far as possible, hoping thus to make my way to
the foot of the peak on the east side, and thence
across the interveuiug canons and ridges to camp.
The inclination of the glacier is quite moderate
at the head, and, as the sim had softened the neve,
I made safe and rapid progress, runuing and sliding,
and keeping up a sharp outlook for crevasses.
About half a mile from the head, tliere is an ice-
cascade, Avhere the glacier pours over a sharp de
clivity and is shattered into massive blocks sepa-
ra,l(Ml by diu*]), bliii^ fissunw. To tlirea,d my Avay
through the sli[)iHMy ma.z(>s of this crc^vasscnl jior-
Cioii se(>ni(Ml inqiossihle, and I endeavored to avoid
it by climbing oft" to the shoulder of the mountain.
But the slopes rapidly stee[)eiied and at length fell
aAvay in sheer precipices, compelling a return to the
i(;e. Fortunately, the day had been Avarm enough
to loosen the icio-crystals so as to admit of hollows
being dug iu the rotttm iiortious of the blocks, thus
enabling me to pick my way Avitli far less difficulty
than I had anticipated. Continuing doAvii over the
snout, and along the left lateral moraine, Avas only
a confident saunter, showing that tho ascent of the
mountain by Avay of this glacier is easy, provided
one is armerl Avitli au ax to cut steps here aud there.
¦rhe h)wer (>iid of the glacier Avas beautifully
Avaved aud barred by the outcropping edges of the
bed(l<Ml ice-layers Avhich represent the annual snow
falls, and to some extent the irregularities of struc
ture caused by the Aveathering of the walls of cre
vasses, and by separate snoAvfalls Avhich have been
72 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
followed by rain, hail, thawing and freezing, etc.
Small rills Avere gliding and swirling over the melt
ing surface with a smooth, oily appearance, in chan
nels of pure ice — their quick, compliant movements
contrasting most impressively with the rigid, invi
sible floAv of the glacier itself, on Avliose back they
all Avere riding.
Night drcAV near before I reached the easteni
base of the mountain, and my camp lay many a
rugged mile to the north ; but ultimate success Avas
assured. It Avas noAV only a matter of endurance
and ordinary mountain-craft. The sunset Avas, if
liossible, yet more beautiful than that of the day
before. The Mono hindsca])e seemed to bo fairly
saturated witii warm, purple light, Tho ])ea.ks
marshaled along the summit were in shadow, but
through every notch and pass streamed vivid sun-
fire, soothing and iri'adiating their rough, black an
gles, whfle companies of small, luminous clouds
hovered above them like A-ery angels of light.
Darkness came on, but I found mj Avay by the
trends of the canons and the peaks projected
against the sky. All excitement died Avitli the
light, and then I Avas Aveary, But the joyful sound
of the waterfall across the lake Avas heard at last,
and soon the stars Avere seen reflected iu the lake
itself. Taking my bearings from these, I dis
covered the little [line thicket in which my nest
wa.s, a.iid I.Ikmi I had a rest such as only a. liivd
mountaineer may enjoy. Afttsr lying loose and
lost for aAvhile, I made a sunrise fire, Aveut down
to the lake, dashed Avater on my head, and dipped
a cupful for tea. The reviA^al brought about by
bread and tea Avas as complete as the exhaustion
A NEAR VIEW OF THE HIGH SIERRA 73
from excessive enjoyment and toil Then I crept
beneath the pine-tassels to bed. The Avind Avas
frosty and the fire burned low, but my sleep was
none the less sound, and the evening constellations
had sAvept far to the west before I aAvoke,
After thaAviug and resting in the morning suii-
shim*, I sa.iint.(>.red home, — tlia,t is, back to tlie Tuol-
uniiK! ca.mp, — bearing away toAvard a cluster of
peaks tliat hohl tho fountain snoAvs of .one of the
north tributaries of Rush Creek, Here I discovered
a group of beautiful glacier lakes, nestled toge
ther in a grand amphitheater, ToAvard evening, I
crossed tlie divide separating the Mono waters
from those of the Tuolumne, and entered the
glacier basin that uoav holds the fountain snows
of the stream that forms the upper Tuolumne cas
cades. This stream I traced doAvii through its
many dells aud gorges, meadoAvs and bogs, reach
ing the brink of the main Tuolumne at dusk,
A loud Avhoop for the artists Avas ansAvered again
and a.gaiii. Their camp-fire came in sight, and
half an hour a.ft,ei'ward 1 was Avitli them. They
seemed unreasonably glad to see me, I had been
absent only three days; nevertheless, though tho
Aveather was fine, they had already been weighing
chances as to Avhether I would ever return, and
trying to decide Avhether they should wait longer
or begin to seek their Avay back to the loAvlands.
Now "their curious troubles Avere over. They
packed their precious sketches, and next morning
Ave set out homeward bound, and in two days
entered the Yosemite VaUey from the north by
Avay of Indian Canon,
CHAPTER V
THE PASSES
THE sustained grandeur of the High Sierra is
strikingly illustrated liy the great height of
the passes. Between latitude 30° 20' and 38° the
lowest pass, gap, gorge, or notch of any kind cut
ting across tliii axis of tlui I'auge, as far as F have!
discoveriHl, e.xcHHMJs 0000 feet in height above the
level of the sea.; while the avi^rago height of all
that are in use, either by Iiulians or whites, is per
haps not less than 11,000 feet, and not one of these
is a carriage-pass.
Farther north a carriage-road has been con
structed through Avliat is knoAvn as the Sonora
Pass, on the head Avaters of the Stanislaus and
Walker's rivers, the sunimitof Avliich is about 10,000
feet above the sea. Substantial Avagon-roads lia\'e
also been built through the Ca,rsoii and Johnson
passes, near the head of Lake Taboo, over which
immense quantities of freight were hauled from
California to the mining regions of NoA'ada, before
the construction of tlie Ciiiitral Pa.(ific R.a.ilroa,d.
Still farther north a ccnisiderable number of com
paratively low passes occur, some of which are ac
cessible to Avheeled vehicles, and through these
rugged defiles during the exciting years of the gold
TIIE PASSES 75
])eriod long <Miiigrant,-tra,iiis Avilli foot-sore^ cattle
Aveaiily toiled. After the toil-worn adventurers
had escajied a thousand dangers and had crawled
thousands of miles across the jilains the snowy
Sierra at last loomed iu sight, the eastern Avail of
the land of gold. And as witih shaded eyes they
gazed through the tremulous haze of the desert,
Avitli Avhat joy must they have descried the pass
through A\diich they Avere to enter the better land
of their hopes and dreams !
Between the Sonora Pass and the southern ex
tremity of tho High Sierra, a distance of nearly 160
niih^s, tliere are only livi^ pa.ss(vs through Avliich'
trails conduct from one h'mU) of the range to the
otlier. These are barely pra,ctica.ble for animals; a
l»ass in these regions meaning simply any notch or
cailou through Avliich one may, by the exercise of
unlimittMl patience, make out to lead a mule, or a
sure-footed miLstang; animals that can slide or
juiii]) as Avell as walk. Only three of the five pas.'^es
maybe said tolx^in use, viz,: the Kearsargc, Mono,
aud Virginia Creek; the tracks leading through the
others being only obscure Indian trails, not graded
in the least, and scarcely traceable by AAdiite men;
U)V much, of the way is over .solid rock and earth-
(luako avalanche taluses, Avhero the unsliod ponies
of the Indians leaA^e no appreciable sign. Only
skilled mountaineers are able to detect the marks
that serve to guide the Indians, such as slight
abrasions of the looser rocks, the displacement of
stones here and there, and bent bushes and Aveeds,
A general knoAvledge of the topography is, theu,
the main guide, enabling one to determine Avhero
76 THE MOUNTAmS OP CALIFORNIA
the trail ought to go — must go. One of these In
dian trails crosses the range by a nameless pass
between the head waters of the south and middle
forks of the San Joaquin, the other betAA'een the
north and middle forks of the same river, just to
the south of " The Minarets " ; this last being about
9000 feet high, is the lowest of the five. The Kear-
sarge is the highest, crossing the summit near the
head of the south fork of King's Ri\'er, about eight
miles to the north of Mount Tyndall, through the
midst of the most stupendous rock-scenery. The
summit of this pass is OA^er 12,000 feet above sea-
level ; nevertheless, it is one of the safest of the fiA^e,
and is used every summer, from July to October
or November, by hunters, prospectors, and stock-
owiiers,aud to some extent by enterprising pleasure-
seekers also. For, besides the surpassing grandeur
of the scenery about the summit, the trail, in as
cending the western flank of the range, conducts
through a grove of the giant Sequoias, and through
the magnificent Yosemite Valley of the south fork
of King's River, This is, perhaps, the highest traA'-
eled i)a.,ss on llie Noiili y\nierica.n contimMit,,
The Mono Pass li(!S bi the oast of Yosemite Val
ley, at the head of one of the tributaries of the
south fork of the Tuolumne, This is the best
knoAvn and most extensively traveled of all that
exist in the High Sierra, A trail was made through
it about the time of the Mono gold excitement, in
the year 1858, by adventurous miners a,iid prospec
tors—men who would build a trail doAvn the throat
of darkest Erebus on the way to gold. Though
more than a thousand feet loA\'er than the Kear-
M^^.i ^..4^lffi ^^ '^YOSEMITE VA
T-^r '5 ''i C'ri J'^'ti'^i , »~0)," i^f' \ PRESENT RESERVATION BOUf,
t ^-r l.Hn^~"/-^ ^-V^ ^t,^ ^(H?:.!' SCAL. or MILES
VALLEY
^ OUNDARY
78 'I'HE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNl.V
sargo, it is scarccsly lews sublime in roc^k-scenory.
Avhilo in snowy, falling Avater it far surpassiss it.
BiMiig so favorably situated bir the sl.rea.m of Yo
semite travel, the more acU'enturons tourists cross
over through this glorious gateway to the volcanic
region around Mono Lake, It has therefore gained
a name and fame above every other pass in the
range. According to the few barometrical observa
tions made upon it, its highest point is 10,765
feet above the sea. The other pass of the five Ave
have been considering is soinoAvhat lower, and
crosses the axis of the range a foAV miles to the
north of the Mono Pass, at the head of the south-
ei'umost tributary of ^Yalkiir's Rivcsr, It is used
chic^lly by roaming bands of the Pah I'to liiclians
and "sheepmcni,"
But, leaving wheels and animals out of tho cpies-
tion, the free mountaineer with a sack of bread on
his shoulders and an ax to cut steps in ice and
frozen suoav can make his Avay across the range al
most everyAvhere, and at any time of year when the
weather Is calm. To him nearly every notch be
tween the peaks is a pass, though much })atient
step-cutting is at times required up and doAvn
steeply iiuiined glaciers, Avitli cautious cdimbing
over precipices that at first sight would seem liopcv
lessly inaccessible.
In pursuing my studies, I have crossed from
side to side of the range at intervals of a foAV miles
all along the highest portion of iho. chain, Avitli far
less real danger than one Avould naturally count
on. And what fine wildness Avas thus revealed —
storms and avalanches, lakes and Avaterfalls, gar-
THE PASSES 79
deiis aud moadoAvs, and interesting animals — only
those Avill ever kuoAv Avho give the freest and most
buoyant portion of their lives to climbhig and see
ing for themsiives.
To the timid traveler, fresh from the sedimen
tary levels of tlio loAvlauds, these higlnvays, hoAv-
(ivcM- picturescpie and grand, seem terribly forbid
ding — cold, dead, gloomy gaslies in the bones of
the mountains, and of all Nature's Avays the ones
to be most cautiously avoided. Yet they are fuU
of the finest and most telling examples of Nature's
love; and though hard to travel, noue are safer.
For they lead thi-ough rc\gic)ns tliat lie far above
the onUnary haunts of the chnil, aiicl of the pesti-
hnico that Avalks iu darkness. True, there are
innumerable places AAdiere the careless step Avill be
the last step ; and a rock falling from the cliffs
may crush Avithout Avarniug like lightning from
the sky ; but Avliat then 1 Accidents in the moun-
tabis are less common than iu tho loAvlauds, and
tli(>sc^ uioiinlain iminsioiis a.rc^ decent, delightful,
evcMi diviii(\, |)la.c(is to dici in, coiiipa.red with thc^
doleful chambers of civilization, F{i\v places in
this Avoiid are more dangerous than home. Fear
not, therefore, to try the mountain-passes. They
Avill kill care, save you from deadly apathy, set you
free, and call forth cA^ery faculty into vigorous,
enthusiastic action. Even the sick should try
these so-called dangerous passes, because for eA^ery
unfortunate they kill, they cure a thousand.
All the passes make their steepest ascents on
the eastern flank. On this side the average rise is
not far from a thousand feet to the mile, Avhile on
80 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
the west it is about two hundred feet. Another
marked difference between tho eastern and Avestern
portions of the passes is that the former begin at
the very foot of the range, Avliile the latter can
hardly be said to begin loAver than an elevation of
from seven to ten thousand feet. Approaching the
range from the gray levels of Mono and Oavcii's
Valley on the east, the traA'cler sees before him the
steep, short passes in f nil A'iew, fciKHMl in by rug
ged spurs that come plunging doAvii from the shoul
ders of the peaks on either side, the courses of
the more direct being disclosed from top to bottom
without interruption. But from the Avest one sees
nothing of the way he may be seeking until near
the summit, after days have been spent in thread
ing the fiu'csts groAving on the main dividing
ridges betAveen the river canons.
It is interesting to observe how surely the alp-
crossing animals of OA^ery kind fall iuto the same
trails. The more rugged and inaccessible the gen
eral character of the topography f)f any particular
region, the more surely Avill the trails of Avliite
UK^ii, I'ndiaiis, bc^ars, Avild slicuii, o.U:., be buuid
converging inb) the bcist passers, 'i'lio Indians of
the Avestern slope venture cautiously OA'cr the
passes in settled Aveather to attend dances, and
obtain loads of pine-nuts and the larvie of a small
fly that breeds in Mono and Owen's lakes, which,
Avhen dried, forms an important article of food;
while the Pah Utes cross over from the east to
hunt the deer and obtain supplies of acorns; and
it is truly astonishing to see what immense loads
the haggard old squaws make out to carry bare-
TIIE PASSES 81
footed through these rough passes, oftentimes for
a distance of sixty or seventy miles. They are
ahvays accompanied by the men, who stride on,
unburdened and erect, a little in advance, kindly
stooi)big at ditficult places to pile stepping-stones
for their patient, pack-animal Avives, just as they
Avould prepare the Avay for their pouios.
Bears evince great sagacity as mountaineers, but
although they are tireless aud enterprising travel
ers they seldom cross the range, I have several
times tracked them through the Mono Pass, but
only in late yeai-s, after cattlo and sheep had
pa.ssecl tluit wa.y, wlic^ii they doubtless avcm'ii follow
ing to fc>.ed on the stragglers and on those that
Inicl been killcul by falling ovc'.r the rocivs, Viw.n
the Avild sheep, the best mountaineers of all, choose
regular passes in making journeys across the sum
mits. Deer seldom cross the range in either direc
tion, I have never yet observed a single specimen
of tho mule-deer of the Great Basin M^est of the
summit, and rar(4y one of the black-tailed species
on the eastern slopes, notwithstanding many of the
latter ascend the range nearly to the summit every
summer, to feed in the wild gardens and bring
forth their young.
The glaciers are the pass-makers, and it is by
them that the courses of all mountaineers are pre-
(h'stined. Without exception every pa.ss in the
Sierra Avas created by them without the slightest
aid or predetermining guidance from any of the
cataclysmic agents, I have seen elaborate state
ments of the auKHint of drilling and blasting ac
complished in the construction of the railroad
6
82 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
across the Sierra, aboA'e Doiinor Lake; but for
every pound of rocik moved in this way, tlie gla
ciers Avliich descended east and west through this
same pass, crushed and carried aAvay more than
a hundred tons.
The so-called practicable road-passes are simply
those portions of the range more degraded by
glacial action than the adjacent iiortions, and de
graded in such a A\'ay as to leaA'e the summits
rounded, instead of sharp; Avhile the peaks, from
the superior strength and hardness of their rocks,
or from more favorable position, having suffered
less degradation, are left toAvcning aboA'o the passes
as if they had been heaved into the sky by some
force acting from beneath,
'The scionery of all the ])a.s.ses, es[)ecially at the
head, is of the Avildest and grandest description, —
lofty peaks massed together and laden ai'onnd their
bases with ice and suoav ; chains of glacier lakes ;
cascading streams in endless variety, Avitli glorious
views, AvestAvard over a sea of rocks and AVoods,
aud eastward over strange ashy plains, volcanoes,
and the dry, dead-looking ranges of the Great Ba
sin, Every pass, hoAvever, possesses treasures of
beauty all its oavu.
Having thus in a general Avay indicated the
height, leading features, aud distribution of the
principal passes, I Avill uoav endeavor to d(\scribo
the Mono Pa.ss in i)articiila.r, which may, I think,
bo regarded a.s a fair c^.xainphi of the higher aljiine
passes ill general.
The main portion of the Mono Pass is formed
THE PASSES 83
by Bloody Canon, Avhich begins at the summit of
the range, aud runs in a general east-northeasterly
direetiou to the edge of the Mono Plain,
The first Avhite men Avho forced a way through
its somber depths Avere, as Ave have seen, eager
gold-secicers, Ibit the canon Avas known and traA'-
eled as a, jj-'l-^s by tlic^ Indians and uiountain aiii-
nnils long before its discoA'cry by Avliite men, as
is shown by tho numerous tributary trails Avhicli
come into it from every direction. Its name ac
cords Avell with the ciiaractcr of the "early times"
in California, and may perhaps liaA^e been sug
gested by the predouiinant color of the meta
morphie slates iu Avhich it is iu great part eroded ;
or nioi-e probably by blood-stains made by the un
fortunate animals Avliich Avere compellecl to slip
aud shuffle aAvkwardly over its rough, cutting
rocks, I liaA'e never knoAvn an animal, either mule
or horse, to make its Avay through the canon,
either in going up or down, Avitlicuit losing more
or less blood from wounds on the legs, Occa.sion-
a.lly one is killcnl outright — falling hea.dloiig and
rolling oA^or precipices like a boulder, ]3ut sucli
accidents are rarer than from the terrible appear
ance of the trail one would be led to expect ; the
more experienced when driven loose find their Avay
over the dangerous places with a caution and sa
gacity that is truly Avonderful, During the gold
excitement it was at times a matter of considerable
]ie<;uniary importance to force a Avay through the
ca.rum with pack-trains early in the spring Avhile
it Avas yet heavily blocked Avitli snow; and then
84 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
the mules with their loads had sometimes to be let
down over the steepest drifts and avalanche beds
by UKUiiis of ropes,
A good bridle-path leads from Yosemite through
many a grove and meadow up to the head of the
canon, a distance of about thirty miles. Here the
scenery undergoes a sudden and startling conden
sation, IMountains, red, gray, and black, rise close
at hand on the right, whitened around their bases
with banks of enduring snow; on the left swells
the huge red mass of Mount Gibbs, while in front
the eye wanders down the shadoAvy canon, and out
on the warm plain of Mono, Avliere the lake is seen
gleaming like a burnished metallic disk, Avith clus
ters of lofty volcanic cones to the south of it.
When at length we enter the mountain gatoAvay,
the somber rocks seem aware of our presence,
and seem to come thronging closer about us.
Happily the ouzel and the old familiar robin are
here to sing us Avelcomo, and azure daisies beam
Avith trustfulness and sympathy, enabling us to
feel scunethiiig of Nature's love evcni here, beneath
the gaze of her coldest rocks.
The etfect of this cxpressiA'o outspokenness on
the part of the canon-rocdcs is greatly enhanced
by the quiet aspect of the alpine meadoAvs through
which Ave pass just before entering the narroAV
gateway. The forests in Avhich they lie, and the
mountain-tops rising beyond them, seem quiet and
tranquil. We catch their restful spirit, yield to
the soothing influences of the sunshine, and saun
ter dreamily on through floAvers and bees, scarce
touched by a definite thought ; then suddenly Ave
THE PASSES 85
find ourselves in the shadowy canon, closeted with
Nature in one of her wfldest strongholds.
After the first boAvilderiug impression begins to
Avear off, Ave perceive that it is not altogether ter
rible ; for besides the reassuring birds and floAvers
Ave discover a chain of shining lakelets hanging
doAvn from the very summi.t of tlie pass, and linked
together by a silvery stream. The highest are set
in bleak, rough boAvls, scantily fringed with broAvn
and yelloAv sedges. Whiter storms bloAv snow
through the canon in blinding drifts, and ava
lanches shoot from the heights. Then are these
sparkling tarns filled and buricjd, leaving not a
hint of their existence. In June and July they
begin to blink and tliaAV out like sleeiiy eyes, tke
carices thrust up their short brown spikes, the
daisies bloom in turn, and the most profoundly
buried of them all is at length warmed and sum
mered as if Avi liter Avere only a dream.
Red Lake is the loAvest of the chain, and also
the largest. It seems rather dnll and forbidding
at first sight, lying motionless in its deep, dark
bed. The canon wall rises sheer from the water's
edge on the south, but on the opposite side there
is sutficient s^^ace and sunshine for a sedgy daisy
garden, the center of which is brilliantly lighted
with lilies, castilleias, larkspurs, and columbines,
sheltered from the wind by leafy AvilloAvs, and
forming a most joyful outburst of plant-life keenly
emphasized by the chill baldness of the onlooking
cliffs. After indulging here iu a dozing, shimmering
lak'o-rost, the happy stream sets forth again, warb-
86 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
ling and trifling like an ouzel, ever delightfully
confiding, no matter Iioav dark the Avay; leaping,
gliding, hither, thither, clear ov foaming : manifest
ing the beauty of its Avilduess in every sound and
gesture. One of its most beautiful developments is the
Diamond Cascade, situated a short distance beloAV
Red Lake, Here the tense, crystalline Avater is first
dashed into coarse, granular spray mixed Avith
dusty foam, and then divided into a diamond pat
tern by foUoAving the diagonal cleavage-joints that
intersect the face of the precipice over Avhich it
pours. Viewed in front, it resomblos a strip of
embroidery of definite pat,terii, \'aryiug through
the seasons Avith the tenqieratiiro and the AMibime
of Avater, Scuirce a flower may be seen along its
siiOAvy border, A foAV bent pines look on from a
distance, and snudl fringes of cassiope and rocis-
fcriis are groAving iu fissures near the head, but
these are so loAvly and undemonstrative that only
the atteutiA^e observer Avill be likely to notice them.
On the north Avail of the canon, a little behiw
the Diamond Cascade, a glittering side stream
makes its appearance, seeming to leap directly
out of the sky. It first resomblcis a crinkled ribbon
of silver hanging loosely down the Avail, but groAVS
Avider as it descends, and dashes the dull rock with
foam, A long rough talus curves up agabist this
yiart of the cliff, OA'orgroAvn with snow-in-essod Avil-
loAvs, in Avhieh the fall disappears Avith many an
eager surge and SAvirl and plashing leap, finally
beating its way doAvn to its confluence with the
main canon stream.
THE PASSES 87
BeloAv this point the climate is no longer arctic,
ButtcH'Mies become larger and more abundant,
grasses Avith bnposing spread of panicle Avave
above your shoulders, aud the summery drone of
the bumblebee thickens tho air. The Dwarf Pine,
the trec-mouutaineer that climbs highest and
braves the coldest blasts, is found scattered iu
stormbeaten clumps from the summit of the pass
about half-Avay doAvn the canon. Here it is suc
ceeded by the hardy TAVo-leaved Pine, Avhich is
speedily joined by tho taller YelloAv aud Mountain
Pines, These, Avitli the burly juniper, and shim
mering a.speii, rajiiclly grow la.rgcM' as the sunsliino
becunnes richer, forming groves tlia.t block tho
vioAv; or they stand nun'o apart here aud there
in picturesque groups, that make beautiful and
obvious harmony Avith the rocks and AAith one
another. Blooming underbrush becomes abun
dant, — azale-i, spiraia., aud tho bric,n-roso weaving
fringes for the streams, and shaggy rugs to relievo
the stern, untlinching rock-bosses,
Throngh this (hiightful Avihlerness, Canon Creek
roves Avithout any constraining channel, throbbing
and Avavering ; iioav in sunshine, uoav in thoughtful
shade ; falling, SAviiiiug, flashing from side to side
in Aveariless exuberance of energy, A glorious milky
Avay of cascades is thus developed, of Avliich BoAver
Cascade, though one of the •smallest, is perhaps the
most beautiful of them all. It is situated in the
loAver region of the pass, just Avliero the sunshine
begins to mellow between the cold and Avarm cli
mates. Here the glad creek, groAvn strong with
tribute gathered from many a snowy fountain on
88 THE MOUNTAINS OF C:.\LIPOKNIA
the heights, sings richer strains, and becomes more
human and lovable at every stop. Now you may
by its side find the rose and homely yarrow, and
small meadoAVS full of bees and clover. At the
head of a low-broAved rpck, luxuriant dogwood
bushes and avIUoavs arch over fro:n bank to bank,
emboAvering the stream with their leafy branches ;
and drooping plumes, kept in motion by the cur
rent, fringe the broAV of the cascade in front. From
this leafy covert the stream leaps out into the light
in a fiutcd curve thick soavu Avith sparkling crystals,
and falls into a pool filled with broAvii boulders, out
of Avliich it creeps gray Avitli foam-bells and disap
pears in a tangle of verdure like that from Avliich
it came.
lleiicte, to the foot of tho c;anon, the metamorphie
slates give place to granite, whose nobler sculpture
calls forth expressions of corresponding beauty
from the stream in passing over it, — bright trills of
rapids, booming notes of falls, solemn hushes of
smooth-gliding sheets, all chanting and blending in
glorious harmony. When, at length, its impetu
ous alpine life is done, 'it slips through a meadow
Avitli scarce an audible Avhispor, and falls asleep in
jMoraiiie Lake,
This Avatcr-bccl is one of the finest I ever saw.
Evergreens Avave soothingly about it, and the
breath of flowers floats over it like incense. Here
our blessed si ream r(\sl.s from its rockv wa.ndoi-iiigs,
all its uiountameering chnie, — no more foaming
rock-leaping, no more wild, exulting song. It falls
into a smooth, glassy sleep, stirred only by the
night- wind, which, coming doAvn the canon, makes
¦I'HE PASSES 89
it croon and mutter in ripples along its broidered
shores. Leaving the lake, it glides quietly through the
rushes, destined never more to touch the living
rock. Henceforth its path lies thrcmgh ancient
moraines and reacdies of ashy sage-plain, which iio-
wli(>r(^ a.('ford rocks siiibdile \'oy the dcwelopnicMit of
cascades or sheer falls. Yet this beauty of maturity,
though less striking, is of a stifl higher order, en
ticing us lovingly on through gentian meadows
and groves of rustling aspen to Lake Mono, where,
spirit-like, our happy stream vanishes in vapor, and
Moats free again in the sky.
Bloody Canon, like every other in the Sierra, was
recently occupied by a glacier, Avhicli derived its
fountain snows from the adjacent summits, and
descended into Mono Lake, at a time Avhen its
Avaters stood at a much higher level than iioav.
The principal characters in which the history of
the ancient glfieiers is preseiwcd are displayed here
in marvcious freshness a.ncl simplicity, furnishing
the student Avitli extraordinary adA^autagos for the
accpiisition of knoAvledge of this sort. The most
striking passages are polished and striated surfaces,
Avliich in many places reflect the rays of the sun
like smooth Avater, The dam of Red Lake is an
elegantly modeled rib of metamorphie slate, brought
into relief because of its superior strength, and be
cause of the greater intensity of the glacial erosion
of the rock immediately above it, caused by a
steeply inclined tributary glacier, which entered the
main trunk Avith a heavy down-thrust at the head
of the lake.
90 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
Moraine Lake furnishes an equally interesting
example of a basin formed wholly, or in part, by a
tcM-miiial moraine chiin ciii'vcmI across the path of
a stream between two lateral moraines.
At Moraine Lake the caiioii proper terminates,
although apparently continued by the two lateral
moraines of the vanished glacier. These moraines
are about 300 feet high, and extend iinbrokenly
from the sides of the caiioii into the plain, a dis
tance of about five miles, curving and tapering in
beautiful lines. Their suiiAvard sides are gardens,
their shady sides are groves; the former devoted
chiefiy to eriogouse, compositte, aud gramiufe ; a
square rod containing five or six profusely flowered
eriogonums of several species, about the same
number of baliia and linosyris, and a few grass
tufts ; each species being iilanted trimly apart, Avitli
bare gravel between, as if cultivated artificially.
My first visit to Bloody Canon Avas made in the
summer of 1869, under circjumstances Avell calcn-
latiicl to hcightcMi tlie impressions tluit a,re the ]h)-
(Miliar orfsining of mountains, I came from tlu^
blooming tangles of ii'lorichi, and Avadcd out into the
plant-gold of the great valley of California, wheu
its flora Avas as yet untrodden. Never before had
I beheld congregations of social JloAvers half so ox-
tensive or half so glorious. Golden compositiB
covered aU the ground from the Coast Range to
the Sierra like a stratum of curdled sunshine, in
Avliich I reveled for weeks, watching the rising and
setting of their innumerable suns; then I gave
myself up to be borne forward on the crest of tho
summer wave that sweeps annually up the Sierra
and spends itself on the snoAvy summits.
TIIE PASSES 91
At the Big Tuolumne Meadows I remained more
than a month, sketching, botanizing, and climbing
among the surrounding mountains. The moun
taineer Avitli Avhoiu I then happened to be champing
Avas one of those remarkable men one so frequently
meets iu California, the hard angles and bosses of
Avhose characters have been brought into relief by
the grinding excitements of the gold period, until
they resemble glacial landscapes. But at this late
day, my friend's activities had subsided, and his
craving for rest caused him to become a gentle
shepherd and literally to lie doAvii Avitli the lamb.
b'ecogHiziiig the iin.sa.lisliable longings of my
Scotch llighland instincts, he throw out some hints
coiiccM'ning Ifloody CaTioii, and advised mo to ex
plore it, "[ have noA^er seen it myself," he said,
"for I ncA^er Avas so unfortunate as to pass that
way, Ibit I have heard many a strange story about
it, and I Avarraiit you Avill at least find it Avihl
enongb," Then of c-ourso I made haste to see it. Early
next morning I made up a bundle of bread, tied my
note-book to my belt, and strode away in the brac
ing air, full of eager, indefinite hope. The plushy
lawns that lay in my path served to soothe my morn
ing haste. The sod in many places was starred Avith
daisies and blue gentians, over Avhich I lingered,
I tracecl the paths of the ancient glaciers over many
a shining pavement, aud marked the gaps in the
upper forests that told the poAver of the winter ava
lanches, Clbnliing higher, I saw for the first time
the gradual dAvarfing of the pines in compliance
with climate, and on the summit discovered creep-
in <>• mats of the arctic willoAV overgrown with silky
92 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
(;atkins, and patches of the dwarf vaccinium Avith
its round flowers sprinkled iu the grass like pur
ple hail; Avhile in every direction the landsc;ape
stretched sublimely aAA^ay in fresh wildness — a
manuscript written by the hand of Nature alone.
At length, as I entered the pass, the huge rocks
began to close around in all their Avild, mysterious
impressiveness, Avhen suddenly, as I was gazing
eagerly about me, a drove of gray hairy beings
came in sight, lumliering toAvard me Avith a kind of
boneless, walloAving motion like bears,
I never turn back, though often so inclined, and
in this particular instance, amid such surroundings,
everything seemed singularly unfavorable for the
(ialni accepbiuce of so grim a com])a,uy. Su])press-
ing my fears, 1 soon discovercMl tlnit although as
hairy as bears and as crooked as summit pines, the
strange creatures were sufficiently erect to belong
to our own species. They proved to be nothing
more formidable than Mono Indians dressed in the
skins of sage-rabbits. Both the men and the Avomeii
begged persistently for Avhisky and tobacco, and
seemed so accustomed to denials that I found it im
possible to convince them that I had none to givc^
Excepting the iianies of these two products of cIa--
ilizatiou, they seemed to understand not a word of
English ; but I after Avard learned that they Avere on
their Avay to Yosemite Valley to feast aAvliih^ on
trout and ])rocure a loa.cl of acorns to ca,rry ba.ck
through the pass b> their huts on the shore of
Mono Lake,
Occasionally a good countenance may be seen
among the Mono Indians, but these, the first speci-
THE PASSES 97,
mens I had seen, Avere mostly ugly, and some of
them altogether hideous. The dirt on their faces
was fairly stratified, and seemed so ancient and so
undisturbed it niight almost possess a geological
significance. The older faces were, moreover,
strangely blurred and divided into sections by fur
rows tlia.t hioked like the cleaA^ago-jouits of rocks,
suggesting exposure on the mouut,aiiis in a cast
away condition for ages. Somehow they seemed to
have no right place in the landscape, and I was
glad to see them fading out of sight down the pass.
Then came evening, and tho somber cliffs were
inspired Avitli tho ineffable beauty of the alpengloAV,
A solemn calm fell upou everything. All the lower
portion of the canon Avas in gloaming shadow, and
I crejit into a IioUoav near one of the upper lakelets
to smooth the ground iu a sheltered nook for a bed.
When the short twilight faded, I kindled a sunny
fire, made a cup of tea, and lay doAvn to rest and
look at the stars. Soon, the night-Avind began to
Mow and pour iu torrenl,s a,niong the jagged pea.ks,
miiigliug strange tones Avitli those of the waterfalls
souuduig far below; and as I drifted toward sleex)
I began to experience an uncomfortable feeling of
nearness to the furred Monos, Then the full moon
looked doAvii over the edge of the canon Avail, her
countenance seemingly filled with intense concern,
and apparently so near as to produce a startling
effect as if she had entered my bedroom, forgetting
all the world, to gaze on me alone.
The night Avas full of strange sounds, and I
gladly Avelcomed the morning. Breakfast Avas soon
done, and I set forth in the exhilarating freshness
94 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
of the new day, rejoicing in the abundance of pure
wildness so close about me. The stupendous rocks,
hacked aud scarrcsd with ceiitiiricw of sbu'ins, stood
sharply out in the thin early light, Avhile down iu
the bottom of the canon grooved and polished
bosses heaved and glistened like swelling sea-Avaves,
telling a grand old story of the ancient glacier that
poured its crushing floods above them.
Here for tho first time I met the arctic daisies iu
all their perfection of purity and spirituality, —
gentle mountaineers face to face Avitli the stormy
sky, kejit safe and warm by a thousand miracles. I
leaped lightly from rock to rock, glorying in the
eternal freshness and sufficiency of Nature, and in
the ineffable tenderness Avith Avhich she nurtures
her mounbiiu darlings iu the very bnmtains of
storms. Fresh beauty appeared at every step, deli
cate rock-ferns, and groups of the fairest floAvers.
Now another lake came to view, uoav a waterfall.
Never fell light iu brighter spangles, never fell
water in Avhiter foam. I seemed to float through
the canon enciianted, feeling notliiiig of its rongli-
ness, and Avas out in the JMoiio levels before \ Avas
aware, Ijooking back from the shore of Moraine Lake,
my morning ramble seemed ull a tlream. There
curved Bloody Canon, a mere glacial furroAV 2000
feet deep, with smooth rocks projecting from the
sides and braided together iu the middle, like bulg
ing, SAvelling muscles. Here tho lilicis were higher
than my head, and the suushine Avas AA'arm enough
for palms. Yet the snow around the arctic AvilloAVS
was plainly visible only four miles away, and be-
THE PASSES 95
tweeii Avere na.i row S[)ecimen zones of all the princi
pal climates of the globe.
On tho bank of a small brook that comes gurg
ling doAvn the side of the left lateral moraine, I
found a c;amp-fire still burning, which no doubt
belonged to the gray Indians I had met on the sum
mit, aud I listened instinctiA'ely and moved cau
tiously forward, half expecting to see some of their
grim faces peering out of the bushes.
Passing on toA^yard the open i)lain, I noticed three
well-defined terminal mora.ines curved gracefully
across the ca.rioii stream, and joined by long splices
to tho two noble Laterals, Tlu^se ma,rk the haltiug-
]»laces of llie vauishcid glacier avIicmi it Ava.s retreat
ing inlo it,s siiinmit sliach)ws on the brea.kiiig-up of
the glacial Aviiitcr,
Five miles beloAV the foot of Moraine Lake, just
Avhere the latei'al moraines lose themselves in the
plain, there Avas a field of Avild rye, groAving in mag
nificent AvaA'iiig bunches six to eight feet high, bear
ing heads from six to twelve inches long. Rubbing
out some of the grains, I found them about fiA^e
eighths of an inch long, dark-colored, and SAveet,
Indian Avomen Avere gathering it in baskets, bend
ing doAvn large handfuls, beating it out, and fan
ning it in the Avind. They Avere quite picturesque,
coming through the rye, as one caught glimpses of
them here and there, in Aviuding lanes and open
ings, with splendid tufts arching above their heads,
Avhile their incessant chat and laughter showed
their heedless joy.
Like the rye-field, T found the so-called desert
of Mono blooming in a high state of natural culti-
9G THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
vation with the wild rose, cherry, aster, and the
delicate abrouia; also innumerable gilias, phloxes,
poppies, and busli-composita3. I observed their
gestures and the various expressions of their
corollas, inquiring Iioav they could be so fresh and
beautiful out in this volcanic desert. They told
as happy a life as any plant-company I ever met,
and seemed to enjoy even the hot sand and the
Aviiid. But tho vegetation of tho pass has been iu great
part destroyed, and the same may be said of afl the
more accessible passes throughout the range. Im
mense numbers of starving sheep and cattle have
been driven through them into Nevada, trampling
tho Avild gardens and meadows almost out of exis
tence. The lofty walls are untouched by any foot,
and the falls sing on unchanged ; but the sight of
crushed flowers aud stripjied, bitten bushes gocss far
toward destroying the charm of wildness.
The canon should be seen in winter, A good,
strong traveler, who knoAvs the way and the A\^eather,
might easily make a safe excursion through it from
Yosemite Valley on snoAV-shoes during some tran-
cpiil time, when tlio slorins are liushod, Tlie lakes
and falls would be buried then; but so, also, Avould
be the traces of destructive feet, Avliile the vioAvs of
the mountains in their winter garb, and the I'ide
at lightning speed down the pass betAveen the snoAvy
walls, Avould be truly glorious.
VIEW OF THE MONO PLAIN FROM THE FOOT OF BLOODT CANON.
CHAPTER VI
THE GLACIER LAKES
AMONG the many unlooked-for treasures that
XJL are bound up and hidden away in the depths
of Sierra solitudes, none more surely charm and sur
prise all kinds of travelers than the glacier lakes.
The forests and the glaciers and the snowy foun
tains of the streams advertise their wealth in a more
or less telling manner even in the distance, but
nothing is seen of the lakes until Ave have climbed
above them. All the ux)per branches of the rivers
are fairly laden Avith lakes, like orchard trees with
fruit. They lie embosomed in the deep woods, down
in the grovy bottoms of canons, high on bald table
lands, and around the feet of the icy peaks, mirror
ing ba.(ic their Avild beauty over and "over again.
Some cjonception of their lavish abundance may be
made from the fact that, from one standpoint on
the summit of Red Mountain, a day's journey to the
east of Yosemite Valley, no fewer than forty-two
are displayed within a radius of ten miles. The
Avhole number in the Sierra can hardly be less than
fifteen hundred, not counting the smaller pools and
tarns, which are innumerable. Perhaps two thirds
or more lie on the western flank of the range, and
all are restricted to the alpine aud subalpine
88
TIIE GLACIiai LAKES 99
regions. At the close of the last glacial period, the
middle and foot-hill regions also abounded in lakes,
all of Avhicli have long since A'anished as completely
as the magnificent ancient glaciers that brought
them iuto existence.
Though the eastern flank of the range is exces-
sivciy steci), we find lakes jiretty r(>giila.rly dislrib-
uted throughout even tho most precipitous por
tions. They aro mostly found in the upper branches
of the cauons, and in the glacial amphitheaters
around tho peaks.
Occasionally long, iiarroAV specimens occur upon
the steep sides of dividing ridges, their basins
swung lengthwise like hammocks, and very rarely
one is found lying so exactly on the summit of the
range at the head of some pass that its Avaters are
discharged down both flanks Avlieu the snow is
melting fast. But, hoAvever situated, they soon
cease to form surprises to the studious mountaineer ;
for, likci all the lovo-AVork of Na.tnre, tlic>y are liai'-
moniously rciated to one another, and to all the
other features of tho mountains. It is easy, there
fore, to find the bright lake-eyes in the roughest
and most uugoA^ernable-looking topography of any
landscape countenance. Even in the loAver regions,
Avliere they have been closed for many a century,
their rocky orbits are still discernible, filled iu Avitli
the detritus of flood aud avalanche, A beautiful sys
tem of grouping in correspondence with the glacial
fountains is soon perceived ; also their extension in
the direction of the trends of the ancient glaciers ;
and in general their dependence as to form, size, and
position upon tho character of the rocks in which
100 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
their basbis liaA'O bcicn eroded, and the (]uautity and
direcitiou of application of the glac;ial force ex
pended upon each basin.
In the upper canons Ave usually find them in
pretty regular succession, strung together like
beads on the bright ribbons of their feeding-
streams, which pour, Avliite and gray with foam and
spray, from one to the other, their perfect mirror
stillness making impressive contrasts Avitli the grand
blare and glare of the connecting cataracts. In
Lake Hollow, on the north side of the Hoffman
spur, immediately above the great Tuolumne canon,
there are ten lovely lakelets lying near together in
one general liolloAV, like eggs in a nest. Seen from
above, in a gciiieral view, blathered with Hemlock
Spruce, a.iid fringed with seclge, lliey seem to me
the most singularly beautiful and interestingiy lo
cated lake-cluster I have ever yet discovered.
Lake Tahoe, 22 miles long by about 10 wide, and
from 500 to OA^er 1600 feet in depth, is the largest of
all the Sierra lakes. It lies just beyond the nor
thern limit of the higher portion of the range be
tween the main axis and a s^mr tbat puts out on tlie
east side from near the head of the (Jarson River.
Its forested shores go curving in aud out around
many an emerald bay and piue-croAvned promon
tory, and its waters are cveiyAvhere as keenly pure
as any to be found among the highest mountains,
^ Donner Ija.ke, rendered memorable by tho ter
rible fate of the Donner party, is about three miles
long, and lies about ten miles to the north of Tahoe,
at the head of one of the tributaries of the Truckee,
A few miles farther north lies Lake Independence,
THE (iLACIER LAKES 101
about the same size as Donner, Pmt far the greater
number of the lakes lie much higher aud are quite
sinall, foAv of them exceedbiga mile bi length, most
of them less than half a mile.
Along the loAver edge of the lake-belt, the small
est have disap])eared by the fiUing-in of their basins,
lea.ving (uily thosc^ of considerable size. But all
along tlici upper freshly glaciated nuirgin of the
lake-bearing zone, every hollo av, hoAvever smafl,
lying Avithiu reach of any iiortion of the close net-
Avork of streams, contains a bright, brimming pool;
so that the landscape AicAved from the mountain-
tops scHims b)be sown broadcast with tliein, Ma,ny
of tho larger lakes aro encircled witli smaller ones
like central gems gircll(>cl Avitli sparkling brilliants.
In genera], Iioavca'cm-, there is no marked dividing
lino as to size, Iu order, therefore, to prevent con
fusion, I Avould state here that in giving numbers,
I include none less than 500 yards in circumference.
In tlio basin of tbe JMerced RiA-er, I conntc^d 131,
of which 111 are upon tlic^ tribiitaric\s tlnit fall so
grandlyintoYoscimite Valley, I'oIhjiio Creek, Avhicli
forms the fall of that name, takes its rise in a beau
tiful lake, lying beneath the shadow of a lofty
granite spur that puts out from Buena Vista peak.
This is UOAV the only lake left in the AAiiole Pohoiio
Basin, The Illilouette has sixteen, the NoA^ada no
fcAA'cr than sixty-seven, the Teuaya eight, Iloffniann
Creek five, and Yosemite Creek fourteen. There
are but tAvo other lake-bearing affluents of the
Merced, viz,, the South Fork with fifteen, and Cas
cade Creek Avitli five, both of which unite Avith the
main trunk beloAv Yosemite,
102
THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
The Merced River, as a whole, is remarkiably like
an elm-tree, and it requires but little effort on the
part of the imagination to picture it standing up
right, with all its lakes hanging upon its spreading
branches, the topmost eighty miles in height. Now
add all the other lake-bearing rivers of the Sierra,
each in its place, and you will have a truly glorious
spectacle, — an avenue the length and width of the
LAKE TENAYA, ONE OF THE YOSEMITE FOUNTAINS.
i-ange;
^ . tho long, slender, gra.y sha.fts of the main
trunks, the milky way of arching branches, and the!
silvery lakes, all clearly defined and shining on
the sky. How excitedly such an addition to the
scenery would be gazed at ! Yet these lakef ul riv-
THE GI,ACIER LAKES 103
ers are still more excitingly beautiful and impres
sive in their natural positions to those Avho have
the eyes to see them as they lie imbedded iu their
meadoAvs and forests and glacier-sculptured rocks.
When a mountain lake is born, — Avhen, like a
young eye, it first opens to the light, — it is an
irreguhir, expressionless crescent, inc^losed in banks
of rock and ice, — bare, glaciated rock on the lower
side, the rugged snout of a glacier on the upper.
In this condition it remains for many a year, until
at length, toward the end of some auspicious cluster
of seasons, the glacier recedes beyond the upper
iiHirgiii of the basin, l(!a,viHg it ojiiMi from shore to
shore for the first time, thousands of years after its
conception beneath the glacier that excaA^ated its
basin. The landscape, cold and bare, is reflected in
its pure depths ; the Avinds ruffle its glassy surface,
aud the sun fills it with throbbing spangles, while
its waves begin to lap and murmur around its leaf
less shores, — sun-spangles during the day aud re
flected sta,rs at night its only MoAvcrs, the Aviiids and
the SUOAV its only visitors, MeauAvhile, tho glacier
continues to recede, and numerous rills, still
younger than the lake itself, bring down glacier-
mud, sand-grains, and pebbles, giving riso to margin-
rings and plats of sofl. To these fresh soil-beds
come many a Availing plant. First, a hardy carex
Avitli arching leaves and a spike of brown flowers ;
then, as the sea.sous groAV Avarmor, and the soil-beds
deeper and Avider, other sedges take their appointed
places, and these are joined by blue gentians, daisies,
dodecatheons, violets, honey worts, and many a lowly
moss. Shrubs also hasten in time to the ncAV
104 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
gardens,— kalmia with its glossy leaves and purple
flowers, the arctic willow, making soft Avoven car
pets, together with the heathy bryauthus and cas
siope, the fairest and dearest of them all. Insects
now enrich the air, frogs pipe cheerily in the shal
lows, soon followed by the ouzel, which is the first
bird to Adsit a glacier lake, as the sedge is tho first
of plants.
So the young lake groAvs in beauty, becoming
more and more humanly lovable from century to
century. Groves of aspen spring up, and hardy
pines, and the Hemlock Spruce, until it is richly
overshadoAvod and embowered. But Avhile its shores
are being enriched, the soil-beds creep out witli in
cessant growth, contracting its area, while the
lighter mud-particles deposilod on tin* bottom c-an.se
it to grow constantly shalloAver, until at length
the last remnant of the lake vanishes, — closed for
ever in ripe and natural old age. And uoav its
feeding-stream goes winding on Avithout halting
through the uoav gardens and groves that have
taken its place.
The length of the life of any lake depends ordi
narily upon the capacity of its basin, as compared
with the carrying poAver of the streams that floAV
into it, the character of the rocks over which these
streams flow, and the relative position of the lake
toAvard otlier lakes. In a series Avliose basins lie in
tlie same canon, and aro fcjd by one and the sa.iiio
main stream, the iqipermost Avill, of ccmrsii, va.iiisli
first unless some other lake-filling agent comes in
to modify the result; because at first it receives
nearly all of the sediments that the stream brings
THE GLACIER LAKES 105
down, only the finest of the mud-par deles being
carried through the highest of the series to the
next below. Then the next higher, and the next
would be successively filled, and the lowest would
be the last to vanish. But this simplicity as to
clura.t.iou is liroken iu ujion in various Avays, chiefly
through, the a.ction of side-stn^a.nis tlia.t ()uU\y tlio
lowcii- lakes direct, li'or, notwithstanding many of
these side tributaries are quite short, and, during
lat(,^ summer, fec^ble, thoy all become powerful tor-
rc^nts iu springtime Avhen tho snow is melting, and
carry not ouly sand and pine-needles, but large
trunks and bouldc^rs tons in Aveight, sweejiiug them
cloAvu their steeply inclined channels and into the
lake basins Avith astoundbig energy. Many of these
side affluents also liaA'e the adA'antage of access to
rhe main lateral moraines of the vanished glacier
that occupied the canon, and upon these they draw
for lake-lilliug material, Avliile the main trunk stream
Mows mostly over clean, glacier iiaA'cmonts, Avhere
but litthi mora.iiio nuitter is evc^r left for them to
carry. Thus a small ra,p,id stream with abundance
of loose transportable material Avithin its reach may
fill up au extensive basin in a few centuries, while
a large perennial trunk stream, flowing oA'er clean,
enduring pavements, though ordinarily a hundred
times larger, may not fill a smaller basin in thou
sands of years.
The comparative influence of great and small
streams as lake-fillers is strikingly illustrated in
Yosemite Valley, through Avhich the Merced flows.
The bottom of the valley is uoav composed of level
meadoAV-lands and dry, sloping soil-beds planted
106 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
with oak and pine, but it was once a lake stretch
ing from Avail to wall and nearly from one end of
the vaUey to the other, forming one of tho most
beautiful cliff-bound sheets of water that ever
existed in the Sierra, And though never perhaps
seen by human eye, it Avas but yesterday, geologi-
cafly speaking, since it disappeared, and the traces
of its oxistenco aro still so fresh, it may easdy bo
restored to the eye of imagination and viewed in
all its grandeur, about as truly and vividly as if
actually before us. Now we find that the detritus
which fills this magnificent basin Avas not brought
down from the distant mountains by the main
streams that converge here to form the river, Iioaa''-
ever powerful and available for the pni'poso at first
sight thoy appear; but almost AvlioUy by the small
local tributaries, such as those of Indian Canon,
the Sentinel, aud the Three Brothers, and by a
few small residual glaciers Avliich lingered in the
shadoAvs of the walls long after the main trunk
glacier had receded beyond the head of the valley.
Had the glaciers that once coA^ered the range*
been mellcid at once*, heaving tlics entire siiii'ace
bare from top to bottom simultaneously, then of
course all the lakes Avould have come into existence
at the same time, and the highest, other circum
stances being equal, would, as Ave have seen, bo
the first to vanish. But because they melted gradu
ally from the foot of the range u])Avard, the lower
lakes were the first to see the light and the first
to be obliterated. Therefore, instead of finding the
lakes of the present day at the foot of the range, avo
find them at the top. Most of the lower lakes van-
THE GLACIER LAKES
107
ished thousands of years before those now bright
ening the alpine landscapes were born. And in
general, OAving to the deliberation of the upward
J~
- -^-.-^
THK UKATII (IV A LAKK.
retreat of tho glaciers, the lowest of the existing
lakes are also the oldest, a gradual transition being
ai^parent throughout the entire belt, from the older,
forested, meadow-rimmed and contracted forms aU
108 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
tho way up to those that are new born, lying bare!
aud meadowless among the highest jieaks,
A few small lakes unfortunately situat(3d are ex
tinguished suddenly by a single swoop of an ava
lanche, carrying clown immense numbers of trees,
together with the soil they Avere growing upon.
Others are obliterated by laud-slips, eartlupiake
taluses, etc, but these lake-deaths compared with
those resulting from the deliberate and incessant
deposition of sediments, may bo termed accidental.
Their fate is like that of trees struck by lightning.
The lake-line is of course still rising, its present
elevation being about 8000 feet aboA^e sea-level;
somcAvhat higher than this toward the southern
extremity of the range, lower b)ward the uorthc^rn,
on acuioimt of the diU'eronco in time of the witli-
dniAval of the glaciers, due to diff'orence in climate.
Specimens occur here and there considerably beloAV
this limit, in basins specially protected from in-
washing detritus, or exceptional in size. These,
however, are not sufficiently numerous b) make
any marked irregularity in the line. The highest
I have yet found lies at an elevation of about
12,000 feet, in a glacier Avomb, at the foot of oue
of tho highest of the summit pcuiks, a few niih^s to
the north of Mount Ritter, Tho basins of peiinqis
twenty-five or thirty are still in process of forma
tion beneath the foAV lingeiing glaciers, but by the
timo they are born, an ecpial or greater number will
probably have died, Sinc;e the beginning of the close
of the ice-period the Avliole number in the i-ange has
perhaps never been greater than at present,
A rough approximation to the average duration
THE GLACIER LAKES 109
of these mountain lakes may be made from data
already suggested, but I cannot stop here to present
the subject in detail, I must also forego, in the
mean time, the pleasure of a full discussion of the
interesting question of lake-basin formation, for
Avliich fine, clear, demonstriitive material abounds
ill l.lic\sc! nioiiHtains, liMidditioii to what has becMi
already giAa^,ii on the subject, I Avill only make this
one statement. Every lake in the Sierra is a glacier
lake. Their basins Avere not merely remodeled and
scoured out by this mighty agent, but in the Iirst
Iilace were eroded from the solid,
I must UOAV make haste to give some nearer vioAvs
of representative specimens lying at different eleva
tions on the main lake-belt, confining myself to des
criptions of the features most characteristic of each.
SHADOW LAKE
Tins is a, fine specimen of tho oldcvst and lowest
of the i>xisling hikes. It lies about eight miles above
Yosemite Valley, on the main branch of the Merced,
at an elevation of about 7350 feet above the sea ; and
is overyAvhere so securely cliff-bound that without
artificial trails only Avild animals can get down to
its rocky shores from any direction. Its original
length was about a mile and a half ; now it is only
half a mile iu length by about a fourth of a mile
in width, and over the loAvest portion of the basin
ninety-eight feet deep. Its crystal waters are clasped
around on the north and south by majestic granite
Avails sculptured in true Yosemitic style into domes,
110 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
gables, and battlemented headlands, which on the
south come plunging down sheer into deep Avater,
from a height of from 1 500 to 2000 feet. The South
Lyell glacier eroded this magnificent basin out of
solid porphyritic granite Avliile forcing its Avay Avest-
Avard from the summit fountains toward Yosemite,
and the exposed rocks around the shores, and the
projecting bo.sses of the walls, ground and burnished
beneath the vast ice-tlood, still gloAV with silvcny
radiance, uotAvithstandiiig the innumerable coi-rod-
iiig storms that liaA^e fallen upon them. The gen
eral conformation of the basin, as Avell as the mo
raines laid along the top of the Avails, and the
grooves and scratches on the bottom and sides,
indicate in the most unmistakable manner the di
rection pursued by this mighty ice-river, its great
depth, and the tremendous energy it exerted in
thrusting itself into and out of the basin ; bearing
doAvn with superior pressure upon this jiortion of
its channel, because of the greater declivity, con-
secpieutly eroding it deeper than the other portions
about it, and producing the lake-bowl as the neces
sary result.
With these iiia.gniliccuit ice-ciiara,ctc(rs so vividly
before us it is not easy to realize that the okl glacier
that made them vanished tens of centuries ago ; for,
excepting the vegetation that has sprung up, and
the changes effected by an earthquake that hurled
rock-avalanches from the Aveaker headlands, the
basin as a Avliole presents the same appearance
that it did when first brought to light. The lake
itself, hoAvever, has undergone marked changers;
one sees at a glance that it is groAving old. More
THE GLACIER LAIOES HI
than two thirds of its original area is now dry land,
covered Avith meadoAv-grasses aud groves of pine
and fir, and the level bed of alluvium stretching
across from Avail to wafl at the head is evidently
groAving out all along its lakeward margin, and Aviil
at length close the lake forever.
Every lover of fine wildness would delight to
saunter on a summer day through the flowery
groves UOAV occupying the filled-up portion of the
basin. The curving shore is clearly traced by a
ribbon of white sand upon which the ripples play ;
then comes a belt of broad-leafed sedges, inter-
TU] )tc>d here and there by impenetrable tangles of
willows; beyond this there are groves of trembling
aspen; then a dai'k, shadoAvy belt of Two-leaA-ecl
Pill(^, Avitli here and there a round carex meadow
ensconced nest-like in its midst; aud lastly, a nar-
roAV outer margin of majestic Silver Fir 200 feet
high. The ground beneath the trees is covered
Avitli a luxuriant crop of grasses, chiefly triticum,
broinus, and calamagrostis, Avith purple spikes aucl
panicles arching to one's shoulders; while the open
ineadoAV patches gloAv throughout the summer Avith
shoAvy floAvers, — heleniunis, goldenrods, eiigerons,
lupines, castilleias, and lilies, and form favorite hid
ing- and feeding-grounds for bears and deer.
The rugged south wall is feathered darkly along
the top Avith an imposing arraj^ of spirey Silver Firs,
Avliile the rifted precipices all the Avay doAvn to the
Avater's edge are adorned with picturesque old juni
pers, their cinnamon-colored bark showing finely
ui'.on the neutral gray of the granite. These, with
a few venturesome Dwarf Pines and Spruces, lean
112 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
out over fissured ribs and tablets, or stand erect
back in shadoAvy niches, iu an indescribably wild
and fearless manner. Moreover, the white-flowered
Douglas spiroea and dwarf evergreen oak form grace
ful fringes along the nan'ower seams, A\dierever the
slightest hold can be ett'ected. Rock-ferns, too, are
here, such as allosorus, pellnea, and cheilanthes, mak
ing handsome rosettes on the drier fissures ; and the
delicate maidenhair, cistopiu'is, and Avoodsia hide
back in mossy grottoes, moistoned by some ti'ick-
ling rill ; and then the orange wall-flower holds up
its showy panicles here and there in the sunshine,
and bahia makes bosses of gold. But, notwith
standing all this plant beauty, the general impres
sion in looking across the lake is of storii, unfliuch-
iiig rocdciness; the ferns and floAvers are scarcely
seen, and not one liftieth of the Avliole surface is
screened with plant life.
The sunnier north wall is more varied in sculp
ture, but the general tone is the same, A f cav head
lands, flat-topped and soil-covered, support clumps
of cedar aud pine ; and up-curving tangles of chin
quapin and live-c)a.k, growing on rough earthcpiake
taluses, girdle their ba.ses. Small streams cohk* cas
cading down between them, their foaming margins
brightened with gay primulas, gilias, and miniu-
luses. And close along the shore on this side there
is a strip of rocky meadoAV enameled Avitli butter
cups, daisies, and Avliite violets, and the imrjilo
topped grasses out on its boA^eled border dij) their
leaves into the water.
The lower edge of the basin is a dam-like sweU
of solid granite, heavily abraded by the old glacier,
THE GLACIER LAKES 113
but scarce at all cut into as yet by the outflowing
stream, though it has flowed on unceasingly since
the lake came into existence.
As socni as the stream is fairly over the lake-lip
it breaks into cascades, never for a moment halting,
aud scarce abating one jot of its glad energy, until it
reaches the iic>xt filled-up basin, a mile below. Then
swirling a.ncl curving droAvsily through meadow and
grove, it breaks forth anew into gray rapids and
falls, leaping and gliding in glorious exuberance of
wild bound and dance down into another and yet
another filled-up lake basin. Then, after a long rest
in llici lcn'(^ls of Little YoscMiiitc*, it nuikes its
grandest display iu the famous Nex'ada Fall, Out
of tho clouds of spra,y at tho foot of the fall the bat
tered, roaring liA^er groiies its way, makes auother
mile of cascades and rapids, rests a moment in
Emerald Pool, then plunges over the grand cliff of
the Vernal Fall, a,Hd goes thundering and chafing
doAvn a boulder-choked gorge of tremendous depth
a,iid Avildnc>ss iuto the tranquil reaches of the old
Yosemite lake basin.
The color-beauty about Shadow Lake during
the Indian summer is much richer than one could
hope to find in so young and so glacial a wilderness.
Almost every leaf is tinted then, and the golden
rods are iu bloom ; but most of the color is given
by the I'l^ie grasses, Avillows, aud aspens. At the
foot of the lake you stand iu a trembling aspen
grove, every leaf painted like a butterfly, and away
to right and left round the shores sweeps a curv
ing ribbon of meadow, red and brown dotted with
pale yellow, shading off here and there into hazy
114 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
purple. The wafls, too, are chished with bits of
bright color that gleam out on the neutral granite
gray. But neithor the Avails, nor the margin
meadow, nor yet the gay, fluttering grove in Avhicli
you stand, nor the lake itself, flashing with spangles,
can long hold your attention; for at the head of
the lake there is a gorgeous mass of orange-yelloAV,
belonging to the main aspen belt of the basin, Avhicli
seems the very fountain Avheuce all the color below
it had floAved, and here your eye is filled and fixed.
This glorious mass is about thirty feet high, and ex
tends across the basin nearly from wall to Avail,
Rich bosses of willow flame in front of it, and from
the base of these the broAvnmoadoAV comes forward
b> the waU*i''s oclge, the Avlioh* being rciieved aga,iiist
the unyielding green of the coiiib^rai, while thick
sun-gold is poured over all.
During these blessed color-days no cloud darkens
the sky, the winds are gentle, and the landscape
rests, hushed everywhere, and indescribably impres
sive, A few ducks are usually seen sailing on the
lake, apparently more for pleasure than anything
else, and the ouzels at the head of the rapicls sing
alAvays; Avliile robins, grosbeaks, and the Douglas
scinirrcis are, busy in tiie groves, making dciightful
company, and intensifying the fcciing of gratcl'ul
sequestration Avithout ruffling the deep, hushed
calm and jieace.
This autumnal meUoAvness usually lasts until the
end of November. Then come days c')f cpiilea.iiotlier
kind. The winter clouds groAV, and bloom, anc I shed
their starry crystals on every leaf aucl rock, and all
the colors vanish like a sunset. The deer gather
\ Kl;,\ M, l',\l.l,, N (1M,,\JI'|'|.; \ ,M,|.|,^ ,
THE GLACIER LAKES 115
and hasten doAvn their well-knoAvn trails, fearful of
being snoAv-bouud. Storm succeeds storm, heap
ing snow on the ciiffs and meadoAvs, and bending
thci slcMid(>r piiicis b) tlio ground in wide arc;h(>s, ono
c)\'er the other, clustering and iuteiiacing like lodged
wheat. Avalanches rush and boom from the sheh--
ing heights, jiiling inimenso lieajis upon tbe frozcMi
lake, and all the summer glory is buried and losb
Yet in the midst of this hearty Avinter the sun shines
warm at times, calling the Douglas squirrel to frisk
in the snowy pines and seek out his hidden stores ;
and the Aveather is never so severe as to drive aAvay
tlic^ groii.se and little imldiatches and ciiicicadeos.
Toward May, the lake begins b> open. The hot
sun sends down innumerable streams over the cliffs,
streaking them round and round Avitli foam. The
snow slowly vanishes, and the meadows shoAv tint-
iiigs of green. Then spring comes on apace; flow
ers and tlicis eniieii the air and the sod, and the
elisor come bacic to the upper groves like birds to an
old nest,
I first discoA'ered this charming lake iu the au
tumn of 1872, Avliile on my Avaj^ to the glaciers at
the head of the river. It Avas rejoicing then in its
gayest colors, untrodden, hidden in the glorious
Avildness like numined gold. Year after year I
Avalked its shores Avithout discovering any other
trace of liunianity than tho remains of au Indian
cam])-fire, and the thigh-bones of a deer that had
been broken to get at the marrow. It lies out of the
I'egular Avays of Indians, who love to hunt in more
accessible fields adjacent to trails. Their knoAvledge
of deer-haunts had probably enticed them here some
116 THE IMOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
hunger-time avIioii they Avished to make suro of a
feast; for Ininting in this lakes-hollow is like hunt
ing iu a biiiced park, I had told the beauty of
Shadow Lake only to a f cav friends, fearing it might
come to be trampled and "improA^ed" like Yosem
ite, On my last visit, as I Avas sauntering along
the shore on the strip of sand betAveen the water
and sod, reading the tracks of the Avild animals
that live here, I Avas staiiled by a human track,
which I at once saAV belonged to some shepherd;
for each step was turned out 35° or 40° from the
general course pursued, and Avas also run over in au
uncertain spraAvling fashion at the heel, AvhilearoAV
of round eh)ts on the right iudieuitcHl the staff' that
sliei])lierels carry. None but a shcipherd could make
such a traciv, a,iid after tracing it a, I'ciw minub'S I
began to fear that he might be seeking pasturage ;
for Avliat else could he be seeking 1 Returning from
the glaciers shortly afterAvard, my Avorst fears were
realized, A trail had been made doAvii the moun
tain-side from the ncu-tli, and all the gardens and
meadoAvs Avere destroyed by a horde of hoofed lo
custs, as if sAvept by a fire. The money-changers
were in the temple.
ORANGE LAKE
Besides theses large^r caiion la.ke.s,bvl by tbe main
caiioii streams, there are many smaller ones lying
aloft on the top of rock benches, entirely indepen
dent of the general drainage channels, and of
course drawing their supplies from a very limited
TIIE GLACIER LAKES 117
area. Notwithstanding they are mostly smaU and
shalloAV, owing to their immunity from avalanche
detritus aucl the iiiAvashings of poAverful streams,
they often endure longer than others many times
larger but less favorably situated. When very slial-
loAV they become dry toAvard the end of summer;
bnt because theiir ba.sins are ground outof siviinlc^ss
stone they suiter no h)ss save from eva.pe)ratiou
alone; and the grea.t depth of snow that fafls, lasting
into June, nialces their dry season short in any case.
Orange Lake is a fair illustration of this bench
form. It lies in the middle of a beautiful glacial
pa.vcMtient lle^¦lr tlie lower margin of the lake-line,
about a mile aud a half to the nortliAvest of Shadow
Lake, It is only about 100 yards in circumference.
Next the Avater there is a girdle of carices Avith
Avide OA^erarching leaves, then iu regular order a
shaggy ruff of huckleberry bushes, a zone of AvilloAvs
Avith hero and there a bush of the Mountain Ash,
then a zone of aspens Avitli a foAV pines around the
outside. These zones are of course concientric, aud
together form a Avall beyond Avliich the naked ice-
burnished granite stretches aAvay in every direction,
leaving it conspicuously relieved, like a bunch of
palms in a desert.
In autumn, Avhen the colors are ripe, the whole
circular grove, at a little distance, looks like a big
handful of floAvers set in a cup to be kept fresh —
a tuft of goldenrods. Its feeding-streams are ex
ceedingly beautiful, uotAvithstauding their incon
stancy aud extreme shallowness. They have no
ciiannel Avhatever, a,iid consequently are left free
to sju-ead in thin sheets upon the shining granite
118 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
and Avander at will. In many places the current is
less than a fourth of au inch deep, and flows Avith
so little friction it is scarcely visible, Semietimes
there is not a single foam-bell, or drifting pine-
needle, or irregularity of any sort to manifest its
motion. Yet Avheii observed narrowly it is seen to
form a web of gliding lacoAvork exquisitely Avoven,
giving beautiful reflections from its minute curv
ing ripples and eddies, and differing from the Avater-
laces of large cascades in being everyAvhere trans
parent. In spring, when the snow is melting, the
lake-bowl is brimming full, and sends forth quite a
large stream that slips glassily for 200 yards or so,
until it comes to an almost vertical precipice 800
feet high, down Avhich it plunges in a fine cataract ;
then it gathers its scattered waters and goes
smoothly over folds of gently dipping granite to its
confluence with the main canon stream. During
the greater portion of the year, hoAvever, not a single
A^'¦ater sound will you hoar either at head or foot
of the lake^, not even the Avhisperecl lappings of
ripjilo-Avaves along tlie^ shore; Un- the Aviiids are
b^icod out;. Hut llie deep nioiinlain silencet is
sweetened now and then by birds that slo[) here to
rest and drink on their way across the canon.
LAKE STARR KING
A BEAUTIFUL A'ariety of the bench-top lakes occurs
just where the great lateral moraines of the main
glaciers have been shoved forAvard in outsAvelling
concentric rings by small residual tributary glaciers.
120 THE JIOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
Instead of beiug encompassed by a narroAV ring of
trees like Orange Lake, these lie einbosomeel iu
dense moraine Avoods, so dense that in seeking them
you may pass them by again and again, although
you may know nearly Avhere they lie concealed.
Lake Starr King, lying to the north of the cone
of that name, above the Little Yosemite Valley, is
a fine specimen of this variety. The ouzels pass it
by, and so do the ducks; they could hardly get into
it if they would, without plumping straight down
inside the circling trees.
Yet these isolated gems, lying like fallen fruit
detached from the branches, are not altogether Avith
out inhabitants and joyous, animating visitors. Of
course fishes cannot get into them, aud this is gen
erally true of nearly overy glacier hdce in tlie ranges,
but they are all well stocked with hapxiy frogs.
How diel the frogs get into them in the first placje ?
Perhaps their sticky spaAvii was carried iu on tlicj
feet of ducks or other birds, else their progenitors
must have made some exciting excursions thi'ough
the woods and up the sides of the canons, Doavu in
the still, pure depths of these hidden lakelets you
may also find the larvie of iiinumerable insects and
a great variety of beetles, Avliile the air aboA'^e them
is thick with humming Aviiigs, through the midst of
which fly-catchers are constantly darting. And iu
autumn, when the hucfldebei-ries are ripe, bands of
robins and grosbeaks come to finist, binning alto
gether delightful little bywoiids for the naturalist.
Pushing our way up Avar d toAvard the alxis of the
range, we find lakes in greater and greater abun
dance, and more youthful in aspect. At an eleva-
'rilE CHAClEU LAKES 121
tion of about 9000 feet above sea-level they seem to
luiA-e arrivcMl at midcUe age,— that is, their basins
seem to be about half fflled Avith alluvium. Broad
sheets of meadoAv-land are seen extending iuto them,
imperfec-t and boggy in many places and more
nearly level than those of the older lakes below
t hem, a.ucl the vegetation of their shores is of course
mores alpine. Kalmia, ledum, and cassiope fringe
the mea.ile)w roeics, Avliile the luxuriant, Avaving
groves, so ediaracteristic of the lower lakes, are rep
resented only by clumps of the Dwarf Pine and
Hemlock Spruce, These, however, are oftentimes
A'csry pict.uresc]uciy groiipe'd on rocky headlands
around the outer rim of the meadows, or Avith stfll
more striking effect crown some rocky islet.
Moreover, from causes that Ave cannot stop here
to explain, tho ciiffs about these middle-aged lakes
are scidoni of t,ho massive Yosemite type, but are
more broken, and ks.ss shc>,er, and they usuafly stand
ba,ci<:, leaving the shores coni]ia,ratively free; Avhilo
thes fesw ])rescipib)HS rocks that do come forAva.rd a.nd
plunge directly into decsp water are seldom more
than three or four hundred feet high,
I have never yet met ducks in any of the lakes
of this kind, but the ouzel is never wanting where
the feeding-streams are perennial. Wild sheep and
deer may occasionally be seen on the meadows, and
very rarely a bear. One might cauq? on the rugged
shores of these bright fountains for weeks, without
meeting any animal larger than the marmots that
burroAv beneath glacier boulders along the edges of
the mca.clows.
The highest and yoiingest of all the lakes lie
122 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
nestled in glacier AVombs, At first sight, they seem
pictures of pure bloodless desolation, miniature
arctic sea.s, bound in perpetual ice and snow, and
overshadowed by harsh, gloomy, crumbling preci
pices. Their waters are keen ultramarine blue in
the deepest parts, lively grass-green toward the shore
shaflows and around the edges of the small bergs
usually floating about in them, A foAV hardy
sedges, frost-pinched every night, are occasionaUy
found making soft sods along the sun-touched por
tions of their shores, and when their northern banks
slope openly to the south, and are soil-covered, no
matter how coarsely, they are sure to be brightened
with floAvers, One lake in particular now comes to
mind which illustratess the floA\^eriness of tho'sun-
touched ba,nks of thewe icy gems, (!loso up undesr
the shadow of the Sierra Matterhoru, on tho
eastern slope of the range, lies one of the iciest of
these glacier lakes at an elevation of about 12,000
feet. A short, ragged-edged glacier craAvls into it
from the south, and on the opposite side it is em
banked and dammed by a series of coiu;eiitric ter
minal moraines, made by the glacier AAdieu it en-
tircily filled tho basin. Half a mile below lies a
second lake, at a height of 11,500 feet, about as cold
and as pure as a suoAV-enystal, The Avaters of tho
first come gurgling doAvii into it over and through
the moraine dam, Avhile a second stream pours into
it direct from a glacier that lies to the southeast.
Sheer precipices of crystalline suoav rise out of deep
water on the south, keeping perpetual winter on that
side, but there is a fine summery spot on the other,
notwithstanding the lake is only about 300 yards
THE GLACIER LAKES 123
Avide, Here, on August 25, 1873, 1 found a charming
company of floAvers, not pinched, crouching dwarfs,
scarce able to look up, but warm and juicy, stand
ing erect in rich cheery color and bloom. On a
narrow strip of shingle, close to the Avater's edge,
there Avere a fcAV tufts of carex goue to seed ; and a
little AA-ay back up tho rocity bank at tho foot of a
crumbling Avail so inclined as to absorb and radiate
as Avell as reflect a considerable quantity of suu-heat,
Avas the garden, containing a thrifty thicket of
CoAva.iiia coA^ered Avith large yellow flowers; several
bushes of the alpine ribes with berries nearly ripe
and wildly a.csid; a few Inindsome gra.sses belonging
to two distinct species, and one goldeiirod; a fcAV
Iniiiy lii[)ines aud radiant spragueas, avIioso blue and
rose-colored flowers Avere set off to fmo advantage
amid green carices ; and along a narrow seam in the
very warmest angle of the Avail a perfectly gorgeous
fringe of Epllohium ohcordatum Avitli flowers an inch
Avide, crowdesd together in lavish ])rofusion, and
colored as royal a piir[)les a.s e\ver was worn by any
high-bred plant of the tropics; and best of all, and
greatest of all, a noble thistle in full bloom, stand
ing erect, head and .shoulders above his companions,
ami thrusting out his lances iu sturdy vigor as if
growing on a Scottish brae. All this braA^o Avarm
bloom among the raAV stones, right in the face of
the onlooking glaciers.
As far as I have been able to find out, these upper
lakes are snoAV-buried in Aviuter to a depth of about
thirty-five or forty feet, and those most exposed to
avalanches, to a depth of even a hundred feet or
more. Those last are, of course, nearly lost to the
124 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIPORXIA
landscape. Some remain buried for years, when
the snoAvfall is exceptionally great, aud many open
only on one side la,to in tho s(sa..son, Thes snow of
the closed side is composed of coarse granules com
pacted and frozen into a firm, faintly stratified mass,
like the neve of a glacier. The lapping Avaves of
the open portion gradually undermine aud cause
it to break off in large masses like icebergs, Avhicdi
gives rise to a precipitous front like the discharging
Avail of a glacier entering the sea. The play of the
lights among the crystal angles of these snow-cliffs,
the pearly Avliite of the outsAvelliug bosses, the bergs
drifting in front, aglow in the sun and edged Avitli
green Avater, and the deep blue disk of the lake itself
extending to your feet, — this forms a picture' that
enrieihes all your afteiiifts, and is never forgotten.
But hoAvever perfect tho season and the day, the
cold incompleteness of these young lakes is alAvays
keenly felt. We approach them Avith a kind of
mean caution, and steal unconfidingly around their
crystal shores, dashed and ill at ease, as if expect
ing to hear some forbidding voice. But the love-
songs of the ouzels and the Ioams-IooIcs of the daisies
gradually reassure us, and manifest tlio warm bmii-
tain humanity that pervades the coldest and most
solitary of them all.
CHAPTER VII
THE GLACIER JIEADOWS
AFTER the lakes on the High Sierra come the
-L\- glacier meadows. They are smooth, level,
sflky laAvns, lying embedded in the upper forests, on
thes Moors of llies vallcsys, and along I lies broa.d baei<s
of tbe UKiin dividing ridges, at a height of about
HOOO to 9500 feet above the scsa.
They are nearly as level as the lakes Avliose places
they have taken, and present a dry, even surface
free from rock-heaps, mossy bogginess, and the
frows}'^ roughness e;)f rank, coarse-leaved, weedy,
and sliruliby vegebition. The sod is close and fine,
and so couqilete that you cannot see the ground; and
at the same time so brightly enameled with flowers
and butterflies that it may Avell be called a gardeii-
meadoAV, or meadoAV-ga.rden ; for the plushy sod is
in many places so croAvded with gentians, daisies,
ivesias, and A'^arious species of orthocarpus that the
grass is scarcely noticeable, while in others the
floAvers are only pricked in here aud there singly, or
in small ornamental rosettes.
The most influential of the grasses composing
the sod is a delicate calamagrostis Avitli fine filiform
leaves, aud loose, airy panicles that seem to float
abovcs the fienvery huvn like a purple mist. But,
126 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
write as I may, I cannot give anything like an ad
equate idea of the exquisite beauty of these moun
tain carpests as they lie smoothly outspnsad in the
savage Avilderness, What Avords are fine enough
to picture them 1 to what shall Ave liken them 1 The
floAvery levels of the prauies of the old West, the
luxuriant savannahs of the South, and the finest
of cultivated meadoAvs are coarse in comparison.
One may at first sight compare tliein Avitli the care
fully tended laAvns of pleasure-grounds; for they
are as free from weeds as they, and as smooth, but
here the likeness ends ; for these Avild lawns, with
all their exquisite fineness, liaA'O no trace of that
painful, licked, siii])ped, represse;l aiipearance that
pleasure-ground la.wiis aro aiit to ha.ve evesn wliesn
viewesd at a distance, vViid, uot to mentiem thes
lloAvers Avitli which they are brightened, their grasses
are very much finer both in color and texture, and
instead of lying flat and motionless, matted to
gether like a dead green cloth, they respond to the
touches of every breeze, rejoicing in pure Avildness,
blooming and fruiting in the Adtal light,
Glaciesr mesadows abcmiid throughout all the al
pine and subalpine regions of the Sierra in still
greater numbers than the lakes. Probably from
2500 to 3000 exist between latitude 36° 30' and 39°,
distributed, of course, I'lke the lakes, in concordance
with all the other glacial features of the landscape.
On the head Avaters of the riA'-ers there aro what
are called "Big Meadows," usually about from five
to ten miles long. These occupy the basins of the
ancient ice-seas, where many tributary glaciers came
together to form the grand trunks. Most, however.
TIIE (iLACIER MEADOWS 127
are quite small, averaging perhaps but little more
than three fourths of a mile in length.
One of the very finest of the thousands I have en
joyed lies hidden in an extensive forest of the Tavo-
leaved Pine, on the edge of the basin of the ancient
Tuolumne Mer de Glace, about eight mfles to the
wesst of l\b)unt Dami,
limigims yourself at the Tuolumne Soda Springs
on the bank of the river, a day's journey above
Yosemite Valley. You set off northward through a
forest that stretches away indefinitely before you,
scemingiy unbroken by openings of any kind. As
soon as you are fairly into the Avooels, the gray
mountain-peaks, Avitli their snowy gorges and hol-
loAvs, are lost to vioAV, The ground is littered with
fallen trunks that lie crossed and recrossed like
storm-lodged Avlieat; and besides this close forest
of pines, the rich moraine soil supports a luxuriant
groAvth of ribbon-leaA'ed grasses — bromus, triticum,
calauHigrostis, a.grostis, etc., which rear their hand
some sisikes aucl ])anics]e>s above your waist, Ma,king
your Avay through the fesrtile Avilderness, — liiiding
livesly bits of interest now and then in the squirrels
and Clark crows, and perchance in a deer or bear, —
after the lapse of au hour or tAvo vertical bars of
sunshine are seen ahead betAveen the broAvn shafts
of the pines, showing that you are approaching an
open space, and then you suddenly emerge from
the forest shade avs upon a delightful purple laAvn
lying smooth aud free iu the light like a lake. This
is a glacier meadoAV, It is about a mile and a half
long by a quarter of a mfle wide. The trees come
pressing forAvard all around iu close serried ranks.
128 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
planting their feset exactly on its margin, and hold
ing themselves erect, strie;t aud orderly like soldiers
on parade; llius bounding the nusadow with ex
quisite precision, yet Avitli free curving lines such
as Nature alone can draw. With inexpressible de
light you wade out into the grassy sun-lake, feeling
yourself contained in one of Nature's most sac;red
chambers, withdraAvn from the sterner influences of
the mountains, secure from all intrusion, secure
from yourself, free in the universal beauty. And
notwithstanding the scjone is so impressively
spiritual, and you seem dissolved in it, yet every
thing about you is beating Avith Avarm, terrestrial,
human love and life delightfully substantial and
familiar. The resiiiy iiines ares types of health, and
st,(sa.dfastii(sss; the robins bsesdingon tliosoel beslong
to the same species you have known since child
hood; and surely these daisies, lai-kspurs, and
goldenrods are the very friend-floAvers of the old
home garden. Bees hum as in a harx^est noon, but
terflies waver above the floAvers, and like them you
lave in the vital sunshine, too richly and honio-
geueou.sly joy-filleid to be capable of iiartial thought.
Von are all eye, siflesd through and tlirougli Avitli
light and beauty. Sauntering along thes brook that
moauders silently through thes meadow from the
east, special floAVors call you back to discriminathig
consciousness. The sod conies curving doAvn to the
water's edge, forming bossy outsAvelling banks, and
in some placics overlapping countersunk bonlehsrs
and forming bridges. Here you find mats of the
curious dwarf willoAV scarce an inch high, yet send
ing up a multitude of gray silky catkins, illumined
TIIE GLACIER MEADOAVS 129
here and thei-e with the purple cups and bells of
bryauthus and vaccinium,
_ Go Avhere you may, you everyAvhere find the lawn
divinely beautiful, as if Nature had fingered and
adjusted every plant this very day. The floating
grass ])aiiic!les are scaresely felt iu brushing through
their midst, so lines aro tlicsy, and none of the Mowers
have la.ll or rigid stalks. In the brightest places
you And three species of geutians with different
shacles of blue, daisies pure as the sky, silky leaved
ivesias with warm yellow flowers, several species of
orthocarpus with blunt, bossy spikes, red and purple
and yellow; the alpine goldenrod,pentstemon, and
clover, fragrant and honeyful, with their colors
massed and blended. Parting the grasses and look
ing more closely you may trace the branching of
their shining steins, and note the marvelous beauty
of their mist of floAvers, the glumes aud pales ex
quisitely penciled, the yelloAV dangling stamens,
and fea,tliery iiistils. Beneath the loAVcsst loaves you
discovcM' a fairy resalni of iiiosscss, — hypnuni, elicra-
uuin, polytrichuni, and many others, — their pre
cious spore-cups poised daintily on polished shafts,
curiously hooded, or open, shoAving the richly ornate
peristomas worn like royal crowns. Creeping liver-
Avorts are here also in abundance, and several rare
species of fungi, exceedingly small, and frail, and
delicate, as if made ouly for beauty. Caterpillars,
black beetles, and ants roam the wilds of this lower
world, making their way through miniature groves
and thickets like bears in a thick wood.
And lioAV rich, too, is the life of the sunny air I
Every leaf and floAver seems to have its winged
130 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
representative overhead. Dragon-flies shoot in vig
orous zigzags through the dancing swarms, and a
rich profusion of butterflies — the leguminosae of in
sects — make a fine addition to the general show.
Many of these last are comparatively small at this
elevation, and as yet almost unknown to science ;
but every now aud then a familiar vanessa or papilio
comes sailing past. Humming-birds, too, are (]nito
common here, and the robin is always found along
the margin of the stream, or out in the shallowest
portions of the sod, and sometimes the grouse and
mountain quail, with their broods of precious fluffy
chickens. Swallows skim the grassy lake from end
to end, fly-catchers come and go in fitful flights
from the tops of dead spars, Avliile woodiieckers
swing across from side to side in graceful feistoon
curves, — birds, insects, and flowers all in their own
way telling a deep summer joy.
The influences of pure nature seem to be so little
known as yet, that it is generally supposed that
complete pleasure of this kind, permeating one's very
flesh and bones, unfits the student for scientific
pursuits in whicdi cool judgment and observation
aro rccpiired. But tho effect is just tho opposite.
Instead of producing a dissipated condition, the
mind is fertilized and stimulated and developed like
sun-fed plants. All that we liaA'e seen here enables
us to see with surer vision the fountains among the
summit-peaks to the east whence floAved the ghujiers
that ground soil for the surrounding forest; and
down at the foot of the meadoAV the moraine which
formed the dam Avhich gave rise to the lake that
occupied this basin before the meadow was made;
THE GLACIER MEADOAVS 131
and around the margin the stones that were shoved
back and piled up into a rude wall by the expan
sion of the lake ice during long bygone winters;
and along the sides of the streams the slight hollows
of tho meadoAv Avliich mark those portions of the old
lake that Avere the last to vanish.
I Avould fain ask my readers to linger awliilo in
this fertile wilderness, to trace its history from its
earliest glacial beginnings, and learn what we may.
of its Avild inhabitants and visitors. How happy
the birds are all summer and some of them all
winter; how the pouched marmots drive tunnels
under the suoav, and how fine a.iid brave a life the
slandered esoyote lives here, aud the deer and bears !
But, knoAving Avell the ditforence betAveen reading
aud seeing, I will only ask attention to some brief
sketches of its varying aspects as they are pre
sented throughout the more marked seasons of the
year. The summer life we have been depicting lasts
Avith but little abatement untfl October, Avlien the
night frosts begin to stiiig, bronzing the grasses,
and ripening the leaves of the creeping heathworts
along the banks of the stream to reddish purple and
crimson; while the, flowers disappear, all save the
goldenrods and a few daisies, that continue to bloom
on unscathed untU the beginning of snowy Avinter.
In stifl nights the gra.ss panicles aud every leaf aud
stalk are laden with frost crystals, through which
the morning sunbeams sift iu ravishing sple^neior,
transforming each to a precious diamond radiating
the colors of the rainbow. The brook shaflows are
plaited across aud across with slender lances of ice,
132 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
but both these and the grass crystals are melted be
fore midday, and, notwithstaneiing the great eleva
tion of the meadow, the afternoons are still warm
enough to revive the chilled butterflies and call
them out to enjoy the late-floAveriug goldenrods.
The divine alpengiejAV flushes the surrounding forest
every evening, f olloAved by a crystal night with hosts
of lily stars, Avliose size aud brilliancy cannot be con-
. ceived by those Avho have never risen above the
loAvlands, Thus come aud go the bright sun-days of autumn,
not a cloud in the sky, week after week until near
December, Then comes a sudden change, Clcmds
of a peculiar aspecjt Avitli a slow, crawling gait gather
and grow in the azure, throwing out satiny fringes,
and becoming gra,elua,lly darker until (svesiy lakes-likes
rift and opening is closed and the whole bent fir
mament is obscured in equal structureless gloom.
Then comes the suoav, for the clouds are ripe, the
meadoAvs of the sky are in bloom, and shed their
radiant blossoms like an orchard in the spring.
Lightly, lightly they lodge in the broAvn grasses
and in the tasseled needles of the pines, falling hour
after hour, day after day, silently, lovingly, — all
the winds hushed, — glancing and circiing hither,
thither, glinting against one another, rays interlock
ing iu flakes as large as daisies ; and then the dry
grasses, and the trees, and the stones are all (Mpially
abloom again, Thunder-shoAvers ocemr lusre during
the summer months, and impressive it is b) watch
the coming of the big transparent drops, each a
smafl world in itself, — one unbroken ocean Avithout
islands hurling free through the air like planets
THE GLACIER MEADOWS 133
through space. But stifl more impressive to me is
the coining of the snow-floAA^ers,— falling stars, Avin
ter daisies,— giving bloom to all the ground alike.
Raindrops lilossom brflliantly in the rainbow, and
change to flo Avers in the sod, but snow comes in full
MoAver direct from the dark, frozen sky.
Tlie^ la.tcr snoAv-sb)rms are oftentinuw accom-
paniesd by Aviiids that break up the crysbils, Avhen
the temperature is Ioav, into single petals and irreg
ular dusty fragments ; but there is comparatively
little drifting on the meadow, so securely is it em
bosomed in the Avoods. From December to May,
storm suc^ceeds storm, until the suoav is about fif
teen or tAventy feet deep, but the surface is ahvays
as smooth as the breast of a bird.
Hushed uoav is the life that so late was beating
AVarmly. Most of the birds have gone doAvii below
the snoAV-line, the plants sleep, and all the fly-wings
are folded. Yet the sun beams gloriously many a
(iondless day in midwinter, casting Icnig lance shad
ows athwart the dazzling expa.nse. In Juno small
decks of the dead, decaying sod begin to appear,
gradually Avideiiing and uniting Avitli one another,
covered Avitli creeping rags of water during the day,
and ice by night, looking as hopeless and unvital as
crushed rocks just emerging from the darkness of
the glacial period. Walk the meadow uoav ! Scarce
the memory of a floAver will you find. The ground
seems tAvice dead. Nevertheless, the annual resur
rection is draAving near. The life-giving sun pours
his floods, the last suow-Avreath melts, myriads of
groAving points push eagerly through the steaming
mold, tlie birds come back, new Avings fill the air.
134 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
and fervid summer life comes surging on, seemingly
yet more glorious than before.
This is a poi-fect meadow, and under favorable
circumstances exists Avithout manifesting any
marked changes for centuries. Nevertheless, soon
or late it must ineAdtably grow old and vanish.
During the calm Indian suinmer, scarce a sand-grain
moves around its banks, but in flood-times and
storm-times, soil is Avashed forwarel upon it and laid
in successive sheets around its gently sloping rim,
and is gradually extended to the center, making it
drj'^er. Through a considerable period the meadoAV
vegetation is not greatly affected thereby, for it
gradually rises with the rising ground, keeping on
the surface like Avater-plants rising on the swell of
waves. But at length the eloAuition of the meadoAV-
laiid goes on so far as to produce too dry a soil for
the specific meadow-plants, Avlieu, of course, they
have to give up their places to others fitted for the
new conditions. The most characteristic of the ncAV-
comers at this elevation aliove tho sea are iiriu-
cijially sun-loving gilias, eriogoine, and compositie,
and finally forest-trees, HcuceiforAvard the obsitur-
ing changes aro so manifold that the original lakes-
meadow can be unveiled and seen only by the
geologist. Generally speaking, glacier lakes vanish more
sloAvly than the meadoAvs that succeed them, be
cause, unless ver)^ slialloAV, a greater quantity of ma
terial is required to fifl up their basins and e)bliterate
them than is required to render the surface of the
meadow too high and dry for meadow vegetation.
THE GLACIER MEADOWS 135
Furthermore, OAving to the weathering to which the
adjacent rocks are subjected, material of the finer
sort, susceptible of transportation by rains and or
dinary floods, is more abundant during the meadow
period than during the lake period. Yet doubtless
many a fine meadoAv favorably situated exists in al
most prime beauty for thousands of years, the pro
cess of extinction being exceedingly slow, as we
reckon time. This is especially the case with mea-
doAvs circumstanced like the one we have described
— embosomed in deep woods, with the ground ris
ing gently away from it all around, the network of
trese-roots iu wliieii all the ground is clasped pre
venting a.ny rapid torrential washing. But, in (sx-
ceptioiial cases, beautiful huviis formed Avitli great
deUberation aro overwhelmed and obliterated at
once by the action of land-slips, earthquake ava
lanches, or extraordinary floods, just as lakes are.
In those glacier meadoAvs that take the places of
shallow lakes Avliich have been fed by feeble streams,
glacier mud and fine vegetable humus enter largely
into tho composition of the soil ; and on account of
the shalloAvness of this soil, and the seamless, water
tight, undrained condition of the rock-basiiis, they
are usually Avet, and therefore occupied by tall
grasses and sedges, Avhose coarse appearance offers
a striking contrast to that of the delicate lawn-mak
ing kind described above. These shallow-soiled
meadoAvs are oftentimes still further roughened and
diversified by jiartially buried moraines and swell
ing bosses of the bed-rock, which, with the trees and
shrubs growing upon them, produce a striking effect
130 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
as they stand in relief like islands in the grassy
level, or SAveep across iu rugged curves from one
forest wall to the other.
Throughout the njiper meadoAV region, Avherever
water is sufliciently abundant and low in tempera
ture, in basins secure from flood-Avashing, handsome
bogs are formed Avitli a deep groAvth of broAvn and
yellow sphagnum picturesquely rufflesd Avith patches
of kalmia aud ledum Avliich ripen masses of beau
tiful color in the autumn. Between these cool,
spongy bogs and the dry, flowery meadoAvs there
are many interesting varieties which are graduated
into one another by the varied conditions already
alluded to, forming a series of delightful studies.
HANGING MEADOAVS
Another very Avell-marked and interesting kind
of meadow, diff'ering greatly both in origin and ap
pearance from the lake-meadoAvs, is found lying
aslant upon moraine-covered hillsides trending in
the direction of greatest declivity, waving up and
down OA'cr rock heaps and ledges, like rich green
ribbons brilliantly illumined Avith tall floAvers,
They occur both in the alpine and subalpine re
gions in considerable numbers, and never fail to
make telling features iu the ]andsca.pe, T''h(sy are
often a mile or more in IcMigth, but never very Avide*
— usually from thirty to fifty yards, Wlicsii tins
mountain or canon side on which they lie dips at
the required angle, and other conditions are at the
same time favorable, they extend from above the
'iiiE (HvAcier meadows 137
timber line to t he bottom of a canon or lake basin,
descending in fine, fluent lines like cascades, break
ing here and there into a kind of spray on large
boulders, or dividing and floAVing around on either
side of some projecting islet. Sometimes a noisy
stream goes braAvling doAvn through them, and
again, sca.rcesly a, drop of wa.lcr is in sight. They
owes thesir existesncc, hoAvever, b) streiams, whether
visible or invisible, the Avilelest specimesus being
found Avhere some perennial fountain, as a glacier or
snowbank or moraine spring sends down its Avaters
across a rough sheet of soil iu a dissipated Aveb
of bMsble, oozing rivulets, TIic>se conditions give
rise to a meadowy vegetation, whose extending roots
still more obstruct the free flow of the Avaters, and
tend to dissipate them out over a yet wider area.
Thus the moraine soil and the necessary moisture
requisite for the better class of meadow plants are
at times combined about as perfectly as if smoothly
outsfiread on a level surface. Where the soil hap-
pesiis to bes compo.sed of the finer cpialitios of glaciial
destritus and tho Avater is not iu excess, the nearest
a,pproa.c.li is made by the vegetation to that of tho
lake-meadoAv, But Avhere, as is more commonly the
case, the soil is coarse and bouldery, the vegetation
is correspondingly rank. Tall, wide-leaved grasses
take their phuics along tho sides, aud rushes and
nodding carices in the Avetter portions, mingled
Avitli the most beautiful and imposing flowers, —
orange lilies and larkspurs seven or eight feet high,
lupines, senecios, aliums, painted-cups, many species
of mimulus and pentstemou, tho ample boat-leaved
veratrum alba, aud the magnificent alpine columbine.
138 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
with spurs an incli and a half long. At an eleva
tion of from seven to nine thousand feet showy
flowers frequently form tho bulk of tho vogotation ;
then the hanging meadows become hanging gardens.
In rare instances we find an alpine basin the bot
tom of which is a perfect meadow, and the sides
nearly all the way round, rising in gentle curves, are
covered with moraine soil, which, being saturated
Avitli melting snow from encircling fountains, gives
rise to an almost continuous girdle of down-curving
meadow vegetation that blends gracefully into the
level meadow at the bottom, thus forming a grand,
smooth, soft, meadow-lined mountain nest. It is in
meadows of this sort that the mountain beaver
{TIaplodon) loves to make his home, excavating snug
eshambers benemth the sod, digging csanals, turning
the underground waters from channel to channel to
suit his convenience, and feeding the vegetation.
Another kind of meadow or bog occurs on dense
ly timbered hillsides where small perennial streams
have been dammed at short intervals by fallen trees.
Still another kind is found hanging down smooth,
flat precipices, Avhile corresponeliug leaning mea
dows riso to meet them.
There are also three kinds of small pot-hole mea
dows one of which is found along the banks of the
main streams, another on the summits of rocky
ridges, aud the third on glacier pavements, aU of
them interesting in origin and brimful of plant
beauty.
CHAPTER VIII
THE FORESTS
ri"lHE coniferous forests of the Sierra are the
X grandest and most beautiful in the world, and
grow in a delightful climate on the most interest
ing and accessible of mountain-ranges, yet strange
to say they aro not Avell known. More than sixty
years ago David Douglas, an enthusiastic botanist
and tree lover, wandered alouo through fine sections
of the Sugar Pine and Silver Fir woods wild Avith
delight, A foAV years later, other botanists made
short journeys from the coast into the lower woods.
Then came the Avonderful multitude of miners into
the foot-hill zone, mostly blind Avitli gohl-cbist, soon
folloAved by "sheepmen," avIio, Avith avooI over their
eyes, chased their flocks through all the forest belts
from oue end of the range to the other. Then the
Yosemite Valley was discovered, and thousands of
admiring tourists passed through sections of the
loAver and middle zones on their Avay to that won
derful pa.rk, and gained fine glimpses of the Sugar
Pines and Silver Firs along the edges of dusty trails
and roads. But fcAV indeed, strong and free with
eyes undimmed Avitli care, have gone far enough
and lived long enough Avith the trees to gain any-
tliiiio- like a loving conception of their grandeur and
140 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
significance as manifested iu the harmonies of their
distribution and varying aspects throughout the
seasons, as they stand arrayed iu their wintei' garb
rejoicing in storms, putting forth their fresh leaves
in the spring Avliile steaming Avitli resiiiy fragrance,
receiving the thunder-showers of summer, or repos
ing heavy-laden with ripe cones in the rich siingold
of autumn. For knoAvle^dge of this kind one must
dwell Avith the trees and grow with tlusni, without
any reference to time in the almanac sense.
The distribution of the general forest in belts is
readily perceived. These, as Ave have seen, extend
in regular order from one extremity of the range to
the other ; and hoAvever dense and somber they may
appear iu general views, neither on the rocky
heights nor down in the leafiest hollows wfll you
find anything to remind you of the dank, malarial
selvas of the Anuizon and Orinoco, Avith Uiesir
"boundless contiguity of shade," the monotonous
uniformity of the Deodar forests of the Himalaya,
the Black Forest of Europe, or the dense dark AVoods
of Douglas Spruce Avhere rolls the Oregon, The
giant i)ine\s, and firs, and Sev|uoia.s hold thesir arms
o[»e5n b) this siiiilighl., rising aboves one a.iiotlier on
the mountain benches, marshaled in glorious array,
giving forth the utmost expression of grandeur aud
beauty with inexhaustible varicity and harmony.
The inviting openness of the Sierra Avoods is one
of their most distinguishing charaejtori sties. The
trees of all the species stand more or less apart in
groves, or in small, irregular groups, enabUng one to
find a way nearly everywhere, along sunny colon
nades and through openings that have a smooth,
VIEW IN THE SIERRA FOREST,
142 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
park-like surface, strewn with brown needles and
burs. Now you cross a Avild garden, now a meadow,
now a ferny, willowy stream; ami ever und anon
you emerge from all the groves and flowers upon
some granite pavement or high, bare ridge com
manding superb views above the Avaving ,sea of
evergreens far and near,
Oue would experience but little difficulty in riding
on horseback through the successive belts all the
Avay up to the storm-beaten fringes of the icy peaks.
The deep canons, however, that extend from the
axis of the range, cut the belts more or less com
pletely into sections, and prevent the mounted trav
eler from tracing them lengtliAvise,
This simple arrangement in zones and sections
brings the forest, as a whole, within tho compreslusn-
sion of every observer. The diff'erent species are
ever found occupying the same relatiA'o positions
to one another, as controlled by soil, climate, and
the comparative vigor of each species in taking
and holding the ground; and so appreciable are
these relations, one need never be at a loss in de
termining, within a few hundred feet, the elevation
above sea-level by tho trees alone; for, notwith
standing some of the species range upAvai'd for sev
eral thousand feet, and all pass one another more
or less, yet even those possessing the greatest verti
cal range are available in this conneetion, in as much
as they take on uoav forms corresponding Avitli the
variations in altitude.
Crossing the treeless plains of the Sacramento
and San Joaquin from the west and reaching the
Sierra foot-hills, you enter the lower fringe of the
THE FORESTS
143
forest, composed of small oaks and pines, growing
so far apart that not one twentieth of the surface of
the ground is iu shade at clear noonday. After ad-
A'ancing fifteen or twenty miles, and making an as
cent of from tAvo to three thousand feet, you reach
EDGE OF TIIE TIMBER LINE ON MOUNT SHASTA,
the lower margin of the main pine belt, composed
of the gigantic Sugar Pine, YcUoav Pine, Incense
Cedar, and Sequoia, Next you come to the magnifi
cent Sflver Fir belt, and lastly to the upper pine
belt, which sAveeps up the rocky acclivities of the
summit peaks in a dAvarfed, wavering fringe to a
height of from ten to tAvelve thousand feet.
144 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
This general order of distribution, Avith reference
to climate dependent on elevation, is perceived at
once, but there are other harmonies, as far-reaching
in this connection, that become manifest only after
patient observation and study. Perhaps the most
interesting of these is the arrangement of the forests
in long, curving bands, braided together into lace-
like patterns, aud outspread in charming variety.
The key to this beautiful harmony is the ancient gla
ciers ; where they flowed the trees followed, tracing
their wavering courses along canons, over ridges,
and over high, rolling plateaus. The Cedars of Leb
anon, says Hooker, are growing upon one of the
moraines of an ancient glacier. All the forests of
the Sierra are growing upon moraines. But mo
raines vanish like the glaciers that make them.
Every storm that falls upon them wastes them, cut
ting gaps, disintegrating boulders, and carrying
away their decaying material into new formations,
until at length they are no longer recognizable by
any save students, Avho trace their transitional forms
down from the fresh moraines still in process of for
mation, through those that are more aud more an
cient, and more and more obscuresd by visgtslation
and all kinds of post-glacial Aveathering,
Had the ice-sheet that once covered all the range
been melted simultaneously from the foot-hills to
the summits, the flanks Avould, of course, have been
left almost bare of soil, and these noble forests
would be wanting, IMany groves and thickets woifld
undoubtedly have grown up on lake and avalanche
beds, and many a fair flower and shrub would have
found food and a dAvelling-place in weathered nooks
TIIE FORESTS
145
and crevices, but the Sierra as a whole Avould have
been a bare, rocky desert.
It appears, therefore, that the Sierra forests iu
general indicate the extent and positions of the an
cient moraines as well as they do lines of climate.
For forests, properly speaking, cannot exist without
soil; and, since the\ moraines have beiui desposited
upon the'solid rock, and only upon elected places,
146 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
leaving a considerable portion of the old glacial
surface bare, avo find luxuriant forests of pine and
fir abruptly tesrminated by scored and polished
pavements on Avliich not even a moss is groAving,
though soil alone is required to fit them for the
growth of trees 200 feet in height.
THE NUT PINE
(Pimis Sahiniana)
The NutPine, the first conifer met in ascending the
range from the Avest, grows only on the torrid foot-
hifls, seeming to delight in the most ardent suu-
heat,liko a palm ; springing up hero and there singly,
or iu scattered groups of five or six, among scrubby
White Oaks and thickets of ceanotlius and inaiiza-
nita; its extreme upper limit being about 4000 feet
above the sea, its lower about from 500 to 800 feet.
This tree is remarkable for its airy, widespread,
tropical api^earance, which suggests a region of
palms, rather than cool, resiny pine woods. No one
would take it at first sight to be a conifer of any
kind, it is so loose in habit and so Avidely branched,
and its foliage is so thin aud gray. Full-grown
specimens are from forty to fifty feet in height, and
from two to three feet in diameter. The trunk
usually divides into three or four main branches,
about fifteen and twenty feet from tho ground,
which, after bearing aAvay from one another, shoot
straight up and form separate summits ; while the
crooked subordinate branches aspire, and radiate,
and droop in ornamental sprays. The slender,
'I'ilE FORESTS
14;
grayish-green needles are from eight to twelve
niches long, loosely tasseled, and incluied to droop
in handsome curves, contrasting Avith the stiff', dark-
NUT PINE (I'INUS SAHINIANA).
colored trunk and branches in a very striking
manner. No other tree of my acquaintance, so sub
stantial in body, is in its foliage so thin and so per-
Adous to the light. The sunbeams sift through
148 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
even the leafiest trees Avitli scarcely any interrup
tion, and the Aveary, heated traveler finds but little
protection in their shade.
The generous crop of nutritious nuts which the
Nut Pine yields makes it a favorite Avith Indians,
bears, and squirrels. The cones are most beautiful,
measuring from five to eight inches in length, and
not much less in thickness, rich chocolate-broA\fn iu
color, and protected by strong, down-curving hooks
which terminate the scales. Nevertheless, the lit
tle Douglas squirrel can open them, Indians gath
ering the ripe nuts make a striking picture. The
men climb the trees like bears and beat off the cones
with sticks, or recklessly cut off the more fruitful
branches with hatchets, while the squaAvs gather the
big, generous cones, and roast them until the scales
open sufficiently to allow tho hard-shelled seeds to
be beaten, out. Then, in the cool evesuings, men,
Avomen, and children, with their capacity for dirt
greatly increased by the soft resin with which they
are all bedraggled, form circles around camp-fires,
on the bank of the nearest stream, aud lie in easy
independence ciraeiiing nuts and laughing and ciiat-
tesring, as heedlesss of tins future as the sepiirrisls.
Finns tuherculata
This curious little pine is found at an elevation
of from 1500 to 3000 feet, groAving in close, AvilloAvy
groves. It is exceedingly slender and graceful in
habit, although trees that chance to stand alone out
side the groA'es SAveep forth long, curved branches.
THE FORESTS
149
'IIIE (IliOVK FORM. THE LSOLATHl) FORM (PINlTK TtHlERnilLATA).
producing a striking contrast to the ordinary grove
form. The foliage is of the same peculiar gray-
green color as that of the Nut Pine, and is worn
about as loose^ly, so that the body of the tree is
scarcely obscured by it.
150 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
At the age of seven or eight years it begins to
bear cones, not on branches, but on the main axis,
and, as thoy never fall oft', the trunk is soon pic
turesquely dotted with them. The branches also
become fruitful after they attain sufficient size.
The average size of the older trees is about thirty or
forty feet in height, and twelve to fourteen inches in
diameter. The cones are about four inches long, ex
ceedingly hard, aud covered Avith a sort of silicious
varnish and gum, rendering them impervious to
moisture, evidently with a view to the careful pres
ervation of the seeds.
No other conifer in the range is so closely re
stricted to special localities. It is usually found
apart, standi ngdcMsp in chaparral on sunny hill- and
canon-sides Avliere there is but littlo depth of soil,
and, where found at all, it is quite plentiful ; but
the ordinary traA'cler, following carriage-roads and
trails, may ascend the range many times without
meeting it.
While exploring the lower portion of the Merced
Canon I found a lonely miner seeking his fortune
in a quartz vein on a Avild monntain-side planted
with this singular tree. He told me that he called
it the Hickory Pine, because of the whiteness and
toughness of the Avood, It is so little known, Iioav-
ever, that it can hardly be said to have a common
name. Most mountaineers refer to it as " that ejiieer
little pine-tree cove^red all oA^er Avith burs," In my
studies of this species I found a very interesting and
significant group of facts, whose relations will be
seen almost as soon as stated:
1st, All the trees in the groves I examined, how
ever unequal in size, are of the same age.
THK FORESTS
151
2d, Those groves are all planted on dry hillsides
covered with chaparral, and therefore are liable to
be SAvept by fire,
3d, There are no seedlings or saplings in or about
the living groves, but there is always a fine, hopeful
crop springing up on the ground once occupied by
LOWER MARGIN OP THE MAIN FINE BELT, SHOWING OPEN
CHARACTER OF WOODS.
any grove that has been destroyed by the burning
of the chaparral,
4th, Tho cones never faU off and never discharge
their seeds untfl the tree or branch to which they
belong dies,
A full discussion of the bearing of these facts
upon one another would perhaps be out of place
here, but I may at least call attention to the ad
mirable adaptation of the tree to the fire-swept re-
152 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
gions where alone it is found. After a grove has
been destroyed, the ground is at once sown lavishly
with afl the seeds ripened during its whole life,
which seem to have been carefully held in store with
reference to such a calamity. Then a young grove
immediately springs up, giving beauty for ashes.
SUGAR PINE
(Pinus Laiiihcrtiana)
This is the noblest pine yet discovered, surjiass-
ing all others not merely in size but also in kingly
beauty and majesty.
It towers sublimely from every ridge and canon
of the range, at an elevation of from three to seven
thousand feet above the sea, attaining most perfect
development at a height of about 5000 feet.
Full-grown specimens are commonly about 220
feet high, and from six to eight feet in diameter
near the ground, though some grand old patriarch
is ocicasionally met that has cnjcyed five or six esen-
turies of storms, aud attained a thickness of ten or
oven twelves bset, living on unelescsa.yiscl, swesest and
fresh in every fiber.
In southern Oregon, where it Avas first discovered
by David Douglas, on the head Avaters of the
Umpqua, it attams still grander dimensions, one
specimen having been measured that Avas 245 feet
high, and over eighteen feet in diameter tlirise feet
from the ground. The discoverer was the Douglas
for whom the nolile Douglas Spruce is named, and
many other plants which will keep his memory
the FORESTS 153
sweet and fresh as long as trees and flowers are
loved. His first visit to the Pacific Coast was made
in the year 1825, The Oregon Indians watched him
Avith curiosity as he wandered in the woods collect
ing specimens, and, unlike the fur-gathering stran
gers they had hitherto known, caring nothing about
trade. And when at length they came to know
liiin better, and saw that from year to year the grow
ing things of the woods and prairies were his only
objects of pursuit, they called him " The Man of
Grass," a title of which he was proud. During his
first summer on the waters of the Columbia he
made Feu't Vaiusouver his headquarters, making ex
cursions from this Hudson Bay post in every direc
tion. On one of his long trips he saw in an Indian's
pouch some of the seeds of a new species of pine
Avliich ho learned were obtained from a very large
tree far to the southward of the Columbia, At the
end of the next summer, returning to Fort Vancou-
A-er after the setting in of the winter rains, bearing
in mind the big pine he had heard of, he set out
on an excursion up the Willamette Valley in search
of it; and how he fared, and what dangers and
hardships he endured, are best told in his own
journal, from which I quote as follows:
October 26, 1826. Weather dull. Cold and cloudy.
Wlusn my friends in England ai-e made acquainted with
my travels I foar they will think I have told them nothing
but my miseries. ... I eiuitted my camp early in the
morning to survey the neighboring country, leaving my
guide to take charge of the horses uutil my return in the
evening. About an hour's walk from the camp I met an
Indian, Avho on perceiving me instantly strung his bow,
154 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
placed on his left arm a sleeve of raccoon skin and stood
on the defensive. Being quite sure that conduct Avas
prompted by fear and not by hostile intentions, the poor
f elloAV having probably never seen such a being as myself
before, I laid my gun at my feet on the ground and Avaved
my hand for hiin to come to me, which lie did sloAvly and
with great caution. I then made him place his bow and
quiver of arrows beside my gun, and striking a light gave
him a smoke out of my own jiipo and a present of a few
beads. With my ^iciictil I made a rough .sketcsli of tlic cones
and pine tree whicli I wanted to obtain, and drew his at
tention to it, when he instantly pointed with his hand to
the hills fifteen or twenty miles distant toAvards the south ;
and when I expressed my intention of going thither, cheer
fully set out to accompany me. At midday I reached mj'^
long-Avished-for pines, anel lost no time in exaniining them
and endeavoring to collect spocnueiis and seeds. New and
strange things seldom fail to make strong impressions,
and are therefore frequently over-rated; so that, lest I
should never see my friends in ICngland to infoi-m them
verbally of this most beautiful and immenselj' grand tree,
I shall here state the dimensions of the largest I could
find among several that had been blown doAvn by the Aviiid.
At 3 feet from the ground its circumference is 57 feet i)
inches ; at 134 feet, 17 feet 5 inches ; the extreme length
245 feet, , , , As it Avas impossible either to climb the
tree or hew it down, I endeavored in kiioesk oil' the cones
by firing at them with ball, when the report of my gun
brought eight Indians, all of them painted Avith red earth,
armed Avith boAvs, arroAvs, bone-tipped spears, and flint-
knives. They appeared anything but friendly, I (explained
to them Avhat I wanted, and they seemed satisfied and sat
down to smoke; but presently I saw ones of them string
his bow, and anotlier sharpen his flint knife Avith a pair of
wooden pincers and suspend it on the wrist of his right
hand. Further testimony of their intentions was mine-
THE FORESTS 155
cessary. To save myself by flight Avas impossible, so Avith
out hc^sitation I stepped back about five paces, cocked my
gun, drew one of the pistols out of my belt, and holding
it in my left hand and the gun iumy right, showed myself
deteriiiiiied to fight for my life. As much as possiljle I
endeavored to preserve my coolness, and thus wo stood
looking at ono another Avithcmt makbig any movement or
iilb'iiiig a. word Cor pesrhaps bsii miniib's, Avlien one at last,
who sec'iiic'd to be the len.eler, gave a sign that they Avishecl
b)r some-, tc)l)a.csco; this I signified that they should have
if tlicsy f etched a eiuantity of eoncs. They went off im-
mediatelj^ in search of them, and no sooner were they all
out of sight than I picked up my three cones and some
twigs ol' tlics trees niid iiiades llici e|iiie'.ke'st iiossiblo restresat,
tiiirryiiig hack to the csaiiip, Avliich J reaelicd bcsl'ore dusk.
, , , I wnv Avrite lying on the grass Avith my gun cocked
beside inc, and penning these lines by the light of my
Cobiiubian candle, namely, an ignited piece of rosin-wood.
This grand jiiiie discovered under such exciting
(ircumstances Douglas named iu honor of his friend
Dr, Lamliert of London,
The trunk is a smooth, round, delicately tapered
shaft, mostly without limbs, and colored rich pur-
jflish-broAvn, usually enliA'cned Avitli tufts of yelloAv
lichen. At the top of this magnificent bole, long,
curAdug branches sweep gracefully outward and
doAVHAvard, sometimes forming a palm-like crown,
but fa,r more nobly impre.ssive than any palm crown
I ever beheld, Tho needles are about throe inches
long, finely tempered and arranged in rather close
tassels at the ends of slender branchlets that clothe
the long, outsweeping limbs, Hoav well they sing
iu the Aviiul, and how strikingly harmonious an effect
156 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
is made by the immense cylindrical cones that de
pend loosely from tho ends of the main branches!
No one knows Avhat Nature can do in the Avay of
pine-burs until he has seen those of the Sugar
Pine, They are commonly from fifteen to eighteen
inches long, and three in diameter; green, shaded
Avitli dark purple on their sunward sides. They are
ripe in September and October, Then the Ihit
scales open ami the seeds take wing, but the empty
cones become still more beautiful and effective, for
their diameter is nearly doubled by the spreading
of the scales, and their color changes to a Avarm
yellowish-brown; Avhile they remain swinging on
the tree all the folloAving winter and suinmer, and
continue effectively beautiful even on the ground
many yeai's aftesr thoy fall, Thes avoocI is eleslic:iou.sly
fragrant, and fine in grain and texture ; it is of a rich
cream-yelloAV, as if formed of condensed sunbeams.
Retinospora ohtusa, Siehokl, the glory of Eastern
forests, is called " Fu-si-no-ki " (tree of the sun) by
the Japanese ; the Sugar Pine is the sun-tree of the
Sierra, Unfortunately it is greatly prized by the
lumbermen, aud in accessible places is always
the first tree in the woods to feel their steisl. But tlic
regular lumbermen, Avitli their saw-mills, have been
less generally destructiA'e thus far than the shingle-
makers. The Avood splits freelj^, and there is a con
stant demand for the shingles. And because an ax,
and saw, and frow are all the capital required for
the business, many of that drifting, unsteady class
of men so large in California engage iu it for a foAV
months in the year. When prospectors, hunters,
ranch hands, etc, touch their " bottom dollar " ami
THE FORESTS
157
find themselves out of
employment, they say,
"Well, I can at least
go to the Sugar Pines
aud make shingles,"
A foAv posts are set in
the grouuel, and a
single length cut from
the first tree felled pro
duces boards enough
for the walls and roof
of a cabin ; all the rest
the* lumbc>.rman makes
is for sale, and he is
speedily independent.
No gardener or hay
maker is more sweetly
perfumed than these
rough mountaineers
Avhile engaged iu this
busiuess,buttlieliavocthey make is most de
plorable. The sugar, from
whicdi the common
name is derived, is to
my taste the best of
SAveets — better than
maple sugar. It ex
udes from the lieart-
Avood, Avliere Avounds
liaA^ebeen made, either
by feu-ost fires, or the
SUGAR PINE ON P.XPOSED RIDGE.
158 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
ax, in the shape of irregular, crisp, candy-like lior-
nels, which aro croAvded together in masses of con-
sidesrablo size, like clnstesrs of ressin-boads, Wliisn
fresh, it is perfectly white and delicious, but, be
cause most of the wounds on which it is found have
been made by fire, the exuding sap is stained on
the charred surface, and the hardened sugar bes-
conies broAvn, India.ns aro femd of it, but on accemnt
of its laxative properliess only small cpiantitiess may
be eaten. Bears, so fond of SAveet things in gen
eral, seem never to taste it ; at least I have failed to
find any trace of their teeth in this connection.
No lover of trees Avill ever forget his first meeting
Avitli the Sugar Pine, nor Avill he afterAvard need a
poet to call him to " listen Avliat the pine-tree saith,"
In most pine-trees there is a sameness of expression,
which, to most people, is apt to become monotonous ;
for the typical spiry form, however beautiful, affords
but little scope for appreciable individual character.
The Sugar Pine is as free from eonventionalities
of form and motion as a.ny oak. No two ares alike,
OA'Cu to the most inattentive observesr; anel, notwith-
stauding tliesy are ever tossing euit thesir imniesiise
a.rms ill what might seem inost oxtravaga,nt gcssturess,
there is a majesty and repose about them that pre
cludes all possibility of the grotesque, or ca'cii pic
turesque, in their general expression, Tliej'- are the
priests of pines, and seem ever to be addressing the
surrounding forest. The YcUoav Pine is found
growing with them on Avarm hillsides, aucl the
White Silver Fir on cool northern slopes ; but, noble
as these are, the Sugar Pine is easily king, aud
spreads his arms above them in blesshig Avhile they
'ITIE FORESTS 159
roeic and Avave in sign of recognition. The mahi
branches are sometimes found to be forty feet in
length, yet persistently simple, seldom dividing at
all, excepting near the end ; but anything like a bare
cable appearance is prevented by the small, tasseled
branchlets that extend all around them; and w-heii
these superb limbs SAveep out symmetrically on all
sides, a crown sixty or seventy feet wide is formed,
Avhicli, gracefully poised on the summit of the noble
shaft, and filled Avitli sunshine, is one of the most
glorious forest objects conceivable. Commonly,
hoAvcA'cr, there is a great preponderance of limbs
toward llie e\a.st, awa.y from tbe direction of the
prevailing Aviiids,
No other pine seems to me so unfamihar and self-
contained. In approaching it, Ave feel as if in the
presence of a superior being, and begin to Avalk with
a light step, holding our breath. Then, perchance,
Avliile Ave gaze awe-stricken, along comes a merry
squirrel, chattering aud laughing, to break the spell,
runuing up the trunk with no ceremony, and gnaAV-
ing off the cones as if they were macle only for
him; AAdiile the carpenter- woodpecker hammers
aAvay at the bark, drilling holes in which to store
his Avinter supply of acorns.
Although so wild and unconventional when full-
groAvn, the Sugar Pine is a remarkably proper tree
in youth. The old is the most original and inde-
])endeiit in appearance of all the Sierra evergreens;
the young is the most regular, — a strict f oflower of
coniferous fashions,— slim, erect, with leafy, supple
branches kept exactly in place, each tapering in out-
line and terminating in a spiry point. The succes-
160
THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
sive transitional forms presented between the cau
tious neatness of youth and bold freedom of ma
turity oft'er a doliglitful study. At the age of fifty
or sixty years, the shy, fashionable form begins to
TOUNQ SUGAR PINE BEGINNING TO BEAR CONES.
be broken up. Specialized branches push out in
the most unthought-of places, and bend with the
great cones, at once marking individual character,
and this being constantly augmented from year to
year by the varying action of the sunlight, winds.
THE FORESTS
161
snoAv-storms, etc., the individuality of the tree is
never again lost in the general forest.
The most constant companion of this species is
tho Yellow Pine, and a worthy companion it is.
The Douglas Spruce, Libocedrus, Sequoia, and the
White Silver Fir are also more or less associated
with it; but on many deep-soiled mountain-sides,
162 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
at an elevation of about 5000 feet above the sea, it
forms the bulk of the forest, filling every swell
and holloAV a.ud doAvn-plunging ravine. The ma
jestic crowns, approaching each other in bold
curves, make a glorious canopy through which the
tempered sunbeams pour, silvering the needles, and
gilding the massive boles, and floAveiy, park-like
ground, into a scene of enchantment.
On the most sunny slopes the white-floAvered fra
grant chamoebatia is spread like a carpet, bright
ened during early summer with the crimson Sar-
codes, the wild rose, aud innumerable violets and
gilias. Not even in the shadiest nooks Avill you
find any rank, untidy Aveeds or uuAvholesome dark
ness. On the north sides of ridges the belles are
more slender, and the ground is mostly ocscupiesd
by an underbrush of hazel, ceanotlius, anel llowesr-
iiig dogwood, but never so densely as to prevent
the traveler from sauntering Avhere he will ; Avliile
the crowning branches are never impenetrable
to the rays of the sun, and never so interblended as
to lose their individuality.
View the forest from beneath or from some com
manding ridge-top; eacdi tree presents a study in
itself, and proclaims the surpassing grandeur of the
species. YELLOAV, OR SILVER PINE
(Pimis ponderosa)
The Silver, or Yellow, Pine, as it is commonly
called, ranks second among the pines of the Sierra
as a lumber tree, aud almost rivals the Sugar Pine
in stature and nobleness of j)ort. Because of its
the FORESTS 163
superior powers of enduring variations of climate
and soil, it has a more extensive range than any
other conifer groAving on the Sierra, On the Avest
ern slope it is first met at an elevation of about
2000 feet, and extends nearly to the upper limit
of the tinilier line. Thence, crossing the range by
the lowe>st ]iasses, it descends b) the esastern ba.se>,
and pushes out for a considerable distance into the
hot volcanic plains, growing braA^ely upon Avell-
Avatered moraines, gravelly lake basins, arctic
ridg(\s, and birrid lava-beds; planting itself upon
the lips of craters, flourishing vigorously even tliere,
and b)ssiug ripe cones among the ashes and cinders
of Nature's hearths.
The average size of full-grown trees on the Avest
ern slope, Avhere it is associated with the Sugar
Pine, is a little less than 200 feet in height aud
from five to six feet in diameter, though specimens
may easily be found that are considerably larger,
I measured one, groAving at an eleA'ation of 4000
I'ecst in the valley of tliesMercesel, that isa bnv inesluss
over eight feet iu diameter, and 220 feet high.
Where there is plenty of free sunshine and other
conditions are favorable, it presents a striking con
trast in form to the Sugar Pine, being a symmetrical
spire, formed of a straight round trunk, clad Avith
innumerable branches that are divided over and
over again. About one half of the trunk is com
monly branchless, but where it groAvs at all close,
three fourths or more become naked ; the tree pre
senting then a more slender and elegant shaft than
any other tree in the woods. The bark is mostly ar
ranged in massive plates, some of them measuring
164
the mountains OP CALIFORNIA
PINUS PONDEROSA.
four or five feet in length by eighteen inches in
width, with a thickness of three or four inches.
the forests 165
feirming a quite marked and distinguishing feature.
The needles are of a fine, Avarm, yeflow-green color,
six to eight niches long, firm and elastic, and
croAvded in handsome, radiant tassels on the upturn
ing cuds of the branches. The cones are about three
or fcnir iuciies long, and two and a half wide, groAv-
ing in close, sessile clusters among the leaves.
The species attains its noblest form in filled-up
lake basins, especiafly in those of the older yosem-
ites, and so prominent a part does it form of their
groves that it may well be cafled the Yosemite
Puie, Ripe specimens favorably situated are almost
alvva.ys 200 feset or more in height, and the brauclie>s
cJotho tho trunk nearly to the ground, as seen iu
the illustration.
The Jeffrey variety attains its finest development
in the northern portion of tho range, in the wide
basins of the McCloud and Pitt rivers, Avliere it
forms magnificent forests scarcely iuA^aded by any
other tree. It differs from the ordinary form in
size, being only abcmt half as tall, and in its redder
and more closely furroAved bark, grayish-green fo
liage, less divided branches, and larger cones ; but
intermediate forms come iuAvhich make a clear sepa
ration impossible, although some botanists regai'd it
as a distinct species. It is this variety that climbs
storm-SAveiit ridges, and Avanders out among the a"oI-
caiioes of the Great Basin, Whether exposed to
extrenuss of heat or cold, it is dwarfed like every
other ti'ce, and becomes all knots and angles, wholly
unlike the majestic forms avo have been sketching.
Old specimens, bearing cones about as big as pine
apples, may sometimes be found clinging to rifted
166
THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
SILVER PINE 210 FEET HIGH.
(THE rORM GROWING IN
YOSEMITE VALLEY.)
rocks at an elevation of
seven or eight thousand
feet, whoso highest bran
ches scarce reach above
one's shoulders.
I have oftentimes
feasted on the beauty of
these noble trees when
they were toAveriug in
all their winter grandeur,
laden Avith snow — one
mass' of bloom; in sum
mer, too, when thebroAvn,
staminate clusters hang
thick among the shim
mering ne"sedles, and the
big purple burs are ripen
ing in the mellow light ;
but it is during cloudless
wind-storms that these
colossal pines are most
impressively beautiful.
Then they boAV like Avil
lows, their leaves stream
ing forAvard all in one
direction, and, Avlien the
sun shines upon them at
the required angle, entire
groves glow as if every
leaf wereburnishedsil ver.
The fall of tropic light on
the royal croAA'^n of a palm
is a truly glorious spec
tacle, the fervid sun-flood
THE FORESTS 167
breaking upon the glossy leaves in long lance-rays,
like mountain Avater among boulders. But to me
there is something more impressive in the fall of
light upon these Silver Pines, It seems beaten to
the finest dust, and is shed off in myriads of minute
sparkles that seem to come from the very heart of
the trees, as if, like rain faUing upon fertile soil, it
had been absorbed, to reappear in flowers of light.
This species also gives forth the finest music to
the wind. After listening to it in all kinds of winds,
night and day, season after season, I think I could
approximate to my position on the mountains by
this pine-music alone. If you Avemld catch tho
tones of separate needles, climb a tree. They aro
Avell tempered, and give forth no uncertain sound,
each standing out, Avitli no interference excepting
during lieaAy gales; then you may detect the click
of one needle upon another, readily distinguishable
from their free, wing-like hum. Some idea of their
tcMiqier may bo dra.wii from the fa-ct that, iiotAvith-
stancliiig thej''are so long, the vibrations that givoriso
to the peculiar shimmering of the light are made at
the rate of about tAvo hundred and fifty per minute,
"^Ylien a Sugar Pine and one of this species equal
in size are observed together, the latter is seen to
be far more simple iu inanuers, more litliely grace
ful, and its beauty is of a kind more easily appre
ciated; but theu, it is, on the other hand, much less
dignified and original in demeanor. The Silver
Pine seems eager to shoot aloft. Even while it is
drowsing in autumn sun-gold, you may still detect
a skyward aspiration. But the Sugar Pine seems
too unconsciously noble, aud too complete in every
Ava.y, b) leave room bir oven a heavenward care.
168 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
DOUGLAS SPRUCE
{Pseudotsiiga Douglasii)
This tree is the king of the spruces, as the Sugar
Pine is king of pines. It is by far the most majestic
spruce I ever beheld in any forest, and one of the
largest anel longest lived of the giants that flourish
throughout tins main pine beilt, often attaining a
height of msarly 200 feet, and a (lia.iiieter of six
or seven. AVlicre the groAvth is not too close, the
strong, spreading branches come more than halfway
clown the trunk, and these are hung with innumer
able slender, swaying sprays, that are handsomely
feathered Avith the short leaves which radiate at
right angles all around them. This vigorous spruce
is ever beautiful, Avelcoming the mountain winds and
the SUOAV as well as the mellow summer light, and
maintaining its youthful freshness lundimiuished
from century to century through a thousand storms.
It makes its finest appearance in the months of
June and July, The ricii broAVii buds Avitli Avhich its
sprays are tipped swell and break about this tinus,
revealing this young leaves, which at first aro bright
yellow, making the tree appear as if covered Avith gay
blossoms ; Avhile the penclulous bracted cones with
their shell-like scales are a constant adornment.
The young trees are mostly gathered into beauti
ful family groups, each sapling exquisitely sym
metrical. The primary branches aro Avhorled regu
larly around the axis, generally in fives, Avliile each
is draped with long, featheiy sprays, that descend
in curves as free and as finely drawn as those of
falling water.
THE FORESTS 169
In Oregon and Washington it grows in dense
forests, growing tall and mast-like to a height of 300
feet, and is greatly prized as a lumber tree. But iu
the Sierra it is scattered among other trees, or
forms small groves, seldom ascending higher than
5500 feet, and never making AAdiat Avould be called a
b)re>st. It is not partiesuhir in its ciioice of soil —
west or dry, smooth or rocky, it makes out to lives
Avell on them all. Two of the largest specimens I
have measured are in Yosemite Valley, one of which
is more than eight feet in diameter, and is growing
upon tho terminal moraine of the residual glacier
that occupied tlie South Fork Canon; the other is
nearly as large, groAving upon angular blocks of
granite that have been shaken from the precipitous
front of the Liberty Cap near the Nevada Fall, No
other tree seems so capable of adapting itself to
earthquake taluses, and many of these rough boul
der-slopes are occupied by it almost exclusively, es-
liecially in yosemite gorges moistened by the spray
of waterfalls, INCENSE CEDAR
(Lihocedrws decurrens)
The Incense Cedar is another of the giants quite
generally distributed throughout this portion of the
forest, Avithout exclusively occupying any consider
able area, or even making extensive groves. It as
cends to about 5000 feet on the Avarmer hillsides, and
reaches the climate most congenial to it at about
freun 3000 to 4000 feet, growing vigorously at this ele
vation on all kinds of soil, aud in particular it is cap-
170 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
able of enduring more moisture about its roots than
any of its companions, excepting only the Sequoia,
The largest specimens are about 150 feet high,
and seven feet in diameter. The bark is broAVii, of
a singularly rich tone very attractive to artists, and
the foliage is tinted Avith a Avarme^r yellow than that
of any other e\'ergreen in tho AVOods, (lasting your
eye over the general forest from soni(3 ridgc-toj),
the color alone of ils spiry summits is sufficient to
identify it in any company.
In youth, say up, to the age of seventy or eighty
years, no other tree forms so strictly tapered a cone
from top to bottom. The branches SAVoop outward
and doAvnward in bold curves, excepting the younger
ones near the top, Avhicli aspire, Avhile the loAvest
droop to the ground, and all spread enit iu fiat,
ferny plumes, beautifully froiided, and imbricatecl
upon oue another. As it becomes older, it groAvs
strikingly irregular and picturesque. Large special
branches put out at right angles from the trunk, form
big, stubborn elboAvs, and then shoot up })arallel
with the axis. Very old trees are u.sually dead at
the top, the main axis ]irotruding abo\'o ample
masses of green plumes, gray and lichen-covered,
and diilled full of acorn holes by the Avoodpeckers,
The plumes are oxceedingiy beautiful; no Avaving
fern-frond in shady dell is more unreservedly beau
tiful in form and texture, or half so inspiring in
color and spicy fragrance. In its prime, tbe Avliole
tree is thatched with them, so that they shed olf
rain and suoav like a roof, making fine mansions for
storm-bound birds anel mountaineers. But if you
would see the Libocedrus in all its glory, you must
INCENSE CEDAR IN ITS PRIME.
172
THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
go to the woods in winter. Then it is laden with
myriads of four-sided staminate cones about the
size of wheat grains, — Avinter wheat, — producing
a golden tinge, and forming a noble illustration of
Nature's immortal vigor and virility. The fertile
cones are about three fourths of an inch long, borne
on the outside of the plumy branchlets, where they
serve to enrich still more the surpassing beauty of
this grand Avinter-blooming goldonrod.
AVHITE SILVER FIR
(Abies concolor)
We come now to the most regularly planted of
all tho main forisst
belts,composed almost
exclusively of tAA'^o
noble firs — A. concolor
and A.magnijica. It ex
tends with no marked
interruption for 450
miles, at an elevation
of from 5000 to nearly
9000 feet aboA'O the sea.
Iu its youth A. con
color is a charmingly
symmetrical ti'oe with
bra,nclievs ivgulaiiy
whorleMl ill lesvesl col
lars around its Avhit-
ish-gray axis, which
terminates in a strong,
1
m
1
w^
.¦?
a^ %. 'i
V
'^^. -.
1
'IHmIm
r~"^^.
vAV?
FOREST OP GRAND SILVER FIRS.
TWO SEQUOIAS IN THE FOREGROUND
ON THE LEFT.
THE FORESTS 173
hopeful shoot. The leaves are in two horizontal
roAvs, along branchlets that commonly are less than
eight years old, forming handsome plumes, pin
nated like the fronds of ferns. The cones are gray
ish-green Avlien ripe, cylindrical, about from three
to four inches long by one and a half to two inches
Avide, a.ud sta.iid upright on \hvi ujiper l)ra,uches,
J^'ull-growii trees, l'avora.bly situated as to soil
aud e^xpe)sure>, aro about 200 feet high, aud five or
six feet in diameter near the ground, though larger
specimens are by no means rare.
As old age creeps on, the bark becomes rougher
aud grayer, the branches lose their exact regularity,
many are snoAv-bent or broken off, and the main
axis often becomes double or otherwise irregular
from accidents to the terminal bud or shoot; but
throughout all the vicissitudes of its life on the
mountains, come what may, the noble grandeur of
the species is patent to every eye.
MAGNIFICENT SILVER FIR, OR RED FIR
(Abies magnifwa)
This is the most charmingly symmetrical of all
the giants of the Sierra woods, far surpassing its
companion species in this respect, aud easily dis
tinguished from it by the purplish-red bark, Avliich
is also more closely f urroAved than that of the Avhite,
and by its larger cones, more regularly whoiied and
fronded branches, and by its leaves, which are
shorter, and groAV all around the branchlets and
point upward.
174 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
In size, these tAVO Sflver Firs are about equal,
the mar/nifica perhaps a little the taller. Specimens
from 200 b) 250 feset high a,re not rare on well-
ground moraine soil, at an elevation of from 7500
to 8500 feet above sea-level. The largest that I
measured stands back three miles from the brink of
the north wall of Yosemite Valley, Fifteen years
ago it was 240 feet high, AAdth a diameter of a little
more than five feet,
Happy the man Avith the freedom and the love to
climb one of these superb trees in full flower and
fruit. How admirable the foi'cst-work of Nature is
then seen to be, as one makes his way up through
the midst of the broad, fronded branches, all ar
ranged in exquisite order around the trunk, like
the Avhoiied leaves of lilies, and each branch anel
branchlet about as strictly pinnate as the most sym
metrical fern-frond. The staminate cones are seen
growing straight downward from the under side of
the young branches in lavish profusion, making fine
purple clusters amid the grayish-green foliage. On
the topmost braneiies the fertile cones are set iirnilj^
on enil like small casks. They are about six inches
long, three Avide, coviM-ed Avith a fine gray doAvn,
and streaked Avitli crystal balsam that seems to have
been poured upon each cone from above.
Both the Silver Firs liA-e 250 years or more Avlien
the conditions about them are at all favorable.
Some venerable patriarch may often be seen, heavily
storm-marked, toAvering in scA'cre majesty aboA'^e
the rising generation, with a protecting grove of
saplings pressing close around his feet, each dressed
with such loving care that not a leaf seems want-
176 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
ing. Other companies are made up of trees near
the prime of life, exquisitely harmonized to one
another in form and gesture, as if Nature had culled
them one by one with nice discrimination from all
the rest of the woods.
It is from this tree, called Eed Fir by the lumber
man, that mountaineers always cut boughs to sleep
on when they are so fortunate as to be within its
limits. Two rows of the plushy branches overlap
ping along the middle, and a crescent of smaller
Xilumes mixed with ferns anel flowers for a pillow,
form the very best bed imaginable. The essences
of the pressed leaves seem to fill every pore of one's
body, the sounds of falling Avater make a soothing
hush, wlulo tho spaces between the grand spiriss
afford noble openings through which to gaze
dreamily into the starry sky. Even in the matter
of sensuous ease, any combination of cloth, steel
springs, and feathers seems vulgar in comparison.
The fir woods are delightful sauntering-grounds
at any time of year, but most so in autumn. Then
the noble trees are hushed in the hazy light, and
drip with balsam; the cones are ripe, and the seeds,
with their ample purple Avings, mottle the air like
flocks of butterflies; while deer feeding in the
flowery openings between the groves, and birds aud
squirrels in the branches, make a pleasant stir Avliich
enriches the deep, brooding calm of the Avilderness,
anel gives a peculiar iuqiressiveness to ove^ry trees.
No wonder the enthusiastic Douglas went Avild with
joy when he first discovered this species, Ea^cu in
the Sierra, where so many noble evergreens chal
lenge admiration, we linger among these colossal firs
r —
^:SSl2ia&lb._^
SILVER-FIR FOREST GROWING ON MORAINES OF THE HOFFMAN AND TENAYA GLAc/eRS.
178 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
with fresh love, and extol their beauty again and
again, as if no other in the Avorld could henceforth
claim our regard.
It is in these Avoods the great granite domes rise
that are so striking and characteristic a feature of
the Sierra, And here too we find the best of the
garden meadows. They lio level on tho tops of the
dividing ridges, or sloiiing on tins sidess of them, esm-
bedded in the magnificent forest. Some of tliesis
meadows are in great part occupied by Veratrum
alba, which here grows rank and tall, with boat-
shaped leaves thirteen inches long and twelve inches
wide, ribbed like those of cypripedium. Columbine
grows on the drier margins with tall larkspurs and
lupines waist-deep in grasses and sedges; several
species of castilleia also make a bright show in beds
of blue and white violets and daisies. But the glory
of these forest meadows is a lily — L. purvuiu.
The flowers are orange-colored aud quite small, the
smallest I ever saw of the true lilies ; but it is shoAvy
nevertheless, for it is seven to eight feet high and
waves magnificent racsemes of, ten to twenty fioAvesrs
or more over one's head, while it stands out in tho
open ground with just enough of gi'ass and other
plants about it to make a fringe for its feet and
show it off to best advantage,
A dry spot a little way back from the margin
of a Silver Fir lily garden makes a glorious camp
ground, especially Avliere the slope is toAvard the east
anel opens a view of the distant jieaks along the
summit of the range. The tall lilies are brought
forward in all their glory by the light of your blaz
ing camp-fire, relieved against the outer darkness.
THE FORESTS 179
and the nearest of the trees Avitli their Avhoiied
branches toAver above you like larger lilies, and the
sky seen through the garden opening seems one vast
meadow of Avliite lily stars.
In the morning everything is joyous and bright,
the delicious purple of the dawn changes softly to
daffodil yelloAv aud Avhite; while the sunbeams
pouring through the passes between the peaks give
a margin of gold to each of them. Then the spires
of the firs in the hollows of the middle region catch
the gloAV, and your camp groA'^e is filled with light.
The birds begin to stir, seeking sunny branches on
tliei eselge of the mea.doAV b)r sun-baths a.fb>r the cold
night, and looking for their breakfasts, every one of
them as fresh as a lily and as charmingly arrayed.
Innumerable insects begin to dance, the deer Avith-
draAv from the open glades and ridge-tops to their
leafy hiding-places in the chaparral, the flowers open
and straighten their petals as the dew vanishes,
every pulse beats high, every life-cell rejoices, the
very rocks seem to tingle Avith life, and Cod is felt
brooding over everything great and small.
BIG TREE
(Sequoia gigantea)
Betaveen the heavy pine and Silver Fir belts we
find the Big Tree, the king of all the conifers in the
Avorld, " the noblest of a noble race," It extends in
a Avidely interrupted belt from a small grove on the
middle fork of the American River to the head
of Deer Creek, a distance of about 260 miles, the
180 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
northern limit being near the thirty-ninth parallel,
the southern a little below the thirty-sixth, and the
elevation of the belt above the sea varies from about
5000 to 8000 feet. From the American River grove
to the forest on King's River the species occurs only
in small isolated groups so sparsely distributed
along the belt that tlireo of the gaps in it are from
forty to sixty inilcis wides, Ibit from King's liivesr
southward the Seipioia is not re;slric;ted to meres
groves, but extends across the broad rugged basins
of the KaAveah and Tule liA^ers in noble forests, a
distance of nearly seventy miles, the continuity of
this part of the belt being broken only by deep
canons. The Fresno, the largest of the northern
groves, occupies an area of three or four square
miles, a short distance to the southward of the fa
mous Mariposa GroA^e, Along tho beveled I'im of
the canon of the scnith fork of King's Iii\'er there is
a majestic forest of Sequoia about six miles long
by two wide. This is the northernmost assemblage
of Big Trees that may fairly be called a forest.
Descending the precipitous divide between the
King's Rivesr and Ka.Aveali you esnter tlies grand for
ests that form the main continuous portion of the
belt. Advancing soutliAvard the giants become
more and more irrepressibly exuberant, heaving
their massive croAvus iuto the sky from OA^cry ridge
aud slope, and Avaving oiiAvard in graceful com-
pl'iance Avith the complicated t.o])e)gra.pliy of the res-
gion. The fluest of the KaAveah seciion of the belt
is on the broad ridge betAveen Marble Creek and the
middle fork, and extends from the granite head
lands overlooking the hot plains to within a foAV
SEQUOIA GIGANTEA— VIEW IN GENERAL GRANT NATIONAL PARK.
THE FORESTS 181
miles of the cool glacial fountains of the summit
peaks. The extreme upper limit of the belt is
reached between the middle and south forks of the
Kaweah at an elevation of 8400 feet. But the finest
block of Big Tree foi'est in the entire belt is on the
north fork of Tule River. In the northern groves
there are comparatively few young trees or saplings.
But here for every old, storm-stricken giant there
are many in all the glory of prime vigor, and for
each of these a crowd of eager, hopeful young trees
and saplings growing heartily on moraines, rocky
ledges, along watercourses, and • in the moist al
luvium of meadows, soomingly in hot pursuit of
eternal life.
But though the area occupied by the species in
creases so much from north to south there is no
marked increase iu the size of the trees. A height
of 275 feet aud a diameter near the ground of about
20 feet is perhaps about the average size of full-
grown trees favorably situated ; specimens 25- feet
in diameter are not very rare, and a few are nearly
300 feet high. In the Calaveras Grove there are
four trees over 300 feet in height, the tallest of
which by careful measurement is 325 feet. The
largest I have yet met in the com-se of my explora
tions is a majestic old scarred monument' in the
King's River forest. It is 35 feet 8 inches in diame
ter inside the bark four feet from the ground. Un
der the most favorable conditions these giants
probably live 5000 years or more, though few of
even the larger trees are more than half as old.
I never saw a Big Tree that had died a natural
death; barring accidents they seem to be immortal,
182 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
being exempt from all the diseases that afflict and
kill other trees. Unless destroyed by man, they
live on indelinitesly until burned, smashed by liglit-
inng, or cast doAvn by storms, or by the giving Avay
of the ground on which they stand. The age of
one that was felled in the Calaveras Grove, for the
sake of having its stump for a dancing-floor, was
about 1300 years, and its diameter, measured
across the stump, 24 feet inside the bark. Another
that Avas cut doAvn in the King's River forest Avas
about the same size, but nearly a thousand years
older (2200 years), though not a very old-looking
tree. It Avas felled to procure a section for exhibi
tion, aud tlms an oiipeu'tunity Avas given to count
its annual rings of groAvth, The colossal sesarrisd
monument in tho King's River forest mentioned
above is burned half through, and I spent a day
in making an estimate of its age, clearing away the
charred surface with an ax and carefully counting
the annual rings with the aid of a pocket-lens.
The Avood-rings in the section I laid bare wei'e so
involved and contorted iu some places that I Avas
not able to determine its age exactly, but I counted
over 4000 rings, which showed that this tree was in
its prime, swaying in the Sierra Avinds, when Christ
walked the earth. No other tree in the world,
as far as I kiioAV, has looked down on so many cen
turies as the Sequoia, or opens such impressiA^e
anel suggestiA'^o vimvs into history.
So (3xepiisitely harmonious and finesly balanced
are even the very mightiest of these monarchs of
the woods in all their proportions and circumstances
there never is anything overgrown or monstrous-
TIIE FORESTS 183
looking about them. On coming in sight of them
for the first time, you are likely to say, "Oh, see
Avliat beautiful, iioble-lookiiig trees are towering
there a.uiong tho firs and pines!" — their grandeur
being in tbe mean time in great part invisible, but
to the living eye it will be manifested sooner or
later, stealing slowly on the senses, like the gran
deur of Niagara, or the lofty Yosemite domes. Their
great size is hidden from the inexperienced observer
as long as they are seen at a distance in one harmo
nious Auew, When, however, you approach them
and walk round them, you begin to Avonder at their
colossa.l size and seeic a measuring-rod. These
giants bulge considerably at the base, but not more
than is resepiired for beauty and safety; and the
only reason that this bulging seems in some cases
excessive is that only a comparatively small section
of the shaft is seen at once in near views. One
that I measured in the King's River forest was 25
feet in diameter at the ground, and 10 feet in
diameter 200 feet above the ground, showing that
the taper of the trunk as a Avhole is charmingly
fine. And when you stand back far enough to see
the massive columns from the swelling instep to
the lofty summit dissolving in a dome of verdure,
you rejoice in the unrivaled display of combined
grandeur and beauty. About a hundred feet or
more of the trunk is usually branchless, but its mas
sive simplicity is relievecl by the bark furrows,
Avhicli instead of making an irregular network run
evenly paraflel, like the fluting of an architectural
column, and to some extent by tufts of slender
sprays that wave lightly in the winds and cast
184 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
llocks of shade, seeming to have been ]»inn(,Ml on
here and there for the sake of beauty only. The
young troiss have sicsndesr simples braiichess ehiwn
to the ground, put on with strict regularity, sharply
aspiring at the top, horizontal about half-Avay doAvn,
and drooping in haudsome curves at the base. By
the time the sapling is fiA^e or six hundred years old
this spiry, feathery, juvenile habit merges into the
linn, rounded dome feu'in of middle age, Avliich in
turn takes on the eccentric pictnresqueness of old
age. No other tree in the Sierra forest has foliage
so densely massed or presents outlines so firmly
drawn and so steadily subordinate to a sijecial type,
A knotty ungovernaljle-looking branch five to eight
feet thick may be seen pushing out abruptly from
tho sniootli trunk, as if sure^ to tliroAV the reigular
curve into confusion, bnt as soon as the general
outline is reached it stops short and dissoh^es in
spreading bosses of hxAV-abidiug sprays, just as if
every tree were groAving beneath some huge, invisi
ble bell-glass, against Avliose sides OA^ery bi'anch Avas
being pressed and molded, yet somehoAV indulging
iu so many small dcspartures from the regular form
that there is still an appearance of freedom.
The foliage of the saplings is dark bluish-green
in color, Avliile the older trees ripen to a warm
broAvnish-yellow tint like Libocedrus, The bark is
rich cinnamon-broAvn, purplish in young trees and
in shady portions of the old, Avliile the ground is
covered Avitli broAvii leaves and burs forming color-
masses of extraordinary richness, not to mention the
flowers and underbrush that rejoice about them in
their seasons. Walk the Sequoia woods at any time
TIIE FORESTS 185
of year and you AviU say they are the most beauti
ful and majestic on earth. Beautiful and impressive
contrasts meet you everywhere : the colors of tree
and flower, rock aud sky, light and shade, strength
and frailty, endurance and evanescence, tangles of
supple hazel-bushes, tree-pillars about as rigid as
graiiiliMloniess, roses and violests, the smallest of thesir
kind, blooming around the feet of the giants, and
rugs of the lowly chamaebatia Avhere the sunbeams
fall. Then in winter the trees themselves break
forth in bloom, myriads of small four-sided stami
nate cones crowd the ends of the slender sprays,
esoloring the Avhole tree, and avIicu ripe dusting the
air and the ground Avitli golden pollen. The fertile
cones are bright grass-green, measuring about Iavo
inches in length by one and a half iu thickness,
and are made up of about forty firm rhomboidal
scales densely packed, Avith from five to eight seeds
at the base of each, A single cone, therefore, coii-
ta,iiis from tAvo to three hundred seeds, Avliich are
about a fourth of an inch long by three sixteenths
wide, including a thin, fiat margin that makes them
go glancing and Avavering in their fall like a boy's
kite. The f ruitfulness of Sequoia may be illustrated
by two specimen branches one and a half and two
inches in diameter on which I counted 480 cones.
No other Sierra conifer produces nearly so many
seeds. Millions are ripened annually by a single
tree, and in a fruitful year the product of one of the
northern groves Avould be enough to plant all the
mountain-ranges of the AA^orld, Nature takes care,
however, that not one seed in a million shafl germi
nate at all, and of those that do perhaps not one
186 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
in ten thousand is suffered to live through the many
vicissitudes of storm, drought, fire, aud snoAV-crush-
iiig Uiiit beset thesir youth,
d^he Douglas squirrel is tho happy harvester of
most of the Sequoia cones. Out of every hundred
perhaps ninety fall to his share, and unless cut off
by his ivory sickle they shake out their seeds and
remain on the tree for many years. Watching the
squirrels at their hai'vest woi-k in the Indian sum
mer is one of the most delightful diversions imagin
able. The Avoods are calm and the ripe colors are
blazHig in all their gbny ; the cone-laden treses stand
motionless in the Avarm, hazy air, and you may see
the crimson-crested Avoodcock, the prince of Sierra
Avoodpeckers, drilling some dead limb or fallen trunk
with his bill, and ever and anon filling the glens
with his happy cackle. The humming-bird, too,
dwells in these noble woods, and may oftentimes be
seen glancing among the floAvers or resting Aving-
weaiy on some leafless tAvig; here also are tho fa
miliar robin of the orchards, and tlie brown anel
grizzly bears so obviously fitted for these majestic
solitudes; and the Demgias squirrel, making more
hilarious, exul)era.nt, vital stir than all the bears,
birds, and humming wings together.
As soon as any accident hapijcns to tho crown of
these Sequoias, such as being stricken off by light
ning or broken by storms, then the branches be
neath the Avouiid, no matter Iioav situated, seem to
be excited like a colony of bees that have lost their
queen, and become anxious to repair the damage.
Limbs that have grown outward for centuries at
right angles to the trunk begin to turn upAvard to
THE FORESTS 187
assist in making a new crown, eacli speedily assum
ing the special form of true summits. Even in the
case of mere stumps, burned half through, some
mere ornamental tuft will try to go aloft and do its
best as a leader in forming a new head.
Groups of two or three of these grand trees are
often found standing close together, the seeds from
which they sprang having probably grown on
ground cleared for their reception by the fall of a
large tree of a former generation. These patches of
fresh, mellow soil beside the upturned roots of the
fallen giant may be from forty to sixty feet wide,
a.iid llicsy are s[Msc>dily occsiipied by scwellings. Out
of thcwis seedling-thickets perhaps two or three may
become trees, forming those cdose grcmps called
" three graces," " loving couples," etc. For oven sup
posing that the trees should stand twenty or thirty
feet apart Avliile young, by the time they are full-
grown their trunks will touch and croAvd against
each other and ca'cu appear as one in some cases.
It is generally believed that this grand Sequoia
Avas once far more Avidely distributed over the
Sierra ; but after long and careful study I have come
to the conclusion that it never was, at least since
the ciose of the glacial period, because a dibgent
search along the margins of the groves, and in the
japs betAveen, fails to reveal a single trace of its
previous existence beyond its present bounds. Not-
Avithstanding, I feel confident that if every Sequoia
iu the range Avere to die to-day, numerous monu
ments of their existence Avould remain, of so imper
ishable a nature as to be available for the student
more than ten thousand years hence.
to
188 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
In the first place we might notice that no species
of coniferous tree in the range keeps its individuals
so Avell together as Sequoia; a mile is perhaps the
greatest distance of any straggler from the main
body, and all of those stragglers that liaA^e come
under my observation are young, instead of old mon
umental trees, relics of a more extended groAvth,
Again, Sequoia tnmks f reeiueutly endure for cen
turies afbsr t.liey fall, I haves a spi^cimen bloeic, cut
from a fallen trunk, Avliich is hardly distinguishable
from specimens cut from living trees, although the
old trunk-fragment from Avliich it was derived has
lain in the damp forest more than 380 years, prob
ably thrice as long. The time measure in the case
is sunply this : Avhen the ponderous trunk to Avhieii
the old vestige belonged fesll, it sunk itself into this
ground, thus making a long, straight ditch, and in
the middle of this ditch a Silver Fir is growing that
is now four feet in diameter and 380 years old, as
determined by cutting it half through and count
ing the rings, thus demonstrating that the reninant
of the trunk that made the ditch has lain on the
grouuel more than 380 5rears, For it is evident that
to find tbe Avliole time, we must aild to the iWO
years the time that the A^auished portion of the
trunk lay in the ditch before being burned out of
the Avay, plus the time that passed before the seed
froniAvhich the nionumental fir sprang fell into the
prepared soil and took root, Noav, because Sequoia
trunks are never Avholly consumed in ono forest fire,
and those fires recur only at considerable intervals,
and because Seepioia ditcsbes aftesr being (doarecl
are often left unplanted for centuries, it becomes
THE FORESTS 189
evident that the trunk remnant in question may
probably liaA'e lain a thousand years or more. And
this instance is by no means a rare one,
iiiit admitting that upon those areas suppo,sed to
liaA'e been once covered Avitli Sequoia every tree
may have fallen, and every trunk may have been
burned or buried, leaving not a reninant, many of
the diteiies made by tho fall of the ponderous
trunks, and the boAvls made by their upturning
roots, Avould remain patent for thousands of years
after the last vestige of the trunks that made them
bad A'anished, Mucii of this ditch-writing would
no doubt be ejiiickly effaced by the flood-action
of overflowing streams and rain-washing; but no
inconsiderable portion would remain enduringly
engraved on ridge-tops beyond such destructive
action ; for, Avliere all the conditions are favorable,
it is almost imperishable. Now these historic ditches
and root bowls occur in all the present Sequoia groves
and forests, but as far as T have observed, not the
faintest vestige of one presents itself outside of them.
AVe therefore conclude that the area covered by
Seeiuoia has not been diminished during the last
eight or ten thousand years, and probably not at
all in post-glacial times,
Ts the species verging to extinction f What are its
relations to rlimatr, .so//, and associated trees f
All the phenomena bearing on these questions
also tliroAV light, as Ave shall endeavor to show,
upon the peculiar distribution of the species, and
sustain the conclusion already arrived at on the
question of extension,
Iu the northern groups, as we have seen, there
190 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
are few young trees or saplings growing up around
the failing old ones to ])erpotuate the race, and in
as much as those ageel Seepioias, so nearly child
less, are the only ones commonly known, the species,
to most observers, seems doomed to speedy extinc
tion, as being nothing more than an expiring rem
nant, vanquished in tho so-called struggle for life
by pines and firs that have driven it into its last
strongholds in moist glens where climate is ex
ceptionally favorable. But the language of the ma
jestic continuous forests of the south creates a very
different impi'ession. No tree of all the forest is
more enduringly established in concordance with
climate and soil. It groAVS heartily everywhere —
on moraines, roisky ledges, along watercourses, and
in the dcKsi), moist alluvium of mesadows, with a mul
titude of seedlings and saplings crowding up around
the aged, seemingly abundantly able to maintain
the forest in prime vigor. For every old storm-
stricken tree, there is one or more in all the glory of
prime ; and for each of these many young trees and
crowds of exuberant saplings. So that if all the
trees of any section of the main Sequoia forest Avere
ranged together according to age, a very promising
curve would be presented, all the way up from last
year's seedlings to giants, and with the young and
middle-aged portion of the curve many times longer
than the old portion. Even as far north as the
Fresno, I counted 530 saplings and seedlings grow
ing promisingly upon a piece of rough avalanche
soil not exceeding two acres in area. This soil bed
is about seven years old, and has been seeded al
most simultaneously by pines, firs, Libocedrus, and
r
"T^
MUIR GORGE, TUOLUMNE CANON— A'OSEMITE NATIONAL PARK.
THE FORESTS 191
Sequoia, presenting a simple and instructive iUus-
tration of the struggle for life among the rival
species; and it was interesting to note that the
conditions thus far affecting them have enabled
the young Sequoias to gain a marked advantage.
In every instance like the above I have observed
that the seedling Sequoia is capable of growing on
both drier and wetter soil than its rivals, but re
quires more sunshine than they; the latter fact be
ing clearly shown wherever a Sugar Pine or fk is
growing in close contact with a Sequoia of about
equal age and size, aud equally exposed to the sun;
the branches of the latter in such cases are always
less leafy. Toward the south, however, where the
Sequoia becomes more exuberant and numerous, the
rival trees become less so ; and where they mix with
Sequoias, they mostly grow up beneath them, like
slender grasses among stalks of Indian corn. Upon
a bed of sandy flood-soil I counted ninety-four
Sequoias, from one to twelve feet high, on a patch
of ground once occupied by four large Sugar Pines
which lay crumbling beneath them, — an instance of
conditions which have enabled Sequoias to crowd
out the pines,
I also noted eighty-six vigorous saplings upon a
piece of fresh ground prepared for their reception
by fire. Thus fire, the great destroyer of Sequoia,
also furnishes bare virgin ground, one of the con
ditions essential for its growth from the seed. Fresh
gi'ound is, however, furnished in sufBcient quantities
for the constant renewal of the forests without fire,
viz,, by the fall of old trees. The soil is thus up
turned and mellowed, and many trees are planted
192 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
for every one that falls. Land-slips and floods also
give rise to bare virgin ground ; and a tree now and
then owes its oxistonco to a burrowing wolf or squir
rel, but the most regular supply of fresh soil is
furnished by the fall of aged trees.
The climatic changes in progress in the Sierra,
bearing on the tenure of tree life, are entirely mis
apprehended, especially as to the time and the
means employed by Nature in effecting them. It
is constantly asserted in a vague way that the
Sierra was vastly wetter than now, and that the in
creasing drought will of itself extinguish Sequoia,
leaving its ground to other trees supposed capable
of flourishing in a drier climate. But that Sequoia
can and does grow on as dry ground as any of its
present rivals, is manifest in a thousand places.
"Why, then," it will be asked, "are Sequoias always
found in greatest abundance in well-watered places
where streams are exceptionally abundant ? " Sim
ply because a growth of Sequoias creates those
streams. The thirsty mountaineer knows well that
in every Sequoia grove he will find running water,
but it is a mistake to suppose that the water is tho
cause of the grove being there ; on tho contrary, the
grove is the cause of the water being there. Drain
off the water and the trees will remain, but cut off
the trees, and the streams will vanish. Never was
cause more completely mistaken for effect than in
the case of these related phenomena of Sequoia
woods and perennial streams, and I confess that at
first I shared in the blunder.
When attention is called to the method of Sequoia
stream-making, it will be apprehended at once.
THE FORESTS 193
The roots of this immense tree fill the ground, form
ing a thick sponge that absorbs and holds back the
rains and melting snows, only allowing them to
ooze and flow gently. Indeed, every fallen leaf and
rootlet, as well as long clasping root, and prostrate
trunk, may be regarded as a dam hoarding the
bounty of storm-clouds, and dispensing it as bless
ings all through the summer, instead of allowing it
to go headlong in short-lived floods. Evaporation
is also checked by the dense foliage to a greater ex
tent than by any other Sierra tree, and the air is
entangled in masses and broad sheets that are
quickly saturated ; while thirsty winds are not al
lowed to go sponging and licking along the ground.
So great is the retention of water in many places
in the main belt, that bogs and meadows are created
by the killing of the trees. A single trunk faUing
across a stream in the woods forms a dam 200 feet
long, and from ten to thirty feet high, giving rise
to a pond whicli kills the trees within its reach.
These dead trees fall in turn, thus making a clear
ing, while sediments gradually accumulate chang
ing the pond into a bog, or meadow, for a growth
of carices and sphagnum. In some instances a series
of small bogs or meadows rise above one another
on a hillside, which are gradually merged into one
another, forming sloping bogs, or meadows, which
make striking features of Sequoia woods, and since
all the trees that have faUen into them have been
preserved, they contain records of the generations
that have passed since they began to form.
Since, then, it is a fact that thousands of Sequoias
are growing thrif tUy on what is termed dry ground,
194 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
and even clinging like memntaiu iiines to rifts in
granite ]»reci])ices; and sinces it has also been shown
that tho esxtra moistures found iu coiiiiesctioii with
the denser growths is an eft'ect of their presence,
instead of a cause of their presence, then the notions
as to the former extension of the species and its
near approach to extinction, based upon its sup
posed dependence on greater moisture, are seen to
be erroneous.
The decrease in the rain- and snowfall since the
close of the glacial period in the Sierra is much less
than is commonly guessed. The highest post-gla
cial watermarks are well preserA^ed in all the upper
river channels, and they are not greatly higher than
the spring floodmarks of the present ; shoAving con-
eiusively that no extraordinary descresases has takesii
place in the volume of the upper tributaries of post
glacial Sierra streams since they came into exis
tence. But in the mean time, eliminating all this
complicated question of climatic change, the plain
fact remains that the present rain- and snoufall is
abundantly sufficient for the luxuriant growth of Se
quoia forests. Indeed, all my observations tend to
sliOAv that in a prolonged drought the Sugar Pines
and firs Avould perish before the Sequoia, not alono
because of the greater longevity of individual trees,
but because the species can endure more drought,
and make the most of whatever moisture falls.
Again, if the restriction and irregular distribution
of the species be interpi'eted as a result of the des
iccation of the range, then instead of increasing as
it does iu individuals toAvard the south where the
rainfall is less, it should diminish.
'run PORES'rs 195
If, then, the peculiar distribution of Sequoia has
not been governed by superior conditions of soil
as to fertility or moisture, by what has it been
governed ?
Iu the course of my studies I observed that the
northern groves, the only ones I Avas at first ac-
eiuainted Avitli, were located on just those portions
of the general forest soil-belt that Avere first laid
bare toAvard the close of the glacial period Avlieii
the ice-sheet began to break up into individual
glaciers. And while searching the wide basin of
the San Joaquin, aud trying to account for the
a.bsesiiccs of Sesepioia wliesre^ eve^y csoiidition secMiiisd
favorable for its growth, it occurred tome that this
remai'kable gaj) in the Sequoia belt is located ex
actly in the basin of the A^ast ancient mer de glace
of tho San Joaquin and King's RiA^er basins, which
i:ioured its frozen floods to the plain, fed by the
snows that fell on more than iifty miles of tho
summit. I then perceived that the next great gap
iu the belt to tho northward, forty miles Avide, ex
tending betAveen the CahiA^eras and Tuolumne
groves, occurs in the basin of the great ancient mer
de glace of the Tuolumne and Stanislaus basins,
ami that the smaller gap betAveeii the Merced and
Mariposa groves occurs in the basin of the smaller
glacier of the Merced, The wider the ancient glacier,
the wider the corresponding gap in the Sequoia belt.
Finally, pursuing my investigations across tho
basins of the KaAA^eah aud Tule, I discovered that
the Sequoia belt attained its greatest development
just where, OAAdng to the topographical peculiari
ties of the region, the ground had been most per-
196 'rnio moun'I'ains of c.vlii^ornia
fectly ])roiec,ted from tho main ice-rivers that con-
tiiiiied to ])oiir past fi-oni the summit fountains
long aftesr tins siiiallesrle)c.a.l gia.ciesrsha.cl beseii mesltesd.
Taking iioav a general view of the belt, beginning
at the south, we see that the majestic ancient gla
ciers Avere shed off" right aud left doAvii the valleys
of Kerii and King's rivers by the lofty proteetiA^e
spurs outspread embraeingly aboA''e the Avarni Se
quoia-filled basins of the KaAveah and Tule, Then,
next nortliAvard, occurs the Avide Sequoia-less chan
nel, or basin, of tho ancient San Joaquin and Jving's
River mer de glace ; then the warm, protected spots
of Fresno and Mariposa groves ; then the Sequoia-
less channel of the ancient Merced glacier ; next the
warm, sheltered ground of the Meresed and Tuol-
umiies grovess; tliesn the Sisepioia-lesss cluinnisl of the
grand ancient mer de glace of the Tuolumne and
Stanislaus ; then the Avarm old ground of the Cala
veras anel Stanislaus groves. It appears, therefore,
that just Avhere, at a certain period in the history
of the Sierra, the glaciers Avero not, there the Se
eiuoia is, and just Avhere the glaciers Avere, tlieres the
Seepioia is not.
What the other conditions may have beisn that
enabled Sequoia to establish itself upon those oldest
and warmest portions of the main glacial soil-belt,
I cannot say, I might venture to state, however, in
this connection, that since the Sequoia forests pre
sent a more and more ancient aspect as they extend
soutliAvard, I am inclined to think that the sjiecies
Avas distributed from the south, Avliile the Sugar
Pine, its great rival iu the northern groves, seems
to have come around the head of the Sacramento
VIDW IN TlOLl'iMNK CANON, YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK.
'lUE FORESTS 197
valley and clown the Sierra from the north; conse
quently, Avhcsn the Sierra soil-beds Avere first throAvn
open bj preemption on the melting of the ice-sheet,
the Seepioia. may have estaljlisbeel itself along the
aA'ailalie portions of the south half of the range
luior to the ai-iival of tbe Sugar Pine, Avhile the
Sugar Pine took possession of tho north half prior
to thes arii\'al of Secjuoia,
Ibit however niiicii iincerlainty may a.t.bich to this
brancii of the cpiestion, there are no obscuring
shadoAvs upon the grand general relationship Ave
ha.A'e ]iointed out between the present distribution
of See|uoia and the a.ncieiit ghiciers of thes Sierra..
Aud wIksu Ave bear in mind that all the present for
ests of the Sierra are young, groAving on moraine
soil recently deposited, and that the flank of the
range itself, Avitli all its landscapes, is neA\'-born, re
cently sculptured, and brought to tbe light of day
from bcMieath tho ice mantle of the glacial Avinter,
then a thousand laAvless mysteries disappear, and
broael harmonies take their jilaces.
,But although all the observed pheuomena bearing
Oil the post-glacial liistcny of this colossal tree xiouit
to the conclusion that it never Avas more widely
distributed on the Sierra since the close of the
glacial ejiocli; that its present forests are scarcely
past prime, if, iiiilee\d, llicsy lia.ves reached jsrimcs;
that the post-glacial clay of the siieeicss is probably
not half done; yet, Avlieii from a Avider outlook the
A^ast antiquity of the genus is considered, and its an
cient richness in species and individuals ; compar
ing our Sierra (liaiit and Sequoia sempervirens of
the ( !oast Range, the only other liAdug species of Se-
198 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
epioia, Avitli llie tw^slve fossil siieciess already discov-
eresd anel described by Heer and Lesepieresux, sennei
of Avliich se'esin to haves llourislusd ovisr va.st aresas in
the Arctic regions and in Europje and our own ter
ritories, during tertiary and cretaceous times, — then
indeed it becomes plain that our two surviving
species, restricted to narroAV beslts Avithin the limits
of Calibiniia., arcs uiesris resmnants of thes gesiins, both
as to speciiss and indiviebials, and that tlicsy prob
ably are verging to esxtiuction. But the A^erge of a
period boginuiiig in crestacccms times may have a
breadth of tens of thousands of years, not to men
tion the possflile existence of conditions calculated
to multiply and reexteud both species and individ
uals. This, however, is a branch of the question
into whieii I do not now pur[>e)SO to eniter.
In studying the fate of our forest king, we have
thus far considered the action of purely natural
causes only; but, unfortunately, man is iu the
Avoods, and Avaste and }iiire destruction are making
rapid lieadAvay, If the iniportamje of forests Avere
at all understood, ca'Cu from an economic stand
point, their ])resesr\'atioii aa^cmiIcI call forth thes most
Avaticbfiil attention of goveriiniesnt. Only of bite
years by mesans of forest rcsserA'aticnis has the simp
lest groundwork for available legislation been laid,
Avhile in many of the finest groA^es every species of
destruction is still moving on Avitli accelerated
speed. In the course of my explorations I found no
feAver than five inifls located on or near the lower
edge of the Sequoia belt, all of Avhicli Avere cut
ting cousideralile quantities of Big Tree lumber.
TIIE FORESTS li)i)
Most of the Fresno group are doomed to feed the
mills recently erected near thein, and a company
of lumbermen are uoav cutting the magnificent for
est on King's River. In these milling operations
AA^aste far exceeds use, for after the choice young
manageable trees on any given spot have been felled,
the woods are tired to ch>a.r the ground of limbs and
refuse with reference to further operations, and, of
course, most of the seedlings and saplings are de
stroyed. These mill ravages, however, are small as com
pared Avith the comprehensive destruction caused
by " sbesepmen." Incirclible uuiiibers of sliee|) are
elri\'eii to the mountain pasture;s every summer, and
their esourse is OA^er marked by desolation. Ev
ery Avild garden is trodden doAvn, the shrubs are
stripped of leaves as if devoured by locusts, and the
Avoods are burned. Running fires are set every
where, Avitli a vioAV to clearing the ground of pros
trate trunks, to fa.cilibi.t.o the niovements of the
lloci<s and improve tlic> ])asliirc>s. Thcsisntire biresst
belt is thus swept anel devastated from ono ex
tremity of the range to the other, and, Avitli the
excei)tioii of the resinous Pinus contorta, Sequoia
suffers most of all, Indians burn off' the underbrush
in certain localities to facilitate deer-hunting, moun
taineers aud lumbermen carelessly alloAv their camp-
lires to run ; but the fires of the sheepmen, or
m.u,lf oncers, form more than ninety per cent, of all
destructive fires that I'ange the Sierra forests.
It appears, therefore, that iiotAvithstandiug our
forest king might live on gloriously in Nature's
keeping, it is rapidly vanishiug before the fire and
200 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
steel of man ; and unless protective measures be
speedily iuArented and applied, in a fcAV decads, at
the farthest, all that Avill be left of Sequoia gigantea
will be a few hacked and scarred mouumeuts.
TWO-LEAVED, OR TAMARACK, PINE
(I'iiiii.'i riiiiliiriK, VIM'. MdrriiiiiiiHi)
This species forms the bulk of the alpine forests,
extending along the range, above the fir zone, up to
a height of from 8000 to 9500 feet above the sea,
growing in beautiful order upon moraines that are
scarcely changed as yet by post-glacial Aveathering,
Compared Avitli the giants of the loAver zones, this
is a small tree, seldom attaining a height of a hun
dred feet. The largest specimen I ever measured
was ninety feet in height, and a littlo over six in
diameter four feet from the ground. The average
height of mature trees throughout the entire belt is
probably not far from fifty or sixty feet, Avitli a di
ameter of tAVO feet. It is a Avell-proportionod, rather
hanelsomes littles pines, with grayish-brown bark, and
crookecl, much-dividesd braiicliess, which covesr thes
greater portion of the trunk, not so densely, how
ever, as to prevent its being seen. The loAver linilis
curve doAVHAvard, gradually takes a horizontal posi-
ticHi aliout lialf-Ava.y U]> ilie trunk, tbesn asjiire* more
and more toAvard tlie summit, thus forming a sharp,
conical top. The foHage is short anel rigid, Iavo
leaves iu a fascicle, arranged in comparatively long,
cylindric;al tassesls at thes isiids of thes tough, iqi-
curving branchlets. The cones are about two ineshes
THE PORES'rs 201
long, groAviiig in stiff clusters among the needles,
Avithout nuiking any striking eft'ect, except Avliile
very young, Avlieii they are of a vivid crbnsou color,
and tins wholes trees a.j)pcsa.rs to be dottcsd Avith bril
liant [lowers. 'iiies steriles ccnies aro still more
sboAvy, on account of their great abunclauce, often
giving a. reddisb-ycsllow tinges to the Avliole mass of
thes b)liage, and lilliiig the air Avitli pollen.
No otIicM- [lines on tbe range is so ivgularly jilanted
a.s this oiic\ J\lc)ra.incs b)rests swcei) along the sides
of the high, rocky valleys for miles without iuter-
ruidioH ; still, strictly speaking, they are not dense,
for lleeivs of siiiisliiiics and llowers Und thesir way
inb) tbe darkesst places, Avbero the trees groAV tallest
aud tliicivcst. Tall, nutritious grasses aro specially
abundant beneath them, groAAing over all the
grouuel, iu sunshines and shade, OA^er extensive areas
like a farmer's crop, and serving as pasture for the
miillitudc! of slieej) that a.re driA'cn from the arid
plains cA'cry suinmer as soon as the suoav is melted,
'^riio Two-lesaA'od Pine, more than any other, is
subject to destruction by fire. The thin bark is
streaked and sprinkled Avith resin, as though it had
been shoAvored doAA'u upon it like rain, so that even
the green trees catch fire readily, and during strong
Aviucls Avhole forests are destroyed, the fiames \eap-
ing from ti'eMs lo trc>e, forming one continuous beit
of roa.i-ing lii'cs tlia,tgoes surging and ra.ciiig onward
a.bovcs the beiicliiig woods, like thes gras.s-fires of a
prairie. During the calm, dry season of Indian
summer, the fire creeps quietly along the ground,
feeding on theclry needles aud burs ; then, arriving
at the foot of a tree, the resiny bark is ignited, and
202 THE MOUNTAINS OP (JALIFORNIA
the heated air ascends iu a powerful current, in
creasing in A'elocity, and dragging the flames swiftly
iipAvard; tliesii the lesaves catch (irc^, and an immenses
column of flame, beautifully spired on the edges,
and tinted a rose-purple hue, rushes aloft thirty or
forty feet above the top of the tree, forming a grand
spectacle, especially on a dark night. It lasts, hoAv-
ever, only a fcAV seconds, A'anishing Avitli magical
rapidity, to be succeeded bj^ others along the fire-
line at irregular intervals for Aveeks at a time — tree
after tree flashing and darkening, leaving the trunks
and branches hardly scarred. The heat, hoAvever,
is sufficient to kill the trees, and in a foAV years the
bark shrivels and falls off'. Belts miles in extent
are thus killed and left standing Avith the braneiies
ou,p(selesd ami rigid, a.[)p(sa,riiig gray in thes disbinces,
like misty clouds. Later the branches drop off',
leaving a forest of bleached spars. At length the
roots decay, and the forlorn trunks are blown down
during some storm, and piled one upon another en
cumbering the ground uutil they are consumed by
the next fire, and leaA'^o it ready for a fresh crop.
The endurance of the S[ie5cic\s is slioAvn by its
wandering occasionally out e)\csr thes lava, [ihiins
Avith the YelloAV Pine, and clinibiug moraineless
mountain-sides Avith the Dwarf Pine, clinging to
any chance support in rifts and crevices of storm-
beaten rocks — ahvays, hoAvewer, shoAving the effects
of sucii hardships in esveiy feature,
DoAVii ill shesltesred lakes hollows, on bescls of rieii
alluvium, it varies so far from the common form as
frequently to be taken for a distinct species. Here
it grows in dense sods, like grasses, from forty to
TJIE FORES'I'H 203
eighty feest high, bending all together to the breeze
and Avhirling in eddying gusts more litliely than any
other tree in the Avoods, I liaA^e frequently found
specimens fifty feet high less than five inches in di
ameter. Being thus slender, and at the same time
AA^ell clad Avith leafy boughs, it is oftentimes bent to
llici ground Avbe^n bideii Avith soft suoaa^, fcn-ming
beautiful ariiies iu endless variety, some of which
last until the melting of the suoav in spring.
MOUNTAIN PINE
(riiiiiH iiioiilicoln)
The Mountain Pine is king of the alpine woods,
brave, Inirdy, and long-lived, towering grandly above
its companions, and becoming stronger and more
imposing just Avliere other species begin to crouch
and disappear. At its best it is usually about ninety
feset high a.iid I'we or six in dianietcM', though a speci
men is ol'Icsn met considesrably hirgesr than this,
Tho trunk is as massive aud as suggestive of en
during strength as that of an oak. About two thirds
of the trunk is commonly free of limbs, but close,
friiigy tufts of s])ra.ys ocscur all thes wa.y doAvn, like
those Avliich adorn tho colossal shafts of Seeiuoia,
The bark is dee]? reddish-broAvn ui30ii trees that oc
cupy esxposcnl situations near its upper limit, and
furrowed rather deeplj', the main furrows running
nearly parallel Avitli each other, and connected by
conspicuous cross furroAvs, Avhich, with one excep
tion, are, as far as I have noticed, peculiar to this
sjiecies.
204 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
The cones are from four to eight inches long,
slender, cylindrical, and somewhat curved, resem
bling those of the common White Pine of thes Atlan
tic coast. They grow in clusters of about from three
to six or seven, becoming pendulous as they increase
in weight, chiefly by the bending of the branches.
This species is nearly related to tlie Sugar Pine,
and, tlioiigh not lia.lf so tall, it constaiilly siiggessts
its noble rekitive in IhesAvay that it es.\tesncls its long
arms and in general habit. The JMonnbiin Pine is
first met on the upper margin of the fir zone, groAV-
ing singly in a subdued, incon.siucuous form, in
what appear as chance situations, Avithout making
much impression on the general forest. Continuing
up through the TAVo-leaved Pines in the same scat
tered groAvth, it begins to shoAV its character, and
at an elevation of about 10,000 feet attains its no
blest development near the middle of the range,
tossing its tough arms in the frosty air, welcoming
storms and feioding on them, and reaching the granel
old age of 1000 yesars.
.IHNirKII, oil IlKI) e:KI)Alf.
(Junipcrus occidentalis)
The Juniper is preijmineutly a roeic tree, ocenijiy-
ing the baldesst domes aucl pavements, Avliere thesrcs
is scarcjcly a haudfiil of soil, at a hesight of from
7000 to 9500 feet. In such situations the trunk is
frequently over eight feet in diameter, and not
muchinore in height. The top is almost always
dead in old trees, and grcsat stubborn limbs push
TIIE FORESTS
205
out horizontally that are mostly broken and bare
at the ends, but densely covered and embedded
lieres and tlieres Avitli bossy mounds of gray foliage.
Somes arcs Hicsres Avesa.tlicsreel stum])s, as broad as long,
decorated with a bsw bsafy sprays, reminding one
of the crumbling toAvers of some ancient castle
JUNIPER, OR RED CEDAR.
scantily dra.]>e(l Avith ivy. Only upou the head
waters of llio Ca.rsoii Inives I bniiid this spescies ess-
la.blislic>d on good nlol•a.im^ soil, IleM'e^ it Jlourishiss
Avitli the Silver and Two-leaved Pines, hi great
beauty and luxuriance, attaining a height of from
forty to sixty feet, and manifesting but little of
that rocky angularity so characteristic a feature
206 THE SIOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
throughout the greatcsr portion of its i'ange. Two
of the largest, groAving at the hesad of Hope Val-
lesy, nieasuresd twesnty-nines bsest tlireso imiiess and
twenty-five feet six inches in circumference, re
spectively, four feet from the ground. The bark
is of a bright cinnamon color, and, in thrifty
trees, beautifully braided and reticulated, (lakiug
off in thin, lustrous ribbons that are sometimes
used by Indians for tent-mattiiig. Its fine color
and ocld pictnresqueness ahvays catch an artist's
eye, but to me the Juniper seems a singularly dull
and taciturn treci, never speaking to oms's heart, I
liaA'e spent many a day anel night in its company,
in all kinds of Aveather, and have OA^er found it
silent, esold, aud rigid, likes a. column of ices, lis
broad stiim]>inesss, of esonrsis, prescludes all ]>ossi-
bility of Avaving, or even shaking; but it is not
this rocky steadfastness that constitutes its silence.
In calm, sun-days the Sugar Pine prea«i|ies the
grandeur of the mountains like an apostle Avithout
moving a leaf.
On level rocks it dies standing, and Avastes iu-
sensflily out of existesnce likes gra.iiitc>,, the Aviiid
exerting about as little control over it alive or dead
as it does over a glaesicsr bouldisr. Some are un
doubtedly over 2000 years old. All the trees of the
alpine woods suffer, more or less, from avalanches,
the Two-leaved Pine most of all. Gaps two oi-
three liuiiclrc>.el yards Aviele, cixtending from tins
upper limit of Uie tree-line to thes liottoins of
valleys aud lake basins, are of coinmou oiscur-
rence in all the upper forests, resembling the clear
ings of settlers in the old backAvoods, Scarcely a
STORM-BEATEN JUNIPERS.
'J'UE FORESrS 207
tree is spared, even the soil is scraped away, while
the thousands of uprooted pines and spruces are
piled upon oue another heads doAvnward, and tucked
snugly in along the sides of the clearing in two
AvindroAvs, like lateral moraines. The pines lie with
bramiios Avilted and drooping like weeds. Not so
thes burly junipers. After braving in silence the
sloruis of perhaps a dozen or twenty centuries, they
seem in this, their last calamity, to become soine-
Avliat communicative, making sign of a very uu-
Avilling acceptance of their fate, holding themselves
Avell up from the ground on knees and elbows,
seemingly ill at ease, and anxious, like stubborn
Avrestlers, to rise again.
HEMLOCK SPRUCE
(Tsuga Pattoniana)
The Hemlock Spruce is the most singularly
bc>,a.utiful of all the California couiforas. So slender
is its axis at the top, tha.t it bends over and droops
like the stalk of a nodding lily. The branches
droop also, and divide into innumerable slender,
AvaAing sprays, Avhich are arranged in a varied,
eloquent harmony that is wholly indescribable. Its
cones are purple, and hang free, iu the form of
littlo ta.ssols two inches long from all the siirays
from top to bottom. Though exquisitely deUcate
aud feminine in expression, it grows best where
the snow lies deepest, far up in the region of
storms, at an elevation of from 9000 to 9500 feet,
on frosty uorthern slopes; but it is capable of
208 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
growing considerably
higher, say 10,500 feet.
The tallest specimens,
growing in sheltered hol-
loAvs sonieAvhat beneath
tlus besaviesst Aviiicl-csui'-
reiits, lire from eighty to
a hundred feet high, and
from two to four feet in
diameter. The ver_
gest specimen I esA'isr
found Avas ninetei'ii feest
sev^en imiiess in eircuni-
feresneses biur i'lsest from
the ground, groAving on
the edge of Lake Hollow, at an elevation of 9250
feet aloove the level of the sea. At the age of
tAventy or thirty years it becomes fruitful, and
hangs out its beautiful purple cones at the ends
of the slender sprays, Avhere they swing free in the
breezQ, and contrast delightfully Avith the cool green
foliage. They are translucent Avhen young, and
their beauty is delicious. After they are fully rijie.
STORM-li|.;ATKN IlEMI.OClK SPIUICE,
FoitTV fi.;i';t iiuiu.
TIIE FORESTS 209
they spread their shell-liko scales and alloAV the
brown-Avinged seeds to fly in the melloAV air, Avhile
the enqity cones remain to beautify the tree until
the coming of a fresh crop.
The staminate cones of all the coniferte are beauti
ful, groAving in bright clusters, yelloAV, and rose, and
crimson. Those of the IlenilcMic Sjinice are tlie
most l)ea,utiful of all, forming little conelets of blue
JloAvers, each on a slender stem.
Under all conditions, sheltered or stormbeaten,
well-fed or ill-fed, this tree is singularly graceful in
habit. Even at its highest limit upon exposed ridge-
tops, though coni])elled to crouch iu dense thickets,
huddled close together, as if for mutual protection,
it still manages to throAV out its sprays in irre
pressible loveliness ; Avliile on Avell-ground moraine
soil it develops a perfectly tropical luxuriance of
foliage and fruit, and is the very loveliest tree in
the forest ; poised iu tliiu white sunshine, clad with
branches from head to foot, yet not in the faintest
desgrees heavy or biineiiy, it towesrs in unassuming
uiaje>sty, droo]nng as if una.fl'escstecl witli tlie aspir
ing tendencies of its racse, loving the ground Avhile
transparently conscious of heaven aud joyously re
ceptive of its blessings, reaching out its branches like
sensitive tentacles, feeling the light and reveling in
it. No other of our alpine conifers so finely veils its
strength. Its delicate branches yield to the moun
tains' gentlest breath ; yet is it strong to meet the
wildest onsets of the gale, — strong not in resistance,
but compbance, bowing, snow-ladon, to the ground,
grafsefiilly acceiiting burial month after mouth in
the darkness beneath the heavy mantle of winter.
210 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
When the first soft suoav begins to fall, the flakes
lodge in the leaves, weighing down the branches
against the trunk. Then the axis bends yet lower
aud low^er, uutil tho slcmler top touches the ground,
thus forming a fine ornamental arch. The snow still
falls lavishly, and the whole tree is at length buried,
to sleep and rest in its bisantiful gra\'e as though
dead. Entire groves of young trees, from ten to
forty feet high, are thus buried every Avintesr lik-e
slender grasses. But, like the violets and daisies
which the heaviest suoavs crush not, they are safe.
It is as though this Avoro only Nature's method of
putting her darlings to sleep instead of leaA'ing
them exposed to the biting storms of Avinter,
l^hus Avarmly Avrapped they await the summer
resurrection. The suoav becomes soft in the sun
shine, and freezes at night, nuiking tho mass hard
and compact, like ice, so that during the months of
April and May you can ride a horse over the pros
trate groves without catching sight of a single leaf.
At length the doAvn-pouring siinsliine sets them
free. First the elastic tops of the arches begin to
appear, then one branch after auother, each siiring-
ing loose Avith a gentle rustling sound, and at leiigih
the Avliole tree, Avith the assistance of the winds,
gradually unbends and rises and settles back into
its place in the Avarm air, as dry and feathery and
fresh as young ferns just out of the coil.
Some of the finest grovess I haves yet fcmiid a,ro on
the southern slopes of Lassen's Butte, There are
also many charming companies on the head Avaters
of the Tuolumne, Merced, and San Joaquin, and,
in general, the species is so far from being rare
THE PORESJ'S 211
that you can scarcely fail to find groves of consider
able extent in crossing the range, choose Avhat pass
you may. The Mountain Pine groAvs beside it, and
more frequently the tAvo-leaved sjiecies ; but there
are many beautiful groups, numbering 1000 indi
viduals, or more, Avithout a single intruder.
I Avish 1 had spaces to writes mores of thes siir-
jiassing beauty of this bivorites sjiriuse, EA'oiy tvee-
lover is sure to regard it Avith special admiration ;
apathetic mountaineers, OA^eii, seeking only game or
gold, stop to gaze on first meeting it, and mutter to
themselves : " That 's a mighty pretty tree," some
of tliem adding, "el d pretty!" In autmiin,
when its cones are rijie, the little striped tamias,
and the Douglas squirrel, and tins Clark croAV make
a happy stir in its groA'es, The deer love to lie
doAvii beneath its spreading branches ; bright
streams from the suoav that is always near ripple
through its groA^es, aud bryauthus spreads precious
carpets in its shade. But the best Avords only hint
ils (iiarnis. Come to the mountains and see.
DWARF PINE
(Pinus albicaulis)
Tins s])ecies forms the extreme edge of the timber
line throughout nearly tho Avhole extent of the range
OH both flanks. It is first met groAving in company
Avith Pinus contorta, var, Murray ana, on the upper
margin of the belt, as an erect tree from fifteen to
tbirty feet high and from one to tAVO feet in tbicic-
ness; thence it goes straggling up the flanks of the
212
THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
summit pea,ks, upon mora.iiies or criimbliiig ledgers,
wliesresvcsr it ca.ii obtain a. biothold, to a.ii (slisva.tioii
of from 10,000 to 12,000 bust, whcsres it ehva.rl's to a
mass of cruni]jled, prostrate branches, covered with
slender, upright shoots, each tipped with a short,
close-packed tassel of leaA'es, The bark is smooth
f^R^-A
¦J!<*i'^ js^-
IlitOUl' OI' VAlKC.'l' IJiVAUI.' I'lNES.
and purplish, in some places aliuost AAdiite, The
fertile cones grow in rigid cinstesrs upem the u])per
branches, dark (iioesolatcs in color while young, and
bear beautiful pesaiiy seesds about the size of pcias,
most of Avliieh are eatcsii by tAVo species of tamias
and the notable Clark crow. THie staminate cones
THE FORESTS 213
occur ill cinstcrs, about an inch Aviclei, clown among
tho leaves, aud, as they are colored bright rose-
purple, they give rise to a lively, lloAvery appearance
little looked fen,' in such a tree.
Pines are commonly regarded as sky-loving trees
that must necossaiily aspire or die. This species
forms a marked exception, creeping loAvdy, iu com-
liliance Avith the most rigorous demands of climate,
yet enduring bravely to a more advanced age than
many of its lofty relatives in the sun-lands beloAv.
Se^en from a dista,uc;e, it Avould never be taken for
a tree of any kind. Yonder, for example, is Cathe
dral Pcnik, somes tliive uiilcss aAva.y, with a scsatte\resd
growth of this pine creeping like mosses over tho
roof a.iicl around the bevesle>cl eelgess of tlie^ north,
ga.ble^, nowberes giving any hint of an a..seseiidiiig
axis. When approaeiied quite near it still appears
matted and heathy, and is so low that one expe
riences no great difficulty in Avalking over the top of
it. Yet it is scidoin a.bsolutcily prostrate, at its
loAvest usually attaining a height of three or four
feet, Avitli a main trunk, aud branches outspread
and intertangled above it, as if in ascending they
had been checked by a ceiling, against which they
had groAvn aucl been compelled to spread horizon
tally, I'lio Avintor suoav is indeed such a ceiling, last
ing half tho year; Avhile the pressed, shorn surface
is uuides ye>,t smoother by violent Aviiids, armed with
cutting sand-grains, that beat doAvn any shoot that
offers to rise much above the general level, and carve
the dead trunks and liranches iu beautiful patterns.
During stormy nights I have often camped
snugly beneath the interlacing arches of this littlo
214
THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
pine. The needles, which have accumulated for
centuries, make fine beds, a fact Avell knoAvn to other
mountaineers, such as deer and Avild sheep, Avho
paAV out oval holloAVs and lie beneath the larger
trees in safe and comfortable concealment.
TIIE PORES'rs 215
The longevity of this loAvly dwarf is far greater
than Avould be guessed. Here, for example, is a
s})ecimen, groAving at an eleA-ation of 10,700 feet,
Avhicsh seems as though it might be pluciked up by
the roots, feu' it is only three and a half inches iu
diameter, and its topmost tassel is hardly three feet
above tbe ground. Cutting it half through and
counting the a.iiiiiial rings with this aid of a lesns,
AVO find its ago to be no less than 255 yeai's. Here
is another tciling specimen about the same height,
426 years old, Avliose trunk is only six inches in
diameter ; aud one of its sup]ile branchlets, hardly
an esightli of an inch in diainebir inside the bark, is
seventy-live years old, aud so filled Avith oily balsam,
and so well seasoned by storms, that we may tie it
iu knots like a Avliip-cord,
WIIIT'E I'INE
(Pinus Jlcxilis)
This siiecies is Avidely distributed throughout the
Rocky Mountains, and over all the higher of the
many ranges of the Great Basin, between the Wali-
satch Mountains and the Sierra, where it is known
as White Pine, In the Sierra it is sparsely scattered
along the eastern flank, from Bloody Ca.non south-
Ava.rd nearly to i]\e (sxtromity of the ranges, opposite
tho vfllage of Lone Pine, noAvhore forming auy ap
preciable portion of the general forest. From its
peculiar position, in loose, straggbug parties, it
seems to haves been deriveil from tho ,Basin ranges
to the eastward, where it is abundant.
216 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
It is a larger tree than the Dwarf Pine, At au
elevation of about 9000 feet above tho sea, it often
attains a height of forty or fifty feet, and a diame
ter of from three to five feet. The cones open freely
Avlien ripe, and are twice as large as those of the
albicaulis, and the foliage and branches are more
open, having a tendency to sweep out in free, wild
curves, like those of the Mountain Pine, to Avhich
it is ciosely allied. It is seldom found lower than
9000 feet above sea-level, but from this elevation
it pushes upward over the roughest ledges to the
extreme limit of tree-groAvth, where, in its chvarfed,
storm-crushed condition, it is more like the Avliite-
barked speesies,
'Throughout Utali and NoA'^ada it is one of the
principal timber-trees, great epiantities being esut
every year for the mines. The famous White Pine
Mining District, White Pine City, and the White
Pine Mountains liaA^e derived their names from it.
NEEDLE PINE
(Pinus aristata)
Tins species is restricted in the Sierra to tho
southern portion of the range, about the head Ava
ters of Kings and Kern rivers, Avliere it forms ex
tensive forests, and in some places accompanies the
Dwarf Pine b) the extreme limit of tre^e-grenvtb.
It is Iirst met at a.ii elevation of betwesesn 9(K)0
and 10,000 feet, and runs up to 11,000 Avithout seem
ing to suffer greatly from the climate or the lean
ness of the soil. It is a much finer tree than the
'riiR pc)i!ES'rs
217
i)wa.rf i'ine. Instead of growing in ciuinps anel
low, he^.athy mats, it manages in some way to niaiii-
biin an erect position, and usually stands single,
^\^lerever the young trees are at all sheltered, they
groAv up straight and arroAvy, with delicately
tapered bolc^, and ascending branches terminated
OAK GROWINO AMONG YELLOW PINES.
with glossy, bottle-brush tassels. At middle age,
certain limbs are specialized and pushed far out for
the bearing of esones, after the manner of the Sugar
Pine ; and in old age these branches droop and cast
about iu every direction, giving rise to A^ery pic
turesque etfects. The trunk becomes deep brown
and rough, like that of the Mouutaui Pine, Avhile
218 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
the young cones are of a strange, dull, blackish-blue
color, clustered on the upper branches, Wheu ripe
they are from three to four inches long, yellowish
brown, resembling in every way those of the ]\Ioun-
tain Pine, Excepting the Sugar I'ine, no tree on
the mountains is so capable of individual expres
sion, while iu grace of form and moA'^ement it con
stantly reminds one of the Heniloesk Spruese,
This hirgesst spescimesn 1 uiesasuresd Ava.s a littles
over five feet in diameter anil ninety feet in height,
but this is more than twice the ordinary size.
This species is common throughout the Rocky
Mountains and most of the short ranges of the
Great Basin, Avliere it is called the Fox-tail Pine,
from its long dense leaf -tassels. On the Hot Creek,
White Pine, and Golden Gate ranges it is quite
abundant. About a foot or eighteen inches of the
ends of the branches is densely packed Avith stilf
outstanding needles Avhich radiate like an electric
fox or squirrel's tail. The needles liaA^e a glossy
polish, and the sunshine sifting through them makes
them burn Avitli silvery luster, Avhile their number
and elastic temper tell debghtfully in the winds.
This tree ishesre still more original aucl picsturcssepiei
than in the Sierra, far surpassing not ouly its com
panion conifers in this respect, but also the most
noted of the lowland oaks. Some stand firmly erect,
feathered with radiant tassels down to the ground,
forming slender tapering toAvers of shining ver
dure ; others, with two or three specialized branches
pushed out at right angles to the trunk and densely
clad with tasseled sprays, take the form of beautiful
ornamental crosses. Again in the same Avoods you
THE FORESTS 219
(ind trees that are made up of several boles united
near the ground, spreading at the sides in a plane
liarallel to the axis of the mountain, with the ele
gant tassels hung in charming order between them,
making a harp held against the main Avind lines
Avliero tlicsy are most effective in playing the grand
storm ba.rmonicss, Anel bevsidcss lbese^ tlie>res a.re
many variable arching forms, alone or in groups,
Avitli innumeralile tassels drooping beneath the
arches or radiant above them, and many loAvly
giants of no jiartieiilar form that have braved the
storms of a thousand years. But Avhether old or
yonug, sbcltercMl or exposed to the Avildest gales,
this tree is ever foiiiul irrepressibly aud extraA^a-
gantly picturesque, and offers a richer and more
A^aried series of forms to the artist than any other
conifer I kiioAV of.
NUT PINE
(I'inii.t iiiiiuopliiillii)
The Nut Pino coA'ors or rather dots the eastern
flank of the Sierra, to which it is mostly restricted,
in grayish, bush-like patches, from the margin of the
sage-plains to an elevation of from 7000 to 8000 feet,
A more contentedly fruitful and unaspiring coni
fer could not be conceived. All the species we
have been sketching make departures more or less
distant from the typical spire form, but none goes
so far as this. Without any apparent exigency of
climate or soil, it remains near the ground, throwing
out crooked, divergent branches like an orchard
220 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
apple-tree, and seldom pushes a single shoot higher
than fifteen or tAveuty feet above the ground.
The average tliiciviiess of the trunk is, perlnips,
about ten or tweh^e inches. The leaves are mostly
undiAicled, like round aAvls, instead of being sepa
rated, like those of other pines, into tAVOS and threes
and fives. The cones are green Avdiile groAving, and
are usually found ovesr all the tree, forming quite a
marked feature as seen against the bluish-gray foli
age. They are quite small, only about tAvo inches
in length, and give no promise of edible nuts; but
when we come to open them, we find that about
half the entire bulk of the cone is made up of SAveet,
nutritious seeds, the kernels of Avliich are nearly as
large as those of hazel-nuts.
This is undoubtedly the most important food-
tree on the Sierra., anel furnishes the ^lono, Carson,
and Walker River Indians with more and better
nuts than all the other species taken together. It
is the Indians' own tree, aucl many a white man
have tlicsy kilhsd b)r ciittiiig it clown.
Ill its development Nature sisesms to liaA'o aimed
at the formation of as great a fruit-bearing siirfa.ce
as possible, Beiug so hiw and accessible, the cones
are readfly beaten off' with poles, and the nuts pro
cured by roasting them until the scales open. In
bountiful seasons a single Indian will gather thirty
or forty bushels of them — a fine squirrelish em
ployment. Of all the conifers along the eastern base of the
Sierra, anel on all the many mountain groups and
short ranges of the Great ikisiii, this foodful little
pine is the commonest tree, and the most impor-
THE FORESTS 221
ta.nt. Nearly esveiy mounbiiu is ])la,nteMl Avitli it to
a height of from 8000 to 9000 feet above the sea.
Some are covered from base to summit by this one
species, Avilli only a sparse groAvth of juui]>er on
this lower sloi)es to lireak the continuity of its curi
ous AVOods, Avliicb, though dark-looking at a dis-
tanese, a.ro almost shadeless, aud have none of the
damp, leafy glens and liolloAvs so characteristic of
other pine woods. Tens of thousands of acres
occur in continuous belts. Indeed, viewed compre
hensively the entire Basin seems to be pretty evenly
divided into level liains dotted Avitli sage-bushes
and uic)Uiibiiii-eslia,iiis esovcM'ed Avitli Nut Pines, No
sle)[)e is too rough, none too dry, for these bountiful
orciiards of tbe rcnl man.
The value of this spi^esiess b) Nesvada. is not easily
ovi^restimatcsd. It furnisliess charcoal and timber
for the mines, and, Avitli the juniper, supplies the
rancjhes Avith fuel and rough fencbig. In fruitful
seasons the nut esro]) is pcMiiaps greater than the
California Avlieat crop, Avliich exerts so much iii-
lluence throughout the food markets of the world.
When the ci-op is ripe, the Indians make ready the
long beating-poles ; bags, baskets, mats, aud sacks
are ciollected; the AVomen out at service among the
settlers, washing or drudgbig, assemble at the fam
ily huts; the men leaA^e their ra,uch Avork; old and
young, all are niounted on poniess a.iid start in grcsat
glee to the nut-lands, forming curiously picturesque
cavalcades ; flaming scarfs and calico skirts stream
loosely over the knotty ponies, two squaAvs usually
astride of each, Avitli baby midgets bandaged in
baskets slung on their backs or balanced on the
222 THE JiIOUNTAINS OF CALIPOliNlA
saddle-bow ; Avliile nut-baskets and Avater-jars jiro-
ject from each side, and the loiig beating-poles
make angles in every direction. Arriving at some
Avell-knoAAm central point A\iiere grass and Avater
are fouml, the sepuiAVS with baskcits, the men with
poles ascend the ridges to the ladesn trees, folloAved
by the children. Then the beating begins right
merrily, the burs fiy in every direction, rolling doAVii
the slopes, lodging here and there against rocks and
sage-bushes, chased and gathered by the Avonien
and children Avitli fine natural gladness. Smoke-
columns speedily mark the joyful scene of their
labors as the roasting-fires aro kindled, anel, at
night, assembled iu gay ciriies garrulems as yays,
they begin the iirst nut fesast of the sea.scni.
The nuts a.re about luilf an imsli lenig anel a
quarter of an inch in dianieiter, pointed at the toji,
round at the base, light broAvn in general color,
and, like many other pine seeds, handsomely dotted
with purple, like birds' eggs. The shells are thin
and maybe crushed betAveen the thumb and finger.
The kernels are Avliite, becoming bi'owii by roasting,
and are sweet to every palate, being eaten by bird.s,
scjuirrels, dogs, horses, and men, I*erhaps less than
one bushel in a thousand of the Avliole c;rop is ever
gathered, Stifl, besides supplying their oavu AA^ants,
in times of plenty the Indians bring large quan
tities to mark e>t; then they are eaten arcnind nearly
every fireside in the State, a,nd are ca'cii fed b)
horses occasionally instead of barlc}'.
Of other trees groAving on the Sierra, but form
ing a very small part of the general forest, we may
briefly notice the foUoAving :
¦11 IE FORESTS 223
(-'huniacyparis Lawsoniana is a magnificent tree
in the coast ranges, but small in the Sierra, It
is found only Avell to the nortliAvard along the
banks of cool streams on the upper Sacramento
toAvard Mount Shasta. Only a feAV trees of this
S[)eeies, as far as 1 have scseu, liaA^e as yet gained
a ]>laccs ill the Siesrra Avoods. It luis esvidesntly
besesn dc,sri\'ecl from the coa.st range by Avay of the
tangle of conncM'tbig mouutaius at the head of the
Sacramento Valle3y,
In shady dells and on cool stroa,m banks of the
northern Sierra avo also find the Ycav {Taxus brc-
vifolia). The interesting Nutmeg Tree (Torreya Califor-
nica) is sparsely distributed along the western flank
of the range at an eleA'ation of about4000 feet, mostly
in gulches and canons. It is a small, prickly leaved,
glossy evergreen, like a conifer, from twenty to fifty
feet high, and one to two feet in diameter. The
fruit resembles a green-gage ]iluin, and contains
one seed, a.be)ut the size of a.u a.cioi'n, aud like a
nutmeg, hence the common name. The Avood is
fine-grained and of a beautiful, creamy yelloAv
color like box, SAveet-scented when dry, though the
green leaves emit a disagreeable odor,
Betula occidentalis, the only birch, is a small,
slender tree restricted to the eastern fia.uk of the
range along stream-sides beloAV the pine-belt, es
pecially in Owen's Valley,
Alder, Maple, and Nuttall's FloAvering Dogwood
make beautiful boAvers over swift, cool streams at
an eslevatbiu of from 3000 to 5000 feet, mixed
more or less Avith Avillows and cottouAvood; and
224 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
above these in lake basins the aspen forms fine
ornamonbd gro\'es, and his its light shims glori
ously in thes autunin months.
The Chestnut Oak {(Jnercas densijlora) seems to
liaA'e come from the coast range around the head
of the Sacraniento Valley, like the Ghamcecyparis,
but as it extends soutliAvard along the lower edge
of the main pine-belt it groAvs smaller until it
finally dAvarfs to a misres (iia.pa.rral bush, in the
coast niouutains it is a fine, tall, rather slender
tree, about from sixty to seventy-five feet high,
growing with the grand Sequoia sempervirens, or
Redwood, But unfortunately it is too good to
live, and is now being rapidly destroyed for tan-
bark. Besides thecomuiou Douglas Oa.k and tho granel
Quercus Wislizeni of the foot-hills, and several
small ones that make dense growths of c3haj)arral,
there are two mouu tain-oaks that grow Avitli the
pines up to an elevation of about 5000 feet above
tho sea, and gresatly esnhanese thes bcianty of the yo
semite parks, Tlicsse arcs tbe ]\louiitaiii Lives ()ak
aud the Kcilogg Oak, namcsel in honor of the a.d-
mirable botanical pioncser of California, Kellogg's
Oak {Quercus Kelloggii) is a firm, bright, beautiful
tree, reaching a height of sixty feet, four to seven
feet in diameter, with wide-spreading branches,
and groAving at an elevation of from 3000 to 5000
feet in sunny valleys aud fiats among the ever
greens, and higher in a dAvarfed state. In the
cliff- bound parks about 4000 feet above the sea it is
so abuudaut and estfectives it niight fairly be csallcsd
the Yosemite Oak, The leaves make beautiful
I'ATE VALLEY, SHOAVING THE OAKS TUOLUMNE CANON. YU.SEMITE NATIONAL PAliK.
'I'HE PORES'rs 225
masses of ])iir[)lis in thes siiring, a,ncl yesllow in lipcs
autumn; Avhile its acorns are eagerly^ gathered by
Indians, sepiirrci,'^, and Avoodpeckers, The Mountahi
Live Oak {Q. Chrysolepis) is a tough, rugged mouii-
taimser of a tree, groAving braA^ely and attaining
noble dimensions on the roughest earthquake tal
uses in deep canons and yosemite valleys. The trunk
is usually short, dividing near the ground into great,
Avido-spreading limbs, and these again into a multi
tude of slendiH' sprays, many of tlieni cord-like and
drooping to the ground, like those of the Great
AVliite Oak of the lowlands {Q. lobata). The top of
tbe treso Avlusro tbero is plenty of sjiaese is broael and
bossy, with a, dense covering of shining leaves, mak
ing deiightful (sanopie\s, the csoniplicatexl system of
gray, iiibsrhicing, a.rciiing braneiies as seen from be-
iiealli being c^xcsecMliiigly ricii and picsturesepie. No
other tree that I knoAV dAvarfs so regularly and com
pletely as this under changes of climate due to
changes in elewation. At the foot of a canon 4000
feet above! the sea you may ruid magnificent speci
mens of this oak fifty feet high, Avitli craggy, bulg
ing trunks, five to seA^en feet in diameter, and at the
head of the cafiou, 2500 feet higher, a dense, soft,
Ioav, shrubby groAvth of the same species, while all
tlics wa,y up the canon betAveon these extremes of size
and habit a perfect gradation may be traced. The
largest I have seen AA^as fifty feet high, eight feet in
dianieter, aud about seventy-five feet in spread.
The trunk Avas all knots and buttresses, gray like
granite, and about as angular and irregular as the
boulders on Avhicli it was growing — a type of stead
fast, uuAvedgeable strength.
CHAPTER IX
THE DOUGLAS SCiUIRREL
(Sciurus DoiKjlasii)
THE Douglas Squirrel is by far the most interest
ing and influential of the California sciuridaj,
surpassing every other species in force of character,
numbers, and extent of range, and in the amount of
influence he brings to bear upon the health aud
distribution of the vast forests he inhabits.
Go where you will throughout the noble woods
of the Sierra Nevada, among the giant pines and
spruces of the lower zones, up through the towering
Silver Firs to the storm-bent thickets of the sum
mit peaks, you everywhere find this little sepiirrel
the master-existence. Though only a few inches
long, so intense is his fiery vigor and restlessness,
he stirs every grove Avith wild life, and make^.s him
self more important than even the huge bears that
shuffle through the tangled underbrush beneath
him, EA^ery wind is fretted by his voice, almost
every bole and branch feels the sting of his sliar[»
feet. How mucii the groAvth of the trees is stimu
lated by this means it is not easy to learn, but his
action in manipulating their seeds is more appre
ciable. Nature has made him master forester and
committed most of her coniferous crops to his
'rilK DOUGLAS SCiUIKKION 227
paws. Probably over fifty per cent, of all the cones
ripened on the Sierra are cut off aud handled by
the Uougias alone, and of those of tho Big Trees per-
lia,ps uinciy ])cu- cesiit. ^lass through his liands: the
greatcsr portion is of course stored aAvay for food to
last during tbe Avinter aud spring, but some of
tliesm ;ires tuci\-ed sepa.ra,tely into loosely esovered
holes, wbesro some of thes sesescls gesriniiKito and
licseomcs tresiss, Ibit tlies Siesrra, is only one of thes
many provinces over which he holds sway, for his
dominion extends over all the Redwood Belt of the
Coast Mountains, and far nortliAvard throughout
thes iHa.jessiics biressis of Oresgon, Washington, anel
British Columbia, I make haste to mention these
facts, to slioAv upon how substantial a foundation
the importance I ascribe to him rests.
The Douglas is cslosely allied to the Rod Sepiirrel
or ( niicskaree of the euistcsru woods. (.)iirs may be a
linc^al descendant of this siiexsics, distributed Avest-
wa.rd to tlics Pa.esilies by way of tlic^ ({resa,t La.kcss and
this liocivy Mountains, and thence soutliAvard along
our forested ranges. This vioAvis suggested by the
fact that our species becomes redder and more
Chickaree-like in general, the farther it is traced
back along the course indicated above. But what
ever their relationship, and the eA^olutionaiy forces
that, ha.vcs a.esbMl upon ilicMii, tbe Douglas is hoav tho
largcsr and more beautiful animal.
From the nose to the root of the tail he mea
sures aliout eight inches; and his tail, Avliich he so
effectively uses in interpreting his feelings, is about
six inches in length. He Avears dark bluish-gray
over tho back and half-Avay doAvii the sides, bright
228 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
buff on the belly, with a stripe of dark gray, msarly
bhick, sisparating tlus uppesr and uiidesr colors; this
dividing stripes, howesvesr, is not vcsry sharply des-
fined. He has long black Avhiskers, which gives
him a rather fierce look when observed closely,
strong claAvs, sharp as fish-hooks, and the brightest
of bright eyes, full of telling speculation,
A King's River Indian told me that they call him
" Pfllillooeet," Avhicli, rapidly pronounced Avitli the
first syllable heavily accsented, is not unlike thes
lusty exeiamation he utters on bis way iqi a trise
when excited. Most mountaineers in California
call him the Pine Squirrel; and when I asked an
old trapper Avhetlier he knew our little forester, he
replied with brightening countenance: "Oh, yi^s,
of courses I know him; esvesrybody kiioAVS iiini.
When I 'in liuntin' in the woods, 1 often find out
where the deer are by his barkin' at 'em, I call
'ein Lightmn' Squirrels, because they 're so mighty
epiick anel peert,"
All the true squirrels are more or less birdlike in
speech and movements; but the Douglas is jirceim-
iiieiitly so, possessing, as he doe.s, evesry attribute
peculiarly squirrelish enthusiastically concen
trated. He is the squirrel of squirrels, flashing
from branch to brancli of his favorite evergreens
crisp and glossy and undiseased as a sunbeam.
Give him Avings and he would outtly any bird in
the woods. His big gray cousin is a looser animal,
seemingly light enough to float on the wind; yet
when leaping from limb to limb, or out of one tree-
top to another, he sometimes halts to gather
strength, as if making efforts concerning the up-
THE nOIIGLAS SQUIRREr, 22!)
shot of Avhieii ho doess not alwa.ys \'ee\ exacstly coii-
fldent. But the Dougla.s, Avith his den.ser body,
leaps and glides in hidden strength, seemingly as
independent of common muscles as a mountain
stream, lie threads the tasseled branches of the
pines, stirring their needles like a rustling breeze;
IIOAV shooting across openings in arroAvy lines ; now
launching iu curves, glinting deftly from side to
side in sudden zigzags, and swirling in giddy loops
and spirals around the knotty trunks; getting into
AAiiat seem to be the most impossible situations
without sense of danger; uoav on his haunches,
uoAvoii his head; yetoAHsr gra.cefiil, and punctuating
his most irre[>ressil)le outbursts of energy Avith little
dots and dashes of perfect repose. He is, without
exe!ept'ion, the wildest animal I over saw, — a fiery,
sputtering little bolt of life, luxuriating in quick
oxygen aud the AVOods' best juices. One can hardly
think of such a creature being dependent, like the
rest of us, on ciimate aud food. But, after all, it
reepiires no long acepiaintauce to learn he is human,
for he works for a living. His busiest time is in the
Indian summer. Then he gathers burs and hazel
nuts like a ]ilodding farmer, Avorking continuously
evcsi'v cla.y for hours; sa.ying not a word; (siitting
off thes ripe csoiuss at the top of his speed, as if isni-
])loyed by the job, aud examining CA^ery brancii iu
rc>gula.r order, as if careful that not one should es
cape him ; then, descending, he stores them aAvay
beneath logs and stumps, in anticipation of the
pinching hunger days of winter. He seems himself
a kind of coniferous fruit,— both fruit and floAver,
The resiny ossencess of the pines pervade every
230 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
pore of his body, and eating his flesh is like chew
ing gum.
One never tires of this bright chip of nature, —
this brave little voice cr3iug in the Avilderness, — of
observing his many AVorks and ways, and listening
to his curious language. His musical, piny gossip
is as savory to the ear as balsam to the palate ;
anel, tlumgh lies has not exacstly tlus gift of song,
somes of his notcss a.rcs a.s swesei; a.s tlioscs of a. liiincst
— almost flute-like iu softness, Avhile others prick
and tingle like thistles. He is the mocking-bird of
squirrels, pouring forth mixed chatter and song
like a xjerennial fountain; barking like a dog,
screaming like a liaAvk, chirping like a blackbird
or a sparrow; Avliile in bluff, audacious noisiness
he is a A^ery jay.
In descending the trunk of a tree Avitli the iuteii-
tion of alighting on the ground, he preserves a
cautious silence, mindful, jjorhaps, of foxes and
wildcats ; but while rocking safely at home in the
pine-tops there is no end to his capers and noise;
and Avoe to the gray sepiirrel or ciii[)muiik that
veiitiire\s to sest foot on his bivorites trees! No
mattesr how slyly tliisy lra.ces thes furrows of thes
bark, they aro speedily discovered, and kicsked
doAvn-stairs Avitli comic vehemence, Avhile a torrent
of angry notes comes rushing from his whiskeresel
lips that sounds rismarkably like sweviriiig, lbs
Avill OA^cn atlesmpt at tiiniss to drives away dogs and
men, especially if he has had nc^ })revious kiuAV-
ledge of them. Seeing a man for the first time, ho
approaeiies lusarer and nearer, until Avithiu a fcAV
feet; then, Avith an angry outburst, he makes a
TIIR DOUetljAS StiUIRREL
231
sudden rush, all teeth and eyes, as if about to eat
you up. But, finding that the big, forked animal
does n't scare, he prudently beats a retreat, and sets
himself up to reciouuoiter on some overhanging
branch, scrutinizing every movement you make
Avith ludicrous solemnity, Gath-
csringcoHra.ge,lie vcsnturesdowii
thes trunk again, ciiiii'ring and
chirping, a,ncl jerking nervously
up and down in emrioiis loops,
eyeing you afl the time, as if
slioAving off aud demaudiiig
your a,clmi rat ion. Fi mil ly, grow
ing calmer, he settles cloAvii in
a comfortable posture on some
horizontal branch commanding
a good view, and beats time with
his tail to a steady "Chee-u])!
chee-ui) ! " or, when somewhat
less excited, "Pee-ali!" Avitli the
first syllable keenly aescentescl,
aud the second drawn out like
the scream of a liaAvk, — repeat
ing this sloAvljr and more em
phatically at first, then gradu
ally faster, until a rate of about 150 words a min-
iiles is resa.ciii\d ; usually sitting all tlics time em his
liauncshes, Avitli paws resting on his breast, which
pulses Adsibly Avitli each A\^ord, It is remarkable,
too, that, though articulating distinctly, he keeps
his mouth shut most of the time, and speaks through
his nose, I have occasionally observed him even
eating Sequoia seeds and nibbling a troublesome
TRACK OP DOUGLAS
SQUIRREL ONCE DOWN
AND UP A PINE-TREE
WHEN SHOWING OFF TO
A SPECTATOR.
232 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
ilea, without ceasing or in auy Avay confusing his
"Peo-ab ! pec-ah!" bn- a. singles monusiit.
While asceiidiiig trees all his c;laws cemie inb)
play, but in descending the weight of his body is
sustained chiefly by those of the hind feet ; still in
neither case do his niovements suggest eft'ort,
though if you are near enough you may see the
bulging strength of his short, bear-like arms, and
note his sinewy fists clinched in the bark.
Whether going up or doAvn, he carries his tail ex
tended at full length in line Avitli his body, unless
it be required for gestures. But Avhile running
along horizontal limbs or fallen trunks, it is fre
quently folded forward over the back, Avith the airy
tip daintily upcuiied. In cool Aveather it keeps him
warm. Then, after he has finished his meal, you
may see him crouched close on some level limb with
his tail-robe neatly spread and reaching forAvard to
his ears, the electric, outstanding hairs quivering
in the breeze like pine-needles. But in Avet or very
cold Aveather ho sbiys in his nest, and Avhile cuiicsd
up there his comforter is long enough to couio bir-
Avard around his nose. It is seldom so cold, how
ever, as to prevent his going out to his stores Avhen
hungry. Once as I lay storm-bound on the upper edge of
the timber line on Mount Shasta, the thermometer
nearly at zero and the sky thick Avitli driving snow,
a Douglas came bravely out several times from one
of the loAver liolloAvs of a DAvarf Pine near my camp,
faced the wind without seeming to feel it much,
frisked lightly about over the mealy suoav, aud dug
his way down to some hidden seeds Avitli Avonder-
'CUE DOUGLAS SQUIRREL 233
ful preeiision, as if to his eyes the thick snow-
covering Avere glass.
No other of the Sierra animals of my acquain-
tauco is better fed, uot even the deer, amid abun
dances of sweet berlis and shrubs, or the mountain
slicei), or omnivorous bears. His food consists of
grass-seeds, berries, hazel-nuts, chinquapins, and
the nuts aud seeds of all the coniferous trees
without exception, — Pine, Fir, Spruce, Libocedrus,
Juniiier, and Sequoia, — he is fond of them all, and
they all agree with him, green or ripe. No cone is
too large for him to manage, none so small as to be
l>esiiesa.th his notiese. The smalle^r ones, sucIi as those
of the llemlocik, and the Douglas tSpruce, and the
Two-lesa.AMiiI Pino, he cuts off and eats on a brancii
of the trec^, Avithout allowing them to fall; begin
ning at the bottom of the cone and cutting away
the scales to expose the seeds; not gnawing by
guess, like a besar, but turning them round and
round in I'cgular order, in compliance with their
spiral arrangement,
Wheu thus employed, his location in the tree is
betrayed by a dribble of scales, shells, and seed-
Aviiigs, and, every foAV minutes, by the fall of the
stripped axis of the cone. Then of course he is
ready for another, and if you are Avatching you
may catch a glimpse of him as he glides sflently
out, to the end of a lirancii and see him examining
the cone-clusters untfl he finds one to his mind;
then, leaning over, pull back the springy needles
out of his way, grasp the cone with his paws to
prevent its falling, snip it off in an incredibly short
time, seize it Avith jaAvs grotesquely stretched, and
234
THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
return to his chosen seat near the trunk. But
the immense size of the cones of tho Sugar Pine —
from iiftecn to twenty ineiies iu lesngth — and those
of the Jeff'rey variety of the YcUoav Pine compel
him to adoi:)t a quite different method. He cuts
them off Avithout attempting to hold them, them
goes doAvii and drags them from Avhere they have
chanced to fall up to the bares, swiiling groiind
ai'oiincl thes iiistesp of thes trec>, wliercs lies elcsniol-
ishes tlieni in tho same methodical Avay, besgiii-
niug at the bottom and folloAving the scale-spirals
to the top.
From a single Sugar Pine ccme he gets from Iavo
to four hundred seeds about half the size of a hazel
nut, so that in a foAV
minutes he esau procure
enough to last aAveek, Ho
seems, however, to prefer
those of the tAvo Silver
First aboA'o all others ;
perhaps because they are
most easily obtained, as
the scalcss dro|) olf avIicsii
ripe Avithout needing to
be cut. Both siiecies are
filled Avith au excseedingly
pnngent
iromaties
)il.
iSHKP.S, WlNCiS, AND ,S(',\I,F, Oli
.SIKIAU PINK. (NAT. .Sl/,|.;.)
Avliicii spices all his tlessli,
a.ncl is of ilscsif siifliciisiit
to aciconnt for his lightning energy.
You may easily kiioAv this little Avorkman by his
chips. On sunny billsidess a,rc)Hiicl Ibes principal
trees they lie in big piles, — bushels and basketfuls
'ITIE DOUGLAS SQUIRREL 235
of them, all fresh and clean, making the most
beautiful kitchen-middens imaginable. The brown
and yesllow scales and nut-shells are as abundant
and as deslicately penciled and tinted as the shells
along the sea-shore; Avhile the beautiful red and
IHirple scM'd-wings mingliMl Avitli them Avould lead
ones to fancy (hat iiiiuimen'able biittesiilies had there
met thesir \'aU\
lbs bsa.st.s on all the species long before they aro
ripe, but is wise enough to Avait until they are ma
tured before he gathers them into his barns. This
is in October aud November, Avhich with him are
the two busiest months of the yea.r. All kinds of
burs, big and little, are uoav cut off aud showered
doAvn alike, and the ground is speedily covered
Avitli them, A constant thudding and bumping is
kept up ; some of the larger cones chancing to fall
OH old logs make tho forest reecho with the sound.
Other nut-eaters Icsss inclustrious know well Avhat is
going on, and hasten to carry aAA^ay the cones as
tlicsy fall. But hoAvexer busy the harvester may be,
he is not sIoav to descry the pilferers below, and in
stantly leaves his work to drive them away. The
little striped tamias is a thorn in his flesh, stealing
persistentl.y, punish him as he may. The large
Gray Squirrel gives trouble also, although the
Douglas has been aescused of stealing from him,
(ienerally, liowcsve>,r, just \he opposite is the ca.se.
The esxccileuce of the Sierra CA-ergreens is well
knoAVii to nurserymen throughout the Avorld, con-
sec)uently there is considerable demand for the
seeds. The greater portion of tho supply has
hitherto been procured by choppbig dowu the trees
236 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
in the more accessible sections of the forest along
side of bridle-paths that cross the range, Seepioia
seeds at (irst brought from twenty to thirty dolkirs
per pound, and therefore Avere eagerly sought after.
Some of the smaller fruitful trees Avere cut down in
the groves not protected by goA^ernment, especially
those of Fresno and King's RiA^er. Most of the Se-
epioias, however, are of so gigantic a size that thes
seedsmeu have to look for tho greater xiortion of
their supplies to the Douglas, Avho soon learns he is
no match for these freebooters. Ho is wise enough,
however, to cease working the instant he perceives
them, and neA^er fails to embrace every opportunity
to recover his burs whenever they happen to be
stored in any place accessible to him, and the busy
seedsman often finds on returning to camp that
the little Douglas has exhaustively spoiled the
spoiler. I know one seed-gatherer avIio, whenever
he robs the squirrels, scatters wheat or barley be
neath the trees as conscience-money.
The want of a])precsiable life remarkcMl by so
many travelers in the Sierra fen-ests is nesver feslt
at this time of year. Banish all tlie humming in
sects aud the birds and (piadrupeds, lesaving only
Sir Douglas, aud the most solitary of our so-called
solitudes would still throb with ardent life. But
if you should go impatiently even into the most
populous of the groA'es on purpose to meet him,
and walk about looking up among the branches,
you would see very little of him. But lie doAvn at
the foot of one of the trees and straightway he Avill
come. For, in the midst of the ordinary forest
sounds, the falling of burs, piping of quails, the
'HIE DOUGLAS SQUIRREL 237
scrcsa.ming of the (Jlark CroAV, and the rustling of
deer and bears among the chaparral, he is quick
to detect your strange footsteps, and Avfll hasten to
make a good, close inspection of you as soon as
you arcs still. First, you may hear bun sounding a
foAv notes of curious inquiry, but more likely the
first iutunation of his approach wifl be the iirickly
sounds of his feet as he descends the tree overhead,
just before he makes his savage onrush to frighten
you and proclaim your iiresence to CA^ery squirrel
and bird in the neighborhood. If you remain per
fectly motionless, he will come nearer and nearer,
a.iicl ]u-c)bal)ly set your tlewli a-tinglo by frisking
across your body. Once, Avliile I Avas seateHl at the
b)ot of a, Ibsmloeic Spruce in one of the most in-
accessiblcs of tho San Joa,c[uiii yosemites engaged
iu sketching, a reckless felloAV came up behind me,
passed under my bended arm, and jumped on my
paper. And one Avarni aftcrnoou, Avhilo an old friend
of mine was reading out iu the shade of his cabin,
one of his Douglas neighbors jumped from the
gable upon his head, and then Avith admirable as
surance ran doAvn over his shoulder and on to the
book he held in his hand.
Our Douglas enjoys a large social circle ; for,
besides his numerous relatives, Sciurus fossor, Ta
mias quadrivitatns, T. Toivnsendii, Spermophilus
Jhrrhegi, S. Jhugla.sii, he maintains intimate reia-
tions Avitli the nut-eatbig birds, particularly the
(Hark Crow {Vieicorvus eolumbianns) and the nu
merous Avoodpeckers and jays. The two spermo-
philes are astonishingly abundant in the lowlands
and loAver foot-hiUs. but more and more sparingly
238 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
distributed up through the Douglas domains, — sel
dom venturing higher than six or seven thousand
foot above tho level of the sesa, Thes gi'a,y sesinrus
ranges but little higher than this. The little
striped tamias alone is associated Avith him csvesiy-
where. In the loAver and middle zones, Avhere they
all meet, they are tolerably harmonious — a luqipy
family, tliemgh vi»-ry aiinising skirmishes may oc-
(sasi on ally lies witmsssesd. Whesres\'csr thes aiiciesnt gla
ciers have spread forisst soil tlieres you find our wescs
hero, most abundant Avliere depth of stiil and genial
climate have giA^eii rise to a corresponding luxuri
ance in the trees, but foUoAving every kind of
growth up the curving moraines to the highest
glacial fountains.
Though I cannot of course expect all my readesrs
to sympathize fully in my admiration of this littles
animal, foAV, f hope, Avill tliiiik thissketeii of his lifcs
too long, I cauiiot be^giii to tell here how mucii he
has cheered my lonely Avanderings during all the*
years I have been imrsiiing my studies iu tluwe glo
rious Avilds; orhowmncli unniistakables hiimanilyl
have found in him. Take this for es.xanqilis: One
calm, cresa,iny liicliaii siiniiiicsr morning, wlicsii (lies
nuts were ripe, 1 Avas campesd in the upper pine-
woods of the south fork of the San Joaquin, Avhere
the squirrels seemed to bo about as pdentiful as tho
ripe burs. They Avere taking an early breakfast
befeu'e going to tlieir regular harvest.-AVork. While
I was busy with my own brcsakbist I licsard (he
thudding fall of tAvo or three lieaAy cones from a
Yellow Pine near me, I stoles uoiseicissly forAvard
within about tAventy feset of the base of it to ob-
'I'llH DOUGLAS SQUIRREL 239
serve. In a fcsw moments dc^AAm came the Douglas,
The breakfast-burs he had cut off had rolled on
tho gently sloping ground into a clump of cea-
uolhiis bushes, but he seemed to kuow exactly
wlicsro thesy vveres, for ho found them at oucio, a.p-
parently Avithout searching for them, . They Avere
more tliaii tAvico as heavy as himself, but after
tiiriiing tliesni into Uu) right position bir getting a
gooil hold Avitii his long sieskle-tcsetb, lies nninaged to
drag tlicsin up to thes foot of the tree from Avliich
he had cut them, moving backward. Then seating
himself comfortably, he held them on end, bottom
up, and dcMnobsluMl tliesni a.t his ease. A, good deal
of nibbling had to bo done before he got anything
to eat, because the loAver scales are barren, but
Avliesii ho had patiently AAairked his Avay up to the
fertile ones he found two sweet nuts at the base of
eacii, slniped like trimmc^,d hams, and spotted purple
likes birds' e>ggs. Ami notwithstanding these cones
AA'ore dripping, with soft balsam, and coA'ere3d AAith
]irici<les, anil so strongly jnit together that a bey
Avould be puzzled lo cut tlieni open Avith a jack-
knife, ho acscomplished his meal Avith easy dignity
and cleanliness, making less elfort apparently than
a man aa'ouIcI iu eating soft cookery from a plate.
Breakfast done, I Avhistled a tune for him before
he Avent to Avorlc, curious to see Iioav he Avould be
affcM'led by it, lbs had no( sec>ii iiics all this while;
but thes iiisla.iit I lie\gaii (o whistle he darted up
the tree nearest to him, aucl camo out on a small
dead limb opposite me, aud composed himself^ to
listen, I sang and Avhistled more than a dozen airs,
and as the music changed his eyes sparkled, and
240 THE MOUNT.UNS OP CALIFORNIA
he turned his head epiieskly from side to side, but
made no other response, Otliesr sepiirresls, hisaring
thes stranges soumls, esaiiio around on all sidess, also
chipmunks and birds. One of tho birds, a hand
some, speckle-breasted thrush, seemed even more
interested than the squirrels. After listening for
awhile on one of the lower dead sprays of a pine,
he came swooping forward Avithin a few feet of my
face, and remained fluttering in the air for half a
minute or so, sustaining himself Avitli Avhirriiig
wing-beats, like a humming-bird in front of a floAver,
while I could look into his eyes and see his inno
cent wonder.
By this time my performance must have lasted
nearly half an hour, I sang or Avhistled "Bonnie
Doou," "Lass o' Cowrie," "O'er the Water to Char
lie," "Bonnie Woods o' Cragie Lee," etc, all of
which seemed to be listened to with bright interest,
my first Douglas sitting patiently through it all,
with his telling eyes fixed upon me until I ven
tured to give tho "Old ITundredth," Avheii lies
screamed his Indian name, Pillilloocet, turned tail,
and darted with ludicrous haste up the tree out of
sight, his voice and actions in tlus case leaving a
somewhat profane impression, as if he had said,
"I'll be hanged if you get me to hear anything
so solemn and unpiny," This acted as a signal
for the general dispersal of the whole hairy
tribe, though the birds seemed willing to wait
further develoimients, music being naturally more
in their line.
What there can be in that grand old church-tune
that is so offensive to birds and squirrels I can't
'rHE DOUGLAS SQHlKltEL 241
imagine, vX year or two after this High Sierra
e'oiicert, 1 was sitting one fine day on a hill in the
Coast Range Avliere the common Ground Squirrels
Avere abundant. They Avere very shy on account of
being hunted so much; but after I had been silent
and motionless for half au hour or so they began to
vcMiture out of tbc>ir holess and to fec>el em thes seeds
of the grasses and thistles around me as if I were
no more to be feared than a tree-stump. Then it
occurred to me that this was a good opportunity to
(ind out Avhether they also dislikocl "Old Ilun-
dredtli," Therefore I began to whistle as neaii}^ as
I could remesiiibcM' tbe same fa.iiiilia.r airs that had
[ilisased the! mountaineers of the Sierra. They at
once stopped eating, stood erect, and listened pa
tiently until I came to " Old Hundredth," when
Avith ludicrous haste every oue of them rushed to
their holes and bolted iu, their feet tAviiikling in
the air for a moment as they vanished.
No one AAdio makes the acciuaintance of onr for-
esstesr xvill biil b) admire him; but he is far too self-
reliant and Avaiiike ever to be taken for a darling,
Hoav long the life of a Douglas Squirrel may be,
I don't knoAV, The young seem to sprout from
knot-holes, perfect from the first, and as enduring
as their oavu trees. It is difficult, indeed, to realize
that so condensed a piece of sun-fire should ever
become dim or die at all. Ho is seldom killed by
hunters, for he is too small to encourage much of
their attention, and Avhen pursued in settled regions
becomes excessively shy, and keeps close in the
f urroAVS of the highest trunks, many of which are of
the same color as himself, Indian boys, however,
242 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
lie in wait with unbounded patience to shoot them
with arrows. In the loAver and middle zones a few
fall a prey to rattlesnakes. Occasionally ho is pur
sued by liaAvks and Avildcats, etc. But, upon the
Avhole, he dwells safely in the deep bosom of the
Avoods, the most highly favored of all his hajipy
tribe. May his tribe increase I
CHAPTER X
A AVIND-STORM IN THE FORESTS
THE mountain winds, like the dew and rain,
sunshine and snow, are measured and bestoAved
with love on the forests to develop their strength
and beauty. However restricted the scope of other
forest influences, that of the winds is universal.
The SUOAV bends and trims tho upper forests e\'ery
winter, the lightning strikes a single trise lusres and
there, while avalanches mow down thousands at a
swoop as a gardener trims out a bed of flowers. But
the winds go to every tree, fingering every leaf
and branch and furrowed bole ; not one is forgotten;
the Mountain Pine towering Avitli outstretched arms
on the rugged buttresses of the icy peaks, the lowliest
and most retiring tenant of the dells ; they seek and
find them all, caressing them tenderly, bending them
in lusty exercise, stimulating their groAvth, iducking
off a leaf or limb as required, or removing an entire
tree or grove, now whispering and cooing through
the branches like a sleepy child, iioav roaring like
the ocean; the winds blessing the forests, the
forests the winds, with inett'able beauty and har
mony as the sure result.
After one has seen pines six feet in diameter
bending like grasses before a mountain gale, and
A AVIND-STORM IN THE FORESTS
245
A WIND-STORM IN THE CALIFORNIA FORESTS.
(AFTER A SKETCH BY TIIE AUTHOR.)
ever and anon some giant falling Avith a crash that
shakes the hills, it seems astonishing that any, save
the lowest thickset trees, could ever have found a
period sufficiently stormless to establish them-
sch^es ; or, once established, that they should not.
246 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
sooner or later, have been blown doAvn, But when
the storm is over, and we behold the same forests
tranepiil again, biwering fressh and uiiseiathcsd in
erect majesty, and consider wdiat centuries of storms
have fallen upon them since they were first planted,
— hail, to break the tender seedlings ; lightning, to
scorch and shatter; snow, winds, and aA^alauches,
to crush and overAvhelm, — Avliile tho manifest re
sult of all this Avild storm-culture is the glorious
perfection Ave behold; then faith in Nature's for
estry is established, and we cease to deplore the
violence of her most destructive gales, or of auy
other storm-implement whatsoever.
There are two trees in the Sierra forests that are
never bloAvn down, so long as they continue in
sound health. These are the Juniper and the
Dwarf Pine of the summit peaks. Their stiff,
crooked roots grip the storm-beaten ledges like
eagles' claws, while their lithe, cord-like branches
bend round compliantly, offering but slight holds
for winds, however violent, 'Plie other alpine coni
fers — the Needle Pines, ]\Iounbiiu Pines, 'Two-lesavcsd
Pine, a,neliremlo(!k Spruce — ares never tliiiiiie>el out
by this agent to any destructive extent, on account
of their admirable toughness and the closeness of
their groAvth, In general the same is true of the
giants of tho loAver zones. The kingly Sugar Pine,
toAvering aloft to a height of more than 200 feet,
offers a fine mark to stonn-Avinds ; but it is not
densely foliaged, and its long, horizontal arms
swing round compliantly in the blast, like tresses
of green, tluont alga3 in a brook ; while the Silver
Firs in most places keep their ranks well together
A WIND-S'rORM IN TIIE PCUIESTS 247
ill united stresngth. The Yeflow or Sflver Pine is
more frequently overturned than any other tree on
the Sierra, because its leaves and branches form
a larger mass iu proportion to its height, AvhUe
in many phwes it is phiiited spiirsely, leaving open
lanes through Avhicli storms may enter with full
force. Furthermore, because it is distributed along
, the loAver portion of the range, which was the first
to be left bare on the breaking up of the ice-sheet
at the close of the glacial winter, the soil it is grow
ing upon has been longer exposed to post-glacial
weathering, and consequently is in a more crumb
ling, dcsc,a.ye.d esomlition tluiii the frosluH' scils
farther ui» tho range, aud therefore offers a less
secure a.nchora.ge for the roots.
While exploring the forest zones of Mount
Shasta, I discovered the path of a hurricane
strewn Avitli thousands of pines of this species,
Grea.t and small had been uprooted or wrenched
off by sheer force, making a clean gap, like that
made by a suoav avalanche. But hurricanes capa
ble of doing this class of Avork are rare in the
Sierra, and Avhen Ave have explored the forests
from one extremity of the range to the other, we
are compelled to believe that they are the most
beautiful on the face of the earth, hoAvever Ave may
re<,ga,rd tho n.geuts that have made them so.
There is alwa.ys something deoiily exciting, not
only il I the sounds of winds iu the Avoods, wliich exert
more or less influence over every mind, but in their
varied waterlike flow as manifested by the move
ments of the trees, especiaUy those of the conifers.
By no other trees are they rendered so extensively
248 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
and impressively visible, not even by the lordly
tropic palms or tree-ferns responsive to the gent
lest breeze. The waving of a forest of the giant
Sequoias is indescribably impressive and sublime,
but the pines seem to me the best interpreters of
winds. They are mighty Avaviug goldenrods, ever
in tune, singing and Avritiug Avind-musie all their
long century lives. Little, hoAVOA'^er, of this noble
tree-Avaving and tree-music Avill you scso or besar in
the strictly alpine portion of the forests. The burly
Juniper, whose girth sometimes more than equals
its height, is about as rigid as the rocks on AAdiich it
grows. The slender lash-like sprays of the DAvarf
Pine stream out iu wavering ripples, but the tallest
and slenderest are far too unyielding to Avave evesn
in the lieaAdest gales. They oidy shako in quick,
short vibrations. The Hemlock Spruce, hoAveve^r,
and the Mountain Pine, and some of the tallest
thickets of the TAVo-leaved species boAV iu storm.'-
Avitli considerable scope aud gracefulness. But it
is only in the loAver and middle zones that the
meeting of Aviiids and woods is to be seen iu all its
jfraiideur. One of the most beautiful and exhilarating
storms I ever enjoyed in the Sierra occurred in De
cember, 1874, when I happened to be exploring one
of the tiibutary valleys of the Yuba Rivesr, The
sky and the ground anel the trees had been thor
oughly rain-washed anel wercs dry again. Thes day
was intensely pure, one of those incomparable bits
of California winter, Avarm and balmy aud full of
white sparkling sunshine, redolent of all the iiurest
influences of the spring, aud at the same time en-
s
&
A WIND-STORM IN THE FORESTS 249
livened Avith one of the most bracing wind-storms
conceivable. Instead of camping out, as I usually
do, I then chanced to be stopping at the house of a
friend. But Avhen the storm began to sound, I lost
no time iu pushbig out into the Avoods to enjoy it.
For on such occasions Nature has always some-
tliiiig rare to show us, and the danger to life and
limb is hardly greater than ono would experience
croiieshing cle.|)reMsa.tingly beneath a roof.
It Avas still early morning Avheii 1 found my-
seif fairly adrift, Delicious sunshine came pour
ing over the hills, lighting the tops of the pines,
and sestting frees a steam of summery fragrance that
contrasted strangely Avitli the Avild tones of the
storm. The air was mottled Avitli pine-tassels and
bi ight green plumes, that AA^ent flashing past in the
sunlight like birds pursued. But there was not
the slightest dustiness, nothing less pure than
lea.ves, and ripe pollen, aucl flecks of withered
bracicen and moss, I heard trees falling for hours
a.t the rato of one every two or three minutes ;
some uprooted, partly on account of the loose, wa
ter-soaked condition of the ground ; others broken
straight across, where some Aveakness caused by
fire had determined the spot. The gestures of the
various trees made a delightful study. Young Su
gar Pines, light and feathery as squirrel-tails, were
boAving almost to the ground; Avhile the grand old
patriarchs, whose massive boles had been tried in
a hundred storms, waved solemnly above them,
their long, arching branches streaming fluently on
the gale, and overy needle thrifling and ringing
a,iid shedding off keen lances of light like a dia-
250 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
mond. The Douglas Spruces, with long sprays
drawn out in level tresses, and needles massed in a
gray, shimmering glow, presentesd a most striking
appearance as they stood in bold relief along the
hilltops. The madronos in the dells, Avitli their
red bark and larger glossy lesaA^'S tilted every
way, reflected the sunshine in throbbing s})aiigies
like those one so often sees on the rippled surface
of a glacier lake. Hut lilies Silver Piness Avesre uoav
the most impressively beautiful of all. Colossal
spires 200 feet in height waved like supple golden
rods chanting aud bowing low as if in Avorshi]i,
Avhile the whole mass of their long, tremulous foli
age was kindled into one continuous blaze of Avliite
sun-fire. The force of the gale was such that the
most steadfast monarch of them all rocsked doAVU to
its roots with a motion plainly perceptible when one
leaned against it. Nature Avas holding high festi
val, and every fiber of the most rigid giants thrilled
with glad excitement,
I drifted on through tho midst of tliis passionate
music anel motion, across many a glesii, from ridge
to ridge; often halting in thes lees of a, roeic bsr
shelter, or to gazo and listen, l<jvesii avIicu thes
grand anthem had swelled to its highest pitch, I
could distinctly hear the varying tones of individ
ual trees, — Spruce, and Fir, anel Pine, and loafiess
Oak, — and even the intinitely gentle riistli>, of the
withered grasses at my feest. Ea.cli Avas es.\[)rcsssiiig
itself in its own way, — singing its oavu song, and
making its own peculiar gestures, — manifesting a
richness of variety to be found in no ollicsr b>resst 1
have yet seen. The coniferous AVOods of Canada,
A AVIND-STORM IN THE FORESTS 251
and the Carolinas, and Florida, are made up of
trees that resemble one another about as nearly as
blades of grass, and grow close together iu much
the^ same Ava.y, Coniferous trees, in general, sel
dom possess individiial ciiarac;t;er, sucii as is mani
fest among Oaks and Elms, But the (Jalifornia
forests are made up of a greater number of distinct
s[)ecies than any other in the Avoiid, And in them
Ave find, not only a marked differentiation into
special groups, but also a marked individuality in
almost every tree, giving rise to storm effects in
describably glorious,
ToAva,rel miclda.y, after ahmg, tingling scrayflilo
through copses of hazel and ceanotlius, I gained
tlie summit of the highest ridge in the neighbor
hood; and then it occurred to me that it would be
a tine thing to ciimb one of the trees to obtain a
Avidisr outlook and get my ear close to the ^olian
music of its topmost needles. But under the cir-
cHinstances the choice of a tree Avas a serious mat-
tor. One Avhoso instep Avas not very strong seemed
in danger of being bloAvii doAvii, or of being struck
by others in case they should fall ; another was
bi'anchless to a considerable height above the
ground, and at the same time too large to be
grasped Avitli arms and legs iu climbing; while
others Avere not favorably situated for clear vicAvs,
After ca.ii(ioiisly ca,s(.iiig about., I made eiioice of
the ta.llest of a group of Douglas Spruces that
Avere groAving close together like a tuft of grass, no
one ot whicli seemed likely to fall unless all the
rest fell Avith it. Though comparatively young,
they Avere about 100 feet high, and their lithe,
252 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
brushy tops Avere rocking and sAvirling in wild ec
stasy. Being accustomed to climb trees in making
botanical studies, I experienced no difficulty iu
reaching the top of this one, and never before did I
enjoy so noble an exhilaration of motion. The
sleneier tops fairly fiapped and swished in the pas
sionate torrent, bending and SAviiiing backward
and forward, round and round, tracing indescriba
ble combinations of vertical and horizontal curves,
while I clung Avitli muscles firm braced, like a bobo
link on a reed.
In its widest sweeps my tree-top described an
arc of from twenty to thirty degrees, but I felt
sure of its elastic temper, having seen others of
the same species stfll more severely tried — bent
almost to tho ground indeecl,iu lii^avy snows — Avith
out breaking a fiber, I vvas therefore safe, and frise
to take the Avind into my pulses and enjoy the ex
cited forest from my superb outlook. The vioAV
from here must be extremely lieantifnl iu any
weather. Now iny eye roved over the piny hills
and dales as over fields of waving grain, and felt
the light running in ripples and broad SAvelling un
dulations across the valleys from ridgo to ridges, as
the shining foliage was stirred by corresponding
waves of air. Oftentimes these Avaves of i-efleeted
light would break up suddenly into a kind of
beaten foam, and again, after chasing one another
in regular order, they would seem to bisnd birward
in concentric curves, and disappear on some hill
side, like sea-waves on a shelving shore. The
quantity of light reflected from the bent needles
was so great as to make whole groves appear as if
^ KM.ow I'INK .\Nii i.ir.(ni;iii:i .s,
Tho twu iii-;HU' Irccs ;iro IjDjocoiIi'us, the two oul-iidL' tree.s, Vellow I'iiio.
A WINn-S'l'ORM IN THE FOREsrs 25.5
covered with suoav, Avliile the black shadows be
neath the trees greatly enhanced the effect of the
silvery splendor.
Excepting only the shadows there Avas nothing
somber in all this Avild sea of pines. On the con
trary, iiotAvitlistaiidiiig this was the winter season,
the colors Avero remarkably beautiful. The shafts
of the^ pines and libocedrus wercs brown and jmriile,
and most of the foliage was well tinged with yel-
loAv; the laurel groves, Avith the pale undersides
of their leaves turned upward, made masses of
gray ; and then there was many a dash of chocolate
ciolor from clumps of manzanita, and jet of vivid
crimson from the bark of the madronos, Avhile the
ground on the hillsides, appearing here and there
through openings betAvisen the groves, displayed
masses of pale purple and broAvii.
The sounds of the storm corresponded gloriously
with this Avild exuberance of light and motion.
The profound bass of the naked branches and
boles booming like Avaterfalls ; the quick, tense
vibrations of the pine-needles, now risuig to a
shrill, whistling hiss, uoav falling to a silky mur
mur ; the rustling of laurel groves in the dells, and
the keen metallic click of leaf on leaf — all this was
heard in easy analysis when the attention was
calmly bent.
The varied gestures of the multitude were seen
to fine advantage, so that one could recognize the
different species at a distance of several mfles by
this means alone, as well as by their forms and
colors, and the way they reflected the light. All
seemed strong and comfortable, as if really enjoy-
254 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
ing- the storm, Avliile responding to its most en
thusiastic greetings. We hear much noAvadays
concerning the univesrsal struggles \'ov (sxistcsiieses,
but no struggle in the common meaning of the
word was manifest here ; no recognition of danger
by any tree ; no deprecation ; but rather an invin
cible gladness as remote from exultation as from
fear. I kept my lofty perch for hours, frequently clos
ing my eyes to enjoy the music by itself, or to
feast quietly on the delicious fragrance that AA'^as
streaming past. The fragrance of the woods Avas
less marked than that jiroduced during warm rain,
when so many balsamic buds and leaA^es are
steeped like tea; but, from the ciiafing of resiny
branches against each other, and the incessant
attrition of myriads of needles, the gale Avas spiced
to a very tonic degree. And besides the fi-agrance
from these local sources there were traces of scsisuts
brought from afar. For this Avind came first from
tho se3a, rubbing against its fresh, briny Ava.vess,
thou distilled through the redwoods, threading ricii
ferny giilciies, and s[)r(sadiiig itseslf in brc)a,cl uiidn-
lating currents over many a tlower-enameled lidge
of the coast mountains, then across the golden
plains, up the purple foot-hills, aud iuto these piny
woods with the varied incense gathered by the way.
Winds are advertisements of all they touch,
however much or little wo may be able to read
them ; telling their Avanderings even by their scents
alone. Mariners detect the flowery perfume of
land-winds far at sea, and sea-winds carry the fra
grance of dulse and tangle far inland, Avhere it is
A AVIND-STORM IN THE FORESTS 255
epiieskly reisognized, though mingled Avitli the scents
of a thousand land-llowei's. As an illustration of
this, I Hh'y teil here that I breathed sea-air on
the Firth of Forth, in Scotland, Avhile a boy;
tbesn Avas taken to Wisconsin, Avliero I remained
uiueteon years ; then, Avithout in all this time hav
ing breathed oue breath of the sea, I walked
qiiietl}^, alone, from the middle of the Mississippi
Valley to the Gulf of Mexico, on a botanical excur
sion, aud AAiiile in Florida, far from the coast, my
attention Avliolly bent on the splendid tropical
vcsgcstation about me, I suddenly recognized a sca-
brcseze, a.s it csauie si fling through the palmettos
and blooming Aiues-ta,iiglcss, Avliich at once awak-
esiicsel and set I'ree a thousa.nd dormant associatiou.s,
a,nd nia.dcs nic^ a. boy a.ga,iii in Scsotbind, as if all the
inter veiling years had been annihilated.
Most people like to look at niountain rivers, and
bear them in mind; but feAV care to look at the
Aviiids, though far more beautiful and sublime, and
tboiigb they be>conie at times about as visible as
flowing Avator, When the north Avinds in winter
are making upAvard SAveeps over the curving sum
mits of the High Sierra, the fact is sometimes pub
lished Avitli flying snoAV-banners a mile long. Those
portions of the Avinds thus embodied can scarce be
Avliolly invisflile, even to the darkest imagination.
And Avheii Ave look around over au agitated forest,
AVO may see something of the Avind that stirs it, by
its effects upou the trees. Yonder it descends in a
rush of Avater-like ripples, and sAveeps over the
bending pines from hill to hifl. Nearer, we see
detached plumes and leaves, now speeding by on
256 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
level currents, uoav Avhirling in eddies, or, escaping
over the edges of the Avhirls, soaring aloft on
grand, upswefliiig domes of air, or tossing on
fiame-like crests. Smooth, deep currents, cascades,
falls, and swirling eddies, sing around every tree
and leaf, and over all the varied topography of the
region with telling changes of form, like mountain
rivers conforming to the features of their channels.
After tracing the Sierra streams from their fonii-
tains to the plains, marking Avhero thoy bloom
white in falls, glide in crystal plumes, surge gray
and foam-filled in boulder-choked gorges, and slip
through the woods in long, tranquil reaches — after
thus learning their language aud forms in detail,
Ave may at length hear them chanthig all together
in one grand anthem, and comprehend them all in
clear inner vision, covering the range like lace.
But even this specitaeie is far less sublime and not
a whit more substantial than what we may behold
of these storm-streams of air in the mountain Avoods,
We all travel the milky way together, trees and
men ; but it never occurred to me until this storm-
day, while swinging in the Avind, that trees are
travelers, in the ordinary sense. They make many
journeys, not extensive ones, it is true ; but our
own little journeys, aAvay and back again, are only
little more than tree-wavings — many of them not
so much.
When the storm began to abate, I dismounted
and sauntered down through tho calming Avoods,
The storm-tones died away, and, turning toward
the east, I beheld the countless hosts of the forests
hushed and tranquil, toAvering above one another
A AVIND-STORM IN THE FORESTS 257
on the slopes of the hills like a devout audience.
The setting sun filled them Avith amber light, and
seemed to say, while they listened, " My peace I
give unto you,"
As I gazed on the impressive scene, afl the so-
called ruin of the storm was forgotten, and never
before did those noble Avoods appear so fresh, so
joyous, so immortaL
CHAPTER XI
THE RIATER FLOODS
THE Sierra rivers are flooded OA^ery spring by
the melting of the snow as regularly as the
famous old Nile, They begin to rise in May, and
in June high-water mark is reached. But because
the melting does not go on rapidly over all the
fountains, high and low, simultaneously, and the
melted snow is not resinforesesd at this lime of year
by rain, the spring floods are seldom very violent
or destructive. The thousand falls, however,
and the cascades in the canons are then in full
bloom, and sing songs from one end of the range
to tho other. Of courso the snow on the loAver
tributaries of the rivers is first melted, then that
on the higher fountains most exposed to sunshine,
and about a month later the cooler, shadowy
fountains send down their treasures, thus allowing
the main trunk streams nearly six weeks to get their
waters hurried through the foot-hills and across
the lowlands to the sea. Therefore very violent
spring floods are avoided, and will be as long as
the shading, restraining forests last. The rivers of
the north half of the range are still less subject
to sudden floods, because their upper fountains
in great part lie protected from the changes of
THE RIVER FLOODS 259
the weather beneath thick folds of lava, just as
many of the rivers of Alaska lie beneath folds of
ice, coming to the light farther down the range in
large springs, while those of the high Sierra lie
on the surface of solid granite, exposed to every
change of temperature. More than ninety per
cent, of the Avater derived from the snow and ice
of Mount Shasta is at once absorbed and drained
aAvay beneath the porous lava folds of the moun
tain, where mumbling and groping in the dark
they at length find larger fissures and tunuel-like
caves from Avhich they emerge, filtered and cool,
in the form of large springs, some of them so large
they give birth to rivers that sot out on their jour
neys beneath the sun Avithout any A'isible interme
diate period of childhood. Thus the Shasta River
issues from a large lake-like spring iu Shasta Valley,
and about two thirds of the volume of the McCloud
River gushes forth suddenly from the face of a
lava bluff in a roaring spring seventy-fivo yards
wide. These spring rivers of the north are of course
shorter than those of the south whose tributaries
extend up to the tops of the mountains. Fall
River, au important tributary of the Pitt or Upper
Sacramento, is only about ten mfles long, and is
aU falls, cascades, and springs from its head to its
confluence with the Pitt, Bountiful springs, charm
ingly embowered, issue from the rocks at one end
of it, a snowy fall a hundred and eighty feet high
thunders at the other, and a rush of crystal rapids
sing and dance betAveen, Of course such streams
are but littlo affected by the Aveather, Sheltered
260 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
from evaporation their flow is nearly as full in the
autumn as in the time of general spring floods.
While those of the high Sierra diminish to less
than the hundredth part of their springtime prime,
shalloAAdng in autumn to a series of silent pools
among the rocks and hollows of their channels,
connected by feeble, creeping threads of water,
like the sluggish sentences of a tiriAcl Avritor, con
nected by a drizzle of " amis" and " huts," Stranges
to say, the greatest floods occur in winter, when
one would suppose all the wild waters Avould be
muffled and chained in frost and snow. The same
long, all-day storms of the so-called Rainy Season
in California, that give rain to the loAvlands, give
dry frosty suoav to the mountains. But at rare
intervals warm rains anel warm Aviuds invade tho
mountains and push back the suoav line from 2000
feet to 8000, or even higher, and then come the
big floods,
I was usually driven down out of the High Si
erra about the end of November, but the winter of
1874 and 1875 was so Avarm aud calm that I Avas
tempted to seek general vioAVS of the geology and
topography of the basin of Ifcather River in Janu
ary, And I had just completed a hasty survey of
the region, and made my Avay doAVii to Avinter
quarters, Avlieii one of the grandest flood-storms
that I ever saw broke on the mountains, I Avas
then in the edge of the main forest belt at a small
foot-hill town called Knoxville, on the divide be
tween the waters of the Feather and Yuba rivers.
The cause of this notable flood Avas simply a sud
den and copious fall of warm Aviiid and rain on the
THE RIVER FLOODS 261
basins of these riA-^ers at a time when they con
tained a ccmsiderable quantity of snow. The rain
was so heavy and long-sustained that it Avas, of
itscif, sutficicsiit to make a good wild flood, Avlifle
the SHOAV Avbicli the Avarm wind and rain melted on
the upper and middle regions of the basins Avas
sidficicsnt to ma,ke another flood equal to that of
tlic^ rain. Noav these two distinest harvests of flood
wa.ters Avere gatheresd simultaneously aud pouriMl
out on the plain in one magnificent avalanche.
The basins of tho Yuba aud Feather, like many
others of the Sierra, are admirably adapted to the
groAvtb of floods of this kind, Tluir many tribu-
biriess radiate I'ar and Aviile, comprehending e.\-
tonsive^ areas, aud the triliutaries are steeply
inclined, Avhile the trunks are comparatively level.
While the flood-storm was iu progress the ther
mometer at Knoxville ranged betAveen 44° and 50° ;
and A\lieii Avarm Aviucl and warm rain fall simulta
neously oil SUOAV contained iu basins like these,
both tlio rain aud that iiortioii of the snow Avliich
the rain and Avind melt are at first sponged up and
held back until the combined mass becomes sludge,
Avliich at length, suddenly dissolving, slips and de
scends all together to the trunk channel; and
since the deeper the stream the faster it flows, the
floodisd portion of the current aliove overt.a.kes the
slower b)ot-liill portion beloAv it, and all SAveeping
forwarel together Avitli a high, overcurliug front,
debouches on the open plain Avitli a violence and
suddenness that at first seem wholly unaccountable.
The destructiveness of the loAver portion of this par
ticular flood AA'as somcAvhat augmented by mining
262 THE MOUN'I'AINS OF CALIFORNIA
gravel in the river channels, and by levees wliicih
gave way after having at first restrained and held
back the accumulating waters, 'IMiesse exaggesrating
conditions did not, hoAvever, greatly inttuence the
general result, the main eft'ect having been caused
by the rare combination of flood factors indicated
above. It is a pity that but few people meet and
enjoy storms so noble as this in their homes in the
mountains, for, spending themselves in the open
levels of the plains, they are likely to be remem
bered more by the bridges and houses they carry
away than by their beauty or the thousanci bless
ings they bring to the fields and gardens of Nature,
On the morning of the flood, January 19th, all
the Feather and Yuba landscapes Avero (sovored
with running Ava.tesr, iiuiddy torresnls (illesd esvesry
gulch and ravine, anil the sky was thick Avitli
rain. The pines had long been sleeping in sun
shine ; they were now awake, roaring and waving
with the beating storm, and the winds sweeping
along the curves of hill and dale, streaming through
the Avoods, surging and gurgling on the tops of
rocky ridges, made the Avildest of wild storm melody.
It Avas easy to seo that only a small part of the
rain reached the ground in the form of drops.
Most of it was thrashed into dusty spray like that
into which small waterfalls are divided Avhen they
dash on shelving rocks. Never liaA-e I seen water
coming from the sky in denser or more passionate
streams. The wind ciiased the spray birward in
choking drifts, and compelled me again and again
to seek shelter in the dell copses and back of large
trees to rest and catch my breath. Wherever T
THE RIVER FLOODS 203
went, on ridges or in hollows, enthusiastic water
still flashed and gurgled about my ankles, recalling
a Avild Avinter flood in Yosemite when a hundred
waterfalls came booming aud chanting together
and filled the grand valley with a sea-like roar.
After drifting an hour or two in the lower woods,
I set out for the summit of a hill 900 feet high, with
a, view to getting as near the heart of the storm as
possible. In order to reach it I had to cross Dry
Creek, a tributary of the Yuba that goes crawling
along the baso of the lull on the northwest. It was
now a booming livor as large as the Tuolumne at
ordinary stages, its current brown with mining-
mud Avashed doAvn from many a " claim," and mot
tled Avitli sluice-boxes, fence-rails, and logs that
had long lain above its reach. A slim foot-bridge
stretched across it, now scarcely above the swollen
current. Here I Avas glad to linger, gazing and
listening, while the storm was in its richest mood
— the gray rain-flood above, the brown river-flood
beiiea,tli. The hinguage of the river Avas scarcely
less onchantiiig than that of the wind aud ra,iu;
the sublime overboom of the main bouncing, exult
ing current, the swash and gurgle of the eddies,
the keen dash and clash of heavy waves breaking
against rocks, and the smooth, downy hush of shal-
loAV currents feeling their way through the willow
thickets of the margin, Anel amid all this varied
throng of sounds I heard the smothered bumping
and rumbling of boulders on the bottom as they
were shoving and rolling forward against one an
other in a wild ru.sb, after having lain still for
probably 100 years or more.
264 'THE MOUN'TAINS OF CALIFORNIA
The glad creek rose high aboA'o its banks and
wandered from its channel out over many a briery
sand-fiat anel meadow. Alders anel willows waist-
deep were bearing up against the current with
nervous trembling gestures, as if afraid of being
carried away, while supple branches bending con-
lidiiigly, dipped lightly aud rose again, as if strol;-
ing the wild Avaters in ])la.y. Leaving the bridges
and passing on through the storm-ihrashesel woods,
all the ground seemed to bo moving, Pine-tassisls,
flakes of bark, soil, leaves, and broken branches
were being swept foi-Avard, and many a rock-frag
ment, weathered from exposed ledges, was now re-
(seiving its first rounding and polishing in the Avild
streams of the storm. On they rushed through
CA^eiy gulch aud liolloAv, leaping, gliding, Avorking
Avith a will, and rejoicing like living creatures.
Nor was the flood confined to the ground, EA'cry
tree had a water system of its own spreading far
and wide like miniature Amazons and Mississippis,
Toward midday, cloud, wind, aud rain reached
their highest desvelopmeut. The storm Avas in full
bloom, and fcn-med, from my commanding outlook
on the hilltop, ones of the most glorious viesws I
ever beheld. As far as the eye could reach, above,
beneath, around, wind-driven rain filled the air like
one A^ast Avaterfall, Detached clouds SAvept impos
ingly up the A^allej'-, as if they Avere endoAved with
independent motion aud had special Avork to do in
replenishing the mountain aa^oIIs, now rising aboA'o
the i")ine-tops, uoav descending iuto their midst,
fondling their arrowy sjiires and soothing every
branch anel leaf with gentleness in the midst of all
THE RIVER FLOODS 265
the savage sound and motion. Others keeping
near the ground glided behind separate groves, and
brought them forward into relief Avith admirable
distiucstness; or, passing in front, eclipsed whole
groves ill succession, pine after pine mcltbigbi their
gray fringes and bursting forth again seemingly
(slesarer tha.ii before.
The forms of storms are iu great part measured,
a.nd controlled by the topography of the regions
Avliere they rise and over Avliich they pass. When,
therefore, we attempt to study them from the val
leys, or from gaps and openings of the forest, Ave
ares conbmnded by a multitiide of separate and a.p-
liarently antagonistic impi'e\ssiems. The bottom of
the storm is broken up into innumerable waves
and currents that surge against the hillsides like
sea-Avaves against a shore, and these, reacting on
the nether surface of the storm, erode immense
(savcriious holloAvs aud canons, and swoop for
Avard the resulting detritus in long trains, like the
moraines of glaciers. But, as we ascend, these
partial, confusing eff'ects disappear and the phenom
ena are beheld united and harmonious.
The longer I gazed into the storm, the more
plainly visible it became. The drifting cloud de
tritus gave it a kind of Adsible body, which ex-
]dainecl many perplexing plienomeua, aud published
its moA^omeuts iu plain terms, Avliile tho texture of
the falling mass of rain rounded it out and ren
dered it more complete. Because raindrops dilfer
in size they fall at different velocities and overtake
and cla.sli against one another, producing mist
and spray. They also, of course, yield unequal
266 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
compliance to the force of the wind, which givers
rise to a still gresater degree of interference, and
passionate gusts SAveep off' clouds of spray from
the groves like that torn from wave-tops in a gale.
All these factors of irregularity in density, color,
and texture of the general I'ain mass tend to make
it the more appreciable and telling. It is then seen
as one grand flood rushing over bank and brae,
bending the pines like Aveeds, curving this way and
that, whirling in huge eddies in hollows and dells,
while the main current pours grandly over all, like
ocean currents over the laiidscapes that lie hidden
at the bottom of the sea,
I watched the gestures of the pines Avhile the
storm was at its height, and it Avas easy to see that
they Avero uot distressisd. Several large Sugar
Pines stood near the thicket in which I was sheltered,
bowing solemnly and tossing their long arms as if
interpreting the very words of the storm Avliile ac
cepting its wildest onsets with passionate exhil
aration. The lions Avere feeding. Those Avho have
observed sunflowers feasting on sunshine during
the golden days of Indian summer know that noue
of their gestures express thankfulness. Their celes
tial food is too heartily given, too heartily taken
to leave room for thanks. The pines were e\'i-
dently accepting the benefactions of the storm in
the same whole-souled manner; andAvhen I looked
down a.ine)ng the buclcliiig liazcis, and still lowesr bi
the young violests and fesni-tiifts on the rocsks, i
noticed the same divine methods of giving anel
taking, and the same exquisite adaptations of what
seems an outbreak of violent anel uncontrollable
THE RIVER FLOODS 267
n)rce to tlie ]iiiri)oses of beautiful and deb cafe lif(,\
Calms like slesep come upon landscapes, just as
they do on pcsoplo and trees, and storms awaken
thein in the same way. In the dry midsummer of
the loAver portion of the range the Avithered hills
and valleys seem to lie as empty and expression
less as dead shells on a shore. Even the highest
mountains may be found occasionally dull and un
communicative as if in some way they had lost
countenance and shrunk to less than half their real
stature. But Avbeu the lightnings crash and echo in
tho canons, aud tho clouds come down wreathing
and crowning their bald suoAvy heads, every fea
ture beams Avitli expression and they rise again in
all their imposing majesty.
Storms are line sjieakers, and tell all tiiey knoAv,
but their voices of lightning, torrent, aud rushing
Aviiid are mue3h less numerous than the nameless
still, small A'oices too low for human ears; and
because avo are poor listeners we fail to catch much
tlia.t is fairly Avithiu reach. Our best rains are
heard mostly on roofs, and Avinds in chimneys;
and Avlieu by choice or compulsion we are pushed
into the heart of a storm, the confusion made by
cumbersome equipments and nervous haste and
mean feai', prevent our hearing any other than
the loudest expressions. Yet we may draw en
joyment from storm sounds that are beyond hear
ing, and storm movements we cannot see. The
sublime Avliirl of planets around their suns is as
sflent as raindrops oozing in the dark among the
roots of plants. In this great storm, as in every
other, there were tones and gestures inexpressibly
268 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
gentle manifested in the midst of what is called
violone^o and fury, but e^asily recognized by all Avho
look and listen for tliesm. The rain brought out the
colors of the AVOods with delightful freshness, the
rich brown of the bark of the trees and the fallen
burs and leaves and dead ferns ; the grays of
rocks and lichens ; the light purple of sAvelling
buds, and the Avarm yelloAV greens of the libocedrus
and mosses. The air Avas steaming Avitli delightful
fragrance, not rising and Avaftiug past in separate
masses, but diff'used through all the atmosphere.
Pine Avoods are always fragrant, but most so iu
spring Avhen the young tassels are opening and in
Avarm Aveather Avhen thevariems gums and balsams
are se:)ftened by the sun. The Aviiul Ava.s now cluiting
tlieir innumerable ncsisdhw anel the warm rain Avas
steeping them, Mouardella groAVS here in large beds
in the openings, and there is plenty of laurel in
dells and manzanita on the hillsides, and the rosy,
fragrant chamoebatia carpets the ground almost
everywhere. These, with the gums and balsams of
the woods, form the main local fragrance-foun
tains of the storm. The ascending clouds of aroma
Avinel-rolled and rain-Avashed became ])iire likes
light and travelcsd Avitli tho Aviiid as ]iai't of it.
Toward the middles of the afternoon tlics main flood
cloud lifted along its western border reA'ealing
a beautiful section of the Sacramento Valley some
tAvisnty or thirty miles a.Ava.y, brilliantly sun-lightesd
and glistesring with raiii-sliesets as if jiave^l with
silver. Soon afterAvard a jagged bluff-like cloud
with a sheer face appeared over the valley of the
Yuba, dark-colored and roughened Avitli numerous
THE RIVER FLOODS 269
furroAvs like some huge lava-table. The blue Coast
Range Avas seen stretching along the sky like a
beveled Avail, and the somber, craggy Marysville
Buttes rose impressively out of the flooded plain
like islands out of the sea, Theu the rain began to
abate and I sauntered down through the dripping
bn.sbes resveiing in the univesrsal A'igor and fre>sli-
iiess that ins|)ired all thes libs about me, Uow
clea.n and uiiAvorn and immortal the woods seemed
to be! — the lofty cedars in full bloom laden with
golden pollen and tlieir Avashed plumes shining;
the pines rocking gently and settling back into
resst, and thes esvening sllllbl^allls spangbng on tho
broad leaA^es of the madronos, their tracery of
yellow boughs relieved against dusky thickets of
Chestnut Oak ; liverAvorts, lycoiiodiums, ferns were
exulting in glorious I'ovival, and every moss that
had ever lived seemed to be coming crowding back
from the dead to clothe each trunk and stone in
IIa' ing green, Tho stea.miiig ground seemed fairly
to throb aud tingle Avith life; smilax, fritifla.ria,
saxifra.ge, and young Adolets Avere luishing up as if
already conscious of the summer glory, and in
numerable green and yelloAV buds were peeping
and smiling CA'ery where.
As for the birds and squirrels, not a wing or tail
of thciu AA^as to be seen AAdnlo the storm was bloAV-
ing, Sipiirrels dislike Avet Aveather more than cats
do ; therefore they Avere at home rocking in their dry
nests. The birds Avere hiding in the dells out of
the Avind, some of the strongest of them pecking
at acorns anel manzanita berries, but most were
perched on Ioav tAvigs, their breast feathers puffed
270 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
out and keeping one another company through the
hard time as best they could.
When I arrived at the village about sundown, the
good people bestirred themselves, pitying my be
draggled condition as if I Avere some benumbed cast
away snatched from the sea, while I, in turn, warm
with excitement and reeking like the ground, pitied
them for being dry and defrauded of all the glory
that Nature had spread round about them that day.
CHAPTER XII
SIERRA THUNDER-STORMS
THE weather of spring and summer in the mid
dle region of the Sierra is usually well flecked
with rains and light dustings of snow, most of
whieii ares far too obviously joyful and lifes-giving
to be regarded as storms; a.iid iu the picturosepie
beauty aud clearness of outlines of their clouds
they offer striking contrasts to those boundless, all-
embracing cloud-mantles of the storms of winter.
The smallest and most perfectly individualized
specimens present a richly modeled cumulous cloud
rising above the dark Avoods, about 11 A, m., swell
ing with a visible motion straight up into the calm,
sunny sky tp a height of 12,000 to 14,000 feet
above the sea, its white, pearly bosses relieved by
gray and pale purple shadows in the hollows, and
showing outlines as keenly defined as those of the
glacier-polished domes. In less than an hour it
attains full development and stands poised in the
bhizing sniishiue like some coloss.al mouiitain, as
beautiful in form and finish as if it were to become
a permanent addition to tho landscape. Presently
a thunderbolt crashes through the crisp air, ring
ing like steel on steel, sharp and clear, its startling
detonation breaking into a spray of echoes against
272 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
the cliffs and canon Avails, Then down comes a
cataract of rain. The big drops sift through the
Iiine-needles, plash and patter on the granite pave
ments, and pour down the sides of ridges and
domes in a network of gray, bubbling rills. In a
few minutes the cloud withers to a mesh of dim
filaments and disappears, leaving the sky perfectly
clear and bright, every dnst-jiarticle wiped and
Avashed out of it. Everything is refreshed and in
vigorated, a steam of fragrance rises, aud the
storm is finished — one cloucl, one lightning-stroke,
and one dash of rain. This is the Sierra mid
summer thunder-storm reduced to its lowest terms.
But some of them attain much larger proportions,
and assume a grandeur and energy of expression
hardly surpassed by those bred in the depths of
winter, producing those sudden floods called
"cloud-bursts," which aro local, and to a consider
able extent periodical, for they appear nearly every
day about the same time for weeks, usually about
eleven o'clock, and lasting from five minutes to an
hour or tAvo. One soon becomes so accustomed to
see them that the noon sky seems empty and aban
doned without them, as if Nature Avere forgetting
something. When the glorious pearl and alabaster
clouds of these noonday storms are being built I
never give attention to anything else. No moun
tain or mountain-range, however divinely (dotlied
Avith light, has a more iMiduring charm than
those fleeting mountains of the sky — floating foun
tains bearing water for every well, the angels of the
streams and lakes ; brooding in the deep azure, or
sweeping softly along the ground over ridge and
^l^^Bbfl^A^A-A 1
^
f'
^i
v^^S'"'''''S .jMilii^^^B
¦
¦ »¦¦.,• V
, >¦ '(,'"¦ '• • ' ¦"¦¦
HHkIJ^HHk^^ a^vShh '\ 1
j
^;^
'•5,
HS^^T-wTTmj" l.^-'^MS^^ffl^M *. ¦ J
'
IIP.IDAL A'KIL FAJ,LS, YOSE^IITB VALLEY.
SIERRA 'I'llUNDKll-sroKJMS 273
dome!, over meadoAV, over forest, over garden and
grove; lingering with cooling shadows, refreshuig
every floAver, aud soothing rugged rock-broAvs Avith
a gentleness of touch and gesture wholly divine.
The most beautiful and imposhig of tlie summer
storms rise just above the npjier edge of the SiWor
Kir zone, and all are so beautiful that it is not easy
to choose auy one for particular description. The
one that I remcsniber best fell on the mountains
near Yosemite Valley, July 19, 1869, while I was
encamped iu the Sih'cr Fir Avoods, A range of
bossy cumuli took possession of the sky, huge
doniess and pcsa.ks rising ones beyond a.notlier with
deep canons between them, bending this way and
that in long cui/A'cs and reaches, interrupted here
aud there with Avliito upboiling masses that looked
like the spray of Avaterfalls, Zigzag lances of light
ning followed each other in cpiick succession, and
the thunder Avas so gloriously loud and massive it
seemed as if surely an entire uiountain Avas being
sluittesred at esvesry stroke. Only the treess wesres
touched, hoAA^cver, so far as I could see, — a foAV
flrs 200 feet high, perhaps, and five to six feet in
diameter, were split into long rails and slivers
from top to bottom and scattered to all points of
the compass. Then came the rain in a hearty
flood, covering the ground and making it shine
Avith a continuous sheet of Avater that, like a trans
parent film or skin, fitted closely doAvii over all the
rugged anatomy of the landscape.
It is not long, geologically speaking, since the
first raindrop fell on the present landscapes of the
Sierra ; and in the few tens of thousands of years
274 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
of stormy cultivation they liaA^e been blest with,
hoAv beautiful they have become ! The first rains
fell on raAV, crumbling moraines and rocks with
out a plant, Noav scarcely a drop can fail to find a
beautiful mark : on the tops of the peaks, on the
smooth glacier pavements, on the curves of the
domes, on moraines full of crystals, on the thou
sand fcu'ins of yosemitic sculpture with thesir
tesnder beauty of lialmy, (loAvery vogetatiem, lav
ing, plashing, glinting, pattering; some falling softly
on meadows, creeping out of sight, seeking and
finding every thirsty rootlet, some through the
spires of the woods, sifting in dust through the
needles, and whispering good cheer to each of
them; some falling Avitli blunt tapping sounds,
drumming on the broad leaves of veratrum, cypri
pedium, saxifrage ; some falling straight iuto fra
grant corollas, kissing the lips of lilies, glinting on
the sides of crystals, on shining grains of gold;
some falling into the fountains of snow to swell
their Avell-saved stores; some into the lakes and
rivers, patting the smooth glassy levels, making
diiiqiles and be^lls and spray, Avashing tlus mountain
AvindoAVS, washing tho Avandering winds; some
plashing into the heart of snoAvy falls and cascades
as if eager to join in the dance and the song and
beat the foam yet finer. Good work and happy
work for the merry mountain raindrops, each one
of them abniAre fall in itself, rushing from the cliffs
and hollows of the clouds into the cliff's and hol
lows of the mountains ; aAvay from the thunder of
the sky into the thunder of the roai'ing rivers.
And how far they have to go, and how many cups
SIERRA 'riHINDEK-S'l'UllMS 2<;>
to fill — cassiope-cups, holding half a drop, and lake
basins betAveen the hills, each replenished Avith
equal care — everj^ drop God's messenger sent on its
Ava3^ Avitli glorious pomp and disolay of poAver —
sih'ery iieAV-born stars Avitli lake and riA^er, moun
tain and A'alley — all that the landscape holds — re
flected in their crystal depths.
CHAPTER XIII
THE AVATER-OUZEL
THE waterfalls of the Sierra are freqnonteil by
only one bird, — the Ouzel or Water Thrush
{Cinclus Mexicanus, Sw,), He is a singularly joy
ous and lovable little fellow, about the size of a
robin, clad in a plain waterproof suit of bluish
gray, with a tinge of chocolate on the head and
shoulders. In form he is about as smoothly })lunip
and compact as a pebble that has been whirled in
a pot-hole, the floAviug contour of his body being
interrupted only by his strong feet and bill, the
crisp Aving-tips, and the up-slanted wren-like tail.
Among all the countless waterfalls I have met
in the course of ten years' exploration in the Sierra,
whether among the icy peaks, or Avarm foot-hills,
or in the profound yosemitic canons of the middle
region, not ono Avas found without its Ouzel, No
canon is too cold for this little bird, iiono too lonely,
provided it be rich in falling water. Find a fall,
or cascade, or rushing rapid, anywhere upon a clear
stream, and there you will surely find its comple
mentary Ouzel, fiitting about in the sjiray, diving
in foaming eddies, Avhirling likes alesaf amongbesalesn
foam-bells ; ever vigorous and enthusiastic, yet self-
contained, and neither seeking nor shunning your
company. zn
THE AVATER-OUZEL
U t
WATER-OUZEL DIVING AND FEEDING.
If disturbed while dipping about in the margin
shallows, he either sets off Avitli a rapid whir to
some other feeding-ground up or down the stream,
or alights on some half-submerged rock or snag
out in the current, and immediately begins to nod
and courtesy like a wren, turning his head from
side to side with many other odd dainty move-
278 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
ments that ueA'^er fail to fix the attention of the
observer. He is the mountain streams' own darling, the
humming-bird of blooming waters, loving rocky
ripple-slopes and sheets of foam as a bee loves
floAvers, as a lark loves sunshine and meadows.
Among all the mountain birds, none has cheered
me so much in my lonely Avanderings, — none so
unfailingly, F<n' both in Aviiitesr and summesr he
sings, sweetly, cheerily, independent alike of suu
shine and of love, requiring no other inspiration
than the stream on which he dwells, Wliile water
sings, so must he, in heat or cold, calm or storm,
ever attuning his voice in sure accord ; low in the
drought of summer and the drought of Avinter, but
noA'^er silent.
During the golden days of Indian summer, after
most of the snow has been melted, and the mountain
streams have become feeble, — a succession of silent
pools, linked together by shallow, transparent cur
rents and strips of silvery lacoAvork, — then the song
of the Ouzel is at its lowest ebb. But as soon as the
winter clcmds IniA^e bloonusd, and the memntaiu
treasuries are once more replenished Avitli snow,
the voices of the streams and ouzels increase in
strength and richness until the flood season of
early summer, Theu the torrents chant their no
blest anthems, and then is the flood-time of our
songster's melody. As for weather, dark days and
sun days are the same to him, Tho voices of most
song-birds, however joyous, suffer a long winter
eclipse; but the Ouzel sings on through all the
seasons and every kind of storm. Indeed no storm
THE AVATER-OUZEL 279
can be more violent than those of the waterfalls
in the midst of which he delights to dwell. How
ever dark and boisterous the weather, snowing,
blowing, or cloudy, all the same he sings, and with
never a note of sadness. No need of spring sun
shine to thaw his song, for it never freezes. Never
shall you hear anything wintry from his warm
breast ; no pinched cheeping, no Avavering notes be
tween sorrow and joy ; his meUow, fluty voice is
ever tuned to downright gladness, as free from
dejection as cock-crowing.
It is pitiful to see wee frost-pinched sparrows
on cold meu'iiings in the mountain groves shaking
the snow from their feathers, and hopping about
as if anxious to be cheery, then hastening back to
their hidings out of the wind, puffing out their
breast-feathers over their toes, and subsiding
among the leaves, cold and breakfastless, whfle the
SUOAV continues to fa.ll, and there is no sign of
(iearing. But the Ouzel never calls forth a single
touch of pity ; not because he is strong to endure,
but rather because he seems to live a charmed life
beyond the reach of every influence that makes en
durance necessary.
One wfld winter morning, when Yosemite Valley
was swept its length from Avest to east by a cordial
snoAV-storm, I sallied forth to see Avhat I might learn
and esiijoy, A sort of gray, gloaming-liko darkness
filled tlie valley, the huge Avails Avere out of sight,
all ordinary sounds were smothered, and even the
loudest booming of the falls was at times buried
beneath tho roar of the heavy-laden blast. The
loose SHOW was already over five feet deep on
280 'THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
the nieadoAvs, making extended Avalks impossibles
Avithout tho aid of snoAV-shoes, I found no great
diflicnlty, liowevesr, in making my way lo a esesrbiiii
ripple on the river where one of my ouzels lived.
He was at home, busily gleaning his breakfast
among the pebbles of a shalloAV portion of the
margin, apparently unaware of anything extraor
dinary in the weather. Presently he fiew out to a
stone against Avhich the icy current was beating,
and turning his back to the Aviiid, sang as delight
fully as a lark in springtime.
After spending an hour or two with my favorite,
I made my way across the vallej^, boring and wal
lowing through the drifts, to learn as definitely as
possible how the other birds Avere spending their
i'uwe. The Yoseinitc! birds ai'es ea,sily found during
the Avinter because all of thein excepting the Oiizesl
are restricted to- the sunny north side of the valley,
the south side being constantly eclipsed by the
great frosty shadow of the wall. And because the
Indian Cafiou groves, from their peculiar exposure,
are the warmest, the birds congregate there, more
especially in severe Aveather,
I found most of the robins coAvering on the lee
side of the larger branches Avliere the suoav could
not fall upon them, Avhibs two or three of the more
enterprising were making desperate efforts to reach
the mistletoe berries by clinging nervously to the
under side of the snoAv-crowned masses, back
downward, like! woodpeckers. Every uow and
then they would dislodge some of the loose fringes
of the snow-crown, which would come sifting down
on them and send them screaming back to camp,
'rUE AVATER-OUZEL 281
Avhere theyAveuild subside a.moiig tlieir ccnnpanious
Avith a, shiver, miitbsring iu Ioav, epierulous chatter
likes hungry csluldren.
Some of the sparrows were busy at the feet of
the larger trees gleaning seeds and benumbed
insects, joined iioav and then by a robin weary of
his unsuccessful a,ttempts upon the snow-covered
besrries. The brave Avoodpeckers Avero clhigiug to
the snoAvless sides of the larger boles and overarch
ing branches of the camp trees, making short
flights from side to side of the grove, i)ecking now
and then at the acorns they had stored in the bark,
a.ud chattering aimlessly as if unable to keep stifl,
yc!t ovicleMitiy putting in the time in a very dull
Avay, like storm-bound travelers at a country
tavern. The hardy nut-hatches were threading the
open furroAvs of the trunks iu their usual industri
ous manner, and uttering their quaint notes, evi
dently less distressed than their neighbors. The
Steller jays Avere of course making more noisy stir
tha.ii all tlio other birds combined; ever coming
and going Avitli loud bluster, screaming as if each
had a lump of melting sludge in his throat, and
taking good care to improve the favorable op
portunity afforded by the storm to steal from the
acorn stores of the Avoodpeckers, I also noticed
one solitary gray eagle braving the storm on the
top of a tall pine-stump just outside the main
groA'^e, He was standing bolt upright with his
back to the wind, a tuft of snow piled on his
square shoulders, a monument of passive endur
ance. Thus every snow-bound bird seemed more
ov lesss uncomfortable if uot in positive distress.
282 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
The storm was reflected in every gesture, and not
one cheerful note, not to say song, came from a
single bill ; their cowering, joyless endurance offer
ing a striking contrast to the spontaneous, irre
pressible gladness of the Ouzel, who could no more
help exhaling sweet song than a rose sweet fra
grance. He must sing though the heavens fall, I re
member noticing the distress of a pair of robins
during the violent eartlupiake of tho year 1872, when
the pines of the Valley, with strange moA'ements,
flapped and waved their branches, and beetling
rock-brows came thundering down to the meadoAvs
in tremendous avalanches. It did not occur to me
in the midst of the excitement of other observa
tions to look for the ouzels, but I doubt not they
Avere singing straight on through it all, regarding
the terrible rock-thunder as fearlessly as they do the
booming of the waterfalls.
What may be regarded as the separate songs of
the Ouzel are exceedingly difficult of description,
because they are so variable and at the same time
so confluent. Though I have been acquainted with
my favorite ten years, and during most of this time
have heard him sing nearly every day, I still detect
notes and strains that seem new to me. Nearly all
of his music is sweet and tender, lapsing from his
round breast like water over the smooth lip of a
pool, then breaking farther on into a sparkling
foam of melodious notes, which glow Avith subdued
enthusiasm, yet without expressing much of the
strong, gushing ecstasy of the bobolink or skylark.
The more striking strains are perfect arabesques
of melody, composed of a few full, round, mellow
11115 WATER-OUZEL 283
notes, embroidered with delicate trills Avliich fade
and melt in long slender cadences. In a general
Avay his music is that of the streams refined aud
spiritualized. The deep booming notes of the falls
are in it, the trills of rapids, the gurgling of mar
gin eddies, the Ioav whispering of level reaches, and
tlies sweet tinkle! of seiparate drojis oozing frcmi the
esiids of mosses a.iicl falling into tranepiil jtools.
The Ouzel never sings in chorus Avitli other birds,
nor Avitli his kind, but only Avitli the streams, Aucl
like floAvers that bloom beneath the surface of the
ground, some of our favorite's best song-blossoms
noA'cr riso aboA''e the surface of the heavier music
of the water, I have often observed him singing in
the midst of beaten spray, his music completely
buried beneath the Avater's roar ; yet I knew he was
surely singing by his gestures and the movements
of his bill.
His food, as far as I have noticed, consists of all
kinds of water insects, Avhich in summer are chiefly
procsured along shallow margins. Hero ho Avades
about ducking his head under Avater and deftly
turning over pebbles and fallen leaves with his bill,
seldom choosing to go into deep water where he
has to use his wings in diving.
He seems to be especially fond of the larvae of
mosquitos, found in abundance attached to the
bottcmi of smooth rock channels where the cur
rent is sliaUow, When feeding in such places
he AA^ades up-stream, and often while his head is
under water the swift current is deflected upward
along the glossy curves of his neck and shoulders,
in the form of a clear, crystafline shell, which fairly
284 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
incloses him like a bell-glass, the shell being broken
and re-formed as he lifts and dips his head ; while
ove^r a.nd auoii lies sidhss cnit to Avliere the too ])ow-
erful current carries him off his feet ; then he dex
terously rises on the wing and goes gleaning again
in shallower places,
Bnt during the Avhiter, AvhcAii the stream-banks
aro embossed in snow, and tho streams them
selves are chilled nearly to the freezing-point, so
that the suoav falling into them in stormy Aveather
is not Avholly dissolved, but forms a thin, blue
sludge, thus rendering the current opaque — theu
he seeks the deeper portions of the main rivers,
Avliere he may dive to clear Avater beneath the
sludge. Or he repairs to some open lake or mill-
pond, at the bottom of Avhicjh he feeds in safety.
When thus compelled to betake himself to a
lake, he does not plunge into it at once like a
duck, but ahvays alights in the first place upon
some rociv or fa,lleii pine along the shore. Then
(lying out thirty or forty yards, more or less, a.c-
csorcling b) the eiiara,cter of the botbmi, lic! alights
Avitb a ehiiiity glint eui tlie surfaces, sAvinis about,
looks down, finally inakess up his mind, and dis
appears Avitli a sharp stroke of his wings. After
feeding for two or three minutes he suddenly re
appears, showers the water from his wings with
one vigorous shake, aud rises abruptly into the air
as if pushed up from beneath, comes back to his
perch, sings a foAV minutes, and goes out to dive
again ; thus coming and going, singing and diving
at the same place for hours.
The Ouzel is usually found singly; rarely in
rnr, avater-ouzei;
])airs, excepting cluiing the
breeding season, and v(J ii laioh
in threes or foiii'S. I one is ob-
scsr\-e(l (hree thus spi niliii^ i
wiiitcsr niorniiig in e oinp in\ ,
upon a small glacier like, on
the Upper jMercoil, --
al)out7500feetabove
the! level of the sea.
Astoriiiliadocciirredduring the night,
but the morning sun
slioueuiiclouded,andthe shadoAvy lake,
gleaming darkly in
its setting of fresh
SUOAV, lay smooth
and nic)tioiile>ss as a
mirror. My esanqs
'i\m
ONE OF THE LATE-SUMMER FEEDING-
GROUNDS OF TIIE OUZEL.
chanced to be Avithin
a foAV feet of the
water's edge, (Opposite a fallen piue, some of the
branches of Avhicli leaned out over the lake. Here
286 THIi MOUNTAINS OK CALIFORNIA
my three dearly Avelcome visitors took iqi their
station, anel at once begau to embroider tlus frosty
air Avitli their delicious melody, doubly delightful
to me that particular morning, as I had been some
what apprehensive of danger in breaking my Avay
doAvn through the snoAV-choked canons to the Ioav-
laiids. The portion of the lake bottom selected for a
feeding-ground lies at a depth of tifteeii or twenty
feet beloAV the surface, and is coA^ered Avitli a short
growth of algaj and otlier acjuatic plants, — facts I
had previously determined Avhile sailing over it
on a raft. After alighting on the glassy surface,
they 0(!casiona.fly indulged in a littles play, ciiasing
one a.iiotlier round about in small circles; then all
three would suddenly dive togethesr, and then esoine
ashore and sing.
The Ouzel seldom swims more than a few yards
on the surface, for, not being web-footed, he makes
rather slow progress, but by means of his strong,
crisp wings he swims, or rather flics, Avitli celerity
under the surface, often to considerable distances.
But it is in Avithstanding the force of heavy rap
ids that his strength of wing in this respect is
most strikingly manifested. The following may
be regarded as a fair illustration of his poAver of
sub-aquatic flight. One stormy morning in winter
wheu the Merced River Avas blue and green with
unnielted snow, 1 observed one! of my oiiziis percliesd
on a snag out in the midst of a SAvif t-rushing rapid,
singing cheerily, as if everything Avas just to his
mind; and while I stood on the bank admiring
him, he suddenly plunged into the sludgy current,
THE WATER-OUZEL
287
leaAing his song abruptly broken off. After feed
ing a minute or tAvo at the bottom, and Avhen one
Avould suppose that he must inevitably be swept
far doAvn-stream, he emerged just where he went
doAAm, alightedon the same snag,
showered the water-beads from
his fe!a.thers, and contiiiuesd his
imlinished song, seemingly in
tranquil ease as if it had suffered
HO interruption.
The Ouzel alone of afl birds
dares to enter a Avhite torrent.
And (bough strictly terrestria
in structure, no other is so insoi
arably related to watc>r, not even
the duck, or the bold ocean alba
tross, or the
^'
stormy-pet
rel, Forducks
go ashore as
soon as they
finish feed
ing in undis
turbed places,
and very of-
tonmakelong
flights over- |
,laud from L
laketolakeor field to field.
The same is true of most other aquatic birds. But
the Ouzel, born on the brink of a stream, or on a
snag or boulder in the midst of it, seldom leaves
j^
OUZEL ENTERING A WHITE CURRENT,
288 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
it for a single moment. For, notwithstanding he
is often on the Aving, he iitsver flics overland, but
whirs Avith rapid, ipiail-likes bisat above the stresaui,
tracing all its windings. Even Avlien the stream is
epiite small, say from five to ten feet wide, he sel-
clom shortens his flight by crossbig a bend, Iioav-
ever abrupt it maybe; aud even Avlieii disturbed
by meeting some one on tho bank, he presfesrs to
flyover one's head, to dodging out over tlio ground.
When, therefore, his flight along a crookeil stream
is viewed endAvise, it appears most strikingly AvaA^-
ered — a description on the air of every curve with
lightning-like rapidity.
The vertical curves and angles of the most pre
cipitous torrents he traces with the same rigid
ficielity, SAVooping down the inclines of cascades,
dropping sheer over dizzy falls amid the spray,
and ascending with the same fearlessness and ease,
seldom seeking to lessen the steepness of the ac-
e;livityby beginning to ascend before reaching the
base of tho fall. No matter though it may bes ses\-
eral hundresd fisest in Insight lies holds straight on, as
if a,bout. to dash heiadlong into the! throng of hoom-
iiig rocivcsts, then darts a.briii»tly iqiward, and, aftesr
alighting at the top of the precipice to rest a
moment, proceeds to feed and sing. His flight is
solid and impetuous, without any intermission of
wing-beats, — one homogeneous buzz like that of a
laden bee on its Avay home. And Avliile thus buzzing
freely from fall to fall, he is frequently heard giving
utterance to a long outdraAVu train of unmodulated
notes, in no Avay conuocted with his song, but cor
responding closely Avitli his flight in sustained vigor.
THE AVATER-OUZEL 289
Were the flights of all the ouzels in the Sierra
traced on a chart, they Avould indicate the direction
of the lloAV of the entire system of ancient glaciers,
from about tbe ])esriod of the bresaking U[) of the
ice-sliesest until nc:ar the! close of the glacial wintcsr;
because the streams Avliich the ouzels so rigidly
fcdloAV are, Avitli the uniinportaut exceptions of a
bsw sides tributa.rie!S, all floAving in eiia,iinisls eroded
for them out of the solid flank of the range by the
A'anished glaciers, — the streams tracing the ancient
glaciers, the ouzels tracing the streams. Nor do Ave
find so complete compliance to glacial conditions in
thes libs of any c)tlie!i' iiiouiit.a.iii bird, or animal of
a.ny kind, Bea.rs freepiently acce^pt thes j»a.tliwa,ys
laid down by glaciers as the easiest to travel ; but
thej' often leave them and cross over from canon
to canon. So also, most of the birds trace the
moraines to some extent, because the forests are
groAviiig on tliom. But tlicsy Avauder far, crossing
tibe canons from grove to grove, and draAV exceed
ingly angular aud complicated courses.
The Ouzel's iiest is one of the most extraordinary
pieces of bird architecture I ever saw, odd and
novel in design, perfectly fresh and beautiful, and
in every way worthy of the genius of the little
builder. It is about a foot in diameter, round and
bossy in outline, with a neatly arched opening
iicsar tho botbmi, somoAvliat like a.u old-fashioned
briesk oven, or Hottentot's lint;. It is built almost
esxeiusively of green and yelloAV mosses, chiefly the
beautiful fronded hypnum that covers the rocks
and old drift-logs in the vicinity of waterfalls.
These are deftly interwoven, and felted together
290 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
into a charming little hut; and so situated that
many of the outer mosses coutiniie to flourish as
if thesy luul not besesn plucked, A bsw line, silky-
steinmed grasses are occasionally found interwoNesn
with the mosses, but, with the exceiition of a thin
layer lining the floor, their presence seems acci
dental, as they are of a species found growing Avith
the mosses and are probably plucked with them.
The site chosen for this curious mansion is usually
some little rock-shelf within reach of the lighter
particles of the spray of a waterfall, so that its
walls are kept green and growing, at least during
the time of high water.
No harsh lines are presented by any portion of
the nest as seen in place, but when removed from
its shelf, the back and bottom, and some!tiines a
portion of the top, is found quite sharply angular,
because it is made to conform to the surface of the
rock upon which and against which it is built, the
little architect always taking advantage of slight
crevices and protuberances that may chance to
offer, to render his structure stable by means of a
kind of gripping and dovetailing.
In choosing a building-spot, concoalment doess
not seem to be taken into consideration ; yet iiot
Avithstandiug the nest is largo and guilelessly ex
posed to vicAV, it is far from being easily detected,
chiefly because it swells forAvard like any other
bulging moss-cushion groAviug naturally in siicii
situations. This is more e!specially the! cases whcsres
the nest is kept fresh by being Avell sprinklesd.
Sometimes these romantic little huts have their
beauty enhanced by rock-ferns and grasses that
THE AVATER-OUZEL 291
spruig up around the mossy Avails, or in front of
the door-sill, dripping with crystal beads.
Furthermore, at certain hours of the day, Avlien
the sunshine is poured doAvn at the required angle,
the Avhole mass of the spray enveloping the fairy
establishment is brilliantly irised ; and it is tlirougli
so glorious a rainboAV atmosphere as this that some of
our blessed ouzels obtain their first peep at the world.
Ouzels seem so completely part aud parcel of the
streams they inhabit, they scarce suggest any
other origin than the streams themselves ; and one
might almost be pardoned in fancying they come
d'lrecst from the living Ava,ters, like flowers from (lie
ground. At least, from A\diatever cause, it never
occurred to me to look for their nests uutil more!
than a year after I had made the acquaintance of
the birds themselves, although I found one the
A'ery day on Avliich I began the search. In making
my way from Yosemite to the glaciers at the heads
of the Merced and Tuolumne rivers, I camped in
a particularly wild and romantic portion of the
Nevada canon where in previous excursions I had
never failed to enjoy the company of my favorites,
Avho were attractecl here, no doubt, by the safe
nesting-places in the shelving rocks, and by the
abundance of food and falling water. The river,
for miles above aud beloAV, consists of a succession
of small falls from ten to sixty feet in height, con
nected by flat, i)lume-like cascades that go flash
ing from fall to fall, free and almost chanuelless,
over waving folds of glacier-polished granite.
On the south side of one of the falls, that por
tion of tho precipi(!e which is bathed by the spray
292 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
presents a series of little shelves and tablets caused
by the development of planes of cleavage in the
granite, and by the consequent fall of masses through
the action of the water, " Noav here," said I, " of
all places, is the most charming spot for an Ouzel's
nest," Then carefully scanning the fretted face of
the precipice through the spray, I at length no
ticed a yellowish moss-cushion, growing on thes
edge of a level tablet within five or six feet of tlus
outer folds of the fall. But apart from the fact of
its being situated where one acquainted with the
lives of ouzels Avould fancy an Ouzel's nest ought
to be, there was nothing in its appearance visible
at first sight, to distinguish it from other bosses of
rock-moss similarly situated with reference to
perennial spray ; and it Avas not until I had scru
tinized it again and again, aud had removed my
shoes and stockings and crept along the face of
the rock within eight or ten feet of it, that I could
decide certainly Avhether it was a nest or a natural
growth. In these moss huts three or four eggs are laid,
Avhite likes b)a.m-bubbles; ami avoII may the littles
birds hatched from them sing water songs, \'or
they hear them all their lives, and even before they
are born,
I have often observed the young just out of the
nest making their odd gestures, and seeming in
every Avay as much at home as their exiieriemsed
parents, like young bees on their first excursions
to the flower fields. No amount of familiarity with
people and their ways seicms to eiiaugo thein in tho
least. To afl aiipearance their behavior is just the
'THE WATER-OUZEL
293
same on seeing a man for the first time, as when
they have seen him frequently.
On the loAver reaches of the rivers where mflls
il* ' ,' ' I, :^ jdl^-i. \'t/\
aiebuilt,the} smg
oiithioughthedinof tho maciiineiy,
aucl all the iioisj'
(•(mtusion of dogs,
tattle, and Avoik-
nien. On one
ocesasioii, while! a.
Avood-(shoi)per Ava,s at Avork on the river-ba.iik, \ ob
served one cheerily singing Avithin reach of the flying
chips. Nor does any kind of unwonted disturbance
put him in bad huiuor, or frighten him out of calm
self-possession. In passing through a narrow
THE OUZF.I. AT HOME.
294 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
gorge, I once drove one ahead of me from rapid to
rapid, disturbing him four times iu quick succes
sion Avliesre lies esould not very wisll fly ]»ast me on
account of the narrowness of the channel. Most
birds under similar circumstances fancy themselves
pursued, and become suspiciously uneasy ; but, in
stead of growing nervous about it, he made his
usual dippings, and sang one of his most tranquil
strains. When observed within a few yards their
eyes are seen to express remarkable gentleness and
intelligence ; but they seldom alloAV so near a auoav
unless one Avears clothing of about the same color
as the rocks and trees, and knoAvs Iioav to sit still.
On one occasion, while rambling along the shore of
a mountain lake, Avhere the birds, at least those
born that season, had never seen a man, I sat down
to rest on a large stone close to the water's edge,
upon which it seemed the ouzels and sandpipers
were in the habit of alighting when they came to
feed on that part of the shore, and some of the
other birds also, "when they came doAvn to wash or
drink. In a foAV minutes, along came a whirring
Ouzel and alighted on the stone beside me, Avithin
reach of my hand. Then suddenly observing me,
he stooped nervously as if about to fly on the in
stant, but as I remained as motionless as the stone,
he gained confidence, and looked me steadily in the
face for about a minute, then fioAV quietly to the
outlet and began to sing. Next came a sandpiper
and gazed at me Avitli much the same guileless ex
pression of eye as the Ouzel, Lastly, doAvn with a
SAvoop came a Steller's jay out of a fir-tree, proba
bly Avith the intention of moistening his noisy
THE AVATER-OUZEL 295
throat. But instead of sitting confidingly as my
other visitors had done, he rushed off at once,
nearly tumbling heels over head into the lake in
his suspicious confusion, and with loud screams
roused the ueighborhooei,
Ijovo for song-birds, Avitli their sweet human
A'c)iee>s, a.])[)e!ars to bo more common and unfailing
than hivc! bir floAvers, Every one loves flowers to
some extent, at least in life's fresh morning, at
tracted by thein as instinctively as humming-birds
and bees. Even the young Digger Indians have
sufficient love for the brightest of those found
groAving on tlic! nie)uiita.iiis to gatlier them .and braid
tlH!iii as ele!coratious for the hair. And I was glad
to discsover, through the fcAV Indians that could be
induced to talk on the subject, that they have
names for the Avild rose and the lily, and other con
spicuous floAvers, Avhether available as food or oth-
erAvise, Most men, however, whether savage or
civilized, become apathetic toward all plants that
have no other aiiparoiit use than the use of beauty.
But fortunately one's first instinctive love of song
birds is never Avholly obliterated, no matter what the
i 1 illueuces upon our lives may be, I have often been
delighted to see a pure, spiritual gloAV come into
the countenances of hard business-men and old
miners, Avlieii a song-bird chanced to alight near
them. Nevertheless, the little mouthful of meat
that swefls out the breasts of some song-birds is too
often the cause of their death. Larks and robins
in particular are brought to market in hundreds.
But fortunately the Ouzel has no enemy so eager to
ea.t his little body as to foflow him into the moun-
296 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
tain solitudes, I never knew him to be chased
even by hawks.
An acquaintance of mine, a sort of foot-hill
mountaineer, had a pet cat, a great, dozy, over-
gi-owii creature, about as broad-shouldered as a lynx.
During the winter, while the snow lay deep, the
nioimtaineer sat in his lonely cabin among the
]>iness smoking his pipe and Avearing the dull times
a,wa.y, 'IViin was his sole compauion, slniring his
bed, aud sitting beside him on a stool with much
the same drowsy expression of eye as his master.
The good-natured bachelor Avas content with his
hard fare of soda-bread and bacon, but Tom, the
only creature in the world acknowledging depen
dence on him, must needs be provided with fresh
meat. Accordingly he bestirred himself to contrive
squirrel-traps, and Avaded the snowy woods Avitli
his gnu, making sad havoc among the few winter
birds, sparing neither robin, sparrow, nor tiny nut
hatch, and the pleasure of seeing Tom eat and
grow fat was his great reward.
One cold afternoon, while hunting along the
rivei'-ba.iik, he notie!ed a plain-bsa.tlie!r(!cl little bird
skipping abcnit in tho shallows, ami immediately
raised his gun. But just then the confiding song
ster began to sing, and after listening to his sum
mery melody the charmed hunter turned away,
saying, " Ble\ss your little heart, 1 can't shoot you,
not even for Tom,"
Even so far north as icy Alaska, I have found
my glad singer. When I Avas exjiloring the gla
ciers between IMouut FairAveather and the Stikecii
River, one cold day in November, after trying
YOSEMITE BIRDS, SNOW-BOUND AT THE FOOT OF INDIAN CANON,
298 THE JIOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
in vain to forese a way thremgh the innumerable
icsediergs of Sum Dum I5ay to thes grcsat glaciiers at
the! head of it, I was weary and ba.fllescl anel sa.t
resting in my canoe convinced at last that I would
have to leave this part of my Avork for another
year. Then I began to plan my escape to open
Avater before the young ice A\diich Avas beginning to
form should shut me in. AVliile I thus lingered
drifting Avith the bergs, in the midst of these
gloomy forebodings and all tho terrible glacial des
olation and grandeur, I sudileuly heard the Avell-
kuoAvu whir of an Ouzel's Avings, and, looking up,
saAV my little comforter coming straight across the
ice from the shore. In a second or tAvo he AA^as
Avitli nies, flying U\ree tinuss round luy head Avitli a
luippy salutes, as if sa.ying, "(ilicser iqi, old friend;
you see I 'in here, and all 's Avell," Then he flew
back to the shore, alighted on the topmost jag of a
stranded iceberg, and began to iiod and boAV as
though ho wore on one of his favorite boulders in
the midst of a sunny Sie!rra cascade!,
Thes s[)ecies is distrilmtesd all along the! nioiintaiii-
raiigess of thes i'aesilic Coast from vMaska. to ]\lcs\ico,
a.iid east to thes Rociiy JMoimlains. Nesverthislesss,
it is as yc!t comparatively littles kiioAvn, Andubon
and Wilson did not meet it, Swainsou Avas, 1 be
lieve, the first naturalist to describe a specimen
from j\b'xicjo. S[iecimens Avcrcs shortly afterAvard
procured by Drummond iiesar the sources of the
Athabasca Riviir, betAveen the fifty-fourth and
fifty-sixth parallels; and it has been colksested by
nearly all of the nunuircnis e!xploring expeditious
undertaken of late through our "^^^estel¦ll States and
THE AVATER-OUZEL 299
Territories; for it never fails to engage the atten
tion of naturalists iu a very particular manner,
Suedi, then, is our little cinclus, beloA^ed of every
one Avlio is so fortunate as to know him. Tracing
on strong Aving every curve of the most precipitous
torrents from one extremity of the Sierra to the
other; uot fc!a.riiig to folloAV tlic!ni through their
darkest gorges and coldest snoAv-tunnels ; ac
quainted Avith every waterfall, echoing their divine
music ; and throughout the whole of their beautiful
lives interpreting all that we in our unbelief call
terrible in the utterances of torrents and storms, as
only va.rii!d expressions of God's eternal love.
CHAPTER XIV
THK AVlLI) SIlKKI'
(Oi'i.i iHiinl(oiii)
THE wild sheep ranks highest among the ani
mal mountaineers of the Sierra, Possessed of
keen sight and scent, and strong limbs, he dwells
secure amid the loftiest summits, leaping unscathed
from crag to crag, up and down the fronts of giddy
precipices, crossing foaming torrents and slopes of
frozen snow, exposed to the wildest storms, yet
maintaining a brave, Avarm life, and developing
from generation to generation in perfect strength
and beauty,
Ne!arly all tlie lofty mounbiin-chains of the globes
aro iiihabitesd by wihl slie5e[), most of whiesli, on
account of the! i'e!niot.e and all but inacesesssibles
resgions where thesy clwesll, ares iiiqicsrbsctly kiioAvn as
yet. They are classified by diff'erent naturalists
under from five to ten distinct species or varietiess,
the best knoAvii being the burrhel of the Himalaya
{Ovis burrhel, Blytli); the argali, the large Avild
sheep of ciMitral and nortiiemstesrii Asia {0. ammon,
Linn,, or Caprovis argali); the Corsicau moiilloii
(0, musimon. Pal,); the aoudad of the mountains of
northern Africa {Ammotragus tragelaphus); and
the Rocky Mountain bighorn (0, montana, Cuv,),
THE WILD SHEEP 301
To this last-named species belongs the Avild sheep
of the Sierra, Its range, according to the late Pro
fessor Baird of the Smithsonian Institution, extends
" from the region of the upper Missouri and Yel-
loAvstone to the Rocky Mountains and the high
grounds adjacent to them on the eastern slope, and
as far south as the Rio Grande, WestAvard it ex
tends to the coast ranges of Washington, Oregon,
and California, and follows the highlands some dis
tance into Mexico," * Throughout the vast region
bounded on the east by the Wahsatch Mountains
and on the Avest by the Sierra there are more than a
liHiielrisd siibordimitc! raiigcss a,iiel mountain groiijis,
tresiidiiig north and south, range beyond range, with
siimmits rising from eight to tweive thousanci feet
above the level of the sea, probably all of which,
according to my oavu observations, is, or has been,
inhabited by this species.
Compared with the argali, which, considering its
size and the vast extent of its range, is probably
the most important of all the wild sheep, our
species is about the same size, but the horns are
less twisted and less divergent. The more im
portant characteristics are, however, essentially the
same, some of the best naturalists maintaining that
the two are only varied forms of one species. In
ace!ordauce with this vioAV, Cuvier conjeestures that
since <!entral Asia soe!nis b) be the resgiou where
the sheep first ajipeared, and from Avliich it has
been distributed, the argali may have been dis
tributed over this continent from Asia by crossing
Bering Strait on ice. This conjecture is not so fll
1 Pacific Railroad Survey. Vol. VIII, jiage G78.
302 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
founded as at first sight Avould appear; for the
Strait is only about fifty miles Avide, is interrupted
by three islands, and is jammed Avitli ice nearly
every winter. Furthermore the argali is abundant
on the mountains adjacent to the Strait at East.
Cape, where it is well known to the Tschuckchi
hunters and where I have seen many of their horns.
On account of the extreme variability of the
sheep iiiidor culture, it is generally supposed that
the innumerable domestic breeds have all been
derived from the few Avild species; but the Avhole
question is involved in obscurity. According to
Darwin, sheep have been domesticated from a very
ancient period, the remains of a small breed, differ
ing from any now known, having been found inthe
famous Swiss lake-dwellings.
Compared with the best-known domestic breeds,
Ave find that our wfld species is much larger, and,
instead of an all-wool garment, wears a thick over
coat of hair like that of the deer, and an under-
covering of fine wool. The hair, though rather
coarse, is comfortably soft and spongy, and lies
smooth, as if carefully tended with comb and
brush. The predominant color during most of the
year is broAvnish-gray, varying to bluish-grfiy in
the autumn ; the belly and a large, conspicuous
patch on the buttocks are white; and the tail,
Avhich is very short, like that of a deer, is black,
with a ye!llowisli boretisr. The! wool is whibs, a.iid
grows in beautiful s^iirals down out of sight among
the shining hair, like delicate climbing vines among
stalks of corn.
The horns of the male are of immense size, mea-
THE WILD SHEEP 303
6
suriiig in their gresater dianieter j'rom live to six
and a half inches, and from Iavo aud a half to three
feet iu length around the curve. They are yefloAV-
ish-Avhite iu color, and ridged transversely, like
those of tho domestic ram. Their cross-section
near the! base is sonieAAdiat triangular in outline,
a.iiel llaKcsned toward thes tip. b'.ising boldly from
thes top of thes head, thesy csurvis gently ba.ckAvai-cl
and outward, then forwarel aud outward, uutil
about three fourths of a circle is described, and
until tbe flationed, blunt tips a.ro about two foot or
two a.ncl a luilf feet a.part. Those of the female are
flatiened throughout their entire length, are less
curved than those of the male, and much smaller,
measuring less than a foot along tho curve,
A ram and cavo that I obtained near the Modoc
lava-beds, to the northeast of Mount Shasta, mea
sured as f olloAvs :
Paul. Kiev.
fl. ill. ft. ill.
Ib'igtit at sliouielcM-s ';i f) ;'( 0
Oirtli n.rouiul .slioiilclcr.'^ ;i If 8 8,^
Lcsiigt.li from nose to I'oot of tail . T) 1()| 4 3^
Lcii'iitli of cars 0 4:J 0 5
Length of tail . 0 4^ 0 4^
Length of horns avonrul curve . . .290 11^
Distiiiicc across from tip to tip of horns . . 2 .5^
Circiiiiifereiice of horns at baso . . . 1 4 0 C
The measurements of a male obtained in the
Rocky Mountains by Audubon vary but little as
compared Avith the above. The Aveight of his speci
men Avas 344 pounds,^ Avliich is, perhaps, about an
1 Audubon aud Bacliman's " Qnsidvupods oi North Auiorica."
304 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
average for full-grown males. The females are
about a third lighter.
Besides these differences iu size, color, hair, etc.,
as noted above, we may observe that the domestic
sheep, in a general way, is expressionless, like a
dull bundle of something only half alive, while the
wild is as elegant and graceful as a deer, every move
ment manifesting admirable strength and charac
ter. The tamo is timid; thoAvild is bold. The tame
is always more or less ruffled and dirty ; while the
wild is as smooth and clean as the floAvers of his
mountain pastures.
The earliest mention that I have been able to
find of the wild sheep in America is by Father
Picolo, a Catholic missionary at Monterey, in the
year 1797, who, after describing it, oddly enough,
as "a kind of deer Avith a sheep-like head, and about
as large as a calf one or two years old," naturally
hurries on to remark: "I have eaten of these beasts;
their flesh is very tender and delicious," Mackenzie,
in his northern travels, heard the species spoken of
by the Jndiaiis as "whibs bufbdoes," And Leswis
and Clark bsll us tluit, in a times of grcsat scai'city on
the head waters of the Missouri, they sa.w plenty of
wild sheep, but they were "too shy to be shot,"
A few of the more energetic of the Pah Ute In
dians hunt the wild sheep every season among the
more accessible sections of the High Sierra, in the
neighborhood of passes, where, from having besesn
pursued, they have become extremely Avaiy ; but iu
the rugged wilderness of peaks aud canons, where
the foaming tributaries of the San Joaquin and
King's rivers take their rise, they fear no hunter
THE AVILD SHREP 305
save the AA^olf, and are more guileless and approach
able than their tame kindred,
AVliile engaged in the work of exploring high re
gions Avliere they delight to roam I have been greatly
interested in studying their habits. In the months
of November and December, and probably during
a considerable portion of midwinter, they all flock
together, male and female, old and young, I once
found a complete band of this kind numbering up
Avard of fifty, Avliich, on being alarmed, Aveiit bound
ing away across a jagged lava-bed at admirable
speed, led by a majestic old ram, with the lambs
safe in the miehllo of the flocsk,
in s[)ring and summer, the full-grown rams form
separate bands of from three to tAventy, and arts
usuallj' found feeding along the edges of glacier
meadoAvs, or resting among the castle-like crags of
the high summits; aud whether quietly feeding, or
scaling the wild cliffs, tiieir noble forms and the
poAver and beauty of their moA^ements never fail
to strike the beholder Avitli liA^ely admiration.
Their resting-places seem to be chosen with ref
erence to sunshine and a wide outlook, aud most
of all to safety. Their feeding-grounds are among
the most beautiful of the wild gardens, bright with
daisies and gentians and mats of purple biyan-
tlius, lying hidden away on rocky headlands and
ca.noii sidess, Avliere sunshine is abundant, or down
in the shady glacier valleys, along the banks of
the streams and lakes, where the plushy sod is
greenest. Here they feast all summer, the happy
Avanderers, perhaps relishing the beauty as well as
the taste of the lovely flora on Avliich they feed.
306
THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
Wlien the Avinter storms set in, loading their
highland pastures with snow, then, like the birds.
SNOW-llOUND ON MOUNT SHASTA.
they gather and go to loAver climates, usually de
scending the eastern flank of the range to the rough,
volcanic table-lands and treeless ranges of the
THE WILD SHEEP 307
Great Basin adjacent to the Sierra, They never
make haste, however, and seem to have no dread
of storms, many of the strongest only going doAvn
leisurely to bare, wind-swept ridges, to feed on
bushes and dry bunch-gi-ass, and then returning up
into the SUOAV, Once I was snow-bound on Mount
Shasta for three da,ys, a littlo bestow the timber line.
It was a dark and stormy time, well calculated to
test the skill and endurance of mountaineers. The
siiow-laclen gale drove on night and day in hissing,
blinding floods, and Avlien at length it began to
abate, I found that a small band of wild sheep had
Avoathorod the storm in the lee of a clump of Dwarf
Pines a few yards above my storm-nest, where the
snow was eight or ten feet deep, I was warm back
of a rock, with blankets, bread, and fire. My brave
companions lay iu the suoav, without food, and with
only the partial shelter of the short trees, yet they
made no sign of suffering or faiiit-heartedness.
In the months of May and June, the wild sheep
bring forth their ycning in solitary and almost inac-
csessible crags, far above tho nesting-rocks of the
eagle, 1 have frequently come upon the beds of the
ewes aud lambs at an elevation of from 12,000 to
13,000 feet above sea-level. These beds are simply
oval-shaped hollows, pawed out among loose, disin
tegrating rock-chips and sand, upon some sunny
spot commanding a good outlook, and partially shel
tered from the Avinds that sweep those lofty peaks
almost without intermission. Such is the cradle of
the little mountaineer, aloft in the very sky ; rocked
in storms, curtained in clouds, sleeping in thin, icy
air ; but, wrapped in his hairy coat, and nourished
308 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
by a strong, warm mother, defended from the talons
of the eagle and the teeth of the sly coyote, the bonny
lamb grows ajiiuse, Hes soon lesarns io nibble llie
tufted rock-grasses and leaves of the white spiraea ;
his horns begin to shoot, and before summer is
done he is strong and agile, and goes forth with the
flock, Avatched by the same di\'ine love that tends
the more helpless human lamb in its cradle by the
ti reside. Nothing is more commonly remarked by noisy,
dusty trail-travelers in the Sierra than the want of
animal life — no song-birds, no deer, no squirrels,
no game of any kind, they say. But if such could
only go aAvay quietly into the wilderness, saunter
ing afoot and alone Avitli natural deliberation, thej'^
Avould soon learn that these mountain mansions are
not Avithout inhabitants, many of whom, confiding
and gentle, Avould not try to shun their acquaintance.
In the fall of 1873 I was tracing the South Fork
of the San Joaquin up its wild canon to its farth
est ghusior femntains. It Avas the sisason of alpine
Indian summer. The sun beamed lovingly; the
sepiirre!ls wisre nutting in the pines-tresess, buttisrfliess
hovered about tho last of the goldenrods, the Avil-
low and maple thickets Avero yelloAv, the meadoAVS
brown, and the whole sunny, mellow landscape
glowed like a countenance in the deepest and
sweetest repose. On my way over the glacier-pol
ished rocks along the river, I came to an expanded
portion of the canon, about tAvo miles long and half
a mile wide, which formed a level park inclosed
with picituresepie granite Avails like those of Yo
semite Valley, Down through the middle of it
TIIE AVILD SHEEP
309
poured the beautiful river shining and spangling
in the golden light, yellow groves on its banks, and
strips of broAvn meadow ; while the whole park Avas
astir Avitli Avild life, some of which even the noisiest
HEAD OP THE MERINO RAM (DOMESTIC),
and least observing of travelers must have seen had
they been with me. Deer, with their supple, well-
grown fawns, bounded from thicket to thicket as I
advanced ; grouse kept rising from the brown grass
with a great whirring of wings, and, aflghting on
310 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
the lower branches of the pines and poplars, al-
loAved a near ajiproach, as if curious to see me.
Farther on, a broad-shouldered wildcat showed
himself, coining out of a grove, and crossing the
river on a flood-jamb of logs, halting for a moment
to look back. The bird-like tamias frisked about
my feet OA^erj^where among the pine-needles and
seedy grass-tufts ; cranes waded the shalloAVs of tho
river-bends, the kingfisher ratthid from perch to
perch, anel the blessed ouzel sang amid tho spray
of every cascade. Where may lonely wanderer
find a more interesting family of mountain-dwell
ers, earth-born companions and fellow-mortals ?
It Avas afternoon when I joined them, and the glo
rious landscape began to fade in the gloaming be
fore I awoke from their enchantment. Then I
sought a camp-ground on the liA'er-bank, made a
cupful of tea, and lay down to sleep on a smooth
lilace among the yellow leaves of an aspen grove.
Next day I discovered yet grander landscapes and
grander life. Following the river over huge, swell
ing rock-bosses through a majestic canon, and past
innumerable cascades, the scenery in general be
came gradually wilder and more alpine. The Su
gar Pine and Silver Firs gave place to the hardier
Cedar and Hemlock Spruce. The canon walls be
came more rugged and bare, and gentians and arc
tic daisies became more abundant in the gardens
and stri[)s of meadow along tho streams. Toward
the middle of the afternoon I came to anotlier val
ley, strikingly wild and original in all its features,
and perhaps never before touched by human foot.
As regards area of level bottom-land, it is one of
TIIE WILD SHEEP
311
the very smallest of the Yosemite type, but its wafls
are sublime, rising to a height of from 2000 to 4000
feet above the river. At the head of the vaUey
the main canon forks, as is found to be the case in
all yosemites. The formation of this one is due
IirAl) OI ROCKY MOUNTAIN WILD SHEEP.
chiefly to the action of two great glaciers, whose
fountains lay to the eastward, on the flanks of
Mounts Humphrey and Emerson and a cluster of
nameless peaks farther south.
312 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
The gray, boulder-chafed river was singing loudly
through the valley, but above its massy roar I
heard the! boemiing of a Avaterfall, which drew mes
eagerly on ; and just as I emerged from the tangled
groves and brier-thickets at the head of the valley,
the main fork of the river came iu sight, falhng
fresh from its glacier fountains in a snoAvy cas
cade, between granite Avails 2000 feet high. The!
stee^pincflinedoAvn Avhieii the gladAvate!rs tlinndered
seemed to bar all farther progress. It Avas not
long, however, before I discovered a croefliccl seam
in the rock, by which I Avas enabled to climb to
the edge of a terrace that crosses the canon, and
divides the cataract nearly in the middle. Here!
I sat down to take breath and make some entries
iu my note-book, taking advantage, at the sauus
time, of my elevated position aboA^e the trees to
gaze back over the valley into the heart of thes
noble landscape, little knowing the while what
neighbors were near.
After spending a foAV minutes in this Avay, T
chanced to look across the fall, and there sbiod
throe sheep cpiiotly observing me. Never did the
sudden appearancse of a memntaiu, or fall, or hu
man friend more forcibly seize and rivet my at
tention. Anxiety to obserA^e accurately hekl me
perfectly still. Eagerly I marked the flowing un
dulations of their firm, braided muscles, their
strong legs, ears, ej^es, heads, their graceful rounded
necks, the color of their hair, and the bold, up
sweeping curves of their noble horns. When they
moved I watched every gesture, while they, in no
wise disconcerted either by my attention or by the
'I'HE AVILD SHEEP 313
turn iiltuous roar of the water, advanced deliberately
alongside the rapids, betAA-een the tAvo divisions of
the cataract, turning now and then to look at me.
Presently they came to a steep, ice-burnished ac
clivity, Avhich they ascended by a succession of
ciuick, short, stiff-legged leaps, reaching the top
Avithout a struggle. This was the most startling
feat of mountaineering I had ever witnessed, and,
considering only the mechanics of the thing, my
astoiiishment could hardly have been greater had
they displayed wings and taken to flight, " Sure
footed " mules on such ground would have fallen
a.nel rolled like loosened boulders. Many a time,
wlicsrc! the slopes are far loAver, I havo be!eu com-
peslled to ta.ko off my shoes and stiockings, tie them
to my belt, and creep barefooted, with the utmost
cjaution. No Avonder then, that I watched the
progress of these animal mountaineers with keen
synqia.thy, aucl exulted in the boundless sufficiency
ot Avild nature displayed in their invention, con
struction, and keeping, A feAv minutes later I
caught sight of a dozen more in one band, near the
foot of the upper fall. They were standing on the
same side of the river with me, only, twenty-five or
thirty yards away, looking as unworn and perfect
as if created on the spot. It appeared by their
tracks, which I had seen in the Little Yosemite,
and by their present position, that wheu I came up
the canon thoy Avere all feeding together down in the
valley, and in their haste to reach high ground,where
they could look about them to ascertain the nature
of the strange disturbance, they were divided, three
a.scending on one side the river, the rest on the other.
314 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
OHO.SSINCI A CANON STKKAM.
The main band, headed by an ox[)erienced chief,
now began to cross the Avild rapids between the
two divisions of the cascade. This was another
THE WILD SHEEP 315
exciting feat; for, among all tho varied experiences
of mountaineers, the crossing of boisterous, rock-
dashed torrents is found to be one of the most
trying to the nerves. Yet these fine fellows walked
fearlessly to the brink, and jumped from boulder
to boulder, holding themselves in easy poise above
tlie Avhirling, (xmfusiiig current, as if they Avero
chiiiig nothing extraordinary,
Iu the immediate foreground of this rare picture
there Avas a fold of ice-burnished granite, traversed
by a f OAV bold lines in which rock-ferns and tufts of
bryauthus Avore growing, the gray canon walls on
the sides, nobly sculptured and adorned with brown
cedars and pines ; lofty peaks in the distance, and
in the middle ground the snowy fall, the voice and
soul of the landscape ; fringing bushes beating time
to its thunder-tones, the brave sheep in front of it,
their gray forms slightly obscured iu the spray, yet
standing out in good, heavy relief against the close
Avliite Avater, with their huge horns rising like the
upturmid roots of dea.cl ])iiie-t.rees, Avhilo the even-
i iig sunbeams streaming U[) tho canon coloreil all tho
])ict.uro a rosy purple and made it glorious. After
crossing the river, the dauntless climbers, led by
their chief, at once began to scale the canon wall,
turning now right, now left, in long, single file,
keeping well apart out of one another's way, anel
leaping in regular succession from crag to crag,
now ascending sflppery dome-curves, noAV walking
leisurely along the edges of precipices, stopping at
times to gaze down at me from some flat-topped
rock, with heads held aslant, as if curious to learn
what I thought about it, or whether I was flkely to
316 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
follow them. After reaching the top of the Avail,
which, at this place, is somoA^diere betAveen 150()
and 2000 feset high, tliesy Avores still A'isible! against
the sky as they lingered, looking down in groups
of twos or threes.
Throughout the entire ascent they did not make
a single awkAvard step, or an unsuccessful eff'ort of
any kind, I liaA^e frequently seen tame sheep in
meumbiiiis jiimji upon a sle)[)iiig roesk-surfacses, hold
on tremulously a foAV secoiuls, and fall back baffled
and irresolute. But in the most trying situations,
where the slightest want or inaccuracy would have
been fatal, these ahvays seemed to move in comfort
able reliance on their strength and skill, the limits
of which they never a})peared to know, Aloreovisr,
each one of the flock, Avliilo following the guidance
of the most experienced, yet climbed with intelli
gent indopendonc;o as a pesrfoct individual, capables
of separate existence whenever it should wish or be
compelled to withdraAV from the little clan. The
domestic sheep, on the contrary, is ouly a fraction
of an animal, a whole flock being required to form
au individual, just as numerous flowerets are! ris-
epiircd to make enio cseimplestio suii(le)wi!r.
Those shepherds avIio, in suinnier, drive their
flocks to the mountain pastures, and, while watch
ing them night and day, have seen them frightened
by bears and storms, and scattered like Aviiid-
driven chaff, Avill, in some measure, bo able to ap
preciate the self-reliance and strength aucl noble
individuality of Nature's sheep.
Like the Alp-climbing ibex of Europe, our moun
taineer is said to plunge headlong down the faces
¦rilK WILD SHREI- 317
of sheer preciiieses, and alight on his big horns,
I kiioAv only tAvo hunters avIio claim to have actu
ally Avitnessed this feat ; I never was so fortunate.
They describe tlie act as a diving head-foremost.
The horns are so large at the base that they cover
the upper portion of the head down nearly to a
level Avith the eyes, and the skull is exceedingly
strong, I struck an old, bleached specimen on
Mount Ritter a dozen bloAvs with my ice-ax with
out breaking it. Such skulls would not fracture
very readily by the Avildest rock-diving, but other
bones coulel hardly bo expected to hold together iu
siicsli a pc!rl'ornia.ucc!; a.iid the! uie!islia.nical diflicsul-
li(!S iu the way of controlling their movements,
after striking upon an irregular surface, aro, in
themselves, sufficient to shoAV this boulder-like
method of progression to bo impossible, even in
the absence of all other evidence on the subject;
moreover, tho oavos follow wherever the rams may
lead, although their horns are mere spikes, I have
found many pairs of the horns of the old rams con
siderably battered, doubtless a result of fighting,
I Avas particularly interested in the question, after
witnessing the performances of this San Joaquin
band upon the glaciated rocks at the foot of the
fafls; and as soon as I procured specimens and
examined their feet, all the mystery disappeared.
The secret, considered iu connection with excep-
tionafly strong muscles, is simply this: the wide
posterior portion of the bottom of the foot, instead
of wearing down and becoming flat and hard, like
the feet of tame sheep and horses, bulges out in a
soft, rubber-like pad or cushion, which not only
318 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
grips and holds well on smooth rocks, but fits into
small cavities, and down upon or against slight
protuberances. Even the hardest portions of the
edge of the hoof are comi^aratively soft and elastic;
furthermore, the toes admit of an extraordinary
amount of both lateral and vertical movement, al
lowing the foot to accommodate itself still more per
fectly to the irregularities of rock surfaces, while
at the same time increasing the gripping poAver.
At the base of Sheep Rock, one of the winter
strongholds of the Shasta flocks, there lives a stock-
raiser who has had the advantage of observing the
movements of wild sheep every Avinter; and, in
the course of a couA'crsation with him on the sub
ject of their diving habits, he pointed to the front
of a lava headland about 150 foot high, wliiesh is
only eight or ten degi-ees out of the perpendicular,
"There," said he, "I followed a baud of theni fel
lows to the back of that rock yonder, and expected
to capture them all, for I thought I had a dead
thing on them, I got behind them on a narroAV
bench that runs along the face of the wall near the
top anel comes to an end where they could n't get
away Avithout falling and being killed ; but they
jumped otf, and landed all right, as if that Avesre the
regular thing Avitli them,"
" What ! " said I, "jumped 150 feet perpendicular I
Did you seo them do it '? "
"No," he respliod, "I did n't seo tluvin going
down, for I Avas behind them ; but I saw them go
off over the brink, and then I Avent below and found
their tracks wdiere they struck on the loose rub
bish at the bottom. They just sailed right off, and
THE WIM) SHEEP
319
lauded on their feet
right sides up. That
is the kind of animal
they is — beats any
thing else that goes
on b)ur legs,"
On a,iiotliesr occa
sion, a flock lha.(.Avas
pursued by hunters
retreated to another
liortionof this sa,mc!
cliff Avliere it is still
]iiglier,and, oubeing
folloAved, they were
seen jumping down
in perfect order, one
behind another, by
tAVO men avIio liaii-
l>ened to bo chop
ping Avliore they had
a fair vic!w of tliesm
and esould Ava,tcli
their progress from
top to bottom of
the precipice. Both
ewes and rams made
the frightful descent
withoutovinciiigany extraordinary coii-
cei'u, hugging the
roc!k closely, aiidcon-
trolliug the velocity
of their half falling,
WILD SHEEP .lUMPING OVER A PKECIPIOE,
320 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
half leaping movements by striking at short in
tervals and holding back with their cushioned,
rubber feet upon small ledges and roughened in
clines until near the bottom, Avheii they " sailed off"
into the free air and alighted on their feet, but
with their bodies so nearly iu a vertical position
that they appeared to be diving.
It appears, therefore, that the methods of this
wild mountaineering become eiearly cennprehensi-
ble as soon as A\''e make ourseh^es acquainted Avitli
the rocks, and the kind of feet aud muscles brought
to bear upon them.
The Modoc and Pah Ute Indians are, or rather
have been, the most successful hunters of the Avild
sheep in the regions that have come under my oavu
observation, I have seen large numbei's of heads
and horns in the caves of Mount Shasta and the
Modoc lava-beds, where the Indians had been bsast-
ing in stormy weather ; also in the canons of the
Sierra opposite Owen's Valley ; while the heavy ob
sidian arrow-heads found on some of the highest
peaks show that this warfare has long been going on.
In the more accessible ranges tha.t stnsteii aesross
the desert regions of western Utah aud Nevada,
considerable numbers of Indians used to hunt in
company like packs of wolves, and being perfectly
acquainted with the topography of their hunting-
grounds, and with the habits and instincts of the
game, they were pretty successful. On the tops of
nearly every one of the Nevada mountains that I
have visited, I found small, nest-like inclosures built
of stones, in which, as I afterward learned, one or
more Indians would lie in wait while their compau-
TIIE AVILD SHEEP
321
ions scoured the ridges below, knoAving that the
alarmed sheep Avould surely run to the summit, and
Avhen thoy could be made to approach Avith the wind
they Avero shot at short range.
INDIANS HUNTING WILD SHEEP,
Still larger bands of Indians used to make exten
sive hunts upon some douiinaut mountain much fre
quented by the sheep, such as Mount Grant on the
Wassuck Range to the Avest of Walker Lake, On
322 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
some particular spot, favorably situated with ref
erence to the Avell-known trails of the sheep, they
built a high-walled corral, with long guiding Aviiigs
diverging from the gateway ; and into this iiiclos-
ure they sometimes succeeded iu driving the noble
game. Great numbers of Indians were of course re
quired, more, indeed, than they could usually mus
ter, counting in squaws, children, and all; they Avere
compelled, therefore, to build rows of dummy hun
ters out of stones, along the ridge-tops which they
wished to jireventi the sheep from crossing. And,
without discrediting the sagacity of the game, these
dummies were found effective ; for, Avitli a foAV Ua^o
Indians moving about excitedly among them, thoy
could hardly bo distinguished at a little disbincts
from men, by any one not iu tho secret. The whole
ridge-toj) then seemed to be alive with hunters.
The only animal that may fairly be regarded
as a companion or rival of the sheep is the so-
called Rocky Mountain goat {Aplocerus montana,
Rich,), which, as its name indicates, is more ante
lope than goat. He, too, is a brave and hardy
climber, fearlessly crossing the Avildest summits,
and braving the severest storms, but he is shaggy,
short-legged, and much less dignified in demeanor
than the sheep. His jet-blacdc horns are only about
five or six inches in length, and the long, white hair
Avith which he is covered obscures the expression
of his limbs, I haves never yet se!c!ii a single spe!ci-
nieu in tho Sierra, tlumgh possibly a few lloejks
may have lived on Mount Shasta a comparatively
short time ago.
The ranges of these two mountaineers are pretty
'ITIE AVILD SHEEP 323
distinct, and they see but little of each other ; the
sheep being restricted mostly to the dry, inland
mountains ; the goat or chamois to the wet, snowy
glacier-laden mountains of the northwest coast
of the continent iu Oregon, Washington, British
(iolumbia., and vVlaska, Probably more tha,u 200
dwiil on the! icy, volcanies cones of Mount Ra.iiiiisr;
and Avhile I Avas exploring the glaciers of Alaska I
saAV flocks of these admirable mountaineers nearly
every day, and often folloAved their trafls tlirougli
tho mazes of bewildering crovas.ses, in which they
are excellent guides.
Throe speesies of deesr a,ro bmnd in California, —
the black-tailed, Avliite-tailod, and mule deer. The
first mentioned {Cervus Columbianus) is by far
the most abundant, and occasionally meets the
sheep during the summer on high glacier meadows,
and along the edge of the timber line ; but being
a forest animal, seeking shelter and rearing its
ycmiig in dense thickets, it sc!lclom A'isits the wild
slicsop in its higher lioiiie!s, Thes a.nteiope<, though
not a mcnintaineer, is occasionally met iu Avinter
by the sheep Avhilo feeding along the edges of the
sage-plains and bare volcanic hills to the east of
the Sierra, So also is the mule deer, Avliich is al
most restricted in its range to this eastern region.
The Avhite-tailed siiecies belongs to the coast ranges.
Perhaps no Avild animal in the Avorld is Avithout
enemies, but hi glilau ciers, as a class, have fewer
than loAvlanders, The Avily panther, slipping and
crouching among long grass and bushes, jiounces
upou the antelope and doer, but seldom crosses the
bald, craggy thresholds of the sheep. Neither can
324 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
the bears be regarded as enemies ; for, though they
seek to vary their every-day diet of nuts and ber
ries by an occasional mesal of mutton, they prefesr
to hunt tame aud helpless flocks. Eagles and co
yotes, no doubt, capture an unprotected lamb at
times, or some uufortuiiate beset in deep, soft
SUOAV, but these cases are little more than acci
dents. So, alse"), a few perish iu long-contbnied
snow-storms, themgli, in all my mouiitaineeriiig, I
have not found more than five or six that seemed
to have met their fate in this Avay, A little band
of three Avere discovered snoAV-bound in Bloody
Canon a few years ago, and Avere killed with an ax
by mountaineers, who chanced to be crossing the
range in Avinter,
Man is tho most dangerous enemy of all, but
even from him our braA'^e mountain-dweller has
little to fear iu tho remote solitudes of tho High
Sierra, The golden plains of the Sacramento and
San Joaquin were lately thronged Avith bands of
elk and antelope, but, being fertile and acscessible>,
they were reepiinsd bir liiiinaii pastures. So, also,
aro many of tlus bscsdiiig-groiiiids of the deer — hill,
valley, forest, ami meadow — but it will bes long be
fore man will care to take tho highlanel castles of
the sheep. And when avo consider here how rapidly
entire species of noble animals, such as the elk,
moose, and buft'alo, are being jinshed to the very
verge of extinction, all lovesrs of Avildness Avill res-
joice Avith me in the rocky security of Ovis mon
tana, the bravest of all the Sierra mountaineers.
CHAPTER XV
IN THE SIERRA FOO'l'-HILLS
MURPHY'S CAMP is a curious old mining-town
in Calaveras County, at an elevation of 2400
feet above the sea, situated like a nest in the cen-
(er of a, rough, gra.A'eslly rc>gioii, ricii in gold, Ora.n-
i(e>s, sla.b'S, la\'a.s, limcssloiu', iron ores, cpwirtz vcmiis,
a.uribsrous gravels, re!miia.nts of dead fire-rivers
and dea,cl Avater-riA'crs aro deve.!lopod here side by
side Avithin a radius of a fcAV miles, aud placed in
vitingly open before the student like a book, while
tbe people aucl the rcigion beyond the camp fur
nish mines of study of never-failing interest and
variesty. When I discovered this curious place, I was tracing
thechanuels of the ancient pre-glacial rivers, instruc
tive sections of Avliich have been laid bare here and
in the adjacent regions by the miners. Rivers, ac
cording to the poets, "go on forever"; but those
of the Siesrra. a.re young as yest and have scarcely
lea.rii(!d tho Avay down to tho sea.; Avhile at least
OHO gvueration of them haves dieil and vanished
together Avitli most of tho liasins they drained.
Ail that remains of them to tell their history is a
series of interrupted fragments of channels, mostly
choked with gravel, and buried beneath broad,
320 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
thick sheets of lava. These are known as the
"Dead Rivers of California," and the gravel de
posited in them is comprehensively called tho
" Blue Lead," In some places the channels of the
present rivers trend in tho same direction, or
nearly so, as those of the ancient rivers; but, in
general, there is little correspondence betAveen
them, the entire drainage having been changed, or,
rather, made new. Many of the hills of the an
cient landscapes have become hoUoAvs, and the
old hollows have become hifls. Therefore the
fragmentary channels, Avith their loads of aurifer
ous gravel, occur in all kinds of unthought-of
places, trending obliepiely, or even at right angles
to the present drainage, across the tops of lofty
ridges or far beiusath them, jiressesnting iiiipi'e!ssive
illustrations of the magnitueie of the changes ac
complished since those ancient streams were anni
hilated. The last volcanic jieriod preceding the
regeneration of the Sierra landscapes seems to
have come on over all the range almost simulta
neously, like the glacial period, notwithstanding
lavas of different ago occur together in many
places, indicating numerous periods of activity in
the Sierra fire-fountains. The most important of
the ancient river-channels in this region is a sec
tion that extends from the south side of the town
beneath Coyote Creek and the ridge beyond it
to the Canon of the Stanislaus; but on account of
its depth below the general surface of the present
valleys the rich gold gravels it is kiioAvn to contain
cannot be easily worked on a large scale. Their
extraordinary richness may be inferred from the
IN TIIE SIERRA FOOT-HILLS 327
fact that many claims were profitably worked in
them by sinking shafts to a depth of 200 feet or
more, and hoisting the dirt by a windlass. Should
the dip of this ancient channel be such as to make
the Stanislaus Canon available as a dump, then
the grand deposit might be worked by the hy
draulic method, and although a long, exjiensivo
tuniicsl AAMuild be iwpiired, the! scheme might still
prove prolitable, for there is " millions iu it,"
The importance of these ancient gravels as gold ,
fountains is well known to miners. Even the su
perficial placers of the present streams have de
rived much of their gold from them. According
to all accounts, the Murphy placers have been very
rich — " terrific rich," as they say here. The hills
have been cut and scalped, and every gorge and
gulch and valley torn to pieces and disemboweled,
expressing a fiei'ce and desperate energy hard to
understand. Still, any kind of effort-making is
better than inaction, and there is something sub
lime iuseoinguiisu Avorking in dead esarnest at any
thing, luirsuing an object with glacier-like energy
and persistence. Many a brave fellow has recorded
a most eventful chapter of life on these Calaveras
rocks. But most of the pioneer miners are sleep
ing now, their wild day done, while the feAV survi
vors linger languidly in the Avashed-out gulches or
sleepy vfllage like harried bees around the ruins of
their hive, " We have no industry left ?;o?r," they
told me, " and no men ; everybody and everything
hereabouts has gone to decay. We are only bum
mers—out of the game, a thin scatteriu' of poor,
dilapidated cusses, compared with what we used
328 .THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
to be ill the grand old gold-days. We Avere giants
then, and you can look around here and see our
tracks," But although these lingisring pioiusers are
perhaps more exhausted than the mines, and about
as dead as the dead rivers, they are yet a rare and
interesting set of men, Avitli much gold mixed with
the rough, rocky gravel of their characters; and
they manifest a breeding and intelligence little
looked for in such surroundings as theirs. As tlie
heavy, long-continued grinding of the glaciers
brought out the features of the Sierra, so the in
tense experiences of the gold period have brought
out the features of these old miners, forming a
richness and variety of character little knoAvu as
yet. The sketches of Bret Ilarte, Hayes, aud Millesr
have not exhausted this field by any means. It is
interesting to note the extremes possible in one
and the same character: harshness and gesntleness,
manliness and childishness, apathy aud fierce en
deavor. Men Avho, tAventy years ago, Avould not
ceases their shoveling to save their lives, iioav pliy
in the streets Avitli children. Their Icing, MicaAV-
ber-like Avaiting after tho exhaustion of the plac-.ers
has brought on an e!.\a.ggei'atesd form of dotages. I
heard a group of brawny pioneers in the street
eagerly discmssiiig the epiantity of tail rcscpiired for
a boy's kito ; anel one graylieard undertook the!
sport of flying it, volunteering the information
that he was a boy, "ahvays Avas a boy, and d — n
a man Avho Avas not a boy inside, hoAvever ancient
outside ! " ]\Iiues, morals, politics, the immortality
of the soul, etcs., wcsre disisussed besmsa.th shades-
trees and in saloons, the time for each being gov-
IN THE SIERRA FOOT-HILLS 329
oriied apparently by the temperature. Contact with
Nature, and the habits of observation acquired in
gold-seeking, had made them afl, to some extent,
colleci.or.s, and, like Avood-rats, they had gathered
all kinds of odd ,'<pe(imoiis into theb- csabins, and
UOAV required me to examine them. They were
themselves the oddest aud most interesting speci
mens. One of them offered to show me around
the old diggings, giving me fair warning before
setting out that I might not like him, "because,"
said he, "people say I 'in eccentric, I notice
everything, and gather beetles and snakes and
anything that 's queer ; and so some don't like me,
and i-all mo eccentrics, 1 'm ahvays trying to fiiul
out things. Now, there 's a Avced; the Indians eat
it for greens. What do you call tliose long-bodied
(lies Avitli big heads 1 " " Dragon-flies," I suggested,
" Well, their jaAvs Avork sidcAvise, instead of up and
cloAvii, and gra,s,sho])jiers' jaAVS Avork the same way,
and tliisrefore I think they are the same species,
I ahvays notice eA^erytbing like that, and just be
cause I do, they say I 'm eccentric," etc.
Anxious that I .should miss none of the wonders
of their old gold-field, the good people had much to
say about the marvelous beauty of Cave City CaA'e,
and ailAdsed me to explore it. This I Avas very
glad to do, and finding a guide avIio knoAv the Avay
to tlio mouth of it, I set out from IMurphy t;he next
nioriiing. The most beautiful and oxteusiA^e of the moun
tain caves of California occur in a belt of metamor
phie limestone that is pretty generally developed
along the western flank of the Sierra from the Mc-
330 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
Cloud River on the north to the Kaweah on the
south, a distance of over 400 miles, at an elevation
of from 2000 to 7000 feet above the sea. Besides
this regular belt of caves, the California landscapes
are diversified by long imposing ranks of sea-caves,
rugged and variable in architecture, carved in the
coast headlands and precipices by centuries of
wave-dashing; and innnmeirablc! lava-caves, great
and small, originating in the uneepial flowing and
hardening of the lava sheets in Avhicli they occur,
fine illustrations of which are iDresented in the fa
mous Modoc LaA^a Beds, and around the base of
icy Shasta, In this comprehensive glance we may
also notice the shalloAV Avind-worn caves in strati
fied sandstones along the margins of the plains;
and the cave-like recesses in the Sierra slates anel
granites, where bears and other mountaineers find
shelter during the fall of sudden storms. In gen
eral, however, the grand massive uplift of the
Sierra, as far as it has been laid bare to obserA'^a-
tion, is about as solid and caveiess as a boulder.
Fresh beauty opens oiui's eyes Avherever it is
really seen, but the vesiy abundance and ccmqilcte-
ness of the cemimon beauty that besets our stesps
prevents its being absorbed and appreciated. It is
a good thing, therefore, to make short excursions
iioAV and then to the bottom of the sea among dulse
and coral, or up auiong the clouds on mountain-
tops, or in balloons, or even to creep like Avorins
into dark holes and caverns underground, not onlj''
to learn something of Avliat is going on in those
out-of-the-Avay places, but to see better what the
sun sees on our return to common every-day beauty.
IN THE SIERRA FOOT-HILLS 331
Our Avay from Murphy's to the cave lay across a
series of picturesque, moory ridges in the chaparral
region betAveen the broAvn foot-hifls and the forests,
a floAvery stretch of roUing hfll-waves breaking here
and thesre into a kind of rocky foam on the higher
summits, and sinking into delightful bosky hofloAvs
embowesred Avitli vines. The day Avas a fine siiecimen
of California summer, pure sunshine, unshaded most
of the time by a single cloud. As the sun rose
higher, the heated air began to flow in tremulous
waves from every southern slope. The sea-breeze
that usually conies up the foot-hills at this season,
Avith cooling on its Aviiigs, Avas scare!ely iiorceptiblo.
The birds wisre assembled beneath leafy shade, or
imulo short, languid flights iu sea,rch of food, all
save the majestic buzzard; with broad wings out
spread he sailed the warm air uuAvearily from ridge
to ridge, seeming to enjoy the fervid sunshine like
a butterfly, Sepiirrei.s, too, whoso spicy ardor no
heat or cold may abate, Avere nutting among the
pines, and the innumerable hosts of the insect king
dom Avere throbbing and AvaA'ering unwearied as
sunbeams. This brushy, berry-bearing region used to be a
deer and bear pasture, but since the disturbances
of the gold period these fine animals have almost
Avholly disaiipeared. Here, also, once roamed the
mastodon and ole^phaiit, whoso bones are bsuiid en
tombed iu tho river gravels and beneath thick folds
of lava. Toward noon, as avo were riding slowly
over bank and brae, basking in the unfeverish
sun-heat, Ave witnessed the upheaval of a new moun
tain-range, a Sierra of clouds abounding in land-
332 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
scapes as truly sublime and beautiful — if only we
have a mind to think so and eyes to see — as the
more a.iicsiesnt rocicy Siesrra. lHsnesa.th it, Avidi i(s \'oy-
ests and waterfalls ; reminding us that, as there is a
lower world of caves, so, also, there is an upper
world of clouds. Huge, bossy cumuli developed
with astonishing rapidity from mere buds, swelling
with visible motion into colossal mountains, aud
piling higher, higher, in long massive ranges, peak
beyond peak, dome over dome, with many a pic
turesque valley and shadowy cave between ; Avliile
tho dark firs and pines of the upper benches of the
Sierra A\^ere projected against their pearl bosses
Avitli exquisite clearness of outline. These cloud
mountains vanished iu the azure as quickly as they
Avere developed, leaving no detritus; but theyAvere
not a whit less real or interesting on this account.
The more enduring hills over which we rode wercs
A'anishing as surely as they, only not so fast, a dif
ference which is great or small according to thes
standpoint from Avhicli it is coiiteniiilatcd,
Atthe bottom of every dell avo found little home
steads e!mbosomescl in Avild brush and viiiess Avhesr-
ever the rescessioii of the hills lesft pab'hes of ara,ble
ground. These secluded flats aro settled mostly by
Italians and Germans, Avho plant a few vegetabUss
and grape-vines at odd times, Avhile their main
business is mining and prospecting. In spite of all
the natural beauty of these! desll cabins, the!y can
hardly be called liomes. They are only a better
kind of camp, gladly abandoneil AvhenoA^er the
hoped-for gold liarvest has been gathesred. There is
an air of profound unrest anel melanchol}^ about
IN 'rilE SIERRA FOOr-HILLS 333
thes best of tliesm. Their beauty is thrust upon
them by exuberant Nature, apart from which they
are only a fcAV logs and boards rudely jointed and
without either ceding or floor, a rough fireplace
Avith corresiionding cooking utensils, a shelf-bed,
and stool. The ground about them is stroAAm AAuth
battened prospeciiiig-pans, picivS, sluice-boxes, and
(luartz speciineus from many a ledge, indicating the
trend of their owuc!rs' hard lives,
Ttic! ridc! from ]\Iur[)liy's to the cave is scarcely two
hours long, but wes lingerc^d among cpuirtz-ledges
and banks of dead river gravel until long after
noon. At length emcsrging from a narroAV-throated
gorge, a small house came in sight set in a thicket
of fig-trees at the base of a limestone hifl, "That,"
said my guide, pointing to the house, "is Cave
City, and the cave is iu that gray hill," Arriving
at the one house of this one-house city, aa'^c Avere
boisterously Avelcomed by three drunken men Avho
bad conic! to town to hold a sprees. The mistre.ss
of the house! tried to keesp ordisr, aud iu reply to
our iucpiiries told u.o that the cave guide Avas then
iu the cave Avith a party of ladies, "And must we
Avait until he returns?" avo asked. No, that Avas un-
iicscesssa.ry ; avcs might takes candless and go into the
cave alone, provided we shouted from time to time
so as to be found by the guide^, and AA^ere careful
uot to fall oAa!r the rocks oi' into the dark jiools,
Accordinglj^ taking a trail from the house, avo Avei'e
led around the base of the hill to the mouth of the
cave, a small inconspicuous arcliAvay, mossy around
the edges and shaped like the door of a water-ouzel's
ne!st, with no aiiprociable hint or advortlsement of
334 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
the grandeur of the many crystal chambers within.
Lighting our candles, Avliich seemed to have no illu-
minating poAver iu the thick clarkness, avo groped
our Avay onward as best Ave could along narrow
lanes and alleys, from chamber to chamber, around
rustic columns and heaps of fallen rocks, stopping
to rest now aud then iu particularly beautiful
places — fairy alcioves furnished Avitli admirable \a-
ricty of shelvess and tabless, and round bossy sbiols
covered Avith sparkling crystals. Some of the cor
ridors Avere muddy, and in plodding along these Ave
seemed to be in the streets of some prairie Aullage
in spring-time. Then Ave AVould come to handsome
marble stairways conducting right and left into
upper chambers ranged above one another three or
four stories high, floors, ceilings, and Avails lavishly
decorated Avitli innumerable crj^stalliue forms.
After thus Avandering exploringly, and alono for a
mile or so, fairly enchanted, a murmur of voices
and a gleam of light betrayed the approach of the
guide and his party, from AAdiom,Avheii they camo
up, Ave rec;eived a most hearty and natural stari!, as
AVC! sbiod half esoncesalcscl in a. sides resccsss aniong
stalagmites. 1 ventiireil to ask the dripping, crouch
ing company Iioav they had enjoyed their saunter,
anxious to learn Iioav the strange sunless scenery of
the underAvorld had impressed them. "Ah, it 's
nice! It 's splendid!" they all replied and echoed,
"The Bridal Chamber back hens is just glorious!
This morning Ave came doAvii from tho Calaveras
Big Tree Grove, and the trees are nothing to it."
After making this curious comparison they has
tened sunward, the guide promising to join us
IN THE SIERRA FOOT-HILLS 335
shortly on the bank of a deej) pool, where we were
to Avait for him. This is a charming little lakelet
of unknoAvn depth, never yet stirred by a breeze, aud
its eternal calm excites the imagination even more
profoundly than tho silvery lakes of the glaciers
rimmed Avitli meadoAvs and snow and reflecting
sublime mountains.
Our guide, a jolly, rollicking Italian, led us into
the heart of the hill, up and down, right and left,
from chamber to chamber more and more magnifi
cent, all a-giitter like a glacier cave with icicle-like
stalactites and stalagmites combined in forms of
indescribable beauty. We Avero shoAvii one large
room that Avas occasionally used as a danciiig-hall ;
another that Avas used as a chapel, with natural
pulpit and crosses and pews, sermons in every
stone, Avliere a priest had said mass. Mass-saying
is not so generally developed in connection Avith
natural wonders as dancing. One of the first
conceits excited by the giant Sequoias was to cut
one of tlioiii down and dance on its stump. We
havo also seen dauesing in the spray of Niagara;
dancing in the famous BoAver Cave above Coulter-
ville ; and nowhere have I seen so much dancing
as in Yosemite, A dance on the inaccessible South
Dome would likely foflow the making of an easy
way to the top of it.
It Avas delightful to witness hero tho infinite
deliberation of Nature, and the simplicity of her
methods in the production of such mighty results,
such perfect repose combined Avith restless enthu
siastic energy. Though cold and bloodless as a
landscape of polar ice, budding was going on in the
336 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
dark with incessant activity. The archways and
ceilings Avere CA^eryAvhere hung Avitli down-groAving
crystals, like inverted groves of leafless saplings,
some of them large, others delicately attenuated,
each tipped Avith a single drop of watei', like the
terminal bud of a pine-tree. The only appreciable
sounds Avere the dripping and tinkling of water
falling into pools or faintly plashing on the crystal
floors. In some places the crystal decorations are ar
ranged in graceful floAving folds deeply plicated
like stiff silken drapery. In others straight lines
of the ordinary stalactite forms are cmubined Avith
reference to size anel tone iu a regularly graduated
system like tlie strings of a harp Avit;li musicsal tones
corre.spoHcling thcsreslio; a.iid on these sbmes hai'iis
we played by striking the crystal strings Avitli a
stick. The delicious licjuid tones they gave forth
seemed perfectly divine as they sweetly whispered
and wavered through the majestic halls and died
aAvay in faintest cadence, — the music of fairy-land.
Here we lingered and reveled, rejoicing to find so
much music in stony silence, so mueii splendor in
darkness, so many mansions in the depths of the
mouiilains, buildings esvesr in jirocisss of constriics-
ticm, yist esver finislicsd, dcsveloj)ing from perfection
to perfection, profusion without OA^eraliundauce;
every particle visible or invisible in glorious mo-
tiem, iiiareiiing b) thes musics of tlies sphesrcs in a.
region regarded as the abode of esfernal stillness
and death.
The outer chambers of mountain caves are fre
quently selected as homes by wild beasts. In the
IN THE SlEltUA POOr-HlLLS 337
Sierra., howesver, (hesy sesein to prefer liomes and
hiding-places in eiiaparral aud beneath shelving
precipices, as I have never seen their tracks in any
of the caves. This is the more remarkable because
notwithstanding the darkness and oozing Avater
there is nothing uiiccmfortably cellar-like or sepul-
eiiral about them.
When we emerged into the bright landscapes of
the sun everything looked brighter, and we felt our
faith in Nature's beauty strengthened, and saw more
eslearly that beauty is universal and immortal,
above, beneath, on land and sea, mountain and
plain, in heat and cold, light and darkness.
CHAPTER XVI
THE BEE-PASTURES
WHEN California was wild, it was one sweet
bee-garden throughout its entire length,
north and south, and all the way across from the
snowy Sierra to the ocean.
Wlierever a bee might fly within the bounds of
this virgin wilderness — through the redwood for
ests, along the banks of the rivers, along the bluffs
and headlands fronting the sea, over valley and
plain, park and grove, and deep, leafy glen, or far
up the piny slopes of the mountains — throughout
every belt and section of climate up to the timber
line, bee-flowers bloomed in lavish abundance.
Here they grew more or less apart in special sheets
anel pab'Jies of no gresa.t size!, thesre in broad, flow
ing folds hundreds of miles in length — zones of
polleny forests, zones of floAvery chaparral, stream-
tangles of rubus and Avild rose, sheets of golden
compositse, beds of violets, beds of mint, beds of
bryauthus and clover, and so on, certain species
blooming someAvhere all the year round.
But of late years ploAvs and sheep have made sad
havoc in these glorious pastures, destroying tens of
thousands of the flowery acres like a fire, and ban
ishing many species of the best honey-iilants to
THE BEE-PASTURES 339
rocky cliffs and fence-corners, while, on the other
hand, cultivation thus far has given no adequate
coin]iensatioii, at least in kind ; only acres of alfalfa
for miles of the richest Avild iiasture, ornamental
roses and honeysuckles around cottage doors for
cascades of Avild roses in the dells, and small, square
orcbai'ds and orange-groves for broad mountain-
belts of chaparral.
The Great Central Plain of California, during the
months of March, Aiiril, and May, Avas one smooth,
continuous bed of honey-bloom, so marvelously
rich that, in walking from one end of it to the
other, a disbiiicse of more than 400 miles, your biot
Avould press about a hundred flowers at every step.
Mints, gilias, nemophilas, castilleias, and innumer
able compositte Avere so crowded together that, had
ninety-nine per cent, of them been taken aAvay, the
plain would still have seemed to any but Califor-
iiians extravagantly floAveiy, The radiant, honey
ful corollas, touching and overlapping, and rising
abewo one another, glowcMl in the Hving light like a
sunset sky — one slicet of purple and gold, with the
bright Sacraniento pouring through the midst of it
from the north, the San Joaquin from the south,
and their many tributaries sweeping in at right
angles from the mountains, dividing the plain into
sections fringed Avith trees.
Along the rivers there is a strip of bottomdand,
countersunk beneath the general level, and wider
toward the foot-hills, where magnificent oaks, from
three to eight feet in diameter, cast grateful masses
of shade over the open, prairie-like levels, _ Aud
close along the water's edge there Avas a fine jungle
340 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA r
of tropical luxuriance, composed of Avild-rose aud
bramble bushes and a great variety of climbing
vinos, Avreathing and intorlaesing tlio braneshes and
trunks of Avillows aud alders, and swinging across
from summit to summit in heavy festoons. Here
the wild bees reveled in fresh bloom long after the
flowers of the drier plain had withered and gone
to seed, Aud in midsummer, Avlien the " blackber
ries " were ripe, the Indians came from the moun
tains to feast — men, women, and babies in long,
noisy trains, often joined by the farmers of flics
neighborhood, Avho gathered this Avild fruit Avith
commendable api^reciation of its superior flavor,
Avliile theur home orchards Avesro full of ripe peaches,
apricots, ne!cbH'ines, and figs, and thesir vineyards
Avere laden with grapes. But, though these luxuri
ant, shaggy river-beds Avere thus distinct from the
smooth, treeless plain, they made no heavy divid
ing lines in general views. The whole appeared as
one continuous sheet of bloom bounded only by the
mountains. When I first saw this central garden, the most
extensive and regular of all the bee-pastures of the
State, it seemed all one sheet of plant gold, hazy
and vanishing in the disbinese, distinct as a nesw
map along the foot-hills at my feet.
Descending the eastern slopes of the Coast Range
through beds of gilias and lupines, and around
many a breezy hiflock and bush-croAvned headland,
I at length Avaded out into the midst of it. All,
the ground was covered, not Avitli grass and green
leaves, but with radiant coroflas, about ankle-deep
next the foot-hills, knee-deep or more five or six
A BEK-RANCH IN LOWER CALIFORNIA,
342 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
miles out. Here Avere bahia, madia, madaria, bur-
rielia, chrysopsis, corethrogyne, grindelia, etc,
growing in closes soesial esongregations of A'arioiis
shades of yellow, blending finely Avith the purples
of clarkia, orthocarpus, and Oenothera, whose deli
cate petals Avere drinking the vital sunbeams with
out giving back any sparkling gioAv,
Because so long a period of extreme drought
succeeds the rainy season, most of the A'cgetatioii
is composed of annuals, Avliich spring up simultane
ously, and bloom together at about the same height
above the ground, the general surface being but
slightly ruffled by the taller phacelias, pentstemons,
and groups of Salvia carduacea, the king of the mints.
Sauntering in any direction, hundreds of these
happy sun-plants brushed against my feet at overy
step, and closed over thern as if I were wading iu
liciuid gold. The air was SAveet Avitli fragrance, the
larks sang their blessed songs, rising on the wing as
I advanced, then sinking out of sight in the pol
leny sod, AAdiile myriads of wild bees stirred the
loAver air Avitli their monotonous hum — memotem-
ou.s, yest fen'ovor fressh and sweet as esA'ory-day sun
sliino. Hares anel spermophiles shoAved themselves
in considerable numbers in shalloAV iflaces, and
small bands of antelopes wei'o almost constantly in
sight, gazing curiously from some slight elevation,
and then bounding swiftly aAvay with unrivaled
grace of motion. Yet I could discover no crushed
flowers to mark their track, nor, indeed, any de
structive action of any Avild foot or tooth whatever.
The great yellow days circled by uncounted,
while I drifted toward the north, observing the
THE BEE-PASTURES 343
countless forms of life thronging about me, lying
down almost anyAvhere on the approach of night.
And what glorious botanical beds I had ! Often
times on awaking I AA'ould find several new species
leaning over me and looking me full in the face, so
that my studies would begin before rising.
About the first of May I turned eastAvard, cross
ing the San Joaquin River between the mouths of
the Tuolumne and Merced, and by the time I had
reached the Sierra foot-hills most of the vegetation
had gone to seed and become as dry as hay.
All the seasons of the great plain are warm or
tompesrab!, and beci-floAvers are never wholly Ava.iit-
ing; but the grand springtime — the annual resiir-
recstion — is governed by the rains, which usually
sot in about the iniddlo of November or the begin
ning of December, Then the seeds, that for six
months have lain on the ground dry and fresh as if
thesy ]ia,d been gathered into barns, at once unfold
their treasured life. The general brown and pur
ple of the ground, and the dead vegetation of the
preceding year, give place to the green of mosses
and liverworts and myriads of young leaves. Then
one species after another comes into flower, grad
ually overspreading the green with yellow and
purple, which lasts until May.
The " rainy season " is by no means a gloomy,
soggy period of constant cloudiness and rain.
Perhaps nowhere else in North America, perhaps
in the world, are the months of December, January,
February, and March so full of bland, plant-build
ing sunshine. Referring to my notes of the winter
and spring of 1868-69, every day of which I spent
344 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
out of doors, on that section of the plain lying be
tween the Tuolumne and Merced rivers, I find that
the first rain of the season fell on December 18th,
January had only six rainy days — that is, days on
whieii rain fcil ; l<^ci)ruary throe, Mareii five, April
three, and May three, completing the so-called
rainy season, which was about an average one.
The ordinary rain-storm of this region is seldom
A'ery cold or violent, Tho Aviiids, Avliich in settled
Aveather come from the! nortliAvest, A^eer I'oiind into
the opposite direction, the sky fills gradually and
evenly Avith one general cloud, from which the
rain falls steadily, often for days in succession, at a
temperature of about 45° or 50°.
More than seventy-five per cent, of all the rain
of this season ca.uie from the nortliAvest, down the
coast over southeastern .Alaska, British Columbia,
Washington, and Oregon, though the local winds
of these circular storms bloAV from the southeast.
One magnificent local storm from the northwest
fell on March 21, A massive, round-browed cloud
came swelling and thundering over the flowery
plain in most imposing majesty, its bossy front
burning white and purple in the full blaze of tho
sun, wliile warm rain poured from its ample foun
tains like a cataract, beating doAvii flowers and bees,
and flooding the dry watercourses as suddenly as
those of NoA^ada are flooded by the so-called "cloud
bursts," ibit iu lesss than half an hour not a trace
of the heavy, mouutain-bke eslond-strucsture was loft
in the sky, and the bees Avere on the wing, as if
nothing more gratefully refreshing could have been
sent them.
'THE BEE-PASTURES 345
By the end of January bmr species of plants
Avere iu floAver, and five or six mosses had already
adjusted their hoods and Avere in the prime of life;
but the flowers Avere not sufiflciently numerous as
yet to affect greatly the general green of the young
leaves, Violets made their a,ppearaiice in the first
Av<!csk of February, a.iicl toward the end of this
month the Avarmer portions of the plain were al
ready golden with myriads of the floAvers of rayed
conqiositai. This was the full springtime. The sunshine
grew warmer and richer, uoav plants bloomed every
day; tho air became more tuneful with humming
wings, and sweeter Avith the fragrance of the open
ing floAvers, Ants and ground squirrels were get
ting ready for their summer work, rubbing their
benumbed limbs, and sunning themselves on the
husk-piles before their doors, and spiders Avere
busy mending their old webs, or Aveaviug new ones.
In March, the vegetation Avas more than doubled
in depth and color; claytonia., c!alaiidriiiia, a largo
Avliitc! gilia, aud two nemophilas Avere in bloom, to
gether Avitli a host of yellow coinposita!, tall enough
now to bend in the wind and show wavering
ripples of shade.
In April, plant-life, as a whole, reached its great
est height, and the plain, over all its varied surface,
Avas mantled with a close, furred plush of purple
and golden corollas. By the end of this month,
most of the species had ripened their seeds, but
undecayed, still seemed to be in bloom from the
numerous corolla-like involucres and whorls of
chaffy scales of the compositEe, In May, the bees
346 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
found in flower only a few deep-set liliaceous plants
and eriogonums,
June, July, August, and September is the season
of rest and sleep, — a winter of dry heat, — followed
in October by a second outburst of bloom at the
very driest time of the year. Then, after the
shrunken mass of leaves and stalks of the dead
vegetation crinkle and turn to dust beneath the
foot, as if it had been baked in an oven, Jfeini.iOnia
virgata, a slender, unobtrusive little plant, from six
inches to three feet high, suddenly makes its ap
pearance in patches miles in extent, like a resurrec
tion of the bloom of April, I have counted upAvard
of 3000 flowers, five eighths of an inch in diameter,
on a single jilant. Both its leaves and stems are
so slender as to be nearly invisible, at a distance
of a foAV yards, amid so shoAvy a multitude of
flowers. The ray and disk flowers aro both yeflow,
the stamens purple, and the texture of the rays
is rich and veh^ety, like the petals of garden
pansies. The prevailing wind turns all the heads
round to the southeast, so that iu facing northwest
ward Ave have tho iloAvers looking us in the face.
In my estimation, this littlo plant, the last born of
the brilliant host of composittB that glorify the
plain, is the most interesting of all. It remains in
flower until November, uniting Avith two or three
species of wiry eriogonums, Avhicli continue the
floral chain around December to the spring flowers
of January, Thus, although the main bloom and
honey season is only about three months long, the
floral circle, however thin around some of the hot,
rainless months, is never completely broken.
THE BEE-PASTURES 347
Hoav long the various species of wild bees have
lived in this honey-garden, nobody knows; prob
ably ever since the main body of the present flora
gained possession of the land, toward the close of
tho glacial period. The first brown honey-bees
brought to California are said to have arrived in
San Franciseso in March, 1853, A bee-keeper by
tho name of Sholton purchased a lot, consisting of
tAveh^e SAvarms, from some one at Aspinwafl, who
had brought them from New York, When landed
at San Francisco, all the hives contained live bees,
but they finally dAvindled to one hive, which was
taken to San, .lose. The little immigrants flour
ished and nudtipliod in the bountiful pastures of
the Santa Clara Valley, sending off three swarms
the Iirst season. The oAviier was killed shortly
afterward, and in settling up his estate, tAvo of the
SAvarms Avere sold at auction for $105 aud $110 re-
S])oestiveiy, Otliesr importations Avere made, from
time to time, by way of the Isthmus, and, though
great pains Avere taken to insure success, about
one half usually died on the way. Four swarms
Avere brought safely across the plains in 1859, the
hives being placeei in the rear end of a Avagon,
which was stopped in the afternoon to allow the
bees to fly and feed in the floweriest places that
Avere Avithin reach until dark, when the hives were
cdosisd. In 1855, two years after the time of the first ar
rivals from Noav York, a single swarm was brought
over from San Josej, and let fiy in the Great Cen
tral Plain, Bee-culture, however, has never gained
much attention here, notwithstanding the extraor-
t>
348 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
dinary abundance of honey-bloom, and the high
price of honey during the early years, A f cav hives
are found here and tliere among settlers Avho
chanced to have learned something about the busi
ness before coining to the State, But sheep, cattle,
grain, and fruit raising are the chief industries, as
they require less skill and care, Avliile the profits
thus far have been greater. In 1856 honey sold here
at from one and a half to two dollars per pound.
Twelve years later tlie iirice had fallen to twelve
and a half cents. In 1868 I sat doAvn to dinner
with a baud of ravenous sheep-shearers at a ranch
on the San Joaquin, Avliere fifteen or twenty hives
were kept, and euir host advised us uot to s])are the
large! pan of hoiiesy lies ]ia.d placed on thes table, as
it Avas the cliea,pest a,rticle he had to offer, liiall
my Avalks, however, I have never come u^ion a reg
ular bee-ranedi iu the Central Valley like those so
common and so skilfully managed in the southern
counties of the State, The foAv pounds of honey
and wax produced are consumed at home, and are
scarcely taken into account among the coarser
products of the farm. The SAvarms that escape from
their careless OAViiers have a Avcary, perplexing
time of it in seeking suitable homes. Most of
them make their Avay to the foot-hills of the moun
tains, or to the trees that line the banks of the
rjvers, where some holloAV log or trunk may be
femnd, A friend of mine, Avhile out hunting on
the San Joaquin, camo upon an old <!oon trap,
hidden among some tall grass, near the edge of the
river, upon which he sat down to rest. Shortly
afterward his attention was attracted to a crowd
THE BEE-PASTURES 349
of angry bees (hat Avere flying excitedly about his
head, Avlieii he discovered that he was sitting upon
their hive, Avliich Avas found to contain more than
200 iiounds of honey. Out in the broad, swampy
delta of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers,
tbc! littles Avaiidesrers havo been kiioAVU to build their
combs in a, biiniii of rushess, or stiff, wiry gra.ss, only
slightly prob'estcMl from the weatlusr, and iu dan
ger every spring of being carried away by floods.
They have the advantage, however, of a vast ex
tent of fresh pa,sturey accessible only to themselves.
The present condition of the Grand Central Gar
den is A'ory different from that we have sketchcHl,
About tAveuty years ago, Avlien the gold placers
had been pretty thoroughly exhausted, the atten
tion of fortune-seekers — not home-seekers — Avas,
in great part, turned away from the mines to the
fertile plains, and many began experiments in a
kind of restless, Avild agriculture, A load of lum
ber would bo hauled to some spot on the free
Avilcle!riiess, wlic!re watesr esould bes (sasily bnind, and
a miles box-cabin built. Then a gang-jiloAV was
proesiiresd, a,iid a clozesn musbuig ponic!s, Avoi'th ton
or fifteen dollars apiece, and Avith these hundreds
of acres were stirred as easily as if the land had
been under cultivation for years, tough, perennial
roots being almost wholly absent. Thus a ranch
Avas established, and from these bare Avooden huts,
as centers of desolation, the Avfld flora vanished in
ever-widening circles. But the arch destroyers
are the shepherds, with their flocks of hoofed
locusts, sweeping over the ground like a fire, and
trampling down every rod that escapes the plow
350 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
as completel)^ as if the Avliole plain were a cottage
garden-plot without a fence. But uotAvithstauding
these dosti'oyesrs, a thousand swarms of besess may bes
pastured here for every one now gathering honey.
The greater portion is still covered every season
with a repressed groAvth of bee-flowers, for most
of the species are annuals, and many of them are
not relished by sheep or cattle, while the rapidity
of tlieir growth enables them to develop and ma
ture their seeds before any foot has time to crush
them. The ground is, therefore, kept sweet, and
the race is perpetuated, though only as a sugges
tive shadow of the maguificeiice of its wildness.
The time will undoubtedly come Avhen the entire
area of this noble valley will be tilled like a garden,
Avlien the fertilizing waters of the mountains, now
flowing to the sea, Avill be distributed to every acire,
giving rise to prosperous towns, Avealth, arts, etc.
Then, I suppose, there will be foAV left, even among
botanists, to deplore the vanished primeval flora.
In the mean time, the pure Avaste going on — the
Avanton destruction of the innocents — is a sad
sight to see!, and the sun may Avisll be pitie!d in
being compelled to look on.
The bee-pastures of the Coast Ranges last longer
and are more varied than those of the great plain,
on account of differences of soil and climate,
moisture, and shade, etc. Some of the mountains
are upward of 4000 feet iu height, and small
streams, springs, oozy bogs, etc, occur in great
abundance and variety in the Avooded regions,
whfle open parks, flooded Avitli sunshine, and hill-
girt vafleys lying at diff'erent elevations, each with
THE BEE-PASTURES 351
its OAVU peculiar climate and exposure, possess the
required conditions for the development of species
and families of plants widely varied.
Next the plain there is, first, a series of smooth
hills, planted Avith a rich and showy vegetation
that differs but little from that of the plain itself —
as if the edge of the iilaiii had been lifted and bent
into lloAving folds, with all its flowers in place,
only toned down a little as to their luxuriance, and
a foAV new species introduced, such as the hill lu
pines, mints, and gilias. The colors show finely
Avlieii thus held to view on the slopes; patches of
re!el, ])iirple, blue, yelloAV, and white, bleiiiding
around the edges, the whole appearing at a littlo
distance like a map colored in sections.
Above this lies the park and chaparral region,
Avith oaks, mostly evergreen, planted wide apart,
and blooming shrubs from three to ten feet high ;
manzanita and ceanotlius of several species, mixed
with rhamnus, cercis, pickeringia, cherry, amelan-
cliier, and adenostoma, in shaggy, interlocking
thickets, and many species of hosackia, clover,
mouardella, castilleia, etc, in the openings.
The main ranges send out spurs somewhat par
allel to their axes, inclosing level vafleys, many of
them quite extensive, and containing a great pro
fusion of sun-loving bee-floAA^ers in their wild state;
but these are, in great part, already lost to tho
bees by cultivation.
Nearer the coast are the giant forests of the red-
Avoods, extending from near the Oregon line to
Santa Cruz, Beneath the cool, deep shade of these
majestic trees the ground is occupied by ferns.
352 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
chiefly Avoodwardia and aspidiums, Avitli only a few
floAvering plants — oxalis, trientalis, erythroniuni,
fritillaria, smilax, and other shade-lovers. But all
along the redAvood belt there are saiiny openings
on hfll-slopes looking to the south, where the giant
trees stand back, and give the ground to the small
sunflowers and the bees. Around the lofty red-
Avood Avails of these littlo bee-acres there is usuaUy
a fringe of Chestnut Oak, Lanriil, and Madrono,
the last of Avliich is a surpassingly beautiful tree,
and a great favorite Avitli the bees. The trunks
of the largest specimens are seven or eight feet
thick, and about fifty feet high; the bark red .and
eshoesolate! colored, the loaves i»laiii, large, and
glossy, like tlioses of JiHtgnolia grandijlora, Avhiles
the flowers are yellowish-Avhite, and urn-shaped, in
Avell-proportioned panicles, from five to ten inches
long. When in full bloom, a single tree seems to
be visited at times by a whole hive of bees at once,
and the deep hum of such a multitude makes the
listener guess that more than the ordinary work of
honey-winning must be going on.
How perfectly enchanting and care-obliterating
are these withdrawn gardens of the AVOods — long-
vistas opening to the sea — sunshine sifting and
pouring upon the flowery ground in a tremulous,
shifting mosaic, as the light-ways in the leafy Avail
open and close Avitli the SAvajdng breeze — shining
leaves and flowers, birds and boos, niingTing to
gether ill springtime harmony, and soothing fra
grance exhaling from a thousand thousand foun
tains ! In these balmy, dissolving days, when the
deep heart-beats of Nature are felt thrilling rocks
'riii; BEE-PASTURi':s 353
and trees and everything alike, common business
and frieuds are happily forgotten, and even the
natural honey- Avork of bees, and the care of birds
for their young, and mothers for their children,
seem slightly out of place.
To the! iiortliAvard, in Humboldt find the adjacent
counties, wlicic! hillsides aro esove!re!d Avilii liiodo-
elesiielroii, making a glorious melody of bees-bloom
ill the spring, Anel the Western azalea, hardly less
flowery, grows in massy thickets three to eight feet
high around the edges of groves and woods as far
south as San Luis Obispo, usually accompanied by
manzanita; Avliilc! tho A^alleys, Avitli their varying
moisture and shade, yield a rich variety of the
smaller honey-floAvers, such as mentlia, lycopus,
niicromeria, audibertia, trichostema, and otlier
mints ; Avith vaccinium, wild straAvberry, geranium,
Calais, and goldonrod; and in the cool glens along
tbe stream-banks, wlicsre tbe shade of trees is not
too deep, siiira^a, dog-Avood, heteromeles, and caly-
caiitlms, a.iicl many specsieis of rubns form inter-
lacsing tangles, some portion of Avliich continues
in bloom fen- months.
Though the coast region Avas the first to be in
vaded and settled by Avliite men, it has suffered less
from a bee point of view than either of the other
main divisions, chiefly, no doubt, because of the
unevenness of the surface, and because it is owned
and protected instead of Ijdng exposed to the flocks
of the Avandering " sheepmen," These remarks ap
ply more particularly to the north half of the coast,
,Fa.rther south there is less moisture, less forest
shade, and the honey flora is less varied.
354 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
The Sierra region is the largest of the three main
divisions of the bee-lands of the State, and tho
most regularly varieid in its subdivisions, owing to
their gradual rise from the level of the Central
Plain to the alpine summits. The foot-hill region
is about as dry and suuful, from the end of May
until the setting in of the winter rains, as the
plain. There are no shady forests, no damp glens,
at all like those lying at the same elevations in
the Coast Mountains, The social compositie of
the xilaiu, with a few added species, form the bulk
of the herbaceous portion of the vegetation up to a
height of 1500 feet or more, shaded lightly here and
there Avith oaks and Sabine Pines, and interrupted
by patches of e!oaiiothus and buckeye. Above this,
and just beloAV the forest resgion, thesre is a dark,
heath-like belt of chaparral, composed almost ex
clusively of Adenostoma fasciculata, a bush belong
ing to the rose family, from five to eight feet high,
with small, round leaves in fascicles, and bearing a
multitude of small white fioAvers in panicles on the
ends of the upper branches. Where it e^cscurs at
all, it usually covers all the ground with a (slose,
impenetrable growth, scarcely broken for iniless.
Up through the forest region, to a height of
about 9000 feet aboA^e sea-level, there are ragged
patches of manzanita, and five or six species of cea
notlius, called deer-brush or California lilac. These
are the most important of all the honey-bearing
bushes of the Sierra, Ghamcebatia foUolosa, a little
shrub about a foot high, Avitli floAvers like the straw
berry, makes handsome carpets beneath the pines,
and seems to be a favorite with the bees ; while
THE BEE-PASTURES 355
pines themselves furnish unlimited quantities of
pollen aud lioney-deAv. The product of a sin
gle tree, ripeuing its pollen at the right time of
year, Avould be sufficient for the Avauts of a whole
hive. Along the streams there is a rich growth of
lilies, lark.spurs, pedicularis, castifleias, and clover.
The al pines region contaiiis the (lowery glaciei-
meadows, and countless small gardens in all sorts
of places full of poteutilla of several species,
spraguea, ivesia, epilobiuin, and goldonrod, Avith
beds of bryauthus aud the charming cassiope cov
ered with sweet bells. Even the tops of the mouii-
taiiis are blessed Avitli floAvers, — dwarf phlox, pole-
nionium, ribes, liulsea, etc, 1 have seen wilel bees
and butterflies feeding at a height of 13,000 feet
above the sea. Many, hoAvever, that go up these
dangerous heights never come doAvii again. Some,
undoubtedly, perish in storms, and I have found
thousands lying dead or benumbed on the surface
of the glaciers, to Avhiedi they had perhaps been
a.ttra.ei.ed by tlics Avhito ghircs, t.a.kiiig tliesni I'or besds
of bloom,
l^rom SAvarnis that escaped their owners in the
loAvlands, the honey-bee is now generally distrib
uted throughout the Avliole length of the Sierra,
iq) to an eleA'ation of 8000 feet above sea-lcA^el, At
this height they flourish Avithout care, though the
SUOAV every winter is deep. Even higher than this
several bee-trees have been cut Avhicli contained
over 200 pounds of honey.
The destructive action of sheep has not been so
general on the mountain pastures as on those of
the great plain, but in many places it has been
356 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
more complete, OAviiig to the more friable character
of the sofl, and its sloping position. The slant
digging aud doAvn-raking action of hoofs on the
steeper slopes of moraines has uprooted and bu
ried many of the tender plants from year to
year, Avithout alloAving thein time to mature their
seeds. The shrubs, too, are badly bitten, especially
the various species of ceanotlius. Fortunately,
neithesr sheep nor esattlo care to feesd on the manza
nita, spi nea, or adeiiostoma; and these fine honey-
bushes are too stiff and tall, or groAV in places too
rough and inaccessible, to bo trodden under foot.
Also the canon Avails and gorges, AAdiich form so
considerable a part of the area of the range, AAdiile
inaccessible to domestic sheep, are avoU fringed
with honey-shrubs, and contain thousands of
lovely bee-gardens, lying hid in narroAV side-canons
and re!ces.sscss fesnesed Avitli avala.neiics taluscss, a.nd on
the top of flat, projecting headlands, Avhere only
bees would think to look for them.
But, on the other hand, a great portion of the
AA'oody plants that escape the feet and teeth of the
slie^.O]) are desti'oyed by tho slies])liesrcls by iiie!aiis of
ruuiiiug liress, whieii ares sei. evesry whcsres diiring llics
dry autumn for the purpose of burning otf the old
fallen trunks and underbrush, Avitli a auoav to im
proving the pastures, and making more open AA^ays
for the flocks. These destructive slioe!p-firess swecsp
through nearly the entire! foresst bc!lt of thes range,
from one extremity to the otliesr, consuming not
only the underbrush, but the young trees and seed
lings on which the permanence of the forests de
pends; tlms setting in inotiem a long train of evils
358 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
which will certainly reach far beyond bees and bee
keepers. The ploAV has not yet invaded the forest region
to any appreciable extent, neither has it accom
plished much in the foot-hills. Thousands of bee-
ranches might be established along the margin of
the plain, and up to a height of 4000 feet, Avherever
Avater could be obtained. The climate at this ele
A'ation admits of the making of poruianent homes,
and by moving the hives to higher pastures as the
lower pass out of bloom, the annual yield of honey
Avould be nearly doubled. The foot-hill pastures,
as we liaA'e seen, fail about the end of May, those
of the chaparral belt and lower forests ai'o in full
bloom in June, those of the upi)e!r and alpines
region in .Inly, August, and Sept.i!iiiber, In Scot
land, after the best of the Lowland bloom is past,
the bees are carried in carts to the Highlands, aiiil
set free on the heather hills. In Prance, too, and
in Poland, they are carried from pasture to pasture
among orchards and fields in the same AA'ay, and
along the rivers iu barges to cefllect the honey of
the delightful ve^getatioii of the banks. In Egypt
they are taken far up the Nile, and tloatesd slowly
home again, gathering tho honey-harvest of thes
various fields on the Avay, timing their moA'ements
in accord Avitli the seasons. Were similar methods
liursneel in California the producti\'e season aa-ouIcI
List nearly all the year.
The average elevation of the north half of thes
Sierra is, as Ave have seen, considerably less than
that of the south half, and small streams, Avith the
bank and meadoAV gardens dependent upon them.
THE BEE-PASTURES 359
are less abundant. Around the head waters of the
Yuba, Feather, and Pitt rivers, the extensive table
lands of lava are sparsely planted with pines,
through which the sunshine reaches the ground
Avith little interruption. Here flourishes a scat
tered, tufted growth of golden applopappus, linosy
ris, bahia, Avyetheia, arnica., artemisia, aud similar
plants; with manzanita, cherry, plum, aud thorn
in ragged patches on the cooler hill-slopes. At the
extremities of the Great Central Plain, the Sierra
and Coast Ranges curve around and lock together
in a labyrinth of mountains and valleys, through
out whieii tbe^ir floras a.re mingled, making at the
north, Avitli its temperate climate aud copious rain
fall, a perfect paradise for bees, though, strange to
say, scarcely a single regular bee-ranch has yet been
established in it.
Of all the upper floAver fields of the Sierra,
Shasta is the most honeyful, and may yet surpass
iu fame the celebrated honey hills of Hybla and
heartily llymcsttiis, Re!gai'diHg this uoblc! nioun
tain from a bee point of vioAV, encircled by its
many climates, and SAveeping aloft from the tor
rid plain into the frosty azure, we find the first
5000 feet from the summit generally snow-clad,
and therefore about as honeyless as the sea. The
base of this arctic region is girdled by a belt of
crumbling lava measuring about 1000 feet in ver
tical breadth, and is mostly free from suoav in
summer. Beautiful lichens enliven the faces of the
cliffs with their bright colors, and in some of the
warmer nooks there are a few tufts of alpine daisies,
wall-floAvers a.nd pentstemons; but, notwithstanding
360 THE IMOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
these bloom freely in the late summer, the zone as
a whole is almost as honeyless as the icy summit,
and its loAver edge may be taken as the honey-liue.
Immediately below this comes the forest zone, cov
ered with a rich growth of conifers, chiefly Silver
Firs, rich in pollen and honey-dew, and diversified
Avith countless garden openings, many of them less
than a hundresd ya.i'els aesross, Nisxt, in orderly siic-
esesssion, esomess thes gresa.t beses zone. Its aresa far sur
passes that of the icy summit and both the other
zones combined, for it goes sweeping majestically
around the entire mountain, Avith a breadth of six
or seven miles and a circumference of nearly a
hundred miles,
Shasta, a.s Ave have already seen, is a fire-moun
tain created by a siicicession of eruptions of ashes
and molten lava, which, fiowing over the lips of its
several csraters, gresw outward and upward likes thes
trunk of a knotty exogenous tree, Theu folloAvesd
a strange contrast. The glacial winter came on,
loading the cooling mountain Avitli ice, AAdiich
flowed slowly outward in every direction, radiating
from the summit iu the form of ono A'a,st conical
glaesicsr — a down-crawling mantles of ieses iqioii a
fountain of smoldering fire, crushing and grinding
for centuries its broAvn, fiinty lavas Avitli incessant
activity, aud thus degrading and remodeling the
entire mountain, AVlieu, at length, the glacial
period besgan to draw iiea.r its edosc!, the icse-mantle
Avas gradually melted oft' around the bottom, and,
in receding and breaking into its present fragmen
tary condition, irreguhir rings and heaps of mo
raine matter were stored upon its flanks, ^riie
TIIE BEE-PAS-rURES o()l
glacsial erosion of most of the Shasta laA'as pro
duces detritus, composed of rough, sub-angular
boulclers of moderate size and of porous gravel and
sand, Avhicii yields freely to the transporting pOAvcr
of running Avater, Magnificent floods from the
ample fountains of ice aud snow working Avitli
sublime energy upou tiiis preipa,reel glacial detritus,
sorte!cl it out anel csa.rric^.d doAVu immense quaiitities
from till! higher slopes, and reformed it iu smooth,
delta-like beds around the base; and it is these
flood-beds joined together that now form the main
honey-zono of the old volcano.
Thus, by bircscss scsesniiugly a.ii(.a.gc)iiis(.ie! a.iid eles-
structive, has Mother Nature accomplished her
beneficent designs — now a flood of fire, now a flood
of ice, iioAV a flood of Avater ; aud at length au out
burst of organic life, a milky Avay of snoAvy petals
ami Aviiigs, gircUing the! rugge!d mountain like a
esloiid, as if thes vivifying suiil)c!anis bciating against
its sides had broken into a foam of plant-bloom
and bees, as sea-Avaves break and bloom on a
roesk shore.
In this floAvery Avilderness the bees rove and revel,
rejoicing iu the bounty of the sun, clambering eag
erly through bramble and hucklebloom, ringing the
myriad bells of the manzanita, now hummiug aloft
among ])eflleiiy Avillows a.iicl fir.s, uoav cIoavu on the
a.shy ground aiiioiig giria.s aud butbsrcsiqis, a.iid a.uou
plunging deep iuto snowy banks of cherry and
buckthorn. They consider the lilies and roll into
them, aud, like lilies, they toil not, for they are
impc!fle!d by smi-power, as A\'ater-wheeis by wator-
poAver ; and Avhen the one has plenty of high-pres-
362 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
sure Avater, the other plenty of sunshine, they hum
and quiver alike. Sauntering in the Shasta bee-lands
in tho sun-days of summer, oue iua.y readily infer
the time of day from the comparative energy of
bee-movements alone — drowsy and moderate iu
the cool of the morning, increasing in energy Avith
the ascending sun, and, at high noon, thrilling aud
quivering in Avfld ecstasy, theu gradually declining
again to the stillness of night. In my excursions
among the glaciers I occasionally meet bees that
are hungry, like mountaineers Avho venture too far
and remain too long above the bread-line; then
they droop and Avither like autumn leaves, Thes
Shasta bees are perhaps better fed than any others
in the Siesrra, Thesir (iesld-work is ones pcrpestiial
bsast; but, jiowesxesr e!xhilara.(ing (ho siiiisliiiics or
bountiful the supply of flowers, they are ahvays
dainty feeders. Humming-moths and humming
birds seldom set foot upon a flower, but poise on
the wing in front of it, aud reach forAvard as if
they were sucking through straAvs, But bees,
though as dainty as they, hug their favorite floAv-
crs Avdth profound e!oreliarity, and push their blunt,
polleny faces against tlienij like babies on their
mother's bosom. And fondly, too, Avith eternal
love, does Mother Natnre eia.sp her snudl bise-babiess,
and suckle them, multitudes at once, on her Avarni
Shasta breast.
Besides tho cemimon liouey-beH^ there are many
other species here — fine mossy, burly fiilows, who
were nourished on the mountains thousands of
sunny seasons before the advent of the domestic
species. Among these are the bumblebees, mason-
TIIE BEE-PASTURES 363
bees, carpenter-bees, and leaf-cutters. ' Butterflies,
too, and moths of every size and pattern; some
liroad-Avinged like bats, flapping slowly, and sailing
iu easy curves; others like small, flying violets,
shaking about loosely in short, crooked flights close
to the floAvers, feasting luxuriously night and daj'.
Great numbers of deer also delight to dAvell in the
brush J' portions of the bee-pastures,
¦Bears, too, roam the SAveet Avilderness, their blunt,
shaggy forms harmonizing Avell Avith the trees and
tangled bushes, and Avith the bees, also, notwith
standing the disparity in size. They are fond of
all good t liings, anel enjoy them to tho utmost, with
but littlo troublesome discrimination — floAvers and
lea.A'os as Avell as berries, and the bees themselves as
Avoll as their honey. Though the California bears
haves as yet had but little experience Avitli honey
bees, they often succeed bi reaching their bountiful
stores, and it seems doubtful whether bees theni-
sedves enjoy honey Avith so great a relish. By
means of their powerful teeth and claAvs they can
gmiAV and tear open almost any hive conveniently
accessible. Most honey-bees, hoAvever, in search of
a home are Avise enough to make choice of a holloAv
iu a living tree, a coiisidera.ble distance above the
ground, Avlieii such places are to be had ; theu they
are pretty secure, for though the smaller black aud
brown bc!a.rs ciimb Avell, they ares unable to break
iuto strong hives Avhile compelled to exert them
selves to keep from falling, and at the same time to
endure the stings of the fighting bees without hav
ing their paAvs free to rub them off. But Avoe to
the black bumblebees discovered iu their mossy
364 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
nests ill the ground ! With a f cav strokes of their
huge paws the bears uncover the entire establish
ment, and, before time is given for a general buzz,
bees old aud young, larva!, honey, stings, nest, and
all are taken in one ravishing mouthful.
Not the least influential of the agents concerned
in the superior SAveetness of the Shasta flora are its
stcu'ins — storms 1 mean tluit arcs strictly local, bresel
a.nel born on llies moiiulain. Thes magical rapidily
Avitli Avhieii they ares grown on the niountain-top,
and bestoAV their esharity in rain and suoaa', never
fails to astonish the inexperienced lowlander. Often
in calm, gloAving days, Avhile the bees are still on the
Aving, a storm-eioud may be seen far above in thes
pure ethesr, sAvislling its jiesaii bosses, and groAving
sdently, like a plant. Presently a eiear, ringing
discharge of thunder is heard, followed by a rush
of wiiiil that comes sounding over the bending
Avoods like the roar of the ocean, mingling rain
drops, snoAV-flowers, honey-floAvers, aud bees in
Avild storm harmony.
Still more impressiA'e are the AA'arm, reviving days
of spring in the mountain ])astiires. The blood of
thes plants tlirobbing bcsneaJli (lies libs-giving snii-
shiiie seems to be heard and felt. Plan t groAvth goes
on before our eyes, and every tree in the AVOods, and
every bush and floAA'er is seen as a. hive of restless in
dustry. The deeps of the sky are mottled Avitli
singing Aviugs of every tone and color; clouds of
brilliant chiysidiehe dancing and sAvirling in ex
quisite rhythm, golden-barred vespicUu, dragon-flies,
butterflies, grating cicadas, and jolly, rattling
grasshoppers, fairly enameling the light.
366 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
On bright, crisp mornings a striking optical ef
fect may freepiently be obsi!rveel from the sluulows
of the liighesr mountains Avhili! tho suiibesanis are
pouring past overhead. Then every insect, no
matter what may be its oavu proper color, burns
white in the light, Gauzy-Avinged hymenoptera,
moths, jet-black beetles, all are transfigured alike
in pure, spiritual white, like snoAvflakes,
In Southern California, Avhere bee-culture has
had so much skilful attention of late years, the
pasturage is not more abundant, or more advan
tageously varied as to the numbesr of its hemey-
plants and their distribution over mountain and
plain, than that of many other portions of tho
State where the industrial currents floAV iu other
channels. The famous White Sage {Audibertia),
belonging to the mint family, flourishes here in all
its glory, blooming in IMay, and yielding great
quantities of clear, jiale honey, AA'hich is greatly
prized in every market it has yet resached. This
speesies grows cliiesfly in tlies A'alleys and Ioav hills.
The Black Sage on the mountains is jiart of a dense,
thorny chaparral, which is composed (sliie!fly of ad
enostoma, eieanothus, inaiiza,nita., and ciierry — not
differing greatly from that of the southisrn portion
of the Sierra, but more denscs and e-emtinuons, and
taller, and remaining longer in bloom. Stream-
side gardens, so charming a feature of both thes
Sierra and Coast Mountains, are less numerous in
Southern California, but they are exceedingly rich
in honey-flowers, Avherever found, — melilotus, col
umbine, collinsia, verbena, zauschueria, wild rose,
honeysuckle, philadelphus, and lilies rising from
THE BEE-PASTURES 367
the Avarm, moist dells in a very storm of exuber
ance, Wilel ImckAvheat of many species is deveb
oped in abundance over the dry, sandy valleys and
loAver slopes of the mountains, toward the end of
summer, and is, at this tune, the main dependence
of the bees, reinforced here and there by orange
groves, alfalfa fields, and smafl home gardens.
The main honey months, in ordinary seasons,
are April, May, June, July, and August; whfle the
other months are usuafly flowery enough to yield
sufficient for the bees.
According to Mr, J, T, Gordon, President of the
Ijos Angeles County Bocdceepers' Association, the
first bees introduced iuto the county Avere a single
hive, Avhieii cost Sl^l50 in San Francisco, and arrived
in Sesptismber, 1854,' Iu Apiil, of the following
year, this hive sent out two swarms, Avhicli were
sold for fl^lOO eaeii. From this small beginning
the bees gradually multiplied to about 3000 swarms
in the year 1873, In 1876 it Avas estbuated that
tlusro Avere bestweseii 15,000 and 20,000 hives in the
esoHuty, procbicing an annual yicid of about 100
pounds to the hive — in some exceptional cases, a
much greater yield.
In San Diego County, at the beginning of the
season of 1878, there Avere about 24,000 hives, and
the shipments from the one port of San Diego for
tlu! saiiu! year, frciui July 17 to November 10, were
1071 barrels, 15,544 cases, and nearly 90 tons. The
1 Fifteen hives of Italian bees were introduced into Los Angeles
County in 1855, and in 1876 they had increased to 500. The marked
superiority claimed for them over the common species Is now at
tracting considerable attention.
368 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
largest bee-ranches have about a thousand hives,
and are carefully and skilfully managed, every
setientifies appliance of merit being brought into
use. There are few bee-keepers, however, A\dio
oAvn half as many as thks, or who give tlicsir undi
vided attention to the business. Orange culture,
at present, is heavily overshadowing every other
business, A good many of the so-called bee-ranches of Los
Angeles and San Diego counties are stifl of the
rudest pioneer kind imaginable, A man unsuc
cessful in everything else hears the interesting
story of the profits and comforts of bee-keeping,
and concludes b) try it; he buys a foAV ejoloniess, or
gets tlusm from some overstxickisd ra.nish on sharess,
takes thom baesk to the biot of some caficm, wliesns
the pasturage is fresh, squats on the land, with,
or without, the permission of the owner, sets up
his hives, makes a box-cabin for himself, scarcely
bigger than a bee-hive, and awaits his fortune.
Bees suffer sadly from famine during the dry
years which occasionally occur in the southern
and middle portions of the State, If the rainfall
amounts only to three or four inches, instead of
from tAveh'O to tAventy, as in ordinary seasons, then
sheep and cattle die in thousands, and so do these
small, winged cattle, unless they are carefully fed,
or removed to otluir pastures. The 3'ear 1877 Avill
long be re!mesmb(sresd as esxcei»tioiially ra.iiiless a.iid
distressing, Scaresely a flower bloomed on this dry
valleys away from the stream-sides, and not a
single grain-field depending upon rain Avas reaped.
The seed only sprouted, came up a little way, and
A liKK-RANCII ON A SPUR 01' TIIE SAN ClABRIEIj RANGE.
CARDINAL FLOWER.
ISI
370 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
withered. Horses, cattle, and slieep groAV thinner
day by day, nibbling at bushes and Aveeds, along
tho sliallowing edges of streams, many of whiesli
were dried up altogether, for the first time since
the settlement of the country.
In the course of a trip I made during the sum
mer of that year through Monterey, San Luis
Obispo, Santa Barbara, Ventura, and Los Angeles
counties, the deplorable effects of tho drought Avere
everywhere visible — leafiess fields, dead and dying
cattle, dead bees, and half-dead people with dusty,
doleful faces. Even the birds and squirrels were
in distress, though their suff'ering was less pain
fully apparent than that of the poor cattle. These
were falling one by ono in slow, sure starvation
along tho banks of tho hot, sluggish streams, whiles
thousands of buzzards correspondingly fat were
sailing above them, or standing gorged on the
ground beneath the trees, waiting with easy faith
for fresh carcasses. The quails, prudently consid
ering the hard times, abandoned all thought of
pairing. They were too poor to marry, and so
continued in flocks all through the year Avithout
attempting to rear young. The ground-squirrels,
though an exceptionally industrious and enterpris
ing race, as overy farmer knows, were hard pushed
for a living; not a fresh leaf or seed Avas to be
found save in the trees, whose bossy masses of
dark green foliage presented a striking contrast
to the ashen baldness of the ground beneath them.
The squirrels, leaving their accustomed feeding-
grounds, betook themselves to the leafy oaks to
gnaw out the acorn stores of the provident wood-
372 THE MOUN'TAINS OP CALIFORNIA
peckers, but the latter kept up a vigilant Avatcli
upon their movements, I noticed four Avoodpeckers
ill league against one squirrel, driving tho pom-
felloAV out of an oak that they claimed. He dodged
round the knotty trunk from side to side, as
nimbly as he could in his famished condition, only
to find a sharp bill everyAvhere, But the fate of
the bees that year seemed the saddest of all.
In diffejront portions of Los Angeles and San Diego
counties, from one half to three fourths of them
died of sheer starvation. Not less than 18,000
colonies perished in these tAvo counties alone, Avliile
in the adjacent counties the death-rate was hardly
less. Even the colonies nearest to the mountains suf
fered this year, for the smaller vegetation on the
foot-hills was aff'ected by the drought almost as
severely as that of the valleys and plains, and even,
the hardy, deep-rooted chaparral, the surest dcs-
pendence of the bees, bloomed sparingly, Avliile
much of it was beyond reach. Every SAvarm could
have been saved, however, by promptly supplying
them Avitli food Avheii their oavu stores began to fail,
and before they became enfeebled and discouraged;
or by cutting roads back into the mountains, and
taking them into the heart of the floAvery chapar
ral,. The Santa Lucia, San Eafael, San Gabriel,
San Jacinto, and Sau Bernardino ranges are almost
untouched as yet save by the Avild bees. Some
idea of their resources, and of the advantages and
disadvantages they offer to bee-keepers, may be
formed from an excursion that I made into the
San Gabriel Range about the beginning of August
THE BEE-PASTURES 373
of "the dry year," This range, containing most of
the characteristic features of the other ranges just
mentioned, overlooks the Los Angeles vineyards
and orange groves from the north, and is more
rigidly inaccessible in the ordinary meaning of the
Avord than any other that I ever attempted to
])esn(stratc\ The slopes are exceptionally steep
and insescures to the foot, and they are covered Avith
thorny bushes from five to ten feet high. With
the exception of little spots not visible in general
vioAvs, the entire surface is covered with them,
massed in close hedge growth, sweeping gracefully
down into esAMM-y gorge and liollow, and swelling
over overy ridge aud simmiit in shaggy, ungovern
able exuberance, offering more honey to the acre
for half the year than the most crowded clover-
fieid. But Avlien beheld from the open San Gabriel
Valley, beaten Avitli dry sunshine, all that was seen
of the range seemed to wear a forbidding aspect.
From baso to summit all seemed gray, barren,
silesnt, its glorious eiia.parral a.ppearing like dry
moss creeping over its dufl, wrinkled ridges and
liolloAvs, Setting out from Pasadena, I reached the foot of
the range about sundown ; and being weary and
heated Avith my Avalk across the shadeless valley,
coneiiided b) camp for the night. After restiii'g a
fcsw moments, I began to look about among the
tlood-boulders of Eaton Creek for a camp-ground,
Avheii I came upon a strange, dark-looking man
Avho had been cihopping cord-wood. He seemed
surprised at seeing me, so I sat down Avith him on
the live-oak log he had been cutting, and made
374 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
haste to give a reason for my appearance in his
Hcditiide, explaining that I was anxious to find out
somethiiigabemt the mouiibiins, anel meant to makes
my way up Eaton Creek next morning. Then he
kindly invited me to camp with him, and led me
to his little cabin, situated at the foot of the moun
tains, where a small spring oozes out of a bank
overgrown with Avild-rose bushes. After supper,
Avheii the daylight Avas gone, he explained that he
was out of caudles; so Ave sat in the dark, while he
gave me a sketch of his life in a mixture of Span
ish and English, He Avas born in Mexico, his
father Irish, his mother Spanish, He had been a
miner, rancher, prospector, hunter, etc, rambling
always, and wearing his life aAvay iu mere Avaste ;
but now he was going to settle down, .His past
life, he said, was of "no account," but the future
was promising. He was going to "make money
and marry a Spanish woman," People mine here
for water as for gold. He had been running
a tunnel into a spur of the memntaiu back of his
cabin, "My prospect is good," he said, "and if I
chaneses to strike a good, strcmg flow, 1 'II soon be
worth $5000 or $10,000, For that; flat out there,"
referring to a small, irregular patch of bouldesry
detritus, two or three acres in size, that had beesn
de'posited by Eaton Creek during some flood sea
son, — "that flat is large enough for a nice orange-
grove, and the bank behind the cabin Avill do for a
A'ineyard, and after watering my oavu trees aud
vines I Avill have some water left to sell to my
neighbors below me, doAVii the valley. And then,"
he continued, "I can keep bees, and make money
A BEE-PASTURE ON THE MORAINE DESERT. SPANISH BAYONET.
370 THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFOliNIA
that way, too, for the mountains above here arcs
just full of honey in the summer-time, and one of
my neighbors down here says that he Avill let mes
have a Avhole lot of hives, on shares, to start with.
You see I 've a good thing ; I 'm afl right iioaa',"
All this prospectiA'o affluence in the sunken,
boulder-choked flood-bed of a mouutain-stroam !
Lea,viiig tbe bees out of the! count, most bn-tune-
secskesrs would as scum think of sesttling on thes
summit of Mount Shasta, Next morning, ANishing
my hopeful entertainer good luck, I set out on my
shaggy excursion.
About half an hour's Avalk above the cabin, I
came to " The Fall," famous throughout the valley
settlements as the finest yet discovered in the San
Gabriel Mountains, It is a charming little thing,
Avitli a low, SAveet voice, singing like a bird, as it
pours from a notch in a short ledge, some thirty-
five or forty feet into a round mirror-pool. The
face of the cliff jback of it, and on both sides, is
smoothly covered and embossed Avitli mosses,
against Avhich the Avliite water shiners out in slioAvy
reslief, like a silvesr iiist.rume!iit in a. veivest case.
Hither come the San (hibriesl laels and lassies, to
gather ferns and dabble aAvay their hot holidays in
the cool water, glad to escape from their commou-
Iilace palm-gardens and orange-groves. The dcilicate
maidenhair groAvs on fissured rocks Avithin reach
of the spray, Avhile broad-hsaved maples anel syca
mores cast soft, melloAV shade over a rich jjrof usioii
of bee-flowers, groAving among boulders in front of
the pool — the fall, the flowers, this bees, the I'esrny
rocks, aud leafy shade fen'ming a eiia.rming little
'I'HE BEE-PASTURES 377
poem of Avfldness, the last of a series extending
doAvn the floAvery slopes of Mount San Antonio
through the rugged, foam-beaten bosses of the
main Eatcni Canon,
From the base of the fall I followed the ridgo that
forms the Avestern rim of the Eaton basin to the
summit of one! of the principal peaks, Avhiejh is
about 5000 fe(!t above sea-leve!L Then, tunibig
eastAvard, I cros.sed tho middle of the basin, forcing
a Avay oA'er its many subordinate ridges and across
its eastern rim, having to contend almost every-
AAdiere Avitli the floweriest and most impenetrable
growth of honey-bushes I had over encountered
since first my mountaineering began. Most of tho
Shasta chaparral is leafy nearly to the gi'ouud ;
here the main stems are naked for three or four
feet, and interspiked Avitli dead twigs, forming a
stiff chcvau.r, de fri-ne through which CA^en the bears
make thesir wa.y Avitli diniculty, I Avas compollGcl
to creep for miles on all fours, and iu following the
be!a.r-trails often found tufts of hair on the bushes
Avhero they had forced themseilves through.
For 100 feet or so above the fall the ascent was
made possible only by tough cushions of club-moss
that clung to the rock. Above this the ridge wea
thers away to a thin knife-blade for a few hundred
yai'ds, aucl thence to the summit of the ra.iigo it car
ries a bristly iiiano of chajiarral. Here and there
small openings occur on rocky places, commanding
fine views across the cultivated valley to the ocean.
These I found by the tracks were favorite outlooks
and resting-iflaces for the wfld animals — bears,
evolves, foxes, Avildcats, etc, — which abound here.
378 ',niE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA
and would have to be taken into account in the es
tablishment of bee-ranches. In the deepest thick
ets I found Avood-rat villages — groups of huts four
to six feet high, built of sticks and leaves in rough,
tapering piles, like musk-rat cabins, I noticed a
good many bees, too, most of them wild. The tame
honey-bees seemed languid and wing-weary, as if
they had come all the Avay up from the flowerless
valley. After reaching the summit I had time to make
only a hasty survey of the basin, iioav glowing in
the sunset gold, before hastening down into one of
the tributary, canons in search of Avater, Emerg
ing from a particiulaiiy tedious breadth of chajiar-
ral, I found myself free and erect in a beautiful
park-like grove of Mountain IjIvo Oak, whore the!
ground was planted with aspidiums and brier-roses,
while the glossy foliage made a close canopy over
head, leaving the gray dividing trunks bare to show
the beauty of their interlacing arches. The bot
tom of the canon was dry Avliere I first reached it,
but a bunch of scarlet mimulus indicated water at
no great distance, and I soon discoA^ered about a
bucketful in a holloAV of the rock. This, however,
was full of dead bees, Avasps, beetles, and leaves,
well steeped and simmered, and would, therefore, re
quire boiling and filtering through fresh charcoal
before it could be made available. Tracing the dry
eiiannel about a mile farther down to its junction
Avitli a larger tributary canon, I a,t length disc!ov-
ered a lot of boulder pools, clear as crystal, brim
ming full, and linked together by glistening stream
lets just strong enough to sing audibly, FloAvers in
A BEE-KEEPER'S CABIN.— BUBBIELIA (ABOVE).- MADIA (BELOW),
380 THE MOUNTAINS OP CALIFORNIA
full bloom adorned their margins, lilies ten feet high,
larkspur, columbines, and luxuriant ferns, leaning
and overarching in lavish abundance, while a noble
old Live Oak spread its rugged arms over all. Here
I camped, making my bed on smooth cobblestones.
Next day, in the channel of a tributary that
heads on Mount San Antonio, I passed about fif
teen (U' twenty gardens likes thes ones in Avliieii I
slespt — lilies in isAasryoiio of tlusm, in tlus full jioinp
of bloom. My third camp Avas made near the middle
of the general basin, at the head of a long system of
cascades from ten to 200 feet high, one f olloAving the
other in close succession doAvn a rocky, inaccessible
canon, making a total descent of nearly 1700 feet.
Above the cascades the main stream passes through
a series of open, sunny levels, the largest of A\diicli
are about an acre iu size, wh(!re the wilel bees a.nd
their compaiiious Avcre feasting on a showy gioAvth
of zauschueria, painted cups, and nionardella ; aud
gray squirrels Avere busy liarA'osting the burs of the
Douglas Spruce, the only conifer I met in the basin.
The eastern slopes of the basin are in every Avay
similar to those avo havo cle!scsrib(!d, and the same
may be said of other portions of the range. From
the highest summit, far as the eye could reach, the
landscape was one vast bee-pasture, a rolling Avil
derness of honey-bloom, scarcely broken ly bits of
forest or the rocky outcrops of liillto])s and ridges.
Behind the San Bernardino Kauge liess the! wild
"sage-brush country," bounded on the east by the
Colorado River, ami extending in a general uort.li-
eiiy direction to Nevada and along tlus eastesrn ba,se
of the Sierra beyond ]\Iouo hake!.
THE BEE-PASTURES 381
The greater portion of this immense region, in
cluding Owen's Valley, Death Valley, and the Sink
of the Mohave, the area of Avhich is nearly one fifth
that of the entiiv, State, is usually regarded as a
desert, iiot liecause of any lack in the soil, but for
want of rain, and rivers available b>r irrigation.
\'eiy littles of it, howesver, is desert in thi! ei^yes of a
bee. ^ ijOoking UOAV OA-er all the available pastures of
California, it appears that the business of bee
keeping is stfll in its infancy. Even iu the more
(sntcsrprising of the southern countic!^, Avliere so vig
orous a. beginning luis Iicmsii iuaeli>, 1c>ss tlian a tenth
of their honey resources have as yet been devel
oped ; Avliile iu the Great Plain, the Coast Eaiiges,
the Sierra Nevada, and the northern region about
Mount Shasta, the business can hardly be said to
exist at all. What the limits of its developments
in the future may be, Avitli tho advantages of
cdieaper triinsporbitiou and the iiiA^entiou of bettor
uiethcids in gencM'al, it is uot ea,sy to gu(!,ss. Nor,
OH tlic! other band, are! avc! able! to measure tlies
iiiflueiice on bee interc!sts likcily to folloAV tho de
struction of the forests, iioav rapidly falling before
fire aud the ax. As to the sheep evil, that can
hardly become greater than it is at the present
day. In short, uotAvithstauding the Avide-spread
deterioration and destruction of every kind already
effected, California, Avitli her incomparable climate
and flora, is still, as far as I knoAv, the best of all
the bee-lands of the Avoiid.
INDEX
Adams, Mount, 22
Alask.T, icG-laiid of, 22-26
Alpenglow, 57
Alps, glaciers in, 21
Antelope, 323 B
lliilecr, Moiinl, 22
Hce-pasUircs, 338-381
Consl Kango, 3.'")0
I'lirnincH in ili'y yraia, 3ei.S
Croat Coiilral 'plain, 339-350
Honey season, 346
Ranch on San Gabriel Range,
360
Rliasia, MonnI, 35!) 362
Sierra region, .351
Southern California, 366-376
Uecs, first, swarms brought into
California, 347, 367
P)ig Jleadows, 126
Big Tree (Sequoia gigantea),
170-200
Big Tuolumne Meadows, 51, 91
Birch (Bctxda occidentalis),
223
Birds, 276-209. See also Ouzel
Black Mountain CUaeier, 28-34
Hiocxly Caru.n, 83-00
Bower Cascade, 87
Caiion Creek, 87
Canons :
Bloody Cafion, 83-96
Depth, 5, 69
Canons: Continued.
lOaton Canon, 373-380
Porost-trcea, 8
Indian Canon, 73
Park valleys, 6
Carson Pass, 74
Cassiope in the "land of
desolation," 59
Castle Peak, 66
(!al.iiedral Peak, 66
Cavc.i, 320 3.3(1
Cave City cave, visit to, 333-
3.36
Ccdar-lrccs. See Forests
Central Valley :
Bee-pastures, 339-350
General view of, 4
lnd\istries, 348
Plant condiliDTis, early, 339
Present condition, 349
Seasons, 343
Size of basin, 3
Cinder Cone, last Sierra erup
tion, 13
Cloud's Rest, 50
Coast Range, 3, 49
Bee-pastures, 350
Height, 3
Conness, Mount, 66
Cook's Inlet, glaciers, 22
Crow, Clark, 237
Crown of Iho Sierra, 44, 52, 66
D
Dana, Mount, 12, 66
Death Valley, 381
Deer, 9, 81
Three species found in Cali
fornia, 323
383
384
INDEX
Diamond Cascaile, 86
Donner Lalie, 100
Douglas, David, botanist, 139
Sugar Pine discovered by, 152
Douglas Spruce (Pseudoisitga
Douglasii), 168
Douglas squirrel, 226-242
Dwarf Pine (Pinus alliicualis),
211-215 E
Eaton Canon, 373-380
Emerald Pool, 113
Fall River, 250
Feather River. 260, 201
Fiords, fornuition and exten
sion, 26
I'loods, 258-27(1
(irc^al.i'Ml Hoods ocscur iu win
ter, 26(1
View of a llood-storm, 261-
269
Flowers, 338-381
Foot-hills of the Sierra, 9, 11,
325-337
Forests, 139-225
Big 'I'ree (Sequoia gigantea),
179-200
Birch (Betula occidentalis),
003
Distribution in belts, 140-
144
Douglas Spruce (Pseudolsuga
Douglasii), 168
Dwarf Pine (Pinus albicau
lis), 211-21,5, 216
I'lnest coniferous forests in
Uio world, 8, 1.30
Hemlock Spruces (Txnga Pal-
toniana), 207-211
Incense Cedar (Libocedrus
decurrens), 169
.luniper, or Red Cedar (Juni-
perus occidentalis), 204-
207, 246
I'^orests : Continued.
Aloraines indicated by Sierra
forests, 144
J\rountain Pine (Pinui mon-
ticolu), 203
Needle l^ine (Pimts ari.itata),
2]0-2]a
Nut Pine (Pinua mono-
pliglla), 219-225
Nut Pine (Pinus Sabininna^,
146-148
Nut Pine (Pinus tuhcrcu-
Uila), 148-152
iSlulmeg' 'rree (Torre ga Culi-
fornica), 223
Oaks, 224
Openness of tho Sierra woods,
140
Pines best interpreters of
winds, 248
Red (!cilar (Juniin:ru.i <irci-
denlalin), 2(11 207, 216
Ued l''ir (.tbics iiKK/nilica),
173 170
Redwood, 351
Seed-gathering, 235, 230
Sequoias (Seqiioia gigantea),
179-200
Silver Fir, Magnificent, or
Red Fir (Abies magni/ica) ,
173-179
Silver Fir, AA'hite (Abies con
color), 172
Sjiocies of coniferous trees in
(!alil'ornia greah^r in imm-
ber than elsewhere, 251
Sugar Pine (Pinus Laniber-
Uana), 152-162, 2.34
Thunder-storms, 271-275
Two-leaved, or Tamarack,
Pine (Pinus conlorla, var.
lilarraiKinii), 2(10-203
View in Sierra roresl, 111,
115
AVIiite I'inc (Pinus Jlcxilis),
215
Wind-storms, 244-257
Yellow, or Silver, Pine (Pinus
pondcrona), 162-167
INDEX
38C
i-'orests: Continued.
Yew (Taxus brevifolia), 223
Yosemite Pine, 165
Gibbs, Mount, 12, 66
Glacial period, 15-19
Glacier Bay, 24, 26
GIncicr iMUinlry, Tnap of, 23
eUacier lakes. Me(^ Lakes, Gla
cier
Glacier meadows, 124-138
Glaciers ;
Alaska, 22-26
Alps, number in, 21
Black Mountain Glacier, dis
covery of, 28-34
Chandlers of a glacier, 33
Height above sea-level at
wiiicli they melt, 21
Icebergs of the Pacific Coast,
24
Location of residua], on the
Sierra, 20, 28
Lyell Glacier, 110
Muir Glacier, 25, 34
Pacitic Coast, 21-28
Polished rock surfaces on the
Sierra, 26, 55
Itale of motion, 31
Sierra glaciers unknown prior
to 1871, 28
Traces of ancient glaciers,
20-28
Work of, in fashioning the
mountain, 15-19
AVorld conditions, 20
Goat, Rocky Mountain, 322
Gold region, 9, 325-328, 332
Granite of the southern
Sierra, 11 H
Hanging meadows, 136-138
Hemlock Spruce (Tsuga Patto
niana), 207-211
High Sierra, near view of, 48-
73
Ilolkam Bay, 24
Honey. See Bee-pastures
Hood, iMount, 22
Hot springs on Lassen 's Butte
12
Icebergs of the Pacific Coasl, 21
Icy Cape, 21
Incense Cedar (lAbocedrus de
currens), 160
Independence Lake, 100
Indian Canon, 73
Indians :
Digger, 295
Hunting of wild sheep, 304,
320-322
l!Iono, 92, 95
Pah Utes, 78, 80
Pitt River, 13
Inyo Range, 68
Jefferson, Mount, 22
Johnson Pass, 74
Juniper, or Red Cedar (Jxiiii
pcrus occidentalis), 204-
207 K
Kearsarge Pass, 75, 76
Knoxville, 260, 201
Lake Hollow, 100
Lakes, glacier, 98-124
Birth, growth, and length of
life, 103-105
Burial of, by snow, 38-41
Death of a lake, 107, 108
Donner Lake, 100
Hoffman Creek, 101
Illilouette River basin, 101
Independence Lake, 100
38G
INDEX
Lakes, glacier: Continued.
Influence of streams as hdic-
fillers, 105
Lalie-linis rising, 108
l.argc^st, is lialici Tahoe, Ull)
Location at top of mountain,
99, 106
Merced River basin, 101, 102
Mono Lake, 78, 80
Moraine Lake, 88, 90
Nevada River basin, 101
Number in the Sierra, 98
Oldest, is Shadow Lake, 109
Orange Lake, 116
Red Lake, 86
Shadow Lake, oldest and low
est, 109
Sierra lakes are all glacier
lakes, 109
Starr King Lake, 118
Tahoe Lake, 74, 100
Tenaya River basin, 27, 101,
102
Vo.Memito Creek, 101
l.assen's Butte, height of, 12
Lava covering of tho uorthern
Sierra, 11, 12
Lyell Glacier, 110
Lyell, Mount, 48 M
AlcCloud River, source, 259
Maclure Glacier, 34
Magniticcud. Silver I'ir, en' Red
I'ir (^l/ji'c.v mug ni flea), 173
Mammoth Mountain, 66
Maps: Glacier country, 23
Sierra Nevada, 7
Y^osemite A'alley, 77
Mastodon and clepliant remains,
331
Meadows, glacier, 124-138
Merced River, sources, 20, 08
Minarets, The, 66
.Aliners in the gold region of
the Sierra, 328
Jlodoc lava beds, 330
lAfohave Desert, 381
Mono Desert, 55, 05
Mono Lake, 78, 80
Mono I'ass, 51
Hesl-lenossn pass, 70
Description of, 82-00
Height, 78
Location, 76
Mono Valley, 06
Moraine Lake, 88, 90
Moraines :
Correspondence between
moraines and shadows, 32
Indicated by Sierra forests,
144
Preservation of ancient, 28
Mountain Pine (Pinus monti-
cola), 203
Muir Glacier in Alaska, 25, 34
Murphy's Camp, in Calaveras
County, 325
Music, elleest of, on birds and
B(]niri'els, 2 10, 21 1
N
Needle Pine (Pinus aristala),
216-219
Nevada Palls, 51, 113
Nut Pine (Pimis inonoidu/ll.i^ ,
219-225
Nut Pine (Pinus Sabiniami'' ,
146
Nut Pine (Pinus liibi-miliilii],
IIS 152
Nutmeg Tree (Torrci/a Califnr-
iiica), 223 O
Oaks, 224
Orange Lake, characteristic
features, 116- ILS
Oril, iMount, 60
Ouzel, 270-200
Appearance, 27()
Distribution of the siiecies,
296, 298
INDEX
387
Ouzel : Cnntinurd.
Diving and feeding, 277, 284,
280
Plights, tracing Ihe streams,
288
Pood, 283
Nest, 289-292
Songs, 282
Owen's River, sources, 20, 08
Owen's Valley, 66, 381
Pacheco Pass, 4
Piirk valleys of the Sierra, 0
Passes: e!arsou, 74
DilVerence between easlern
and weslerii |iorlinns, 80
Glaciers the pass-makers, 81
Height of, 74
Iligliest traveled pass, the
Kearsarge, 76
,Tohnson, 74
Kearsarge, 75, 70
Leading features and dis
tribution, 74-96
Mono, 51, 75-78, 82-96
Scenery, 82
HolMMII, 71
A'iiginia Creek, 75
Pine-trees. See l''ori"sls
Pitt, Mount, 12, 22
Plant life, 338-381
Pohono Creek, source, 101
Polished rock surfaces on the
Sierra, 26, 55
Prince AVilliam Sound, glaciers,
22
Qunrtz-mining, 0
R
Rainier, Mount, height and
glaciers, 22
Rainy season, 343
Red Cedar (,7u.iiiprru.<i necidrii-
tali.t), 204-207
Red l''ir (Abie.i ninr/uifien),
173-179
Red Lake, 85, 89
Eed Mountain, 28-30
Redwood forests, 351
Ritter, Mount:
Ascent of, 53-73
Height, 53
View from top, 66
River floods, 258-270
Rivers: Ancient river channels, 325-
327
Burial of, by snow, 38-41
Canon Creek, 87
Dead Rivers of Californi;i,
326
Pall River, 259
Feather River, 260, 261
Gold gravels of ancient chan
nels, 327
McCloud River, 259
^^erced River, sources, 20, OS
Owen's River, sources, 20, 68
Pohono Creek, source, 101
Rush Creek, 61, 73
San .Toaquiu liivcr, sources,
20, 61, OS
Shasta liiver, 2.50
Tuolumne River, sources, 20,
40, 68, 73
A'uba River, 261
Rush Creek, 61, 73
Sage-brush country, 380
St. Elias, Mount, 25
St. Helens, Mount, 22
San G.abriel Mountains, excur
sion into, 372-380
San Gabriel Valley, 365
San Joaquin River:
Sources, 20, 61, 68
Tracing the South Fork, 308
Seasons, 343
Sequoia seeds, price of, 236
INDEX
Sequoias (Sequoia gigantea),
179-200
Shadow Lake, characteristic
features, 109-110
Shadows, moraines, mountain
forms, and snow-banners,
32, 47
Shasta, Mount:
Bee-pastures, 359-302
Glaciers, 2i, 35
Height, 12
Snow-bound on, 300, 307
Storms, local, 301
Timber line, 143
Volcanic origin, 12, 14
Shasta River, 259
Sheep, domestic, destructive ac
tion of, on vegetation, 349,
355
Sheep, AVild (Ovis montana),
300-324
Appearance, 302
Compared with domestic
breeds, 302, 304
Compared witli the argali, 301
Diving habits, 317, 318
Earliest mention of wild
sheep in America, 304
Habits, feeding-grounds, and
young, 305, 307
Ileiul of Merino ram (domes
tic), 300
Head of Rocky IMountain
sheep, 311
Ifonis, 302, 317
Hunted by the Indians, 304,
320-322
Measurements, 303
Mountaineering feats, 312-
320
Range, 301, 323
Species best known, 300
Sierra Crown, 44, 52, 00
Sierra Nevada Mountains:
Bee-pastures, 354
Distant view of, 4
General eonsider.'itions, 1-19
Glaciers, work of, 15-19
Height, 5
Sierra Nevada : Continued.
Map, 7
Near view of the High Sierra
48-73
Range of Light, 5
Volcanic origin, 11-15
See also Forests; Lakes; Riv
ers; etc.
Silver Fir, Mugniflcont, or Red
Fir (Abici magni/ica), 173
Silver Fir, AA'liito (Abies con
color), 172
Silver Moiinlain, 06
Suow :
Burial of lakes and rivers,
38-41
Depth, 37
First storms, 30
Snow-banners, 41-47
Snow-flowers, work done by,
17-19
Sonora Pass, 74
South Lyell Glacier, 110
Spruce-trees. See Forests
Squirrel, Douglas:
Appearance, 227
Extent of range, 227, 238
Pood, 233
Friendliness of, 237
Indian naiiu^, 228
Music, eH'ect of, on squirrel,
239
Relation to Red Squirrel, 227
AVork and ways, 229-240
Slarr King, Lake, cliaracler-
istic features, 118-124
Storms :
Flood-storm, 261-209
Local, on Mount Shasta, 364
Thunder-storms, 271-275
AVind-storm, 244-257
Sugar Pine (Pinus Lamber-
tiana), 152-162
Tahkoo Inlet, 24
Tahoe, Lake, largest of the
Sierra lakes, 74, 100
INDEX
Teuaya, Lake, 27, 101, 102
Three Sisters Mountain, 12, 22
Thunder Bay, 24
Thunder-storms, 271-275
Tower Peak, 66
Trees. See Forests
Tuolumne River, sources, 20,49,
68, 73
Tuolumne Soda Sjirings, 127
T.wo-leaved, or Tamiirack, I'ine
(/'ni».i eiinliiiid, var. il/cir-
ragana), 200-20;!
'ryndall, Mount, 76
V
Vegetation, 338-381
Vernal P.alls, 51, 113
Virgina Creek Pass, 75
Volcanic origin of the Sierra
Nevada, 11-15
W
AA'^ater-ouzcl. See Ouzel
AA'hite Pine (Pinus fiexiUs),2'ir}
AVhite Silver Fir (Abies con
color), 172
AA'hitney, Mount, 12, 53
Height, 12
No glaciers. 35
Windstorms in the forests,
244-257
Yakutat Bay, 26
Yellow, or Silver, Pine (Films
ponderosa), 162-167
Yew (Taxus brevifolia), 223
Yosemite Pine, 105
Yosemite Valley:
Lake of ancient days, 105
Map of, 77
Yuba River. 261
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